Full text of "The American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge. Edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana"

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA

VOL VIII.
GLASGOW-HORTENSE,

361

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA:

GENEBAL KNOWLEDGE

EDITED BY

GEORGE RIPLEY AND CHARLES A. DANA.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED,

VOLUME VIII.
GLASGOW-HORTENSE.

NEW YORK:
I). APPLETON AND COMPANY,

549 AND 551 BKOADWAY.

LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN.

1879.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the
Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, hi the year 1874, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in
the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

the Contributors of New. Articles to the Eighth Volume of the Revised
Edition are the following :

Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE, Washington, D. 0.

HAIL.
WILLARD BARTLETT.

GONDS.

HINDOO KOOSH.

Prof. C. W. BENNETT, D. D., Syracuse Uni-
versity.

HAMLINE, LEONIDAS LEKT.
HAVEN, ERASTUS OTIS.
HAVEN, GILBERT.
HEDDING, ELIJAH.
JULIUS BING.

GORTCHAKOFF, ALEXANDER,
HERTZEN, ALEXANDER,

and other articles in biography, geography, &c.

FKANCIS 0. BOWMAN.

GOTTSCHALK, LOUIS MOREATT.

GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS.

GUARNERI, family of.

HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE.
EDWARD L. BURLINGAME, Ph. D.

GREECE, and articles in biography and history.
ROBERT CARTER.

HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH.
JOHN D. CHAMPLIN, Jr.

GOLD COAST,

GUIZOT, family of,

HEDJAZ,

HERALDRY,

and other articles in biography and geography.

Prof. E. H. CLARKE, M. D., Harvard University.

HELLEBORE,

HENBANE, and other articles in materia medica.

T. M. COAN, M. D.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

HILO.

HONOLULU.

Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Ann Arbor, Mich.

HEIR,

HEREDITAMENTS, and other legal articles.

Prof. J. 0. DALTON, M. D.

HEART,

HEMATINE,

HISTOLOGY,

and other medical and physiological articles.

EATON S. DRONE.
GLASS,

GOLD (history and statistics),
HAMILTON COLLEGE,
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,

and articles in American geography.

Capt. 0. E. BUTTON, U.S. A., Washington, D.C.

GUN COTTON.

GUNNERY.

GUNPOWDER.

EGBERT T. EDES; M. D., Harvard University.

Articles in materia medica.

Louis ELSBERG, M. D.

HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH.

HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND.

W. M. FERRISS.

GRASSMANN, HERMANN GI^NTIIEE.
HEGIRA.

Prof. AUSTIN FLINT, M. D.

HAY COLD.

HEART, DISEASES OF THE.
AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M. D.
GYMNASTICS.

ALFRED H. GUERNSEY.

GUISE, House of,

HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS,

and other articles in biography and history.

EGBERT GUERNSEY, M. D.

HOMOEOPATHY.

J. W. HAWES.

HALIFAX, N. S.,

HARRISBURG,

HARTFORD,

and other articles in American geography.

CHARLES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D.

Prof. T. STERRY HUNT, LL. D., Mass. Inst. of
Technology, Boston.

GOLD (geology).

GRANITE.

HALL, Prof. JAMES.

ROSSITER JOHNSON.

GRANT, ULYSSES S.,
GREELEY, HORACE,
HARTE, FRANCIS BRET,

and other articles in biography and geography.

Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Inst. of
Technology, Boston.
GLASS SPONGE,
GLOBIGERINA,
HIPPARION,

and other articles in natural history.

Prof. ALFRED M. MAYER, Stevens Inst. of
Technology, Hoboken, 3ST. J.

HARMONY.
Rev. FRANKLIN NOBLE.

HALL, NEWMAN,
HAYES, ISAAC ISRAEL,
. HOME, DANIEL DOUGLAS,

and other biographical articles.

Rev. BERNARD O'REILLY, D. D.
GREGORY, popes.
GUILD.
HECLA.
HONORIUS, popes.

RICHARD A. PROCTOR, A. M., London.
GRAVITY.
HALO.

Prof. ROSSITER W. RAYMOND, Ph. D.
GOLD MINING.

PHILIP RIPLEY.

GODWIN, PARKE.
HAMBURG.
HANOVER.
HAREM.

Prof. A. J. SCHEM.
HANKOW,
HESBE-HOMBURG,
HESSE-NASSAU,

and other articles in geography and history.

J. G. SHEA, LL. D.

GOURGUES, DOMINIQUE DE,
GROS VENTRES,
HENNEPIN, Louis,

and articles on American Indians.

Prof. J. A. SPENCER, D. D., College of the
City of New York.

GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK.
GRISWOLD, ALEXANDER VIETS.
HOBART, JOHN HENRY.

Prof. GEORGE THURBER.
GRAFTING,
GRAPE,

GRASSES,
HEMLOCK SPRUCE,

and other botanical articles

Prof. G. A. F. VAN RHYN, Ph. D.

GOTHIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE,
GREECE, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF,
HIEROGLYPHICS,
HIMYARITES,

and other articles in philology, &c.

I. DE VEITELLE.

GUATEMALA,
HAVANA,
HAYTI,
HONDURAS,

and other Spanish American articles.

C. S. WEYMAN.

GREECE, WINES OF.
HALSTEAD, MURAT.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA

GLASGOW

/""^ LASGOW, the chief commercial and manu-
VJT facturing city of Scotland, in Lanarkshire,
on the river Clyde, 21 m. from its mouth, and
41 m. W. S. W. of Edinburgh ; lat. 55 51' 32"
K, Ion. 4 17' 54" W. ; pop. in 1660, 12,000 ; in
1765, 23,046 ; in 1801, 83,769 ; in 1851, 347,001 ;
in 1861, 395,503 ; in 1871, of the parliamenta-
ry burgh, 477,144, of the whole town, 547,538.
The city is about 3 m. long, and lies on both sides

of the river, here about 500 ft. wide, which is
crossed by two suspension and three stone
bridges, below which are several ferries. The
site is mostly level, but in the N. and K W.
parts are considerable elevations. The original
burgh, which took its rise from the cathedral
and the university, is on the N. bank ; but the va-
rious suburbs are now so closely connected that
they can hardly be considered otherwise than

Albert Bridge. Glasgow.

as portions of one compact city. The principal
streets are parallel with the river, two of the
broadest bordering it on either side. There
are three public parks : the Green, of 140 acres,
on the N. bank of the Clyde, near the E. end
of the city ; Kelvingrove, of 40 acres, at the
W. end ; and Queen's park, of 100 acres, on
elevated ground at the south. These parks are

all handsomely laid out and ornamented. The
streets mostly cross Jt right angles, are well
paved, lighted, and trained, and are adorned
with several fine statues. Many of the houses
are of white freestone, constructed in flats.
There are two theatres, two museums, two
public libraries (of 30,000 and 15,000 volumes),
asylums for the blind, insane, aged, and deaf

GLASGOW

GLASS

and dumb, a university, and 175 churches and
chapels. The last named are divided as fol-
lows : Free church, 43 ; Established church,
40; United Presbyterian, 37; Roman Catholic,
12 ; Independent, 9 ; Baptist, 7 ; Episcopal, 5 ;
Reformed Presbyterian, 4 ; other denomina-
tions, 18. A bishopric was erected in .Glas-
gow about 1115 ; in 1488 it was made an arch-
bishopric. At present it is the seat of a bishop
of the Scotch Episcopal church and of a Roman
Catholic vicar apostolic. Five daily and 15
weekly newspapers are published. There is a
botanic garden of 40 acres in the N. W. part
of the city, which is open to the public in sum-
mer. The cathedral, said to be the finest Gothic
building in Scotland, overlooks the city from
the northeast. It was built by David I. about
1133, but was burned in 1192; the present
edifice was immediately begun, and was con-
secrated in 1197, but was not finished until the
present century. Its most celebrated features
are the crypt and the profusion of brilliant
stained glass. The university was chartered
in 1443 by James II., but it had only a feeble
existence until 1560, when Queen Mary be-
stowed upon it half of the confiscated church
property in the city ; this endowment has been
greatly increased by additional grants from the
corporation and the crown. It has a library
of 105,000 volumes, founded in 1473, an ob-
servatory, and numerous cabinets and collec-
tions. The grounds include 22 acres, and the
new buildings, finished in 1870, cost 370,000.
The number of matriculated students averages
1,200. The university confers degrees in arts,
law, medicine, and divinity. The principal
public buildings are the royal exchange, the
town hall, and Hutcheson's hospital. The city
is supplied with water from Loch Katrine, by
an aqueduct 26 m. long. Glasgow was erected
into a burgh about 11 90, with the privilege of an
annual fair. In 1556 it ranked eleventh among
the towns of Scotland. It is now the fourth
exporting city of Great Britain, and the second
in wealth and population. Its immense growth,
mainly within the present century, is due to
its situation in the midst of a rich coal and
iron district, and its seaport facilities. Large
sums have been spent in clearing and deepen-
ing the channel of the Clyde, including the re-
moval of several islands, and it is now naviga-
ble for vessels of 2,000 tons. The quays are 16,-
680 ft. in extent. In the 18th century Glasgow
was the centre of the tobacco trade of Great
Britain, and its merchants also dealt largely in
the sugar and other products of the West In-
dies. Later it entered extensively into brew-
ing, dyeing, and calico printing, and finally
into ship building (especially of iron ships), iron
casting, and machine making, and the prepa-
ration of chemicals. The St. Rollox chemical
works, the largest in the world, N. of the ca-
thedral, cover 16 acres, employ more than
1,000 men, and have a chimney 450 ft. high.
A still taller chimney (460 ft.) is that of the
artificial manure works. In 1871 the number

of spindles was 2,000,000, consuming annually
125,000 bales of cotton, and supplying 27,000
power looms. There are large glass works and
paper mills, and the turkey-red dyes produced
here are famous. The value of exports in 1871
was 10,049,987, of which 2,223,221 were to
the United States ; the value of imports was
6,577,575, of which 2,894,273 were from
the United States. Glasgow is governed by a
lord provost, 8 bailies, and 39 councillors, with
the dean of guild from the merchants' and the
deacon convener from the trades' house, and
returns three members to the house of com-
mons. The Romans had a station on the Clyde
in the locality of the city, and Antoninus's
wall commenced a few miles W. of it. Tradi-
tion assigns the foundation of Glasgow to St.
Kentigern, whom it makes its first bishop,
about 560. In 1300 a battle between the Scots
under Wallace and the English under Percy
was fought in the High street, when Percy was
defeated and slain. In 1350, '.80, and '81, Glas-
gow was visited by the plague. About 1542
the regent Arran besieged the earl of Lennox
in the bishop's castle, obtained it on promise
of terms, and put the garrison to the sword.
The same leaders subsequently fought a battle
at the Butts in the E. part of the city, when
the regent gained the victory and plundered it.
In 1560 reformed superintendents superseded
Catholic bishops. In 1638 the famous assembly
of the Presbyterian church was held here, when
episcopacy was abjured. For several years
thereafter the city was a prey to both parties
in the civil Avars. Fire, plague, plunder, and
famine desolated the place. On June 4, 1690,
a charter of William and Mary conferred on the
townsmen the right of electing their own ma-
gistrates. Glasgow was strongly dissatisfied
with the union of Scotland and England, but
in 1715 and again in 1745 sided with the house
of Hanover and raised a force against the
Stuarts, for which the pretender's army on
the retreat from Derby levied contributions.
On the breaking out of the American revolu-
tionary war, Glasgow raised a regiment of
1,000 men, and fitted out 14 privateers. In
1820 the public peace was disturbed by radical
political riots, and in 1848 by the chartists.

GLASS (Sax. glees), in chemistry, any product
of fusion having the peculiar lustre known as
vitreous, hard and brittle, whether transparent
or not; in common use, the transparent pro-
duct derived from the fusion of silica with an
alkali to which lime or a metallic oxide is add-
ed. No material invented by man is to be
compared with glass in the service it has ren-
dered. To its aid, applied in a thousand dif-
ferent forms, the sciences, particularly chemis-
try and astronomy, are essentially indebted for
their advancement; and its uses in common
life render it no less important to the daily
wants of mankind. The purity of its material
causes the presence of foreign substances to bo
instantly detected, and it is consequently the
most cleanly substance, and especially suited

GLASS

for vessels for holding and keeping liquids. It
resists the action of nearly all the powerful
chemical reagents ; and but for this substance
many of them would never have been known,
nor could they now be made and kept. Noth-
ing definite is known concerning the discovery
of the art of glass making or the early history
of its manufacture. The statement made by
Pliny that some Phoenician mariners having
landed on the banks of a small river in Pales-
tine, " and finding no stones to rest their pots
on, they placed under them some masses of
nitrum [soda, as is supposed], which, being
fused by the heat with the sand of the river,
produced a liquid and transparent "stream," is
not generally accepted as showing the origin
of glass. A stronger heat than could be ob-
tained from an open fire would be required to
effect this result. Nor is much more credit to
be attached to his accounts respecting the pro-
duction of a glass of malleable character, which
when thrown upon the ground was merely in-
dented, and could be restored to shape with a
hammer, as if it were brass. Some metallic
salts, as chloride of silver, possess ductility at
the same time with a glossy appearance, and
of one of them the articles referred to may
perhaps have been made ; but all modern ex-
perience is opposed to the possibility of a vit-
rified body being malleable. It has been es-
tablished with certainty that the art was prac-
tised among the Egyptians at a very early
period. Paintings on a tomb at Beni Hassan,
supposed to date from the reign of Osortasen
I., about 3,000 B. C., represent Theban glass
blowers at work with blowpipes very similar
to those used at the present day. A necklace
bead of material similar to the modern crown
glass was found at Thebes, bearing the name
of the queen of Thothmes III., who reigned
about 1500 B. C., inscribed in hieroglyphics.
In the British museum there is an interesting
ancient Egyptian specimen in the form of a
small bottle of opaque light-blue glass, on which

FIG. 1. Theban Glass Blowers.

are painted in yellow the names and titles of
the same monarch. Ornaments imitating pre-
cious gems in color and beauty show that the
art had been brought to a high degree of
perfection by the Egyptians. Not only was
glass used by them in making drinking vessels,

but also for mosaic work, the figures of deities
and sacred emblems, and even for coffins, in
all of which they attained excellent workman-
ship and surprising brilliancy of color. The
glass works of Alexandria, in operation in the
time of Strabo and Pliny, were famous among

FIG. 2. Blue Glass Bot-
tle with Name of
Thothmes III.

FIG. 3. Green Glass Vase with
Name of Sargon.

the ancients. According to Theophrastus, the
processes of cutting or grinding, of gilding and
coloring, were in use 370 years B. 0. Arti-
cles of exquisite workmanship were produced,
but of great cost, and known only as luxuries.
Vases and cups, some enamelled and beautiful-
ly cut and wrought with raised figures, and
some remarkable for the brilliancy of their
colors, were furnished to the Komans. From
the Egyptians the Phoenicians are supposed to
have received the art, which flourished at a
very early period at Sidon and Tyre. In the
ruins of Nineveh glass lenses, vases, bottles,
&c., have been found ; but there is no indica-
tion of the use of glass for windows. A small
vase of transparent green glass, on which are
engraved in outline a lion and the name and
titles of the Assyrian monarch Sargon, 719
B. C., is preserved in the British museum, and
is regarded as the earliest dated specimen of
transparent glass. It was found in the palace
of Nimrud in Nineveh. That the manufac-
ture of glass was extensively practised by the
ancient Greeks, and that they had acquired
great skill in the art, are shown by the re-
markable collection of specimens taken by
Cesnola from the tombs at Dali on the isl-
and of Cyprus in 1866-'70, and deposited in
the metropolitan museum of art, New York, in
1872. This collection of Greek glass, the most
extensive known, comprises 1,700 articles, not
only plain and simple, but various in form and
color, and iridescent and incrusted. There are
plates plain, fluted, and with handles, in the va-
rious colors and in different shades of the same
color. There is a great variety of ornamen-
tal cups and vases, and bottles of all sizes and
shapes known to any people. (See CESNOLA.)
The manufacture of glass was introduced into
Rome in the time of Cicero. During the reign
of Nero great improvements were made and

GLASS

great skill was attained in the production of
ornamental articles. At this early period only
articles of luxury were produced, chiefly vases
and cups for the tables of the wealthy, or urns

Fio. 4. Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Glass in the Metro-
politan Museum of Art, New York.

and lachrymatories for their tombs. In the 3d
century articles of glass were in common use.
Numerous specimens of Roman glass have been
found in the ruins of Herculaneum and Pom-
peii. From these it appears that glass was used
for admitting light to dwellings in Pompeii, al-
though other houses had window frames filled
with a kind of transparent talc. The great per-
fection which the art had attained among the
Romans is attested by the celebrated Barberini
or Portland vase in the British museum, said to
be the most beautiful example known of glass
of two layers. This vase was found about the
middle of the IGth century in a marble sar-
cophagus near Rome, and is supposed to have
been made as early as 138 B. C. After having
been for more than two centuries the principal
ornament in the Barberini palace in Rome, it
was purchased by the duke of Portland for
1,029, and placed in the British museum.
Here it was broken by a madman into many
pieces, which were afterward joined together

with great skill. The vase is about 10 inches
high, and is composed of two layers of glass,
the under one being of a deep blue color and
the other of opaque white. The raised figures
appear in white upon a beautiful background
of blue, and by some are supposed to rep-
resent the marriage of Peleus and Thetis.
In the 13th century, and for several centu-
ries after, the Venetian was the best and the
most famous glass in commerce. The princi-
pal works were at Murano, one of the islands
adjacent to Venice. Here the manufacture
was long successfully prosecuted, being sus-
tained by the fostering care of the government,
and its workmen being invested with extraor-
dinary privileges. Glass mirrors were probably
first made here, and they became famous all
over Europe, gradually taking the place of the
mirrors of polished metal which were before in
use. Many of the ornamental objects they
produced were exceedingly ingenious, and are
reproduced and admired even at this day. The
Bohemians next acquired reputation in this
art ; and owing to the purity of the materials
found in abundance in their country, as well as

FIG. 5. 1 . The Portland Vase. 2. Opposite figures enlarged.
8. Device on bottom. 4, 4. Devices on, handles.

to their skill, their wares still continue famous.
The superiority of the Bohemians was evinced
especially in the production of white glass,
made with pure quartz and lime and the pot-

GLASS

ash obtained by burning the trees of their im-
mense forests. This glass was for a long time
held in the highest estimation, but was des-
tined to lose its fame when flint glass with lead
was produced in England. The engraved glass
of Bohemia became especially celebrated. The
French, perceiving the importance of the busi-
ness, early imitated the example of the Vene-
tians, and gave extraordinary encouragement
to any of the nobility who would prosecute the
manufacture. In 1634 attempts were made to
produce mirrors from blown glass, as was prac-
tised so successfully by the Venetians; but
about the year 1666 it was found necessary to
procure workmen from Venice. Works were
then erected at Tourlaville near Cherbourg,
which was selected from the resemblance of
the locality to that of the works at Murano.
In 1688 Abraham Thevart introduced in Paris
the method of making large plates by casting
the glass instead of blowing ; he thus produced
heavy plates measuring 84 inches by 50, while
those previously made had barely reached in
length the smaller figure named, and were ne-
cessarily thin. In 1665 the manufacture of
glass was established at St. Gobain. In the

FIG. 6. Venetian Glass Bottle.

18th century the business became very success-
ful, and has continued so to the present time,
the products of the establishment ranking
among the first in quality in the world. The

first positive allusions to the use of glass for
windows were made by Lactantius about the
close of the 3d century, and by St. Jerome about
the close of the 4th. It is asserted by the

FIG. 7. Engraved Bohemian Drinking Glass.

Venerable Bede that glass windows were first
introduced in England in 674 by the abbot
Benedict ; but at this time and for many cen-
turies afterward the use of window glass was
limited to ecclesiastical structures. Colored
window glass is known to have been used in
churches in the 8th century; but for private
houses glass long continued to be a rarity, and
in England in the 12th century houses provided
with glass windows were regarded as magnifi-
cent. Even in the 16th century in England
and the 17th in Scotland only the dwellings of
the wealthy were provided with glass. The
manufacture of window glass, according to an
old builder's contract brought to light by Hor-
ace Walpole, and copied into his " Anecdotes
of Painting," was conducted in England as
early as 1439 ; but a decided preference was
given to that "from beyond the seas." It

GLASS

was commenced in London in 1557; and soon
afterward flint glass also was made there. The
production of plate glass was undertaken in
1670 at Lambeth by the duke of Buckingham,
who imported Venetian workmen. The gov-
ernment encouraged the enterprise by a bounty
upon the glass intended for exportation ; and un-
der this protection, also extended to the differ-
ent branches of the manufacture, by which the
cost was reduced from 25 to 50 per cent., many
other glass factories sprung up in different
parts of the kingdom ; but their prosperity and
the progress of the art were afterward greatly
checked by the excise duties imposed, and the
surveillance of crown officers over all the ope-
rations of the works. The bounties and the
duties, with their annoying restrictions, were
abolished in 1845, when the suddenly increased
demand for home consumption brought into
existence many more establishments. Their
capacity for production became immense, 'as
is shown by the fact that the firm of Chance
and co. executed the large order in sheet glass
for the crystal palace in 1851 without mate-
rially affecting their ability to fill their general
orders. The quality of the English crown glass
is unrivalled. Glass appears to have been one,
of the earliest branches of manufacture in-
troduced into the United States; but to what
extent it was carried on in early times is un-
known. In Salmon's " Modern History " (Lon-
don, 1746), vol. iii., p. 440, mention is made of
glass works which were commenced at James-
town, Va., and the completion of which was
interrupted by the Indian massacre of March
22, 1622; and in Howe's "Historical Collec-
tions of Virginia," p. 39, is a quotation from
"Smith, book iv., p. 18," in which, under date
of 1615, it is said that "for a long time the la-
bor of the colony had been misdirected in the
manufacture of ashes, soap, glass, and tar, in
which they could by no means compete with
Sweden and Russia," In Felt's "Annals of
Salem," Mass., reference is made to the " Glass-
house Field," so named from the fact that in
1639 and 1640 several acres of land were ap-
propriated to Ananias Conklin and others for
the purpose of aiding them in the manufacture
of glass, which was carried on for a consid-
erable period. About 1750 works were es-
tablished by Germans at Germantown, Mass.
(now a part of Quincy), for the manufacture of
bottles, but they were burnt before the revolu-
tion. But the first glass factory in the United
States of which we have a precise account was
built by Mr. Robert Hewes of Boston, in the
town of Temple, N. H., in 1780. It appears
that the works were established there on ac-
count of the cheapness of fuel and labor. In
the winter of 1780-'81 they were destroyed
by fire. From a reference to this subject by
Washington in his diary (1789) it would ap-
pear that glass was made at that time in New
Haven. It is believed that in Salem and in
Uewes's works only bottles and ordinary ware
were made, and that the first window glass was

manufactured in Boston. In 1787 a company
was incorporated for the manufacture of crown
glass, and after numerous embarrassments the
first glass was made in 1793, under the super-
intendence of a German named Lindt. The
shares of the company attained a high value, and
the Boston crown glass became celebrated for
its excellence. The subsequent failure of the
company was owing to the mismanagement of
a board of directors who attempted to substi-
tute American for German clay, and made
other expensive and unsuccessful experiments ;
among these was the expansion of their busi-
ness by the erection of other works for ma-
king thin crown glass at South Boston and
sheet glass at Chelmsford. Works were es-
tablished by the New England crown glass
company for the manufacture of that article
in East Cambridge about 1825, and others for
bottles and for flint glass about the same pe-
riod. Other crown glass works were erected
in New York and other states at subsequent
periods, but all were discontinued many years
ago. The New England glass company, estab-
lished in 1817 at East Cambridge for the man-
ufacture of flint glass, is still in existence, and
has gained a wide reputation for the excellence
of its wares. Besides these works, the chief es-
tablishments for the manufacture of flint glass
in the United States are in Sandwich, Mass.,
Brooklyn, N. Y., and Pittsburgh, Pa., and its
vicinity. Sheet glass is made in Lanesbor-
ough, Mass., New Jersey, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, and in a few places in the western
states. The first plate glass manufactory was
established at Cheshire, Berkshire co., Mass.,
about 1853. The company afterward removed
their works to Lenox in the same county,
and became known as the " Lenox Rough Plate
Glass Company." They have the machinery
for making polished plate glass, but have not
yet produced it in large quantities. Henry R.
Schoolcraft was employed in his youth in the
works at Cheshire, and in 1817 he published a
treatise entitled " Vitreology," designed to ex-
hibit the application of chemistry to this art.
Glass is a chemical compound of variable ingre-
dients, different substances of similar character
replacing each other to produce its varieties.
Silicic acid or silica is its principal element,
which combines with the potash, soda, oxide
of lead, lime, alumina, and other substances
that may be added, to produce silicates of
these bases. By the manufacturer the bases
are classed as fluxes. Boracic acid may take
the place of silicic acid to produce vitreous
borates or glass. The proportions of the bases
named admitting in their use of indefinite va-
riations, a wide scope is given for the exer-
cise of the skill of the manufacturer in pro-
ducing any particular quality of glass. The
metallic oxides also afford hirn abundant re-
sources for imparting any desired hue to his
product, according as these are judiciously se-
lected and introduced. The important requi-
site in all the varieties of glass is a fusible

GLASS

compound, which solidifies on cooling into a
transparent mass, without assuming a crystal-
line structure. Such a substance is a product
of the process of reducing metallic ores. The
compounds produced by the glass manufactu-
rer range from the most fusible combinations
of one part of silica with two or three of soda or
potash, which melt at a cherry-red heat and dis-
solve in cold water, to the hard and refractory
silicates of lime and alumina, some of which
require the powerful heat of a furnace to soft-
en them. Potash especially increases the fusi-
bility of glass ; the oxides of lead and of zinc,
and to some extent barytes, produce a similar
eft'ect, while they also add to its softness,
its lustre, its specific gravity, and its power
of refracting light, and do not interfere with
its perfect freedom from color, unless the lead
be used in excess, when it gives a yellowish
tinge. Iron, in the state of the silicate of the
protoxide, imparts a dark green color; but
on adding a small quantity of binoxide of man-
ganese (Mn0 2 ) the color disappears, as the
protoxide of iron is converted into the sesqui-
oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). and the manganese, losing one
atom of oxygen, becomes MnO. Other me-
tallic oxides, as those of uranium, copper, sil-
ver, and gold, are also employed to give in-
tense colors. Without reference, however, to
substances used for imparting or removing
colors, the essential materials of ordinary glass
may be regarded as silica and boracic acid, the

alkalies, lime, and oxide of lead. The varie-
ties of glass are classified by Dr. Knapp as
follows: 1. Bottle glass, including the varie-
ties worked into hollow vessels and tubes, as
common bottles, glass for medicinal bottles,
white bottle glass for vials, tumblers, tubes,
&c. The dark-colored varieties are distinguish-
ed for their large proportion of oxide of iron
and alumina, and none contain oxide of lead.
The white bottle glass contains silica, soda
or potash, and lime. 2. Window glass, inclu-
ding English crown and cylinder or sheet glass;
this is a silicate of potash or soda, lime, and
alumina. 3. Plate glass, differing from the pre-
ceding only by the greater purity and freedom
from color of the materials. 4. Flint glass,
used for grinding, &c., composed of silica, pot-
ash, and oxide of lead. 5. Crystal, for optical
purposes and table ware, consisting of silica or
boracic acid, potash, and more lead than the
preceding. 6. Strass, the paste used for imita-
tions of precious stones; it contains much oxide
of lead, and also metallic oxides used for the
colors. 7. Enamel, composed of silica, soda,
and oxide of lead, but rendered opaque by ox-
ide of tin or antimony, which form a stannate
or antimoniate with the soda. To these may
be added the soluble glass, which is a sim-
ple silicate of soda or of potash, or a mixture
of the two silicates. The following analyses
of several kinds of glass are from Knapp's
" Chemical Technology : "

VARIETIES OF GLASS.

No.

Analyit.

Silica.

Potash.

Sod*.

Lime.

Mag-
nesia.

MnO.

Alu-
mina.

Oxide
of
iron.

Oxide
of
lead.

Propor-
tione.*

5:2
7:3
2:1
4:3
9:2
5:1
4:1
7:2
7:2
9:2
6:1
7:1
5:
6:
4:
5:
8:
6:1
6:1
9:2
4:1
7:2

7:8
6:1

Bottle glass, French

1
2
3
4
1
2
1
2
8
4
1
2
8
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3

4
1

Berthier. ..
Dumas
Berthier '.'.
Dumas . ..

Richardson.
Cowper. ..
Berthier ..
Dumas . ..
Berthier ..

Dumas . . .
Berthier . .

Faraday . .
Dumas . . .

Rowney . .

60-00
59-60
53-55
45-60
69-60
62-00
69-25
68-50
66-37
71-40
72-00
73-85
68-60
71-70
69-20
62-80
59-20
51-40
51-93
44-30
42-50
38 50

31-60
73-00

8-10
3-20
5-48
6-10
8-00

'5 : 50
6-90
12-70
15-80
22-10
9-00
9-40
13-67
11-75
11-70
7-90

8-30
11-50

'8 : 66
16-40
11-30
18-70
14-23
15-00
17-00
12-05
8-10
2-50
8-00

22-30
18-00
29-22
28-10
13-00
15-60
17-25
7-80
11-86
12-40
6-40
5-60
11-00
10-80
7-60
12-50

7-0

0-6
2-2

2-1
2 V

1-2

0-4

0-8

0-1
0-2

i-b

8-00
6-80
6-01
14-00
8-60
2-40
.2-20

10-00

8-16
0-60
2-60
8-50
1-20
0-40
1-20

i : 20

4-00
4-40
5-75
6-20

6 : 30
1-90

6 : 20
0-30
0-EO
2-60
0-40
0-80

l"-60
0-70

28-20
37-40
33-28
43-05
48-50
53-00

50-30

U 11

Medicinal glass French

Window glass, French

English

Plate glass French

" Venetian ..

White glass, goblet, Bohemia
French fusible tubing .

Crystal, London optical

" Newcastle

Flint glass, Guinand ...

" strass

0-50

2-0

1-80
1-00

Ox. tin.
9-80

" enamel

Bohemian hard glass tubing

3-00

10-50

The later editions of Dr. Knapp's work give the
following more recent analyses by Peligot :

VARIETIES OF GLASS.

1
i

Oxide of tin.

Oxide of lead.

3-5

Bohemian

76-015-08-0
80-917-60-7
67-7! 5-58-9
67-721-09-9

1-0

o-s
i'-4

Bohemian opal glass. . .
Venetian Aventurine.
Bohemian mirror

7-1

2'3

1-1

3-9

The second of these is a remarkable glass, being
a simple silicate of potash with 10 per cent,
more silica than is contained in Fuchs's soluble
glass. (See GLASS, SOLUBLE.) Particles of glass
are dispersed through the semi-transparent, im-
perfectly melted mass. The compound is not
attacked by boiling water, and does not attract
moisture from the air. The ingredients of

* Relation between the oxygen of the acid and the total
amount of oxygen in the bases.

GLASS

glass appear to be in the proportions of chem-
ical equivalents results, however, obtained by
practice and not by mixtures made with this
view. Various causes affect the stability of
the combinations and the qualities of the com-
pounds. The alkali in window glass powder-
ed and moistened is detected by its action upon
turmeric paper, and may be partially dissolved
out by long continued digestion in boiling
water. Atmospheric agents sometimes remove
it in part from window panes, leaving a film
of silica or silicate of lime. The glass of sta-
ble windows is liable to change its appearance,
and assume prismatic colors, from the action
of the ammoniacal vapors upon the silica.
Changes in the degree of oxidation of its metal-
lic ingredients, which are sometimes induced
by atmospheric causes, are also attended by
changes of colors. Long continued cooling
has the effect of changing the structure, caus-
ing it to lose its transparency and become
devitrified. Its ingredients form among them-
selves a new arrangement of their particles,
and compounds are produced which assume
a crystallized structure. By remelting, the
vitreous character may be restored, though
with a loss of a portion of potash which
was volatilized in the devitrification. In ma-
king articles of glass, and especially bottles, it
is necessary to guard against this tendency to
crystallize, and shorten the process of anneal-
ing on account of it. Devitrified glass was first
described by Reaumur, and has hence been
called Reaumur's porcelain. In consequence
of the ease with which it may be made into
any shape, and its tenacity and refractory na-
ture, not unlike porcelain itself, it has been
thought that it may be employed as a cheap
substitute for this material, especially in many
articles used in chemical laboratories. The
specific gravity of glass varies with its compo-
sition, from 2-4 to about 3'6, although optical
glass of greater specific gravity is sometimes
made, amounting in some instances to 6. Its
density and also its refractive property are in-
creased with the proportion of oxide of lead it
contains. Brittleness is a quality that limits the
alteration of the shape of glass within narrow
bounds, after it has cooled; but when softened
by heat while it is highly tenacious, no substance
is more easily moulded into any form, and it
can be blown by the breath into hollow vessels
of which the substance is so thin that they may
almost float in the air. It may also be rapidly
drawn out into threads of several hundred feet
in length ; and these have been interwoven in
fabrics of silk, producing a beautiful effect. In
the soft plastic state it may be cut with knives
and scissors like sheets of caoutchouc. It is
then inelastic like wax ; but when cooled its
fibres on being beaten fly back with a spring,
and hollow balls of the material have, when
dropped upon the smooth face of an anvil from
the height of 10 or 12 ft., been found to rebound
without fracture to one third or one half the
same height. It has the valuable property of

welding perfectly when red hot, and portions
brought together are instantly united. When
moderately heated it is readily broken in any
direction by the sudden contraction caused by
the application of a cold body to its surface. It
is also divided when cold by breaking it along
lines cut to a slight depth by a diamond, or
some other extremely hard-pointed body of
the exact form suited for this purpose ; and it
may be bored with steel drills, provided these
are kept slightly moistened with water, which
forms a paste with the powder produced. Oil
of turpentine, either alone or holding some
camphor in solution, is also used for the same
purpose. Copper tubes fed with emery also
serve to bore holes in glass. Acids and alka-
lies act upon glass differently according to its
composition, and reference should be made to
this in storing different liquids in bottles. Sili-
cate of alumina is readily attacked by acids, and
bottles in which this is in excess are soon cor-
roded even by the bitartrate of potash in wine,
and by the reaction the liquor itself is contam-
inated. A glass that loses its polish by heat ia
sure to be attacked by acids. Oxide of lead when
used in large proportion is liable to be in part
reduced to a metallic state by different chemi-
cal reagents, and give a black color to the glass.
All glasses are attacked by hydrofluoric acid.
In 1863 a series of experiments showing the
action of sunlight on glass was begun, and has
since been continued, by Mr. Thomas Gaffield,
a merchant of Boston, whose collection of
authorities on glass and kindred subjects is
more complete than any other in this country.
As early as 1 824 Prof. Faraday had noticed a
change in color produced in glass containing
oxide of manganese when exposed to the sun's
rays, and this effect was attributed to the ac-
tion of solar light on that ingredient. Mr.
Gaflfield's experiments, embracing about 80 dif-
ferent kinds of glass, colored and uncolored, of
English, French, German, Belgian, and Ameri-
can manufacture, have proved that this remark-
able phenomenon is not limited to glass con-
taining oxide of manganese, but extends to
almost every species of glass. That the effect
is not due to heat, but solely to the actinic
rays of the sun, is shown by the fact that no
change of color is produced in the glass when
it is exposed to heat ; while on the contrary,
after the discoloration has been produced by
solar light, the colors thus acquired disappear
under the action of heat, and the glass as-
sumes its normal color. This process may be
repeated indefinitely, the change of color being
produced by solar light, and the original col-
or restored by heat. It was also shown that
the effect was not produced by air or moist-
ure. In some specimens the change was more
easily effected than in others; in some days
were sufficient, in others years were required ;
but in almost all the change was produced.
"It is very interesting," says Mr. Gaffield, " to
witness any one of these series of specimens,
showing, as in one of white plate, a gradual

GLASS

change, commencing in a day or a few days in
summer, from greenish or bluish white to a
yellowish white or light yellow, a deep and
deeper yellow, until it becomes a dark yellow
or gold color ; and in some Belgian sheet speci-
mens a gradual change, commencing in a few
weeks in summer, from brownish yellow to
deeper yellow, yellowish pink, pink, dark pink,
purple, and deep purple." The following state-
ment shows the changes produced in nine differ-
ent kinds of window glass by one year's ex-
posure to the sun's rays :

KIND OF GLASS.

Color before exposure.

Color after exposure.

French white plate . . .
German crystal plate .
English plate

Bluish white.
Light green.

Yellowish.
Bluish tinge.
Yellowish green.

U It

Light purple.

Belgian sheet ....

Brownish yellow.

Deep purple.

English sheet
American crystal sheet

" ordinary sheet.

Dark green.
Light bluish white.
Lighter " "

Bluish green.

Brownish green.
Purplish white.
Light yellowish
green.
No change.

The colors named above are given from an ob-
servation of the glass edgewise, when a body
of color several inches' in depth is seen, where-
as the usual thickness of the glass varies from
one fourteenth to one quarter of an inch, and
shows its color easily only when a white curtain
or paper is placed behind it. The partial or en-
tire disuse of oxide of manganese in many win-
dow-glass manufactories of late years, while it
has produced an article not so light in color, has
made one more permanent, which the action of
sunlight changes but little, if any, in color or
shade. Mr. Gaffield's experiments were also
extended to showing the comparative power of
the different kinds of glass to transmit the ac-
tinic rays of the sun. Of colored glasses, blue
was found to transmit the most and red and
orange the least. The crude materials employ-
ed in the manufacture of glass are Selected with
more or less care, according to the quality of
the articles to be produced. The three princi-
pal elements of which crown and sheet glass
are composed are silica, soda, and lime. Of
these by far the largest element is silica, which
is now universally supplied in the form of
sand. English crown and sheet glass generally
contains about 73 per cent, of silica, and 13
each of soda and lime. On the continent less
sulphate is used than in England ; the compo-
nent parts of foreign sheet glass may be stated
at 74 per cent, of silica, 11 of soda, and 14 of
lime. In both cases the remainder consists of
alumina and oxide of iron. To the above in-
gredients it is generally the custom to add a
small quantity of arsenic to assist in oxidizing
any carbonaceous impurities and to promote
the decomposition of the other materials, and
of peroxide of manganese to peroxidize and
thus reduce the coloring property of the oxide
of iron present. Silica is obtained in the form
of quartz sand from sea beaches and from the
disintegration of quartzose rocks in the inte-
rior. It was in England once procured from

flints calcined and ground to powder, whence
the name flint glass. The purest and best sand
in the world for manufacturing glass is from
Lanesborough, Mass., and other portions of
Berkshire county. Some of it is exported to
Europe, where it is known as the " Berkshire
white sand," and there used in making the
best qualities of glass. The grains are remark-
able for their purity ; in the mass they appear
white, but under the microscope each grain is
limpid like a clear quartz crystal. Other quali-
ties are procured in various parts of the country.
Next to the American sand in quality is that
obtained from Fontainebleau in France, and
much used by the French manufacturers. It
is almost entirely free from iron, and is well
adapted for the manufacture of white glass.
The sand used by the extensive establishment
of Chance and co., near Birmingham, England,
is from Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire. Lime
may be used either in the state of quicklime or
in limestone of the purest qualities. Common
wood ashes have been used to furnish potash,
and ashes of sea plants to furnish soda; but
these have been replaced by the crude alkalies
obtained from them and other sources, and for
some purposes refined pearlash is employed.
The carbonate of soda is also extensively pre-
pared from common salt ; and at Newcastle, Eng-
land, black bottles are made from rock salt and
sand from the bed of the river, with carbonate
of lime of the soap works and the tank waste
of the alkali makers. Sulphate of soda, the
waste product of many chemical works, is suc-
cessfully used, except for plate glass. Although
glass can be produced from sand and alkali
without any other addition, lime is a very im-
portant element, as giving to it hardness and
insolubility. In flint glass this ingredient is
replaced by lead, which gives greater brilliancy
to the glass than lime, but, in consequence of
the difference between its specific gravity and
that of the other materials, is the cause of in-
numerable stria?. Saltpetre and binoxide of
manganese and arsenic also are often intro-
duced into the mixtures with the view of pro-
moting the same object. Alumina and oxide
of iron are commonly not intentionally used ;
'they come from the impurities of the other
materials. Waste glass, called cullet, forms a
considerable proportion of the raw materials in
some works; it promotes the fusion and the
chemical union of the silica and bases mixed
with it, but must be well sorted, so that no
qualities be introduced inferior to that intended
to be made. In melting glass, the raw mate-
rials, thoroughly ground, mixed together, and
sifted, are well incorporated with from one quar-
ter to one third of their weight of broken glass
before being introduced into the melting pots.
These are already heated to a white heat in
the furnace, and receive only two thirds of a
charge at a time, more being added as the first
portion melts down. The pot being at last
filled with the melted "metal," the heat is
raised as rapidly as possible, and the progress

GLASS

of the operation is judged of by the workmen
dipping iron rods from time to time into the
mixture and examining the appearance of the
drops withdrawn. A nearly homogeneous pro-
duct, which becomes transparent on cooling,
indicates that the most refractory ingredients
have been all dissolved. Their mixture has
been facilitated by the continual disengage-
ment of carbonic acid gas, which in its escape
caused the whole to be thrown into ebullition.
Some of the gas remains in the mass, render-
ing it spongy and full of vesicles. Unless in
the manufacture of the finer qualities of glass,
for which the purest materials are employed,
there is also a scum, called glass gall or san-
diver, floating upon the surface, consisting of
the insoluble matters, and the sulphates of
soda and lime not taken up by the mixture.
This is removed by ladling, and the "metal"
is next fined, which is done by increasing the
heat to the highest degree, and keeping the
contents of the pots in a state of perfect fluidity
from 10 to 30 hours ; in this time the bubbles
disappear and the insoluble matters settle to
the bottom. The furnace is then allowed to
cool until the metal has become viscid, so that
it may be taken out and worked; and it is
afterward kept at sufficiently high temperature
to maintain the glass in this condition, that it
may be used as required. The arrangements
of the great circular glass furnaces, with their
central fire surrounded with eight to twelve
pots, each reached by its own arch under the
general dome, admit of enough material being
melted at once to employ all hands the first
four working days of the week, the men work-
ing day and night in six-hour shifts. The ma-
terials of the furnaces and pots, in order that
they may withstand the excessive heat and the
action of the various melted ingredients, must
be carefully selected from the most refractory
substances, and the work must be most skil-
fully executed. The construction of the great
melting pots is an object of special solicitude,
and the placing of a new one in the furnace
while this is in operation is a task of no little
apparent difficulty and danger. In England

Fw. 8. Melting Pots.

they are made of the best Stourbridge fire clay,
mixed with about one fifth part of ground pot-
sherds. The work is done entirely by hand, no
machinery having yet been invented for that
purpose. An average-sized pot is about 4 ft.
high, 4 ft. in diameter at top, and somewhat

smaller at the bottom, and will contain about
25 cwt. of melted glass. The average duration
of a pot in the furnace is about eight weeks.
In the case of window and ordinary bottle
glass, the pot is a plain round vessel open at
the top ; but in melting flint glass, it being
necessary to protect the metal from all external
impurities, the top of the pot is made in the
form of an arch or hood, with a small opening
on one side near the top, which corresponds
with the nose hole of the furnace, and from
which the workman withdraws the melted
glass. Ordinarily two kinds of furnaces are
used in addition to the annealing oven, one
for melting the glass, and the other for reheat-
ing it at different stages during the process of
manufacture. One of the most important im-
provements in the manufacture of glass has
been the adoption of the Siemens regenerating
gas furnace. (See FURNACE.) The novelty of
this system consists in taking up the waste heat
from the furnace in large chambers, and using
it for raising to a higher temperature the ele-
ments of combustion. The whole of the fuel,
except the inorganic portions, is converted into
gas, not in the furnace itself, but in adjacent
" producers." The gas and air passing through
separate chambers, and having each been heated
to a high degree in the waste-heat chambers,
meet on entering the furnace, and there ignite,
producing a heat of wonderful intensity. The
advantages of this system are a greater inten-
sity of heat produced from less fuel, and, what
is very important in the manufacture of glass,
a degree of cleanliness which cannot be at-
tained by the older methods of melting. .The
intensity of the heat produced is indicated by
the fact that in a sheet-glass furnace contain-
ing 1,800 cubic feet, materials for about 16
tons of glass in eight large pots are melted
and refined into a liquid mass in 25 hours.
Such is a mere outline of the means employed
to bring the materials of glass into their desired
combination. The production of each kind of
glass is a separate branch of manufacture, in-
volving many curious details and processes, too
numerous even to be named in this account.
The tools employed are few and simple, and
differ but little from those described in the
work of Blancourt " On the Art of Glass,"
published in London in 1699. The first in im-
portance is the pipe or blowing tube, made of
wrought iron, 4 or 5 ft. long, with a bore from
^ to 1 in. in diameter, a little larger at the
mouth end than at the other. It is a long hand,
partly covered with wood, with which, the end
being heated red hot, the workman reaches
into the pot of melted matter and gathers up
the quantity he requires, and which afterward
holds- the article in the manipulations to which
he subjects it; and it is at the same time the
air tube through which the breath is forced to
expand the vessel, or through which water is
sometimes blown to produce the same effect by
the steam it generates. A solid rod of iron,
called a punty or pontil, serves to receive the

GLASS

article upon its end when freed from the pipe,
adhesion being secured by the softness of the
glass or by a little red-hot lump already attach-
ed to the punty. Spring tongs, like sugar tongs,
are used to take up bits of melted glass ; and a
heavier pair, called pucellas, furnished with

FIG. 9. Tools used in Glassmaking.

1. Pipe or blowing tube. 2. Pucellas. 8. Shears. 4. Pucel-
las with wooden blades. 5. Spring tongs. 6. Battledore.

broa'd but blunt blades, serve to give shape to
the articles as the instrument in the right hand
of the workman is pressed upon their surface,
while, seated upon his bench, he causes with his
left hand the rod holding the article to roll up
and down the two long iron arms of his seat,
upon which it is laid horizontally before him.
At the same time the vessel is also shaped
from the interior as well, and is occasionally
applied to the opening of the furnace to soften
it entirely or only in some part to which great-
er distention is given by blowing. The pu-
cellas are sometimes provided with blades of
wood, as at 4, fig. 9. Another important in-
strument is a pair of shears, with which a skil-
ful workman will cut off with one clip the top
of a wine glass, as he twirls it round with the

FIG. 10 Glass Maker's Chair.

rod to which it is attached held in the left
hand. The edge softened in the fire is then
smoothed and polished. Besides these a wood-
en utensil called a battledore is employed,
with which the glass is flattened by beating
when necessary; compasses and calipers and a
362 VOL. viii. 2

measure stick are at hand for measuring ; and
a slender rod of iron forked at one end is used
to take up the articles, and carry them when
shaped to the annealing oven, in which they
are left for some time to be tempered. (See
ANNEALING.) The marver (Fr. marbre, marble)
is a smooth polished cast-iron slab, upon the
surface of which the workman rolls the glass
at the end of his tube in order to give it a
perfectly circular form. Those used in the
manufacture of common black bottles are fur-
nished on one edge with several concavities, in
which the mass of metal taken from the melt-
ing pot is first roughly shaped as it is rolled over
and over and made to swell by gentle blow-
ing. One of the most ordinary forms into which
glass is manufactured is that of bottles, which
are made in moulds by the process of blowing,
the kind of glass generally used being the or-
dinary green or window glass, and flint glass.
The method of making bottles is described and
illustrated in the article BOTTLE. Bottles for
champagne and aerated waters are made of ex-
traordinary strength, and are sometimes tested
by the pressure of water before being used.
Of the various kinds of glass in common use,
none require more care to insure the purity of
the materials employed than the crystal or flint
j glass, of which are made many choice articles
' for domestic purposes, some of which are sub-
jected to the processes of cutting or grinding
and polishing. It possesses the properties of
great transparency and high refractive power,
which fit it for lenses for ^optical instruments.
Flints calcined and ground were formerly used
to furnish the silica, but pure sand is now gen-
erally used in its stead. Oxide of lead enters
largely into its composition, and to this are due
its brilliancy, density, and comparative softness.
The oxide should be especially prepared to in-
sure its purity. Oxide of zinc has been found
to produce similar effects. The fusion must be
rapid and at intense heat, and this must be re-
duced as soon as the metal is thoroughly melt-
ed and refined by the escape of the bubbles of
gas, or the product acts upon the alumina and
iron of the pot, and is thus so contaminated as
to be worthless. The furnace is usually circu-
lar in form, and contains from four to ten pots,
in front of each of which there is an opening
for the workman. In the manufacture of arti-
cles of domestic use made of flint glass two
processes are in use, blowing and pressing, the
latter being very common in the United States.
By the former method a mould is sometimes
used, as in the case of bottles, when the opera-
tions are similar to those described in working
ordinary green glass ; or the article may receive
its symmetrical form from the skill of the work-
man unaided by any mould. This process may
be illustrated by describing how a wine glas?
in three parts is made. The workman, having
gathered on the end of a blowpipe the requisite
amount of glass (1, fig. 11), rolls it on the marver
and expands it by blowing into the tube until
it assumes the form shown at 2, and after-

GLASS

ward, being flattened at the end with the
battledore, that at 3. A lump of glass is
now attached to the flat end of the bowl (4),
which the workman with the pucellas, while
rotating the pipe on the long arms of the chair
in which he sits, transforms into the shape
shown at 5. A globe is now attached to
the end of this stem (6), which is afterward
opened and flattened into the form represented
at 7. A punty tipped with a small knob of
hot glass is next stuck to the foot of the wine
glass, which is severed from the blowpipe at
the dotted line shown at 8! The top of the
glass is then trimmed with shears (9), after
which it is flashed and finished as at 10. It
is now severed from the end of the punty by a
sharp blow and carried by a boy to the anneal-
ing oven on the end of a forked rod. In the
manufacture of articles by the method of press-
ing, a hollow mould is used made of steel or
iron, with its interior surface so designed as to
give the object the required shape and figura-
tion. This mould may be in one piece or consist

Fio. 11. Process of Making a Wine Glass.

of several parts, which are opened when the
moulded glass is taken put. The process will
be illustrated by describing the production of a
tumbler. A lump of glass is gathered from the
pot on the end of a punty by the " gatherer,"
and being held over the open mould, a suffi-
cient quantity is cut off with a pair of scissors by
another workman and drops into the mould.
This is now pushed under a hand press, and a
smooth iron plunger is brought down into the
mould with such force that the hot glass is
made to fill the entire space between the inside
of the mould and the plunger, whose size and
shape are the same as those of the interior
of the tumbler. The plunger being raised up,
the mould is taken from the press and turned
over, when the tumbler is made to drop out
bottom side up. A punty with a piece of hot
glass at one end is now attached to the bot-
tom of the tumbler, which is heated at an-
other furnace and smoothed by being skilfully

rubbed with a wooden tool while rotated on
the arms of the workman's chair ; after which
it is taken on a fork to the annealing oven.
By this process articles can be produced with
a rapidity not attainable in the case of blown
glass, and therefore with less cost; but the

FIG. 12. Hand Press.

latter is generally preferred. The glass com-
monly used for window panes is one of the
hardest varieties, and of unsuitable quality for
shaping into vessels or manufacturing by cut-
ting or grinding. Besides plate glass, which
is also used for windows of a more expensive
character, there are two kinds of window
glass, known as crown and sheet from the
different processes of manufacture ; the former
being first blown into a globe or sphere and
flattened out into a circular disk, while the
latter is formed into a cylinder which is af-
terward opened out into a sheet. In making
crown glass, the workman gathers from the
pot on the end of a blowpipe the requisite
amount of molten glass, which is usually about
9 Ibs. The pipe being cooled to admit of
handling, the lump is rolled upon the marver
to give it a conical form, and a boy blowing
at the same time through the tube causes
the glass to swell. It is now heated by hold-
ing it in the furnace, and is then again rolled
and enlarged by blowing. The most of the
glass is worked down to the end of the con-
ical or pear-shaped lump, the upper part being
hollow. The solid end is called the bullion.
This being softened in the furnace, the tube is
laid across a rest and twirled around, while the
glass is blown into a globe. During the ex-
pansion it is important to keep the bullion
point in a line with the axis of the pipe. This
is done by a boy holding against the bullion
point a piece of iron terminating in a small
cup, while the workman constantly twirls and
blows through the pipe resting upon an iron
support. The globe at the end of the tube is
now pointed toward the flame of the furnace,
and being constantly twirled, the end toward
the fire flattens out, the bullion point still form-
ing a prominence of thicker metal in the

GLASS

centre. To this centre a punty with a lump
of molten glass at its end is next attached, and
the blowing pipe is separated by applying a
piece of cold iron around the nose. As it
breaks away it takes a portion of glass with it,
leaving a circular opening. Taken up by the
punty, the glass is held with the nose (or por-
tion to which the blowing pipe had been at-
tached) presented to the nose hole of the fur-
nace. Here it is softened almost to melting,
while it is all the time twirled around ; it is
then presented to the flame issuing from the
great circular opening of the flashing furnace,
the man holding it being protected from the
fire by a covering over his head and face.
Rapidly revolving in this flame, the opening in
the end grows larger ; the heated air within
prevents the two opposite faces of the flattened
spheroid from coming together, and the cen-
trifugal force is constantly enlarging its diame-
ter. The opening rapidly increases, until the
glass becomes a flat circular disk, which being
removed from the fire is kept rapidly revolving
until it is cool enough to retain its form. The
punty is then cracked off, and the disk or table
is removed upon a fork to the annealing oven
and set upon edge with the rest, arranged in
rows and supported by iron rods so as not
to press against each other, and the thicker
part in the centre, called the bullion point or
bull's-eye, also keeping the tables apart and
open for the circulation of air. The anneal-
ing is completed in from 24 to 48 hours. Ta-
bles are thus commonly made of 54 inches
diameter, and some have been produced of
70 inches ; but the difficulty of manipulation
and the uncertainty of the result render the
making of very large sizes unprofitable. A
pot containing half a ton commonly produces
100 tables ; and in the crown glass houses it is
customary to empty eight such pots in three
days every week. From the annealing kiln
the tables are taken to the warehouse and sort-
ed according to their different qualities and
defects. Each one is then laid in turn upon
a " nest " or cushion, and is divided by the dia-
mond into two pieces, the larger one contain-
ing the bull's-eye. These are next cut up into
rectangular panes. The shape and the bull's-
eye involve considerable waste in cutting; and
numerous other defects are found in many of
the sheets. These, however, are compensated
for by the remarkable brilliancy of surface pe-
culiar to glass made in this way, which is at-
tributed by some to the influence of the mar-
ver, and by others to the effect produced by
flashing the surface. Crown glass is also free
from the undulations, or cockles, which often
disfigure the surface of glass made by the cy-
lindrical process. In the manufacture of sheet
glass two furnaces are generally used, one for
melting or making the glass, and the other for
reheating it during the process of blowing. The
latter is usually of an oblong form, with four, five,
or six holes on each side for as many workmen.
On each side of this furnace is a pit about 7 ft.

deep, 16ft. wide, and as long as the furnace;
over this at intervals of about 2 ft. are erected
in front of each hole of the furnace wooden
stagings or platforms, upon which the workman
stands when swinging the cylinder to and fro and
over his head. The manufacture of this kind
of glass may be divided into three processes :
1, blowing the cylinder ; 2, flattening it out
into a sheet ; 3, polishing the sheet. The first
step is to gather from the pot a lump of melted
glass of the required weight, which experience
enables the workman to do with great accuracy.
Dipping the end of a blowpipe into the melted
metal and twirling it round, he gathers a pear-
shaped lump of 2 or 3 Ibs. After thia has
cooled to a dull red, it is again dipped into the
glass in the pot, and a larger amount withdrawn.
Thus by degrees a sufficient quantity is collect-
ed, usually about 20 Ibs., to produce a sheet of
glass of the required size. When this mass has
become somewhat cooled, the workman places
it in a block of wood so hollowed as to allow
the lump of glass when placed upon it to be

FIG. 13. Blowing Cylinder Glass.

blown to the required diameter of the cylinder.
Here, while a stream of cold water is turned
upon the block to prevent the wood from being
burnt and the glass from being scratched, the
workman revolves the pipe, and blows through
it, occasionally raising it to an angle of about
75, until he has formed a hollow pear-shaped
mass, with its largest diameter, which is the
same as that of the finished cylinder, next to
the pipe. It is now taken to the blowing fur-
nace, where after being heated it is swung to
and fro in the pit and round in a vertical plane
over the head of the workman, who stands
upon the platform above mentioned and keeps
the lengthening cylinder full of air by occa-
sionally blowing through the tube. Uniformity
of thickness and of diameter, which was de-
termined by the wooden block, is secured by
the skill of the workman, who when the metal
runs out too freely holds the cylinder vertically

GLASS

above his head, still keeping it well filled with
air. This operation is skilfully continued until
a cylinder is produced about 11 in. in diameter
and about 50 in. long, closed at one end and
attached to the blowpipe at the other. The
next step is to open the end of the cylinder,
which the workman does by filling it with air
and, after closing the aperture of the pipe with
his thumb, exposing the end to the heat of the
furnace. The heat expands the air in the cyl-
inder, which bursts open at the end where the
glass is the softest. The aperture thus made
is widened to the required diameter by rapid-
ly revolving the cylinder at the furnace hole,
the pipe resting on an iron support, and subse-
quently holding it in a vertical position with the
open end downward until the glass is cooled
sufficiently to retain its shape. The cylinder
is now laid upon a wooden rest, or trestle, and
detached from the pipe by touching with a
piece of cold iron the pear-shaped neck near
the nose of the pipe, and gently striking the
pipe ; an opening about three inches in diam-
eter is thus formed. This end, the cap of the

FIG. 14.- The Cylinder in Different Stages of Manufacture.

cylinder, is now taken off by winding around
it a thread of hot glass, and after removing it
applying a piece of cold iron to any point which
the thread covered. After trimming the other
end by cutting off about two inches in length
with a diamond, the cylinder is split open longi-
tudinally by drawing along its inside surface a
diamond attached to a long handle and guided
by a wooden rule. Formerly this splitting was
done with a red-hot iron, which is still some-
times used. The cylinder is now taken to the
flattening oven, where it is placed, with the
slit uppermost, upon the flattening stone, from
the irregularities of whose surface it is protect-
ed by a sheet of glass. The cylinder soon be-
comes heated and opens out into a wavy sheet,
the movement being accelerated by the iron
rod of the workman. The surface of the sheet
is next rubbed with a piece of .wood attached
to the end of an iron rod for the purpose of re-
moving the irregularities of the surface. The
flattening stone is now moved on wheels to the
adjoining annealing oven, where the sheets are

placed for annealing, which usually requires
from 24 to 36 hours. From the annealing
oven the sheets are taken to the warehouse,
where they are smoothed, polished, assorted,
and cut into panes of the required dimensions.
The former method of grinding and polishing
sheet glass by imbedding the sheets in plaster
of Paris proved inadequate to remove the de-
fects in the glass consequent upon the mode
of manufacture. The chief of these was the
undulating or wavy appearance of the surface,
called cockles, which was attributed to the dif-
ference of diameter between the inner and out-
er surfaces of the cylinder, and which caused
objects seen through the glass to be distorted.
Notwithstanding the glass was made very thick
after the superficial roughness was removed,
the result was a thin sheet much inferior to
plate glass. The ingenious process devised by
Mr. James Chance for producing patent plate
glass, which is now used in England and most
factories on the continent, is one of the most
important improvements in the manufacture.
By removing the thin outer surface of the glass
by this method, an evenness and a polish are
secured, even on the thinnest sheet, which
make it in many respects equal to plate glass,
and far superior to the sheet glass produced
by the old process. The improved method
consists in placing the sheet to be ground and
polished upon a flat surface covered with a
piece of damp soft leather or cotton cloth. A
slight pressure applied to the glass causes it to
adhere to the surface of cotton or leather, and
by thus producing a vacuum the entire sheet
is firmly maintained in a flat position by atmos-
pheric pressure. The exposed surfaces of two
sheets fixed in this manner are rubbed against
each other in a horizontal position by machine-
ry, emery and water being constantly supplied
to keep up the friction. Both sides of the
sheet are polished in this manner, with only a
slight diminution of the thickness of the glass.
After the removal of the sheets from these
surfaces, they resume by their own elasticity
their original shape, which is often more or less
curved. The final polish is given to the sheets
by a process similar to that used in polishing
plate glass. In each process through which
the glass has passed, it was exposed to some
imperfection, and some of the sheets bear the
peculiar defects of them all and are of little
value ; others are suitable for inferior uses, and
but few are perfect. The wide difference be-
tween the quality of the best nnd the worst
sheets is indicated by the fact that the former
are valued at three times more than the latter.
The same kind of material is used in the pro-
duction of both crown and sheet glass. The
remarkable brilliancy of surface of the former
gives to it a certain advantage over sheet glass;
but the larger size easily attained in making
the latter gives it the supremacy in commerce.
Of crown glass it is difficult to obtain panes
of 34 x 22 in., while the usual size of the
sheets of cylinder glass is 47x32 in., and

GLASS

cylinders are occasionally blown 77 in. in
length, requiring about 38 Ibs. of glass. The
largest sizes are only produced by the most
skilful workmen. The relative antiquity of
the two processes of making crown and sheet
glass is involved in no little obscurity. ^ The
cylindrical process is the only one mentioned
by Theophilus, who is supposed to have lived
in the 12th century, and this method was
long retained by the Venetians and the Bo-
hemians, as being best adapted to the pro-
duction of their colored glasses on account
of the uniformity of thickness and of color se-
cured. But in the north of Germany, France,
and England, it fell into disuse, and the rotary
principle prevailed exclusively. Subsequently
the latter was abandoned on the continent, but
held its supremacy in England, where crown
glass was used for houses of the better class,
while the use of sheet glass was limited to infe-
rior dwellings. In 1832 the improved process
of making cylinder glass was introduced into
England from France, and subsequently the
improved method above mentioned of polish-
ing the sheets was adopted. The cylindrical
method is the one now in general use in Eng-
land, much of the glass being known in com-
merce as patent plate. The building or fac-
tory for the manufacture of plate glass is gen-
erally of very large size. That of the British
plate-glass works at Ravenhead, where it is
called the foundery, is 339 ft. long by 155 wide;
while the famous halle of St. Gobain in France
is 174 by 120 ft. In the centre is the square
melting furnace, with openings on two parallel
sides for working purposes, while along two
sides of the great building are arranged anneal-
ing ovens, which are sometimes 30 by 20 ft. in
order to receive the immense plates that are to
be annealed. Two kinds of pots are used, the
ordinary one, open at the top, for melting the
glass, and cisterns or cuvettes, in which the
molten glass is carried to the casting table. In
France the cuvette is usually of a quadrangular
form, with a groove in each of its sides, or, as
in the case of the larger cisterns, in two paral-
lel sides, in which the tongs or iron frame are
fitted when the cuvette is moved. Between
each two pots in the furnace are placed, ac-
cording to their size, one or more cuvettes. In
some establishments the cuvette is not now
used, the metal being poured from the pot in
which it is melted on to the casting table. In
France 16 hours are allowed for the melting,
and the same time for the metal to remain in
the cuvettes ; but the latter term is often ex-
tended in order that the aeriform bubbles may
escape and the excess of soda become vola-
tilized. Toward the last the temperature is
allowed to fall, and the glass then acquires the
slight degree of viscidity suitable for casting.
The molten glass is transferred from the pots
into the adjacent cuvettes by means of wrought-
iron ladles with long handles. When the glass
is in the proper condition to be cast, the "tongs
carriage," consisting of two powerful bars of

iron united like two scissors blades, and resting
upon two wheels, is pushed into the opening
made in the furnace, and the cuvette is clamp-
ed in the quadrant formed at the extremity of
the tongs, two workmen manipulating the
handles at the other extremity. The cistern
thus taken from the furnace, while filled with
molten glass, is placed on another carriage and
quickly conveyed to the casting table. This
consists of a massive slab, usually of cast iron,
supported by a frame, and generally placed at
the mouth of the annealing oven. At the
Thames works in England the casting plate is
20 ft. long, 11 ft. broad, and 7 in. thick. For-
merly these tables were of bronze, and the
great slab of St. Gobain of this alloy weighed
50,000 Ibs. ; but cast iron was found less liable
to crack, and is now generally used for this
purpose. On each side of the table are ribs or
bars of metal, which keep the glass within prop-
er limits, and by their height determine the
thickness of the plate. A copper or bronze
cylinder about a foot in diameter, resting upon
these bars, extends across the table. After
being heated by hot coals placed upon it,

FIG. 15. Casting Table.

the table is carefully cleaned preparatory to
casting. The cistern containing the melted
glass is raised from the carriage on which it
was brought from the furnace by means of a
crane, its outside carefully cleaned, and the
glass skimmed with a copper sabre. The cu-
vette is now swung round over the table, over
which a roller covered with cloth is drawn to
remove all impurities, and the molten glass
poured out in front of the cylinder, which be-
ing rolled from one extremity of the table to
the other spreads out the glass in a sheet
of uniform breadth and thickness. The ope-
ration is a beautiful one from the brilliancy
of the great surface of melted glass, and the
variety of colors exhibited upon it after the
passage of the roller. While the plate is still
red hot about two inches of its end is turned up
like a flange, against which an iron rake-like
instrument is placed, and the plate is thrust for-
ward into the annealing oven, the temperature
of which is that of dull redness. Another plate
is now immediately cast upon the hot table,
and the annealing oven when filled is closed
and left for about five days to cool. The pro-
cess of casting is done so systematically and
with such despatch in a well regulated estab-

GLASS

lishment, that the glass has been taken from the
furnace, cast, and put into the annealing oven
in less than five minutes. From the annealing
oven the plates are taken to the warehouse,
where they are carefully examined to see how
they may be cut to the best advantage. In dif-
ferent manufactories and at different times va-
rious processes have been in use for grinding
and smoothing the surface of plate glass, but
the principle has been the same in all, viz.:
rubbing the surface to be smoothed with an-
other surface either of glass or iron, and at the
same time applying sand or emery of different
degrees of fineness and water between the two
impinging surfaces. One of the most approved
methods of grinding and smoothing the plates
was introduced into England in 1856, and
adopted in the British plate-glass works. This
apparatus consists of a revolving table, 20 ft.
in diameter, fixed upon a strong cast-iron spin-
dle, and capable of running at an average speed
of 25 revolutions a minute. Above the table
frames are arranged to hold the plates of glass,
which are laid in a bed of plaster of Paris, with
the face to be polished resting upon the table.
These frames also revolve on their centres by
the friction of the table upon the glass, slowly,
but so as to present each side of the plates they
hold to an equal amount of rubbing as they
are moved nearer to the centre of the table or
further from it. Sand and water are applied to
facilitate grinding down the glass. The grind-
ing by this process is found to be even and
equal, and the machinery to work smoothly
and steadily from the facility with which the
plates accommodate themselves to the power
applied. After grinding they are smoothed
with emery powder of finer and finer quali-
ties, and are thus prepared for polishing. By
the process above described the grinding and
smoothing are done by the same machine ; but
formerly two sets of apparatus were required
for this purpose. By grinding the surface of
the plate is made true, but presents a rough
appearance which is removed by the process
of smoothing, At this stage it is somewhat
opaque, and this defect disappears after the
final process of polishing. This is performed
chiefly by machinery. The plate of glass hav-
ing been fixed upon the table by means of
plaster of Paris, the surface is subjected to the
action of a series of wooden blocks covered
with felt and attached to a frame by which
they are made to move over the surface of the
glass. At the same time a polishing powder,
generally red oxide of iron, is applied, while
the friction may be increased by adding weight
to the rubbers. Polishing sometimes brings
out defects which were before concealed ; the
plates are consequently again assorted, and, if
need be, reduced to smaller sizes. (For the
methods of silvering them, see MIRROR.) Bend-
ing the large plates or the smaller sheets of
glass for the purpose of fitting them for bow
windows, &c., is an especial branch of the
manufacture. A core of refractory material

and suitable shape is introduced upon the
floor of the furnace ; and upon this is laid the
sheet to be bent, which as it softens by gravity
conforms itself to the shape of the bed upon
which it is laid. The value of plate glass
varies greatly with the size. In the United
States the price of a plate of standard British
or French glass, 5x3 ft., is about $35 ; but
when the dimensions are double, the plate
being 10x6 ft., the price is increased to about
$175. A plate 14 x 8 ft. is valued at about $500.
No glass is of such importance in the arts
as that of which the lenses of optical instru-
ments are made. Both flint and crown glass
are applied to this use, but each of them has
its defects. The former, from the great differ-
ence in the densities of its ingredients, is with
much difficulty obtained of homogeneous struc-
ture, an essential requisite in all glass used for
optical purposes ; and the latter is difficult to
procure of uniform composition and texture,
from the high temperature required for its fu-
sion and the consequent tendency to devitrify
in cooling; or if this is obviated by an in-
creased proportion of alkali in the composition,
the excess of this causes attraction of moisture
from the air and a damp surface to the lens. The
best flint glass is subject to defects, chief among
which are undulatory appearances called striaa,
resulting from a want of uniform density in
the glass, and tending to refract and disperse
in different directions the rays of light passing
through it. These defects are of great impor-
tance when the glass is to be used for optical
purposes. In 1753 John Dollond, an English
optician, first began the construction of achro-
matic object glasses, formed of two kinds of
glass of different density, in accordance with
the theory announced not long before by Euler.
For this purpose Dollond used fragments of
flint and of crown glass, but did not succeed
in making object glasses with a larger aperture
than 2 or 3 in. in diameter ; and when the
need of telescopes of greater magnifying power
was strongly felt, it was difficult to produce
flint glass sufficiently free from striae for a lens
4 in. in diameter. The scientific bodies of
France and England offered prizes for the at-
tainment of this result, and the most renowned
glass manufacturers at the end of the last and
the beginning of the present century endeav-
ored to solve the problem. This was done
by Guinand of Switzerland, a man not con-
versant with science, nor even a glass man-
ufacturer, but an optician. By methods of his
own he made the furnaces, crucibles, and mix-
tures he employed, and produced the glass,
which he shaped and polished, giving without
knowledge of mathematics the requisite pro-
portion to the curves of its surface, and com-
pleted lenses of flint glass of great perfection of
structure, 9 in. in diameter. The secret of his
success in making the glass is believed to have
consisted in keeping the mixture agitated by
stirring when at its greatest liquidity, and then
j suffering it to cool and anneal in the pot. From

GLASS

the most perfect portions of the comparatively
homogeneous mass thus obtained, the lenses
were cut out by a process similar to that of
sawing blocks of stone. By one of the sons
of Guinand the secret was imparted to M.
Bontemps; and in 1828 lenses were made in
France of 12 to 14 in. diameter. In 1848 Bon-
temps went to England, and in conjunction
with the Messrs. Chance and co. made disks of
flint and of crown glass larger than any be-
fore produced. At the exhibition in London
in 1851, a disk of flint glass was exhibited by
Messrs. Chance and co. 29 in. in diameter and
weighing 2 cwt. ; and at the Paris exposition
in 1855 they exhibited one of the same diam-
eter made of crown glass. One of these was
afterward sold to the French government for
1,000. They are of pure color, and of such
homogeneous structure that the light is trans-
mitted without polarization. Prof. Faraday,
one of a committee appointed by the astro-
nomical society of London to experiment upon
the means of producing optical lenses, while
Guinand's secret method of making these 6
in. in diameter was exciting the admiration
of the scientific world, discovered the heavy
glass called by his name (composed of protox-
ide of lead 104 Ibs., silicate of lead 24, and dry
boracic acid 25), which has proved of con-
siderable importance in investigations connect-
ed with the polarization of light ; but its lia-
bility to change unfits it for general optical uses.
Lenses both of flint and of crown glass are
used in the object glasses of achromatic tele-
scopes, serving by their combination to coun-
teract the unequal tendency of each to dis-
perse the rays of light. It seems to be con-
ceded by scientific men that the glass best
adapted to achromatism would be a flint glass
possessing a smaller refractive power and a
larger dispersive index, and a crown glass hav-
ing, conversely, a greater refractive power
and a less dispersive index. The annual pro-
duction of plate glass in Europe may be stated
in round numbers at upward of 10,000,000 sq.
ft., of which about 4,000,000 sq. ft., valued at
about 28,000,000 francs, is produced in France,
8,750,000 in England, 1,500,000 in Germany,
and 1,000,000 in Belgium. The industry is
limited to a few large establishments, there
being six each in France and England, and two
each in Germany and Belgium. In addition
to the above, large quantities of rough plate
glass are made in England for horticultural and
other cheap purposes. About 15,000,000 sq.
ft. of window glass, of the value of about 15,-
000,000 francs, is produced annually in France,
and about 100,000,000 bottles, valued at about
20,000,000 francs; the production of flint glass
amounts to about 15,000,000 francs, and of
ordinary table glass about the same. The en-
tire production of the country exceeds 75,000,-
000 francs. The exports of glass from Eng-
land in 1872 were 2,131,924 sq. ft. of plate glass,
valued at 243,780; 113,004 cwt. of flint,
valued at 300,484; 760,836 cwt. of common

KINDS.

No. of
establish-
ment!.

Hands
em-
ployed.

Capital.

Annual pro-
duct*.

Cut

29
5

18
114
85

285
200
170
12,308
2,859

$136,700
195,700
148,800
10,385,882
8,244,560

$470,875
355,250
297,480
14,300,949
3,811,308

Plate

Stained

Ware, not specified.
Window

Total

201

15,822

$14,111,642

$19,246,862

bottles, valued at 373,138; and other kinds
of glass to the value of 204,593. The latest
statistics on the manufacture of glass in the
United States are afforded by the census of
1870, as follows :

The establishments were chiefly in Pennsyl-
vania, New York, New Jersey, and Ohio. Of
the five manufactories of plate glass, three were
in Ohio and one each in New York and New
Hampshire. Not included in this statement
is the Lenox rough plate glass company at
Lenox, Mass. The importations of glass and
glass ware into the United States for the year
ending June 30, 1873, amounted to $5,834,712,
including cylinder, crown, and common win-
dow, $2,759,728 ; cylinder and crown polished,
$21,217; fluted, rolled, or rough plate, $34,-
180 ; cast polished plate not silvered (2,482,-
359 sq. ft.), $1,550,857; cast polished plate sil-
vered (2,392,274 sq. ft), $823,076; other man-
ufactures, $2,230,986. Of the cylinder, crown,
or common window, $2,181,044 worth came
from Belgium and $451,223 from England; of
the cast polished plate not silvered, 1,955,666
sq. ft, valued at $1,252,991 , from England, 246,-
698 sq. ft, valued at $155,450, from Belgium,
and 39,047 sq. ft., worth $22,963, from France ;
of the silvered plate, 2,297,049 sq. ft, valued
at $764,913, was the production of England.
COLORED AND ORNAMENTED GLASS. Mould-
ed or pressed glass never exhibits its full lustre
or the clearly cut configurations of the mould.
This defect is remedied by the process called
cutting glass, which is in reality grinding and
afterward polishing it. It is easily effected
upon the soft flint glass by applying the sur-
faces to be cut to the face of revolving disks of
iron or copper fed with emery, or, for coarse
grinding, with sand and water. Stones are
also used instead of the metallic disks. The
marks of the rough grinding are removed by a
smooth grindstone, and the polishing is then
completed by wooden disks, to which pumice
or rotten stone, and finally the preparation of
tin and lead called putty powder, are applied.
The fine polishing of chandelier drops is effected
by a lead wheel supplied with fine rotten stone
and water. Glass globes and lamp shades ac-
quire their interior ground surface by the wear-
ing action of sand placed within them, the globes
being themselves introduced into the interior
of a drum which is caused to rotate rapidly.
Letters and designs are engraved on glass by
the use of small disks of copper set in rapid
revolution by means of a lathe operated by the

GLASS

foot of the workman, or by machinery, and fed
with fine emery mixed with oil. Lead disks
are used for the polished work. The object to
be engraved is skilfully pressed against the re-
volving wheel or disk by the workman, who is
guided by the outlines of the design lightly
traced upon the glass. The art of engraving
was practised by the ancients. By a recent
American invention glass may be engraved by
means of a blast of sand directed upon it. (See
SAND BLAST.) Pleasing effects are produced by
engraving through an outer casing of colored
glass into an interior white, transparent, or
enamelled glass; this is afterward decorated
with gold and painted in arabesques or other
patterns. This work is chiefly the produce
of Bohemia, Bavaria, and France. Etching is
also applied to the ornamenting of glass, a pro-
cess which is effected by the property of hydro-
fluoric acid to eat into the material, as described
in the article FLUORINE. The glass is first cov-
ered over with a varnish that resists the action
of the acid, and when this coating is dry, the
lines to be etched are marked through it by
means of a point. The acid is then poured on,
and is allowed to remain till it has produced the
desired effect. The difficulties and danger at-
tending the use of the acid restrict this process
to the ornamenting of large polished plates, and
to the labelling in indelible letters of the bottles
of chemists and apothecaries. "Work done by
this method is inferior to that done by the reg-
ular process of engraving. An improvement
upon this process has been made by Mar6chal,
by employing solutions of the neutral fluorides
of the alkalies. The addition of hydrochloric
acid to these solutions disengages hydrofluoric
acid, which, coming in contact in the nascent
state with the silicic acid of the glass placed in
the liquid, rapidly produces a clearing upon the
surface exposed. The French companies of St.
Louis and Baccarat have adopted this process,
by which very rich and artistic designs have
been produced. The colored glasses are pro-
duced either upon the colorless composition
called strass for imitations of precious stones
(see GEMS, ARTIFICIAL), or by introducing the
various oxides used fpr coloring into the mate-
rials of flints or other kinds of glass. In the lat-
ter case the coloring matter is thoroughly fused
with the glass, which therefore becomes colored
throughout its entire body. Pigments are also
applied to the surface of glass, and sometimes by
their greater fusibility are burnt or melted in.
Flint glass may be employed for vessels orna-
mented with colors, and to 6 cwt. of it the
following ingredients are added for producing
the respective colors: soft white enamel, 24
Ibs. arsenic, 6 Ibs. antimony ; hard white enam-
el, 200 Ibs. putty, prepared from tin and lead ;
blue transparent glass, 2 Ibs. oxide of cobalt ;
azure blue, about 6 Ibs. oxide of copper ; ruby
red, 4 oz. oxide of gold; amethyst or pur-
ple, 20 Ibs. oxide of manganese ; common or-
ange, 12 Ibs. iron ore and 4 Ibs. manganese;
emerald green, 12 Ibs. copper scales and 12

Ibs. iron ore ; gold topaz color, 3 Ibs. oxide of
uranium. The colors produced by the metallic
oxides are found to vary with the degree of
heat employed. All the colors of the spectrum
may be obtained with oxide of iron ; and these
various results do not seem to depend upon the
different degrees of oxidation, but are thought
to result from variations in molecular arrange-
ment, induced perhaps by the action of light.
By another process the surface alone of the
glass may be colored. This is done by first
gathering with the blowpipe a lump of clear
glass, which after being rolled upon the mar-
ver is dipped into a pot of melted colored
glass, forming a lump of colorless glass envel-
oped in a coating of colored glass. This is
blown into a globe or cylinder and opened out
into a sheet or plate in the usual manner, one
surface of which is clear and the other colored.
Vessels of various kinds having colored sur-
faces on the outside may be produced in a sim-
ilar manner. By cutting through the thin lay-
er of colored glass to the colorless layer, a
great variety of colored ornamental glass may
be produced. By gathering first a lump of
colored glass and then coating this with melted
clear glass, the external surface of the vessel
will be colorless and the inner layer colored.
" Casing " is a somewhat similar process. The
article of flint glass when partially blown is in-
serted into a thin shell of colored glass, pre-
pared at the same time for its reception, and
the blowing is continued till the inner one fills
the shell, with which it is afterward well in-
corporated by softening in the furnace and fur-
ther blowing. Several partial casings of dif-
ferent colors may be thus applied. In making
etched enamelled glass, the enamel substance
is ground to an impalpable powder, and laid
with a brush in a pasty state upon the glass.
After the paste is dried, the ornament is etched
out by machinery or by hand, and the glass is
then softened till the enamel is vitrified and
incorporated with it. From this it is removed
to the annealing kiln. The flocked variety of
enamelled glass is prepared by the same meth-
od, except that a fine, smooth, opaque surface,
like satin, much softer and smoother than that
of ground glass, is previously given to the whole
surface before the enamel is applied. This va-
riety has in great part supplanted the other,
and is justly much admired for the softening
of the light diffused through it, and for the
delicacy and beauty of the elaborate and ar-
tistic designs with which it is ornamented.
The Venetians and the Bohemians have long
been celebrated for their skill and ingenuity in
the production of ornamented glass. Many of
the ingenious effects produced are imitations
of ancient manufacture, of which many won-
derful specimens are preserved in European
museums. The process of drawing out tubes
is an interesting one. The workman, having
gathered a lump of glass on the end of a
blowpipe, expands it into a globular form with
very thick walls. Another workman having

attached a punty to the opposite end, the two
men separate from each other as quickly as
possible, thus elongating the glass into a tube.
The globe immediately contracts across the
centre, which, being drawn out to the size of
the tube desired, cools, so that the hotter and
softer portions next yield in their dimensions,
and so on until a tube of 100 ft. or more hangs
between the men. It is kept constantly ro-
tating in the hands, and is straightened as it
cools and sets by placing it on the ground. It
is cut into suitable lengths while hot by taking
hold of it with cold tongs. The diameter of the
bore retains its proportion to the thickness of
the glass ; hence thin tubes must be drawn from
globes blown to large size, or from small ones
containing very little metal. In producing
canes the glass is drawn out without being
blown. Tubes thus drawn out from colored
glass are converted into beads by other curious
processes. This branch of the manufacture is
extensively practised at Murano. The tubes
are drawn out 150 ft. in length, and to the
diameter of a goose quill, those for the smallest
beads by the workmen receding from each
other at a pretty rapid trot. The tubes are cut
into lengths of about 27 in. and assorted for
size and color. Women or boys then take sev-
eral together in the left hand, and run them on
the face of an anvil up to a certain measure,
and with a blunt steel edge break off the ends
all of the same length, which is commonly
about twice the diameter of the tubes ; the bits
fall into a box. These are next worked about
in a moistened mixture of wood ashes and sand,
with which the cylindrical pieces become filled ;
and they are then introduced with more sand
into a hollow cylindrical vessel, which is placed
in a furnace and made to revolve. The glass
softens, but the paste within the bits prevents
their sides from being compressed; they be-
come spherical, and their edges are smoothed
and polished by the friction. When taken from
the fire and cleaned from the sand, they are
ready to be put up for the market. The Vene-

GLASS

FIG. 16. Manufacture of Filigree Glass.

tian filigree glass, which consists of spirally
twisted white and colored enamel glasses cased
in transparent glass, is much used for the stems
of wine glasses, goblets, &c. ; and when ar-
ranged side by side in alternate colors, it is
manufactured into tazzas, vases, and other

ornamental articles. In making this kind of
glass, pieces of plain, colored, or opaque white
cane, of uniform length, are arranged on end,
the different colors alternating, around the in-
terior of a cylindrical mould. The selection
and the arrangement of colors depend upon
the taste of the manufacturer. The mould and
the pieces having been subjected to a moder-
ate heat, a solid ball of transparent flint glass,
attached to the end of a blowpipe or punty,
is placed within the mould, the various canes
forming an external coating to the glass, to
which they become welded. The ball is now
taken from the mould, reheated, and marvered
till the adhering canes are rolled into one uni-
form mass. This being covered with a gath-
ering of clear glass, the lump thus formed,
with the ornamental work in the interior, may
be drawn into canes of any size and presenting
either the natural or the spiral arrangement ; the
latter being effected by the workmen rotating
the glass in opposite directions while drawing
it out into a cane. By variously arranging
the colors in this process, and by skilful manip-
ulations, many wonderful and ingenious effects
are produced. Beautiful vases are also made
by the above process, the glass when prepared
being blown into that form instead of being
drawn into canes. The mille-Jiori consists of
a variety of ends of variously colored tubes,
cut in the form of lozenges, which, having been
arranged to represent flowers or other orna-
mental design, are enveloped and massed to-
gether with transparent glass. The lump is
then worked into the required form, a very
common one being hemispherical for use as
paper weights. Portraits and even watches
and barometers have been represented in the
interior of glass ; but in this case these articles
and the glass have not formed a homogeneous
mass, the former being arranged in a cavity
of the latter. Mosaic glass is produced by ar-
ranging vertically side by side threads or small
canes of variously colored opa"que or trans-
parent glass, of uniform lengths, so that the
ends shall form a ground representing flow-
ers, arabesques, or any mosaic design. This
mass is now submitted to a heat sufficient to
fuse the whole, all the sides at the same time
being pressed together so as to exclude the
air from the interstices of the threads. The
result is a homogeneous solid cane or cylinder,
which, being cut at right angles or laterally,
yields a number of layers or copies of the same
uniform design. This process was practised
with great skill by the ancients, who are sup-
posed to have produced pictures in this way ;
but in existing specimens, the pieces have been
so accurately united by intense heat or other-
wise, that the junctures cannot even be dis-
covered by a powerful magnifying glass. Vitro
di trino represents fine lace work with inter-
secting lines of white enamel or transparent
glass, forming a series of diamond-shaped sec-
tions, each containing an air bubble of uniform
size. In making this, a lump of glass is blown

GLASS

in a mould, around the inner sides of which are
arranged pieces of canes of the required colors,
as described in the case of filigree glass, which,
adhering to the glass, form ribs or flutes on its
external surface. The lump, having been twist-
ed to give the spiral arrangement to the ad-
hering canes, is formed into a conical shape
and opened at the base. This forms the inner
case of the vitro di trino. A corresponding
outer case is formed in the same manner, which
being turned inside out, the projecting canes
appear on the inside of the cup with a reversed
spiral arrangement. One case is now placed
within the other, and both being reheated are
collapsed together, forming uniform air bubbles
between each white enamel-crossed section.
The two cases, thus welded into one, may be
formed into the bowl of a wine glass or other
vessel. Frosted glass, like the preceding, is
one of the few specimens of Venetian work not
made by the ancients ; and although the process
of making it is exceedingly simple, it was con-
sidered a lost art until recently practised at the
Falcon glass works in England. The appear-
ance of irregularly veined, marble-like pro-
jecting dislocations, with intervening fissures,
is produced by immersing the hot glass in cold
water, quickly withdrawing it, reheating the
ball of glass, and simultaneously expanding it
by blowing. Cameo incrustation is also of

FIG. 17. Cameo Incrustation.

modern origin, having been first introduced
by the Bohemians. The figure intended for
incrustation must be made of materials requi-
ring a higher degree of heat for their fusion
than the glass to be used. The figure, having
been heated, is introduced into a cylindrical-
shaped piece of glass, attached at one end to
a blowpipe and open at the other. The open
end is then closed, leaving the figure in the
interior of the hollow pocket. The air is now
exhausted through the hollow tube, which pro-
duces a collapse and causes the glass and figure
to form into a homogeneous mass. In making
" paper weights," thin sections of little orna-
mented rods are placed in a circular iron

mould or bed, in the form of the required de-
sign. A workman presses a piece of hot glass
on the end of a punty into the mould and takes
up the design. Then another workman drops
a piece of hot glass on the opposite side of the
design. The whole is now taken to the fur-
nace, where the parts are welded into a hemi-
spherical form, which magnifies the interior de-
sign and presents a fine picture enclosed within
the transparent setting. In making spun glass,
the workman heats one end of a tube of glass,
white or colored, by the flame of a lamp, and
seizing the softened end with a pair of pincers
draws out a long thread. Owing to the extreme
ductility of glass, these threads can be drawn
to an extraordinary fineness and length. In
some cases spun glass has been made to imitate
the hair of animals. Among the most valuable
treatises on the subject of glass are " Curiosities
of Glass Making," by Apsley Pellatt (London,
1849), and Guide du verrier, by G. Bontemps
(Paris, 1868), both of these authors having
been for many years extensively engaged in
the manufacture of glass. Among other works
are those of Neri, "The Art of Glass" (trans-
lated, London, 1662); Shaw, " The Chemistry
of Porcelain, Glass, and Pottery" (London,
1837) ; Henry Chance, " On the Manufacture
of Crown and Sheet Glass" (London, 1856),
and "On the Manufacture of Glass" (1868);
Peligot, I? Art de la verrerie (Paris, 1862);
Turgan, Les grandes mines de Prance (Paris,
1862-'70) ; Cochin, La manufacture des glaces
de Saint- Gobain de 1665 a 1865 (Paris, 1865) ;
Gaflield, "Action of Sunlight on Glass," re-
printed from the " American Journal of Sci-
ence and Arts " (New Haven, 1867) ; Sauzay,
La verrerie (Paris, 1868), and " Wonders of
Glass Making in all Ages " (London and New
York, 1870) ; and Rapports du jury interna-
tional of the Paris universal exposition of 1867,
vol. cxi. (Paris, 1868).

GLASS, Soluble, or Water Glass, an artificial sili-
cate of soda or potash, or a double silicate of
both these alkalies. It may be formed by fusing
8 or 10 parts of dry carbonate of soda or pot-
ash with 15 parts of white sand or powdered
quartz or flint. Nearly all glass is to a slight
extent soluble in water, in consequence of the
alkaline matter it contains ; and the solubility
is increased by raising the temperature of the
water, which under pressure may be carried
far above the boiling point. Water holding
caustic alkalies in solution will attack glass
vessels containing it in consequence of the for-
mation of a soluble alkaline silicate. It is to
this quality of solubility that feldspar ordina-
rily owes its value as a fertilizing ingredient
of the soil ; and it is from the affinity of caustic
lime for silica that it may be used for libera-
ting the alkali in the feldspar. Attention was
first directed to soluble glass by Fuchs as a
suitable composition for rendering combustible
bodies fire-proof; and in 1824 portions of the
new theatre in Munich were coated with it.
He also employed it in the style of fresco paint-

GLASSITES

ng called stereochromy, for fixing the colors
see FBESCO PAINTING); and it was used not
mly upon plastered walls, but with success
>y Echter directly upon the sandstone of the
Strasburg minster. Fuchs proposed to render
wood fire-proof, and even linen also, by means
>f it ; to protect surfaces from the action of
he weather; to prepare with it artificial stone;
and to use it as a cement for glass and porce-
lain. But it appears to have been most suc-
cessfully applied by Prof. Kuhlmann at Lille,
who employed it to prevent the decay of walls
and edifices, even when built of very inferior
stone, and in print works and tapestry facto-
ries for fixing colors upon cotton and paper.
In England it is employed in the fabrication of
the celebrated Kansome artificial stone, de-
scribed in the article CONCRETE and in Dr.
F. A. P. Barnard's report of the Paris univer-
sal exposition of 1867. Soluble glass is also
employed by Baerle and co. of Worms for
washing wool. Forty parts of water are mixed
with one of soluble glass at a temperature of
from 122 to 135 F., and the wool is stirred in
the mixture for a few minutes. It is then rinsed
in tepid water, when it is found perfectly clean,
white, and odorless, without having lost any
of its softness or other valuable qualities.
GLASSITES. See SANDEMANIANS.
GLASS PAINTING. The art of painting upon
glass is supposed to be of Byzantine origin,
and to have arisen since the beginning of the
Christian era. The first authentic account of
the subject is given in the Diversarum Artium
Schedula, a work written by Theophilus, prob-
ably in the 12th century, though by some au-
thorities its date is assigned to the 10th. The
complete description given in this treatise of
the process of painting on glass justifies the
conclusion that the art itself must have been
invented at a much earlier period ; but the
oldest specimens now existing do not date
further back than the 'beginning of the llth
century. Indeed, the oldest existing specimens
to which a date can with certainty be assigned
has been considered by M. de Lasteyrie and
other French antiquaries to be the windows in
the cathedrals at Angers and St. Denis, which
were painted about the middle of the 12th
century. The skill of the French painters on
glass was extolled by Theophilus, and to the
present time France has continued to be the
richest storehouse of painted glass of the
earliest style. The process described by The-
ophilus continued to be practised until about
the middle of the 16th century, when the art
reached its zenith. The most eminent painters
practised it, as Albert Dtirer, Bernard Palissy,
and others, and their works are still admired
in the churches of that period, as the Cologne
cathedral, York minster, and many others.
But in the next century the art had entirely
declined, for the reason, as Labarte suggests in
his "Illustrated Handbook," that its intention
was perverted in the transformation of an art
of purely monumental decoration into an art

GLASS PAINTING

of expression. For this oil painting possessed
greater resources, and glass painting necessarily
fell into neglect. In some modern attempts
it is remarked that the primary object of the
glass in transmitting light appears to be over-
looked and sacrificed in the opaque shadows
introduced. In the ancient glass pictures the
figures were formed of pieces of stained glass,
and the shadows were laid on with dark
colors and fixed in the fire. Intense colors
were exclusively employed, the ruby and blue
always predominant. The ground was mosaic
in circles, squares, and lozenges, of massive
forms, and filled with foliated ornaments in the
Roman style. Over this were medallions rep-
resenting historical and biographical subjects
from the lives of the saints. When figures
came to be introduced, they were generally
grotesque and distorted ; but the costumes
were remarkably correct. The designs always
harmonized with the style of architecture,
stately and magnificent in the Norman struc-
tures, and light and elegant in those of the
early English models in the 13th century. In
these the brilliant positive colors were made
more subsidiary, appearing in borders, geo-
metric bands, and central points, while the
ground was of a neutral gray produced by
lines crossing each other at right angles. The
designs were also more correctly drawn, and
shaded with greater delicacy. For the violet
tint always before used for the faces of the
figures was substituted a gray or brown upon
colorless glass. The pieces of glass were of
larger size, and a single figure was often made
to occupy a whole window, standing beneath
an elaborate blue or red canopy. In the back-
ground, among the architectural fragmentary
designs, still appeared the old Roman foliated
ornaments, but intermixed with original stud-
ies from nature, a style of the art which was af-
terward carried to great perfection. Not only
leaves, plants, and trees, but even landscapes
and buildings in perspective, appeared in the
latter half of the 15th century. The Scripture
pieces were often explained by legends painted
upon the phylacteries, and in the background
were represented rich blue or red hangings of
damask. After a long decline, the 1 9th century
has witnessed a revival in the art of painting
on glass, which is now extensively practised in
France, Germany, and England, the finest speci-
mens being produced at Munich. In earlier
periods it was devoted chiefly to ornamenting
cathedral windows with sacred illustrations,
but it is now used for general purposes of orna-
mentation, embracing a wide range of secular
subjects. The belief in the superiority of an-
cient glass painting, which was even regarded
by some as one of the lost arts, has been super-
seded by the opinion held by the highest au-
thorities that painted glass can now be manu-
factured superior to the best specimens of the
middle ages. Indeed, the processes then in use
have been brought to light by modern research.
In 1850 a series of chemical analyses was in-

GLASS PAINTING

stitutod by Mr. C. Winston of England, who
during his life made the subject of painted
tfla^ in its antiquarian aspects a special study,
jiinl tlio earliest specimens were carefully ana-
lyzed. The results reached made it eay to re-
produce both the quality and the color of the an-
cient glass. Glass painting, which is more prop-
erly a process of staining, differs from all other
styles of pictorial art, except the painting of por-
celain. The colors are different, being wholly
of mineral composition, and are not merely
laid on the outside, but fixed by being fused
into the material, undergoing in the operation
chemical changes that develop the brilliancy
and transparency of which the compounds are
susceptible. The colors are mixed with a flux
of much easier fusion than the glass, and with
some vehicle, as boiled oil or spirits of turpen-
tine. The mixture is usually laid on with a
brush as in ordinary painting ; and the glass
being then exposed to heat, the flux melts and
sinks into the body. None of the clear bright
colors are perceived until the work is com-

Sleted, and the artist consequently labors un-
er great disadvantage in applying the mate-
rials that are to produce them. He is guided
either by lines drawn on the back side, which
show through, or by a cartoon or drawing on
paper placed there. In the early use of glass
for windows, especially those of churches, bril-
liant colors were highly esteemed, and great
success was attained in the methods of color-
ing. A bright red color was imparted by the
ancients with the protoxide of copper. In
later times it was found impracticable to suc-
ceed with this on account of the tendency of
the copper to pass to a peroxide and produce
a green tinge ; but the practice has been again
introduced with success by the Tyne company
in England, at Ohoisy in Franco, and in other
places. The discovery of the preparation of
gold and tin, called purple of Cassius, also af-
forded another means of producing a brilliant
red. In the history of the art two leadidg
processes have been prominent. From the
earliest period until about the middle of the
16th century the method described by Tho-
ophilus and known as the mosaic system pre-
vailed. In this process the glass was colored in
the manufacture, and blocks of different colors
having been brought together, the. outlines and
shading of the design were produced by the ap-
plication of an enamel color. About the time
incut ioiu-il it was discovered that all colors be-
sides yellow, brown, and light red, which had
previously been imparted by this method, could
be given to glass by moans of the enamel pro-
cess; but the works produced by this method
were greatly inferior to those by the mosaic sys-
tem. There has been a spirited controversy
between the advocates of the German method
of glass painting, in which enamel is used, and
the English glass painters, who avoid the use
of enamel as far as possible, as it sometimes
scales off. It seems to be conceded that the
beauty of the cathedral glass of the 18th and

14th centuries was in the brilliancy of the
glass and the skilful arrangement of designs
and colors, and not in any enamel work. The
ordinary method of glass painting, as prac-
tised in England, is to use for the colored parts
of the design pieces o^ glass differently colored
in the process of manufacture, and to employ
only one enamel color, brown, for tracing the
outlines and painting the shadows of the pic-
ture upon the glass. The enamel brown, like
any other enamel color, consists of coloring
matter mixed with pulverized glass, called flux
or enamel. When this is laid on the surface of
the glass and heated in an oven or furnace, it
melts, in consequence of being more fusible,
while the glass is merely at a red heat; on be-
ing cooled it hardens and produces a perma-
nent color on the surface of the glass. The
general colors of the design, 'therefore, are not
produced by the painter, but by the glass ma-
ker; the former, as has been stated, using
pieces of glass already colored. The only ex-
ception to this is in the case of yellow, which
is produced on the glass by applying a " stain,"
the principal ingredient of which is oxide or
chloride of silver. On being exposed to the
action of a red heat, the yellow stain penetrates
the glass and imparts to it its tint, the prepa-
ration of silver being afterward brushed off.
This process was discovered in the early part
of the 14th century, and has been used to im-
part a yellow tint to uncolored and most kinds
of colored glass. The various tints of yellow
are the only ones that can be produced on glass
without altering its surface. By putting on a
second or third coating of the silver oxide and
burning in, orange and red stained glasses are
produced. The process of producing a paint-
ed glass window is an interesting one. The
artist first makes an outline on a small scale of
the stone work of the window, within which
ho sketches the design, indicating the colors
to be used and the general treatment of the
subject. A full-sized drawing or cartoon is
next made, from which a "cutting drawing"
is traced, showing the lines where the strips
of lead are to go, and omitting all other de-
tails. On this latter drawing, on which the
colors of the design are indicated by outlines,
the pieces of different colored glass are laid
and cut with a diamond, each piece being cut
out of that particular color or tint required.
The artist now arranges the pieces of different
colors in their proper places on the cartoon,
and traces the outline of the design upon them.
On being heated in an oven, the opaque lines
vitrify and are formed indelibly on the surface
of the glass. After the outlines have been
thus "burnt" on, the glass is taken again to
the painter, who covers the cartoon with a
sheet of colorless glass, or if large a portion of
it at a time. Thus having the cartoon for a
guide, he arranges in their proper places on
the sheet of colorless glass the pieces on which
the outlines have been traced, and secures
them firmly with drops of melted resin and

GLASS PAINTING

GLASS SNAKE

beeswax, or other suitable substance. The
sheet of colorless glass, with the pieces thus ar-
ranged adhering to it, is placed upon an easel,
and the shadows of the picture are put on with
the same material as that used in tracing the
outlines. The shading, however, is not traced
from the cartoon, as were the outlines, but is
done by the skill and experience of the painter.
When the shading is completed, and the tints
of yellow, if any are required, are put on, the
pieces of glass are detached from the colorless
sheet and again subjected to heat, for the pur-
pose of " burning in " the shadows. If more
work by the painter is required, the process is
repeated, the glass being thus subjected to heat
in some instances six or seven times. The
work of the painter being completed, the fin-
ished pieces are taken by the "leader," who,
having arranged them by the aid of the " cut-
ting drawing" so as to form the entire design,
fastens them together by means of strips of
grooved lead skilfully fitted around the edges
of the several pieces. If the window is a largo
one, as is generally the case, it is divided into
parts of convenient size, which are fitted to-
gether when the window is put in its place.
Bars of iron are also sometimes placed across
the window at the line of junction and at other
convenient intervals. This general process of
producing mosaic stained glass windows has
been in use from the earliest times, though it
may have been modified in some of its details;
and until some other method of imparting
colors to glass without detracting from its
transparency and brilliancy is discovered, the
opaque lead lines in the design must be accept-
ed as a necessity. In his "Art of Glass Paint-
ing," Mr. 0. Winston says: "The necessity
of leading :i glass painting together is one of
those conditions which cannot be evaded by
any ingenuity. The lead work and saddle bars
must be accepted as necessary parts of the
composition. The design must be made with
reference to them, and that glass painting must
be acknowledged to be the best which admits
of the leads being thrown into the outlines,
and made to serve as outlines ; and which by
the simplicity, I might almost say roughness,
of its design and execution, prevents the harsh-
ness of the saddle bars from being obtrusive.
In this respect the glass paintings prior to 1560,
and until the 18th century, must be considered
superior to those later works in which the at-
tempt has been made to ignore the leads and
saddle bars, by leading the work together in
squares independently of the outlines of the
composition, or by twisting the saddle bars so
as to avoid their cutting the design at regular
intervals; because both methods immediately
suggest the idea of a blemished picture, and
make us immediately perceive how much bet-
ter the work would be without loads or saddle
bars.. But a window cannot be constructed
without them; hence it is better to adopt
them us essential parts of the design; and the
beautiful windows of the choir of this [Lich-

field] cathedral, which bear date between 1632
and 1589, show that a design so constituted is
compatible with high pictorial effect." An-
other condition which must be particularly ob-
served is the preservation of transparency in
the highest degree consistent with the pro-
duction of a picture. For this purpose the
high lights of the window must be as free
from shading as possible. Indeed, light shading
throughout the entire design is one of the con-
ditions imposed by the nature of the material.
These conditions were fully recognized by the
artists of the middle of the IGth century, and
this fact accounts largely for the superiority
of their productions to those of their prede-
cessors. In the best glass paintings of that pe-
riod there is always an abundance of light in
the upper portion of the window, while in the
choice of subjects and their general treatment
the artist selected those that could be made
the most effective with the least shading.
Among numerous works on this subject are :
Lasteyrie, Histoire de la peinture sur verre
d^apres des monument en France (2 vols., Paris,
1838-'5G); Gessert, OescMcJite der Glasmalerei
(Stuttgart, 1889); Ballantino, "Treatise on
Painted Glass " (London and Edinburgh, 1845) ;
Bontemps, Peinture sur verre au dix-neu-
vieme si&cle (Paris, 1845) ; Weale, " Ancient
Painted and Stained Glass" (London, 1846);
Winston, " Inquiry into the Difference of
Stylo observable in Ancient Glass Paintings,
especially in England, with Hints on Glass
Painting" (London, 1847), and "An Introduc-
tion to the Study of Painted Glass " (Oxford,
1849) ; Warrington, " History of Stained Glass "
(London, 1848); Fromberg, "An Essay on the
Art of Painting on Glass" (London, 1851);
Bielfeld, " A Guide to Painting on Glass " (Lon-
don, 1856); and Winston, "Memoirs illustra-
tive of the Art of Glass Painting" (1865).

GLASS SNAKE (ophisaurus ventralis, Daud.),
a North American reptile, improperly called a
snake, belonging to the order sauropJiidia of
Gray, and to the chalcidian or cyclosaurian

Glass Snake (Ophisaurus vcn trails).

family of saurians of Dum6ril and Bibron. The
head is lizard-like, sub-oval, with rounded
snout, covered above with numerous polygonal
plates, largo anteriorly, the frontal the largest;

GLASS SNAKE

the tongue arrow-shaped, triangularly grooved
in front, free in its anterior extremity, on
which the papillae are granular; the nostrils
are near the snout, lateral, opening upward;
the eyes are small, protected by two movable
unequal lids ; there are several rows of short
conical teeth, about 36 in number, on the roof
of the mouth, chiefly on the pterygoid bones ;
the intermaxillary teeth are conical, the max-
illary simple and nearly cylindrical, about 40
in all above and 36 below ; the external ear is
a small oval opening just behind the angle of
the mouth. There is no distinct neck; the
body is elongated and snake-like, covered with
small, smooth, slightly imbricated scales, dis-
posed in circles around the body, about 120 in
number ; there is no vestige of anterior or pos-
terior limbs externally, and only their rudiments
internally ; there is a deep groove separating
the sides of the body from the abdomen, most
visible during respiration, and which doubtless
affords the free movements of the ends of the
ribs necessary for progression. The tail forms
at least two thirds of the total length, round,
and tapering gradually to the tip, covered with
about 140 rings of scales. Though the shape
of this reptile is snake-like, the movable lids,
external auditory openings, less movable verte-
brae, less extensile tongue, rudimentary ster-
num, and above all the consolidation of the
bones of the skull and jaws, sufficiently show
its saurian affinities. The length varies from
2 to 3 ft. The head above is mottled with
black and green, with a yellowish tinge on the
jaws ; the body and tail above are marked
with longitudinal and transverse lines of black,
green, and yellow, each scale marked with
these three colors; the under surface is yel-
lowish, brightest on the abdomen ; some slight
varieties of color are described. It is found on
the Atlantic coast from southern Virginia to
Florida, and as far west as the Mississippi, Mis-
souri, and Ohio rivers ; it has been seen west
of the Alleghanies as far north as Michigan.
From the smallness of its gape it cannot de-
stroy and swallow large prey, like the serpents ;
it cannot climb nor swim, but passes its life on
the surface of dry places or in natural cavities
in the ground, living principally on mollusks,
insects, annelids, and other small animals, and
perhaps also partly on vegetable food like the
sweet potato. It can move with considerable
speed, and is taken uninjured with difficulty
on account of the ease with which the joints
of the tail are separated; the name of glass
snake was given on account of this extreme
fragility. The breaking of the tail into small
pieces in this and in some scincoid reptiles
seems to be the result of a reflex action in the
spinal cord, as an irritation of this nervous cen-
tre will cause a separation even after the tail
is divided from the body. Dr. Burnett (" Pro-
ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory," vol. iv., p. 223) ascertained that the cau-
dal muscles in this reptile do not pass from one
vertebra to another, but that a portion are in-

GLASS SPONGE

serted into the skin, while others terminate mid-
way between one vertebra and the next, dove-
tailed as it were between the fibres sent from
that vertebra, and attached to them only by
the myolemma; so that there is no rupture of
muscular fibres, but only a separation of one
layer of muscles from the adjoining one, when
the tail of the animal is broken ; the detached
portion is said to be reproduced in a year. The
glass snake in its anatomical peculiarities resem-
bles the chalcidian amphisbaena and the scin-
coid blindworm (anguis fragilis).

GLASS SPONGE, or Glass Rope, a silicious sponge
of the genus hyalonema (Gray) ; the name may
also be properly applied to other allied genera,
and especially to the euplectella, which will be
described under VENUS'S FLOWER-BASKET. This
sponge was first described and named by Dr.
J. E. Gray, of the British museum, in 1835 ;
he regarded it as a coral allied to the sea fans
(gorgonia), an opinion to which he still adheres,
against what seems to be an overwhelming
mass of evidence. As usually seen, this sponge
consists of a loosely twisted bundle of glassy
threads, diverging at one end and converging
at fhe other, which is more or less covered with
a brown crust, studded with wart-like cylin-
drical elevations, terminating in radiating ridges.
The threads are mainly composed of silex, and
are shining, translucent, and very flexible ; the
fascicle varies from 12 to 20 in. in length, and
is about half an inch thick, the threads ranging
from the size of a bristle to that of a knitting
needle. The wart-like elevations are generally
regarded as polyps, of the genus palythoa, con-
tinuous throughout the crust, of which Dr.
Gray considers the fascicle the central axis.
The convergent end, in its natural state, is en-
veloped in a spongy mass, the fascicle on which
Dr. Gray regarded as a parasite. The opinions
of scientific men since Gray have been various.
Prof. Brandt of St. Petersburg considered the
sponge a parasite attaching itself to the polyp
mass and gradually destroying it. Dr. Bower-
bank regards all the structures above named
as parts of one sponge, the wart-like elevations
being the oscula. Prof. Schultze of Bonn rep-
resents the fascicle and the sponge mass as
belonging together, the warty crust being re-
ferred to the polyp palythoa. Ehrenberg re-
gards the fascicle as an artificial product of
Japanese industry, and all sponges as of vege-
table nature. In 1867 Prof. Loven described
a little, stalked, deep-sea sponge from the coast
of Norway, the H. boreale, which led him and
naturalists since to the belief that this sponge
had been represented upside down; in fact,
that the glassy threads were below, mooring
the structure to the sand, mud, or weeds, the
sponge mass forming the upper portion ; an
opinion which Dr. Leidy in 1870 modified by
suggesting that this sponge may be suspended
by its glassy cable, thinking it highly improba-
ble that it should be attached by or rest upon
the base where the large oscula are placed.
All agree that there is a sponge mass attached

GLASS SPONGE

GLAUBER

to this compound animal, as the microscopic
structure of the threads is perfectly character-
istic of sponge spicules ; their silicious charac-
ter shows that they are not formed by polyps ;
the sponge mass at the upper end consists of
an elegant tissue of dense
masses of very short si-
licious spicules, forming
a kind of felt ; the ter-
minal sponge is more or
less cup-shaped, with an
open conical central cav-
ity. All but Dr. Bower-
bank admit a parasite,
the question being wheth-
er the polyp is a para-
site on the sponge, or the
sponge a parasite on the
polyp. The characters of
hyalonema will be best
understood from the an-
nexed figure. H. mira-
lile or Sieboldi is found
in the seas around Japan,
near Yokohama ; H. Lu-
sitanicum was found by
Prof. Bocage of Lisbon
off the coast of Portu-
gal ; II. ~boreale, accord-
ing to Wyville Thomp-
son not belonging to this
genus but to a corticate
type, was found by Prof.
Loven on the coast of
Norway ; and this or an
allied species has late-
ly been dredged on the
northern part of our own
coast. Other glass sponges
are ffoltenia, figured in
the "American Natural-
ist" for July, 1873, and
pheronema and rossella,
figured in the " Popular
Science Monthly " for
September, 1873. Where
men like Gray, Bow-
erbank, Brandt, and
Schultze entertain such
different opinions, after
the examination of hun-
dreds of specimens, du-
ring a period of nearly
40 years, it is certainly
very difficult to decide
whether hyalonema be
wholly a sponge, or
which, if either, the
sponge or the polyp, ia
the parasite. Dr. Leidy,
in the "American Natu-
ralist" for March, 1870, alludes to a specimen,
very much like one in the possession of the
writer of this article, in which the fascicle ap-
pears to have been withdrawn from the sponge
and lain for some time in the sea ; a shark's

egg is also attached near the top, and the
tendrils of others are partially imbedded in
the crust, which has no warty elevations ; this
seems to favor Dr. Bowerbank's opinion that
the whole is a sponge, and that the crust is
not made by a polyp.

GLASTONBURY, a market town and parish of
Somersetshire, England, 25 m. S. W. of Bath ;
pop. in 1871, 3,670. The town occupies a pen-
insula, formerly an island (Avalon), in the
river Brue. It derives its interest and im-
portance almost wholly from its ruins, promi-
nent among which are those of a famous Bene-
dictine abbey, founded, it is said, by St. Augus-
tin in 605, rebuilt in great splendor about a
century later, and enriched by the liberality
of successive princes until the time of Ethelred
I. It suffered from the Danes, and before the
conquest, when the Normans robbed it of both
wealth and influence, had gained considerable
importance and celebrity. Its half ruined walls
were rebuilt by Stephen and Henry II., and
its abbot was honored with a mitre and a seat
among the barons in parliament. At one time
it was annexed to the see of Wells, the incum-
bent of which was called bishop of Glaston-
bury. On the suppression of monasteries by
Henry VIII. it enjoyed a revenue of 3,508
13*. 4d. In 1539 Richard Whiting, the last
abbot, for refusing to surrender the abbey to
the king, was hanged in his robes on Torhill
with two of his monks. The abbey ruins, con-
sisting of portions of the church, the chapel of
St. Joseph of Arimathea, and a building called
the abbot's kitchen, are comprised in a quad-
rangle of 60 acres, which was once encom-
passed by a high wall. A reputation for sanc-
tity clung to Glastonbury long after the refor-
mation, and as late as 1751 10,000 invalids
flocked hither in a single month, to drink from
a spring said to cause miraculous cures.

GLATZ, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 52 m.
S. W. of Breslau ; pop. in 1871, 11,541. The
town is defended by an old citadel, a modern
fortress, and other works. It manufactures
cotton fabrics, leather, and hosiery, and has a
Roman Catholic gymnasium, a hospital, infir-
mary, and barracks. It was fortified as early
as the llth century, and has sustained numer-
ous sieges. It was taken in the beginning of
the thirty years' war by the Protestants, capit-
ulated in 1622 to the imperial troops, and in
1742 to the Prussians. The territory of Glatz
was made a county of the empire in the latter
part of the 15th century by the emperor Fred-
erick III., and subsequently formed a part of
the Austrian dominions, until occupied by
Frederick the Great in 1742. A part of the
Sudetic mountains is often designated by the
name of Glatzer Gebirge.

GLAUBER, Johann Rudolf, a German chemist,
born in Karlstadt in 1604, died in Amsterdam
in 1668. He was a physician and alchemist,
boasted of wonderful secrets, and was called
the Paracelsus of his age. He passed his life

GLAUBER'S SALT

In his laboratory, successively at Salzburg,
Frankfort, Cologne, and Amsterdam, first ex-
hibited the production of artificial salts, and
discovered the salt to which his name is given.
He wrote voluminously on chemistry and al-
chemy, and his works were translated into
English by C. Packe (London, 1689).

U.U Bl'it'S SALT, sulphate of soda, found na-
tive, and produced artificially. The artificial
salt was named from its discoverer (see above),
who obtained it in making muriatic acid. The
natural suit is usually met with as an efflores-
cence, sometimes deposited around hot springs,
as at Carlsbad and Cheltenham, or about saline
ponds, as in the country between the head wa-
ters of the Arkansas and Santa Fe, on the route
to the Rocky mountains. It also occurs in a
cavern near a volcano on the island of Hawaii,
where it is produced by the action of the vol-
canic heat and gases upon the sea water. It is
found as an efflorescence on the limestone rocks
below the Genesee falls, Rochester, N. Y. It
crystallizes in forms derived from an oblique
rhombic prism. The crystals effloresce in the
air, and lose their water of crystallization. It
is most soluble in water at the temperature of
98*2 F., when, according to the experiments
of Lowel, 412-22 parts of the hydrated salt are
dissolved by 100 of water; at 77 only 98-48
parts are taken up, and at 68, 68*35 parts.

.It has a taste cool at first, then saline
and bitter. It is white, transparent to opaque,
<>f vitreous lustre, of hardness from 1'5 to 2,
and specific gravity 1-481. Its composition is
represented by the formula NaO, SO. + 10HO,
making its equivalent 161, and the percentage
of water . r ).V7'i. It is artificially prepared by
decomposing common salt by sulphuric acid
(as in the preparation of hydrochloric acid, of
which pnxv^ it is the residue), with an excess
of acid, which is taken up by the addition of
carbonate of lime. It is very largely manufac-
tured in England and France in order to pre-
pare from it carbonate of soda and soda ash ;
to avoid the production of muriatic acid, a pro-
cess has been introduced of making the salt
by the reaction of common salt and sulphate
of iron upon each other. It is also obtained
as a residuum in the manufacture of bleaching
salts, muriate of ammonia, &c., and from sea
water, by exposing the water to intense cold,

:his the least soluble salt, separates by
crystallizing. Sulphate of soda is principally
of value as a medium for obtaining the other
talts of soda. Formerly it was much used in
medicine as an aperient and diuretic ; but sul-

of magnesia has taken its place, though

11 sometimes used in small doses in com-

:i with other drugs. By dissolving it

in hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid, cold

is prodiiivl. by which water may be frozen in

' 1 wine coolers have been made

designed for its use, in which, with 12 Ibs. of

the salt and lo Ibs. of m-id, lo to 12 Ibs. of ice

een formed in an Imur. The salt is an
ingredient in some kinds of glass.

GLEIG

GLAUCHAU, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Zwickau, 15 m. W. of Chemnitz; pop. in
1871, 22,036. It contains an old and extensive
castle and several churches. Next to Chem-
nitz it is the most important manufacturing
town of Saxony. The staple articles made here
are woollen and half- woollen goods, paper, and
engines. The annual exports exceed in value
$15,000,000. Glauchau has 12,000 looms, and
employs many persons in neighboring localities.
The population has almost quadrupled within
the last 40 years, and the number of master
workmen has increased from 300 in 1804 to
more than 2,000 in 1874.

GLAUCUS. I. Of Potniffi, the grandson of
^Eolus, son of Sisyphus and Merope, and father
of Bellerophon. To make his mares more
swift and fierce, he prevented them from breed-
ing, and, according to some, fed them upon
human flesh. This incensed the gods, and
especially Aphrodite ; and when Glaucus took
part with his chariot and horses in the funeral
games of Pelias at lolcus, the horses in mad-
ness upset the chariot, and, according to some,
tore Glaucus to pieces. He was afterward
believed to haunt the isthmus of Corinth, and
to frighten horses engaged in the race. One of
the lost tragedies of ^Eschylus was named from
him. II. Of Anthedon in Bceotia, a fisherman
who ate of the divine herb planted by Saturn,
and became immortal. He built the ship Argo,
and was her steersman. In the sea fight against
the Tyrrhenians, he alone was unhurt; he
leaped overboard, sank to the bottom, and be-
came a sea divinity. He was said to visit the
coast of Greece annually, and was revered by
fisherman and sailors. His many loves were
a favorite subject with poets. Aristotle says
that he delivered oracles at Delos, which by
some were more esteemed than those of
Apollo. Philistratus describes a statue of him,
half man and half fish. He was often repre-
sented on the stage by the Greek dramatists.

GLEIG, George Robert, a Scottish author, born
in Stirling, April 20, 1796. He abandoned his
studies at Oxford to join as a volunteer a regi-
ment going to Spain in 1813, and served both in
the Peninsula and in America. On retiring from
the army he resumed his studies at Oxford,
took his degree, was ordained, and in 1844
was appointed chaplain to Chelsea hospital,
and in 1846 chaplain general to the forces.
His exertions to establish a system of educa-
tion for the soldiers gained for him the office
of inspector general of military schools. His
works are for the most part histories or novels.
Of the former, "The Family History of Ens-
land" (1836; 2d ed., 1854) and the "Military
History of Great Britain" (1845) are most es-
teemed; and of the latter, "The Subaltern"
(1825), "Chelsea Pensioners" (1829), and
" Country Curate " (1834). His eulogistic " Me-
moir of Warren Hastings" (1841) has been se-
verely criticised. In 1858 he collected two
volumes of his "Essays," chiefly from the
"Edinburgh" and " Quarterly " reviews, and

GLEIM

1859 published his chief work, a life of the
duke of Wellington (new ed., 1862).

GLEIM, Johann Wilhelm Lndwig, a German
poet, born at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt,
April 2, 1719, died in the latter town, Feb. 18,
1803. He published odes, fables, tales, and
songs, which obtained for him the title of the
German Anacreon. His Siegeslied nach der
ScJilacht bei BossbacJi is the most famous of his
battle songs. Gleim was very popular in Ger-
many, and exercised for about 40 years a mas-
ter influence on literature. He was a bachelor,
but his home, kept by his accomplished niece
Sophie Dorothea Gleim (celebrated in his songs
under the name of Gleminde), was a favorite
resort of poets and scholars. An edition of
his works (7 vols., Halberstadt, 1811-'13) was
completed by an 8th volume (Leipsic, 1841).

GLEIWITZ, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the
Klodnitz, 40 m. S. E. of Oppeln; pop. in 1871,
12,939. It has a Catholic gymnasium, a Prot-
estant and two Catholic churches, a synagogue,
a convent, a hospital, and barracks, and is the
centre of the mining and smelting industry of
upper Silesia.

GLENCOE, one of the wildest and most gloomy
of the Scottish glens, in the district of Lorn,
Argyleshire, about 10 m. long, and enclosed by
lofty mountains. The
lower part of the glen
near Loch Leven is cul-
tivated and wooded, but
the upper part is ex-
ceedingly rugged and
barren, the mountains
rising almost perpen-
dicularly in fantastic
forms, seamed with
deep furrows worn by
the winter torrents. A
small lake, from which
issues the Cona, lies in
the middle of the val-
ley. The path through
the glen is lined by im-
mense masses of rock.
Near its N. W. extrem-
ity is the scene of the
' ' massacre of Glencoe. ' '
After the revolution of
1688 many of the Scot-
tish clans continued in

arms for King James against King William. In
August, 1691, the government of William issued
a proclamation offering an amnesty to such in-
surgents as should take the oath of allegiance
on or before Dec. 31. All the chiefs sub-
mitted within the prescribed time except the
aged Maclan or Macdonald of Glencoe, whose
tribe, a few hundred in number, inhabited this
secluded valley. On Dec. 31 he went to Fort
William and offered to take the oath ; but the
colonel in command, not being a magistrate,
could not administer the oath, and referred the
chief to the sheriff at Inverary, before whom
Macdonald took the oath, on Jan. 6, 1692. The
363 VOL. vin. 3

GLENDOWER

earls of Breadalbane and Argyll, and the mas-
ter of Stair, who were then in London, deter-
mined to avail themselves of this unintentional
delay to effect the destruction of the tribe of
Macdonald, to whom Argyll and Breadalbane
were hereditary enemies. The master of Stair
was secretary of state for Scotland, and by
representing to William that Glencoe had not
submitted, and that the dwellers in the valley,
whom he described as a band of robbers, were
the only remaining obstacle to the complete
pacification of the highlands, he obtained an
order for their extirpation. It was executed
with horrible treachery and cruelty. On Feb. 1
a body of 120 soldiers, commanded by Campbell
of Glenlyon, was sent to occupy Glencoe. Pro-
fessing peace and friendship, they were received
with the kindest hospitality, and for nearly a
fortnight lived at free quarters in the utmost
familiarity with the people. On the evening
of Feb. 12 the officers supped at Macdonald's
house. That same night the massacre was be-
gun. Macdonald and two of his attendants
were murdered, and his wife received such bar-
barous treatment that she died the next day.
About 40 persons were killed that night. De-
tachments of soldiers were sent to guard the
outlets of the valley ; but they arrived too late,

Pass of Glencoe.

and many of the inhabitants escaped half naked
to the mountains, where a considerable num-
ber of the women and children perished of cold
and hunger. In the morning the assassins set
the village on fire, and took away with them
all the flocks and herds of the valley. No pun-
ishment was inflicted on the authors of this
crime. A graphic account of the massacre of
Glencoe is given by Macaulay in his "History
of England," vol. iv., exonerating King Wil-
liam. Other able writers inculpate him, and
the question has been very warmly debated.

GLENDOWER, or Glendwr, Owen, a Welsh chief-
tain, born in Merionethshire about 1349, died

GLENGARRY

Sept. 20, 1415. His father was Gryffydd Vy-
chan, and his mother, Elena, was granddaugh-
ter if Llewellyn, the last Welsh prince of
Wales He studied law at the inns of court in
London and became a barrister, but soon quit-
ted the profession for that of arms. He was
made squire of the body to Richard II., to
whom ho !ulhTed throughout his disastrous
In 1387 he was knighted, and at an
early ago married Margaret, daughter of Sir
David llanmer. After the deposition of Rich-
ard II., he retired to his lordship of Glen-
dwrdwy in Wales. His retirement was wrong-
fully construed into disloyalty to the new king
Henry IV., and his estates were declared for-
feited, and seized by Lord Grey de Ruthyn, an
Anglo-Norman nobleman whose domains ad-
join. d those of Glendower. Glendower then
proclaimed himself prince of Wales, and called
his countrymen to arms. The Welsh bards
espoused the cause of Glendower, and he was
soon at the head of a considerable force of en-
thusiastic partisans. In the summer of 1400 he
seized the estates of Lord Grey. That noble-
man in reprisal, with the help of Lord Talbot,
who had been sent to his assistance by the
king, surprised the residence of Glendower,
who narrowly escaped capture. Rallying his
followers, he pillaged and burned the town of
Ruthyn, and made such progress that the king
in person took the field against him. A long
contest ensued, in the course of which Glen-
dower in 1402 made prisoner his old enemy
Lord Grey, whom he compelled to pay a ran-
som of 10,000 marks and to marry his fourth
daughter, Jane ; he also captured Sir Edward
Mortimer, but treated him with such kindness
that he became Glendower's partisan, and ar-
ranged for him an alliance with the Percys of
Northumberland. The confederates agreed to
divide the kingdom among themselves. Glen-
dower then called together the estates of
Wales, and was formally crowned prince at
Machynlleth. In 1403 the confederates gave
battle to Henry near Shrewsbury, and were de-
feated, Percy being killed. Glendower in 1404
entered into alliance with France, and gained
some victories; but in March, 1405, he was
defeated at Grosmont castle and at Mynydd
pwl Melyn, losing 2,300 men. He wandered
about, hiding himself in woods and caves, until
the French king sent him 12,000 men, to whom
Glendower joined 11,000 Welsh, and marching
into England, penetrated as far as Worcester.
But after several indecisive engagements the
allies retreated into Wales, and shortly after-
ward the French returned to their own coun-
I'or some years Glendower waged a par-
tisan and predatory war, and at the time of his
l.-.ith was negotiating with Sir Gilbert Talbot,
who had been sent by Henry V. to offer him
til followers a free pardon. Glendower
had five daughters and several sons, most or
Jill of whom t'.-il in kittl,- iti 1400.

umctKKY. mi K. county of Ontario, Cana-
da, bordering on Quebec and the river St. Law-

GLOBE

rence: area, 462 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 20,524, of
whom 15,899 were of Scotch, 2,607 of French,
1 279 of Irish, and 509 of English origin. It
is watered by several streams, and is intersected
by the Grand Trunk and the Montreal and Ot-
tawa Junction railroads. Capital, Alexandria.

GLEN'S FALLS, a village of Warren co., New
York, situated on the Hudson river, which is
here crossed by a bridge, at the terminus of a
branch of the Rensselaer and Saratoga railroad,
46 m. N. of Albany ; pop. in 1870, 4,500. The
surrounding country is rugged, and in the vi-
cinity are quarries of black marble. The river,
here flowing through a ravine, descends 50 ft.
over a rocky precipice 900 ft. long. The vil-
lage is connected by a feeder with the Cham-
plain canal, and contains a planing mill, two
saw mills, a tannery, a brewery, a flour mill, a
foundery and machine shop, and manufactories
of carriages, lime, pumps, &c. Elmwood semi-
nary, for the superior instruction of females,
and Glen's Falls academy are flourishing insti-
tutions. There are two national banks, two
weekly newspapers, and six churches.

GLIDDON, George Robins, an American Egyp-
tologist, born in Devonshire, England, in 1809,
died in Panama, Nov. 16, 1857. He went at
an early age to Alexandria, where his father
was a merchant and also United States con-
sul. He resided in Egypt 23 years, and was
during part of the time United States vice con-
sul at Cairo. After leaving Egypt he came to
the United States, and lectured at Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia, on Egyptian antiqui-
ties. At the time of his death he was agent
for the Honduras inter-oceanic railway com-
pany. He was the author of " Appeal to the
Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of
the Monuments of Egypt " (1841) ; " Discourses
on Egyptian Archaeology" (London, 1841);
" Otia jftgyptiaca " (1849) ; " Ancient Egypt "
(4to, London and Philadelphia, 1850; new ed.,
8vo, London, 1853) ; " Types of Mankind,"
written in conjunction with Dr. J. C. Nott and
others (Philadelphia, 1 854) ; " Indigenous Races
of the Earth," also with Dr. Nott and others
(Philadelphia, 1857) ; and an essay on the pro-
duction of cotton in the valley of the Nile.

GLOBE, Artificial, a hollow sphere, on the sur-
face of which is delineated a map of the earth
or heavens, with the various circles to which
points are referred to determine their positions.
Globes are thus of two sorts, terrestrial and
celestial. They serve as models to impart cor-
rect ideas of the form and movements of the
earth and of the heavenly bodies, of their po-
sition in relation to each other at different
times, of the relative positions of places upon
the earth, and of the principle of designating
these by lines of latitude and longitude. Globes
are also applied to the mechanical solution of
various astronomical problems, as the difference
of time in different places, dependent on the
position of the sun in relation to those places,
the times of the rising and setting of the sun at
any place, and many other similar questions,

GLOBE

may be approximately determined with-
out recourse to mathematical calculations. But
it is chiefly for the sake of the clear instruction
in general geography, which many persons fail
to derive from maps, that globes are especially
valuable. It is not known when they were
first constructed ; but the first celestial globe is
supposed to have been made by Anaximander
of Miletus, a pupil of Thales, who flourished in
the 6th century B. C. Ptolemy made use of
a terrestrial globe provided with the universal
meridian, such as is applied to those now in
use. Martin Behaim, the navigator, constructed
a terrestrial globe at Nuremberg toward the
close of the 15th century. Tycho Brahe had
one of copper nearly 5 ft. in diameter. Another
was made in Venice in 1683 for Louis XIV.,
12 ft. in diameter. Another, 11 ft. in diameter,
constructed by Brousch of Limburg, attracted
the attention of Peter the Great, who purchased
it and removed it to St. Petersburg. It was
large enough to accommodate 12 persons sitting
around a table within it. Its inner surface was
celestial, the stars being represented by gilded
nails; and the outer surface was terrestrial.
The national library of Paris has two globes
of over 14 ft. diameter. A magnificent copper
globe made for Louis XVI. is in the Mazarin
library ; and another of the same material and
of admirable workmanship, designed by Poir-
son for the instruction of the king of Rome,
and bought by Louis XVIII. for 36,000 francs,
belongs to the museum of the Louvre. In 1851
a large globe of novel construction was built
in Leicester square, London, by Mr. Wyld. It
was 56 ft. in diameter, and the delineations
were upon the inside only. These were model-
led in slabs of plaster of Paris, which were set
like a ceiling on the ribs of zinc which formed
the framework of the structure. The slabs
were cast in clay moulds, which were prepared
with care from the most correct maps on a
scale of 10 miles to the inch. About 6,000
slabs were required to cover the whole surface,
their dimensions varying from two feet square
as the width diminished toward the poles. The
topographical features were represented in re-
lief, and the surface painted in colors. A stair-
way wound around from the base, by which
the circular platforms one above another were
reached that brought the spectators near to
the inner surface of the great shell. The globes
used by geographers in the middle of the last
century were very similar to those now in use.
Much attention was directed to their manufac-
ture, and a treatise on their construction and
use was published in 1769 by George Adams.
The first requisite is a ball to receive the printed
map ; this is therefore first accurately measured,
and due allowance is made for the shrinking
each segment will experience after being wet.
The diameter being determined, a silver-steel
semicircle H in. wide and in. thick is next
made, of precisely half this diameter less that
of the wires intended for the poles. A globe
of wood is now made three eighths of an inch

less in diameter than the steel circle. Into two
opposite points of this so-called mould bits of
No. 7 wire are inserted for poles. Dry paper
is laid all over it to prevent the pasted paper
to be next laid from adhering. This is of coarse
heavy quality, and eight or ten layers saturated
with paste are applied in succession as evenly
as possible, covering the whole surface. As this
coating becomes dry, it shrinks and fits tightly
over the mould. It is then hung by the poles
in the front edge of a bench fitted to receive
it, and by applying a knife on the line of the
equator while the ball is made to revolve, the
shell is cut through, so that it may be taken
off the mould in two hemispheres. This being
done, a turned stick of right length, with a
short wire in each end for poles, is introduced,
one end in each hemisphere, and the two shells
being brought together are secured by glueing
their edges. The ball, called in its present
state the foundation, is placed in the steel
semicircle, and coated with a composition of
glue and whiting. Being made to revolve, the
excess of the composition is removed by the
circle, and the ball is thus turned smooth and
true, after which it is carefully dried. The
next process is to lay out the lines of latitude
and longitude, which is done by a beam com-
pass, commencing with the colures and eclip-
tic. The first meridian is usually made to pass
through the intersections of the equator and
ecliptic, the points of the vernal and autumnal
equinoxes ; and from the former of these points
the reckoning of the degrees on the equator
and ecliptic begins. The maps are now to be
cut on the engraved meridians of each 15,
thus making 24 segments ; and these are pasted
in succession with white paste upon the foun-
dation, the lines drawn upon it serving as guides.
The fitting requires great care, that the edges
may be made to exactly coincide, and some
stretching of the equatorial portions is some-
times requisite. When dry the paper covering
is colored, and then sized with gelatine and
immediately varnished. The final process be-
fore mounting is to dry again at 200 F. Holtz-
apftel says : " A globe is usually covered with
26 pieces of paper, namely, 2 pole papers or
circles, including 30 around each pole, and 24
gores meeting at the equator. Sometimes the
gores extend from the pole to the equator;
every gore has then a narrow curved central
notch extending 30 from the equator." The
globe is hung for support by its poles in a brass
circle, which goes round it and is called the
universal meridian, inasmuch as any point upon
the surface of the globe revolving in this may
be brought under it. It is divided into de-
grees, which on one side are reckoned from
either pole toward the equator for the purpose
of giving the elevation of the poles, and on the
other from the equator toward either pole, to
be used for finding the latitude of places. A
frame or stand is prepared to receive the globe
with its brass circle, the top presenting a broad
horizontal circle with two vertical slots placed

GLOBE

opposite each other for receiving the brass
meridian, which when adjusted is free to slide
around in its own plane, so that the poles may
be upright, horizontal, or at any angle to the
horizontal circle. Around this circle, which
represents the rational horizon or imaginary
plane passing through the centre of the earth,
are drawn several concentric circles ; the inner-
most represents the horizon, and the slots for
the brass circle are on the N. and S. points ;
the degrees on the northern two quadrants are
reckoned from E. and W. toward the N., and
those on the southern toward the S. Outside
of this is the circle representing the calendar,
with the names of the months and divisions
corresponding to the days. The next circle
contains the signs and degrees of the ecliptic,
so arranged that against each day of the year
is found the point of the ecliptic in which the
sun is situated. In some globes the horizontal
circle is made to revolve. It is attached to
arms which extend below the brass meridian
and unite, supporting the adjusting clamp
which supports the brass meridian. A taper
pin extends down three inches from the lowest
part of the arms, and fits into a socket in the
iron base, thus securing by the revolutions of
the meridian and horizon in their own planes
the effect of a universal joint, so that any part
of the globe can be brought under observa-
tion without changing the position of the base.
To the N. pole of the globe is attached a small
circle of brass, called the hour circle, the pole
passing through its centre, and holding it so
that the two move round together, but yet per-
mitting the hour circle to be moved round by
the hand upon the axis. The circle is divided
into 24 equal parts, corresponding to the hours
of the day, and any one of these can be placed
upon any meridian by turning the circle. The
quadrant of altitude is a brass slip equal in
length to a quarter of the circumference, and
divided into 90. It is fastened to the brass
meridian, and is used for measuring degrees in
any direction on the globe. A mariner's com-
pass is sometimes attached to the frame of the
globe for the purpose of placing the meridian
in a N. and S. line. The various circles con-
nected with the terrestrial globe are equally
appropriate to the celestial ; and as the latter
are ordinarily constructed, the observer is sup-
posed to be looking down upon the heavens
presenting a convex surface, upon which the
tan and constellations are mapped in their
proper relative positions. To render the na-
ture of the imaginary circles to which the
points upon both globes are referred more
clear for the student, the armillary sphere was
contrived, which consists of the several circles
in the f..rm of -rn.luated brass rings placed in
their appropriate positions, and containing in
the centre a small globe representing the earth.
These circles are the horizon, meridian, equator.
. equinoctial colure, and the solstitial
colure. The sphere formed by them is sup-
ported in a frame in the same manner as the

GLOBIGERINA

globes. Celestial and terrestrial globes are
sometimes combined, the latter being enclosed
in a glass sphere marked with the constella-
tions. Globes are sometimes made also of
India rubber or thin paper, and so contrived
that they may be inflated with air. Some ter-
restrial globes contain, in addition to the usual
geographical delineations, geological strata, at-
mospheric currents, isothermal lines, hydro-
graphic information, and trade routes ; and in
some the land is represented in relief. Slate
globes for school use are made with only the
lines of latitude and longitude drawn on them ;
and wooden globes, painted black and similar-
ly marked, are constructed, on which maps are
drawn with chalk.
GLOBE FISH. See SEA PORCUPINE.
GLOBIGERINA) a microscopic protozoan ani-
mal, of the foraminiferous order of the class of
rhizopods. The body is composed of simple
sarcode or protoplasmic matter, enclosed in a
shell pierced by numerous mi-
nute openings, through which a
film of the animal substance is
exuded, capable of thro wing out
small thread-like processes, or
pseudopodia. The animals in-
crease by budding, each sarcode
mass being enveloped in its cal-
careous shell, but connected irregularly with
all the rest of the colony ; there is no definite
shape, the mass being compared by Huxley to
that of a badly grown raspberry. Recent
deep-sea dredgings (in the Gulf stream at a
depth of 3,100 ft., near the Faroe islands at a
depth of 3,900 ft., off Cape Farewell, Green-
land, at 7,560 ft., and between the Azores and
Newfoundland at 10,000 ft., and in the north
Atlantic at still greater depths in the track of
the Atlantic cable) have brought up the sheila
of living globigerinffi from the calcareous ooza
of the ocean bottom. In the compound proto-
plasmic animal to which the name of 'bathybiw
has been given, are found globigerinso, with
coccoliths and coccospheres ; the ancient chalk
deposits are made up almost entirely, in many
specimens, of remains of the three last named
animals, the same as those now living on the
bottom of the ocean ; the great central plain
of the North Atlantic, 1,000 m. wide and many
hundreds in length, nearly level, is covered
with a chalky mud containing innumerable glo-
bigerinee with their attendant coccoliths and
coccospheres, and the deeper the sea the larger
are these animals. They doubtless constitute
the food of the star fishes, which also have been
dredged from these great depths. There is no
reason to think that the habits and the habitats
of the ancient chalk animals were different from
those of the living globigerinae ; hence we may
conclude that the chalk formation, constituting
a large part of southern Great Britain and cen-
tral and southern Europe, often 1,000 ft. thick,
is the dried and elevated mud of an ancient
deep sea. From the fact that this present
deep-sea fauna is apparently identical with that

b ",

GLOGAU

the ancient chalk, there seems to be some
>und for the statement that the cretaceous
eriod at the bottom of the sea has extended
the present time. For very interesting sug-
ions concerning the geology and antiquity
involved in the study of these animals, the
reader is referred to a lecture by Prof. Huxley
" On a Piece of Chalk," delivered in 1868, and
published in " Lay Sermons and Addresses "
ew York, 1871). (See BATHYBIUS, Cocco-

HS, and FOKAMINIFERA.)

GLOGAIJ, or Gross-Glogan, a town of Prussian
sia, on the left bank of the Oder, 54 m.

. W. of Breslau; pop. in 1871, 18,265. It
strongly fortified, and contains an old cas-
four churches, a Protestant and a Koman

tholic gymnasium, extensive barracks, and

veral hospitals. It is connected by a bridge

ith an island in the Oder, on which stand the
cathedral and a strong fortress, built in 1260.
The town has manufactories of cotton, wool-
len, and linen goods, sealing wax, and tobacco.
A principality of Glogau was founded in 1252
by the third son of Duke Henry II. of Silesia.
In the following century it was made a duchy,
hich became extinct in 1506. The town was

rned in 1420 and in 1615.

GLOMMEN, the largest river of Norway, ri-
sing in the mountains of the S. E. part of the
province of Drontheim, near lat. 63 N"., and
flowing for the most part nearly due S. through
several lakes, into the Skager Back. Its length
is about 360 m. The entire valley through
which it flows is remarkable for picturesque
scenery, cataracts, and forests of pine, produ-
cing the finest timber in Europe. From the
town of Roraas to the Ojeren lake, the river is
a mountain torrent. The head of navigation
is at Sarpsborg, about 10 m. from the mouth.
The Glommen has more than 20 cataracts, the
principal one being the celebrated Sarpfoss,
half a mile above Sarpsborg. The river, a short
distance above, is divided into two branches,
which flow in parallel directions to the sea.
The E. branch, having forced its way through
a rugged defile, reaches the brink of a preci-
pice, where, although divided at the summit
by a projecting cliff, it falls an unbroken cas-
cade, about 75 ft. The abyss is strewn with
large masses of granite, which break the vol-
ume of water into vast sheets of foam. On
the brink of the fall the stream is about 120
ft. wide, and from 26 to 30 ft. deep, according
to the season. The rapids, for a short distance
inward, are remarkably fine.

GLORY PEA, a name given by Australians to
plants of the genus cliantTius, of the order
leguminosce, especially to the species named, in
honor of the navigator Dampier, C. Dampieri.
This is found in the desert regions of Australia
as a low straggling shrub with light-colored,
hairy, pinnate leaves. The flowers are borne
in clusters from the axils of the leaves, and
are very singular in form and brilliant in color ;
the standard or banner petal of the flower ap-
pears in the form of an elongated shield of

GLOUCESTER

the most intense scarlet color, with a boss in
the centre of so dark a brown as to appear
black. For many years this had been regarded
as one of the most difficult to raise of all
greenhouse plants, it being very impatient of
any disturbance of the root, and being subject

Glory Pea (Clianthus Dampieri).

to the attacks of insects, but it was finally
discovered that it would succeed well by sow-
ing the seeds in the open border. They should
be sown after the soil is well warmed by the
sun, in the place where the plants are intended
to remain.

GLOSSOP, a town of Derbyshire, England,
19 m. N. W. of Sheffield ; pop. in 1871, 5,074,
and of the borough, 17,046. It consists of an
old and a new town, the former better built
than the latter, and contains a fine parish
church, chapels for Roman Catholics and dis-
senters, a town hall, and various charitable
institutions. It is the chief cotton manufac-
turing place in the county, having more than
50 cotton mills in the town and its neighbor-
hood, besides woollen and paper mills, bleach
fields, dye and print works, and iron founderies.
On a hill near the town is Melandra castle, the
site of a Roman station, and a Roman road
known as the doctors' gate extends from the
castle to Brough.

GLOUCESTER. I. A S. W. county of Few Jer-
sey, separated by the Delaware river from Penn-
sylvania on the N". W., drained by Big Tim-
ber, Oldman's, Raccoon, and Mantua creeks;
area, 280 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 21,562. The
surface is generally level and much of it cov-
ered with forests. The soil along the banks
of the Delaware and for about 7 m. inland
consists of a clayey loam, productive and well
cultivated. Marl is found here, and iron ore
is obtained near Woodbury. The S. E. part
of the county is sandy and mostly unimproved.
It is traversed by the West Jersey and _the
Swedesboro railroad. The chief productions

GLOUCESTER

,870 .er. 138,18. *****&

0382 swine; 3 manufactories of agricul-
tural implement*, 2 of hoots and shoes, 10 of
writ** 5 ofVoffins, 2 of glass ware, 2 of
wind^Tglaw, 7 of saddlery and harness, 8 of

ppf^id sheet-iron ware, 13 flour and
6 aw mills. Capital, Woodbury. II. A S.E.

bay bounded N. by the Piankatank ami ^
W. by York river; area, 280 sq. m.; pop. in
1870, 10,211, of whom 5,429 were colored.
The surface is level and the soil light and pro-
ductive. Among the most important exports
are oysters and fish, the taking of which em-
ploys large numbers of the inhabitants, and
wood, which is sent to New York and Phila-
delphia. The chief productions in 1870 were
21 966 bushels of wheat, 207,240 of Indian
_T,,856of oats, 10,673 of Irish and 9,110
of sweet potatoes. There were 808 horses,
1,707 milch cows, 8,130 other cattle, and 8,274
There were 6 saw mills. Capital,
(ih.iirester Court House.

(.l.oi ( IM'KB, a N. E. county of New Bruns-
wick, Canada, bounded N. by the bay of Oha-
leurs, E. by the gulf of St. Lawrence, and
drained by Nipisiguit and other rivers ; area,
1,684 B|. m.; pop. in 1871, 18,810, of whom
12,680 were of French, 8,695 of Irish, 1,215
of Scotch, and 982 of English origin. The
e inland is diversified by hills, between
w hi. h lie fertile valleys. The climate is favor-
able for agriculture, while the great extent of
coast, off which are several islands, and the
number of good harbors, afford opportunities
for fishing and lumbering. Ship building is
actively carried on. Capital, Bathurst.

GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Es-
sex co., Massachusetts, on the peninsula of
Cape Ann, 80 m. N. N. E. of Boston, with
which it is connected by a branch of the East-
ern railroad. It formerly comprised the whole
of Cape Ann, and was 8 m. long by 5 broad ;
but in 1840 the N. E. portion of the peninsula
was formed int.. the town of Rockport. The
city contains six distinct villages, each having a
pott office, viz. : East G loucester ; Annisquam,
or Squara, on the N. side of the cape, which
has a safe harbor much resorted to by fishing
Teasels; Bay View and Lanesville, noted for
their fine granite quarries; West Gloucester,
formerly known as West Parish, which has
a beach 2 or 3 m. long, of white sand, of
titles an- exported; and last-
llage, or "The Harbor," on

the 8. Hide, which Ims one of the best ports on
the coast, capacious, safe, easy of access, am
I'th of water to admit tin
largest vessels. The harbor is formed by :
peninsula, known as Ma-tern point, juttm-,
out from thw main body of Cape Ann in a

S W direction, and opens into Massachusetts
my ' On the extremity of the point is a fort
mounting 10 guns. Gloucester was a place of
mnortance prior to 1800. It increased slowly
until 1850, since which its growth has been
apid The population in 1790 was 4,912 ; in
[800 5,318; in 1810, 5,901; in 1820, 6,384;
n 1830, 7,513; in 1840, 6,350; in 1850, 7,780;
n 1860, 10,904; in 1870, 15,389, of whom
4,007 were foreigners. The principal portion
of the city, in the vicinity of the harbor, is
handsomely and compactly built, and very
beautifully situated, with extensive and pic-
turesque sea views, and is a fashionable sum-
mer resort for bathing and sea air. The city
hall is an elegant brick building, erected in
1870 at a cost of $115,000, and two of the
school houses are large and handsome struc-
tures. Gloucester is mainly noted for its cod
and mackerel fisheries, far surpassing any other
>ort in the country in the number of vessels
md men employed, and in the value of the
catch. In 1865 the number of vessels engaged
was 341, having an aggregate tonnage of 24,-
450, and employing 4,590 men; capital in-
vested, $1,865,700; mackerel caught, 154,938
barrels, valued at $2,190,562; cod and other
dry fish, 113,028 quintals, worth $706,425;
value of cod-liver oil sold, $90,420. The value
of all fishery products was $3,319,457. In
1878 the catch, with the value of each item,
was as follows: codfish, 460,000 quintals,
$2,070,000; other fish, 25,000 quintals, $50,-
000; fresh fish, including halibut, 9,000,000
Ibs., $310,000; oil, 275,000 gallons, $165,000;
mackerel, 86,544 barrels, $1,125,000; her-
ring, 5,000 barrels, $23,000; shell tish, 18,000
barrels, $18,000; miscellaneous, $40,000; to-
tal value, $3,800,000. The number of vessels
belonging to Gloucester engaged in fishing in
1873 was 875, with about 3,500 men, of whom
but a small proportion are residents of the city.
The business is attended with great risk, 236
vessels and 1,200 lives having been lost since
1880. The losses in 1873, the heaviest expe-
rienced in any year, comprised 31 vessels and
174 lives. The customs district includes the
adjoining towns of Essex, Manchester, and
Rockport. The value of foreign commerce
for the year ending June 30, 1873, was: ex-
ports, $1,512; imports, $60,735. The number
of vessels cleared was 127, of 13,365 tons; en-
tered, 117, of 17,771 tons. In the coastwise
trade the entrances were 131, with an auizre-
gate tonnage of 9,807 ; clearances, 54, of 7,977
tons. On June 30, 1872, there were 524 ves-
sels, of 27,537 tons, belonging to the district;
engaged in the cod and mackerel fishery, 448,
of -J-.M74 tons, of which 41, of 497 tons, were
each less than 20 tons ; built during the year,
18 vessels of 823 tons. The tonnage of the
district on June 30, 1873, was 28,565 ; num-
ber of vessels (nearly all schooners), 517, of
which 420 were employed in fishing, 90 in the
coasting trade, 6 in foreign commerce, and 1
in yachting. A line of steamers from Glou-

GLOUCESTER

cester runs daily to Boston. The manufac-
tures are almost exclusively confined to articles
pertaining to the fisheries, embracing anchors,
ice crushers, bait mills, ships' blocks, masts
and spars, boats, leads, fish guano, &c. There
are six marine railways and 70 wharves. The
extensive granite quarries on the N. side of
the cape furnish stone which is mostly used
for paving, but a considerable quantity is also
prepared for other purposes. The new post
office in Boston is built of Gloucester granite,
and the base of the Scott monument in Wash-
ington, an immense block weighing nearly 100
tons, is of the same material. The city con-
tains three national banks, with an aggregate
capital of $570,000, and three marine insurance
companies. It is divided into eight wards, and
is governed by a mayor, a board of aldermen
of 8, and a common coun-
cil of 24 members. There
is a police court, an effi-
cient police force, and a
well organized fire de-
partment. The assessed
value of property in 1873
was $7,714,520 ; taxa-
tion, $161,352; debt,
$218,000; value of prop-
erty belonging to the
city, $330,785. It is
lighted with gas. The
principal charitable as-
sociations are the Glou-
cester fishermen's and
seamen's widows' and
orphans' aid society and
the ladies' charitable so-
ciety. There are 24 pub-
lic schools, viz. : 1 high,
7 grammar, 12 primary,
and 4 ungraded, attend-
ed by about 3,000 pu-
pils, and supported at
an annual cost of about
$40,000. Two weekly
newspapers are publish-
ed. The Sawyer free library contains about
4,000 volumes. The number of churches is
12, viz. : 2 Baptist, 2 Congregational, 1 Epis-
copal, 3 Methodist, 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Unita-
rian, and 2 Universalist. Besides these, there
is a society of Swedenborgians who do not
possess a church edifice. The Indian name of
Gloucester was Wingaersheek. It was occu-
pied as a fishing station in 1 624, being the first
place settled by the English on the N. side of
Massachusetts bay. In 1642 it was incorpo-
rated as a town under its present name, some
of the principal inhabitants having come from
Gloucester, England. The first schooner ever
constructed was built, here in 1713 by Capt.
Andrew Robinson. The British sloop of war
Falcon, Capt. Lindsay, assailed the town Aug.
8, 1775, bombarded it for several hours, and
attempted to cut out some vessels in the har-
bor, but was driven off by the inhabitants. In

the second war with Great Britain, Sept. 8,
1814, Gloucester was attacked by the British
frigate Tenedos, which, however, did no se-
rious damage. In both of these wars the town
sent out swarms of privateers, and contributed
largely to the manning of the navy. It be-
came a city in January, 1874.

GLOUCESTER, a city and municipal and par-
liamentary borough of England, one of the
county towns of Gloucestershire, on the left
bank of the Severn, 95 m. W. by N. of Lon-
don; pop. in 1871, 18,330. The chief public
edifice is the cathedral, originally the church
of a Benedictine abbey. It was built and added
to at various periods from the llth to the 15th
century, and is one of the most celebrated Eng-
lish cathedrals. It is remarkable for the perfec-
tion of the styles of architecture which indicate

Gloucester 'Cathedral, from the Southeast.

the different periods of erection and addition,
and the choir is considered one of the finest ex-
amples of florid Gothic in the world. It con-
tains many monuments, among others those of
Robert, son of William the Conqueror, Edward
II., Bishop Warburton, and Dr. Edward Jenner.
The city also has several handsome parish
churches, a college, blue-coat and free grammar
schools, the county hall, hospitals, &c. The
handsomest portion of the town is at the S.
end, around a spring of saline chalybeate water
discovered in 1814. The staple manufactures
are pins, hardware, gloves, saddles, canvas,
cutlery, ropes, and soap ; and some ship build-
ing is carried on. A bell foundery was estab-
lished prior to 1500, but it has recently been
removed. Since the completion in 1827 of the
Berkeley ship canal, by which vessels of 500
tons burden can come up to the city, the com-
mercial importance of Gloucester has greatly

GLOUCESTERSHIKK

increased. The city is probably of British
origin. It became a Roman station under the
name of C'.-Ioma (ilevuro, and under Claudius
received the name of Claudia Castra. The
Saxon* called it Gleau-ceaster, and it flourished
during the heptarchy. In the 17th century it
was strong fortified, and took a conspicuous
part against the royalists. The bishopric of
rter was instituted by Henry VIJl., and

was joined to Bristol in 1886.

UOHI.MI.KMIIHK. a S. \V. county of Eng-
.r.U-rinir n Worcestershire, Warwick-

'xtor.lshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Somer-
tu-t -shire Monmouthshire, and Herefordshire;
area, 1.258 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 534,320. It
is trav,-rse<l from N. E. to S. W. by the Cots-
wold hills, which separate the basin of the
Severn from that of the Thames. The district
between these hills and the Severn comprises
the vales of Evesham (principally in Worcester-
shire), Gloucester, and Berkeley, of surpassing
beauty and richness. Beyond the Severn the
greater part of the county is under forest, more
than 20,000 acres of which still belong to the
crown ; it is called the forest of Dean, and was
once the principal source of supply of timber
f..r the English navy. The chief rivers are
the Severn, Wye, Lower Avon, Frorae, Thames,
Colne, and Windrush. This county, having ex-
tensive and exceedingly rich natural pastures,
has long been famous for its butter and cheese.
The celebrated double and single Gloucester
cheese is principally produced in the Berkeley
vale. Large numbers of sheep are reared on
the Cotswold hills and in the forest region, the
latter being also noted for its orchards and the
excellence of its cider and perry. Coal exists

:it abundance ; lead, sulphuret of iron,
oxide of zinc, limestone, coral, quartz crystals,
celebrated as Bristol diamonds, and gypsum,
are also found. The manufactures are wool-
lens, cottons, silks, hosiery, hats, tick, hardware,
glass, paper, and carpets. Capitals, Gloucester
and Bristol ; other chief towns, Cheltenham,
Cirencester, Stnmd, and Tewkesbury.

U.o\l. .-uvi-ring for the hand (sometimes
extending up the arm), with a separate sheath
for each finger. Gloves are spoken of by Ho-
mer as worn by Laertes to protect his hands
while working in the garden. Xenophon speaks
of Cyrus goinjr without his gloves. The cus-
tom of giving a glove as a pledge in conclu-
ding a contract is very ancient, and from this is
supposed to have ln--n d.-rived the later custom
of throw inir down a glove as a challenge, which

posite party accepted by picking up the
glove and throwing down his own. This is
traced in Kn-hmd as tar back as the year
1245. In the middle ages gloves were an ob-
ject of special regard ; they were made in the
ni"-1 OOflUJ in:i!iM.-r. "Hi. tin. nt.-d \\ith |,iv<-i<ii<

stones, ari'l worn t.y kings and church digni-
taries on ceri-Mionijil occasions. A glove was

>ny ot Inflowing lands and
li^tiiti.-s. aii'l ] privation of gloves was a sign
Of degradation. It was h-r glove which the

GLOVE

lady gave her faithful knight to wear in his
helmet as a pledge of her favor. Down to the
present time curious ceremonies have been
associated with gloves, as the custom in some
parts of Europe of taking them off when enter-
ing the stable of a prince or a great man, or
else forfeiting them or their value to the ser-
vants. In hunting, the same ceremony must
be performed under the same penalty at the
death of the stag. Glove money is a term of
ancient use, meaning money given to servants
to buy gloves. Embroidered gloves were first
made in England in 1580, and the custom of
presenting them to judges at maiden assizes
is still continued. Presenting a pair of gloves
for any favor rendered is a very old custom.

Gloves are made of a variety of materials.

In cold regions they are of the warmest wool,
or of the skins of animals with the fur on
the outside. Thick buckskin, often lined with
soft woollen, is also used, but in more moderate
climes lighter qualities of leather, to the softest
kid, are employed, and also worsted, cotton, and
silk. The preparations of caoutchouc are ap-
plied to the same purpose, chiefly for the pro-
tection of ladies' hands in rough work, such
as gardening. The art of glove making is car-
ried to its highest perfection in the manu-
facture of kid gloves by the French, being
one of the most important industries of the
country. The English, who make excellent
gloves of heavier varieties of leather, largely
import the best Parisian gloves. Woodstock
and Worcester are celebrated for their fine
leather glove manufactories, and kid and other
gloves are also extensively made in London,
Yeoville, Ludlow, and Leominster, generally,
for the best qualities, of skins imported from
France and Italy. Most of the cheaper kinds
of so-called kid gloves are made from lamb,
rat, and other thin skins. Sheepskin gloves,
generally white, are made for the army. In
1871 England began to import opossum skins
from Australia for glove making. Many first-
class real kid gloves are manufactured in Lon-
don, but they are generally sold as French.
Great skill is required for the cutting of the
skins to the best advantage; this process is
performed with a pair of scissors after stretch-
ing and rubbing the skin upon a marble slab
with a blunt knife. A skin is first cut longi-
tudinally through the middle, and the single
strip for the palm and back is next cut off from
one end of the half skin. The pieces for the
thumb, the gussets for the fingers, and other
small pieces to be inserted, must all be worked
out either from the same skin or from others
precisely similar. The nearly square piece cut
off is folded over upon itself, giving a little more
width for the side designed for the back of the
hand ; and upon this oblong double strip the
workman, measuring with his eye and finger,
marks out the length for the clefts between the
fingers, which he proceeds to cut and shape.
Making the hole for the thumb requires the
greatest skill, for a very slight deviation from

GLOVER

GLOWWORM

the exact shape would cause a bad fit when the
parts are sewed together, resulting in unequal
strain and speedy fracture. By improvements
introduced by M. Jouvin, the thumb piece,
like the fingers, is of the same piece with the
rest of the glove, requiring no seam for its at-
tachment. The cutting also is performed in
great part by punches of appropriate patterns,
and some of these are provided with a toothed
apparatus somewhat resembling a comb, which
pricks the points for the stitches. The seams are
sewed with perfect regularity by placing the
edges to be united in the jaws of a vice, which
terminate in fine brass teeth like those of a
comb, but only ^ of an inch long. Between
these the needle is passed in successive stitches.
When the sewing is completed the gloves are

etched, then placed in linen cloth, slightly
amp, and beaten, by which they are rendered
softer and more flexible. The last operation
is pressing. In 1866, while England exported
680,664 pairs of leather gloves of British make,
it imported 10, 61 9,220 pairs, of which 10,036,-
092 were from France. In the same year Eng-
land exported 315,180 pairs of cotton gloves,
chiefly to the United States. But in 1868 Ger-
many was not only competing with England in
leather gloves in the London market, but it
sent three fourths of the cotton and Lisle thread
gloves sold in England, and for export had se-
cured nearly the entire trade of the United
States, which had formerly bought this class
of goods in Nottingham and Leicester. In
1868 the value of gloves made in France was
estimated at 50,000,000 francs, and the manu-
facture was increasing. The chief branch of
the manufacture carried on in the United States
is that of buckskin gloves, a kind more pecu-
liarly American than any other ; and the most
important seat of this business is at Glovers-
ville, Fulton co., N. Y. Kid gloves are now
made to some extent there and in New York.
t GLOVER, Richard, an English poet and politi-
cian, born in London in 1712, died there, Nov.
25, 1785. He was educated for a mercantile
life, but early manifested a love of letters, and at
the age of 16 wrote a poem to the memory of
Sir Isaac Newton. In 1737 he published an epic
on the Persian invasion of Greece, entitled " Le-
onidas," which was thought to have an appli-
cation to English politics, and was for a time
much admired. A continuation of it, under
the title of the " Atheniad," appeared in 1787.
His "London, or the Progress of Commerce,"
and a ballad called "Hosier's Ghost" (1739),
were written to rouse his countrymen to a war
with Spain. He was active in politics as an
opponent of Walpole, and was returned to par-
liament for Weymouth in 1760. He wrote sev-
eral tragedies, and a diary which was published
in 1813, and in the following year appeared
an " Inquiry " attempting to prove that he
was the author of the letters of -Junius.

GLOVERSVILLE, a village in the town of
Johnstown, Fulton co., New York, 40 m. N. W.
of Albany, at the terminus of the Fonda, Johns-

town, and Glovers ville railroad, which con-
nects with the New York Central at Fonda, 7
m. distant; pop. in 1870, 4,518. It is chiefly
noted for its extensive manufactures of gloves
and mittens. The business was commenced in
1803, and the village now contains about 140
establishments, manufacturing two thirds of
the kid and buckskin gloves and mittens made
in the United States. There are also manufac-
tories of machine and glove patterns, organs,
railroad lamps, carriages, kid and other leath-
er, a planing mill, two national banks, three
weekly newspapers, and seven churches.

GLOWWORM, a name given to several serri-
corn beetles, constituting the genus lampyris
(Fab.). The antennae are short, with cylindri-
cal and compressed articulations ; the head is
concealed beneath the anterior margin of the
thorax ; the eyes and the mouth are small ; the
body is rather soft and depressed, with the
sides of the abdomen serrated; the elytra are
coriaceous and slightly flexible. The females
are wingless, with rudiments of elytra at the
base of the abdomen, and their general appear-
ance to the uneducated eye is that of a worm,
explaining fully the popular name of glow-

Glowworm (Lampyris splendidula).
1. Male. 2. Female. 3. Larva of L. noctiluca.

worm in England, and ver luisant in France.
In the old Linnasan genus lampyris there were
as many as 60 species, which have been distrib-
uted into different genera, so that there were
only nine species left in the genus in the last
edition of Dejean's catalogue. There are four
well known species of glowworm in Europe,
L. noctiluca, Italica, splendidula, and Tiemip-
tera ; the second is probably the species whose
luminous faculty was known to the ancients,
the Aa/zTrovpt? of the Greeks, and cicindela of
the Romans. Both sexes are luminous, though
the light is stronger in the female ; the light
does not come from the thorax as in the fire-
fly (elater), but from the posterior part of the
abdomen on its upper and under surfaces. The
English glowworm (L. noctiluca, Linn.) is the
largest European species, about two thirds of
an inch long in the male, and the female about
an inch ; the male is brownish gray, with a
reddish gray margin on the superior portion of
the thorax, and has both wings and elytra;
the female is wingless, of a uniform yellow
white, with a very thin skin below ; in both
sexes the luminous spots show themselves as

GLOWWORM

four bright j>ointa, two on the antepenultimate

abdominal segment, and two on the next pos-

The L. Italiea is next in size, and is

::lu-rn Europe, as the first is in the

niirtlii-rn i-ountries; the color is black, with

thorax and legs; both sexes are winged,

:iinl iniii-h resemble each other, the apterous

. s spoken of by some entomologists being
the larva). The L. splendidula is common in
Germany; the male is winged, brown gray,
with a bright glassy spot on the convex mar-
gin of the prothorax ; the female, whitish yel-

, ith a brown spot on the centre of the
prothorax, has no wings, and very short oval
elytra; the luminous spots are two transverse
bands on the lower surface of the two penulti-
mate abdominal segments, and in the female
the whole abdomen diffuses a weak light L.
hemiptera, a southern species, and the small-
est one third of an inch long, is opaque black,
liirhu-r in the female, the posterior ventral
being whitish; the males have truncated
t-lvtr.-i, the females none; the light is diffused
iV'-in two round spots on the penultimate seg-
ment; the larvae are probably luminous, as
those of the preceding species were found to be
by Bunneister. The first three species conceal

Glowworm (Latnpyria noctilnca).

themselves in the daytime and appear at night,
the males flying about in the warm summer
evenings, while the females betray their situa-
tions by their tranquil light among the shrubs-
the last species creeps also by day, especially
in damp weather, appearing toward the end of
April ; the third species occurs about the end
f May and the beginning of June, while the
first is found most abundantly toward the end
of summer. The light is greenish or more
commonly bluish white, intermittent or contin-
uous at the will of the insect, extinguished in
of danger, and increased by active motion
sexual excitement, or artificial heat; it may
ntmue some hours after death, and when
t maj be reproduced by warm water ; pois-
is gases destroy the li-rl.t with life, while
gen increases its brilliancy ; electricity pro-
mt no affect on the light, while galvanism
or reproduces it in dead insects. The
emipches of Kfllliker and others show that at
theshinmg spots is a whitish, transparent, fatty
IM, Permeated by very numerous trachea; this
Hill 8 h,ne wh,n r,m,,ved from the body,

W MS Water f u r a long time ' and its pS
rubbed up., n the fingers display a light

resembling that from phosphorized mixtures.
The eggs of the glowworm, the larvae, and the
nymphs, are luminous; the eggs are hatched
after a few weeks, and the larvae resemble the
perfect females, having a body of twelve seg-
ments, the first three of which bear each a
pair of feet ; the head is small, and, like the
caudal segments, retractile; they thrive well
in captivity when kept in moist earth or herb-
age, and supplied with slugs and snails, which
they kill with their arched and sharp-pointed
jaws, and eagerly devour ; about a week is oc-
cupied in assuming the state of nymph, and in
about eight days longer they appear as perfect
insects. The nymph is larger than the larva,
but not quite so long ; the color is at first pale
yellow, with two reddish spots on the posterior
part of the thorax and the segments, but the
dull color of the perfect insect is visible toward
the end of the nymph state; the larval jaws
disappear, and the antennae are seen to have
eleven joints, and the tarsi five; the last ab-
dominal rings are very brilliant, and indeed
the whole body seems phosphorescent. Ac-
cording to Dufour, the alimentary canal of the
perfect female is twice as long as the body, and
the oesophagus exceedingly short, immediately
dilating into a short crop. The substance from
which the luminous property is derived has
been often made the subject of experiment, but
as yet, according to Matteucci, without the de-
tection of any phosphorus in it, though the cir-
cumstances attending the light resemble the

being increased by warmth, diminished by cold,
and destroyed by irrespirable gases, oil, alco-
hol, acids, and strong saline solutions; these
phenomena admit of a better explanation on
Matteucci's theory. This author, in his Lecons
sur les phenomenes physiques des corps vivants,
explains all cases of animal phosphorescence on
physico-chemical principles. From his experi-
ments we know that the light of the glowworm
may cease before the death of the animal, or
may be considerably prolonged after this event;
that the light is without heat, as far as our rude
instruments can detect ; that it ceases soonest
in carbonic acid, and in hydrogen in from 30 to
40 minutes ; that it is increased in oxygen, and
.asts three times as long as in other gases,
both for parts and for the entire insect; that
it consumes a portion of oxygen, which is re-
placed by carbonic acid, and is therefore the
vrpduct of. a true combustion ; that when not
hinmg, and in contact with oxygen, none of
-his gas is taken up, and no carbonic acid is
orrned; that heat to a certain extent increases,
while cold diminishes its brightness; that when

e luminous substance has been altered by too
great heat or the action of gases so as to lose
its phosphorescence, this .property cannot be
>v. stabhshed; finally, that carbon and not phos-

i r ?i S '? ?, ne f the elemei >ts of this substance,

that the phosphorescence is produced by

the combination of the carbon with the oxygen

The luminous matter from the living insect,

GLUCINA

cording to the same author, has a peculiar
.or resembling that of the perspiration of the
t ; it is neither acid nor alkaline, dries rap-
ly in the air, seems to coagulate in contact
ith dilute acids, is not sensibly soluble in al-
cohol, ether, or weak alkaline solutions, but is
dissolved in concentrated sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids with the aid of heat; chemical
tests exclude the idea of the presence of albu-
men, and the ordinary ammoniacal products
are disengaged by heat. The oxygen of the at-
mosphere introduced by the numerous tracheae
comes in contact with this substance, sui gene-
ris, composed principally of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The intermittence of
the glowworm's light, and its sudden changes
m darkness to brightness, as far as present
vestigations go, are dependent on the differ-
,t amounts of air introduced into the trachea,
d the varying activity of respiration and mus-
lar action. The change in the food of the
glowworm, from animal juices in the larva
state to tender plants in the perfect condition,
explains the contradictory statements of au-
thors as to the habits of this insect; and the
ilure of the attempts to introduce it as an
ment to shrubberies and lawns has gener-
y arisen from ignorance of the fact that the
va cannot be raised on vegetable food alone ;
sides moist herbage or damp earth, minute
d shells must be supplied. A few specimens
an articulated animal which may be called
a glowworm have been found of late years
in summer in various parts of southern New
England. The head is small and flat, with very
short antenna ; the color is cream- white, the
length about 14 lines, and the whole of this is
lighted up at night with a permanent lumi-
nousness less than that of the elaters of the
West Indies; the light begins to show itself
between the segments, of which there are 12,
and at the stigmata, from which it spreads un-
til the whole animal is illuminated, seeming a
stick of light without joints or stigmata ; most
brilliant soon after midnight, they gradually
fade to the ordinary whitish color at day-
break. In all these cases of phosphorescent
articulates it is difficult to say what is the pre-
cise purpose of the light. (See FIREFLY.)

GLUCINA (Gr. yAm^, sweet), an earth, first
obtained by Vauquelin in 1798, consisting, ac-
cording to Berzelius, of two atoms of the metal
glucinum, united with three atoms of oxygen ;
but Awdejew and others regard it as a protox-
ide, G1O. It is found only in a few minerals,
as the emerald, beryl, euclase, &c., being con-
tained in the first two in the proportion of 13f
per cent., combined with silicic acid. It is ob-
tained in the form of a white powder, of specific
gravity about 3, closely resembling alumina.
It is distinguished by its solubility, when freshly
prepared in a cold solution of carbonate of am-
monia, and by its tendency to form a carbon-
ate by exposure to the air ; also by not giving
a blue color in the blowpipe test with nitrate
"* u - u The properties of glucinum, the

of cobalt.

GLUOK 41

metallic base of glucina, have been investigated
by Debray (Annales de cliimie et de physique
[3], xliv. 5), who obtained it from the chloride
by reduction with sodium, the original source
being the emerald of Limoges. He found it a
white malleable metal, that could be rolled in
sheets like gold, of density 2-1, its melting point
below that of silver. It cannot be made to
burn in pure oxygen, but appears in the trial
to be slightly oxidized on the surface, by which
it is protected from further change. It resists
the action of sulphur, but combines with chlo-
rine and iodine. Its alloy with silicium is a
hard brittle substance, susceptible of a high
polish. Glucinum is soluble in sulphuric and
in hydrochloric acids, hydrogen being evolved.
Nitric acid acts upon it only when heated, and
then slowly. It dissolves in caustic potash.
Its symbol is G; chemical equivalent, 9*2.

GLUCK, Christoph Wilibald von, a German com-
poser, born at Weidenwang in the Upper Pa-
latinate, July 2, 1714, died in Vienna, Nov. 15,
1787. The dates and other particulars in this
article which differ from those usually given,
are drawn from documentary evidence sub-
stantiated or first given to the public by Anton
Schmid, of the imperial library at Vienna, in
1854 (Gluclcs Leben und tonkunstleriscJies Wir-
Tcen). The father, Alexander Johannes Klukh
(as he always wrote his name), was first a
huntsman of Prince Eugene, afterward remov-
ing to Weidenwang as forester. In 1717 he
entered the service of Count Kaunitz in Bohe-
mia, and thus the young Christoph came at the
age of three to the land which, owing to its
great number of wealthy nobles and convents,
was then the most favorable to the develop-
ment of musical talent. In the gymnasia and
the Jesuit colleges music was earnestly culti-
vated, and every nobleman had his musical
chapel ; all churches of any pretensions, very
many of the smaller parish churches even, had
their choirs supported by ample funds. The
treatment of Gluck and his brothers by the
father was hard even to tyranny; the composer
in his old age well remembered being forced
with his brother Anton to follow his father in
the coldest winter weather into the forests,
sometimes barefoot, "to make them tough."
The children had the best school instruction in
Kamnitz and Eisenberg, and from his 12th to
his 18th year Christoph was sent to the gym-
nasium at Kommotau. The boy carried with
him a good degree of knowledge both in sing-
ing and playing bowed instruments, and in the
school of the Jesuits his musical talents were
specially cultivated. He became a chorister
in the principal church of the place, and gained
some knowledge of the harpsichord and organ.
At 18 he went to Prague to enter the univer-
sity, but was finally obliged to devote himself
to music for subsistence. He gave lessons in
singing and upon the violoncello, sang and
played in several churches for a small salary,
and during vacation sang and played in the
villages of the surrounding country, sometimes

GLUCK

being paid in one with eggs, which in another
he exchanged for bread. After a time he ap-
peared in the large towns as a violoncellist,

tracted the attention of Prince Lobko-
witz, so that when in 1736 he went to Vienna,
the house of the prince was opened to him,
and a salary was given which enabled him, at
22, to study musical science. He now had op-
portunity also to hear the works of Fux, Cal-
dara, the brothers Conti, Porsile, and other
dramatic and church composers, adequately

aed. The Lombard prince di Melzi,
hearing Gluck both as a singer and violinist,
in the soirees of Lobkowitz, appointed him
chamber musician, took him to Milan, and
placed him under Sammartini. Having mean-
while shown talent in composition, in 1740 he
received an order to compose an opera for the
court theatre of Milan. The old field of the
Italian opera of Handel's time had now been
nearly exhausted, and the works of the day,
even those of the greatest masters, had gone
down in the scale until they were little more
than pieces of music written to give the sing-
ers opportunity to exhibit their powers. Real
musical expression was one of the last things
which entered into the thoughts of the com-
poser. Hence the first work of Gluck has an
importance in musical history beyond any oth-
er of that time, unless the oratorios of Han-
del be excepted. The text chosen for him was
the Artaserae of Metastasio, a libretto which
in its form was sufficient in case Gluck had
then, which he had not, thought out the system
which he afterward adopted and which pro-
duced an entire revolution in the musical
drama to prevent him from striking out an
entirely new path. Still the composer had an
indistinct feeling of the hollowness and insuffi-
ciency of the recognized forms of dramatic com-
position, and ventured to make expression the
great object of his music. He completed the
work, with the exception of one air, in his own
manner, and in 1741 had it in study. At the

hearsal in the theatre a large company
was present. The new work proved so differ-
ent from what they were accustomed to hear

be generally received with smiles, and
shnifrs, and jokes upon the German composer,
(ilurk let all pass without remark. For the
final rehearsal he composed the wanting air in
the strictest style of the day. It was a beau-
tiful piece for the singer, and when the audience
h. an! it they broke into the loudest applause,
nrnl with iiiiu consent attributed it to Sammar-
tini. Gluck remained silent. The first public
performance came off with appropriate scene-
ry and action. The house was crowded. The
interest rose with every number, the music
meeting with the most decided success, until
tin- modish air, which proved so "stale, flat,
and unprofitable," so out of character with all
the rest, that Gluck had to withdraw it and
substitute one more in the spirit of his work.
The success was triumphant, and the composer
was called from city to city of Italy to direct

the Artaserse. He was now the great operatic
composer of that era. In 1742 he wrote Demo-
foonte, text by Metastasio, for Milan ; Deme-
trio and Ipermnestra, texts by the same, for
Venice ; in 1743, Artamene for Cremona, and
Siface for Milan ; in 1744, Fedra for Milan ;
in 1745, Alessandro neW Indie, by Metastasio,
under the title Poro, for Turin. Lord Middle-
sex invited him to London to compose for the
theatre in the Haymarket, and in 1745 he set
out for the English capital, but found the thea-
tre closed. On Jan. 7, 1746, it was reopened,
with La caduta de" 1 giganti, by Gluck. It was
not successful, and was only performed five
times. He afterward produced Artamene with
better fortune, and Piramo e Tisbe, in which
pieces from his earlier works were, at the wish
of the managers, adapted to a new text. This
failed comparatively ; and this event led Gluck
to his permanent system of composition, whose
principles are as follows : 1, that dramatic
music can only reach its highest power and
beauty when joined to a text simple, truly
poetic, and exhibiting natural and definite emo-
tions and passions with the highest possible
truth to nature ; 2, that music might be made
the language of emotion, capable of expressing
the various feelings of the heart ; 3, that the
music must follow with all possible exactness
the rhythm and melody of the words ; 4, that
in accompaniments the instruments must be
used to strengthen the expression of the vocal
parts by their peculiar characters, or to height-
en the general dramatic effect by employing
them in contrast to the voice, as the text or
dramatic situation might demand. From these
principles it followed that the beautiful arias
then esteemed the highest efforts of the musi-
cal art, though in fact unsurpassable as means
of sensual gratification to the ear, could never
deeply touch the soul nor rouse any lasting
emotion. In his later years Gluck was in the
habit of saying, when an air of this kind was
commended : " Yes, it is right beautiful ; but
it does not draw blood." Toward the close of
1746 the composer returned to Germany. Dla-
vacz says he became a member of the electoral
orchestra of Dresden with a respectable salary,
which seems probable, but in fact none of the
biographers have cleared up the chronology
of his life for the two or three years after his
return. On June 29, 1747, an opera in one act,
Le nozze d^Ercole e cTEbe, music by Gluck, was
performed at Pilnitz in honor of the marriage
of Princess Anna, daughter of Augustus III.
According to Schmid, La Semiramide rico-
nosciuta, text by Metastasio, music by Gluck,
was performed at Vienna on Maria Theresa's
birthday, in May, 1748 ; and in the autumn of
the same year a newspaper contains a para-
graph of news from Hamburg, which is dated
Oct. 3, and says : " Herr Gluck, so well known
in music, is at present chapelmaster here in
place of Scalabrini." In 1749 he removed to
Vienna, and only left that city when called to
Italy and Paris to produce his works. In the

GLUOK

house of Joseph Pergin, a banker and wholesale
merchant, he was received both as a friend and
as music teacher of the two daughters. With
Marianne he fell in love, and his passion was
returned. The mother approved the match,
but when the young man applied to the father
for the hand of his daughter, he was rudely
refused, as being but a musician. Wounded
by this, Gluck now accepted an order to com-
pose Telemacco for the theatre Argentina at
Eome, and left Vienna at once, in such haste
to be away that, without waiting for his pass r
port, he smuggled himself across the boundary
in the habit of a Capuchin monk. In 1750
news came to him that Pergin was dead. As
m as his opera was upon the stage, where,
all his other works, it was successful, he
hastened back to Vienna, and on Sept. 15 was
larried. The marriage was childless, but few
been happier, and seldom even during his
lost tedious journeys were Gluck and his wife
iparated. In 1751 he visited Naples, to pro-
La clemema di Tito; in 1754 he com-
Le Cinesi, a fantastic production, per-
led at Schlosshof before the emperor and
Theresa ; and the same year he was
appointed chapelmaster of the imperial opera
at Vienna, which office he held until 1764.
jfore the close of the year he was again called
Rome, and produced there II trionfo di Ca-
millo and Antigono, which gained him from the
>pe the order of knight of the golden spur ;
lence his title in musical history, Chevalier or
r. In 1755 he produced the music to Me-
sio's Ladanza; in 1756, Vinnocenzagim-
ita in one act, and II re pastore in three,
tween 1755 and 1762 he composed also a
3at number of airs and other pieces for a
jries of ten French operettas and vaudevilles
srformed in Vienna. In 1760 his principal
/ork was Tetide, a serenata composed for the
mptials of the archduke Joseph ; and in 1761
a most successful ballet, Don Juan, or Das stei-
nerne Gastmahl, founded upon the same fable
jrward employed by Da Ponte in his text to
Mozart's immortal opera. In 1762 77 trionfo
li Clelia was composed at Bologna, and met
rith the invariable success of Gluck's produc-
tions, and then its author returned to Vienna.
Calzabigi had there ready for him the libretto
Orfeo ed Euridice, a poem differing com-
)letely in construction from the Metastasian
type, which then alone was recognized as clas-
sic throughout Europe. Orpheus, Eurydice,
and, in two or three short scenes, Amor are
the only characters represented. At the be-
ginning and end a chorus of Greeks, in Tarta-
rus a chorus of shades and demons, in Elysium
a chorus of blest spirits, each occupying a sin-
gle scene, with choral music and ballet, is all
that divides the attention from the three lead-
ing characters. The subject, opening with a
chorus at the tomb lamenting the death of Eu-
rydice, is the familiar myth, only changed at
the close, where Amor appears and finally re-
stores the beloved one to Orpheus. There is

but little action, and that of the simplest char-
acter. Everything depended upon exciting
the sympathies of the audience at the outset,
and holding them to the end, and this too by
musical means then new and strange. Twice
in this work Gluck has shown the daring of
genius trusting to its own powers, in a manner
not surpassed by Beethoven himself. At the
close of the first chorus Orpheus dismisses his
friends, and is left alone not merely to execute
a recitative and single air, written expressly
for the singer to exhibit his powers, but a series
of them, in which not an ornament or cadenza
is admitted, and which nothing but the depths
of expression in Gluck's music could redeem
even now from the fatal fault of tedium. The
other case is that in which Orpheus entering
Tartarus is confronted by demons and shades,
who by the force of his music at length are led
to give way and allow him to pass on to Ely-
sium. On Oct. 5, 1762, the opera was perform-
ed in public. Surprise and astonishment were
the emotions with which the audience left the
house. All hearts had been strangely moved.
It had interested the company from the first
singer to the most insignificant dancer in the bal-
let, and was given with rare perfection. The
music made its way to all hearts, it became a
most popular work in Vienna, and is still a
stock piece in Berlin. In 1763-'5 Gluck com-
posed Enzio, text by Metastasio; La rencontre
imprevue, text by L. H. Dancovot (afterward
very popular in a German translation with the
title Die Pilgrime von Melcka) ; and II Par-
nasso confmo, a dramatic poem by Metastasio,
performed in the palace at Schonbrunn by the
four daughters of Maria Theresa, sisters of
Marie Antoinette, their brother, the future
emperor Joseph, playing the harpsichord ; re-
vised Telemacco for the Vienna stage, and com-
posed La corona for the archduchesses. The
last piece was never performed, owing to the
sudden death of the emperor Francis. The
dramatic form of none of these works, although
they gave Gluck opportunity to prove his inex-
haustible fund of melodic and harmonic beauty,
enabled him to follow the path struck out in
the Orfeo. In the mean time Calzabigi prepared
another libretto for him, founded upon the
" Alcestis " of Euripides, and it was successful.
In 1769 it was printed in score, with the cele-
brated dedicatory epistle to the grand duke of
Tuscany. " When I undertook to set the opera
Alceste to music," he writes, "I purposed care-
fully to avoid all those abuses which the mis-
taken vanity of the singers, and the too great
good nature of composers, had introduced into
the Italian opera ; abuses which reduced one
of the noblest and most beautiful forms of the
drama to the most tedious and ridiculous. I
sought therefore to bring back music to its true
sphere, that is, to add to the force of the poetry,
to strengthen the expression of the emotions
and the interest of the situations, without inter-
rupting the action or deforming the music by
useless ornamentation. I was of opinion that

GLUCK

the music must be to the poetry what liveliness
of color and a happy mixture of light and shade
M feri fruitless and u.-n iirranged tawing,
whii-h serve only to add life to the figures
without injuring the outlines. I have therefore
taken care not to interrupt the actor in the fire
of his dialogue, and compel him to wait for the
performance of some long tedious ritornello, or
m the midst of a phrase suddenly hold him fast
at some favorable vowel sound, that he may
have opportunity by some long passage to ex-
hibit his voice, or to make him wait while the
orchestra gives him time to get breath for some
long fcrmate. Nor have I thought myself at
liberty to hurry over the second part of an aria,
wh'-ii" perhaps this is just the most passionate
and important part of the text, and this only
to allow the customary repetition of the words
four times; and just as little have I allowed
myself to bring the aria to an end where there
was no pause in the sense, just to gain an op-
portunity for the singer to show his skill in
varying a passage. Enough ; I wished to ban-
ish all those abuses against which sound com-
mon sense and true taste have so long contend-
ed in vain. I am of opinion that the overture
.should prepare the auditors for the character
of the action which is to be presented, and hint
at the progress of the same ; that the instru-
ments must be ever employed in proportion
only to the degree of interest and passion ; and
the composer should avoid too marked a dis-
parity in the dialogue between air and recita-
tive, in order not to break the sense of a pe-
riod, or interrupt in a wrong place the energy
of the action. Further, I considered myself
bound to devote a great share of my pains to
the attainment of a noble simplicity ; therefore
I also avoided an ostentatious heaping up of
difficulties at the expense of clearness ; I have
not valued in the least a new thought if it was
not awakened by the situation and did not give
the proper expression. Finally, I have even

Mipelled to sacrifice rules to the improve-
ment of the effect." In 1769 Gluck produced
a third opera in the new style, Paride ed Elena,
but it became popular only with musicians, and
has in late years never been revived. In that
yrar ho was called to Parma to compose festi-
val music for the marriage of the grand duke
to Maria Amalia, daughter of Maria Theresa.
Instead of a long opera, divided into acts, four
short one-act pieces were prepared, Le feste
di Apollo^ LAtto di Baud e Filemone, ISAtto
(TAriiteo, and for the fourth the Orfeo given in
seven scenes, with the greatest success. For
several years afterward he remained in Vienna,
enjoying great social distinction, but composing

u' for the stage. His next great effort
was the Iphigenie en Aulide, which after many
struggles and the removal of innumerable ob-
stacles was finally, through the influence of
Marie Antoinette, produced on April 19, 1774,

royal opera in Paris, whither Gluck had
gone in the previous summer. It was followed
by an embittered warfare between the adhe-

rents of the old school, then chiefly represented
at Paris by Piccini, and the converts to the
new ideas of Gluck. A catalogue of the wri-
tings of the Gluckists and Piccinists on the
two sides of this question would fill one of our
pages. The final result was the complete vic-
tory of Gluck. The composer followed up the
Iphigenie with the Orfeo ed Euridice, adapted
to the French stage, with the very material
alteration of changing the part of Orpheus to
that of a tenor, to suit the voice of Legros,
there being no contralto adequate to it. The
success of the work was as striking in Paris as
in Vienna and Turin. In February, 1775, Gluck
produced VArbre enchante, in one act, at Ver-
sailles, a work of no great importance, and
written merely for a festival given by Marie
Antoinette to her young brother Maximilian.
In August his Cythere assiegee was produced
at the academy, but met with no distinguished
success. Meantime he was zealously engaged
upon three works, an adaptation of Alceste to
the Prussian stage, and the operas Roland and
Armide, texts by Quinault. Roland he laid
aside on hearing that it had also been intrusted
to Piccini, and wrote a sharp letter to Bailly
du Rollet, which, without the consent of the
writer, was printed in the Annee litteraire,
and enraged the Piccinists. Early in 1776
Gluck was again in Paris with his Alceste. It
was produced, and hissed off the stage. The
unlucky composer, who had been behind the
scenes, rushed from the opera house, and meet-
ing a friend threw himself into his arms in
tears. As this ill success was mostly owing to
cabals among the singers and the personal ef-
forts of Gluck's opponents, and as the compo-
ser had influence enough to insure its repeti-
tion, it made its way with the public, and soon
took its place only below the Iphigenie and the
Orfeo. The war of the wits and critics was,
however, more bitter than ever. Gluck him-
self seems to have been not a little embittered,
and his polemical writings are often excessive-
ly keen. In the midst of his ill success with
the Alceste came the news that his niece Ma-
rianne, whose ill health had caused him this
time to visit Paris alone, had been carried off
at the age of 16 with the smallpox. Upon her
the childless musician had lavished all a fa-
ther's love. She had been a pupil of Millico,
and when but a child, as Burney records, was
already a songstress of wonderful powers. It
was not until Sept. 23, 1777, that the Armide,
text by Quinault, from Tasso, was produced.
It was rather coldly received, but is by many
considered the greatest composition of Gluck,
and by others only inferior to his later work,
the Iphigenie en Tauride. Gluck returned to
Vienna to work upon a new text, Iphigenie en
Tauride, by a young poet named Guilbard.
In November, 1778, he was so far advanced
with it that he returned to Paris, where on
May 18, 1779, it was produced. Like Haydn's
" Creation," written when he was nearly 70
years of age, this opera of Gluck, written at

GLtfCKSTADT

age of 64, ranks among the highest efforts
of the composer ; with many, as before stated,
it ranks the first. It is still, in a German trans-
lation, one of the favorite pieces on the Berlin
stage. It was the crowning triumph of Gluck's
system of operatic writing, and ended the se-
ries of works which gave direction to the ge-
nius of Mehul and Cherubini in Paris, Mozart
and Beethoven in Germany, in their works for
the stage. Another piece brought by Gluck
Paris at this time, the Echo et Narcisse, met
dth no great success. He returned to Vienna,
id in 1783 had an attack of apoplexy, which
msed him to decline the text of Les Danaides,
it him from Paris. To his dramatic compo-
tions Gluck added only for the church a De
Profundis, a psalm, Domine Dominus noster,
and a part of the sacred cantata, finished by
Salieri, Le jugement dernier. For months be-
fore his decease, Gluck had been obliged to use
the greatest precautions to prevent a return of
apoplexy. One day he invited two old Paris-
ian friends to dine with him. After the meal,
coffee and spirits were placed upon the table,
and Mme. Gluck went out to order the carriage
for the daily drive prescribed by the physician.
One of the friends excusing himself from emp-
tying his glass, the host at last seized it, swal-
lowed its contents, and laughingly told them
not to let his wife know of it, as everything of
the kind was forbidden to him. The coach
being ready, Mme. Gluck invited the guests to
amuse themselves in the garden for a short
time. Gluck took leave of them at the coach
door. Fifteen minutes afterward he had an-
other stroke; the coachman hurried home ; his
master had already lost all consciousness, and
soon breathed his last. See Gluck et Piccine,
by Gustave Desnoiresterres (Paris, 1872).

GLliCKSTADT, a town of Prussia, in the prov-
ince of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank
of the Elbe, 27 m. N. W. of Altona ; pop. in
1871, 5,073. The inhabitants are chiefly en-
gaged in commerce and the whale fishery.
The town was fortified in 1620 by Christian
IV. It was unsuccessfully attacked by Wal-
lenstein in 1627, by Tilly in 1628, by Torsten-
son in 1644, and yielded to the allie's in 1814.
The fortifications were demolished in 1815,
and it was declared a free town in 1830. It
passed into the possession of Prussia in 1866.
The town has a gymnasium, and is connect-
ed by rail with Altona, Kiel, and Rendsburg.
The royal line of the dukes of Holstein assumed
from this town the name of Holstein-Gluck-
stadt, while the ducal line bore the name of
Holstein-Gottorp.

GLUE (Lat. gluere, to draw together), an im-
pure variety of gelatine, used in the arts for
uniting substances through its adhesive quality.
It is obtained much in the same manner from
the same substances as gelatine, but usually
from the more refuse portions, as damaged
hides and other tissues undergoing putrefaction.
Glue obtained from bones by the use of acids
is preferred to that which is obtained by steam,

GLUE

the latter being more soluble in cold water.
The strongest glue is made from the parings
of ox hides, which yield over 50 per cent.
They are steeped for several days in milk of
lime to remove the hair, blood, and other im-
purities; then washed in cold water, drained
on an inclined plane, and again washed. Ex-
posure to the air converts the lime into car-
bonate, so that in boiling the caustic action of
the lime is prevented. The material is then
enclosed in a coarse cloth and put into a cop-
per boiler, which is two thirds filled with rain
water, and the whole is boiled. The dissolved
glue mingles with the water outside of the
cloth, and when the liquid sets into a firm jelly
on cooling it is run into a deep vessel or set-
tling back and kept warm for impurities to sub-
side. "Water is again added to the boiler, and
the material in the cloth subjected to a second
boiling, by which an inferior glue is obtained.
The liquid in the settling back is drawn into
coolers, where it solidifies, and is then cut into
slices with a wire frame. The slices are laid
upon netting in a drying room, in which there
is a free circulation of air. The operation of
drying is a critical one. Too much heat will
cause liquefaction ; a fog may cause mouldiness,
and frost will split the slices. Good glue is
of a pale brown color, hard and brittle, and
breaks with a glassy fracture. Its other chem-
ical and physical properties are like those of
gelatine. The quality of glue may be judged
of by the quantity of water which the dry
glue will absorb in 24 hours. The best glue
kept immersed in water of the temperature of
60 F. has absorbed 12 times its weight. Oth-
er qualities, it is said, take up a proportionally
less quantity. Besides its use for cementing
wood and hard substances, glue is employed in
preparing the felt bodies of hats, and as an in-
gredient in the composition of inking rollers, to
give them flexibility. Several varieties of glue
are employed in the arts, some of which may
properly be noticed here, although they are not
all preparations of gelatine. If glue is treated
with a small proportion of nitric acid, it loses
its property of gelatinizing when cold, though
not that of causing substances to adhere to-
gether. With acetic acid a similar effect is
produced. What is called liquid glue is made
by slowly adding nitric acid to the ordinary
preparation of glue in the proportion of 10 oz.
of strong acid to 2 Ibs. of dry glue dissolved in
a quart of water. The product is a strong
glue, which remains in a liquid state, and may
be thus kept for years always ready for use.
Marine glue is a preparation of caoutchouc
dissolved in naphtha or oil of turpentine, with
the addition of shell lac after the solution has
by standing several days acquired the consis-
tency of cream ; two or three parts by weight
of shell lac are used for one of the solution.
The composition is then heated and run into
plates, and when used it is heated to the
temperature of about 250 F. It possesses
extraordinary adhesive properties, and being

GLUKHOV

GLUTTON

quite insoluble in water, it has been recom-
mended as a material for fastening together
the timbers of ships; so securely are these
held by its application that it is said they
will sooner break across the fibres than sepa-
rate at tin- joint.

GLI KHOV, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment and 108 m. E. by N. of the city of Tcher-
nigov, on the Yesmana; pop. in 1867, 10,747.

eight churches and several schools, and
was formerly the seat of the governor general
ot I.ittk- liussia.

M.I TEX, or Vegetable Flbrine, a tough elastic
substance, named from its adhesive glue-like
property, an ingredient in wheat especially, and
in smaller proportion in most of the cerealia
and in some leguminous plants. When wheat
flour is well kneaded upon a sieve under a
stream of water, the starch is removed in sus-
pension in the water, and the soluble dextrine
and sugar are washed away, and the gluten re-
mains behind. This was supposed by Beccaria,
who first noticed it, to be a distinct principle ;
but it is found still to retain a little starch, and
other ingredients are separated from it ac-
cording to their different reactions when treat-
ed with boiling alcohol. The pure vegetable
fi brine is then found to constitute about 72 per
cent, of the original gluten, while an albumin-
ous substance called gliadine, vegetable caseine,
and a vegetable oil make up the remainder.
Gluten from rye flour contains very little of
the tenacious ingredient, gliadine; and other
grains furnish gluten of variable proportions of
its ingredients. It is gluten which gives to the
dough of wheat flour its peculiar tenacity, and
A ing to this that the escape of carbonic
-acid gas is arrested in the fermentation of
wheat bread, and the product is consequently
and more spongy than other bread.
Macaroni and vermicelli are preparations of
^ In ten. and the flour of the south of Europe is
>aid to be peculiarly adapted for this manufac-

is it generally contains a considerably
lar<rer proportion of gluten than that grown
further north. But the proportion is variable
in wheat of the same vicinity, and it may be

d by the use of animal manures, espe-
cially those richest in nitrogen. Liebig noticed

h -at manured with cow dung (which
contains but little nitrogen) produced 11-95 per
cent, of 00 ton; while another portion ma-
nured with human urine yielded the maximum
of gluten. :;:,- 1 per cent. Summer wheat grown
in thejardin de plants at Paris was found to
1 per cent, of gluten, while a sample
<>t wmt.T wheat gave but 3'33 per cent. As
gluten is the ino-t nutritious ingredient in the
grain*, its proportion has been carefully esti-
lated by chemists. Vauquelin found it in

avenging II-IM ,,,. r cent: Dumas 12-50
per cent.; and Dr. Lewis C. Meek, from 33
Mmplei gathered from different parts of the
1 Ditad Mates, found an average of 11-72 the
range being from 9-85 to 15-25 per cent. Prof
Hereford, by ultimate analysis of the wheat, in-

stead of separation of the gluten by mechanical
washing, obtained an average of 15-14 per cent.
from six samples. Payen found the propor-
tions of gluten and other nitrogenous matters
in wheat to range from 11*20 to 22*75 per cent. ;
in rye, 13-15; barley, 13-96; oats, 14-39; corn
meal, 12-50; rice, 7'05. Prof. Johnston found
in English fine wheat flour 10, in bran of the
same flour 18, in Scotch oatmeal 18, and in
corn meal 12 per cent, of gluten. It is found by
very careful and repeated analyses that the bran
of wheat and of most other cereals is richer in
gluten, and consequently more nutritious, than
the rest of the grain. Hence the preference for
flour that by thorough bolting has been most
completely deprived of bran is unwise ; and the
whitest flour is less valuable for its nutritive
qualities than that made from the whole grain.
The bran sometimes constitutes one quarter
or more of the grain, and, according to the
analyses of Prof. Johnston, contains 14 to 18
per cent, of gluten, while the fine flour con-
tains only 10 per cent. Gluten is readily re-
duced in quantity, and its tenacity is dimin-
ished by injury to the grain. Flour dealers and
bakers judge of the quality of flour by the
tenacity of the dough made from a few grains
of it. The subject is further treated under
ALIMENT.

GLUTTON, a carnivorous mammal, belonging
to the family mustelida, subfamily martinm,
and genus gulo (Storr). The dental formula is
that of the true martens, viz. : incisors f if , ca-
nines \~\, premolars |z|, molars !=?, in all
38 ; the first three molars in the upper and the
first four in the lower jaw are small, succeeded
by a larger carnivorous tooth. In dentition and
general structure the glutton resembles the

Glutton or Wolverene (Gulo luscus).

martens; but in its shape, and partially planti-
grade feet, it so much resembles a small bear
that many writers have placed it among the
ursidai. Ihe head is rather pointed and bear-
like, the eyes and ears very small, the body long
and stout, the legs short and robust, the claws

GLYCERINE

large and sharp, the soles covered for the most
part with bristly hairs, and the tail short and
bushy. The glutton of Europe ( O. luscus, Linn.)
is about as large as a badger, of a deep brown,
darkish on the back. The voracity of this ani-
mal, though great, has been much exaggerated.
It is nocturnal, inhabits the coldest countries,
as Russia and Siberia, and is active all winter.
The American glutton, called also wolverene
and carcajou, seems to be a paler variety of the
0. luscus ; the color is dark brown above, pass-
ing into black ; a pale band runs on each side
from the shoulder around the flanks, uniting
on the hips ; tail with long bushy hairs. The
inner fur is soft and short, the outer long and
coarse, like that of the black bear ; across the
forehead, on each side of the neck, and between
the legs, are patches and tufts of white hairs.
The average length to root of tail is 2f ft., the
tail from 10 to 12 in., and the height at shoulder
about a foot; the width of the hind feet is
nearly 5 in., so that their tracks in the snow
are not unlike those of the bear. The wolver-
ene is confined almost exclusively to the north-
ern regions of the continent, being most abun-
dant in the Rocky mountains near the arctic
circle ; it is occasionally seen in northern New
York, and in the west has been found as far
south as Great Salt lake. The strength, agility,
cunning, and voracity attributed to the glutton
by- the older writers are mostly fabulous; it is
by no means ferocious, is slow and heavy in
its motions, not remarkably voracious, neither
strong nor agile enough to pounce upon and kill
deer and other large game, and avoids entering
water in pursuit of prey. The wolverene gen-
erally hunts at night, spending the day in holes
and caves; its food consists principally of mice,
marmots, and other rodents, grouse and other
birds which have plunged under the snow;
there is no proof that it destroys the beaver, ex-
cept occasionally; it may sometimes finish lar-
ger animals disabled by the hunter, by old age,
or by accident, and when very hungry will eat
carrion. It is notorious for following the traps
of the hunter, and stealing therefrom both the
bait and the captured animal, and for digging
up and destroying caches of provisions. The
wolverene is very suspicious, and rarely caught
except in carefully concealed steel traps ; it is
very strong for its size, its weight being from
25 to 30 Ibs. The young are produced once a
year, two to four at a time. The fur of the
wolverene is used for muffs and sleigh robes.
The specific name luscus was given by Linnaeus
to an American animal, which happened to
have but one eye ; should the European glut-
ton be separated from the wolverene, it would
be properly called G. lorealis (Nilsson).

GLYCERINE (Gr. yAwuf, sweet), the sweet
principle of oils, a triatomic alcohol, the base
of the compounds found in animal fats and also
in some vegetable substances, discovered by
Scheele in 1779. Its composition is represent-
ed by the formula C 3 H 8 O 3 . It is a colorless,
transparent, sweet sirup, without odor, of spe-
364 VOL. vm. 4

cific gravity 1'28 ; it is inflammable, mixes free-
ly with water, taking it from the air, is also
soluble in alcohol, sparingly in ether, and dis-
solves salts that are soluble in water ; it does
not become rancid by exposure, but with ani-
mal tissue may be made to ferment. At a
temperature above 600 F. it is decomposed,
being converted into acroleine, acetic acid, and
inflammable gases. Between 500 and 600 it
may be distilled with only partial decomposi-
tion. It may be cooled to 4 F. without
freezing. Berthelot has succeeded in combi-
ning it with the fatty acids, and has thus pro-
duced the organic fatty substances, stearine,
margarine, oleine, &c. This was eifected by
keeping the mixture of acids and glycerine at
a temperature of 212 for several days in close
vessels. At higher heat much less time is re-
quired. Glycerine is a product of the process
of saponification. As prepared by the phar-
maceutists, it is taken up with boiling water
from its mixture in a free state with the plum-
biferous soap called lead plaster. The plaster
is made by boiling together litharge (oxide of
lead), olive oil, and water. The oil is decom-
posed by the lead taking its acids, and the gly-
cerine is thus liberated. When hot water is
added in equal quantity to the plaster, the
mixture is well stirred, and the liquid part is
decanted ; any lead that may be present is
thrown down by a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and is got rid of by filtering. The
water is finally removed by evaporation at a
temperature below 212, leaving the glycerine.
Various other methods of preparing it are in
use. The mother liquor of the soap factories
affords a convenient source of it. From thia
it is separated by adding a slight excess of sul-
phuric acid, heating the solution with carbonate
of baryta, filtering, and, after the filtrate has
been concentrated by evaporation, taking up
the glycerine with alcofiol, which is afterward
to be distilled off. A hot solution of fat has
been decomposed by injecting into it super-
heated steam. The fatty acids and glycerine,
collected in a receiver, separate in two layers,
the glycerine at the bottom. The acids can be
drawn off, so as to leave the glycerine with no
other mixture than water. The method of de-
tecting the presence of glycerine when in small
quantity is based on the marked qualities of
the substance acroleine into which it is in part
converted by heat. If the substance supposed
to contain it be separated from foreign mixture
as far as possible and rapidly heated, either
alone or with a little anhydrous phosphoric
acid, the acroleine generated, in case glycerine
was present, will be detected by the pungent
acrid odor, somewhat like that from the wick
of a candle just extinguished. Glycerine is
formed in small quantities during the process
of alcoholic fermentation. 0. Friedl and R.
Silva have succeeded in preparing it artificially
from the chloride of propylene, which in turn
is made without the use of glycerine itself.
Owing to its property of long continuing moist,

GLYCERINE

and its strong affinity for water, it may be ap-
plied to the skin or to mucous surfaces, when

sired to prevent dryness and to use a
bland and soothing application, as in chapped
hands or lips, many skin diseases, a parched
and glazed condition of the mouth, &c. If ap-
plied undiluted, it withdraws water from the
raoister tissues under it. For external uses it
mar be advantageously combined with tannin,
carbolic acid, or borax, all of which are readily
dissolved by it With starch a plasma of any
required consistency may be formed, which
takes the place of an ointment, and has the ad-
vantage of not being greasy, and being capable
of easy removal by washing. Inferior varieties
of glycerine may contain irritating impurities.
Either alone or with a small proportion of car-
bolic acid, it is a very useful medium for the
preservation of anatomical specimens in a con-
dition of pliability, and is also of great value in
microscopic anatomy. Glycerine is a powerful
solvent, and may be used in pharmacy to pre-
vent drying as well as decomposition. The
vegetable alkaloids dissolve in it readily, and
may be used in this form for subcutaneous in-
jection. It has been suggested for internal use
in diabetes, instead of sugar, and also as a sub-
stitute for cod -liver oil; but experience does
not assign to it much value for these purposes.
For use in cosmetics and perfumery it is large-
ly manufactured, its soft agreeable qualities,
without greasiness or liability to putrefy, ren-
dering it an excellent ingredient in soaps for
the toilet, pomade, hair tonics, &c. It is lately
employed in the photographic art, and its use
is extending for a variety of new purposes. A
jrly<-orine ointment of much repute for chapped
hands and excoriations is made as follows:
} oz. of spermaceti is melted together with a
drachm of white wax and 2 fluid oz. of oil of
almonds, by a moderate heat ; the mixture is
l>oured into a Wedgwood mortar, when a fluid
ounce of glycerine is added to it and rubbed till
the ingredients are thoroughly mixed and cold.
The consumption of glycerine in the manufac-
ture of beer amounts to more than 20,000 cwt.
per annum. It also finds extensive use for the
toll.) wing purposes: mixed with water to fill wet
gas metres ; to lubricate the inside of moulds
l'>r piaster casts; to prevent the shrinkage of
wooden vessels; to preserve meat, fruit, can-
die*, medicines, mustard, and tobacco; as a
hair wash; in soaps and cosmetics; for the
extraction of perfumes ; to impart elasticity to
paper ; in various photographic operations ; as
a solvent for certain aniline colors; in calico

MK; in the preparation of leather; as a
ito for oil in delicate machinery ; as a
float to swimming compasses; in mercurial
manometers; as a substitute for alcohol in the
preservation of anatomical preparations; to
prevent the rusting of instruments ; in the ar-
tificial production of oil of mustard ; to cure

1*, burns, and bites of venomous insects;
i !' tvim-nts; fur throat dis-
iu upyin- ink ; in chemistry to prevent

GLYPTODON

the precipitations of the heavy metals; and
very largely in the manufacture of the explosive
compounds nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualline,
and lithofracteur. (See EXPLOSIVES.)

GLYNN, a S. E. county of Georgia, bordering
on the Atlantic, and bounded N. by the Alta-
maha river ; area, about 400 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 6,376, of whom 3,450 were colored. It
is traversed by the Macon and Brunswick and
the Brunswick and Albany railroad. The sur-
face is level and occupied partly by sandy pine
barrens, partly by vast swamps, which when
drained are productive. The sea island cotton
grows here in perfection. Several islands on
the coast, one of which is about 12 m. long,
are included in the county. The chief produc-
tions in 1870 were 15,589 bushels of Indian
corn, 6,774 of sweet potatoes, 167 bales of
cotton, and 740,880 Ibs. of rice. There were
2 manufactories of tin, copper, and sheet-iron
ware, 1 iron foundery, and 4 saw mills. Capi-
tal, Brunswick.

GLYPTODON, a gigantic fossil mammal, be-
longing to the edentate order with the mega-
therium and mylodon, but to the family dasy-
pidrn or armadillos, found in the post-tertiary

Glyptodon clavipes.

deposits of the pampas of South America, and
especially in the neighborhood of Buenos Ayres.
This animal, with the fossil genera above men-
tioned, establishes the transition between the
sloths and the armadillos, and also indicates
some pachyderm affinities. Four species have
been described by Prof. Owen, of which the
largest is the G. clavipes; this species, in the
structure of the foot and the articulation of
the lower jaw, approaches the pachyderms ; it
resembles the megatherioids in the strong de-
scending process of the zygomatic arch, com-
pressed from before backward; the cranium
was protected by dermal plates, and its well
developed ridges indicate the existence of very
powerful muscles. The teeth, eight on each
side of each jaw, have a large proportion of
hard dentine, and are characterized by two
lateral sculptured grooves, whose wide and
deep channels divide the grinding surface into
three portions; hence the generic name ap-
plied by Owen, which means "sculptured
tooth." The back and sides were covered by
a carapace composed of thick polygonal bony
plates, united by sutures, smooth on the inside,
rough and sculptured externally, to the num-
ber of more than 2,000. The length of the
largest living armadillo, covered with a flat-

GMELIN

GNAT

tened shield, is about 3 ft. ; the size of the
glyptodon may be imagined from the measure-
ment of its carapace in the museum of the royal
college of surgeons: the length, following the
curve of the back, is 5 ft. 7 in. in a straight
line, or the chord of the arc, 4f ft. ; the breadth,
following the curve, is 7 ft. in a straight
line, 3 ft. The tail measured H ft- in length,
and 14 in. in circumference at the circular
base; it was slightly depressed toward the
apex, and gently curved, with the concavity
upward ; the caudal vertebrae were enclosed in
an inflexible sheath of bony plates, terminated
by two ossicles, like a bivalve shell, enabling
it to pierce the soil if necessary. The feet
were short and stout, armed with depressed
nails. The glyptodon, in its firm, convex car-
apace, scale-covered tail and head, short limbs,
and consequent slow motions, presents many
external analogies to chelonian reptiles, and in
its size and shape must have resembled rather
the living Galapagos tortoise than the great
armadillo. Like the living armadillo, the ex-
tinct glyptodon was confined to the warm parts
of South America. Other species described
by Owen are G. ornatus, G. reticulatus, and
G. tuberculatus, all obtained from the vicinity
of Buenos Ayres.

GMELIJf. I. Joliann Georg, a German natural-
ist, born in Tubingen, June 12, 1709, died there,
May 20, 1755. In 1731 he became professor
of chemistry and natural history in St. Peters-
burg. In 1733-'43 he made a scientific journey
through Siberia. In 1747 he returned to Tu-
bingen, and in 1749 was appointed professor of
botany and chemistry there. His Reisen durch
Sibirien (4 vols., Gottingen, l751-'2) and Flora
Sibirica (4 vols., St. Petersburg, 1749-70) are
his principal works. II. Samuel Gottlieb, a Ger-
man botanist, nephew of the preceding, born in
Tubingen about 1744, died at Akhmetkent, in
the Caucasus, July 27, 1774. He was profes-
sor of botany in St. Petersburg, and travelled
extensively through southern Russia and the
adjacent countries. While on his way from
Derbend to Kisliar, he was seized and im-
prisoned by the khan of the Kaitak tribe,
and died of privation and ill treatment. His
chief works are Historia Fucorum (1768), and
Reisen durch Russland zur Untersuchung der
drei Naturreiche (4 vols., l770-'84), of which
the concluding part is by Pallas. III. Joliann
Friedricb, nephew of Johann Georg, born in
Tubingen, Aug. 8, 1748, died in Gottingen,
Nov. 1, 1804. In 1771 he became professor
of natural history and botany at Tubingen,
and in 1778 professor of medicine and chem-
istry at Gottingen. He published, among other
works, Onomatologia Botanica completa (10
vols., 177l-'8) ; Allgemeine Geschichte der
mineralischen Gifte (1777); Allgemeine Ge-
schichte der Pflanzengifte (1777) ; and Ge-
schichte der Chemie (3 vols., !797-'9). He was
also the editor of the 13th edition of Linnseus's
Systema Natures. IV. Leopold, a German chem-
ist, son of the preceding, born in Gottingen,

Aug. 2, 1788, died in Heidelberg, April 13,
1853. He was educated at Gottingen, Tubin-
gen, and Vienna, and from 1817 to 1851 was
professor of medicine and chemistry at Heidel-
berg. In 1820 he made with Tiedemann a
series of experiments on digestion, the result
of which was published in his Die Verdauung
(2 vols., 1826-'7). His principal work is his
Handbuch der theoretischen Chemie (3 vols.,
1817-'19; 5th ed., completed by Schloss-
berger, List, and Liebig, 7 vols., 1853-'62).
There is an English translation of this work,
by Henry Watt (9 vols., London, 1848-'55).

GMUND, or Schwabish-Gmiind, a town of Wur-
temberg, in the circle of the Jaxt, on the Rems,
28 m. E. K E. of Stuttgart ; pop. in 1871, 10,-
739. It has a Latin school, a Catholic normal
school, institutions for the blind and the deaf
and dumb, an insane asylum, two hospitals,
important manufactures of gold, silver, copper,
and bronze ware, and considerable hop culture.

GNAT, a name commonly given to the fam-
ily culicidce, of the proboscidean division of
the order diptera or two-winged insects ; the
cousin of the French, the mosquito of the

1. Female (greatly magnified). 2. Male.

United States. The gnats belong to the genus
culex (Linn.), which is characterized by a soft,
elongated body ; long legs ; large head and
eyes; long, many-jointed antennae, most plu-
mose in the males; uniform and hairy palpi,
longest in the males; a sucking proboscis,
formed of a membranous sheath enclosing from
two to six sharp bristles or lancets, which
take the place of jaws, and whose punctures,
therefore, are properly called bites ; the side
pieces of this apparatus serve not only as suc-
tion tubes, but as supporters and protectors of
the lancets ; wings horizontal, delicate, and
many-veined ; the winglets, two little scales
behind the wings, and moving with them, are
small ; behind these are the knobbed balancers
or poisers. The old genus culex was divided
by Meigen into three, and was by him re-
stricted to such gnats as have the palpi in
the males longer than the proboscis, and very
short in the females; the other two were ano-
pheles (Meigen), in which the palpi of the males
are as long as the proboscis, and cedes (Hoff-
mannsegg), in which they are very short in
both sexes; to these were afterward added
sdbeihes, with palpi shorter than proboscis;
megarhinus, with very long recurved proboscis
and short palpi; and psorophora, with a small

GNAT

appendage on each side of the prothorax
Other genera, ill-characterized for the most

thaVeb^n added by modern systematists.
the names gnat and mosquito are also given in
ne places to members of the family tipulada* ;
TnTour own mosmiitoes belong to several
irenera, among which is the genus culex, prop-
erly confined to the more northern regions of
the continent. Dr. Harris mentions five species
,,f rnler and one of anopheles as found in New
Enffland ; to these many species and several
genera must be added. Some species are ac-
tive by day, others only by night, but both are
equally fond of human blood; the former are
found principally in marshes and damp woods
and rarely in houses, and are of more brilliant
colors than the nocturnal species. The males
with plumed antennae do not annoy us by their
bites, but simply flit from flower to flower,
sipping the dew and sweet juices, requiring
but little if any food, propagating their species,
and soon after perishing. The female gnats
are most persistent biters and annoying mu-
sicians, at almost all seasons of the year ; from
the tropics to Lapland and arctic America, man
is obliged to adopt some contrivance to protect
himself from their attacks, either the thick
coat of grease of the northern regions, the sand
bed of the tropics, the smoky smudge of the
woods, or the mosquito bars and curtains of
civilized life. Gnats have been known to ap-
pear in such swarms as to constitute an insect
plague, darkening the air like clouds of smoke,
arresting the progress of invading armies, and
rendering whole districts for the time uninhab-
itable; attacking not only man but beasts,
and, even when not biting, filling every crack
and corner with their countless multitudes.
When we consider the immense number of
these insects, and the comparatively small
proportion which can ever taste human
blood, we must admit, what experiments
with sweetened fluids have confirmed, that
vegetable juices form the food of the greater
number of females, and perhaps the natural
food of all ; many males probably do not eat
at all. The sucking apparatus is admirably
contrived for obtaining fluids, animal or vege-
table, and these insects are provided with \
sucking stomach independent of the proper di
gestive cavity. The sucker is well describee
and figured by Reaumur in his "Memoirs;'
the flexible sheath gives support to the lancets
while they penetrate the skin ; the point of the
combined lancets is sharper than the finest
needle, so that the size of each of the severa
weapons most be very small ; the wounds made
by this instrument would be insignificant, were
it not for an irritating secretion from the pro
boacia, which in some delicate skins produce
obstinate itching, and, in rare instances, even
irritable ulcers. The metamorphoses whicl
gnats and mosquitoes undergo are very curious
The eggs are deposited in almost any natura
or artificial receptacle for fresh water, and ar
arranged in a boat-shaped form ; fixing herself

>y the four anterior legs to some object at the
urface of the water, the female crosses her
lind legs in the form of the letter X ; bringing
he latter close to the end of the body, on a
evel with the water, the first egg is received
ind retained in place by the crossed legs ; as
he eggs are extruded they are placed side by
ide vertically, adhering firmly together by the
glutinous substance which covers them ; when
he stern of the egg raft is properly raised, it
s pushed further from the body by the succeed-
ng ova, always retained in place by the legs
on the sides ; when the raft is about half made
and its shape is determined, the legs are un-
jrossed and placed parallel, and the prow of
.he boat is narrowed and raised like the stern.
The boat is always of the same shape, contain-
ng from 250 to 350 eggs, and is abandoned by
.he mother to the mercy of the winds and
waves, which can neither sink, wet, nor break
t up ; even a temperature below freezing can-
not destroy the life within these eggs. The larvro
some out in a few days from the lower end of

1. Wing of gnat, showing nervures and small cells. 2. Ter-
mination of abdomen of male. 8. Termination of abdo-
men of female. 4, 5, 6. Modes of operation of gnat's
sucker. 7. Gnat's eggs. 8. Boat of gnat's eggs.

the eggs, which are arranged somewhat like
the seeds of the ripe sunflower, and the empty
shell boat is soon destroyed by the weather.
The larvae of gnats and mosquitoes are the
well known " wigglers " seen in warm wea-
ther in almost every collection of standing
water; they remain, as it were, suspended
from the surface of the water, head downward,
breathing air by means of a respiratory tube
which goes off at an angle from near the end
of the body, communicating with the tracheae ;
the tube and the terminal joint are provided
with radiating hairs ; the head is round, dis-
tinct, with antennae and ciliated organs which
keep up a constant current of water toward
the mouth, and bring within their reach the
minute animalcules on which they feed ; the
thorax and ten-jointed abdomen are furnished
with lateral pencils of hairs. If disturbed,
these larvae quickly wriggle to the bottom, but
soon come again to the surface and suspend
themselves by the respiratory tube. Some
species are comparatively free from hairs in

GNAT

lis condition. After remaining in tlie larva
state from five to fifteen days, according to the
weather, and changing their skins two or three
times, they are changed into pupro, called tum-
blers from the manner in which they roll over
and over in the water by means of the fin-like
paddles at the end of the tail ; they are very
quick in their motions, and swim with the
head upward ; the respiratory openings are at
the end of two tubes situated just behind the
head, so that the little tumblers remain near
the surface, head upward, to take in air ; in
this state, which lasts five or ten days, accord-
ing to circumstances, the insect takes no food ;
the future gnat can be distinguished through
the transparent covering of the pupa. When
the perfect insect is ready to come forth, the
pupa skin bursts open on the back toward noon
on a warm, still, sunny day, and the head of
the gnat makes its appearance, followed soon
by the thorax ; this is a process of great dan-
ger to the insect, as the slightest breeze would
tip over the emerging form, and consign it to
certain death in the water; after it has suc-
ceeded in raising its body except the tail, and
stands erect like a mast in the pupa shell boat,
it extricates the front pair of legs and places
them for support on the surface of the water ;
the heavy and wet wings are now slowly un-
folded, that the sun and air may dry them;
this effected, the danger is over, and the other
legs are drawn forth and extended on the edge
.of the pupa case, the body is stretched out,
the antennae and proboscis elevated ; by this
time the wings are dry and fully expanded, and
the insect flies off to revel among the flowers
or in search of blood, according to the sex.
The source of the buzzing noise has been much
discussed by naturalists, and is still the subject
of dispute ; it has been ascribed to the mouth
by Mouffet, to the friction of the base of the
wings against the chest by Kirby ; the wing-
lets, the poisers, the motion of the wings, the
rapid passage of air through the thoracic stig-
mata, and the vibrations of the thorax from
the contraction of the muscles of the wings,
have been supposed to be the cause by other
entomologists ; by whatever organ it be pro-
duced, Siebold says it is always due to the ac-
tion of voluntary muscles, and has no connec-
tion with the respiratory system. It is prob-
able that the sound is produced by the com-
bined action of the wings and by the thoracic
vibrations consequent thereon. It has been
estimated by Baron de la Tour that the gnat
vibrates its wings 50 times in a second. This
very rapid movement probably depends on a
peculiar form of muscle which has been detect-
ed in the mosquito and other diptera ; the
fibrillse are not bound together as in ordinary
striated muscles, but are separate and parallel,
formed by the aggregation in a linear series of
little disks with regular interspaces ; contrac-
tion of these independent fibrillae takes place
by the approximation of these disks to each
other ; some are contracting while others are

GNEISENAU

relaxed, so that a constant and rapid move-
ment of the wings is secured. It is certainly
a remarkable example of the extent of mod-
ern microscopic investigation, that the minute
muscles of the wings and legs of the mosquito
can be dissected and studied. Some of the bi-
ting culicidoB do not make a boat of eggs, but
string their ova end to end ; others deposit them
in soft mud or in dry sand ; but all require
moisture in the larva state. As the eggs are
developed into the perfect insects in about three
weeks, many broods are hatched in the course
of the warm season, fully explaining their oc-
currence in large numbers ; fortunately only a
small portion of the pupaa succeed in extrica-
ting themselves from their cases ; thousands of
them perish by drowning, and are devoured
by fish, reptiles, and aquatic insects ; the per-
fect gnats supply food for carnivorous insects,
the great tribe of fly-catching birds, and the
bats. The family of tipuladce are also called
gnats; these are often seen performing their
aerial dances during the summer, and in shel-
tered places even in mild days in winter, pre-
ferring the decline of day ; these dancing com-
panies are said always to consist exclusively
of males; any attempt to intrude upon their
sportive circles shows their quickness of vision
and of motion, as the whole company is at
once removed to a distance. These gnats some-
times crowd into houses in immense numbers.
GNEISENAU, August, count, a Prussian general,
born at Schilda, Oct. 28, 1760, died in Posen,
Aug. 24, 1831. He served in the Austrian
army, and in that of the margrave of Anspach-
Baireuth, with whose troops he served in
America under the English, shortly before the
close of the revolutionary war. He became
captain in the Prussian army in 1789, and after
the battle of Jena was appointed commander
of the fortress of Colberg (1807), and held the
place till the peace of Tilsit. The resentment
of Napoleon caused hia dismissal (1809), but
he was sent on secret missions to various courts.
Afterward he was attached to Bliicher's army
as quartermaster general, and as chief of the
staff. (See BUTCHER.) He took a leading part
in the Silesian campaign of 1813, and after the
battle of Leipsic was made lieutenant general.
He rendered important services during the cam-
paign of 1814 in France, and is said to have
advised the march to Paris. After the peace
he was made count and general, and received
a large estate. After the return of Napoleon
from Elba he again served with Blucher, and
effected a skilful retreat from Ligny (June 16),
enabling the Prussians to reappear at Waterloo
(on the 18th), and to decide the fate of the
campaign. He now took part in the negotia-
tions for peace, was made commander of the
Rhenish corps, and accompanied Blucher to
England. Disappointed in his expectation of
constitutional liberty, he tendered his resigna-
tion. In 1818 he was appointed governor of
Berlin, and in 1825 field marshal; and in 1831,
during the Polish insurrection, he commanded

-.> GNEISS

the array of observation on the Polish borders,
soon after which he died of cholera.

GMH88, one of the roetamorphio rocks, of
the same composition with granite, from which
it differs in presenting the three ingredients,
quartz mica, and feldspar, in tolerably distinct
layers. The whole mass is often divided into
distinct beds or strata, and these exhibit a ten-
dency to cleave along the planes in which the
mica" is most largely distributed. By increased
proportion of mica and loss of feldspar, it passes
into micaceous slate. The name gneissic is
sometimes given to the group of metamorphic
rocks, including the micaceous and hornblende
slates, quartz rocks, &c. They are also called
hypozoic in reference to their position beneath
the fossiliferous strata. The series is familiarly
known in the eastern and middle states, rang-
ing through Vermont, Massachusetts, the S. E.
part of New York, northern New Jersey, east-
ern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia.
The gold region lies in this group.

GNEIST, Eidolf, a German author, born in
Berlin, Aug. 18, 1816. He is professor of juris-
prudence in and pro-rector of the university of
Berlin, has been a leading liberal member of
the Prussian chamber, and is the author of
Dot heutige englische Verfasvungt- vnd Ver-
v>altung*recht (2 vols., Berlin, 1857-'60), Die
Getchichte det Selfgovernment in England
(1868), Gachichte vnd heutige Gestalt der
Aemter vnd de* Verwaltungsrecht* in England
(2 vols., 1866), Freie Advokatur (1867), Die
preuuuche Kreisordnung (1870), Der RecJits-
ttaat (1872), and other works on Roman and
German jurisprudence and British institutions.

GNESEN (Pol. Gniezno), a town of Prussia,
in the province and 80 m. N. E. of the city of
Posen ; pop. in 1871, 9,910. It is surrounded by
walls, has a fine cathedral and other church-
es, an ecclesiastical seminary, a monastery, and
a nunnery, and is the seat of a cathedral chap-
ter. Four annual fairs are held there. It was
the capital of Poland till 1320, when it was
superseded by Cracow. It has been many
times besieged, taken, and pillaged. The arch-
bishops of Gnesen were the primates of the
state, and acted as vicars during the often dis-
puted elections of the kings.

GHOfiSrs, or GBOSIS. See CNOSSUS.

GM08TICS (Gr. yvuats, knowledge), a name
to variom heretical sects in the early
in church. We know them mainly
through tlu-ir opponents, almost nothing re-
iif of Gnostic writings except the frag-
rj quotations found in orthodox authors,
was a natural result of the con-
tact of Christianity with oriental and Greek
philosophy, ninl was the earliest attempt to
oonatruct a philosophical system of faith. It
undertook to answer the most difficult ques-
tions, such as that of the origin of evil, and
soon became extravagant, and met the opposi-
tion of the hading ( 'hristian writers. Gnosti-
m rail v n mdenmed as heretical,

and, after having been most prosperous in the

GNOSTICS

2d century, declined in the 3d, and in the 6th
came, with other heresies, under the ban of the
Justinian code. It was a speculative system,
and exercised little influence upon the masses
of the people. It was also mainly confined to
the eastern church, and had little to do with
the development of the West. There are three
principal theories of the character of Gnosti-
cism. Baur treats it as a philosophy of religion
resulting from the comparison of various reli-
gious systems ; Neander as a fusion of Christian
ideas with oriental theosophy, caused by the pre-
valence of sensuous ideas within the church ;
Mohler as an intense and exaggerated Christian
zeal, seeking some practical solution of the
problems of sin and evil. All minor theories
of the purpose and motives of Gnosticism can
be comprehended in one of these ; and these
three agree in the general definition, that
Gnosticism is an attempt to solve the great
problems of theology by combining the ele-
ments of pagan mysticism with the Jewish and
Christian traditions. It is impossible to make
an accurate definition of a system of which
the speculations are so vague, and the materials
for judgment so scattered and fragmentary.
Different writers vary widely in their method
of classifying the various Gnostic schools. Some
classify them by opinions, some by origin, and
some by locality. The chief Gnostic ideas may
be summed up under seven heads: 1. God is
infinitely removed from the actual world, en-
closed in the abyss (Gr. /&0oc), with which he
is in fact confounded ; he is separate from every
work of temporal creation, incomprehensible
by any mortal, and communicates with the
lower world only through the mediation of the
aeons (Gr. ci<5v, age or era), whom he sends
forth from the depths of his grand solitude. He
has infinite development in the forces which he
sends, but no personal or special providence.
He is the sum of being, yet the extreme of ab-
straction, and is even called the Not Being
(OVK uv). 2. Below the abyss, in which God
alone dwells, or surrounding this abyss, is the
Pleroma (Gr. Tr^pu^a, fulness), that world of
light and glory which the aeons inhabit. These
seons are emanations from God's central ful-
ness, are embodiments of his divine attributes,
and fulfil the functions denoted by their seve-
ral names. Among the higher seons are Mind,
Reason, Power, Truth, and Life. All of these
are styled ceons, because they are in some way
the representatives of the Eternal Being ; but
only one of them, Nous or Mind (v6oc, or in
late authors vovf, intellect), proceeds directly
from the Deity. The others emanate in de-
scending succession from the first aeon. One
Gnostic writer compares the emanation of
these aeons from the Supreme Being to the
tones of the voice lessening steadily to a faint
echo. The number and characteristics of these
aeons are variously stated ; according to Valen-
tinus, there were 365 of them ; but according
to all, only the lowest of them has anything to
do with the material world, occupying the point

GNOSTICS

3re the spiritual and material worlds touch
each other. The office of the higher aeons is to
people and take care of the spiritual world.
3. Matter is infinitely separated from God, and
the material world is the antithesis of the
spiritual world. Hyle (vty, matter) is either
absolute deadness and emptiness (/c^vw^a), or
is a positively evil substance. The creator of
this material universe is the Demiurge. He is
himself a creature of the lowest of the aeons,
Achamoth. He not only creates and rules the
terrestrial world, but has equal sovereignty
over the planets and stars. He fulfils, or as
some say usurps, the functions of the infinite
God. He appears in Jewish history as Jehovah.
Other names by which he is known are those
of Archon and Jaldabaoth, the son of Chaos.
The immediate work of the Demiurge is evil,
and it takes the world of man and matter fur-
ther away from God and the world of light. 4.
Man has a threefold nature, of spirit, of body,
and of soul. His soul-nature stands between
the other two, and forms their connecting bond.
Men are divided into three classes, according
to the predominance of one or other of these
three natures. The first of these classes enjoy
a light from the world of aeons ; the second are
left wholly to material and hylic influences;
while the third are under the direction and in-
fluence of the Demiurge, who can save them
from utter debasement, but cannot give them
spiritual life. Historically, the Christians con-
stitute the spiritual world; the pagan world
forms the carnal class; and the Jews occupy
the intermediate place. But in dividing the
Christians of their own time, the Gnostics
numbered two classes, the select few of their
own number who were admitted to the divine
secrets, and the large body of common believ-
ers, who were not able to rise above the psychi-
cal condition. Some of them maintained that
though man as connected with matter is by na-
ture sinful, and though the Demiurge wished to
create man in his own image, yet unwittingly
he reproduced in this work of his breath, not
his own image, but a shadow of that divine
original which moved before his imagination.
Man is better than the intention of his creator.
5. Redemption reaches only the pneumatic
and psychic classes; the carnal or hylic class
are destined to annihilation when their mate-
rial life shall close, and with them such of the
psychic class as have not accepted the influence
from the Pleroma. The instrument of redemp-
tion is the aaon Christ. This aeon came down
from the spirit world, assumed bodily shape
without being actually united to any material
body, and walked among men in Judea as Je-
sus of Nazareth, not a real human person, but
an optical illusion, the phantasm of a spiritual
idea. Some of the Gnostics were willing, in-
deed, to speak of the human life of Christ ; but
all denied that his body was composed of the
elements of corrupt and sinful matter ; it was
an ethereal body of more delicate fabric than
the common human body. Hunger would not

impel him to eat, nor thirst to drink. Yet this
ethereal body was too gross for the Pleroma,
and was left in the sun at Christ's ascension.
The advent of Christ upon the earth was not
the birth of a prophet, or the coming merely
of a promised Messiah, but a spiritual appari-
tion to overthrow the work of the evil spirit
" an incarnation of the spirit of the sun." The
presence of Christ anywhere made men con-
scious of this divine nature. They might doubt
of the humanity of Christ, but not of his di-
vinity. The process of redemption, in the
Gnostic theory, is the communication through
the aeon Christ of a divine life to the world of
man, the revelation of that life through this
mediator. Christ redeems the world as he
draws the spiritual in the world toward the
heaven of God. His sufferings and death have
no influence in the redeeming work, since, in
the first place, they were illusory, and in the
second place, sufferings do not redeem, but
only punish. The manifestation by his acts
and words of the spirit of God made Christ the
redeemer. Some expressions in Gnostic wri-
tings might be interpreted as teaching views of
redemption more in harmony with the church
creeds; but nowhere was any doctrine of
atonement stated, or any stress laid upon the
crucifixion as its central point. Marcion ex-
tends the redemption into the world of Hades,
and maintains that Christ descended into hell
to lead back the virtuous and believing heathen
to share salvation with the spiritual Chris-
tians. In regard to the means of profiting by
the redemption of Christ, the Gnostic teachers
were not agreed. Marcion taught a doctrine
resembling that of Paul, making faith the
means of justification and the ground of re-
conciliation. But most of the sect held that
only " gnosis," the rare superior intelligence and
comprehension of divine truth, could enable
men to receive the gift of Christ. This spirit-
ual knowledge was the evidence of salvation
to believers. The actual manner of union be-
tween Christ and his redeemed ones is very
vaguely described in the Gnostic writings, and
their language in speaking of redemption and
its issues is confused. 6. Although the Gnos-
tics were charged with boasting that they had
schools rather than churches, yet they held to
a church which should have a twofold life,
for the mass of believers, and for the initiated :
for the first, common exoteric doctrines, and for
the second, spiritual esoteric doctrines, reveal-
ed to a secret sacred society within the proper
circle of the church. Practically they did lit-
tle, and many of them were content to theorize
about spiritual truth, while submitting to the
recognized ecclesiastical order. Baptism was
to them the important rite, since Jesus became
Christ at his baptism, and through this rite
the higher spirit was imparted to the sensuous
soul. It was the sign of their emancipation
from demiurgic rule. A few objected to bap-
tism as too physical a rite, but most of them
celebrated it with great show and solemnity.

GNOSTICS

rd's sapper was to them of less impor-

only the sign of a material feast,

,,.i tli.- reality f which their views of the na-

: Christ threw doubt. Some of them
kept the feast days of the church, and the fol-

lowers of Carpocrates allowed the
images both of Jesus and the saints.

use of
While

the idea of the church was to a great extent
discarded, much of its ritual and its splendor
was retained. 7. In practical morals two ten-
i are to be observed in the Gnostic
a. On one side is the ascetic tendency,
whi.-h seeks a complete emancipation from
matter and from bodily passion, as the seat of
sin; on the other side the licentious tendency,
whk-h plunges into excess, on the plea that
sensual passion is most surely overcome by
satiety. Many of the charges brought against
this latter class of Gnostics are, however, to
be taken with large abatement. There is no
evidence that their average morality was be-
low that of the orthodox Christians, or that
the ascetic tendency was carried to such ex-
tremes among them as among the Jewish Es-
senes or the later Christian hermits. Gnosti-
cism, in the 2d century at least, was rather
a speculative than a practical heresy, a sys-
tem of intellectual vagaries rather than of mor-
al corruptions. In speaking of the principal
Gnostic teachers, the geographical division
may be adopted as most convenient, if not
most philosophical. Of the precursors of Gnos-
ticism before the formation of its principal
schools are mentioned: Simon Magus, whose
authentic history is related in the Acts, but
of whom legends abound, and after whom the
sect of the Siraonians was named; Menander,
said to have been a disciple of Simon ; Corin-
th us, who considered Judaism a preparation
for Christianity; Nicolaus, of whom nothing
is known except that he is reckoned as the
founder of the sect of the Nicolaitans, noted
for thoir lax morality, and mentioned in the
Apocalypse. Of the Syrian school, the chief
characteristic of which is dualism, the princi-
pal teachers were: 1. Saturninus, a follower
lander, who lived at Antioch about the
year 125, in the reign of Hadrian. He main-
tained that the lowest coon was formed from
the spirits of the seven planets; that the evil
spirit formed a race of hylic men to counteract
the race formed by this aeon ; and that Christ
was the on Nous in a visible but not corporeal
body. His school, never very numerous, was
confined to the neighborhood of Antioch, and
was hardly known in the succeeding century.
2. Bardesanes, who flourished at Edessa in the
latter half of the 2d century. (See BARDE-
SAHKS.) 8. Tatian, who lived in the 2d century,
and is commonly reckoned among the Christian
apologists. (See TATIAN.) In the Egyptian
characterized by the emanation theory,
rere: i. IJasili.K-s. \\lm
in Alexandria about the year 120, whose
follower*, the Badlidiana, existed as late as the
4th century. (See BASILIDES.) 2. Valentinus

an Alexandrian Jew, who taught in Eome
about the middle of the 2d century, and died
in Cyprus about the year 1GO. His system of
a3ons is divided into three series of 15 pairs,

an ogdoad, a decad, and a dodecad.

male and female.

,
His

They are
threefold Christ " dif-

fers from that of Basilides. His elaboration
of Gnostic ideas was more complete and inge-
nious than that of any other writer, and his
influence was longer and wider in its extent.
J. Matter numbers seven distinguished names
among the successors of Valentinus, five of
whom founded schools; these are Secundus,
Ptolemy, Marcus, Colarbasus, Heracleon, The-
odotus, and Alexander. 3. The Ophites, or
Naasenes, a powerful sect, yet without any
distinguished name among their teachers, who
traced their doctrine to James, the brother of
the Lord, and existed at a later period than
the other Gnostic sects. As their name im-
plies, the serpent was for them a sacred em-
blem. They regarded the fall of man as a pro-
gress rather than as a loss, named the Jewish
Jehovah " Jaldabaoth," or the God of chaos,
preferred Judas to the other disciples, affirm-
ing that he betrayed Christ to destroy the
kingdom of God's enemy, and denied that the
real Christ was ever crucified. The Sethites
and Cainites were branches of this sect. The
moral character of the Ophites was bad, and
the sect came not only under the constant re-
buke of the church teachers, but under the im-
perial ban. Of the Gnostics of Asia Minor,
the one eminent name is that of Marcion, an
austere moralist and a vigorous reasoner. Ho
taught at Kome about the middle of the 2d
century. His system is characterized by the
constant antithesis between Christianity and
Judaism, by a rejection of the Old Testament
and of all apostolic authority except that of
Paul, and by a rigid asceticism. His followers
were numerous even to the time of Moham-
med. Of the Gnostics not localized, but most-
ly related by their doctrines to the Gnostics of
Egypt, may be mentioned the schools of Car-
pocrates and his son Epiphanes, the Antitacts,
the Bortonians, the Phibionites, the Archon-
tics, the Adamites, and the Prodicians. Her-
mogenes of Carthage is also by some regarded as
a Gnostic teacher. While the particular sect
and schools of the Gnostics had disappeared
almost wholly in the 6th century, their opin-
ions survived to a much later age, seriously
affecting not only the orthodox faith, but ap-
pearing in many of the famous and troublesome
heresies. Their earlier influence is to be no-
ticed in the views of the Ebionites and the Do-
cetfB, in the speculations of the Clementine Ho-
milies, in the radical theories of Montanism, in
the fantasies of the New Platonists, and above
all in the powerful and wide-spread Manichsean
heresy. Some have also endeavored to find
traces of Gnosticism in the Sabellian, Arian,
and Pelagian heresies. In the 7th century
their doctrines were repeated by the Pauli-
cians, in the 9th by the Athinganians or " chil-

GNU

of the sun," about the close of the llth
by the Catharists, and in the 12th by the Bogo-
miles of Byzantium. Some of the opinions of
the knights templars and of the Waldenses
seemed to be borrowed from this source, and
the reveries of Spanish and German mystics are
not unlike the hymns of Bardesanes. The
sources from which our knowledge of Gnosti-
cism is drawn are the single Gnostic work Pis-
tis Sophia, translated from Coptic into Latin by
M. G. Schwartze (edited by J. H. Petermann,
Berlin, 1851); IrenasusVE/ley^oc TW ^ev6uvv[j.ov
yvucsag (edited by Stieren, Leipsic, 1853) ; frag-
ments from Irenasus and Hippolytus (edited by
Emanuel Miller, Oxford, 1851) ; and the works
of Ignatius, Justin, Tertullian, Clement of Alex-
andria, Origen, Eusebius, Philastrius, Epipha-
nius, Theodoret, Augustine, Plotinus, and oth-
ers. The more important modern works which
treat of Gnosticism are : Neander, Genetisclie
Entwiclcelung der vorneJimsten gnostischen Sys-
teme (Berlin, 1818); E. A. Lewald, De Doc-
trina Onostica (Heidelberg, 1818); Mohler,
Ursprung des Onosticismus (Tubingen, 1831) ;
Baur, Die christliche Gnosis, oder die christ-
liche KeligionspMlosophie in ihrer geschicht-
lichen Entwiclcelung (Tubingen, 1835); Mat-
ter, Histoire critique du gnosticisme (2d ed., 3
vols., Paris, 1843-'4); the church histories of
Mosheim, Neander, Gieseler, Hase, and Schaff ;
Beausobre's " History of Manichaeism," Miin-
ter's " Ecclesiastical Antiquities," Hitter's "His-
tory of Philosophy," Corners " Christology,"
and Bunsen's " Hippolytus and his Age."

GNU, a hollow-horned ruminating animal, in-
habiting the plains of southern and central Af-
rica, generally classed with the bovidw or ox
family, of the genus catoblepas (H. Smith) or
connochetes (Gray) ; the wilde freest of the Dutch
colonists at the Cape. It is one of the most
singular of animals, having the head and horns
of a buffalo, the body and mane of a horse, and

White Gnu (Catoblepas gnu).

the limbs of an antelope. The form of the head,
neck, and shoulders is decidedly bovine, robust,
and clumsy; the forehead wide and flat, the
muzzle broad, and covered with hair except the
valvular opening of the nostrils ; the eyes large ;
ears long, narrow, and pointed ; horns present

in both sexes, above and behind the eyes, close
together at their origin, descending at first
downward and outward, then curving upward
and backward, flattened at the base, cylindrical
at the tip, rough and irregular. The hair on
the brows and forehead is long and shaggy,

Brindled Gnu (Catoblepas gorgon).

giving a fierce expression to the face ; the neck
has a rigid mane above, and a long, hairy dew-
lap below; the shoulders are deep, and sur-
mounted by a moderate hump ; the body is
rounded like that of a horse, and the limbs
delicately formed ; the tail is moderately long,
with a brush at the end; the hair elsewhere
on the body is short; the hoofs are rather
large for the limbs, and the skin of the knees
is bare and callous, from their habit of going
on their knees in attack and defence. The
general color of the common species (C. gnu,
H. Smith) is yellowish tawny, darkest on the
back and legs, with the tips of the long hair
blackish. The gnu, though clumsy in appear-
ance, is very swift and active, galloping over
the plains like a horse, and feeding in large
herds like wild cattle ; when alarmed, it rarely
takes to flight until it has examined into the
cause of the danger, a curiosity of which the
hunter is able to take advantage; it is very
pugnacious, and is tamed with difficulty. The
common species is about 3 ft. 10 in. high at the
shoulders, and 6^ ft. long from nose to tail. A
second and larger species is the Icokoon or
brindled gnu, ~blauwe wilde beest (C. taurina et
gorgon, H. Smith), which measures about 5 ft.
at the shoulders and 7$ ft. from nose to tail,
the tail If ft, and the horns about 2 ft. long.
The face is blackish, the sides of the head and
neck yellowish gray, the latter and the shoul-
ders with vertical dark stripes ; the body above
and the sides glossy reddish gray ; below, and
the limbs, reddish brown. Both species in-
habit the extensive grassy plains of central

GOA

Africa, advancing southward after the summer
rains to the Orange river, south of which only
the common and first named species ranges.
Great numbers are killed every year by the
Cape colonists, but their annual visitations still
continue; the flesh is considered excellent.

GOA. I. A Portuguese colony in India, on the
W coast, between lat. 14 54' and 15 45' N.,
and Ion. 78 45' and 74 26' E., bounded N. by
Sawuntwarree, E. by N. Canara, and W. and S.
by the Indian ocean ; pop. about 41 8,000. With
the exception of Damaun and Diu, it is the
only Portuguese possession in India. It is well
watered and fertile, producing rice, pepper, co-
coanuts, betel nuts, and salt. The inhabitants,
two thirds of whom are Roman Catholics, are
chiefly descendants of Europeans by native
women. II. Old Got, a city of the above named
colony, and formerly capital of the Portuguese
possessions in India, on an island separated
from the mainland by the river Mandova, 250
m. 8. 8. E. of Bombay; pop. about 4,000.
The houses are built of stone in the European

the streets are regular, and the public
buildings far surpass everything else erected
by Europeans in India, but are falling to de-
cay, and the ruins of the ancient edifices have
been used as quarries for building materials in
the new town. During the 16th century it
was one of the most flourishing European set-
tlements in the East ; its walls described a cir-
cuit of 6 m., and enclosed a population of 150,-
000 Christians and 50,000 Mohammedans ; but
the site is unhealthy, and was abandoned early
in the 18th century. St. Francis Xavier was
l>uriod there, March 15, 1554; but his remains,
with his magnificent tomb, covered with
sculptures representing passages in his life,
have been removed to the new town. Old
Goa is now nearly deserted ; but some pains
are taken to keep the ancient churches and
public buildings in repair. III. New Goa, Pan-
Jim, or PangaiM, situated on the same island, 5
m. nearer to the sea than the old town, on a
fine bay 8. of a headland called Algoada
point, with two lighthouses, is a fortified place,
ati'l since 1768 the Portuguese capital in the
East; pop. about 24,000. It is the residence
of the governor and principal Portuguese in-
habitant-*, and the seat of an archbishop. The
principal buildings are the cathedral, custom
house, and the palaces of the archbishop and
the governor. The trade, once the most im-
portant of any place in India, is now trifling,
and is limited to the mother country and the

niese settlements on the coast of China
and Africa. The revenue of the colony is about
1600,000 annually. Goa was taken from the
Hindoos by the Mohammedan sovereign of the
Deccan in 1469. In 1510 it was captured by
'icse, who made it the capital of
-ts in India; and it has ever since
remained in their hands except during the pe-
riod from 1807 to 1815, when it was held by

itish. In no part of the world was the
inquisition more vigorously maintained than in

GOAT

Goa. A mutiny of the native troops took place
here in November, 1871.

GOALPARA, or N. E. Rnngpoor, a district of
Bengal, British India, bounded N. by the na-
tive state of Bootan, E. by the district of Cam-
roop, S. by Mymunsing and the territory of
the Garrow tribes, and W. by Rungpoor and
Cooch Behar ; area, 4,433 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872,
442,761. It produces cotton, tobacco, sugar,
and mustard. Though belonging properly to
Bengal, of which it formed a part on the ac-
quisition of that territory by the British in
1765, it is often regarded as a district of As-
sam, with which country it is naturally con-
nected by similarity of climate, soil, &c. The
town of the same name, on the Brahmapootra,
280 m. N. E. of Calcutta, is the chief trading
place of the region.

GOAT (capra, Linn.), a hollow-horned rumi-
nant, of the subfamily ovince, which also con-
tains the sheep. The genus is characterized
by a convex forehead, nose for the most part
straight in its upper outline, and the absence
of lachrymal sinuses and secreting glands be-
tween the hoofs ; the horns, present in both
sexes, but larger and more angular in the males,
are of a dull yellowish brown color, compress-
ed and nodose, with a sharp edge behind and
before, curving backward, but not completing
a circle, and the tips never coming forward ;
their curve, unlike those of the sheep, forma
part of a circle, whose diameter is much longer
than the head ; their osseous nucleus is porous
or cellular, communicating with the frontal
sinuses ; the chin is bearded, the tail very short
and naked below, the hoofs as high on the in-
ner as on the outer side, and the mammas, gen-
erally two, forming an udder ; the nose is cov-
ered with hair, except a narrow naked space
between the nostrils; the limbs are strong,
with a callosity on the carpus. The dental for-
mula is: incisors $; canines none; molars |z|;
in all 32 teeth. The hair is never very coarse,
and sometimes remarkably fine, with a woolly
down underneath. The period of gestation is
five months, and the number of young general-
ly two ; the female is capable of propagating
at seven months, and the male at a year old ;
the age of the goat may be extended to 15 years,
though they are generally old at 6. The males
emit a powerful odor, and are libidinous and
pugnacious. They ascend giddy heights, and
spring with great precision from rock to rock
where there seems hardly a possibility of their
obtaining a foothold ; their sight and smell are
acute. The hunting of the wild species is both
difficult and dangerous. The goats include the
ibex of Europe, Asia, and Africa (see IBEX) ;
the wild agagrus, and the Jemlah goat or the
jharal. There is no goat indigenous to Amer-
ica, the so-called Rocky mountain goat being
in reality an antelope. The common wild goat
(<?. [hircut] cegagrus, Pallas) inhabits the moun-
tains of the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and Persia,
and according to some the European Alps. It
is higher on the legs than the domestic goat,

GOAT

ad the horns are large in proportion to the
size of the animal. The general color is gray-
ish brown alwve, with a dark dorsal line and
blackish tail ; the colors are paler in the female.
Another wild species is the Jemlah goat (G.
Jemlahica, H. Smith), with depressed, knobby,

Domestic Goat (Capi-a hircus).

wrinkled horns, a solid, heavy skull, and ro-
bust limbs; the hair on the neck and back is
abundant, long, and loose, and on the sides of
the head very coarse ; the tail is very short ;
the color is a dirty whitish fawn. It inhabits
the district of Jemlah, in the elevated mountain
chain of central Asia. The C. cossus and C.
imberbis (De Blainville) are believed to be do-
mesticated varieties of this species. The jha-
ral of Hodgson is by Gray referred to the same
species as the last, forming the genus hemitra-
gus (Hodg.); they have four mammae. The
domestic goat (C. hircus, Linn.) resembles the
C. cegagrus more than any other wild species.
The common goat of the mountainous coun-
tries of Europe much resembles the aegagrus,
and has in some places become so wild as to
be difficult of approach ; the ears are small and
upright; the size of the body is smaller, the
hair coarser, the horns more vertical and turn-
ing outward, and the colors more varied. The
Persian goat resembles a small segagrus ; the
hair is long and coarse. The "Welsh breed is
large, generally white, with long fine hair, and
with vertical horns about 3 ft. long. There
are small hornless breeds of goats in South
America, the West Indies, and the Pacific isl-
ands, supposed to have originated from Africa.
The Angora has long soft hair, mostly white,
long ears, upright yellowish horns, and a sheep-
like look. The famous Cashmere (properly
Thibet) breed have long, straight, silky hair,
large pendent ears, and slender legs. The Ne-
paul goat is black, of a high and slender figure,
with an arched form of nose, and long, hanging,

whitish ears. The goat of upper Egypt is of
a brownish color and high stature, with long
shaggy hair, arched nose, ample pendent ears,
and the upper jaw so much shorter than the
under that the lower incisors and chin are ex-
posed. Goat skins were probably among the
first materials used for clothing among the
northern nations. The milk of the goat is
used for making cheese, and is prescribed as a
medicine in debilitated constitutions and pul-
monary diseases. In the malarious regions
of Asia cow's milk is regarded as a predis-
posing cause of bilious fevers and diseases of
the liver, and goat's milk is therefore sub-
stituted. The flesh of the kid is esteemed as
food ; from the skin are made fine gloves, va-
rious garments, and the real Morocco leather ;
from the hair of one variety are manufactured
the costly fabrics of Cashmere. (See CASH-
MEEE.) The Rocky mountain goat is referred
to the genus capra by Desmoulins, Harlan, Sun-
devall, Eichardson, Bachman, and Van der
Hoeven ; but recent examinations go to show
that in all its essential features and affinities it
is an antelope, and belongs to the genus aplo-
cerus (H. Smith). It resembles the goat and
merino sheep in its figure and size ; the horns
are small, conical, smooth, nearly erect, and
jet black. The outer hair is long, straight, and
white, as fine and soft as that of the Cashmere
goat ; the chin is bearded ; the external fleece
hangs down all over the body and upper part
of the legs ; the under hairs are soft and silky
like wool. It inhabits the highest and most
inaccessible peaks of the Rocky mountains
between the parallels of 40 and 65 N., and is
most abundant in Washington territory ; it is
very difficult to procure ; the mountain sheep

Eocky Mountain Goat (Aplocerus montanup).

(ovis montana, Cuv.), or big-horn, has been
often mistaken for it by travellers. The goats
are rarely found fossil, and belong nearly^to
the same epoch of creation as man, forming
probably the first step by their domestication
in his progress toward civilization. The goat

GOATSUCKER

was one of the signs of the ancient zodiac
(Capricorn) ; the mythological Pan, the god of
shepherds aiid the supreme power over nature,
was represented with the horns and legs of a
goat ; the agi, or shield of Jupiter, was cov-
ered with the skin of a goat ; this animal was
sacred to several ancient divinities, and even
under the Jewish dispensation was emblemati-
cal of atonement.

MUlMt Mill, a nocturnal fissirostral bird,
of the order passeres or insesaores, suborder
ftruore*, and the family caprimulgidce. The
family are characterized by a short, very broad,
depressed bill, with an immense gape extending
beneath the eyes and rendered larger by nu-
merous bristles for arresting their insect prey ;
the eyes are very large, and easily dazzled by
the full light of day ; the tarsi are short and
weak, the toes long, the hind toe closely united
to the base of the inner ; the plumage is soft,
enabling them to fly without noise. In the
sombre colors and texture of the feathers, in
the large head and eyes and nocturnal habits,
they resemble the owls, but zoologically they
come nearest to the swift family. The name
goatsucker is derived from the Latinized Greek
appellative caprimulgus, which originated in
the idea that they suck the mamma of goats;
the French call these birds engoulevente, or
wind swallowers, and crapauds volants, or fly-
ing toads, probably on account of the great
capacity of the mouth. Like the owls, they
hide themselves by day, coming out toward
sunset, and pursuing insects on the wing with
great rapidity during the twilight ; they make
no nests, but deposit their eggs on the bare
ground or in slight concavities ; they are found
in ull parts of the world, but most abundantly
in South America. There are three subfami-
lies: tteatornina, or oil birds, found in the
West and East Indies, Australia, Africa, and
South America; caprimulgince, alone repre-
sented in the United States ; and podagerince,
in Africa and South America. In the first sub-
family the genus steatorni* (Humboldt) become
so plump on the rich palm fruits of Guadeloupe
and Trinidad in the breeding season that their
fat is compared to that of olive oil, and as such
is permitted to be used during Lent. Some
species of the genus nyctibiu* (Vieill.) are as
large as a short-eared owl. Among the capri-
mulgina are included the European goatsucker,
the North American chuckwill's widow, whip-
)" r\\ ill, and night hawk, and the South Amer-
ican scissors-tailed goatsucker. The European
species (oiprimnlgut Europasus, Linn.) is as
large as a thrush, of a gray brown color, undu-
lated and spotted with blackish brown, with a
band of white from the bill to the nape; it
nestles in the furze, and lays two eggs. From
the nature of its food and its method of taking
it, and its manner of flying, it is often called
i;ire-tailcd swallow; it feeds on noctur-
n.ii inMCti likr moths and beetles, and migrates
faring winter into southern Europe and north-
vrii Africa, The chuckwill's widow (antrosto-

mus Carolinemis, Gould) is the largest of the
North American species, being about 13 in.
long, with an extent of wings of 26 in. ; it has
very strong bristles at the base of the bill, each
with lateral filaments ; the wings are long, and
the tail slightly rounded ; the prevailing color

CbuckwilTs Widow (Antrostomus Carolinensis).

is pale rufous, the top of the head reddish
brown with longitudinal black streaks, the last
two thirds of the tail feathers (except the four
central) rufous white, with the outer webs of
all mottled ; the female has no white patch on
the tail ; it is found in the southern Atlantic
and gulf states. The popular name of the bird
is derived from the sounds which it utters very
clearly and strongly six or seven times in quick
succession in a melancholy tone ; they are sel-

Leona Goatsucker (Macrodipteryx longipennis).

dom heard in cloudy weather, and never, ac-
cording to Audubon, when it rains. The flight
is rapid, graceful, and elevated. It makes its
appearance from the south in the gulf states
about the middle of March ; no nest is made,
but the eggs are laid among the dead leaves ;

GOBELINS

the eggs be disturbed, the birds remove them
their mouths (according to Audubon, who
itnessed the fact), and place them in another
locality ; they probably remove the young in
the same manner. They manifest a great an-
tipathy to all kinds of snakes. They leave the
United States about the middle of August. The
whippoorwill (A. vociferus, Wils.) and the night
hawk (chordeiles Virginianus, Briss.) will be
described under their proper titles. The scis-
sors-tailed species (C.furcifer, Vieill.) of Para-
uay is remarkable for the length of the outer
thers of the tail, gradually diminishing to
tip. Among the podagerince is the Leona
tsucker (macrodipteryx longipennis, Shaw),
native of Africa, having the innermost quill
the wings extremely prolonged and deficient
webs except at the end, and longer than the
itself. The genus podager (Wagl.) has
ig wings and short even tail, and short and
.thered tarsi ; it is found in the warmer parts
of South America, frequenting fields and moist
places, usually in pairs, but occasionally in large
flocks, chasing insects in the full light of day ;
it lays two eggs on the bare ground. Most of
the goatsuckers have the inner edge of the
iddle claw pectinated, like a comb, for the
rpose of cleansing the bristles of the bill
m remains of insects and particles of dirt.
GOBELINS, Manufactory of the, an establish-
ent in Paris belonging to the French govern-
ent, devoted to the production of tapestry
d carpets. It is situated in the faubourg
Marcel, upon the Bievre, being No. 254
Mouffetard. It derives its name from the
others Jehan and Gilles Gobelin, who discov-
an improvement in scarlet dye, and erect-
this building as they believed that the water
the little stream Bievre possessed qualities
vantageous to their art. Jehan, the head
the Gobelin family, died in 1476 ; some
intain that he was a native of Rheims, and
hers that he came from Holland. His scar-
dye soon rose into great repute. The
tablishment was purchased by Louis XIV.,
.d transformed in 1667 into the manufacture
ale des meubles de la couronne. The royal
ry was not only a dye house and a manu-
tory of tapestry, but an immense workshop
which everything was executed that was
eeded for furnishing and decorating houses,
vers in metal and gold and silversmiths
roduced chandeliers, torch-holders, candle-
cks, and statuary bronzes, in keeping with
e magnificent tapestry designs, which skilful
eavers wrought after patterns furnished by
e royal painters ; cabinet makers carved,
rned, and gilded the wood of the furniture ;
orentine artists inlaid beautiful mosaics ; and
us everything, even the knobs and locks of
dows and doors, was executed in the high-
style of art. The royal painter, Lebrun,
as the director of this immense establishment,
ignard, who succeeded Lebrun, opened in it
school of design. Though the works were
~.y to execute private orders, their prosper-

ered

ity was chiefly dependent on the patronage of
Louis XIV. ; and when, on account of the pe-
cuniary embarrassments of the crown after the
year 1694, this patronage was withdrawn, all
the skilled workmen had to be dismissed. Af-
ter the peace of Ryswick (1697) the Gobelins
was opened again, but the operations were re-
stricted to the manufacture of tapestry, which
was generally made only for presentation to
crowned heads and persons of distinction. The
revolution threw the establishment into neg-
lect, and Napoleon gave it little encourage-
ment ; but the Bourbons, who returned to the
old custom of making gifts with the celebrated
tapestry, brought it again into a flourishing con-
dition, in which it remained, with slight inter-
ruptions, till it was partly burned by the com-
munists, May 24, 1871. The manufactory of
the Gobelins is now divided into three distinct
sections : the dye house, the tapestry workshop,
and the carpet factory. The dye house pro-
duces not only all different colors, but from 20 to
30 shades of each. While many of the hang-
ings worked 50 years ago are already faded,
the factory is now able to produce any color
perfectly fast. This great progress is due to
the labors of the eminent chemist Chevreul,
who was employed by the government to in-
struct the Gobelins dyers. Large rooms are
devoted to the Jiautes lisses, or high warps,
upon which the tapestries are suspended as the
work goes on. The warp hangs from a horizon-
tal cylinder, and as every yard or thereabout
in length is completed, it is wound upon an-
other cylinder in the lower part of the frame.
The principal features of the design being traced
with white chalk by the artist upon the stretched
thread of the warp, he marks, with the aid of
tracings from the picture, which he attaches
to the warp, the exact positions of the light
and dark shades. Then, with the pattern con-
veniently placed for reference, the artist sta-
tions himself against the back of the tapestry,
and, with his worsteds and silks at hand, be-
gins to work in the different colors. The ver-
tical threads of the warp are divided by a hed-
dle or cross stick which keeps half of them in
advance of the rest ; but those behind can be
brought forward whenever required by means
of small cords, one of which is attached to each
warp thread. The left hand is introduced be-
tween the two sets of threads, taking up as
many as need be, and through these tbe needle
is passed from left to right. The thread when
stretched is piled with the point of the needle,
and is then passed back in the contrary direc-
tion through the space opened by shifting the
position of the front and back threads. By
ingeniously combining the woofs, the colors
are made to blend perfectly, and effects are
obtained like those of painting. The work is
so slowly executed that an artist is not expect-
ed to average in a year a production of more
than about 39 inches square. In 1826 the
manufactory of carpets, called la savonnerie,
from an old soap factory in which the making

GOBERT

of carpets had been carried on from the year
1815, was connected with the tapestry estab-
lishment. The carpets are remarkable for
smoothness and evenness of texture and their
strength and fineness, excelling even the Per-
sian in these respects. Some of them require

vo to ten years for their completion, and
cost 80 000 to 150,000 francs. All the carpets
made during the reign of Napoleon III. were
used for the decoration of the imperial palaces.
The largest ever made was manufactured for
the gallery of the Louvre. It consists of 72
pieces, the total length being more than 1,300
ft. Among the celebrated pieces executed
at this establishment is a picture, completed
about the year 1844, of the "Massacre of the
Mamelukes," after the celebrated work of
Horace Vernet, which has been presented to
the queen of England. The portrait of Louis
XIV., by Rigaud, is considered the finest work
of the Gobelins. Titian's "Assumption" was
worked after a copy by Serrur into a magnifi-
cent tapestry 21 ft. high.

GOBERT, Napoleon, baron, a French philan-
thropist, born in 1807, died in Cairo, Egypt, in
1833. He was the son of a general, and godson
of Napoleon. He served in the army without
li>rim-tion. By his will the French academy
and the academy of inscriptions were made his
residuary legatees, on condition that the for-
mer should award nine tenths of the income
of its share of the legacy as a prize to the au-
thor of the most eloquent work on French
hi-tory that had appeared during the year pre-
ceding the distribution, and one tenth to the

ii merit; and that the academy of in-
scriptions should award similar prizes to the
authors of the first and second most learned
nnl profound works on the history of France ;
this income to be paid annually to the recipi-
ents until better works of the same kind should
appear. The heirs unsuccessfully contested
the bequest, but the academies compounded
with them, and secured an income of 10,000
francs each, which has since 1840 been dis-
posed of in accordance with the will.

GOBI (Mongol, a desert), an immense tract
of country in central Asia, occupying mainly
the table land between the Altai mountains
on the north and the Kuenlun on the south,
between lat. 37 and 50 N., and Ion. 80 and
120 E. It is about 1,800 m. long, with an
average breadth of nearly 350 m., though in
some parts it is much greater; area, about
600,000 sq. m. It is divided into two nearly
i, the western being comprehended
in Torkistap, the eastern in Mongolia, a small
in;: in the Chinese province of Kansu,

.i.-hiiiK to the Chinese wall. Of the
western part little is known; the surface con-
sists mainly of lino loose sand, which is drift-
ed about by the winds, and sand storms are
re-nee. It is drained by the
Y:irk:md or haria, which falls into Lake Lob-

fa ha* no outlet, and is consequently
brackish. Similar salt lakes are numerous

GODAYERY

throughout the desert ; and upon these and the
rivers which flow into them the Tartars pitch
their tents and raise their cattle. The eastern
part is somewhat better known ; there are a
few fertile valleys and some towns ; but a large
part, called by the Chinese Shamo, or the Sand
sea, 'is a plain 2,500 to 3,000 ft. above the sea,
covered with gravel and small stones. Pastur-
age is the usual occupation of the Mongolians,
who lead a nomadic life in the mountain frin-
ges of E. Gobi. It is drained toward the east
by the head waters of the Amoor, which falls
into the sea of Okhotsk, and toward the north
by the Selenga, which, bursting through the
Altai range, falls into Lake Baikal. The cli-
mate of the entire desert is intensely cold du-
ring the winter, which lasts nine months. See
Atkinson's "Explorations in Siberia, Mongo-
lia," &c. (1857).

GOBY, a spiny-rayed fish, of the genus gobius
(Linn.), found on the rocky and sandy coasts
of the old world. The black goby (G. niger,
Linn.), the largest on the British coasts, is about
6 in. long ; it has two dorsal fins, and the ven-
trals are united below the throat into a sucking
disk by which it can attach itself to the rocks,

Goby (Gobius niger)

to which it retires to devour its living prey.
Gobies, like the allied blennies, are very tena-
cious of life, and will live a considerable time
out of the water. It was known to the an-
cients that the goby of the Mediterranean built
in the spring a nest, well made of seaweeds, in
which the female deposited her eggs, guarded
by the male until they were hatched; other
species make a similar nest. Gobies are some-
times found in very deep water.

GODAVERY, a large river of British India,
rising in the Western Ghauts, about 60 m. from
the Indian ocean, lat. 19 58' N., Ion. 73 30' E.,
and, after a S. E. course of 900 m. across the
peninsula, flowing into the bay of Bengal by
two principal channels. It receives in its course
the Manjera from the south, and the Poorna
and Wurdah from the north. After the junc-
tion of the Wurdah it is a mile wide, and after
passing through the mountainous region it be-
comes 4 m. wide. The delta commences at
Pechakalunka, in lat. 16 57' N., Ion. 81 49'
E., and contains an area of 500 sq. m. The
banks of the river on each side are marked by
ridges a few feet high, formed by deposits du-
ring the inundation. From Coringa, at its prin-
cipal mouth, the navigation was until recently

25O L

GODDARD

cticable only for vessels drawing not more
than 3 ft., and at Sinteral, about 140 m. up
the river, were several barriers. A dam now
stretches across the Godavery above one of
these barriers, nearly a mile long, and from 10
to 12 ft wide. A canal is thus formed about
26 m. long, which is provided with double locks
ft. long and 25 ft. wide. At Enchapully is
barrier of rocks, and the river becomes very
uous ; here another dam has been formed
of loose stones, 3,600 ft. long and 12 to 24 ft.
high, and a canal was made to connect it with
the lower level. By these means the river is
open for navigation up to the Wurdah, which
can be ascended near to the cotton mart of
Umrawutty. The completion of these works
has given a strong impulse to the progress of
the country. As early as 1846 the East India
company began their construction, but the out-
break of the mutiny in 1857 checked the work
for a long time. In 1863 the work was re-
sumed, and the river, formerly navigable only
for small craft and during the rainy season, now
carries large ships and steamboats far inland.

GODDARD, Arabella, an English pianist, born
at St. Servan, near St. Malo, Brittany, in Jan-
uary, 1836. She very early manifested great mu-
sical talent, and was instructed on the piano by
Kalkbrenner in Paris, and, after the removal
of her parents to London in 1848, by Mrs.
Anderson, pianist to the queen, and Thalberg.
Her first public appearance was at a concert in
her father's residence, March 30, 1850 ; and in
October she played at the grand national con-
certs, becoming known as a brilliant performer
of the music of Thalberg and the modern ro-
mantic school. Subsequently she studied har-
mony with Macfarren, and has played more
classical music. In 1854-'6 she gave concerts
in the principal cities of France, Germany, and
Italy. In 1860 she was married to Mr. Davison,
a musical critic, but still retains professionally
her maiden name. In 1872 she visited the
United States and played at the great musical
festival in Boston.

GODERICH, a town, port of entry, and the
capital of Huron co., Ontario, Canada, on the
E. shore of Lake Huron, at the mouth of the
Maitland river, and at the terminus of the
Buffalo and Goderich branch of the Grand
Trunk railway, 118 m. W. of Toronto ; pop. in
1871, 3,954. The surrounding country is fer-
tile and picturesque, and the town is much fre-
Suented in summer for the cool air from the
ike. It has a good harbor, protected by a
pier, and is furnished with a lighthouse. Daily
lines of steamers run to Sarnia, Detroit, and
ports on the lake. The fisheries are valuable.
The town is celebrated for its salt wells, of
which eight are in operation. It also contains a
large grain elevator, manufactories of woollens,
iron castings, machinery, leather, boots and
shoes, wooden ware, &c., several saw and grist
mills, two branch banks, two weekly newspa-
pers, and churches of four denominations.
GODERICH, Viscount. See RIPON, earl of.

GODMAN

GODFREY, Thomas, an American mathemati-
cian, born in Philadelphia, died in December,
1749. He had but a common education, and
followed the business of a glazier in his native
city ; but he mastered all the books on mathe-
matics that he could obtain, and learned Latin
to read mathematical works in that language.
He borrowed a copy of Newton's Principia
from James Logan, secretary of the common-
wealth, and in 1730 communicated to him an
improvement that he had made in Davis's
quadrant. In 1732 Logan gave an account of
the invention to Edmund Hadley of England,
and Godfrey also prepared a description of it
addressed to the royal society of London, but
did not send it, awaiting the eifect of the letter
to Hadley. No answer was received after an
interval of a year and a half, and then the in-
vention of Godfrey was laid before the royal
society by the botanist Peter Collinson. Mean-
time, in 1731, Mr. Hadley had presented a paper
containing a full description of an improve-
ment of the quadrant similar to that of God-
frey. 'The rival claims were investigated by
the royal society, and it was decided that they
were both entitled to the honor of the inven-
tion, and a reward of 200 was bestowed on
Godfrey, in household furniture instead of
money, on account of his intemperate habits.
Godfrey's or Hadley's quadrant is the same in
principle and application as the sextant.

GODFREY OF BOUILLON. See BOUILLON.

GODIVA. See COVENTRY.

GODKIN, Edward Laurence, an American jour-
nalist, born at Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland,
Oct. 2, 1831. He was educated at Queen's
college, Belfast, and during the Crimean war
(1854-' 6) was correspondent in Turkey and
Russia of the London "Daily News." In 1856
he came to the United States, and made a jour-
ney on horseback through the southern states,
which he described in a series of letters to the
"Daily News." He then studied law in New
York, and was admitted to the bar in 1858, but
has never practised. In 1862 he was again
employed as correspondent of the "Daily
News," and was also a writer of leading arti-
cles for the " New York Times." In July, 1865,
he became editor of "The Nation," and since
1866 has also been its proprietor.

GODMAN, John D., an American naturalist,
born in Annapolis, Md., Dec. 20, 1794, died in
Germantown, Pa., April 17, 1830. He was
apprenticed to a printer in Baltimore, but at
the age of 20 enlisted in the navy and was
present at the defence of Fort McIIenry. Af-
ter the war he studied medicine, and practised
till 1821, when he became professor in the
medical college of Ohio at Cincinnati, and
commenced there the " Western Quarterly Re-
porter." In 1822 he removed to Philadelphia
and devoted himself to the science of anatomy,
of which in 1826 he became professor in Rut-
gers medical school, New York; but he soon
resigned and went to the "West Indies for his
health, and on his return settled in German-

GODOLPIIIN

town He prepared the zoSlogical articles for
the " Encyclopaedia Americana " as far as the
end of the letter C, and contributed to various
M-u-ntitic periodicals. His principal work is
\merican Natural History" (3 vols. 8vo,
Philadelphia, 1823-'8), besides which he pub-
lished an "Account of some Irregularities
of Structure and Morbid Anatomy," "Bell's
Anatomy," with notes, " Anatomical Investi-
gations," and " Rambles of a Naturalist."

GODOLPIIIN, Sidney, earl of, an English states-
man, born in Cornwall about 1635, died Sept.
5, 1712. Soon after the restoration of the
monarchy he was made one of the grooms of
the bedchamber to Charles II., was elected
member of parliament in 1661, and became
privy councillor in 1679. He voted for the ex-
clusion of the duke of York from the throne
in 1680, was made first commissioner of the
treasury in 1684, and after the accession of
James II. was retained in office as chamberlain
to the queen, and became one of the chief roy-
al advisers. He took office under William III.,
having become an almost indispensable part of
the machinery of state, was placed at the head
of the treasury, and on the accession of Queen
Anne in 1702 was created lord high treasurer,
being the first person who had held that office
since the revolution. He was, however, led
by Marlborough to doubt the stability of the
government created by the revolution, and he
served it for six years while at the same time
sending professions of attachment and prom-
ises of service to James. In 1706 he was
created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godol-
pliin, attached himself to the whig party, and
the final result of his struggle with Harley for
the premiership was his sudden and rude dis-
missal from office in 1710. Godolphin was the
most prudent and experienced of the finan-
ciers of his time. " Every government, there-
fore," says Macaulay, " found him a useful ser-
vant ; and there was nothing in his opinions or
in his character to prevent him from serving
any government." He was a keen gambler
und horse racer.

GODOY, Mtnntl de, a Spanish statesman, born
in Badajoz, May 12, 1767, died in Paris in Oc-
tober, 1851. Descended from an old and noble
family, yet poor, he went to Madrid at the age
of 17 to seek his fortune. He entered the mili-
tary service, and his handsome figure, amiable
character, and elegant manners soon attracted
the notice first of the ladies of the court, then
of the queen, and next of the king. His talent
for intrigue gained him rapid advancement, and
he was successively created duke of Alcudia,
generalissimo of the land forces, grand admiral
.in and of the Indies, secretary of state,
prim.- minister to succeed Aranda in 1792,
knight of the golden fleece, and a grandee of
Spain of the first class. When Louis XVI.
was brought to trial by the convention, Godoy
declared war against France ; but by the treaty
of Basi-1 in 17'.i"> Spain formed an alliance with
the republic. For this service Charles IV. gave

GODUNOFF

him the title of " prince of the peace," and a
domain which yielded him a large revenue. In

1797 he married Maria Theresa de Bourbon,
niece of the king, although it is alleged that he
was already secretly married to Josephine Tudo,
the daughter of a military officer. Obliged in

1798 to resign his power for a time, he re-
sumed it in 1801, when he signed the treaty
of Badajoz, which proposed to partition Por-
tugal between France and Spain, and which
by a secret article gave to himself more than
$3,000,000. During his ministry the Spanish
possession of Louisiana was transferred to
France. In the height of his power, however,
he incurred the enmity of the nobles by his pre-
ponderance in the government, of the priests
by his opposition to the inquisition, and of the
people, who attributed to him all the political
evils they endured ; and soon a strong party
was formed against him under the patronage
of the prince of Asturias, afterward Ferdinand
VII. When Napoleon determined upon the
dethronement of the Bourbons of Spain, and at
the same time a criminal suit instigated by the
prince of Asturias was pending against Godoy,
the latter advised the royal family to take ref-
uge in America. This project was not matured
when an insurrection broke out against Godoy,
who was seized by the populace in his hotel,
and his life having been with difficulty saved,
he was held prisoner to await the course of
justice. Napoleon however, who wished to
avail himself of his influence over Charles IV.
to secure the renunciation of the crown of
Spain by that monarch, obtained his freedom,
and invited him to the conferences of Bayonne
(1808). Godoy drew up the act of abdication
signed by the king, whom he then accompanied
in his exile to Rome ; and his immense posses-
sions in Spain were confiscated. Godoy lived
in Paris after the death of Charles IV., and
received a pension of 5,000 francs from Louis
Philippe, although in 1842 he was reinstated
in his dignities in Spain. His "Memoirs," of
which he was only nominally the author, ap-
peared in Madrid, Paris, and London in 1836.

GODFflOFF, Boris Fedoroviteh, a czar of Rus-
sia, bora in 1552, died in 1605. He was a
brother-in-law of the czar Feodor L, whose
infirmities of body and mind enabled Godunoff
to obtain complete control of the government.
He aspired to the throne, and had most of his
rivals put to death or exiled. Among his vic-
tims was Demetrius, the younger brother of
Feodor and heir to the crown, who was ban-
ished to Uglitch, where he died by violence
in 1591. On the death of Feodor, in 1598,
Godunoff succeeded to the throne, mainly
through the aid of the patriarch of Moscow,
the head of the national church. He sought
to distinguish his reign by various reforms
and by promoting education, and to dazzle
the people by magnificent monuments. Great
disaffection arose in the empire, and in 1604
a pretender claiming to be Demetrius appear-
ed from Poland at the head of a consider-

GODWIN

able army. He won a battle at Novgorod,
but was signally defeated at Dobrynitcbe.
(See DEMETRIUS.) At this juncture Godunoff
suddenly died, and his death was popularly
ascribed to poison administered by himself.
His son and successor, Feodor, perished soon
after. Russian historians generally consider
Godunoff as a usurper; but the house of Ro-
manoff regard him as a legitimate sovereign.

GODWIN, earl of Wessex, a Saxon noble, born
about the end of the 10th century, died in
April, 1053. He was a cowherd, but having
ingratiated himself with Ulfr, the brother-in-
law of King Canute, he received in marriage
the daughter of that chieftain, and became the
most powerful nobleman in England. In the
interest of Harold Harefoot he was believed to
have procured the murder of Prince Alfred ;
but he was pardoned both by Hardicanute and
Edward the Confessor, Alfred's brothers, and
exerted himself to secure the crown for the
latter. He afterward rebelled against Edward,
by refusing to punish arbitrarily the men of
Dover for the riot against Earl Eustace, and
was obliged to flee the kingdom ; but returning
with a body of troops, he compelled the king
to restore his possessions and dignities. Within
a year after his restoration Godwin died. The
Norman historians relate that he stood up at
the king's banquet to aver his innocence of the
death of Alfred, but fell speechless to the earth,
and died soon after. He was the father of
Harold, the last Saxon king.

GODWIN, George, an English architect and
author, born at Brompton, Middlesex, Jan. 28,
1815. He was instrumental in founding the
London art union in 1836-7, of which in 1839
he was made chief honorary secretary ; and
to the " Art Union Magazine," now the " Art
Journal," he became a constant contributor
after its establishment in 1839. In 1844, hav-
ing previously published " The Churches of
London," he became editor of the " Builder."
His chief architectural works are St. Mary's
church, West Brompton, and the restoration
of the church of St. Mary Redcliff, Bristol.
He has published " Churches of London "
(1838), "Facts and Fancies" (1844), "History
in Ruins" (1853), "London Shadows" (1854),
"Buildings and Monuments," " Town Swamps
and London Bridges " (1859), " Memorials for
Workers," and "Another Blow for Life"
(1864). He has also written several dramas.

GODWIN, Parke, an American journalist,
born in Paterson, N. J., Feb. 25, 1816. He
graduated at Princeton college in 1834, studied
law, and was admitted to the bar in Kentucky,
but did not practise. From 1837 to 1843 he
was an editorial contributor to the New York
"Evening Post," edited by his father-in-law,
William Cullen Bryant ; and in February, 1848,
he began a literary and political weekly jour-
nal, "The Pathfinder," which he continued
three months, when he resumed his connec-
tion with the " Evening Post." In February,
1843, he advocated free trade in a public de-
365 VOL. vin. 5

bate in New York with Horace Greeley and
others. In 1844 he published "A Popular
View of the Doctrines of Charles Fourier,"
and a treatise on Fourier's ideas of industrial
association, entitled " Democracy, Pacific and
Constructive." In 1845 he was appointed a
deputy collector in the New York custom
house. For some years he was a frequent con-
tributor to the " Democratic Review," several
of his papers advocating important reforms
which were subsequently carried out in the
revision of the constitution and code of the
state of New York. In 1852 he made an ex-
tended tour in Europe. In 1853 he became
one of the editors of " Putnam's Monthly
Magazine," to both the first and second series
of which (1853-'7 and 1867-'70) he was a fre-
quent contributor ; and two collections of his
articles have been reprinted in volumes, " Po-
litical Essays" (12mo, 1856), and "Out of the
Past," critical and literary papers (1870). In
1860 he published the first volume of a "His-
tory of France," embracing ancient Gaul, and
terminating with the era of Charlemagne.
Since 1860 Mr. Godwin has made two pro-
tracted visits to Europe, during which he pros-
ecuted his researches in French history. In
addition to the publications above enumerated,
he has written "Vala, a Mythological Tale,"
founded upon incidents in the life of Jenny
Lind (1851) ; translated a part of Goethe's au-
tobiography and a volume of Zschokke's tales,
and compiled a "Handbook of Universal Biog-
raphy " (1851 ; new ed., " Cyclopaedia of Biogra-
phy," 1865). He is now (1874) preparing " The
History and Organization of Labor," a volume
on "The Nineteenth Century, with its Leading
Men and Movements," and "A Winter Harvest,"
a book of European travels. Until recently he
was managing editor of the " Evening Post."

GODWIN. I. William, an English author, born
at Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, March 3, 1756,
died in London, April 7, 1836. He was the
son of a dissenting clergyman, was educated
in the dissenting college at Hoxton, and in
1778 became minister of a congregation at
Stowmarket, Suffolk. At the end of five years
the incompatibility of this occupation with the
new moral and political theories he had begun
to entertain induced him to sever his connec-
tion with the ministry, and going to London
he thenceforth devoted himself to literature.
He soon began to promulgate doctrines which,
if carried out, would have subverted the whole
structure of society. Having already acquired
some reputation by his " Sketches of History "
(London, 1784) and contributions to the "An-
nual Register," of which he was at one time
the principal conductor, he published the " In-
quiry concerning Political Justice, and its In-
fluence on General Virtue and Happiness " (2
vols. 4to, 1793), in which an intellectual re-
public, founded upon universal benevolence, is
advocated with persuasive eloquence. In 1794
he appeared in the political arena as the cham-
pion of Home Tooke, Thelwall, Hardy, and

64 GODWIN

others, who had been brought to trial on a
charge of treason. In the same year appeared
hisTost remarkable work, " Caleb Williams,"
a novel designed to illustrate some of the pe-
culiar views put forth in the "Inquiry con-
cerning PoliticalJustice;" but the interest of
the story is so predominant that the social ob-
ject of the author was entirely overlooked. In
'1796 he made the acquaintance of Mary Woll-
stonecraft, author of the "Vindication of the
(tights of Woman," and, in accordance with
the views held by both of them respecting mar-
riage, cohabited with her for six months, when
for prudential reasons they were married. His
wife died after giving birth to a daughter, who
became the second wife of the poet Shelley.
His " Memoirs of the Author of the Vindica-
tion of the Rights of Woman " (1798) is a feel-
ing tribute to her memory, but describes the
details of her life with a minuteness which
subjected him to considerable censure. In 1 799
appeared " St. Leon," containing many incred-
ible situations, but also many passages of splen-
did description and true pathos ; it purports to
be the autobiography of a philosopher who has
become immortal by the discovery of the elixir
of life. On this and " Caleb Williams" his
reputation chiefly rests. His other novels are
"Fleetwood" (1805), " Mandeville " (1817),
44 Cloudesley " (1830), and " Deloraine " (1833).
Among his other works were the tragedies
44 Antonio " (1800), and 4l Faulkner " (1807-'8) ;
a 44 Life of Chaucer" (2 vols. 4to, 1803);
44 Lives of John and Edward Phillips, Nephews
of Milton" (4to, 1815); and a "History of the
Commonwealth " (4 vols. 8vo, 1824-'8), writ-
ten with great impartiality, and valuable as a
repository of facts. His last important work,
44 Thoughts on Man, his Nature, Productions,
and Discoveries " (1881), was a series of essays
in the style of his earlier writings. A posthu-
mous work by him, " The Genius of Christian-
ity Unveiled," was published in 1873. For
some years he carried on business as a book-
seller, and under the name of Edward Baldwin
published a number of children's books, small
histories, and other compilations, some of which
were by himself. In the latter part of his life
be obtained a clerkship in the record office.

\utobiography, Memoirs, and Correspon-
dence" wns pul.li.shcd in 1874. II. Mtry Woll-
stonrrraft, an English authoress, wife of the pre-
ceding, born in Beverley, Yorkshire, April 27,
1769, died in London, Sept. 10, 1797. Her fa-
ther, a man of ungovernable temper, embittered
her childhood by the cruelty with which he

1 his family. A natural independence
<.f character induced her to sever herself from
such a parent, and upon the death of her mother
she established a school at Islington, in the di-
rection of which she was assisted by two of her
sisters. The illness of a friend in Lisbon called
her thither f..r a while, and upon her return

inland she found h.-r school ruined by
mismanage-in, nt. Alter a short experience as
a governess in the family of Lord Kingsborough,

GODWIT

she determined to devote herself to a literary
life Having acquired considerable reputation
by her " Thoughts on the Education of Daugh-
ters " and some works of fiction, as also by
translations of Lavater's "Physiognomy" and
Salzmann's a Elements of Morality," she ven-
tured in 1791 upon a reply to Burke's " Reflec-
tions on the French Revolution," and soon
after published her celebrated " Vindication of
the Rights of Woman " (1791), in which the
claim of woman to share with man the func-
tions he has exclusively exercised is argued
with boldness and ability. Full of enthusiasm
for the new ideas which the French revolution
had inaugurated, she went to Paris, only to
find her hopes crushed by the overthrow of the
Girondists. She here also formed a connection
with an American named Imlay, who deserted
her. Giving birth to a child, she endeavored
to put an end to her existence, and afterward
sought relief from her troubles in writing her
"Letters from Sweden, Norway, and Den-
mark" (1796), which she had visited while she
had her home in Paris. In 1797 she was mar-
ried to William Godwin, and she died in child-
bed. Her posthumous works were published
by her husband (4 vols. 12mo, 1798).

GODWIT, a bird belonging to the scolopacida,
or snipe family, and subfamily limosinw, which
includes also the curlew. It forms the genus
limosa (Briss.), characterized by a long slender
bill, inclined a little upward and slightly thick-
ened at the tip, with sides compressed and
grooved on both mandibles for nearly the
whole length ; the upper mandible a little the
longer, and the gape moderate; wings long
and pointed, the first quill the longest; tail
short and even ; tarsi slender, longer than the
middle toe ; toes long, the outer united to the
middle by a membrane as far as the first joint;
hind toe partly resting on the ground ; claws
short and obtuse. The shape is more slender
and the bill and legs longer than those of the
snipes. They are shy birds, frequenting the
seashore, living chiefly on worms which they
draw from the mud ; they are found in most
parts of the world, though most abundantly in
cold climates, and their habits and manners
are like those of the curlew ; the flesh is ex-
cellent eating. The marbled godwit of the
United States (L. fedoa, Linn.) is, in the fe-
male, about 20 in. long to the end of the tail,
the bill 4, tarsus 3, and wing 9 in. ; the malo
is somewhat smaller. The general color above
is brownish black variegated with pale reddish,
the former in bands and the latter in spots;
below pale rufous, with transverse brownish
black lines on the breast and sides ; primaries
dark brown on their outer webs, light rufous
on the inner; tail light rufous, with brownish
black bars; bill dark at the end, dull flesh
color toward the base. It is found over the
temperate regions of North America, and in
South America ; it is abundant in Florida
during the winter, going to the north to breed
in spring, and returning about the last of Au-

GODWIT

gust within the limits of the United States. It
is a shore bird, rarely seen many miles inland ;
when feeding it probes the mud with its long
bill, plunging it in often for its whole length, in
search of marine worms and small crustaceans,
flight is quick and regular, in long and fre-

GOETHE

Marbled Godwit (Limosa fedoa).

quently changing lines. The Hudsonian god-
wit, a smaller and much rarer American spe-
cies (L. Hudsonica, Lath.), is about 15 hi. long,
with an extent of wings of 28 in., tail 3, bill a
little over 3, and tarsus 2| in. ; weight about
9 oz. In the adults, the prevailing color above
is brownish black, with spots and transverse
burs of pale reddish ; upper tail coverts white ;
beneath, yellowish red, with transverse bars
of brownish black, and sometimes the feathers
tipped with white on the abdomen; tail black,
white at the base and tipped with the same ;
under wing coverts black; shafts of primaries
white. The young are cinereous above, with
irregular brownish black marks, dull yellowish

ITudsonian Godwit (Limosa Hudsdnica).

white below, upper tail coverts white, tail as
in adult. It is abundant in the northern parts
of this continent, but rare in the United States,
and scarcely seen south of New Jersey except
in winter ; it breeds in the far north ; the fe-
males are somewhat larger than the males.

The common godwit of Europe (L. Lapponica,
Linn.), in its winter plumage, is deep brown-
ish gray, the feathers edged with whitish ; the
breast brown gray, whitish underneath ; rump
white, radiated with brown; in summer the
prevailing color is reddish.

GOENTOER, a volcano of Java, about 100 m.
S. E. of Batavia, nearly 7,000 ft. high. It is
active, and produces considerable damage by
periodical eruptions, four of which (1818-'41)
were especially violent, destroying a vast num-
ber of coffee trees, and covering large tracts
with heaps of stones, ashes, and sand.

GOERTZ. See GORTZ.

GOES, a town of Holland, on the island of S.
Beveland, 15 m. W. of Bergen-op-Zoom ; pop.
in 1867, 6,313. It is surrounded by walls,
and contains a number of squares, of which
the Groote Markt, the largest, is planted with
trees. The public buildings are the town hall,
a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a
new corn exchange, and many schools and
charitable institutions. Both the old and new
harbors are defended by forts, and there is an
active commerce.

GOES, Hngo van der, a Flemish painter, pupil
and successor of Van Eyck, flourished in the
second half of the 15th century. His paintings
are all of religious subjects, and their chief ex-
cellence is the grace and dignity of the coun-
tenances. His masterpiece is a " Crucifixion "
in the church of St. James at. Bruges. This
picture was preserved from the general destruc-
tion of church ornaments in the 16th century
by being coated with dark clay on which the
ten commandments were inscribed.

GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, a German au-
thor, born in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Aug. 28,
1749, died in Weimar, -March 22, 1832. His
father, Johann Kaspar Goethe, the son of a
tailor of Frankfort, had raised himself to the
dignity of an imperial councillor, and in 1748
had married Katharina Elisabeth, daughter of
Johann Wolfgang Textor, the chief magistrate
of the city. Their first offspring, the subject
of this article, inherited the best qualities of
both parents. The father, a cold, stern, formal,
and pedantic man, was a person of vigorous
mind and of rigid will ; and the mother was a
simple-hearted, genial, vivacious, and affection-
ate woman, who loved poetry and the romantic
lore of the nursery. In one of his poems Goethe
afterward said : " From my father I derive
my frame and the steady guidance of my life,
and from my dear little mother my happy dis-
position and love of story-telling." But he
derived a great deal more from both ; for the
father, rigid disciplinarian as he was, early
indoctrinated him in the knowledge of the
classics and modern languages, and in the love
of fine art ; while the mother gave him, be-
sides her vivacity and animal spirits, that large
and instinctive wisdom which comes of broad
human sympathies. Goethe was a precocious
child, handsome, lively, and sensitive. His
early education was wholly domestic, in the

GOETHE

company of his only sister Cornelia, to whom
he was passionately attached. Before he was
ten years of age he wrote several languages,
meditated poems, invented stories, and had a
considerable familiarity with works of art.
Frankfort was a mediaeval city, full of old as-
sociations and the remains of antique customs,
but just beginning to stir with the quick move-
ments of a more modern trade and industry.
None of its influences, old or new, were lost
upon the child, whose position in middle life,
while it brought him in contact with the most
cultivated men of society, did not exempt him
from occasional mixture with the lower orders,
or from the ruder experiences of life. His first
love for Gretchen, a girl in the humblest ranks,
began amid a circle of forgers and delinquents.
In October, 1765, at the age of 16, he was sent
to Leipsic to begin his collegiate studies. His
autobiography passes over this part of his life
with a few words, but other evidences show
that it was a time not of hard and varied study
merely, but of much wild and frolicsome ad-
venture. While he mastered with an easy
grace the manifold sciences and arts of a Ger-
man university, jurisprudence, medicine, logic,
rhetoric, philosophy, morals, drawing, &c., he
was no less at home in those wayward and
capricious sports, in the love-makings and the
merry-makings, which are natural to this period
of life. No criminal indulgences are charged
upon him, but he lived freely and buoyantly,
preferring often the society of jovial compan-
ions, free thinkers and actors, to that of the
more accepted respectabilities of a staid literary
metropolis. He had already fallen into the
habit of turning his inward feelings into verse,
and two dramas, Die Laune dcs Verliebten
and Die Mitechuldigen, grew out of his more
erratic impulses. After a brief interval passed
in sickness at home, during which he read the
books of the alchemists, he was transferred in
1770 to the university of Strasburg, where he
renewed his studies of jurisprudence and the
natural sciences, enlarged the number of his
acquaintances, including Herder and Jung-
Stilling, and foil in love with the daughter of
a dancing master. Herder's friendship was of
the greatest use to him, as it introduced him

reading of Shakespeare, Goldsmith, and
other English classics, and awakened within
him a profounder sense of the grand poetry of
th- Hebrew Scriptures. He had fallen in with
the family of a clergyman at Sesenheira, where
there were two daughters, with one of whom,

rika, he became enamored, and they were
finally betrothed ; but in leaving the university
in 1771, he tore himself away from the bond
and the attachment. Impetuous and headlong
as he was, there was already a tendency in him
to value external objects, human and others,
as they assisted in that deep and varied culture
whi-h he began to make the principal aim of
his existence. In 1772 he went to Wetzlar to
practise law, and in the following year pub-
lished a play destined to attract public atten-

tion toward him, and to give the world its
earliest glimpses of his extraordinary genius.
This was Gotz von Berlichingen, a dramatic
version of the story of Gotz of the Iron Hand,
an old predatory burgrave of the 16th century,
who made war upon his fellow barons, some-
times to increase his own store, and sometimes
defence of the poor. His lawless career
represented the sturdy struggle of feudalism
against an advancing civilization, and Goethe
seized the incidents to present them in a clear,
powerful, picturesque, and dramatic whole.
This work was the outbreak of a genius as rude
and stalwart almost as Gotz himself, asserting
ts freedom against the fetters of an artificial
literary spirit; one of the earliest throes in
that period of intellectual convulsion in Ger-
many which has taken the name of the Sturm-
und Drangperiode, or storm and pressure
period. It excited the greatest enthusiasm in
the literary world, and romantic dramas for a
time became the fashion. In 'the interval
Goethe had passed the time in wandering
through the Rhine country. At Wetzlar he
a^ain fell in love, but as the object of his love,
Charlotte Buff, was betrothed to one Kestner,
to whom she was soon after married, the affec-
tion was not returned. A young student named
Jerusalem, with whom Goethe was intimate,
having committed suicide because of a similar
unhappy passion for the wife of one of his
friends, Goethe wove the incidents of the two
cases into a novel, which he called Die Leiden
des jungen Werther (1774), known in English
as u The Sorrows of Werther." The sensation
produced by it was prodigious. The most dis-
tinguished literary men praised it as a pro-
foundly philosophic romance, while the com-
mon people were carried away by its eloquence
and pathos. Its chief success, however, arose
from the fact that it expressed a certain sad
longing and discontent which was then a char-
acteristic of the age. The same year he wrote
Clavigo, a drama founded on Beaumarchais's
memoir on Clavijo, projected a drama on Mo-
hammed, another on Prometheus, only a few
lines of either of which wore written, and al-
ready revolved in his mind the drama of /</?/*/.
Two love engagements, one with Anna Sibylla
Munch, and the other with Anna Elisabeth
Schonemann, immortalized in his works under
the name of Lili, diversified the experiences of
this period. The fame acquired by Werther
brought Goethe under the notice of Charles
Augustus, grand duke of Saxe- Weimar, who in
1775 invited the poet to spend a few weeks at
his court. Goethe went there, and the result
of the friendship thus contracted was that
Goethe thereafter made Weimar Ins permanent
residence. He was created a Geheimer Lega-
tionsrath, or privy councillor of legation, at a
salary of 1,200 thalers per annum ; but his prin-
cipal public occupation seems to have been to
superintend the artistic pleasures of the court.
Weimar was a small city, without trade or
manufactures, but made up for its want of

GOETHE

commercial activity by its varied literary cul-
ture. It was filled with notabilities, among
whom are to be noticed particularly Wieland,
Herder, Musaus, Knebel, Seckendorf, Corona
Schroter, the dowager duchess Amalia, Frau
von Stein, and afterward Schiller. In this
circle Goethe at once took his place as the
presiding deity. " He rose like a star in the
heavens," says Knebel ; " everybody worship-
ped him, and especially the women." His first
years there were spent in wild and tumultuous
enjoyments, in which " affairs of the heart " did
not always end with the heart. But Goethe's
nature was too profound, his intellectual ac-
tivity too great, to be long beguiled by the
frivolities of masking, hunting, drinking, dan-
cing, and dicing, and he resumed his more se-
rious pursuits. The first fruit of his return
(1779) was IpJiigenie auf Tauris, a prose dra-
ma, which he afterward turned into a beautiful
drama in verse. After a visit to Switzerland
the same year, described in his Briefe aus der
Schweiz, he composed a little opera, called Jery
und Bately, full of Swiss inspirations. He also
began to devote himself strenuously to the
study of natural science, in which he became
a proficient. The novel of Wilhelm Meister
was at the same time in progress, and many
of his best small poems were produced at this
period (l780-'83). In 1786 he made a journey
to Italy, where he passed nearly two years in
the most laborious study of its antiquities and
arts, and in the composition of Torquato Tasso,
a drama suggested by the life of that poet at
the court of Ferrara. He was so absorbed in
the past of Italy that he paid little attention to
its present condition or people. The narrative
of his travels, Die italianische Reise, contains
the most charming descriptions of the scenes
through which he passed. On his return to
Weimar in 1788, he published Egmont, a ro-
mantic drama, full of passion and interest, rep-
resenting a sombre and tragic episode in the
revolution of the Netherlands, but in which he
has not confined himself at all to the incidents
of actual history ; the character of Clarchen
is by many regarded as one of his most suc-
cessful female creations. A relation with Frau
von Stein, which Goethe had long maintained,
was now broken off, but he soon formed another
with Christiane Vulpius. She was uneduca-
ted, and lived in some domestic capacity in his
house ; but Goethe afterward married her, to
legitimate his son (born Dec. 25, 1788, died
Oct. 27, 1830). In 1792 he accompanied the
army of the king of Prussia and the duke of
Brunswick in their campaign into France, of
which he wrote an account. Soon after ap-
peared his metrical version of Reinecke Fucks.
The results of his scientific studies appeared
in his Beitrage zur OptiTc and his Farberilehre,
in the latter of which he had the hardihood
to question the correctness of the Newtonian
theory of colors. He wrote also on the meta-
morphosis of plants, and on topics of compara-
tive anatomy. In all these he displayed a re-

markable penetration and sagacity, and his re-
marks on the morphology of plants are now
reckoned among the earlier enunciations of the
theory of evolution. His acquaintance with
Schiller, who divided with him the suffrages
of the poetic German world, began at Jena in
1794; and though their intercourse was cold at
first, it ripened into one of the most enduring
and beautiful friendships recorded in literary
annals. Schiller's influence upon him was
both stimulating and ennobling, and from this
time forth we find him engaged in producing
his grandest works. The first part of Wil-
helm Meister (the Lehrjahre) appeared in 1795.
Hermann und Dorothea, a pastoral poem in
hexameters, the most perfect of his minor pro-
ductions, was written in 1797; the Achilleis
was executed the same year; and he engaged
in friendly rivalry with Schiller in bringing
forth a series of ballads, of which Goethe's part,
Die Braut von Corinth, Der Zaulerlehrling,
Der Gott und die Bajadere, and Die Schatz-
grdber, are among the masterpieces of German
literature. Even these, however, were only
the preludes of what he was destined to do;
for the Faust was still revolving itself in his
thoughts, and the Wilhelm Meister went stead-
ily forward. At last, in 1805, the great work
of his life saw the light. The legend of Faust
had been familiar to him as a child, he had
thought of it and labored upon it during the
whole of his youth, and now in the ripeness of
his manhood it had taken its final shape. "It
appeals to all minds with the irresistible fas-
cination of an eternal problem, and with the
charm of endless variety. It has every element
wit, pathos, wisdom, buffoonery, mystery,
melody, reverence, doubt, magic, and irony;
not a chord of the lyre is unstrung, not a fibre
of the heart untouched." This work raised
Goethe to the highest pinnacle of fame, and he
was universally acknowledged to be the first
poet of his age. If Goethe had died in 1806,
he would have achieved a greater renown than
any other modern man of letters ; but he was
destined to live 26 years longer, years of con-
tentment, labor, productiveness, and honor.
The stormy and errant impulses of his youth
had been subdued; he had mastered himself
and his circumstances; the great problem of
life, which had filled him with strife and im-
patience, lay clear before him ; his circumstan-
ces were easy; and his position at the head
of German literature, which he had himself
brought out of chaos or formalism into order-
ly vigor, gained him the homage of Europe.
Schiller and other friends were dead ; others
again, friends of earlier days, were separated
from him in sympathy by the large strides
which his intellect had made in various paths
of thought; and a sombre hue fell upon, with-
out clouding, the serenity of his later years.
Moreover, the external events of the world
were full of trouble and agitation. It was the
era of Napoleon's conquests. Germany pal-
pitated with the rest of Europe in throbs of

GOETHE

war ; and the grand duke of Weimar was drawn
into tlio very vortex of commotion. On Oct.
H 1806, the battle of Jena was fought, and
Goethe heard in his calm home the reports of
the cannonades. Soon that home was invaded ;
the French troops entered his house, ransacked
his cellars, penetrated even to his bedchamber,
and though they treated him with respect,
tilled his soul with indignation and wrath.
Goethe hud all his life been averse to the dis-
turbing influence of politics. His impassive-
ness under the tempestuous influences of the
time had brought upon him the reproach of
want of patriotism and of indifference to the
welfare of humanity. But when the French
approached Weimar, and Napoleon exhibited
his spite against Charles Augustus for his active
sympathy with his countrymen and allies, the
long-pent feeling of the poet burst forth. " Mis-
fortune ! " he exclaimed to Falk ; " what is mis-
fortune? This is misfortune, that a prince
should be compelled to endure such things from
foreigners. And if it came to the same pass
with him as with his ancestor, Duke John, if
his ruin were certain and irretrievable, let not
this dismay us; we will take our staff in our
hand and accompany our master in adversity
as old Lucas Cranach did ; we will never for-
suko him. The women and the children, when
they meet us in the villages, will cast down their
eyes and weep, and say to one another, * That
is old Goethe and the former duke of Weimar,
whom the French emperor drove from his
throne because he was so true to his friends in
misfortune ; because he visited his uncle on his
deathbed; because he would not let his old
comrades and brothers in arms starve.' " " At
this," adds Falk, "the tears rolled in streams
down his cheeks. After a pause, having re-
covered himself a little, he continued : ' I will
sing for bread! I will turn strolling ballad-
singer, and put our misfortunes into verse! I
will wander into every village and every school
wherever the name of Goethe is known ; I
will chant the dishonor of Germany, and the
children shall learn the song of our shame till
they are men; and thus they shall sing my
master on to his throne again, and yours off
hi- ! ' But as the noise of the French cannon
withdrew from Weimar, ho began to pipe once
more in his old peaceful strain. All through
the revolutionary tumult, in fact, he took ref-
uge in his studies and scientific experiments.
On occasion of an interview with Napoleon
he scarcely remembered the enthusiasm with
which he had spoken to Falk. Napoleon is
reported t.i h:i\\- .said, Vousetes un homme, and
fell to criticising his works, especially Werthcr,
which he had read, he said, seven times. Goethe
was flattered by the appreciative words of the
empen-r, was imited to Paris, and afterward
was decorated with the cross of the legion of
honor. In 1809 Goethe printed the most ex-
ceptionable of his novels, the Wahherwand-
tchaften (" KK-.-tive Affinities"), in which the
charms and graces of his style are employed in

the description of the impulses which spring
from the collision of passion and duty in the
relations of marriage. By the title of the book,
and in the whole spirit of it, he would repre-
sent that sexual affinities follow the same in-
evitable law as chemical affinities, and that hu-
manity struggles impotently against the die-
tates of nature. Like all his productions, this
was suggested by circumstances in his own
experience. The work shocked the moral
world, in spite of the beauty with which it was
written, and to this day tasks the ingenuity of
those of his admirers who seek to defend it
from attack. His next volumes were of a less
doubtful kind : the ballads Der TodtenTcram,
Der getreue Eckart, and Die wandelnde Glocke,
the Dichtung und Wahrheit, an autobiogra-
phy, and the Westostlicher Divan, a collection
of oriental songs and poems. His studies of
science and contemporary literature were mean-
time never remitted. In 1816 he published an
art journal, Kunst und Alterihum, to which he
contributed largely ; and in 1818 the second
part of Wilhelm Neister, the Wanderjahre. In
1825 the jubilee or 50th year of his residence
in Weimar was celebrated in a grand publie
festival. In 1831 the second part of Faust ap-
peared, a continuation of the first part, obscure
and mystical, but full of passages of rare splen-
dor, profound thought, grotesque humor, and
bewitching melody. He supposed himself, and
many critics supposed, that under the -motley
garb of the poem there is a deep significance,
although few have succeeded in detecting it,
while Goethe's own explanations are arid and
unsatisfactory to the last degree. As a dramat-
ic poem it cannot be denied that it was a fail-
ure, even if we admit that as an enigma, cov-
ering some recondite philosophy, it deserves
the closest study. The songs at least, and the
lyrical parts, are excellent. The old man had
lost vigor, but his feelings were still exuberant,
and the singer remained. " If Goethe, 1 ' said
an admirer of his, " everywhere great, is any-
where greatest, it is in his songs and ballads.
They are the spontaneous outgushings of his
mind in all its moods ; a melodious diary of his
daily and almost hourly fluctuations of feeling ;
the breathings of his inward life ; the sparkling
perennial jets of his momentary affections and
thoughts. There is the perpetual freshness and
bloom about them of new spring flowers. Even
when they seem most trivial, they ring through
us like snatches of music. So perfect is the
correspondence of form and substance that their
charm as a whole defies analysis. It is felt, but
cannot be detected. Then, again, how diversi-
fied they are ! Some as simple as the whimper-
ings of a child ; others wild, grotesque, weird,
and unearthly ; and others again lofty, proud,
defiant, like the words of a Titan heaping his
scorn upon the gods." One year after the
completion of Faust Goethe was taken ill of a
cold, which turned into a fatal fever. Tip to
the hour of his death, however, ho prosecuted
his intellectual pursuits. His last writing was

GOETHE

GOG AND MAGOG

an essay on the dispute between Geoffrey
Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, on the question of
unity of composition in the animal kingdom ;
and his last words were, "More light." He
was then in the 83d year of his age. A seal,
with an inscription from one of his own poems,
Ohne Hast, ohne Rast, sent to him on his birth-
day in 1831, by 15 Englishmen, had given him
great delight, for among the Englishmen who
participated in the homage were Wordsworth,
Scott, Southey, Wilson, Lockhart-, and Carlyle.
Goethe was the master spirit, the spokesman,
as Carlyle says, of his age, the artist par excel-
lence of the 1 9th century. The letters of Goethe
are among the best illustrations of his charac-
ter. They are, in the chronological order of
the periods covered by their dates, those to
friends in Leipsic (published in 1849), to Merck
(1835-'47), to Jacobi (1846), to Lavater (1833),
to Herder (1858), to Knebel (1851), to Klop-
stock (1833), to the countess Augusta of Stol-
berg (1839), to Frau von Stein (1848-'51) ; his
correspondence with Schiller (6 vols., 1828-'9 ;
2d ed., 1856 ; translated into English by G. H.
Calvert, Boston, 1845), with Zelter (6 vols.,
1833-'4), with A. W. von Schlegel (1846), with
the baron von Stein (1846), with Nikolaus
Meyer (1856), with Dobereiner (1856), with
Reinhard (1850), with Griiner (1853), with C.
F. L. Schultz (1836), and with the councillor
Schultz (1853) ; Goethe's Briefe und Aufsatse
aus den Jahren l766-'86 (Weimar, 1856) ; " Goe-
the's Correspondence with the Brothers Hum-
boldt, 1795 to 1832," edited by Prof. Bratanek
(3 vols., Cracow, 1873) ; and his Naturwis-
senschaftliche Correspondent (2 vols., Leipsic,
1874). His "Correspondence with a Child"
(Elisabeth or Bettina von Arnirn) is not genuine.
(See Lewes's " Life of Goethe.") The most im-
portant notices by his contemporaries are those
of Eckermann, Gesprache mil Goethe (Leipsic,
1836 ; translated into English by Margaret Ful-
ler, Boston, 1839), and Falk, Goethe auspersim-
lichem Umgang dargestellt (Leipsic, 1832). The
best biographies are by Viehoif (4 vols., Stutt-
gart, 1854; 3d ed., 1873), Schafer (2 vols., Bre-
men, 1851 ; 2d ed., 1858), and G. H. Lewes (2
vols., London, 1855; translated into German,
Berlin, 1857-'8; new ed., abridged, 1873).
Among recent works relating to Goethe are :
"Goethe and Mendelssohn," by Karl Mendels-
sohn (English translation, London, 1872); Gc&-
ihe : ses ceuvres expliques par sa vie, by A. Me-
zieres (Paris, 1872); and Lesmaitr esses de Goethe,
by Henri Blase de Bury (Paris, 1873). Bayard
Taylor and Karl Goedike have lives of Goethe in
preparation. The oldest complete edition of
his works is that of Stuttgart and Tubingen (40
vols., 1827-'31, to which his posthumous works
were added, 15 vols., 1833-'4). Subsequent
editions are numerous ; the best are the latest,
published by Cotta (30 vols. 12mo, and 12 vols.
8vo, Stuttgart and Ttibingen, 1856-'60). Many
of his works have been translated into differ-
ent languages. Among the best into English
are " Gotz von Berlichingen," by Walter Scott

(1799); "Wilhelm Meister," by Thomas Car-
lyle (1824); "Truth and Poetry," by Parke
Godwin (1847) ; and " Hermann and Doro-
thea," by Miss Ellen Frothingham (1870). Of
"Faust" there have been many translations ;
the best are those of Charles T. Brooks (Bos-
ton, 1857), and Bayard Taylor (Boston, 1870-
'72). A monument to Goethe, to be executed
by Schafer, and erected in the Thiergarten,
Berlin, was commenced in 1873.

GOFFE, William, an English regicide, born
about 1605, died in Hadley, Mass., in 1679.
He was one of the most fervent of the Puritans,
was a devoted adherent of Cromwell, one of
the best officers of the parliamentary army, and
one of the judges who tried Charles I. After
the death of the protector and the restora-
tion of the Stuarts he escaped to America, and
was in 1660, with his father-in-law Edward
Whalley, received with courtesy by Gov. En-
dicott at Boston. Warrants soon after arrived
for their arrest, a price was set on their heads,
and Indians as well as English were sent in
pursuit of them. They removed from house
to house, living in mills, in the clefts of rocks
on the seashore, and in caves in the forests.
They hid themselves for months in a cavern
near New Haven, from which they issued only
by night. This retreat was discovered, and
they fled successively to Milford, Derby, and
Branford. At length they found an asylum
in the house of a clergyman at Hadley, where
Goffe passed the remaining 15 years of his life.
In 1675 the town of Hadley was surprised du-
ring a religious service by the Pokanoket In-
dians under their celebrated chieftain Philip.
The inhabitants were about to fall beneath the
tomahawk when an old man with a long white
beard appeared in the church, rallied the dis-
heartened colonists, disposed them for a charge
upon the Indians which he himself led, and put
the savages to flight. This was Goffe, who in
the moment of victory disappeared again for
ever, leaving the colonists in the persuasion
that a heavenly messenger had fought for them.

GOG AND MAGOG. These names occur un-
connected in Genesis and 1 Chronicles as the
names of several persons ; Magog, in the ethno-
logical table of the former book (ch. x.), be-
ing the second son of Japheth, and brother of
Gomer and Madai, who are generally consid-
ered to represent the Cimmerians and Medes
respectively. In Ezekiel Gog and Magog are
connectedly used to designate a prince and a
people of the north, apparently of the Scythian
race. In the book of Revelations the words
denote the enemies of Christianity who were
doomed to destruction. The two famous effi-
gies in Guildhall, London, known as Gog and
Magog, have been from time immemorial the
pride of the city. There are various legends
relating to them. According to one, they rep-
resent the last survivors of a race of giants
who infested Britain, and were extirpated by
the Trojans who came there soon after tho
destruction of Troy. They were chained as

GOGOL

porters before the palace gates, and when
.,-,1 tlu-iri-nVu-s took their place. An-
other K-gend says that one of the giants is Gog-
m&soK and tlie other Corineus, a British giant ,
who killed him. The effigies, originally of

and pasteboard, were borne about j
in public shows and processions as early as
in. and j.robably long before. The present
trved in wood, and hollow, were set up
8, They stand upon octagonal pedes-
tals, and are 14 ft. high.

GOGOL, Nikolai, a Russian author, born about
1809, died in Moscow, March 4, 1852. He is
said to have failed as an actor, and afterward
to have attempted in vain to obtain a posi-
tion under the government. Subsequently he
published " Evenings at a Farmhouse," a col-
lection of tales and sketches, which met with
much favor. His first drama was "The In-
spector," in which the corruption and venality
>f the officials was severely satirized. About
1834 he was appointed professor of history in
the university of St. Petersburg. In 1842 he
published a novel, " Dead Souls," which has
been translated into English nnder the title of
"Home Life in Russia" (London, 1854). It
narrates the adventures of a rogue who goes
about purchasing the rights of the proprietors
to serfs recently dead, whose names have not
yet been taken from the rolls, in order to obtain
advances from government. This work attained
great popularity. He went abroad soon after,
and in his " Correspondence " (published in
1847) he eulogized the abuses which he had
before satirized. By this he lost the favor
which he had won from the liberals. He fell
into a state of religious melancholy, and de-
stroyed all his unpublished manuscripts, some
of which he said were written under the in-
spiration of the devil. His complete works,
comprising tales, dramas, and poems, have been
published in 4 vols. (Moscow, 1862).

GOGRA, or Goghra (Hindoo, Gharghara ; the
Sareyu of Hindoo mythology, and, according to
Rennell, the Agoranis of Arrian), a river of In-
dia, which rises on the frontiers of Thibet, in
the Himalayas, at an altitude of about 18,000
ft., il..u , S. and then S. E., and falls into the
-i near Chupra, 115 m. below Benares.
i'n-t a vast torrent, having a descent of
15,500 ft in 75 m. ; but after receiving several
affluents, it becomes navigable for vessels of
considerable size, the descent diminishing to 12
ft. per mile. Its whole length is about 600 m.
iun.-tion with the Ganges it exceeds that
a depth, breadth, and volume of water.
(.01 1 l< V/.KS, an Indian tribe of Brazil, long
masters of the region lying between the Rio Ca-
:ia or Itabapuana and Cape Sao Thome,
i- they repeatedly repulsed the Portu-
.ipti-il tn si'ttK- in those parts.
"ii was the bow and arrow, in
"i wliicli tlu-v won- very skilful. They
took up their abode in places sur-
rnin.!. p, their dwellings being cab-

i palm leaves suspended from tree

GOITRE

trunks, serving at the same time as a sort of
ambuscade. Father Vasconcellos, a writer of
the 17th century, reports that they were a fero-
cious and cruel people, addicted to eating hu-
man flesh. Many of these Indians had never-
theless before his time been baptized as Chris-
tians, and lived in villages where their descen-
dants are still found, in the northern portion of
the province of Rio de Janeiro, rarely mingling
with the whites. Their numbers are consider-
able, and they are ingenious, skilful, sprightly,
and frank when kindly treated, but vindictive,
improvident, and intemperate,

GOITRE, an elastic swelling on the front and
sides of the neck, arising from a hypertrophy
of the thyroid gland ; it is also called broncho-
cele and Derbyshire neck. It is generally soft
and yielding, and varies in size from that of a
nut to a mass surrounding the greater part of
the neck, sometimes descending far upon the
chest ; it is usually slow in its growth, and may
increase in either lateral lobe or in the median
isthmus ; it is accompanied by neither tender-
ness nor discoloration of the skin, and is gene-
rally definitely circumscribed. When of small
size it occasions no inconvenience; but when
large its weight and pressure upon the trachea,
oesophagus, vessels, and nerves cause headache,
difficulty of breathing and swallowing, conges-
tion of the brain, with dizziness, lividity of the
face, protrusion of the eyes, alteration of the
voice, dulness of hearing, obstinate cough, end-
ing in pulmonary disease, and threatening even
apoplexy and suffocation. The anatomical char-
acter of the disease is the enlargement of the
cells of the gland, which are filled with a vis-
cid fluid or with blood ; in old cases the tumor
may become hard and partly bony. All ages
are subject to goitre, but young persons and
the female sex are most liable to it; it is also
hereditary. Though occasionally sporadic, it is
essentially an endemic disease in cold and damp
countries, as in the deep valleys of the Alps,
where the air is moist, cold, and stagnant ; it
is most common in mountain valleys of the
Alps, the Pyrenees, the Himalaya chain in Asia,
the Cordilleras in America, the high regions of
Scotland, and the chalky districts of Derby-
shire and Nottingham in England. Though
often connected with cretinism, it does not
appear to be a scrofulous disease; neither is
it confined to persons living in poverty and
uncleanliness, for it is the sad inheritance of
many wealthy families. Various causes have
been assigned for goitre, but none of them are
entirely satisfactory; the most probable are
the insufficient illumination by the sun, mois-
ture, and stillness of deep valleys ; deleterious
emanations from clayey soils ; the use of snow
water, or that from springs, arising from calca-
reous formations ; the dcoxygenation of water
from great elevation, or its contact with metal-
lic and organic matters eagerly absorbing oxy-
gen. It seems to be connected rather with the
geological than with any other character of a
region. Goitre may be distinguished from oth-

GOLCONDA

er tumors in the neck by its shape, consistence,
and general development on both sides. The
prognosis in a person advanced in life is unfa-
vorable, but in early life it may be cured. The
chief remedy for this disease is iodine, both
internally and externally, either alone- or com-
bined with potash and iron ; the patient should
be removed from the infected district to the
seashore, and a tonic regimen be pursued.
When suffocation is imminent from the pres-
sure of the tumor, relief may be obtained for
the time by puncture, the seton, ligatures of
the supplying arteries, or by extirpation of the
gland ; the last three are dangerous to life, and
have proved fatal, and the first three may fail
even if the patient survive the operations. The
usual treatment is simply palliative, iodine with
tonics and narcotics. There is a form of goitre
not uncommon in anemic females in the United
States and in England, with the symptoms of
the Alpine disease, though milder, and relieved
by the tonic treatment of anemia.
GOLCONDA, an ancient city and fortress of
lia, in the native state of Hyderabad or the

GOLD

Nizam's dominions, 7 m. N. W. of Hyderabad.
The fortress stands on a rocky eminence, and
is a large and strong edifice. It is now chiefly
used as a prison, and as a depository for the
treasures of the Nizam. The principal inhab-
itants and bankers of Hyderabad are also per-
mitted to retain houses in it, to which on any
alarm they retire with their money and other
valuables. About 600 yards from the fortress
are the tombs of the ancient kings of Golconda.
Each mausoleum occupies the centre of a large
quadrangular platform, which is approached on
every side by granite stairs. They are mostly
constructed of gray stone, ornamented with
stucco and Indian porcelain, whose colors re-
tain all their pristine brilliancy, and on which
are engraved in white characters various ex-
tracts from the Koran. These mausolea are
very numerous, and have a striking and im-
pressive appearance when viewed from a dis-
tance. Golconda was formerly renowned for
its diamonds, but they were merely cut and
polished here, being generally brought from
Parteall in the S. part of. the Nizam's domin-

Tombs of the Kings, Golconda.

ions. It was anciently the capital of a pow-
erful kingdom of the same name, which arose
on the overthrow of the Bahmani empire ; but
it was taken by Aurungzebe and annexed to
that of Delhi.

GOLD, a precious metal, ranking the first in
beauty and value among useful metals from
the earliest times to the present day ; distin-
guished for being the only metal of a yellow
color, and for possessing in the highest degree
the properties of ductility and malleability. In
chemistry its symbol is Au, from the Latin au-
rum, gold; its equivalent number 98'5, or, in
the usage of many chemists, the double of this,
197. Its density varies according as the metal
is more or less compressed ; it is rated when
hammered at from 19'258 to 19'4. In a finely

divided state, precipitated from its solution by
sulphate of iron, it has proved of specific grav-
ity 20-72. When pure the metal is nearly as
soft as lead, and is then susceptible of its
greatest extension by beating or wire-drawing.
(See GOLD BEATING.) In thin leaf it is trans-
parent, and the transmitted light is of a green
color; by heat the color is changed to ruby red,
and this color the metal finely divided imparts
under certain conditions to glass. Its melting
point is variously given as 2016 F., 2192,
2518, and 2590. In the heat of furnaces it
is not volatilized ; but gold wire is dispersed
in vapor by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, by the
heat of the sun's rays concentrated by a pow-
erful convex lens, or by the electric battery.
As the current traverses it, the vapors pro-

GOLD

duced may be collected upon a sheet of paper
placed beneath the wire; the paper is stained
a purplish brown by the deposit of finely divi-
ded gold, and a sheet of silver may be thus
gilded When gold is fused in large quantity
and allowed to cool slowly, cubical crystals are
sometimes observed to form, and crystals ot
native gold have been found in the form of the
regular octahedron. Gold is not acted upon
by alkalies or simple acids, except selenic, nor
by the oxygen of the air even when long ex-
posed in a fused state. Neither does sulphur
affect it ; but it is dissolved by bromine and
chlorine, or by any combination of acids or
other substances in which free chlorine is pres-
ent. This element, as it is generated in mix-
tures, is a powerful solvent of gold ; and to it
is due this property of the compound called
aqua regia, formed of 4 parts of hydrochloric
and 1 part of nitric acid. Gold forms alloys
with most of the metals. Silver or copper
increases its hardness and renders it better
adapted for wear when ussd for coins, jewelry,
or plate. Such compounds are also more fusible
than pure gold. The solder for gold trinkets
is 1 part of copper to 5 of gold, or to 4 of gold
and 1 of silver. With mercury gold unites to
form an amalgam. Mercurial fumes even, com-
ing in contact with gold, instantly combine
with and whiten it. The mercury may be
driven off by heat. (See AMALGAM.) Gold is
obtained from its solutions in various forms.
The precipitate by sulphate of iron is a dull
brown powder, which by pressure acquires the
metallic lustre and color. The precipitate by
oxalic acid is yellower and more metallic in
appearance. The metallic gold which is left
on evaporating a solution of its compound
with chlorine and heating the residue is of a
spongy character and dull hue ; by annealing
it becomes more dense and yellow, and by
percussion is readily welded together. (For
modes of preparing sponge gold and its uses,
see DENTISTRY.) Gold is very widely distrib-
uted in nature, and late researches have shown
that it is present in appreciable quantities in
the waters of the ocean, where it is associated
with silver. According to Sonstadt, a ton of
sea water yields by a simple chemical process
a grain of gold ; so that the quantity of the
precious metal thus held in solution must be
vastly greater than all the gold ever yet ex-
tracted from the earth. Gold is very general-
ly diffused throughout the solid rocks, though
only here and there accumulated in sufficient
quantities to be economically available. The
workable deposits of this metal are in stratifiec
rocks of different formations, from the oldest
crystallines to the postpliocene sands and grav-
els, and also in veins traversing rocks of various
geological periods. The most common vein-
stone of gold is quartz, but it is also found in
bitter spar and disseminated in metallic sul-
phides, such as iron pyrites, which very often
contains sufficient quantities of the metal to be
extracted with profit. In this as well as in the

quartzose gangues the gold is sometimes in
arge grains or crystalline threads or masses, and
sometimes disseminated in particles invisible to
the eye. The opinion is entertained by many
;hat in pyrites and in other sulphuretted ores
the gold is sometimes chemically combined
with the other metals and with sulphur. It
has been found that the lead of commerce,
from whatever source derived, is seldom or
never without a tra*ce of gold. Gold is not,
as has been erroneously supposed, confined to
rocks of any one geological period. The gold
of Colorado is found in veins with metallic sul-
phurets traversing crystalline rocks of eozoic
age, and the same is the case in Ontario ;
while the gold-bearing strata of the Appala-
chians are in large part if not wholly of pre-
palffiozoic age, as are those of the Alps and the
Ural mountains. In Nova Scotia, on the con-
trary, the gold-bearing rocks are slates and sand-
stones, supposed to be of lower Cambrian age ;
and the auriferous strata of Wales as well as
those of Australia are of that period. The
gold-bearing veins extensively worked in Tran-
sylvania traverse sandstones of eocene or ear-
ly tertiary age, and the gold-bearing quartz of
California is said to be found in strata of the
Jurassic formation. It is probable, however,
that a part of the auriferous rocks of that
country will be found to be eozoic, while on
the other hand it appears that the silicious de-
posits now forming from the thermal waters in
Nevada contain not only metallic sulphurets
but small portions of gold ; so that the pro-
cesses which in former times gave rise to gold-
bearing veins in that region are still in ope-
ration. By the disintegration and crumbling
away of the rocks which contain the auriferous
veins, the contents of these are swept down
to lower levels, and the gold by its density al-
ways seeks the lowest places among the mov-
ing materials. Thus are produced the aurifer-
ous gravel deposits in alluvial formations, the
golden sands of the rivers ; and so have they
been gathering for long ages past and forming
deposits, some of which are now seen in situa-
tions apparently out of reach of such agencies.
In these deposits, when stripped of the clay
and sands which cover the lower and richer
layers, there are found in the irregular-shaped
cavities of the surface of the rock, in pockets
and in piles against the projecting strata, the
accumulated riches of ancient veins, it may be,
of vast extent. By washing away the inter-
mixed earthy and stony matters, the metal is
obtained in dust, flattened scales, small lumps,
and nuggets of all sizes and shapes, the larger
pieces rounded by attrition, or ragged from the
irregular forms they held in their original hard
quartz matrix. Their size is commonly greater
than that of gold found in the veins near by, a
fact first explained by the late Oscar Lieber of
South Carolina to be due to the solution of gold
and its subsequent aggregation. Later obser-
vations of Genth and Selwyn go to confirm
this view. In these deposits the largest lumps

GOLD

of gold ever met with were discovered, as that
of Cabarrus co., N". C., of 28 Ibs. avoirdupois, or
37 Ibs. troy, found in 1810 ; the mass weighing
96 Ibs. troy in Zlatoust, a district of the south-
ern Ural, in 1842, and now in the imperial
school of mines at St. Petersburg; a mass
from Victoria in Australia, which was exhibit-
ed in London, and weighed 146 Ibs. 3 dvvts.
troy, of which 6 oz. only were estimated as
matrix ; and the still larger mass found at Bal-
larat in that region, and weighing 2,217" oz.
16 dwts., or about 185 Ibs. troy. According
to Phillips, the largest piece of gold ever found
was probably the great Australian nugget,
known as the " Sarah Sands," which weighed
233 Ibs. 4 oz. troy. Though in a metallic
state, gold is never obtained pure ; silver is
always alloyed with it, but in no definite pro-
portions. The purest specimen is probably
one from the Ural, near Yekaterinburg, an-
alyzed by Rose, which gave, in 100 parts, gold
98-96, silver 0*16, copper 0'35; its specific
gravity was 19-099. The product of Califor-
nia is much of it very near the richness of gold
of the American and French gold coins, which
is 900 parts in 1,000. Its average, however, is
stated to be T VA to T 8 oVo and that of Austra-
lia T Wo to -^nnr- " specimen of California
gold, containing gold 90-70, silver 8-80, and
iron 0-38, was of specific gravity only 14-6,
and by fusing this was increased to 17'48.
Gold from the Chaudiere, Canada, of specific
gravity 17'60, analyzed by T. Sterry Hunt,
gave gold 87'77, silver 12-23 ; another speci-
men in fine scales, of specific gravity 16-57, pro-
duced gold 89-24, silver 10-76. Copper, palla-
dium, and rhodium are also met with as alloys
of gold. In Transylvania veins are worked pro-
ducing an alloy of tellurium, gold, silver, and
antimony ; the tellurium commonly constitutes
from 55 to 60 per cent., and the gold from 25
to 30 per cent. The same compound has been
recognized at Gold Hill, N. 0. Gold occurs
in a few other combinations also with tellu-
rium. In the oldest records of the human
race mention is made of gold, and like silver
it was enumerated as an element of riches.
Throughout the Old Testament there are fre-
quent allusions to gold and to fine gold. It
was beaten into thin plates, cut into wires, and
even woven with threads of linen for the sacer-
dotal robe of Aaron. It was fashioned into
breastplates with chains at the ends of wreath-
en wor"k of pure gold ; and it was used as the
setting of precious stones. By other nations it
was made into gods and idols, some of gigantic
size. Aaron prepared a golden calf for the
children of Israel, which Moses burned with
fire and reduced to powder; an operation that
might have been effected by first melting and
beating it out into plates. In building the tem-
ple of Jerusalem the quantities of gold lavish-
ly employed by Solomon for its furniture and
decorations implied that it was largely collect-
ed, and that the ancients had access to mines
of great extent and richness. Atahuallpa, the

captured inca of Peru, agreed to bring together
for his ransom, in the space of two months,
articles of gold which should fill a room 22 ft.
long and 17 broad to the height of*9 ft. When
this was done and the gold melted, it was
found to amount to I,326,539^>es0s de oro. The
commercial value of the peso, according to
Prescott, was equivalent to $11 67, making the
sum total $15,480,710. The source whence
the Phoenicians and Israelites derived their im-
mense supplies of gold was the land of Ophir,
a region still of uncertain locality. Once in
three years the fleet of Solomon completed a
voyage to it and back. Its other products be-
sides gold brought back to Palestine (1 Kings
x. 11 and 22), as ivory, spices, precious stones,
ebony, peacocks, apes, and the almug or san-
dal wood, indicate that it was in the tropics.
It is generally presumed to have been either
the East Indies or that part of the S. E. coast
of Africa called Sofala by the Arabs. The au-
riferous character of the desert steppes of Gobi
was known in the time of Herodotus to the in-
habitants about the sources of the Indus ; and
to this day are to be seen along the southern
Ural the works of ancient mining operations,
supposed to be those of the nomadic Scythians.
Ethiopia and Nubia also were largely productive
of gold ; and the ancient mines discovered by
Belzoni in the Zabarah mountains are supposed
to have furnished to the Pharaohs- of Egypt
their abundant supplies. Thus many aurifer-
ous regions appear to have been known at dif-
ferent times, as productive as those of the pres-
ent period. "While the gold of the deposits con-
tinued abundant they were vigorously wrought,
and each district furnished in its turn the prin-
cipal share of the production of the world. In
the time of the Romans the precious metals were
not so abundant, though rich deposits were
worked along the foot of the Pyrenees, and in
some of the provinces bordering the Alps. Stra-
bo (B. iv. ch. 6, sec. 12) refers to the statement
of Polybius that in his time the gold mines near
Apulia were so productive that the value of
gold was reduced one third in Rome. Spain,
too, had its deposits worked in ancient times
along the Tagus ; and the Athenians gather-
ed their supplies of the metals from Thessaly
and the island of Thasos. In the middle ages
the art of working gold appears to have been
little practised. The richness of the known
mines was comparatively exhausted, and pre-
vious to the opening of the new fields follow-
ing the discovery of America, the attention
of metallurgists was directed to vain attempts
to transmute the baser into the precious met-
als. It was estimated that at the time of the
discovery of America the gold and silver in
the old world, exclusive of the more or less
unknown regions of the East, was reduced
to about 34,000,000, and that the supply no
more than met the loss by wear. The enor-
mous importation of gold and silver from the
new world soon made up the deficiencies of
the old mining regions, and, reducing the value

GOLD

of the metals in comparison with other prod-
ucts, caused mines which had before been suc-
issfuHy worked to be abandoned as unprofit-

i->om>1492 to 1500 the annual amount
of gold brought into Europe from America is

,v Huinboldt at 52,000; till 1519 gold
only was obtained. The same proportion may
-itV'lv bo extended to the year 1521, when Mex-

< conquered, and the precious metals, but
more especially silver, were obtained in vastly
larger quantities. The mines of Potosi, discov-
nvd in 1546, gave a still greater preponderance
to the production of silver, and no data are
afforded for afterward distinguishing the rela-
tive proportions of the two metals. But in
the first 300 years succeeding the discovery,
the receipts of American gold we're estimated
nt 3J times the product of the mines of the
old continent, and those of silver at 12 times
the product of this metal. In the time of
Elizabeth gold was obtained at Lead-
hills in the south of Scotland ; and toward the
close of the last century, in the county of Wick-
low in Ireland, about $50,000 worth of gold
whs collected in two months. These deposits
soon, however, proved unprofitable. The metal
\\ .1- in ancient times collected in Cornwall, and
I-* known to exist in Devonshire. The largest
portion of British gold has been the product of
Wales, the principal gold-bearing district of
which is confined to an area of about 25 sq. m.
in North Wales. The mines are still worked,
but there has been a great decrease in the pro-
dud ion. Upon various rivers of Europe, as
tin- Rhine, the Rh6ne, the Danube, the Reuss,
and the Aar of Switzerland, the sands were
known to be auriferous in places, but too poor
to pay the expenses of working. In Hungary
veins containing gold disseminated in ores of
sulphuret of silver are worked in a partially de-
composed feldspar of the trachytic formation,
and also in syenite and porphyritic greenstone ;
and gold is also extracted from auriferous py-
rites of trap rocks of the most recent formation.
The mines of Nagy-Ag and Zalatna in S. W.
Triiisylvania produce the alloy of tellurium

Id before referred to. Besides gold, the
Hungarian mines, worked by the Austrian gov-
ernment, produce copper, silver, mercury, an-
timony, lead, iron, and cobalt. In the Austrian
provinces of Salzburg and Tyrol, at Bockstein
and at Zell, gold is extracted from poorer ores
than are elsewhere ever found profitable to
work. The quartz gangue of the veins and
tin- ar-illaccous slates of the walls contain au-

is pyrites, argentiferous mispickel, gray
argentiferous copper, and sulphuret of silver.
From these the gold is profitably extracted
when it amounts to only from 6 to 15 parts in
1,000,000. At Zell it has been stated that the
annual product of 50,000 quintals of ore has
been only 35 marks of gold, or 4 parts in
1,000,000. The silver, though obtained in six
or seven times the quantity of the gold, is still
less than half its value. The total production
of the Austrian mines for several years past

has averaged from 5,500 to 5,800 oz. per an-
num. In Italy various localities were known
to the ancients as producing gold. At present
the only mines of consequence are in Pied-
mont, in the valleys of Anzasca, Toppa, arid
Antrona, and to a less extent in those of Ala-
gna, Sesia, and Novara. In Lombardy the
chief mines are at Peschiera and Minerva di
Sotto. The ore is an auriferous pyrites con-
taining about 12 dwts. of gold per ton. The
total yield of all the mines does not exceed
$100,000 per annum. In France a small
amount of gold is produced, chiefly from aurif-
erous galena ; and there are deposits in Savoy.
Gold mines have been worked in Spain from
very remote periods, but the present annual
production does not exceed about $10,000.
The mines of the Asiatic slopes of the Ural ex-
tend along the secondary ridges of the chain in
a N. and S. direction more than 400 m. The
crystalline rocks here contain veins, one of
which is successfully worked at Berezov, near
Yekaterinburg, by shafts and levels. The
gangue is pyritiferous quartz with oxide of iron
resulting from its decomposition, and the rock
is a partially decayed granite, the quartz re-
maining in angular grains ; the adjoining for-
mations are talcose and chloritic slates. All
the other workings of Russia are alluvial mines.
These are not only in the Ural district, where
they have been worked for more than a cen-
tury, but during the reign of Nicholas a region
of southern and eastern Siberia, estimated to
be as large as all of France, was found to be
more rich in gold than that of the Ural. From
the great E. and W. chain of the Altai moun-
tains, which lie between Siberia and Mongolia,
low ridges are directed toward the north into
the governments of Tomsk and Yeniseisk, and
these ridges of crystalline rocks are the reposi-
tories of the precious metals. In 1843 this re-
gion produced the value of about $11,000,000,
while the product of the Ural districts for the
same year was only about $2,500,000. Until
the discovery of the mines of California it made
Russia the greatest gold-producing country of
the world. The average production of the
Russian mines amounts to about $15,000,000
annually ; and their total production from their
discovery about 1745 to 1874 may be stated in
round numbers at $600,000,000. The product
in 1865 was given by Phillips at 69,500 Ibs.
troy. Little is known of the other gold regions
of the continent of Asia. The metal is pos-
sessed, and its deposits are no doubt worked to
considerable extent, by all the principal nations ;
but except from the islands of the Indian archi-
pelago little of it falls into the general circula-
tion of the world. The river Pactolus of Asia
Minor is supposed to have furnished from its
golden sands the foundation of the wealth of
Croesus. According to Pumpelly, who made
geological researches in China, Mongolia, and
Japan during 1862-'5, gold exists in numerous
localities in no fewer than 14 of the 19 prov-
inces of China. The richest regions appear

GOLD

to be in the province of Szechuen and along
the branches of the Kuenlun mountain range,
which, extending in a general E. and W. di-
rection, penetrate far into central China, be-
tween Szechuen and the Wei river. There
are also numerous washings at the base of
the watershed between Kweichow and Hunan,
and through the centre of Shantung from S.
W. to N. E. In these localities placer gold
is found, and some of them are mentioned as
furnishing nuggets ; but little is known of
the production of these washings. It is said
that extensive sources of gold have long been
known in China, but that the working of the
mines has been discontinued by the govern-
ment in accordance with some of their finan-
cial theories. The gold-bearing formations
of eastern Siberia are believed to extend into
Chinese Tartary, and to connect with those
of central and southern China. For several
centuries Japan has ranked high for its pro-
duction of gold, which constituted a chief
article of the commerce carried on by the
Portuguese and Dutch traders. According to
a Japanese authority, the value of the gold
exported from Nagasaki from 1611 to 1706
amounted to $68,000,000, and of silver to
$157,000,000; while Hildreth states that the
value of the precious metals exported from Ja-
pan during the two centuries beginning with
1540 could not have been less than $200,000,-
000. But little is known concerning the pres-
ent production of gold in the empire, or the
localities where it exists. The gold regions on
the island of Yesso were surveyed in 1862 by
Blake and Pumpelly, while in the service of
the tycoon's government. According to Blake,
the gold region extends along the Kunui and
Pusibets rivers and in the range of mountains
dividing Volcano bay from the west coast.
Deposits are also supposed to exist in the
northern and interior portions of the island.
No veins have yet been found, the gold being
obtained from washings. It is in fine scales,
and occurs in the gravel along the streams ; it
is also found in high terrace deposits on the
hillsides. The annual product of the island
does not probably exceed $25,000. There are
also extensive mines upon a large vein of mixed
silver and gold ore on the island of Sado, off
the N. W. coast, which is supposed to have
furnished a large amount, but the facts regard-
ing it are jealously guarded by the Japanese.
Gold is largely used in Japan for gilding, for
inlaying and overlaying metals, and for alloys
with copper and silver of various colors and
degrees of fineness. Gold has long been found
in abundance in Borneo ; according to Kloos,
the metal occurs in varying quantities through-
out the entire island. Placer gold is found on
the river Kapola, associated with iron ores,
sulphuret of antimony, and diamonds. The
production of gold has also been reported in
India, Thibet, Ceylon, Sumatra, Celebes, and
the Philippine islands. Africa is believed to
have been the source of a large proportion of

the gold possessed by the ancients, and is re-
ported by modern travellers to be still rich in it.
The unmanufactured gold obtained from that
country is in the form of dust, evidently ob-
tained from alluvial washings. Russegger, who
travelled through Nubia in 1838, reported the
mountain chain extending across the interior
of Africa from E. N. E. to W. S. W., and the
streams flowing from it, to be auriferous. In
Sennaar and southern Abyssinia gold occurs in
placer deposits and in quartz veins traversing
granite, gneiss, and chloritic slates. The great-
est portion of the gold brought to the coast is
from the fields of Bambook, south of the Sene-
gal, the most important mines in Africa. There
is a gold district in Kordofan on the upper Nile,
between Darfoor and Abyssinia, and it is ob-
tained in small quantities opposite Madagascar.
A few years ago the annual production of Af-
rica was estimated by Birkmyre at 4,000 Ibs.,
valued at about $900,000. In 1866 the exist-
ence of extensive gold fields in south Africa,
between lat. 17 and 21 30' S., was discovered
by Hartley, an elephant hunter, and a German
scientific traveller named Mauch. The gold
fields occupy the interior region between the
Zambesi, W. of Tete, and the middle course
of the Limpopo river. The distance to them,
from the Portuguese settlement of Sofala is
about 350 m. The region containing the gold
is an elevated table land about 7,000 ft. above
the sea ; it is chiefly occupied by the Matabele
section of the Caffres, a warlike tribe. The
travellers above named found beds of glisten-
ing white quartz rock extending over this
table land, which were found upon examina-
tion to contain gold. Particles of gold were
also found along the sandy margins of rivulets.
It is supposed by some that these mines were
known to the Portuguese as early as the 17th
century, and by others that here was the Ophir
of Solomon. Although the discovery of the
south African gold fields attracted consider-
able attention, the production hitherto seems
to have been unimportant. The first known
discovery of gold in Australia was made by
Count Strzelecki in 1839, and by him com-
municated to Sir George Gipps, then governor
of the colony of New South Wales. In defer-
ence to the wishes of the latter, who was of
opinion that a widely spread knowledge of the
existence of gold would prevent the mainte-
nance of discipline among the 45,000 convicts
there collected, the discovery was not pro-
claimed to the world. It was rediscovered in
1841 by the Bev. W. B. Clarke, a geologist,
upon whom also silence seems to have been
enjoined by Governor Gipps. Without knowl-
edge of these discoveries, it is said, Sir Rode-
rick Murchison in 1844 publicly asserted the
high probability of the existence of gold in
Australia. It is also said that gold was found
at Cluneg, Victoria, in 1850. The discovery,
however, which led to the extensive working
of the mines was made in 1851 by Mr. E. H.
Hargreaves, who had just returned from Cali-

GOLD

foraia, and at once began prospecting near
Kuthurst on the Macquarie river, New South
Wales, where gold was found in considerable
quantities. The announcement of this fact
caused ranch excitement and a sudden immigra-
tion of great magnitude to this region, (bee
EMIGRATION). The government at once laid
claim to the land and began to grant licenses
to dig for gold. The gold region was soon
traced along the range of hills N. and S., and
new discoveries were made of deposits surpass-
ing all the rest in richness in the colony of
Victoria, near the southern coast, 70 m. N. W.
of Melbourne. In October there were 7,000
persons engaged in the new diggings at Balla-
rat near Mt. Buninyong, occupying less than a
square mile in extent. The next month many
of these were drawn off to the still richer de-
posits about Mt. Alexander in the same region,
where it was estimated that 10,000 persons were
then employed. In December 63,300 oz. were
transported to Melbourne from this locality,
which was then valued at 3 1 9. Gd. per oz. The
whole amount conveyed from the two locali-
ties from Sept. 30 to Dec. 31 was 124,835 oz.;
the whole product of the colony was 345,146
oz. The immigration the next year of 104,000
more than doubled the population of Victoria ;
still richer diggings were discovered at Ben-
digo, and the total product of the colony for
the year 1852 was estimated at 4,263,042 oz.
The estimates made in London of the whole
amount of gold exported from Victoria and
New South Wales up to the close of 1852 gave
for the former a total value of 16,000,000, and
for the latter 3,500,000; or for 15 months
nearly four times what the annual production
of the world was supposed to be five years
previously. The richest and most extensive
gold fields of Australia are in the colony of
Victoria, where the area of the mining region
is about 725 sq. m. This is divided into the
mining districts of Ballarat, Beechworth, Sand-
hu/st, Maryborough, Castlemaine, and Ararat.
In Australia, as in California, gold is directly
obtained from three distinct sources, viz. :
shallow placers, deep diggings, and quartz
The estimated number of quartz veins
in Victoria is about 2,000. According to
Selwyn, " these veins, traversing lower palaeo-
zoic strata and associated with granitic and
igneous rocks, are, so far as at present known,
tin- primary source of the whole of the gold
raised in Victoria. The thickest and most
persistent veins, or lines of reef, are found on
the lower or older portions of the series ; but
the average yield of gold per ton of stone has,
I believe, been greater from the thinner veins
of the upper beds. 1 ' The thickness of these
veins, which are described as "dikes or reefs,"
varies from that of a thread to 130 ft. They
have a general meridional direction, and are
itirlinc'l .it her east or west at angles varying
:-'ri/.imt:il to vertical. Frequently they
in the planes of cleavage, occasionally
between those of the strata, and they often

intersect both. These veins have been worked
to a depth exceeding 600 ft., and it has been
found that the yield does not decrease with
increase of depth. Mr. Selwyn has reached
the conclusion that at least two distinct sets
of quartz veins exist in Australia, one of which
is entirely barren, and that they have been
formed at two different and remote periods,
the barren being the older one. This view
is corroborated by the fact, well known to
experienced quartz miners in Australia, that
in many districts barren and rich quartz ledges
are found in close proximity. As this same
phenomenon has been noticed in California
and the Appalachian gold field, it suggests,
according to Blake, the probable existence
of quartz lodes of two or more distinct pe-
riods in America as in Australia. The great-
er portion of the gold obtained in Australia
is from gravel deposits or placers similar to
those in California. They occur in beds of
streams, along the banks, and in ancient chan-
nels running transversely to the existing drain-
age of the country. Rich deposits are found
under heavy accumulations of stratified tuffs
and lavas overlaid with table mountains of ba-
salt. The thickness of the placer deposits va-
ries greatly in different places, ranging from
100 to 400 ft. The ratio of gold obtained from
quartz mines to that of placers is indicated by
the production of the two kinds in Victoria in
1866, viz., 521,017 oz. of quartz and 958,177
oz. of placer gold. The most productive gold
fields of Victoria have been those of Ballarat
and Bendigo. The general description of the
gold fields of Victoria will apply to those of
New South Wales. The alluvial deposits, how-
ever, are not so extensive as in Victoria, and
the production of the colony has been less.
South Australia and Queensland are also gold-
producing, but the amount obtained is small.
The Australian gold has a higher color and is
finer than that from California. Its fineness
ranges from 20 to 23 -5 carats, the Ballarat gold
being of the highest standard. The Ballarat
nugget mentioned above, found in 1858, and
weighing 2,217 oz. 16 dwts., was exhibited at
the Paris exposition of 18C7, and valued at
nearly 10,000. Gold was first discovered in
New Zealand in 1842 ; further discoveries were
made there in 1851, and in 1856 mining opera-
tions on an extensive scale were begun. The
rock formations and alluvial deposits, which
are deep and extensive, are similar to those in
Australia. In the United States there are two
extensive auriferous regions or gold belts, one
on the Atlantic slope, known as the Appalachian
gold field, and the other on the Pacific coast,
embracing California and the neighboring states
and territories. The Appalachian gold field
extends southwesterly from Virginia through
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia,
and also includes portions of Alabama and
Tennessee. The width of the gold range va-
ries greatly ; in some places it exceeds 75 m.
The metal does not exist in a continuous belt

GOLD

extending through this region ; hut there are
numerous auriferous tracts, occurring at inter-
vals and generally parallel with each other,
though often many miles distant. In North
Carolina, from which the greatest amounts of
gold have been obtained, there are two prin-
cipal belts extending across the state in a S.
"W. and N. E. direction ; one through Mecklen-
burg, Cabarrus, Rowan, Davidson, Guilford,
and Caswell counties, and the other through
Rutherford, McDowell, and Burke counties.
The latter is the more westerly of the two,
being fro'm 10 to 20 m. distant from the base
of the Blue Ridge; it is also more elevated,
while the placer deposits are richer and more
extensive than in the E. belt. In Georgia also
the range appears to be divided into two belts,
which are separated by unproductive rocks.
Quartz veins closely resembling those of Cali-
fornia are found in these regions. The gold is
either free in coarse grains, or in fine particles
disseminated in sulphuret of iron or copper.
The gold veins of Virginia extend through Fau-
quier, Culpeper, Louisa, Fluvanna, Bucking-
ham, and a few other adjoining counties. The
production at times has been very large, but
the veins have been extremely fluctuating in
their yield; and though some of these still
continue to be worked, their history on the
whole is by no means favorable. Though gold
has been found in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
Vermont, on the range of the Appalachian
chain, it has proved insufficient to justify mi-
ning explorations, except over a limited area in
Vermont during the year 1859. The veins of
the southern gold region are found in various
rocks of a granitic character, and in the horn-
blendic rock called diorite, all of which are
often in a decomposed condition to the depth
of 200 ft. or more. They are also met with in
a variety of slates, as talcose, micaceous, chlo-
ritic, and hornblendic. In North Carolina a
belt of such crystalline slates several miles
wide is traced through several counties on the
E. side of another belt of granite and "W. of one
of hornblendic rock, in all of which the veins
are found. In South Carolina the geognostical
relations of the gold are very similar. Steatitic
strata are met with near the mines, and dikes
of intrusive rocks are often found cutting the
veins and sometimes disturbing their regularity.
The course of the veins is by no means uniform ;
they run in various directions, and are often
tortuous as well as displaced by faults. Their
' most common general bearing is N. E. and
S. W., with a dip toward the N. W. Veins in
| which the quartz gangue is highly crystalline
commonly abound in iron pyrites ; as they are
explored, pyritous copper is generally met with
at some depth. In most instances the gold di-
minishes with the increase of copper, and the
I latter metal not proving abundant enough to
pay expenses, the mines are at last abandoned.
Gold is said to have been discovered in Cabar-
i rus co. in 1799, but until the early part of the
present century the gold region of the southern

states attracted no attention. Gold had been
gathered to a small extent in various places
along the ranges of hills on the E. side of the
Appalachian chain, between the Potomac and
the Coosa river of Alabama ; but there was no
regular market for its sale, and no account was
kept of the quantities collected. These were
altogether of placer gold. In 1825 a gold vein
was discovered by Mr. Barringer in Montgomery
co., N. C., and attention was directed to this
source, which in some instances proved highly
productive ; but this branch of mining was
afterward most successfully prosecuted in Vir-
ginia, the coarse gold disseminated through the
white quartz being more conspicuous than in
the North Carolina veins. In the more broken
country of the Carolinas and Georgia also the
deposits of the streams were more attractive.
In 1824 native gold began to appear in the mint
at Philadelphia, and the receipts increased rap-
idly, so that in five or six years it constituted
the chief portion of the supplies of this metal.
Up to 1827 North Carolina had been the only
state producing gold in notable quantities, and
the aggregate amount from 1804 is estimated
at about $110,000. The first mint deposits
from South Carolina were $3,500 in 1829, and
from Virginia $2,500 in the same year. The
first deposits of Georgia gold were in 1830 to
the amount of $212,000. In 1837 the produc-
tion had become so great that a branch mint
was established by the government at Char-
lotte, N. C., and another at Dahlonega, Lump-
kin co., Ga., both of which commenced opera-
tions the next year. They were suspended in
1861, but in 1869 that at Charlotte was rees-
tablished as an assay office. "When the dis-
coveries of gold in California were announced,
the placer deposits and many of the veins in
the south were abandoned. The total amount
of southern gold deposited at the mints and
assay offices of the United States, from the
opening of the mines to June 30, 1873, was
$1,631,612 from Virginia, $9,983,585 from
North Carolina, $1,378,180 from South Caro-
lina, $7,267,784 from Georgia, $79,018 from
Tennessee, and $211,827 from Alabama ; total,
$20,052,006. Of the deposits in 1873, $2,423
came from Virginia, $120,332 from North Caro-
lina, $160 from South Carolina, $35,437 from
Georgia, and $599 from Alabama. The exist-
ence of gold in California had been known from
the time of the expedition of Drake, 1577-'9,
being particularly noticed by Hakluyt in his
account of the region. The occurrence of gold
upon the placers was noticed in a work upon
Upper California published in Spain in 1690, by
Loyola Cavello, at that time a priest at the mis-
sion of San Jose, bay of San Francisco. Capt.
Shelvocke in 1721 speaks favorably of the ap-
pearance of the soil for gold, and of the prob-
able richness of the country in metals. The
" Historico-Geographical Dictionary" of An-
tonio de Alcedo, l786-'9, positively affirms the
abundance of gold, even in lumps of 5 to 8 Ibs.
The favorable appearance of the country for

GOLD

cold, and of Oregon also, was noticed by Prof.
.! I. Dana, and recorded in his geok)g ical re ;
port of the country. In Hunt's "Merchants
Magazine" for April, 1847, is a very decided
statement by Mr. Sl.wt respecting the richness
of the country in gold, made from his observa-
tions there the two preceding years ; and he
confidently predicts that its mineral develop-
ments will greatly exceed in richness and va-
riety the most sanguine expectations. In these
vears the Mormons connected with the army
were known to have gathered some gold upon
the banks of the streams, and the Mexicans and
Indians also. A party of three Americans, two
of them Mormons, were on Feb. 9, 1848, at but-
ter's mill on the American fork of the Sacra-
mento, near the town of Coloma in El Dorado
co., engaged in repairing the race, which had
been damaged by the spring freshets, when the
little daughter of the overseer, named Mar-
shall, picked up in the race a lump of gold
and showed it to her father as a pretty stone.
The discovery did not immediately attract
much attention ; and the Mormons particularly
sought to prevent the facts from being made
public. The Rev. C. S. Lyman, in a letter to
the " American Journal of Science," of March,
1848, says: " Gold has been found recently on
the Sacramento near Sutter's fort. It occurs
in small masses in the sands of a new mill race,
and is said to promise well." The news spread
rapidly, and caused an unparalleled tide of
emigration to pour in from Mexico, South
America, the Atlantic states, and even from
Europe and China. (See CALIFORNIA.) In
August of that year Governor Mason reported
4,000 men engaged in working gold, and a daily
product of the value of $30,000 to $50,000.
The earlier diggings were mostly deposits rest-
ing upon the upturned edges of argillaceous
slates, the gold being found entangled in these
under the sand and gravel, and also more or
less mixed through the superficial layers. A
large proportion was picked out by hand at
many of the diggings, so abundant were the
coarse pieces. Attention was early directed
to the gold veins, and in 1851 regular quartz
minim? was commenced at Spring Hill in
Ainador co. In 1857 numerous mills, most
complete and thorough in their construction,
were in operation over a great part of the
country; and mines were opened at greater
depths than gold is often worked in other
countries. A shaft of the Mount Hope mining
company in Grass Valley was carried to the
depth of 241 ft., reaching the vein at 350 ft.
following its slope, and the richness of the
veinstone at this depth gave full encourage-
ment to the belief that these repositories were
permanent and inexhaustible. Many other
mines were worked from 150 to 200 ft. in depth.
In California, though gold is found E. of the
Sierra Nevada, among the mountains of the
coast, and in various other localities, the great
;rold ri-irinn i on the W. slope of the Sierra,
and extends from about lat. 35 N. northerly

to Oregon, a distance of about 500 m. The
average breadth of this gold belt is about 40
in. The principal mining operations have been
confined to a central area extending N. and
S. about 220 m., between the parallels of 37
and 40, and embracing Mariposa, Tuolumne,
Calaveras, Amador, El Dorado, Placer, Neva-
da, Sierra, Yuba, Butte, and Plumas coun-
ties. According to William P. Blake, gold-
bearing veins on the W. slope of the Sier-
ra Nevada occur in or are closely associated
with clay states, sandstones, and conglomer-
ates of the secondary period; also in hard
and compact granite, in greenstone or dioritic
rocks, and in dolomite and metamorphic lime-
stones. In the Coast mountains they are
found even in the partially metamorphosed
stratified formations of the cretaceous period.
The largest and most extensive veins exist in
the region of the metamorphosed secondary
rocks, varying in width from a few inches to
20 or 30 ft., and generally conforming to the
dip and strike of the strata. " The most ex-
tensive vein of the state," says Mr. Blake,
" and perhaps in the world, is known among
the miners as the 'mother vein,' and extends,
but with some considerable, breaks and inter-
ruptions, from Mariposa northwestward for 80
or 100 m., following a zone or belt of Jurassic
slates and sandstones, and closely associated
with a stratum of dolomite or magnesian rock,
often a magnesite, filled with reticulations of
quartz veins and charged with pyrites." The
chief production of California gold has been ob-
tained from placers. The great placer region
extends over the central counties from Mariposa
to Butte. The deposits occur not only in the
beds of the streams, but also upon the hillsides
and tops, where ancient watercourses are sup-
posed to have been. Sometimes they are found
under enormous accumulations of sand, clay,
gravel, and even of tufa and lava ; the smoothly
worn stones are thoroughly cemented together,
and form a solid conglomerate or "cement;'*
the auriferous deposits consist of gravel and
bowlders, varying in size from a grain of wheat
to masses weighing many tons. These hills on
the W. slope of the Sierra Nevada cover a tract
of country in places 50 to 60 m. in width, and
rise sometimes to the height of 4,000 ft. They
are traversed by numerous streams, whose
sources are in the Sierra Nevada. Subject to
sudden and extreme freshets from the melting
of the snoAvs and from the long continued rains
of the wet season, these streams excavate and
sweep down the loosely aggregated rocks, and
wear deep cafions and gulches, which extend
toward the valleys of the Sacramento and San
Joaquin. Thus it was the same agency which
impressed this peculiar feature upon the topog-
raphy of the region, and spread the gold from
the veins in the hills through the ravines and
down into the valleys. Even upon the elevated
plains quite to the west of the hills gold is
collected in strata of sand and clayey deposits,
which cover the surface to the depth of 15 to

GOLD

ft. or more. The clay is often seen to be but
>artially decomposed slate, still retaining the
tructure of this rock, which was evidently the
matrix of the gold. The general gold formation
f California is found in the neighboring states
nd territories, the entire territories of theUni-
ed States west of the Eocky mountains being
more or less productive. In many parts of this
egion valuable mines are already worked, and
here is little doubt that some of them may in
he future contribute more than California to
he general gold production of the country.
n Nevada gold has been obtained from the
uartz and from placers, but the product of the
tate has been chiefly derived from the aurif-
rous silver ores of the great Comstock vein,
iscovered in 1859, which yields about one
hird gold and two thirds silver. Gold has
>een obtained from Oregon since 1850, and the
ecent production has been roughly estimated
,t about $2,000,000 annually. It was first
[iscovered in Washington territory on the E.
lope of the Cascade mountains in 1858. The
;old region was traced along the upper Colum-
ia and its tributaries, and in 1860 it was found
in the W. slope of the Bitter Root mountains,
tow in Idaho. There are gold washings in
Imost all parts of Idaho; the gold contains
more silver than that of California, and aver-
ages about '760. In Montana there are exten-
ive placers and quartz veins, on the E. slopes
f the Bitter Root mountains, and on both sides
f the Rocky mountain chain, at the sources
)f the Missouri river. In Colorado gold occurs
n lodes or fissure veins, in a belt about 50 m.
wide, extending over the central portion of the
territory N. and S. (See COLORADO.) Gold is
Iso obtained from Utah and Arizona, and is
mown to exist in Dakota. The auriferous belt
>f Oregon, and of Idaho, Montana, and Wash-
ngton territories, extends N. along the slopes
f the Rocky mountain chain into British Co-
timbia. The mining of gold in this latter coun-
ry dates from 1858, though the existence of
he metal had been announced in 1856. Gold
las been found on the Eraser river from a point
ibout 45 m. from its mouth to its source in the
locky mountains, a distance of upward of 700
Q. by the meanderings of the river. It is also
"bund on many tributaries of the Eraser and on
Vancouver island. The fields which have been
nost extensively worked are in the Caribou
listrict, which lies in the N. bend of the Eraser.
. of this district placers have been discovered
)n Peace river, and still further N". on the
"tickeen, which empties into the Pacific S. of
Sitka, near lat. 55. The metal has also been
bund above that point, but in small quantities.
The greater part of the gold from British Co-
umbia is obtained from shallow placers. The
production is sent to San Francisco ; it amounted
n 1873 to $1,250,035. (See BRITISH COLUMBIA.)
In the province of Ontario, Canada, gold has
)een found in small irregular deposits of con-
siderable richness in Madoc. The gangue of
the gold was in part a ferriferous bitter spar,
366 VOL. vin. 6

and in part a peculiar hydrocarbon aceous coaly
matter, the two being associated in the same
veins, and alike penetrated by crystalline gold
of great purity. The adjacent township of
Marmora has since been found to contain gold
in quartz veins with mispickel. Though not
rich, the ore is abundant, and the deposits there
are now worked on a considerable scale. The
rocks of this region are crystalline schists, prob-
ably of Huronian age ; and rich gold-bearing
veins have recently been discovered in rocks of
the same period N. of Lake Superior, on Lake
Shebandowan. For many years the gold-bear-
ing alluvions of the Chaudiere and the adja-
cent region in the province of Quebec have
attracted attention, and have yielded more or
less gold. It is distributed over a large area,
but the official returns in 1869 show a produc-
tion of only 1,050 oz. from the Chaudiere val-
ley, although small quantities are extracted in
various other localities in the region. The
source of the gold appears to be in part in the
adjacent crystalline rocks of Huronian age, and
in part in some argillites and sandstones which
are perhaps of the lower Cambrian period, but
may be more recent. In both of these for-
mations, native gold accompanied with sul-
phurets occurs in quartz veins, which have not
however as yet been systematically worked.
In Nova Scotia the auriferous quartz occurs in
uncrystalline slates and sandstones, for the most
part in interbedded veins. The workings have
been on a small scale and very irregular, but
the quartz is often of great richness. The
official returns from 1860 to 1872 show a yield
of 215,871 oz., with a value of 863,484. The
produce in 1867 was 27,314 oz., but in 1872
only 13,094 oz. The gold-producing districts
of South America are in Brazil, Chili, and all
those countries which lie north of the latter on
the line of the Andes. As in Europe and Asia,
it is the N. and S. ranges of hills of micaceous
and talcose slates, quartz rocks, and granites,
which produce this metal. In some instances, as
in Peru and Chili, it is obtained from veins com-
monly worked for other metals as well as gold ;
but almost universally it is a product of alluvial
mines. The yield since the early working of
the mines has greatly fallen off, and especially
since the commencement of the present cen-
tury; and South America, from having been
the first of the gold-producing countries in the
world, has now fallen among those of least im-
portance in this respect. Still it is well known
that there are districts of great richness yet
comparatively unworked, and which are likely
long to continue so from their extreme un-
healthiness and the want of means of comfort-
able subsistence. Such is the country about
the head waters of the Atrato, the Magdalen a,
and the Cauca. Similar causes, as well as the
political condition of the countries of Central
America, have prevented the development of
their resources in this metal, which it is well
known follows the Cordilleras northward. On
the isthmus of Panama discoveries of images

GOLD

of gold in the graves of the aborigines point to
the existence of productive mines in Chinqui,
the localities of which are not now known.
The gold is very generally alloyed with cop-
per; some of it indeed is only 8-carat gold
while in other samples the proportion is 23
carats The gold of Mexico has been rather a
secondary product of its argentiferous veins;
but in Oajaca are true gold veins m the mica-
ceous slates and gneiss. The silver ores which
contain the gold are often argentiferous galena,
the lead being the prevailing metal. A small
quantity of gold is annually obtained from
Central America, and gold placers are known
to exist in Cuba and Santo Domingo. Al-
though gold has been found in many places in
Brazil, the most productive mines have been
worked in the province of Minas Geraes in the
vicinity of Ouro Preto, and in the district of
Turyassu, in the province of Maranhao. The
large production of Brazilian gold in the 18th
century was obtained almost exclusively from
the alluvial washings of Minas Geraes; but
these became exhausted, and the metal is now
obtained from the veins or beds worked by
English capital. The gold found in Brazil, in-
stead of being enclosed in regular veins, is dis-
seminated in metalliferous beds. The rock
formations are supposed to belong to the pa-
heozoic period. The total production of gold
in the world has never been determined with
more than an approximate degree of accuracy.
There are no statistics showing the exact an-
nual yield of the different gold-producing coun-
tries, and the amount produced has been sub-
ject to computations by different authorities,
whose results have presented no little variance.
It is true that in each country an accurate
record is kept of the amount coined, and of the
exports and imports, but these results only in-
dicate approximately the extent of the produc-
tion. In 1830 it was estimated that for the
preceding 19 years the average annual produc-
tion of the precious metals had fallen off about
$31,000,000 from what it had been before that
time, the estimated product being as follows :

COUNTRIES.

Africa

ToUl.

Before 1810.

$4,000,000
2,80,000
LOOO.OOO

47,000,000

104080,000

After 1810.

$5.000,000

1,000,000
15,000,000

By the estimate of M. Chevalier, in his work
on money, the total amount of gold and silver
existing in various forms in 1848 appears to
have been 1,727,000,000, or $8,500,000,000,
of which one third was supposed to be gold.
The annual product of this metal from 1800 to
1850 had been 3,258,000. By other authori-
ties the whole amount of gold coin and bullion
in KurujK- in 1847 was i-stimnted to be about
250,000,000, and in the world in 1850 600,-
000,000. According to Phillips, the annual
production at the beginning of the century was

about 53,940 Ibs. troy, of which New Granada
furnished 23 per cent., Brazil and southern
A.sia 18 per cent, each, Chili 13, Mexico 8, Aus-

ria 6, and Peru 4 per cent. In 1860 the pro-
duction had increased to 585,370 Ibs. troy, of
which the chief countries contributed in the
following ratio per cent. : Australia, 37; Cali-

brnia and neighboring states and territories,
31-9 ; Russia, 11-3. In 1865 the yield amounted
to 559,587 Ibs. troy, of which 37'5 per cent,
was the product of California and the neigh-
boring states and territories, 27'9 of Australia,
and 12-4 of Russia. The following approxi-
mate statement of the value of the gold pro-
duced in the principal gold-producing countries
in 1867 is given by Blake in his "Production
of the Precious Metals:"

Nevada

Oregon and Washington

Idaho

Montana

Arizona

New Mexico

Colorado

Utah, Appalachians, and other sources

Total United States

British Columbia

Canada and Nova Scotia.

Mexico

Brazil

Chili

Bolivia

Peru

Venezuela, Colombia, Central America,

Cuba, and Santo Domingo

Australia

New Zealand

Russia

Austria

Spain

Italy

France

Great Britain

Africa

Borneo and East. Indies

China, Japan, Central Asia, Roumania,

and other unenumerated sources . .

Total

8.000,000

5,000,000

12,000,000

500,000

800,000

2.000,000

2,700,000

$56,500.000

2,000,000

560.000

1,000,000

590,000

800,000

500,000

8.000,000

81,550,000

6,000,000

15,500,000

1,175,000

8,000

95,000

12,000

900,000

5,000,000

$180,630,000

Ratio
per cent.

43-23

- 1-96

4-05

24-14
11-17

- 1-74

100-00

The production of Australia above given is
thus distributed by Blake : Victoria, $26,510,-
000 ; New South Wales, $4,600,000 ; Queens-
land, $400,000 ; South Australia, $140,000.
Since about 1850, by far the greater portion
of all the gold obtained in the world has been
the product of the Australian mines and those
on the Pacific coast of the United States. The
extent of the Australian production is indicated
by the following table, from the official " Sta-
tistical Abstract of the several Colonial and
other Possessions of the United Kingdom," giv-
ing the value of the exports of bullion and coin
from New South Wales and Victoria, from the
opening of the mines. It should be observed,
however, that it docs not represent the exact
production of each colony. The coin was is-
sued from the branch of the royal mint at Syd-
ney, New South Wales. A branch mint was
established at Melbourne, Victoria, in 1872.

GOLD

NEW SOUTH WALKS.

VICTOEIA.

YEARS.

Exclusive of
coin.

Coin.

Exclusive of
coin.

Cota.

470,836

438,777

1852~

2 660'945

6,135,728

1853! '.

1,781,173

8,644,529

1854.

778,209

8,255,550

1855

209 250

10,904,150

1856! !

1857. .

188'007
187,249

18^44
914.199

11,943,458
10,987,591

951,856

1858. .

98,480

1,411,251

30,107,886

605,678

1859. .

215,941

1,488,833

9,122,087

1,304,992

1860. .

298,668

1,579,920

8,624,860

565,430

1861. .

289,937

1,720,326

7,869,758

1,210,828

1862. .

517,105

2,467,164

6,685,192

918,999

1863. .

587,920

1,774,184

6,520,957

1,169,471

1864. .

304,955

2,647,516

6,206,237

1,029,872

1865. .

441,006

2,325,844

6,190,317

809,269

1866. .

581,983

2,815,437

5,909,987

961,493

1867. .

544,661

2,041,883

5,738,993

671,936

1868. .

382.616

1,771,005

7,843,197

507,662

1869. .

578,260

2,184,612

6.804,179

684,819

1870. .

672,254

1,200,509

6,119,782

577,840

1871. .

601,250

1,724,088

6,590,962

847,513

1872...

731,120

1,656,131

5,197,340

Total.

13,016,774

29,746,556

161,841,417

12,317,658

The exports from New Zealand began in 1857,
and to the beginning of 1872 had amounted to
24,492,149. They increased from 40,084 in
1857 to 2,897,412 in 1866, then gradually
decreased till 1870, when they amounted to
2,163,910, but in 1871 increased again to
2,788,368. The accurate determination of the
amount of gold produced in the United States
since the discovery of this metal in California
is not practicable. As J. Ross Browne, W.
P. Blake, R. W. Raymond, and others have
shown, neither the manifests of export, nor the
mint receipts, nor the bullion shipments of the
express companies, nor any direct combination
of these data, will give the required amount.
This is particularly the case with regard to
earlier years. The following table, compiled by
R. W. Raymond, United States commissioner
of mining statistics, is offered as an approxi-
mate estimate, the result of careful study of
numerous treatises and partial statistics, in the
light of much personal observation of the prin-
cipal producing districts. Down to 1862 it
follows the table compiled by J. Arthur Phil-
lips, and published in his " Gold and Silver."
From 1862 to 1866 the production of California
is calculated by deducting from the express re-
ceipts of uncoined treasure at San Francisco,
from " the northern and southern mines," the
receipts from Nevada, and adding 10 per cent,
to the remainder, to cover amount shipped in
private hands. From 1866 to 1872 inclusive
the reports of the United States mining com-
missioner have been followed as a general
authority ; but as these do not separate the
product of gold from that of silver, the divi-
sion has been made by estimate, based on the
known conditions and relations of the industry
of different localities. The figures for 1873
are based on the express shipments, with arbi-
trary allowances for product otherwise trans-
ported. Under the head of u Other States and
Territories" is included the product of gold

from Oregon, "Washington, Idaho, Montana,
Colorado, &c., and one third the product of the
Comstock lode hi Nevada, that being the aver-
age proportion of gold by value in the Com-
stock bullion. The values are given in United
States gold coin.

ESTIMATE OF GOLD PKODTTCT OF THE UNITED
STATES SINCE 1847.

YEARS.

California.

Other states
and territories.

TotaL

1848

$10,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
55,000,000
60,000,000
65,000,000
60,000,000
55,000,000
55,000,000
55,000,000
50,000,000
50,000,000
45,000,000
40,000,000
34.700,000
80,000,000
26,600,000
28,500,000
25,500,000
25,000,000
22,000,000
22,500,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
19,000,000
17,000,000

$10,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
55,000,000
60,000,000
65,000,000
60,000,000
55,000,000
55,000,000
55,000,000
50,000,000
50,000,000
46,000,000
43,000,000
89,200,000
40,000,000
46,100,000
58,225,000
53,500,000
51,725,000
48,000.000
49,500,000
50,000,000
43,500,000
36,000,000
36,000,000

1849

I860

1851

1852

1853

1854

1855

1856

1857

1858

1859

$1,000,666

8,000,000
4,500,000
10,000,000
19,500,000
24,725,000
28,000,000
26,725,000
26,000,000
27,000,000
25,000,000
23,500,000
17,000,000
19,000,000

1860

1861
1862

1863

1864

1865
1866

186T

1868 .

1869
1870

1671

1872.

1878

Total

$985,800,000

$254,950,000

$1,240,750,000

Other authorities have made the production of
California in recent years somewhat larger, as
will appear by reference to the article CALI-
FORNIA. It is estimated that about three
fourths of the gold produced is used for coin-
age, and about one fourth in the arts. Thus,
estimating the entire product of the world in
1873 at $100,000,000, it is supposed that the
consumption in the arts, which has greatly in-
creased in recent years, approximated $25,-
000,000. There has also been a recent increas-
ing demand for gold for coinage, attributed to
the fact that several countries which formerly
used gold and silver as the double or alternate
standard of value, have reformed their mone-
tary laws, and adopted the gold standard, that
metal being less variable than silver. Among
the countries which have recently made this
change are the United States, Germany, Den-
mark, Sweden and Norway, and Japan. Great
Britain adopted the gold standard in 1816.
France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, and Greece
still adhere to the double standard. The total
gold coinage of the world from 1848 to 1872
has been stated in round numbers at 602,116,-
000. Of this amount France coined 259,801,-
000, the United States 185,579,000, England
123,608,000, and Australia 32,128,000. Ac-
cording to the latest report of the director of
the mint, the entire gold coinage of the United
States to June 30, 1873, amounted to $816,-
905,878, in addition to $285,358,663 manufac-
tured into bars, making the total issue from the

GOLD

ffl tl 102 964 541 (See rites, or with all the gold in any variety of py-

mints and assay offices $1,10. ***> *?* .. G ld is c i a9S ifi e d further as quartz gold

Corns.) Of this amount coinage to the -value ntes ttom ^ ^ in

of $35,249,837 and bars valued at $20 495 616 (touno ^i , , deposits, &c.). The

ssued durin mechanical chemi-

were issued during y-MdKKwK Sods^ extraction are mechanical, chemi-
1873. The amount of gold c tthTvari cal or both, according to circumstances. Me-

, exclusive of coins, de PJ sl ** d n a ;/\ 8t t " c h a nical methods involve the agency of air or
ous mints and assay offices of th %Un rted fe^tes c^ separation is the rude process of

from their establishment **^ NJ&JJ Rowing, occasionally practised in localities
the sources of production, has I jjo ng^ ^ wanting . F The dry pulverized

material is repeatedly thrown into the air, al-
lowing the wind to carry off the lighter por-
tions, the remainder being caught as it falls in
a hide or blanket, or a shallow wooden basin
called a latea. The process is concluded by
blowing the last residuum with the mouth.
Washing is the almost universal method of me-
chanical separation. In exploring for gold,
the earth or pulverized rock suspected to con-
tain it is washed on the blade of a shovel, or
in an iron pan, wooden latea, or horn scoop.
The operation is commonly called panning. It
consists essentially in stirring and shaking un-
der water the contents of the vessels employed
The localities given in this table are merely j n 8Uc h a way as to suspend the finer earthy
those from which the mint deposits were de- par ticles and allow them to escape over the
clared or inferred to come; hence they do not e( jge, while the gold, with the larger stones or
represent correctly the actual origin of produc- lumps of clay, remains behind. The stones
tion. A considerable amount, for example, is are removed with the fingers, and the lumps
attributed to Kansas, which really produces no o f c ] a y are rubbed between the hands and re-

SOURCE. VALUE.

Virginia

$1,681,612 78 Washington
a 9,988,535 M territory...
a 1,878,180 77 Idaho
7,267,784 76 Utah
79,018 69 Nevada
211,827 79 Wyoming . . .

$71,662 41
18,889,785 84
198,827 91
1,140,067 94
158,646 18

MtkOvOtfa

j;,-,.nr::i...

tfawMok

OUttnta .

911,171 27 Dakota
640,080,657 59 Sitka
27 026 96 Vermont ....

5,760 00
897 64
8,904 97

kVn-i-

955,867 44

Parted from

Montana . .
Oregon....
(fclondo ,

Maryland ..
Arizona

88,982,498 21
11.950,289 60
20,574,914 27
25858
1,089,074 03

silver 5,264,224 78
Contained in
silver . . 111,736 58
Refined gold.. 76,285,91280
Other sources. 9,874,118 22

N. Hampshire. 820 89

Total.... |S41,529,129 28

gold. The gold coinage of Great Britain and
Australia for 10 years has been as follows :

nuia

Kn.Un.l.

Sydney, Auitralto.

1868

. d.
6,607,466 5 4

s. d.
1,876,962 9 10

1 - ( ;i

9,585,597 17 6

2,880,663 4 8

1866

2,867614 4 1

2,859,561 13 9

1 -/,

5,076,676 14 6

2,955,732 8 2

1867

496,897 17 11

2,492,858 15 8

1808

1,658,884 8

2,845,728 8 1

1-iVi

7872,204 17 9

1,319,888 2 2

2.818,384 18 11

1,248,298 1 9

..
Kl

9,919,656 1 2

2,870,418 18 1

1872

15,261 441 15 10

Total

6(1,608,815 1

20,844,611 16 4

The exports of domestic gold from the United
States during the year ending Dec. 31, 1873,
amounted to $55,178,229 in coin, and $12,754,-
257 in bullion. -GOLD MINING. Gold occurs
principally in metallic form, as threads, scales,
spangles, films, grains, monometric crystals,
nuggets, &c. Such native gold always contains
from 1 to 40 percent, silver, and often also small
quantities of iron, copper, mercury, palladium,
platinum, or iriditim. Gold ores proper are
rare; the undoubted species are tellurides.
More commonly gold occurs associated with
other minerals, chiefly (in decomposed ores)
the oxides of iron, and (in solid ores) iron and
ropjMT pyrit-*. iruK-na, blende, mispickel (all
of whinli may be auriferous), bismuth, stib-
nite, magnetite, hematite, various spars, and
quartz. It is lflk-u-<l by many that auriferous
-* often contains its gold in chemical com-
bination with antimony, arsenic, or sulphur;

but this is probably not the case with all py-

duced to a slime, the process being skilfully
continued until nothing is left except gold and
heavy black sand, usually titaniferous iron,
which accompanies native gold in most locali-
ties and cannot be separated by washing.
When perfectly dry, a part of it can be re-
moved by blowing and a part by the magnet.
It is common to melt the finer dust with fluxes
and collect it in buttons. Quicksilver may
also be introduced in panning, to take up and
secure the fine gold. The cradle, or rocker, is
an apparatus somewhat resembling a child's
cradle. The box is usually about 40 in. long
and 20 wide, and from 15 in. to 2 ft. high at
the upper end, upon which is set a hopper or
riddle, a box 20 in. square and 6 in. deep, hav-
ing a bottom of sheet iron perforated with
half-inch holes. Under the riddle is placed an
inclined apron of canvas, and across the bot-
tom of the main box are nailed two bars or
riffles, about three fourths of an inch high. In
washing, the dirt is shovelled into the hopper,
and the workman ladles water upon it with one
hand, rocking the cradle with the other. The
sheet-iron bottom retains the larger stones;
the disintegrated earth, passing through the
riddle, falls upon the apron, which carries it
to the head of the cradle box, whence it flows
along the bottom and escapes at the lower end,
leaving behind the riffle bars the gold, black
sand, and heavier particles of gravel, which are
cleaned up two or three times a day. This ap-
paratus is both slow and wasteful in operation;
but it is cheap and portable, and requires little
water, since the same water can be used in it

over and over again. The long torn is a wood-

GOLD

en trough, about 12 ft. long, 20 in. wide at its
upper end, and 30 in. at the other. It termi-
nates below with an inclined riddle of punched
sheet iron, through which the material is car-
ried by a stream of water entering at the other
end, and falls upon a riffle box below. A fresh
supply of dirt is continually shovelled in at the
head of the trough. This arrangement works
faster than the rocker, and is not so liable to
become packed with sand; but the sluice,
which has now generally superseded it, is ca-
pable of washing still greater quantities and
with less loss of gold. This is generally a
long inclined wooden trough, into which the
dirt is shovelled, and through which a rapid
stream of water continually flows. The ordi-
nary sluice is a series of rough wooden boxes,
each 12 ft. long, 16 by 20 in. wide, and 10 in. to
a foot deep. The grade is commonly 10 to 18
in. on each box. False bottoms are employ-
ed to retain the gold and prevent the wearing
out of the boxes. Sluices are sometimes paved
with stones or wooden blocks, in the crevices
of which the gold is caught and retained. Eif-
fles are also inserted, and quicksilver is very
generally employed to assist in catching the
gold. The dirt or gravel containing gold is
shovelled into the sluices at the head of the se-
ries. Mercury is usually poured, an hour or
two after the commencement of sluicing, into
the head of the apparatus, and smaller quanti-
ties are also introduced at various places along
the boxes. When the gold is exceedingly fine,
amalgamated copper plates are sometimes set
in the sluices, and are considered as effective
for saving fine gold as an equal surface of pure
mercury, while they are both cheaper and more
easily managed. Another arrangement for
obtaining fine gold consists in allowing a cur-
rent carrying suspended gold, sand, &c., to
pass over tanned hides, laid with the hairs di-
rected against the course of the stream, or over
rough baize or blanket, such as is now manu-
factured for the purpose in California. The
blankets are frequently removed and washed
in tanks. Where skins are used, as in Brazil,
they may be dried and beaten over a cloth,
placed to receive the fallen particles. Sluice
washing is generally carried on during the day
only ; but when water is abundant and cheap,
the work may be continued throughout the
whole twenty-four hours. The sluices are
cleaned up once a week, or more seldom, ac-
cording to the rate at which gold and amal-
gam accumulate. The amalgam and mercury
taken from the sluice are panned, to separate
them from sand, &c., and then strained through
buckskin or canvas to remove the liquid quick-
silver. The auriferous amalgam is removed
from copper plates by first warming and then
scraping them. This, together with the solid
amalgam from the strainers, is retorted ; the
quicksilver passing over from the retort is con-
densed in water and thus recovered ; while the
gold is left in the form of a light yellow porous
mass, called retort gold, and usually constitu-

ting 35 to 40 per cent, of the weight of amal-
gam retorted. The length of the sluices em-
ployed in this process is limited only by the
cost of their construction and maintenance, and
the control of the necessary grade. Ground
sluices are natural gullies, answering the pur-
pose of wooden sluices in localities where
water is abundant for short periods only, and
the construction of permanent sluices would
not be judicious. In river mining, the current
of a stream is turned aside, and sluices are
erected in its bed for washing the dirt there
accumulated. In beach mining, as carried on
along the northern part of the California coast
and the southern part of the Oregon coast, the
sands on the seashore are explored, and cer-
tain portions of them, which are found to be
sufficiently auriferous, are transported to some
neighboring stream and washed. The origin
of this gold is the natural concentration by
tides and currents of a bluff of auriferous sand,
which in stormy weather is undermined by the
waves. The position of the deposits is fre-
quently changed, and mining must therefore
be carried on in a new place every day. Hill
diggings and bank diggings are names which
explain themselves. Many deposits of aurifer-
ous clay and gravel have been subsequently
overlaid by barren alluvium ; and the ordinary
operations of shovelling or blasting would be
too expensive for the removal of such enor-
mous masses of unprofitable material. Tunnels
and drifts are frequently employed for the pur-
pose of extracting the richer strata. They are
particularly necessary in those deep placers in
which the drift materials are united by sili-
cious or calcareous matter, constituting a hard,
solid cement. This material is usually mined
by drifting, and, if too hard for sluicing, is sub-
jected to a treatment similar to that employed
for quartz gold. Water for sluicing operations
is frequently brought from great distances
through canals, ditches, or flumes, the proprie-
tors of which sell the water to miners at so
much the miners' inch, a miners' inch being in
most localities the quantity flowing in a given
time through an aperture one inch square
under a head of six inches. The celebrated
hydraulic process, invented in Placer co., Cal.,
in 1852, consists in washing down the whole
surface and underlying mass of auriferous de-
posits, preparatory to sluicing. This is effected
by streams of water under great hydraulic
pressure. The first apparatus of the kind had
a head of 40 ft. From a barrel situated this
distance above the mining claim the water was
drawn through a hose 6 in. in diameter, made
of common cowhide and ending in a four-foot
tin tube, the nozzle of which was one inch
in diameter. From this simple beginning has
grown in 20 years one of the most remarkable
mechanical industries of mining. Hundreds
of miles of ditches, canals, and flumes are now
employed in conducting water for these opera-
tions from the high streams of the Sierra;
canvas and iron hose have replaced the original

GOLD

cowhide ; blasts of from 5 to 50 tons of powder
at a time are fired, to prepare the ground for
the action of water; nitro-glycenne and the
diamond drill are used in running preparatory
tunnels for drainage; chasms of 1,000 ft. m
vertical depth are successfully crossed by huge
iron pipes, to convey water to isolated points,
thus obviating the ancient high, costly, and
perishable flumes; and from ingeniously con-
trivi-.i and regulated nozzles streams as much
as 6 in. in diameter are discharged under pres-
sures sometimes exceeding 400 ft. of hydraulic
head, with a velocity of 140 ft. and upward
per second, delivering more than 1,600 Ibs. of
water in that unit of time. The water issuing
from the nozzle seems to the touch as rigid as
a bar of steel, and strikes the gravel bank in
the same cylindrical, condensed shape, boring
into it with immense power. The heavy bowl-
ders are thrown about like pebbles; and the
clay, earth, and gravel, disintegrated by the
torrent, are swept along into the system of
sluices. It has been estimated that, taking the
miners' wages in California at $4 per day, the
cost of handling a cubic yard of gravel would
be nearly as follows: in the pan, $20; in the
rocker, $5; with the long torn, $1; by hy-
draulic process and sluices, 5 cts. This method
has rendered valuable many California placers
that were esteemed worthless or exhausted;
and its employment would doubtless revive
the importance of abandoned gold fields in
other parts of the world. Quartz gold (that
is, gold contained in veins, whether native in
the quartzose or other gangue, or associated
more or less intimately with metalliferous min-
erals) is extracted in most cases by first pul-
verizing the material, and then washing and
amalgamating. Stamp mills, iron rollers, re-
volving plates, drums containing iron balls,
Chilian mills, arrastras, and jaw crushers are
among the machines employed in pulverizing
rock. The arrastra consists of a circular pave-
ment of stone, about 12 ft. in diameter, sur-
rounded by a rough curb and forming a kind
of tub about 2 ft. in depth. An upright shaft,
working on a pivot in the centre of this circle,
carries arms to which large stones or mullers
are attached by chains or thongs. The arms,
being revolved by horse or mule power, drag
the mullers over the pavement, upon which
the ore, previously broken into pieces of about
e of pigeons' ggs, is distributed. Water
is added from time to time, until the quartz has
become reduced to a finely divided state, and
the contents of the arrastra assume the con-
sistency of thick cream. Quicksilver is then
sprinkled over the surface, and the grinding is
continued until amalgamation is complete. An
ordinary twelve-foot arrastra will grind and
;imate 450 Ibs. of quartz in about seven
bt hours. The amalgam is obtained by
diluting and agitating the mixture, and allow-
ing the turbid liquid to run off. The arrastra
ia slow in operation and wasteful of power,
but an excellent amalgamator. Hence the

principle has been very generally adopted in
amalgamating, while the preliminary pulveri-
zation is effected by other machinery. The
Chilian mill consists of a stone or iron basin,
around which one or two vertical wheels or
runners, frequently of granite, are made to
travel. It is generally considered less efficient
for amalgamation and scarcely more so for
crushing, while it is more expensive to con-
struct than the arrastra. Jaw crushers, of
which Blake's well known stone breaker is
the type, are widely employed for the pre-
liminary reduction of rock to a size suitable
for rollers or stamp mills. Stamping is usually
regarded as the most economical and efficient
means of pulverizing the ore. The mills con-
structed for this purpose are run by steam or
water power, with the exception of occasional
rude contrivances in which single stamps have
been operated by horse power, and of the ex-
periment now making, it is believed for the
first time, in the island of Arruba, where wind
is to be employed as a motive power. The
best stamp mills in the world are believed
to be those of California and Nevada. These
are made up of batteries containing three, four,
five, or six stamps each ; five is the usual num-
ber. Each battery works in a cast-iron box
or mortar, in the bottom of which are laid
blocks of hardened iron, called dies, to re-
ceive the shock of the falling stamps. The
broken rock is fed in suitable quantities into
the mortar, and crushed between the dies
and the stamps. Each stamp consists of a
stem, a collar, a stamp head, and a shoe. The
stem was formerly made of -ash or other hard
straight-grained wood, about 6 in. square, to
the lower end of which a square iron stamp
head was fastened. At present, in Califor-
nia, stems of 3 or 3 inch round iron, some
12 ft. in length, are universally employed.
The collar is secured upon the upper part
of the stem, and forms a projection 3 or 4 in.
wide, under which the cam of the horizontal
driving shaft catches and lifts, and at the same
time turns, the stamp. The stem fits below into
the stamp head, a cylinder of tough cast iron,
furnished on its lower face with a hard iron
shoe, which can be replaced when worn out.
The stamps are dropped 6 to 12 in., at the rate
of from 25 to 90 drops per minute. Water
flows into the mortar with the ore; and the
finely divided product is splashed by the stamps
through screens of wire cloth or perforated
sheet iron, set in the walls of the mortar.
Loose quicksilver and amalgamated copper
plates are sometimes used inside the mortar.
The mixture of crushed ore and water is dif-
ferently treated in different places for the ex-
traction of gold. Sometimes it is run over
amalgamated copper plates ; sometimes it is
first concentrated by means of blankets ; some-
times it is introduced into pans, somewhat on
the principle of the arrastra, or into various
other ingenious forms of apparatus, for the
purpose of amalgamation. In the most sue-

GOLD

cessful establishments, the current conveying
the sediments is led through a succession of
apparatus, each machine, sluice, or other con-
trivance being intended to catch a portion of
the gold carried past the preceding one. The
refuse finally escaping is called tailings, and
usually contains : native gold, so finely divided
that it has been swept by the current through
all the apparatus employed ; minute particles
of amalgam and "floured" quicksilver, carried
off in the same way ; coarser particles of gold
adhering to fragments of rock; and, finally,
gold associated mechanically or chemically
with iron or copper pyrites, blende, galena,
and mispickel. The tailings are usually run
into reservoirs, allowed to settle, and then
stored in heaps. Sometimes these heaps are
again amalgamated, with or without a prece-
ding concentration by washing. It has been
found in many instances that some kinds of
pyrites slowly decompose by exposure and
thus set free fine gold. The metallic sulphu-
rets are, however, in many cases, separated
from other tailings by washing immediately
after the first amalgamation of the ore, and vari-
ous devices have been employed for the treat-
ment of such concentrated pyrites, which is
often the richest in gold of all the constituents
of the vein stuff. Following the analogy of
natural decomposition, it has been repeatedly
attempted, by roasting the pyrites in reverber-
atory furnaces, to drive off the sulphur and
oxidize the metallic bases, so as to obtain a
product containing fine particles of free gold.
The objection brought against this treatment,
that the vapors of roasting carry off mechan-
ically fine particles of gold, seems to be ill-
founded. More serious objections are the cost
of the roasting process, and the circumstance
that the roasted product does not contain the
gold in a condition suitable for amalgamation.
It is supposed that the particles when thus
artificially and rapidly reduced become coated
with a film of oxide of iron, preventing the
intimate contact with quicksilver upon which
amalgamation depends. Very careful roast-
ing in cylinders, with the addition of salt, is
said to have obviated this difficulty ; but the
question of expense remains. The present
methods of treatment for pyritous gold ores
are: 1, the extremely fine pulverization of the
ore, liberating, as far as this is mechanically
possible, the particles of gold ; 2, the amalga-
mation of the pyritous residues in pans, with
the addition of chemicals intended to facilitate
decomposition ; 3, chlorination ; 4, smelting.
The chlorination process was introduced by
Prof. Plattner of Freiberg, Saxony, for the
treatment of auriferous residues in Silesia.
As improved by Deetken, it has been employ-
ed in this country for about 15 years. The
principle involved is the transformation of
metallic gold by means of chlorine gas into sol-
uble chloride of gold (the aurum potabile of
the alchemists), which can be dissolved in cold
water and precipitated in the metallic state by

sulphate of iron. This precipitate may then
be filtered, dried, and melted with suitable
fluxes, to obtain a regulus of malleable gold.
It is necessary that all the gold, and if possi-
ble nothing else, shall be obtained in the final
solution. If this is secured, the precipitation
and melting are easy. To render the gold in
the ore accessible in a metallic state to the
chlorine gas, and at the same time to convert
the base metals into oxides which will not
unite with the chlorine, the raw ore is finely
pulverized and (if sulphurets or arseniurets are
present) roasted. The cost of this treatment,
amounting in the Pacific states and territories
to from $12 to $25 a ton, excludes its use for
low grade ores ; and hence it cannot supersede
the stamp mill and amalgamation process,
though it is acknowledged to be metallurgi-
cally the most complete method of gold extrac-
tion on a large scale. Ores containing iron,
copper, gold, and silver may be roasted and de-
prived of their copper and iron by leaching
with dilute sulphuric acid, of their silver by
boiling with concentrated sulphuric acid, and
of their gold by treating the auriferous resi-
duum with aqua regia. If lead is present, the
whole residuum after the removal of copper
must be melted with lead and cupelled. This
process is not now used in the United States,
though it is recommended by high authority.
Telluric ores are treated in Transylvania in a
somewhat similar way. The smelting process-
es for the extraction of gold are the same as
those for silver. Since the two minerals always
occur in nature together, the final result of
smelting is argentiferous gold or auriferous
silver. The separation of the two metals is
effected : 1, by dissolving the silver in nitric
acid or boiling sulphuric acid, which leaves
behind a brown powder of gold ; 2, by treating
the alloy with aqua regia, in which gold is dis-
solved as chloride, while the chloride of silver
is but slightly soluble ; or 3, by passing a cur-
rent of chlorine gas through the alloy while
in a melted state. For separation with nitric
acid, the alloy should contain 2 parts of silver
to 1 part of gold. For the separation with
sulphuric acid, the best results are obtained
with alloys containing not much less than 3 or
more than 4 parts of gold in 16 parts, the re-
mainder being silver and copper. It is usually
necessary in treating native gold to melt it
with at least 2^ times its own weight of silver,
and then to separate by the action of acids the
silver thus added, and also that originally con-
tained in the gold. It is said that the chlorine
process effects a complete separation of the sil-
ver in one operation, at the time the gold is
melted, and thus saves much time, material,
machinery, and interest on capital. Nitric acid
and sulphuric acid processes are used in the
mints of the United States, and the chlorine
process is employed in some of the British
colonial mints. Among the most recent au-
thorities on this subject are : Phillips, " The
Mining and Metallurgy of Gold and Silver"

GOLD-BEATING

(London, 1867); J. Ross Browne, "Mineral Re-
lolJrcesof the Pacific Slope " (New York, 1868) ;
Blako " Production of the Precious Metals
(New York, 1869); R. W. Raymond, "Silver
and Gold " (New York, 1873). See also Sel-
wyn's "Notes on the Physical Geography,
Geology, and Mineralogy of Victoria" (Mel-
bourne, 1866), and the reports on the geology
of California by J. D. Whitney.

GOLD-BEATING, the process of hammering
gold into thin leaves. It is not known what
were the methods in use by the Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans for obtaining the thin
leaves they manufactured ; but it is probable
that they did not differ essentially from the
simple processes now practised, which were
brought to their present perfection by contin-
ued experience and the application of a moder-
ate degree of skill. The earliest recorded no-
tice of the mode of preparing gold leaf is that
of the German monk Theophilus, in or before
the 12th century, from which it appears that
parchment was used as a covering to the gold
during the hammering, and the leaves were
prevented from sticking by the application of
red ochre or chalk. When the substance call-
ed gold-beaters' skin (French, baudruche) was
first used for the production of the finest qual-
ities of gold leaf is not known. This material,
essential to the manufacture, is derived from
the cfficum of the ox, which, being well clean-
ed, is doubled together, the two mucous surfaces
face to face, in which state they unite firmly.
The membrane is then treated with solutions
of alum, isinglass, white of eggs, &c., and some-
times with creosote, and, being beaten between
folds of paper to expel the grease, is finally
pressed and dried. The leaves thus obtained,
each 5 in. square, are made up into moulds,
each composed of 850 leaves. The casca of 500
oxen are required for a single mould. Various
qualities of gold are employed for gold leaf.
The common coin answers a very good pur-
pose, and different shades of color are obtained,
according to the proportions of silver and cop-
per in the alloy. Chemically pure gold makes
leaves well adapted for gilding which is to be
exposed to the weather, as they are less liable
to tarnish or change color; these are remark-
able for their property of adhering as they
touch each other. Deep red colors are obtained
by alloys of 12 to 16 grains of copper to the
ounce of gold ; silver, if added when too much
copper is present, lessens the malleability of
the alloy. Medium colors, as orange, lemon,
Ac., result from the alloy of 12 to 20 grains
of silver and 6 to 8 of copper to the ounce ;
m.l pule colors from alloys of from 2 to not
!isin 20 pennyweights of silver to the
ounce, without copper. The gold, being melt-
ed in a crucible with a little borax, is cast into
ingots, commonly 3 or 4 in. long, $ in. wide,
and about \ in. deep, and weighing about 1,000
grains each. The ingots are annealed in hot
to remove the grease d.-riv.-d from the
moulds and increase the malleability of the

metal. The French then forge the metal upon
an anvil with small hammers, reducing its
thickness to one sixth of an inch, and at the
same time exposing it to frequent annealings ;
but this is omitted by the English, who submit
it at once to the lamination process, or rolling
between two rollers of polished steel, which
are adjusted so as to be brought successively
nearer together. This operation, which for-
merly reduced the gold to a ribbon an inch
wide and ^ of an inch thick, is by improved
machinery now extended till the gold is re-
duced to a sheet a little more than ^ of an
inch thick, an ounce making 10 ft. in length
by 1$ in. in width. The gold, again annealed,
is next cut up into inch squares, the weight of
each being about 6 grains. About 150 of these
pieces are piled alternately with leaves of fine
calf-skin vellum or of a tough paper manufac-
tured in France for this purpose, each piece
being placed in the middle of one of the leaves,
which are 4 in. square. A number of extra
leaves are added to the top and bottom of the
pile, which when completed is called a tool or
kutch. This is then slipped into a parchment
case, open at two ends, and this into a similar
case, so as to enclose the pack on all four sides.
The pack is now placed upon a block of mar-
ble, set for an anvil, with a ledge around three
sides of it, and a leather apron for the fourth
side, which is held up by the workman, who
proceeds to beat the pack. He wields a 16-
Ib. hammer, shifting it from one hand to the
other without interfering with the regularity
of the stroke, also occasionally turning the
pack with the same dexterity. The hammer
has a slightly convex face, which adds to its
efficiency in spreading the gold, and the work-
ing of it is made much easier by the elasticity
of the pack causing it to rebound. The pack
is from time to time bent back and forth to
overcome the adhesion between the gold and
the vellum or paper ; it is also rolled between
the hands for the same purpose; and it is oc-
casionally opened to examine the condition of
the leaves and properly arrange them. In
about 20 minutes 1 beating the gold is spread to
the size of the leaves, covering 16 square inches
in place of one inch. The pieces are then taken
out, and each is cut into four square pieces,
the original 150 pieces being thus increased to
600. These are again packed, this time in
gold-beaters' skin, again enclosed in parchment
cases, and beaten with a smaller hammer, till
they are extended to the size of the skins.
This operation requires about two hours. More
particular care is given now than before to
folding the pack in order to loosen the leaves.
When all the gold leaves have expanded to the
full size, they are taken out and spread by the
breath one by one upon a cushion, where each
is cut into four squares by two sharp edges of
cane fixed crosswise, and used by pressure down-
ward. To this material the thin leaves do not
adhere as they do to a steel blade. The squares
are now 2,400 in number. These are once more

GOLDBERG

GOLD COAST

packed, making three parcels, and beaten as be-
fore for four hours. This part of the process
requires the most skill and care from the work-
man. The skins are the finest, about 5 in. square ;
the leaves are brought at the end of the opera-
tion to 3 or 3 in. square. In this condition an
ounce of gold is made to cover 100 sq. ft. It
begins to transmit the rays of light, and, if
slightly alloyed, the green rays particularly,
but, if highly alloyed with silver, the pale vio-
let rays also. The beating may be continued,
and tbe gold be reduced to the thinness of the
specimens noticed in GILDING ; but there is no
advantage gained in passing the average of the
commercial gold leaf, which is about -jFff.oWj
or that of the French, which is probably less
than ^jqW o- of an m h thick. The leaves are
sorted after the final beating, each one being lift-
ed by a delicate pair of whitewood pincers, and
spread out by the breath upon a leather cushion.
It is then trimmed down to about 3J in. square
by a square frame of sharp cane, and laid be-
tween the leaves of the book in which it is
sold. Each book is made to contain 25 gold
leaves, and these are prevented from adhering
to the paper by an application to this of red
ochre or red chalk. Silver and copper are
both beaten into leaves ; but their value is not
so great as to render it an object to reduce
them to anything like the tenuity of gold leaf,
if their malleability admitted of its being done.

GOLDBERG, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the
Katzbach, 10 m. S. W. of Liegnitz; pop. in 1871,
6,716. It is quaintly built, and has a church
dating from the beginning of the 13th century.
Cloth and hosiery are manufactured, and there
are dye works and distilleries of brandy. The
gold mines from which it derived its name are
not now worked. A battle was fought here,
May 27, 1813, between the French under Mac-
donald and the Russian reserve under Wittgen-
stein, and a skirmish (Aug. 23) between the
former and Bliicher.

GOLD COAST, a part of the coast of Upper
Guinea, "W. Africa, lying, according to most
geographers, between Cape Three Points and
the river Volta; but the jurisdiction of the Brit-
ish Gold Coast colony, including the territories
ceded by the Dutch in 1872, extends from the
river Assinie, Ion. 3 18' W., to the river Ewue,
Ion. 1 10' E. ; area, 16,626 sq. m. ; pop. in
1871, 408,070. The shore line, about 330 m.
long, is skirted generally by low hills with dense
woods in the background, but is flat and sandy
at its extremities, with lagoons inland. There
are no harbors, and the surf is so violent that
vessels are obliged to lie from 2 to 5 m. off the
beach. The chief rivers are the Assinie, Anco-
ber, Tenda, Bossum Prah or Prah, and the Vol-
ta. The Gold Coast colony proper consists of
only the fortified stations and the strip of coast
dominated by them ; but a protectorate is exer-
cised by Great Britain over all the tribes lying
between it and Ashantee. The limits of the
protectorate are not clearly defined, but it is
generally understood to extend inland about 80

in., the river Prah forming its N". boundary in
the longitude of Elmina and Cape Coast Castle.
The principal native people inhabiting this ter-
ritory are the Fantees, but there are a number
of smaller tribes, the Ahantas, Wassas, Denki-
ras, Akims, Assins, Aquapims, Crepees, and
others, all under independent chiefs. Little is
known of the interior, but the few who have
penetrated it speak of its vast forests filled with
tropical life, and of green plains traversed by
sparkling streams, and its climate is said to be
more healthy than that of the coast. There are
no roads, the only means of communicating be-
tween the villages being by narrow paths, pass-
able only in single file. Beasts of burden are
unknown to the natives, who transport all mer-
chandise and produce to and from the coast on
their heads. The soil is very fertile, produ-
cing all the tropical grains and fruits. Traces
of iron are found at several places on the coast,
and there are rich gold mines in the interior.
In the beginning of the 18th century the Dutch
exported annually from Elmina about 250,000
worth of gold dust, but the hostility of the na-
tive tribes has now nearly destroyed the trade.
The fortified posts of the Gold Coast colony are
Axim, Dixcove, and Sekundi, in the Ahanta
country, and Elmina, Cape Coast Castle, Anam-
boe, and Accra, in the country of the Fantees.
The French trading station at Assinie has been
abandoned since 1870. Axim, about 14 m. W.
of Cape Three Points, is one of the healthiest
places on the coast, owing probably to the pure
water which runs from the neighboring hills in
rivulets. All the tropical plants grow to per-
fection in its vicinity, and many European vege-
tables have been successfully introduced. It
is the only place where rice is raised, and the
influences so deadly to live stock at other points
do not extend to it. In the country N. of it
are rich gold mines, and gold dust, palm oil,
and palm kernels were once exported in consid-
erable quantities. The town is commanded by
Fort St. Anthony, built in its centre on a pre-
cipitous rock 70 ft. high. Dixcove (called Un-
fuma by the natives), 11 m. E. of Cape Three
Points, is defended by a fort, which the Dutch
thoroughly repaired in 1867. The town is dirty
and unhealthy, from the exhalations of neigh-
boring swamps, which harbor numerous croc-
odiles. Between Axim and Dixcove are the
ruins of the old forts Great Friedrichsburg,
Brandenburg, and Dorothea, built originally by
the Prussians. Bautri or Boutry, 3 m. E. of
Dixcove, a former Dutch settlement which was
defended by Fort Batenstein, is now aban-
doned. Sekundi, the next station, 20 m. from
Dixcove, is situated on a point, with Fort
Orange on a steep promontory at its end. The
environs are fertile, and the country back of
it is covered with dense woods. The former
Dutch settlement of Chama is 8 m. further E.,
near the mouth of the Prah. It is commanded
by Fort St. Sebastian, originally built by the
Portuguese, and still in a fair state of repair,
but abandoned on account of the unhealth-

GOLD COAST

- of the locality. The Dutch cultiva-
,. ,-ot ton, Hax, hemp, coffee, tobacco,
and ground nuts, with much success. From
Chama to Elmina is about 20 in. Between
.-in- the native towns of Kommenda (pop.
4000), with the ruins of an old English fort;
Koramanie (pop. 2,300), with the remains of
the Dutch fort Vredenburg ; and Ampeni (pop.
4,500). Elmina, called by the natives Oddena,
the capital of the former Dutch colonies, had
a population of 15,000 in 1867. (See ELMINA.)
CUR- Coast Castle, 8 m. E., the capital of the
Gold Coast colony (pop. 10,000), derives its
name from its fortress built on rocks near the
seashore. Behind, on a gentle slope, is the
European town, with picturesque houses sur-
rounded by gardens of tropical fruits. Anam-
boe or Anamabu, 10 in. E. of Cape Coast Cas-
tle, and Accra or Akrah, nearly 70 m. further,
are the two most easterly fortified settlements
on the coast, but there are missionary stations
at several intervening points. The sh\ve trade
is virtually abolished, but domestic slavery ex-
ists to a great extent throughout the protecto-
rate. The principal exports are gold dust, palm
oil and kernels, gum, ivory, and monkey skins ;
the imports are cotton and silk goods, guns,
gunpowder, hardware, tobacco, and wines and
spirits. The total tonnage of vessels entered
and cleared, exclusive of coasting trade, in
1871, was 251,047. The total value of im-
ports for 1871 was 250,672, of which 171,-
978 were from Great Britain ; total value of ex-
ports in 1871, 295,208. The chief trade pre-
vious to 1872 was with the Ashantees. Since
1850 the colony, previously under the juris-
diction of Sierra Leone, has had a government
of its own, with a governor and executive and
legislative councils. It has also judicial, mili-
itary, ecclesiastical, and educational establish-
ments. The gross amount of public revenue,
raised in part by a tax of 3 per cent, on im-
ports, was in 1871 28,609 ; gross expenditure,
1871, 29,094. An attempt was made to im-
pose a poll tax of a shilling a head on all the
protected natives, which in 1852 produced 7,-
567; in 1861 it had fallen to 1,552, and since
then it has not been levied. The Dutch did
not levy any import duties. The first Euro-
pean nation to establish themselves on the Gold
Coast were the Portuguese, who began the
fort at Elmina in 1481. In 1637 it was cap-
tured by the Dutch, and three years later all
tin- Portuguese possessions on the coast were
ceded to tlu-tn. In 1662 the "Company of
Royal Adventurers of England trading to
i." and in 1672 the " Royal African Com-
pany of England," built rival forts and fac-
m;ir tin- Dutch company's settlements,
whirli resulted in constant disagreements and
qimnvk In the war of 1781 the English cap-
tun-,1 all tlu- hutch forts except Elmina. On
their n-tor:ition by the treaty of Versailles,
-neral assumed the government of
lony, but the rivalry continued and fre-
quently It-il to bloodshed between the negro

tribes of the two jurisdictions. Considering
that this unsatisfactory state of affairs was
duo principally to the positions of the forts of
the two nations, which alternated with each
other, an agreement was made in 1867 that
the boundary line between the colonies should
be the Sweet river, a small stream between
Elmina and Cape Coast Castle ; that all the
settlements E. of this point should belong to
England, and all W. of it as far as the Assinie
river to the Netherlands. In accordance with
this treaty, the Dutch ceded Mori, Kormantin,
Assam, Bereku, and Fort Crevecceur at Accra ;
the English, Apollonia, Dixcove, Sekundi, and
Kommenda, and the protected territories of
Wassa, Denkira, and Tufel. The Dutch forts
were surrendered to the English without
trouble, but the natives resisted the transfer
of the English stations to the Dutch. Dis-
turbances ensued, and on Jan. 31, 1867, the
Dutch burned Kommenda as a punishment.
In 1868 they burned Sekundi in retaliation,
and in 1869 Dixcove. The natives became
only the more incensed at these measures, and
the Dutch government, despairing of peace,
agreed, by a treaty ratified at the Hague Feb.
17, 1872, to transfer all its possessions to Eng-
land, which was formally done the following
April. The Danish settlements had previously
been ceded to Great Britain (in 1850), so that
the latter power now controlled the whole
coast. The king of Ashantee, who had been
accustomed to draw his supplies of arms and
ammunition through the Dutch factories free
of duty, objected to the transfer of the forts,
which cut him off from access to the coast,
and declared that the Dutch had no power to
transfer Elmina, which he said belonged to
him, the Dutch having paid him a tribute of
300 a year. In January, 1873, the Ashantees
crossed the Prah and invaded the protectorate.
The protected tribes offered but a feeble re-
sistance, and in June both Cape Coast Castle
and Elmina were threatened by a force esti-
mated at 50,000 men. The native king of
Elmina aided the Ashantees, and four out of
the eight captains of the quarters into which
the town is divided refused to take the oath
of allegiance. On June 30 the quarter of the
native king was bombarded by the fort and
destroyed, and in the afternoon of the same
day the Ashantees were defeated with a loss
of 500 and their general, and withdrew to
Effutu, 12 m. distant. In August Takorady
was bombarded by the British fleet, Dixcove
repelled an attack of the Ashantees, and Axim,
where the natives rose against the garrison,
was burned. In October Gen. Sir Garnet
Wolseley was sent from England to Cape
Coast Castle with both civil and military
powers. Early in January, 1874, he set out
for Koomassie with about 2,000 white troops,
building a military road as he went, and the
Ashantees fell back before him. The Prah
was crossed without opposition. At Amoaful,
about 22 m. from Koomassie, a severe battle

GOLDEN FLEECE

was fought on Jan. 31, in which the Ashantees
were defeated with heavy loss, including their
commander Amanquatia. A second battle
took place at Ordahsu, 15 m. beyond, on Feb.
4, the king commanding in person. After six
hours the Ashantees fled, and the British en-
tered Koomassie. On the morning of Feb. 6
the town was fired and the troops began their
homeward march. A peace was subsequently
concluded, the king agreeing to pay an indem-
nity of 50,000 ounces of gold, to renounce the
protectorate, to keep open a road to the coast,
and to prohibit human sacrifices.

GOLDEN FLEECE. See ARGONAUTS.

GOLDEN FLEECE, Order of the (Span, el toi-
son de oro ; Fr. ordre de la toison d'or), one of
the oldest and most important of the orders
of chivalry, founded at Bruges by Philip the
Good, duke of Burgundy, on occasion of his
marriage with the princess Isabella of Portu-
gal, Jan. 10, 1430, and consecrated to the Vir-
gin Mary and the apostle Andrew. The stat-
utes of the order declare that it takes its name
from the golden fleece which the Argonauts
went in search of. It is possible that it was
founded in memory of Philip's father, John the
Fearless, who was held a prisoner in Colchis,
and that it was consecrated to St. Andrew be-
cause that apostle carried the gospel to the land
of the golden fleece. Some suppose that it re-
ceived the badge in consequence of the im-
portant woollen manufactures of the country.
The decoration of the grand master is a chain
composed of alternate flints and rays of steel,
with the golden fleece fastened in the middle.
The knights wear a golden fleece on a red rib-
'bon. ^Its design was to maintain the honor
of knighthood and protect the church, and it
was sanctioned by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1433
and by Leo X. in 1516. An article of the stat-
utes (published at Lille, Nov. 30, 1431, in the
French language) ordained that if the house of
Burgundy should become extinct in the male
line, the husband of the daughter and heiress
of the last sovereign should be grand master of
the order. After the death of Charles the
Bold (1477) the husband of his daughter and
heiress Mary, Maximilian I. of Austria, there-
fore inherited the grand mastership. During
the war of the Spanish succession Charles III.
(afterward the emperor Charles VI.) and Philip
V., the contestants for the throne of Spain,
both claimed this dignity. When the former
left Spain he carried the archives of the order
with him, and in 1713 celebrated its revival in
Vienna. Spain protested against this at the
congress of Cambrai in 1724, and it was de-
cided by the treaty of Vienna in 1725 that the
regents of both states should be permitted to
confer the order with similar insignia, but that
the members should be distinguished as knights
of the Spanish or Austrian golden fleece. After
the death of Charles VI., Maria Theresa in
1741 bestowed the office of grand master upon
her husband Francis I., against which Philip
V. of Spain protested in the electoral assembly

GOLDEN NUMBER 89

at Vienna and at Frankfort. At the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, France, England,
and Holland demanded that the schism should
be composed ; but as Ferdinand VI. of Spain
declared that the order was inseparable from
the Spanish crown, the dispute has remained
unreconciled, and the order continues in two
branches, neither of which recognizes the
other. The original device of the order was
Autre nauray ("I shall have no other"); but
Charles the Bold changed it into Je Vay
empri ("I have accepted it"). The statutes
ordain that the knights shall recognize no
other jurisdiction but an assembly of their
order under the presidency of the grand master
or of a knight authorized by him, and that
they shall have precedency of all persons ex-
cept those of royal blood. The number of
knights, originally 24, was soon increased to
31, and in 1516 to 52. In 1851 the order con-
sisted in Austria of 6 grand crosses, 20 com-
manders, and 161 knights.

GOLDEN NUMBER, the place of a given year
in the lunar cycle. It is used to determine on
what day the paschal moon falls, and thus to
find Easter day. The mean length of the lunar
cycle agrees exactly with 19 Julian years. (See
CALENDAR, LUNAR CYCLE, and YEAR.) The
new moons were indicated before the reforma-
tion of the calendar by means of the lunar
cycle, which restores them to the same days of
the civil month, and places them on the same
days in any two years that occupy the same
rank in the cycle. Consequently a table of the
full moon's phases for 19 years will serve for
any year whatever, when we know its number
in the cycle. The year preceding the commence-
ment of our era, when the new moon fell on the
1st of January, is supposed to be the beginning
of the cycle, which gives this rule for finding the
golden number : Add 1 to the date and divide
the sum by 19 ; the quotient is the number of
cycles elapsed, and the remainder is the golden
number. When the remainder is 0, the pro-
posed year is the last or 19th of the cycle.
The new moons determined in this manner
may, however, differ from the astronomical
new moons as much as two days, because the
sum of the solar and lunar inequalities, com-
pensated in the whole period, may in certain
cases amount to 10, and thereby cause the
new moon to arrive on the second day before
or after the mean time. The Gregorian calen-
dar rejects the golden numbers, as they are
only adapted to the Julian calendar ; the sup-
pression of the ten days rendered it necessary
to place them ten lines lower, and the cente-
nary intercalation required them to be changed
every century. Their place is supplied by
another set of numbers called epacts. (See
EPACT.) The golden numbers were intro-
duced into the calendar about the year 530,
but were disposed as they would have been if
they had been inserted at the time of the
council of Nice. It was usual to mark them
in the calendar with red or gold.

GOLDENROD

GOLDENROD (tolulago, Linn.), the name of
numerous plants, whose showy heads of flow-
ers, waving like golden wands, make bright
and gay the sides of roads, hills, and gravelly
banks in the autumn. A supposed emcacy m
the plants suggested to the early botanists the
name tolidago, from Lat. solidare, to make firm.
Although the general appearance of the ra-
cemed or else corymbed heads, which bear the
florets, is diverse, yet the flowers themselves
ditlV-r only from the asters in the smaller heads
of (except in one species) yellow flowers. The
genus is mostly North American, there being
about 80 species, all of which but three or four
belong to this country. The most common
European species is 8. mrgaurea, with a low,
terete, pubescent stem, which branches above ;
the lower leaves are elliptical, somewhat hairy,
acutely serrate, the flower heads in thyrsoid
racemes. It grows in thickets and woods,
and formerly was much used in medicine. Its

Goldenrod (Solidago Canadcnsis).

principle is astringent and tonic; the leaves
and flowers, however, were thought aperient.
It occurs in the northern regions of America,
bat under very dissimilar forms. Of these, a
dwarf kind, only a few inches high, with obo-
vate or lanceolate, mostly entire leaves, and a
few large flowers, is the variety which Dr.
Bigelow calls almna ; it occurs in the alpine
regions >,f N, \\ Hampshire, of Maine, and of
New York, and on the shore of Lake Superior.
A second <li>tinet variety is hum-ilk, on the
rocky banks of western Vermont, Lakes IIu-

1 Superior, and northward ; and a sub-
variety with larger and broader leaves, the
flower heads in nnipU>, compound racemes, the
flower rays occasionally white instead of yel-

t<> I... im-t with on gravelly banks of
-t r , -ain-j at the base of th.- \Yhiu- mountains in
New Hampshire, A -imilar but. distinct spe-
cies is /,- (Meyer), which occurs on
the wooded sides of mountains from Maine to

GOLDFINCH

New York and northward. Perhaps the most
interesting species is the sweet goldenrod (S.
odora, Ait.), with a slender stem 2 to 3 ft. high,
often reclined; the leaves linear-lanceolate,
entire, shining, covered with pellucid dots,
which secrete a delicious anisate oil ; the flow-
er heads in racemes spreading in a one-sided
panicle, the flower rays rather large and con-
spicuous. It may be occasionally found in rich
shady woods. An essence distilled from the
leaves has been used to relieve spasmodic pains.
One of the earliest indications of the approach
of autumn is in the flowers of S. licolor, or
white goldenrod, the only species which has
white flowers. Next comes into yellow bloom
the tall Canadian goldenrod (S. Canadensis),
and following this, the gigantic goldenrod (IS
giganted), and the tall goldenrod (S. altissima),
names singularly misapplied, as the altitude of
both is not unusual. Afterward may be seen
S. arguta and other species, until the lingering
florets upon the downy goldenrod (S. nemora-
lis) indicate the near approach of the cold.
The goldenrods generally affect dry and ster-
ile soils, though some are found in bogs and
moist places, and range from alpine heights to
the very margin of the sea, where may be seen
S. sempervirens, with its large, thick, shining
green leaves, and bold, large-rayed, and con-
spicuous yellow flowers, and the narrow-leaved
(S. tenuifolia, Pursh), having very small, crowd-
ed heads of inconspicuous flowers. Several
species are peculiar to the western states, as S.
Ohioensis (Riddel) and 8. Riddelii (Frank.), in
moist meadows and grassy prairies ; and others,
as S. Drummondii (Torr. and Gray), upon rocks,
in common with more ordinary ones, indicating
a wide distribution of the genus.

GOLDEN SEAL. See PUOOOON.

GOLDFINCH (fringilla carduelis, Linn.), one
of the handsomest of the European fringillidce,
valued as a cage bird both for its beauty, its
song, and its docility. It is about 5 in. long,
with an extent of wings of 9 in. ; the forehead
and throat are crimson ; the loral space, top
of the head, and a semicircular band on the
upper neck black ; the hind neck and back are
umber brown, passing into ochre yellow on
the rump ; sides of breast and flanks paler, and
white below ; smaller wing coverts black, sec-
ondary rich yellow ; most of the quills black
with white tips, except the basal half of the
outer webs, which are yellow ; tail black,
white tipped. The female is smaller, with less
crimson, pure black, and bright colors in the
plumage. Like all caged birds, the goldfinch
sometimes shows considerable differences in
color. It will pair and produce progeny with
the green linnet. Its food consists of the
seeds of the thistles, grasses, and herbaceous
plants, which it seeks in small flocks. Its
song, which is sweet and varied, usually be-
gins in Great Britain about the end of March
and continues until July ; its flight is quick and
buoyant, like that of the linnet. The nest is
elaborately made of the usual materials, and

GOLD FISH

GOLDONI

led with wool and hair ; the eggs, about five,
are three quarters of an inch long, of a bluish
white color, with brown tinges and purplish
spots. Jt remains in Scotland through the
winter, though great numbers perish in severe
is. The goldfinch is easily caught and

Goldfinch (Fringilla carduclls).

tamed, and may be taught the notes of other
birds and many amusing tricks ; it is a great
favorite both in England and America as a cage
bird. For the American goldfinches, of the
genus chrysomitris (Boie), see YELLOW BIRD.

GOLD FISH or Golden Carp (cyprinus aura-
tus, Linn.), a native of China, but introduced
into Europe early in the 17th century. In
China gold fish are to be found in almost every
house, and are kept either in porcelain vessels
or in artificial ponds; wherever known they
are prized for their beauty, elegant form, grace
of motion, and docility ; they are very easily
kept alive in small vessels, if due attention be
paid to changing the water daily. The usual
color is bright orange above, lighter on the
sides, and whitish beneath ; the scales are large
and striated ; the pupils are black, and the iris
silvery; the mouth is small and toothless; the
dorsal fin is single, with the first two rays
spinous. The colors vary exceedingly by do-
mestication, and exhibit almost every variety
of orange, purple, and silvery ; the fins vary j
considerably, as regards the size of the dorsal
and the number of the anals; triple tails are
common, in which case the dorsal is frequently
absent. The silver fish is a mere variety, and
the dark colors are the marks of the young

Gold Fish (Cyprinus auratus).

fish. It is found in many ponds in New Eng-
land, bearing well the severity of the winters,
and breeding in great numbers when protected
from other fish. Gold fish form one of the
most interesting ornaments of private gardens,
and are seen everywhere in the basins of the

fountains of large cities in the summer season.
Their food is chiefly infusorial animalcules,
with bread when in confinement; their flesh
is not esteemed as food. The intensity of the
colors and several of their external characters
are modified by their food, and the new char-
acters are transmitted to the offspring. In ar-
tificial ponds they are taught to come to the
surface at the ringing of a bell. They will live
in foul water, and a long time out of water on
account of the loose structure of their gills ; in
ponds the spawn and young fish are often
eaten by their larger comrades; their life may
be prolonged to 20 or 30 years, and they will
bear great extremes of heat and cold. In com-
mon with many fresh-water fish, they are at-
tacked and sometimes destroyed by a parasitic
fungus, arising from any diseased surface, and
even from the healthy tissue of the gills.

GOLD HILL, a town of Storey co., Nevada,
1 m. S. of the centre of Virginia, and about 190
m. E. N. E. of San Francisco; pop. in 1860, 638 ;
in 1870, 4,311, of whom 2,346 were foreigners,
including 210 Chinese; in 1874, about 13,000.
It is built in a deep and precipitous cafion of the
Washoe range of the Sierra Nevada mountains,
about 6,200 ft. above the sea, and presents a
very uninviting though unique appearance. It
is connected by daily lines of stages with Reno
on the Central Pacific railroad, 20 m. N. W.,
and with Carson City, 12 m. S. W. It is situated
on the line of the great Comstock lode or ledge,
the most productive vein of silver and gold ever
known. Some of the principal mines on the
lode are within the limits of the town, inclu-
ding the Alpha, Imperial, Gold Hill (several
small ones), Yellow Jacket, Kentuck, Crown
Point, Belcher, and Overman. The Belcher
mine during the 22 months previous to Novem-
ber, 1873, returned in dividends to the stock-
holders $8,232,800, and the Crown Point mine
about the same amount. There are many
quartz mills and hoisting works, some of the
mines being 2,000 ft. deep and requiring heavy
machinery. The Virginia and Truckee rail-
road, connecting with Virginia, Carson City,
and Reno, is used to carry ore to the crushing
mills, and to supply the mines with wood, &c.
The water which supplies the town is brought
from the summit of the Sierra Nevada, 25 m.
distant, in an iron pipe 12 inches in diameter,
across the Washoe valley, 1,750 ft. below the
discharging point in the pipe, and thence to
Virginia and Gold Hill in a flume. There is
a fine hall occupied by the miners' union, and
another belonging to the odd fellows and free-
masons. The town has a weekly newspaper,
three public schools with an average attend-
ance of 400 pupils, and three churches, Epis-
copal, Methodist, and Roman Catholic. Gold
Hill was founded in 1859.

GOLDONI, Carlo, an Italian dramatist, born
in Venice in 1707, died in Paris in 1793. He
passed his childhood in the midst of festivals
and theatrical performances, with which his
grandfather amused his leisure at a country

,,._> GOLDONI

seat near Venice. At the age. of 8 years he
wrote a sort of comic drama, and at 13 played
female part* on the stage at Perugia. He
studied philosophy under the Dominicans at
Rimini but deserted them to join a troop of
comedians. His father, a physician, undertook
to teach him his own profession, but he soon
solicited an exchange from medicine to law.
At 16 he was transferred from legal studies at
Venice to a scholarship in the papal college at
Pavia, with the design of fitting him for the
church. Within a year he became accomplished
in music, dancing, and fencing, and learned a
little of civil and canonical law. At the close
of the second year he descended the Ticino and
the Po with a company of wits and men of
pleasure, and arriving at Chioggia was called
upon to preach. His attempt met with brilliant
success, and he returned to Pavia with a repu-
tation for eloquence. In the third year of his
scholarship he composed a satire against the
inhabitants of the town for an insult that they
had offered to the students, and was expelled
from the college. He resumed his studies of
law, and in 1732 was admitted into the corps
of advocates at Venice. He had already com-
posed two comedies, and been manager of the
theatre where they were produced, playing the
principal parts himself; and while waiting for
clients he published a medley of prose and
verse under the title of Esperiema del passa-
to, Vcutrologo delV avenire, &c. He soon after
went to Milan, where his comic opera the
" Venetian Gondolier " was produced and ap-
plauded. In 1734 his tragedy of Belisario was
played at Venice with overwhelming success.
His second tragedy, Rosamonda, failed in the
following year. After furnishing other pieces
with various success to different strolling com-
panies, he married in 1730, and began to write
for the company of Sacchi at Venice with the
design of gradually reforming the Italian thea-
tre. His aims were to substitute human vices
and follies for fantastic and frivolous adven-
tures, to have the plays written in full instead
of being only sketched by the author and in
large part improvised by the actors, and to
banish from the stage the traditional masks and
costumes by which the Harlequin, Birghella,
Pantalon, and other chief actors were distin-
guished. In 1739 he was appointed Genoese
consul at Venice, but after two years he again
resumed his wandering life. At Rimini he
was appointed director of the spectacles and
amusements; he passed four months in Flor-
ence, visited Siena, and was received with en-
thusiasm at Pisa, where he resumed for a short
time the practice of law, at the same time send-
ing to Venice some of his most successful corn-
In 1747 he returned to Venice, deter-
mined to devote himself to the stage ; and at
the close of the first season he had raised the
theatre to which he was attached to a superior-
ity over its rivals, and during the second year
pro, hired 18 new pieces of three acts each.
The excessive labor injured his health, and to

GOLDSCHMIDT

indemnify himself he began to publish his com-
edies, contesting the right to do so with the
manager. He had already written 120 pieces,
when in 1761 he was invited to Paris, where
after writing two years for the Italian theatre
he was attached to the court as instructor of
the daughters of the king in the Italian lan-
guage, and after three years more was awarded
a pension. He continued to produce comedies
at intervals, the most successful of which was
the Bourru lienfaisant. His last literary labor
was writing his memoirs, which appeared first
in French (Paris, 1787), and afterward in
Italian (Venice, 1788) ; they are said by Gibbon
to be more comical than his best comedies.
The most striking characteristic of Goldoni as
an author is his fertility, scarcely surpassed by
that of Calderon and Lope de Vega. The best
of his pieces are in the Venetian dialect, and
his greatest merits are his theatrical skill, and
the liveliness, piquancy, and humor with which
he depicts the manners of all classes of society
in Italy. Schlegel criticises him as deficient in
depth of characterization and in novelty and
richness of invention. Critical biographies of
him have been written by Giovanni (Milan,
1821), Carrer (Venice, 1824), Gavi (Milan,
1826), and Meneghezzi (Milan, 1827). Among
the editions of Goldoni's works may be men-
tioned that of Venice in 44 vols. 8vo, l788-'95,
and that of Lucca in 26 vols., 1809.

GOLDSBOROUGH, Louis Maleshcrbes, an Ameri-
can naval officer, born in Washington in 1805.
He was appointed midshipman in 1812, and
made lieutenant in 1825. During the Seminole
war he commanded a company of mounted
volunteers, and also an armed steamer. He
was made commander in 1841 ; took part in
the Mexican war, and was afterward senior
naval officer of a joint army and navy com-
mission on the Pacific coast. He became cap-
tain in 1855, and from 1853 to 1857 was super-
intendent of the naval academy at Annapolis.
In 1861 he was placed in command of the
naval part of Burnside's expedition to North
Carolina. He was made rear admiral in 1862,
commanded the European squadron in 1865-'7,
and subsequently the Washington navy yard.

GOLDSCHMIDT, Hermann, a German painter
and astronomer, of Jewish descent, born in
Frankfort, June 17, 1802, died at Fontaine-
bleau, Sept. 11, 1866. He studied painting at
Munich under Schnorr and Cornelius, and in
1836 established himself in Paris. Among his
paintings are the "Cumsean Sibyl" (1844),
an "Offering to Venus" (1845), "Cleopatra"
and a "View of Rome" (1849), and the
"Death of Romeo and Juliet" (1857). He
began to devote himself to astronomy in 1847,
and discovered 14 asteroids between 1852 and
1861. He also pointed out more than 10,000
stars that were wanting in the maps of the
academy at Berlin, and in 1863 announced that
he had observed six satellites or companion
stars to Sirius, one of which had been discov-
ered in the previous year by A Ivan Clark of

GOLDSMITH

imbridge, Mass. He made his discoveries
with an ordinary spyglass from his studio in
an attic. The academy of sciences bestowed
on him its grand astronomical prize.

GOLDSMITH, Oliver, an English author, born
in the hamlet of Pallas or Pallasmore, county
Longford, Ireland, Nov. 10, 1728, died in Lon-
don, April 4, 1774. His father was a clergy-
man of the established church, and at the birth
of his son was very poor. Oliver's childhood
gave no special indications of his future great-
ness. An attack of smallpox from which he
suffered while a child left its marks upon his
naturally plain face, which, with a generally
uninviting exterior, made his personal appear-
ance especially unprepossessing. His elder
brother Henry was a student at the university,
and several relatives contributed to send Oli-
ver there; and in 1744 he entered Trinity col-
lege, Dublin, as a sizar or poor scholar. At
that time the position of that class of students
was highly disagreeable. Their dress was pe-
culiar and designed to indicate their poverty,
and they were required to perform many of
the menial services of the institution. It was
with the utmost reluctance that Goldsmith
submitted to these humbling conditions, and
while subject to them he was "moody and de-
sponding." He was often reduced to great
straits, but by borrowing, pawning his books,
and writing ballads he contrived to keep his
place. In 1749 he was admitted to the degree
of bachelor of arts, and took his final leave of the
university. He now returned home, and after
some months had been spent in aimless loiter-
ings was persuaded to prepare for the church.
The two years of his probation were spent at
Lissoy and Ballymahon, among the idlers at
the village inns or in desultory reading. In
due time he presented himself, arrayed in a
fashionable dress, part of which consisted of a
pair of scarlet breeches, to the bishop of Elphin
for ordination, and was rejected. He now ob-
tained employment as tutor in a gentleman's
family, where he remained a few months, when
he quarrelled with the family, and so found
himself once more a free man with more money
than he had ever before possessed. He bought
a horse, and, with 30 in his pocket, sallied
out upon the world. A few weeks after he
returned home as destitute as he had been six
months before. A large part of his money had
been paid for a passage to America, but when
the ship sailed he was enjoying himself with
some friends in the country. It was next de-
termined that he should try the legal profes-
sion, and an uncle affording him the means,
he set out for London with 50, which he lost
in gaming in Dublin ; and after remaining se-
creted for some time, he again returned to his
friends. He was next, toward the end of 1752,
sent to Edinburgh to study medicine. Two
winters were devoted to hearing lectures ; but
near the end of his second term, burdened with
debts and hunted by bailiffs, he escaped from
Edinburgh and fled to the continent. He passed

nearly a year at Leyden, ostensibly hearing lec-
tures, but really devoting most of his time to
pleasure, and then, after selling his books and
borrowing money from his friends, he set out
for Paris, where he attended chemical lectures.
After remaining there, but a little while, he set
out to make the tour of the continent. Taking
parts of Germany and Switzerland in his way,
he passed to Marseilles, and thence into Italy.
How he supported himself in these wanderings
is told by,himself, though his accounts of this
part of his life must be received with caution.
He says in the story of the "Philosophical
Vagabond " in the " Vicar of Wakefield " : "I
had some knowledge of music, with a tolerable
voice, and now turned what was my amuse-
ment into a present means of subsistence

Whenever I approached a peasant's house to-
ward nightfall, I played one of my most merry
tunes, and that procured me not only a lodg-
ing, but subsistence for the next day." In Italy
his musical powers no longer availed him, for,
he said, every peasant was a better musician
than himself; but he had acquired a habit of
living by expedients, and here a new one pre-
sented itself. "In all the foreign universities
and convents," he continues, "there are upon
certain days philosophical theses maintained
against any adventitious disputant, for which,
if the champion maintain with any degree of
dexterity, he can claim a gratuity in money, a
dinner, and a bed for the night. In this man-
ner, therefore, I fought my way toward Eng-
land, walked along from city to city, examined
mankind more nearly, and, if I may so express
it, saw both sides of the picture." At Padua,
where he remained some months, he took his
medical degree. After two years had been spent
in vagrant rambles, early in 1756 he landed at
Dover, friendless and penniless. How he made
his way thence to the metropolis is uncertain ; it
is only known that "in the middle of February
he was wandering without friend or acquaint-
ance, without the knowledge or comfort of one
kind face, in the lonely, terrible London streets."
For two or three years after his coming to
London his history is very obscure. He was
for some time an assistant to a chemist, and at
another he practised medicine in South wark,
acting at the same time as reader and corrector
of the press for the novelist and publisher
Samuel Eichardson. He was also for a while
an usher in a school at Peckham, a business
which he seems to have especially hated. It
was while thus engaged that he accidentally
met with the publisher of the " Monthly Re-
view," by whom his services were engaged in
the preparation of that publication. * His daily
employment was to write for the review under
the direction of his employer. The pages of
the magazine very soon gave evidence of the
acquisition that had been made to its contribu-
tors, and even the writer himself began to hope
that his better days were at hand. But his
path was still a rough one. A daily drudgery
was required of him, alike irksome to his indo-

GOLDSMITH

lence and galling to his pride. These unhappy
ivlati.ms of the parties could not continue long,
and accordingly, at the end of five months, the
engagement was discontinued by mutual con-
sent But this transaction was one of great
importance to Goldsmith, for it brought him
into his appropriate sphere, and discovered to
himself and others the secret of his power.
He accordingly continued to write for a va-
riety of periodicals, but only for immediate re-
sults. At this time he was appointed physi-
cian and surgeon to one of the East India com-
pany's factories on tho coast of Coromandel,
but for some unexplained reason the post was
afterward given to another. He then applied
to the college of surgeons for the post of hos-
pital mate, but, failing to pass the necessary
examination, was rejected. In 1759 he issued
his first acknowledged work, a duodecimo vol-
ume entitled "An Inquiry into the Present
State of Polite Learning in Europe." This
brought him into public notice, and gained him
acquaintance with some of the principal men
of letters of the day. In the same year he en-
gaged in a weekly periodical called " The Bee,"
which met with little encouragement, and lived
only eight weeks. Soon after this he agreed
with the publisher- of the daily " Public Led-
ger " to contribute some articles to that news-
paper, and the famous "Chinese Letters," re-
published a few months after under the title
of " The Citizen of the World," were the re-
sult. These consist of a series of essays on so-
ciety and manners, written in the assumed
character of a Chinese philosopher resident in
London, in a style of great purity, and in a
vein of good-natured satire. The book greatly
improved both the reputation and the finances
of the writer. lie emerged from his garret,
and took more eligible rooms in Fleet street,
where he made acquaintances, among them
Percy, Smollett, and Johnson, with whom he
contracted a warm and lasting friendship.
Burke, who had been at college with him, and
Hogarth were also frequent visitors here ; and
here began an intimacy with Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds which only ended with Goldsmith's life.
He was admitted to membership in the famous
Literary club at its institution, and lived to see
many persons of distinction vainly suing for
the same privilege. Goldsmith now continued
his labors for the booksellers as a means of
tt.-iin>orary subsistence. The principal work
which he produced during this time was the
" History of England, in a Series of Letters
from a Nobleman to his Son," which, though
a mere compilation, was written with a fluency
and grac^ which won for it the praise of being
4k the most finished and elegant summary of
English history in the same compass that had
been or was likely to be written." The im-
pressions received during his tour on the con-
tinent he now gave to the world in the form
of a poem. " The Traveller " was published
near the end of 1764, and worked its way slow-
ly into popularity. " The Vicar of Wakefield "

was written simultaneously with " The Trav-
eller," though not published till 1766. The
manuscript had been sold 18 months before
for 60, to save its author from the bailiffs.
He next commenced writing for the stage, and
in 1767 produced "The Good-Natured Man,"
which was acted at Covent Garden theatre
the next winter. Though its success was only
partial, it added to its author's reputation, and
brought him the substantial reward of 500.
The winter of 1768-'9 was spent in compiling
a Roman history, which was published the next
May, in 2 vols. 8vo. The next year he com-
menced the compilation of the " History of the
Earth and Animated Nature," which was issued
in 1774 in 8 vols. 8vo. In 1770 he published
" The Deserted Village." The popularity of
"The Traveller" had prepared the way for
this poem, and its sale was immense. In 1771
he brought out another work on the " History
of England," which in many parts was mere-
ly a reproduction of the former. Goldsmith's
condition and circumstances had greatly im-
proved with the growth of his literary reputa-
tion ; but his style of living advanced even
more rapidly than his resources, and his pecu-
niary embarrassments were daily growing upon
him. The productions of his pen were in great
demand, and commanded unusually large prices,
but were insufficient to meet his increased ex-
penses. Besides his large compilations and
his anonymous contributions to periodicals, he
was steadily occupied with the preparation of
small volumes, and in original poetical compo-
sition. His second comedy, "She Stoops to
Conquer," was written early in 1772, but not
acted till a year later. It was coldly received
by Colman, the manager of Covent Garden,
but strongly sustained by Goldsmith's literary
and convivial associates, and had a great suc-
cess. A rich reward of fame greeted the au-
thor; and, what was more needed, its pecu-
niary results were highly satisfactory, though
still far short of meeting his pressing necessi-
ties. In this state of his affairs, associated
with the learned, the gay, and the opulent, on
terms altogether honorable, he found his want
of money increasing at a rate which rendered
all hope of relief from his labors entirely des-
perate. Near the last of March, 1774, he re-
turned from a brief visit to the country, and
found himself slightly indisposed by a local
disorder, which was followed by a low fever,
under which the overtaxed powers of his sys-
tem rapidly gave way. He was in the 46th
year of his age when he died. He was interred
in the burial ground of the Temple church, but
no memorial was set up to indicate the place
of his burial, and it is now found impossible to
identify it. His friends erected a monument
to his memory in Westminster abbey, for which
a Latin inscription was written by Dr. John-
son ; and in 1837 a marble slab with an Eng-
lish inscription was placed by the members of
the Inner Temple in the Temple church. Of
his works not already mentioned we may cite

GOLDSTUCKER

GOLOVNIN

the "Memoirs of a Protestant condemned to
the Galleys of France for his Religion," a trans-
lation from the French, and his first known
publication (2 vols. 12mo, London, 1758) ; " Life
of Voltaire," written in 1759 to accompany
Purdon's translation of the Henriade, but pub-
lished separately in a magazine ; " Life of
Richard Nash, Esq., of Bath " (Beau Nash),
(1762); "Edwin and Angelina" (or "The
Hermit "), a poem (1765) ; " A short English
Grammar " (1766) ; " Beauties of English Poe-
try " (2 vols. 12mo, 1767) ; " Poems for Young
Ladies" (1767); "Life of Lord Bolingbroke,"
originally prefixed to a dissertation on the state
of parties, and reprinted separately in 1770 ;
" Life of Thomas Parnell," prefixed to an edition
of his poems (1770) ; " The Haunch of Venison,
a Poem " (1771) ; " The Grecian History " (2
vols. 8vo, 1774) ; " Retaliation, a Poem " (4to,
1774) ; a translation of Scarron's Roman co-
mique (1774) ; and "A Survey of Experimental
Philosophy" (2 vols. 8vo, 1776). His essays
were collected and reprinted during his life-
time. The first collection of his poems ap-
peared in London in 1780 (2 vols. 12mo), and
editions have since been issued by Newell, with
remarks on the actual scene of "The Deserted
Village " (4to, 1811) ; Mitford, in the " Aldine
Poets" (12mo, 1831); Bolton Corney (8vo,
1845) ; E. F. Blanchard, with illustrations by
Birket Foster and others (8vo, 1858), &c. His
miscellaneous works have been edited by S.
Rose, with a memoir by Bishop Percy (4 vols.
8vo, 1801); with a memoir by Washington Irving
(4 vols., Paris, 1825) ; by James Prior, with an
elaborate biography (6 vols. 8vo, London, 1837) ;
with a life and notes (4 vols. 12mo, 1845) ; and
by Peter Cunningham (4 vols. 8vo, 1855). The
last two editions are the most complete and
accurate that have appeared. There are nu-
merous reprints and translations of GoMsmith's
works in France and Germany, and " The Vi-
car of Wakefield " is there as largely used for
teaching English as Caesar's " Commentaries "
for Latin. Biographies of the poet have been
written by Mitford, Prior, and Irving ; but best
of all by John Forster, " Life and Adventures
of Oliver Goldsmith " (1848), enlarged as " Life
and Times of Oliver Goldsmith " (2 vols., 1854),
and abridged (1855). Sketches of his life were
published by Sir Walter Scott in his " Lives
of the Novelists," and Macaulay in the "Ency-
clopaedia Britannica."

GOLDSTUCKER, Tlieodor, a German orientalist,
born in Konigsberg about 1822, died in Lon-
don, March 11, 1872. He studied in Bonn un-
der Wilhelm von Schlegel and Christian Lassen,
and in Paris under Burnouf, -after which he
became private tutor at the university of Ber-
lin, and a friend of Humboldt, who often refers
to him in the " Cosmos." In 1849 he removed
to London, at the suggestion of Prof. Wilson,
whom he assisted in the preparation of a San-
skrit-English dictionary. He became professor
of Sanskrit in University college, London, pres-
ident of the philological society, and member
367 VOL. vm. 7

of the Asiatic society ; and in 1866 founded the
Sanskrit society. He wrote for periodicals and
cyclopaedias, and among his works are a Ger-
man translation of a Hindoo drama (1842) and
a number of English translations of Hindoo
poems, some of them with the original texts.
He left unfinished a Sanskrit-English dictionary
and grammar, and an edition of the Mimansa.

GOLDTHREAD. See COPTIS.

GOLF (Dutch, Tcolf, a club), a Scottish game
played with ball and club. The players num-
ber one or more on each side, and each is pro-
vided with a separate ball. The most skilful
player is he who can land his ball in a given
series of holes with the fewest strokes of his
club. To place the ball in a proper position
for striking off is called "teeing," and the plot
on which the game is played is termed the
" putting ground." The balls now used are
generally made of gutta percha. The game is
of very ancient date in Scotland, since there
exist statutes as early as 1457 prohibiting it,
lest it should interfere with archery.

GOLGOTHA. See CALVARY.

GOLIAD, a S. W. county of Texas, intersected
by the San Antonio river ; area, 900 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 3,628, of whom 876 were colored.
The surface is generally level, and the soil deep
and rich. The bottom lands are particularly
fertile. Stock raising is one of the chief occu-
pations. The San Antonio and Mexican Gulf
railroad passes through the N. E. part. Ara-
nama college, a Presbyterian institution, is at
the county seat. The chief productions in 1870
were 37,640 bushels of Indian corn, and 92
bales of cotton. There were 794 horses, 917
milch cows, 5,657 other cattle, 4,853 sheep, and
1,698 swine. Capital, Goliad.

GOLIUS, Jacobus, a Dutch orientalist, born at
the Hague in 1596, died in Leyden, Sept. 28,
1667. He was educated at Leyden, and ap-
pointed professor of Greek at La Rochelle
when 2-1 years old, but soon returned to Ley-
den. In 1622 he joined a Dutch embassy to
the emperor of Morocco, in order to perfect
himself in Arabic. In 1624 he succeeded Er-
penius as professor of Arabic at the university
of Leyden, from 1625 to 1629 travelled through
the Levant, and after his return was professor
of mathematics. He was a voluminous writer
on oriental philology ; his greatest work is his
Lexicon Arabico-Latinum (fol., Leyden, 1653).

GOLLNOW, a town of Prussia, in the province
of Pomerania, on the Ihna, 14 m. N. E. of Stet-
tin ; pop. in 1871, 7,273. It has two churches,
copper works,, and manufactories of ribbon and
paper. It was formerly a Hanse town.

GOLOVNIN, Vasili, a Russian navigator, born
in the government of Riazan in 1776, died in
St. Petersburg in 1832. He entered the im-
perial navy at an early age, and soon became
noted for skill and courage. In 1807 he was
commissioned by Alexander I. to make a sur-
vey of the Pacific coast of the empire. He
sailed from Cronstadt in command of the sloop
of war Diana, and was occupied till 1811 in

96 GOLTZ

examining the coasts of Karatchatka and Rus-
sian America. In May, 1811, he sailed from
lVtr..i.-iv!.)vsk in Kamtchatka to make a sur-
vey of the southern Kurile islands and the coast
of Tartary. In 1803 a Russian ambassador
named Resanoff had endeavored to open an
intercourse with Japan, but had been repulsed,
as he thought, with insult. In retaliation the
ship of war which conveyed him to and from
Japan plundered and burned a number of Jap-
anese villages on the Kurile islands. These,
outrages excited the indignation of the Japa-
nese, and when Golovnin with his vessel appear-
ed in their waters, he was fired at and peremp-
torily ordered away. Being in want of water
and provisions, he persisted in landing, and
finally went on shore, July 11, with two officers,
four seamen, and a Kurile interpreter, on the
island of Kunashir. The Japanese received him
apparently in a friendly manner, but having
enticed him and his companions into a castle
garrisoned by 300 or 400 soldiers, they seized
the Russians and hurried them over to the large
island of Yesso. They were removed thence
to Hakodadi, and in September to Matsmai,
the capital of Yesso, where they were kept in
cages in a prison erected for them, and sub-
jected to a continual cross-examination which
was very annoying. After several months
they escaped, wandered for a number of days
in the forests, and were recaptured. Finally,
after an imprisonment of 26 months and 26
days, Golovnin and the other Russians were
given up in November, 1813. Golovnin reach-
ed St. Petersburg July 14, 1814, after an ab-
sence of seven years, was promoted, and re-
ceived a pension. He was afterward sent on
an exploring expedition around the world in
command of the sloop of war Kamtchatka,
from which he returned in 1819, and of which
he published a narrative (2 vols. 4to, St. Pe-
tersburg, 1822). He wrote in Russian " Obser-
vations upon the Empire of Japan " (2 vols. 8vo,
1816), and an account of his adventures among
the Japanese, both of which works have been
translated into English under the title of " Me-
moirs of a Captivity in Japan during the years
1811, '12, and '13, with Observations on the
Country and the People" (2d ed., 3 vols. 8vo,
London, 1824). At the time of his death he
was vice admiral and general superintendent
of tin- Russian navy. Golovnin was an accu-
rate observer, and his narrative is one of the
most interesting of the works upon Japan. He
wrote also a book containing narratives of ship-
wrecks and disasters at sea, which appeared
in a complete edition of his works published
by his son (5 vols., 1864).

GOLTZ, Bogumil, a (ierman author, born in
Warsaw, March 20, 1801, died in Thorn, Nov.
1 1. 1 ^7i. lie was of German parentage, studied
_'vmii;isiimi ot' Konigsberg and at the
f Breslau, and engaged in scientific
'tu iv. This proving unsuccessful, he de-
li inisrlf from 1830 to literary pursuits
settling at Thorn in 1847. His works include

GONAIVES

Der MenscJi und die Leute (Berlin, 1858) ; Die
Deutschen (3 vols., 1860) ; Feigeribldtter (3 vols.,
1861-'2) ; Zur Charakteri&tik und Naturge-
schichte der Frauen (2d ed., 1863) ; Typen der
Geselhchaft (3d ed., 1864) ; Die Bildung und
die Gebildeten (2 vols., 1864) ; Vorlemngen
(2 vols., 1869) ; and Die WeltklugJieit und Le-
Ibensweisheit mit ihren correspondirenden Stu-
dien (2 vols., 1869).

GOMBO. See GUMBO.

GOMER, the first named and probably the
eldest of the seven sons of Japheth (Gen. x. 2,
3). In Ezek. xxxviii. 6, Gomer designates a
people who are named in connection with Gog
and Magog, apparently belonging to the Scy-
thian family. This people is identified with
the ancient Cimmerii, and by some also with
the Cimbri and the more modern Celts. The
latter view finds an early support in Josephus,
who renders Gomer by Galatai, that is, Gauls
or Celts. (See CIMBRI, and CIMMERII.)

GOMEZ, Estevan, a Portuguese explorer, born
in the latter part of the 15th century, died in
Toledo in October, 1525. He accompanied Ma-
gellan on his celebrated voyage in 1519, as pilot
of the ship San Antonio. When the fleet entered
the strait which now bears Magellan's name,
the San Antonio was sent to explore a channel
further south. Gomez, who was dissatisfied
with his position, induced the crew to mutiny,
and putting the captain in irons returned with
the ship to Spain, where he arrived in March,
1521. After a short detention for this act, he
was set at liberty, and in 1524 sailed from Co-
runna to search for a northwest passage to the
Moluccas. He struck the American coast at
New York bay, made out the direction of the
Hudson river, and ran north as far as the Pe-
nobscot. Contrary to the royal orders, he car-
ried off some of the natives as slaves, probably
from tb.B Kennebec, and returned to Spain,
where esclavos (slaves) being mistaken for cla-
ws (cloves), it was reported to the king that
Gomezjiad actually reached the Spice islands.

GO wilt, a N. county of Hungary, bordering
on the counties of Lipto, Zips, Torna, Borsod,
Heves, N6grad, and Zolyom ; area, 547 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1869, 103,639, chiefly Magyars and
Slovaks, the majority of whom are Protestants.
The surface is mostly mountainous, branches
of the Carpathians extending into the county.
It is traversed in all directions by navigable
rivers, the most important of which are the
Gran, the Rima, and the Sajo. The chief occu-
pations are mining and cattle breeding. Cap-
ital, Rima-Szombath ; largest town, Rosenati.

GOMORRAH, one of the five cities of the
plain or valley of Siddim, destroyed on ac-
count of the wickedness of its inhabitants.
(See DEAD SEA.)

GONAIVES, a seaport town of Hayti, on the
W. shore of a bay of the same name, 67 m. N.
by W. of Port-au-Prince ; pop. about 4,000.
The streets are wide, but irregular ; the houses
badly constructed, and destitute of shade ; and
the church and military and naval hospitals are

GONDAR

GONDS

the only public buildings of note. The harbor
is commodious, and the view on the bay de-
lightful. There are mineral springs near, and
excellent public baths in the town. Coffee is
the chief export ; cotton and indigo are raised,
but not largely exported, as formerly. Haytian
independence was declared here in 1803.

GONDAR, a town of Abyssinia, the seat of
the dbuna, or archbishop of the Abyssinian
church, and formerly the residence of the negus
or king, about 25 m. N. of Lake Tzana or Dem-
bea ; lat. 12 35' N., Ion. 37 50' E. ; pop. about
7,000. It is built on a hill 1,000 ft. above the
lake, which is itself upward of 6,000 ft. above
the sea. The town consists of a number of
scattered groups of houses, occupying an area
of about 11 m. in circumference. The Debra
Mrkan, " hill of light," is the principal quarter,
situated S. W. of the ruins of a palace of the
former Abyssinian kings, built in the 16th
century by the Portuguese. On the east of
the town flows the Magetzeh, on the west the
Gaha, which after uniting in one stream empty
into Lake Tzana. The houses, of which but
few are two stories high, are built of rough
blocks of volcanic stone. There are 44 church-
es and 1,200 clergy. The churches are round,
and have conical thatched roofs projecting
beyond the walls, with rows of wooden pillars
for support, forming a circular alley in which
the women remain while the men worship
within. The Jews and Mohammedans have
their own temples, and are allowed considera-
ble religious liberty. There are manufactures
of cotton goods, ornaments, jewelry, parch-
ment, saddles, parasols, and braided ware. The
currency consists partly of European gold and
silver coin, and partly of lumps of rock salt.
Gondar was during the ,middle ages, and as
late as the 18th century, the capital of the
Abyssinian kingdom, and contained more than
50,000 inhabitants. It became afterward the
capital of the independent state of Amhara,
which Theodore subdued in 1853, making
Gondar once more the capital of Abyssinia,
which it continued to be till his death in 1868.

GOiYDOKORO, a town in the territory of the
Bari negroes, on the White Nile, which is here
called Yubiri or Kidi, lat. 4 54' N., Ion. 31
46' E. It is a station of the ivory traders, who
occupy it for two months each year, after
which it is deserted. It has only a few miser-
able huts; the country around it is a desert,
and the climate unhealthy. A Catholic mission
was established there in 1853 by Knoblecher,
but was discontinued in 1858. In 1873 Sir
Samuel Baker visited it, broke up the slave
trade, and proclaimed its incorporation with
the dominions of the khedive of Egypt.

GONDOLA, a light and swift kind of boat,
used on the canals of Venice and supplying
the place of carriages. They are usually 25 or
30 ft. long, 5 ft. wide in the middle, and sharp
at both ends, which are curved upward, the
bow being ornamented with a high serrated
iron plate something like the letter S in form.

Near the middle is a small cabin for the use
of passengers. Formerly immense sums were
sometimes expended by the great nobles on the
decoration of these cabins ; and this extrava-
gance was carried so far that it was found neces-
sary to pass a law compelling uniformity in style,
no distinction of ornament or color being per-
mitted except in the gondolas of foreign am-
bassadors and in that of the patriarch, who, if

Gondola.

a cardinal, was allowed to use red silk or wool
in the decoration of his cabin. Since that
time all have been painted black and their
cabins hung with black cloth. They are pro-
pelled sometimes by a single gondolier, stand-
ing at the stern, and sometimes by two, one at
the stern and one at the bow. At the begin-
ning of this century there are said to have
been more than 6,000 gondolas in Venice, and
the gondoliers formed an important body, no-
ted for their wit and humor as well as for
their skill with the oars. They were celebra-
ted also for their singing and their recitations
of passages from Tasso and Ariosto, but their
songs are now seldom heard.

GONDS, an aboriginal tribe inhabiting the
highlands of the Central Provinces of India,
whence that region derives the name of Gond-
wana or Gundwana. The earliest authentic
records represent them as already affected by
intermarriage and association with the Hin-
doos, and within the historic period their
original characteristics have been still further
modified by the same influences. The true
Gonds, however, appear to be allied to the
Dravidian races of southern India. They are
a comparatively rude people, sturdy, restless,
hardy, and fearless. The skin of the Gond is
brown, and his hair is straight and black. He
seldom exceeds 5 ft. 2 in. in height. The entire
number of Gonds now dwelling in the hill
tracts of central India is estimated at over
800,000. Their condition varies greatly in
different localities. Near the Hindoo boun-
daries large numbers of them are engaged as
agricultural laborers; the inhabitants of the
interior are more secluded, wild, and indepen-
dent. The Eaj Gonds, in the eastern part of
Gondwana, have sprung from the intermixture
of the aborigines and Rajpoots. The Gonds
possess no written language; they are gene-
rally somewhat familiar with Hindostanee, but

GONGORA Y ARGOTE

usually MOTCTM among themselves in their
.rigue. Their religion is a degraded sort
of pantheism. While polygamy is not pro-
hibited, it is practically of rare occurrence, as
a wife cannot be obtained without a payment,
i-itluT in money or services, to her family.
The women engage in every sort of labor ex-
cept that of the chase, in which the men are
t xm-rnely expert. The chief hunters of the
villages now use matchlocks in place of the
bow and arrow, and the men very generally
carry little axes, which they throw with such
skill" and precision as to kill birds and animals
at a considerable distance. These axes are in
fact the principal agricultural implement of
the Gonds, as their simple system of cultiva-
tion consists merely in felling timber, burning
it, and planting grain in the ashes. The ad-
vance of the Gonds in civilization appears to
be proportional to the admixture of the Hindoo
element with the aboriginal race. Where this
is small, as in the interior of the highlands, the
scanty means of the people for subsistence, and
the constant exposure to malaria and disease,
operate most powerfully against any increase
of prosperity. Their general condition as a
people, however, seems to be gradually im-
proving under British rule.

GONGORA T ARGOTE, Luis de, a Spanish poet,
born in Cordova, Jan. 11, 1561, died there,
May 23, 1627. He was the son of a distin-
guished lawyer, and was educated at Sala-
manca for his father's profession, but aban-
doned it for poetry. He lived in his native
city poor and obscure till the age of 43, when,
having entered holy orders, he was made titu-
lar chaplain to Philip III.; but after 11 years
of neglect he returned to Cordova in broken
health. His early poetry, consisting of ballads
and odes, is remarkable for vigor and simplicity,
but later in life he adopted an affected, obscure,
and highly metaphorical style, which for a time
became fashionable in Spain, and even in
France, and was imitated by a large school of
succeeding poets. It is known as the estilo
ml to. or cultivated style, and one of its most
marked features was the use of obsolete and
i words and of new and forced construc-
tions. So unintelligible were the poems of
Gongora that even in his own lifetime com-
mentaries were written to explain them. His
were published in 1636-'46, with a com-
mentary 1,500 pages long by Ooronel, a poet of
the saroeschool (3 vols. 4to, Madrid).

MmiUTKS, a group of fossil cephalopods,

a nautilus-like shell, but with the siphun-

<al as in the ammonites ; the septa, or

>ns between the chambers, have one or

more flexures at the margin. These flexures

become more and more complex, from the

species of the Hamilton (middle Devonian)

period, when they first appear, to those of the

carbon i ft- n MIS p.-ri...!, \vlu-n they disappear,

'plaivd in mesozoic time by the cera-

tites and ammonites, to which they are nearlv

related. The 0. Marcellentis (Van.), from the

GONSALVO DE CORDOVA

Marcellus shales of New York, has been found
a foot in diameter. Clymenia, an allied genus,

Goniatites (G. retorsus).

had the siphuncle ventral, and the septa with-
out a distinct dorsal lobe on the median line.

GONIOMETER (Gr. ywvfa, an angle, and fitrpov,
a measure), an instrument for measuring the
angles of crystals. Two kinds of goniometers
are in use, one designed to measure the angles
by direct application of the instrument to the
faces of the crystal, and the other by the arc
through which the crystal must be turned for
two adjoining faces to reflect in succession the
same object to the eye. The first and simplest
form is the common or Haiiy's goniometer.
It is a graduated semicircular arc with a fixed
and a movable radius, between which the crys-
tal is placed, each radius being made to coin-
cide with the plane of one of its faces. The
angle of their opening may then be read off on
the arc. This instrument cannot be depended
upon for nicety of measurement. The reflect-
ing goniometer was invented by Dr. Wollaston,
and several modified forms of it have been in-
troduced by others. It requires for its use
crystals with clear faces, that can distinctly re-
flect the image of a dark line across a clear light,
as the bar of a window sash. The instrument
is made with great precision, and its graduated
arc is furnished with a vernier, by which the
degrees are divided into minutes. The French
goniometer of Adelman combines the principles
of both the common and reflecting instruments,
and is much less expensive than Wollaston's.

GONSALVO DE CORDOVA, or Gonzalo Hernandez
de Cordova, called el Gran Capitan (the Great
Captain), a Spanish general, born at Montilla,
near Cordova, March 16, 1453, died in Granada,
Dec. 2, 1515. His family name was Aguilar,
but his ancestors rendered such services at the
conquest of Cordova that St. Ferdinand per-
mitted them to assume the name of that city.
At the court of Ferdinand and Isabella Gon-
salvo attracted attention by his beauty and
knightly skill and the magnificence of his liv-
ing. He distinguished himself at Albuera da-
ring the war with Portugal (1479), but gained
the greatest renown in the war with the Moors,
which began in 1481 and ended at the begin-
ning of 1492. In conjunction with the king's

GONSALVO DE CORDOVA

GONZAGA

secretary, he conducted the secret negotiation
with the Moorish monarch, Abdallah or Boab-
dil, which resulted in the capitulation of Gra-
nada. In 1495 he was sent with a small squad-
ron against the French who had invaded the
kingdom of Naples. He landed at Messina,
and thence crossed over to the mainland. In
his first battle at Seminara, fought against his
advice, he was defeated, but his desperate valor
saved the army from destruction and King
Ferdinand from capture. His subsequent oper-
ations were so successful that by the end of
1496 the French, who a year before had pos-
sessed the whole kingdom, yielded up their last
fortress, and withdrew to their own country.
At the request of the pope, he then laid siege to
Ostia, which was held by a formidable band of
freebooters, and carried it by storm. On his
return to Naples the king gave him the title
of duke of St. Angelo, with an estate contain-
ing 3,000 vassals. In the beginning of 1500 he
was called into the field to suppress a sudden
insurrection of the Moors of the Alpujarras.
In May of the same year he sailed from Malaga
in command of an army of 4,600 men, designed
to protect Naples, which the French were pre-
paring to invade a second time. In Septem-
ber, in conjunction with a Venetian fleet, he
laid siege to the almost impregnable fortress
of St. George in Cephalonia, and the place was
carried by assault in January, 1501. Gonsalvo
sailed thence to Sicily, where he was waited on
by an embassy from the Venetian senate bring-
ing him magnificent presents. Meanwhile, by
a secret treaty, Louis XII. of France and Fer-
dinand of Spain had agreed to divide Naples
between them. Gonsalvo was appointed lieu-
tenant general of the Spanish portion, which he
overran and conquered in less than a month,
except Taranto, which capitulated after a long
siege, March 1, 1502. The French and Span-
iards speedily quarrelled about their bounda-
ries in Naples, and in July their dispute broke
into open hostilities. Gonsalvo, whose force
was much inferior to that of the French, threw
himself into the fortified seaport of Barletta on
the Adriatic. Here, from July, 1502, to April,
1503, he sustained one of the most memor-
able sieges in history, conducted by the duke
of Nemours and the chevalier Bayard. Hav-
ing at length received by sea a small reenforce-
ment, the Great Captain on April 28 broke
forth from Barletta, gave battle to the French,
and defeated them, with the slaughter of half
their army, the loss of all their artillery and
baggage, and most of their colors. This victory
decided the war, and in a few weeks all the
fortresses held by the French were taken or
surrendered, with the exception of Gaeta, into
which the remnant of the French army had
thrown themselves. A long siege ensued,
which gave time to Louis XII. to despatch into
Italy one of the finest armies that France had
ever sent into the field. Gonsalvo met the
French on the Garigliano, near Gaeta, defeated
them in several encounters, and on Dec. 29,

1503, routed them totally with great slaughter.
This defeat put an end to the French attempt
to conquer Naples. Gaeta surrendered Jan. 1,

1504, and by a treaty, Feb. 11, peace was re-
stored between France and Spain, the latter
power retaining Naples. Gonsalvo remained
in Naples, ruling the kingdom as viceroy till
1507, when Ferdinand, suspecting that he
meant to make himself independent, recalled
him to Spain. Soon after his arrival there he
retired to his estates near Loja, where he lived
in -great magnificence. In 1512 the French
again made head in Italy, and Ferdinand called
upon Gonsalvo to take command of an army
for the protection of Naples ; and when it be-
came known that he was to command, nearly
all the nobles of Spain volunteered. This en-
thusiasm so augmented Ferdinand's distrust
that he countermanded his orders, and directed
Gonsalvo to disband his levies. Three years
later Gonsalvo was attacked by a quartan
fever, and removed to his palace in Granada,
in hopes that the climate of that city would
benefit his health ; but he died shortly after
his arrival there. His remains were laid in a
sumptuous mausoleum in a chapel of the church
of St. Ger6nimo.

GONZAGA, a town of Italy, in the province
and 15 m. S. of the city of Mantua ; pop. about
15,000. It was formerly fortified, and is cele-
brated for its old castle, the cradle of the Gon-
zaga family. Silk is manufactured here.

GONZAGi, an ancient Italian family which
ruled over Mantua from 1328 to 1707. Its
founder was Ludovico I. (died in 1360), and his
successors branched off into several lines, promi-
nent among which were those of the dukes of
Nevers and of Guastalla. Some of the rulers
of Mantua were distinguished patrons of letters
and art, and made their court one of the most
brilliant in Italy. They intermarried with the
Medici and the Estes, and a number of the
ladies, especially Cecilia (born about 1424) and
Lucrezia (died 1576), were renowned for learn-
ing. Besides Ludovico III. (1444-'78), sur-
named the Turk for fighting the Mussulmans,
there were other gallant warriors in the family,
and particularly Francesco II. (1484-1519)
and Vincenzo I. (1587-1611) ; and celebrated
as a cardinal from 1561 till his death (1566)
was Francesco Gonzaga. On the extinction
of the elder branch after the death of Vincenzo
II. (1627), a war for the succession to the do-
minion of Mantua and other territories result-
ed in favor of Charles I., duke of Nevers. His
daughter Maria became queen of Poland, and
another daughter, Anna, wife of the count
palatine Edward. The beauty and wit of the
latter made her conspicuous in Paris at the
court of Anne of Austria, and her memoirs
were published in 1686. Charles IV., the last
duke of Mantua (died in 1708), was dispos-
sessed in 1707 by Austria for having sided with
France in the war of the Spanish succession,
Savoy taking Montferrat. A collateral branch
of the family still exists, the head of which

100

GONZAGA

(1874) is the marquis Guerrieri-Gonzaga, the
largest land owner in the district of Gonzaga.

A pretender to the dominion over Mantua

appeared in 1841, in a person styling him-
self Alessandro di Gonzaga, Prince Castiglione.
He was a soldier of fortune, born in Dresden
in 1799, and is described by some authorities
as a Pole of the name of Murzynowski, and
by others as a son of a Russian officer of Ital-
ian origin, and again as a son or brother of
a French officer named Gonzague ; and he was
successively engaged in the French, Russian,
and Spanish armies, and in the Polish revo-
lution of 1830-'31. In the latter part of his
life he was arrested in Paris for selling decora-
tions, and on being released after two years
by Louis Napoleon, he went to London and
died in 1869. He published Odes patriotiques,
and several pamphlets and novels.

GONZAGA, Lnlgi (Sx. ALOYSIUS), a saint of the
Roman Catholic church, born in the castle of
Castiglione, near Brescia, March 9, 1568, died
in Rome, June 21, 1591. He was educated at
the courts of Florence, Mantua, and Spain, en-
tered the society of Jesus in 1585, renouncing
the marquisate of Castiglione in favor of his
brother, and went in 1591 by order of the pope
to settle the rival claims of the duke of Mantua
and of his own brother to the lands of Solferino.
Coming back to Rome, he found the city de-
vastated by the plague, devoted himself to the
sick, and was stricken down by the epidemic.
He was beatified by Gregory XV. in 1621, and
canonized in 1726 by Benedict XIII., who de-
clared him the patron saint of colleges. His
feast is celebrated on June 21. His life has
been written in Italian by the Jesuit Cepari,
and in French by Dorlfians.

GONZAGA, Thomas Antonio Costa de, a Brazilian
poet, called the Portuguese Anacreon, born in
Porto in 1747, died in Mozambique in 1793.
After studying in the university of Coimbra,
Portugal, he returned in 1768 to Brazil to enter
on an official career. In 1788, when he was
about to be married, he became involved in a
conspiracy, and was condemned to perpetual
exile in an island on the coast of eastern Africa,
which was commuted to ten years' banishment
to Mozambique. He was attacked by fever
soon after reaching Africa, from which he re-
covered only to fall into madness. The most
interesting of his poems were composed du-
ring his captivity. They are popular alike in
Hr.i/il and Portugal, and have been often re-
printed. In grace, tenderness, purity of style,
and harmony of verse, he ranks among the
tir>t Portuguese poets.

GONZALES, a S. county of Texas, intersected
by the Guadalupe river; area, 1,026 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 8,951, of whom 3,670 were col-
ored. It has an undulating surface, about one
third of which is covered with ash, oak, and
other timber. The soil is fertile, consisting
hi. lly of a black loam. There are rich de-
pesits of coal and iron. Guadalupe college is
at the county seat. The chief productions in

GOODALL

1870 were 203,591 bushels of Indian corn, 28,-
932 of sweet potatoes, and 2,174 bales of cot-
ton. There were 8,977 horses, 8,833 milch
cows, 77,567 other cattle, 5,790 sheep, and 22,-
153 swine. Capital, Gonzales.

GOOCHLAND, an E. county of Virginia, bound-
ed S. by James river ; area, 260 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 10,313 of whom 6,601 were colored.
The surface is undulating, and the soil, watered
by numerous creeks, was formerly very fertile.
Bituminous coal is found in abundance, and a
little gold has been discovered. It is traversed
by the James River canal. The chief produc-
tions in 1870 were 76,177 bushels of wheat,
101,402 of Indian corn, 72,630 of oats, and
405,215 Ibs. of tobacco. There were 670
horses, 2,727 cattle, 3,231 swine, and 16 flour
mills. Capital, Goochland.

GOOD, John Mason, an English physician and
author, born at Epping, Essex, May 25, 1764,
died in January, 1827. He began his med-
ical education as apprentice to a surgeon at
Gosport, afterward studied at Guy's hospital,
and in 1784 commenced practice as a surgeon
at Sudbury. He removed to London in 1793,
and gained in time a large professional con-
nection. In 1810 he delivered a course of
lectures at the Surrey institute, which were
afterward published under the title of "The
Book df Nature." In 1812 he edited the
"Letters of Junius," comprising not only the
acknowledged productions of that .writer, but
also more than 100 letters and papers of
doubtful authenticity. He was an accomplish-
ed linguist, and contributed largely to peri-
odicals. His principal works are : " Maria,
an Elegiac Ode" (1786); "Diseases of Pris-
ons and Poorhouses" (1795); "History of
Medicine as far as it relates to the Profession
of an Apothecary " (1795) ; " Parish Work-
houses" (1798, 1805); "Song of Songs, or
Sacred Idyls, translated from the Hebrew,
with Notes" (1803); "Triumph of Britain,
an Ode" (1803); "Memoirs of Alexander
Geddes" (1803); "The Nature of Things,"
a translation from Lucretius, with notes (2
vols. 4to, 1805-7) ; " Essay on Medical Tech-
nology " (1810) ; " The Book of Job, literally
translated from the Hebrew," with notes and
a dissertation (1812); "Physiological System
of Nosology" (1817); "Pantalogia, or En-
cyclopaedia comprising a General Dictionary
of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature,"
in conjunction with Olinthus Gregory and
Newton Bosworth, published periodically, and
completed in 12 vols. in 1813; "The Study
of Medicine " (4 vols., 1822) ; and " The Book
of Nature " (3 vols., 1826). His life was writ-
ten by Dr. Gregory (London, 1828).

GOODALL. I. Edward, an English engraver,
born in Leeds in September, 1795, died April
11, 1870. He is known by his engravings
from Turner's pictures, in which the artist's
characteristics are reproduced with great fidel-
ity. Of his smaller works, the illustrations in
Rogers's " Italy " are best known. His large

GOOD FRIDAY

GOODRICH

101

e engravings of Turner's "Tivoli," "Co-
logne," and " Caligula's Bridge " are splendid
ecimens of the art. II. Frederick, a painter,
>n of the preceding, born in London, Sept.
17, 1822. At 14 years of age he received a
jrize from the society of arts for a drawing
of Lambeth palace, and at 16 another for his
first oil painting. He subsequently became
a frequent exhibitor at the royal academy, of
which he was elected an associate in 1852, and
member in 1863. Several of his works, such
"L' Allegro "and "The Soldier's Dream,"
ve been engraved. His " Tired Soldier " and
" Village Festival " are in the Vernon gallery.
GOOD FRIDAY, the anniversary of Christ's
death. It is only in England that the term
"good" is applied to this feast. Its ancient
tie was Holy Friday, or the Friday in Holy
eek. The Saxons named it " Long Friday,"
th because of its long religious services and
its rigorous and protracted fast. The Ger-
s term it sometimes Stiller Freitag, be-
se bells and organs are silent on that day,
d sometimes Char-Freitag, from an old word
eaning penitence. As it commemorates the
on which Christ, the true paschal lamb,
as slain, it was designated as "the pasch"
some of the ancient eastern churches ; but
e appellation of " pasch of the crucifixion,"
>r " the sorrowful pasch," was soon universaliy
pplied to it by the Greeks, and it is still so
lied in the East and in several countries of
western Europe. The early Christian writers
ntion it as a day of rigorous fasting and
liar solemnity. The ritual observed both
the Greek and Latin churches has special
reference to the circumstances of Christ's
eath and entombment. Hence in all large
urches an altar in a separate chapel is deco-
" with all possible magnificence, and called
the sepulchre." Thither the consecrated
ost, or "body of the Lord," is borne in sol-
procession on Holy Thursday, and con*-
nues to be visited throughout the day by
wds of worshippers. On Good Friday morn-
g, after the chanting of the prophecies fore-
lling Christ's death and of the recital of his
assion from the Gospel of St. John, takes
lace the "adoration" or kissing of the cross,
crucifix is placed on the steps before the
igh altar, and while the choir sings the im-
roperia, or reproaches of the Messiah to
e people who crucified him, the officiating
slergy and their attendants approach bare-
boted, each one making three successive pros-
.tions before they kiss the feet of the sacred
age. It is then presented by the celebrant
the sanctuary railing to the veneration of
e people. In England, before the reforma-
tion, this ceremony was called the creeping
the cross, as appears from a proclamation of
Henry VIII. : " On Good Friday it shall be de-
clared ho we creepy ng of the crosse signify eth
humblynge of ourselfe to Christe before the
, and the kissynge of it a memorie of our
.emption made upon the crosse." After

this ceremony the consecrated host is brought
in procession from "the sepulchre" to the
high altar, where it is incensed, offered to the
adoration of all present, and consumed by the
celebrant. This is called the "mass of the
presanctified " or preconsecrated bread, as the
eucharistic elements are not consecrated on
that day. In honor of the redemption accom-
plished on Good Friday, it was customary in
the early church to release public penitents
from their probation and the excommunicated
from their ban. The first Christian emperors,
not satisfied with closing the law courts during
Holy and Easter weeks, honored the anni-
versary of salvation by liberating from prison
and recalling from exile all but the worst crimi-
nals ; and also, to encourage the practice then
becoming general of manumitting slaves in re-
membrance of Christ's death, by allowing the
courts and magistrates to perfect the instru-
ments necessary for this purpose. These cus-
toms, sanctioned by a decree of Valentinian
I. in 367, were embodied by Justinian in his
code. The same spirit afterward pervaded
the manners and legislation of western peo-
ples. In England and Ireland Good Friday
is a legal holiday as well as a fast day. The
practice of breakfasting on hot cross buns on
this day is still kept up in the English cities,
and is also common in the United States. In
the north of England it is customary to eat
herb puddings in which a principal ingredient
is the "passion dock," which in fructification
produces fancied representations of the cross,
nails, hammer, &c. The English kings were
wont in ancient times to hallow rings on Good
Friday, to preserve the wearers from epilepsy.
The Protestant Episcopal, Lutheran, and Re-
formed churches, as well as many Methodists,
observe the day by fasting and special services.

GOOD HOPE, Cape of. See CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

GOODHUE, a S. E. county of Minnesota, bor-
dering on the Mississippi, separated from Wis-
consin by Lake Pepin, and watered by Cannon
river ; area, about 650 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
22,618. The surface is moderately uneven,
and the soil fertile. It is traversed by the
river division of the Milwaukee and St. Paul
railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were
1,815,603 bushels of wheat, 209,790 of Indian
corn, 825,301 of oats, 81,878 of barley, 85,390
of potatoes, 470,201 Ibs. of butter, and 31,-
468 tons of hay. There were 6,766 horses,
6,485 milch cows, 9,021 other cattle, 6,241
sheep, and 6,671 swine; 2 manufactories of
agricultural implements, 5 of carriages, 4 of
barrels, 3 of furniture, 8 of saddles and har-
ness, 5 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, 1
of woollen goods, 4 saw mills, 8 flour mills,
and 5 breweries. Capital, Red Wing.

GOODRICH. I. Eliznr, an American clergy-
man, born in Wethersfield, Conn., Oct. 26,
1734, died in Norfolk, Conn., Nov. 21, 1797.
He graduated at Yale college in 1752, and was
tutor there in 1755. In the busiest scenes of
his subsequent ministry he rarely failed to cal-

LOS

GOODRICH

oulate the eclipses of each successive year;
un.1 when tl.t- aurora borealis of 1780 made its
appearance, he gave one of the fullest and most
a'-' unite accounts of it ever published, with
exact drawings of the auroral arch. In 1756
be was ordained minister of the Congregation-
al r iiun-h in Durham, Conn., in which office
he continued till his death. He was an active
friend of the revolution, preaching the right
of resistance, and urging his people to lay
down their property and lives in the conflict.
He published several sermons, and left be-
hind him some hundreds of essays on difficult
passages of Scripture. II. Channeey iUen, an
American scholar, grandson of the preceding,
born in New Haven, Conn., Oct. 23, 1790, died
there, Feb. 25, 1860. He graduated at Yale
college in 1810, and was tutor there from 1812
to 1814. After a course of theological study
he became pastor of a Congregational church
in Middletown, Conn. In 1817 he was elected
professor of rhetoric and oratory in Yale col-
lege, and continued in that office till 1839,
when he was transferred to the professorship
of pastoral theology. He published in 1814 a
Greek grammar, translated chiefly from Ha-
ehenherg; this he subsequently revised and
enlarged, and published under his own name.
In 1832 he published "Latin Lessons" and
"Greek Lessons," in which the precepts of
grammar are throughout accompanied by prac-
tical exercises. During several years he ed-
ited the "Quarterly Christian Spectator." In
1828 Noah Webster, his father-in-law, intrust-
ed to him the superintendence of the octavo
abridgment of his large dictionary, and he
published in 1847 greatly enlarged and im-
proved editions of the 4to and 8vo dictionaries.
In 1856 he published in 8vo the new universi-
ty edition of Webster's dictionary, and in 1859
a new issue of the unabridged 4to dictionary.
At the time of his death he was engaged in a
thorough revision of the dictionary, which
was published in 1864. III. Samuel Griswold,
better known under the assumed name of Pe-
ter Parley, an American author, nephew of
the preceding, born in Ridgefield, Conn., Aug.
1 '.'. 1 793, died in New York, May 9, 1860. He
engaged in the publishing business in Hart-
imd, after visiting Europe in 1824, es-
tah limbed himself as & publisher in Boston,
and edited from 1828 to 1842 the "Token," an
illuM rated annual, to which he contributed
several tales and poems. His popular Peter
Parley series of juvenile books was begun
soon after his removal to Boston, and gradually
<l to more than 100 volumes, compri-
ographies, histories, travels, stories, and
is illustrations of the arts and sciences.
The success of these works caused several
spurious books to appear under his pseudo-
nyme. In 1*41 he established " Merry's Mu-
"s MatTa/ine." 1 a juvenile pert-
, which h- edited till 1854. In 1851 he

was appointed United States consul at Paris,
and while there published in French Les fitats

GOOD WILL

Unis, aperfu statistigue, Jiistorique, geogra-
phique, industriel et social" (1852). He was
also the author of " The Outcast, and other Po-
ems " (1837 ; illustrated ed., 1851) ; " Fireside
Education" (1841); "Sketches from a Stu-
dent's Window;" "Recollections of a Life-
tune " (1857) ; and " Illustrated Natural History
of the Animal Kingdom " (1859). IV. Frank
Boot, an American author, son of the preceding,
born in Boston, Dec. 14, 1826. He graduated
at Harvard college in 1845, and was for seve-
ral years the Paris correspondent of the " New
York Times," writing under the signature of
" Dick Tinto." A volume made up from his
letters was published in 1854, entitled " Tri-col-
ored Sketches of Paris." He has also pub-
lished " The Court of Napoleon " (1857), "Man
upon the Sea " (1858), and " Women pf Beauty
and Heroism " (1859).

.GOOD WILL, the interest or advantage sup-
posed to be attached to a certain established
business. Nothing can be more uncertain or
intangible than this ; and it was for some time
a question whether the law would recognize it
as of pecuniary value. But it is clear that it
may have, under some circumstances, a very
great pecuniary value. If a partnership be
established in a certain place, and has there
done business for a long time, in a way which
has given general satisfaction and attracted a
wide and to all appearance a permanent patron-
age or custom, whether this be by the excel-
lence and variety of its stock of goods, its hon-
esty and exactness, or its supposed wealth, this
partnership has a pecuniary interest in this
good will, in addition to the amount of its mere
stock and capital. But, while as between part-
ners this good will is generally considered to
have a value, and will be recognized and pro-
vided for by courts of equity in settling any dis-
putes between them, and in general passes by
survivorship to the remaining partners when
one or more die, yet the rules of law which en-
ter into the adjustment of good will can hardly
be considered as settled. In case of insolvency,
it is however clear that a court having juris-
diction of the case will recognize it as valuable,
and will take care that no partner behave in
such a way as to dimmish its value, and will
make due orders for reducing it by sale or
otherwise into the form of available assets.
But when the good will of a business passes by
the insolvency of the trader into the hands of
assignees, the trader is no longer under any
obligations to continue his exertions to increase
or sustain its value, although he must dp
nothing to injure it. The good will of a busi-
ness is often bought and sold, and made the
subject of arrangement in various ways ; and it
I would undoubtedly be regarded as a sufficient
I consideration for a promise to pay money. It
j has been held that the sale of a business, with
the stock and " good will," carried with it, by
implication, a promise not to enter upon a sim-
ilar business so near to the old stand as to in-
terfere materially with the purchaser. This

GOODWIN SANDS

GOOKIN

103

JUlg

ould seem to be equitable, and ought to be

irovided for in any sale or transfer of the good

will. We doubt, however, whether our courts

ould now infer such an agreement from a
transfer of the good will, in the absence
any express stipulation on the subject.

GOODWIN SANDS, dangerous sand banks off
E. coast of Kent, England, separated from
mainland by the. roadstead called the
Downs, which has an average width of about
5 m. The banks, which are loose and shift-
ing, are divided by a narrow channel called
the Swash, navigable for small boats. The
northern portion is about 3 m. long, and the
southern about 10 m., the average width of
each being 2^ m. At low water many parts
are dry and firm, but with the coming of the
tide the sand becomes saturated and dangerous.
Lightships are stationed at their N. and S. ex-
mities and N. of the Swash, on which bells
kept ringing in hazy weather. Many fatal

ipwrecks have taken place on these sands,
which are full of danger to vessels passing into
the Thames or the North sea. They are said
to have once formed a part of the mainland of
Kent, and to have belonged to the Saxon earl
.win shortly before the Norman conquest.

ey were submerged about A. D. 1200.

GOODYEAR, Charles, an American inventor,
born in New Haven, Conn., Dec. 29, 1800,
died in New York, July 1, 1860. He received
only a public school education. After coming
of age, he joined his father Amasa Goodyear,
the pioneer in the American manufacture of
hardware, in the hardware business in Phila-
delphia. The firm being overwhelmed by the
commercial disasters of 1830, he selected as a
new occupation the improvement of the manu-
facture of India rubber. His early experiments
were carried on at New Haven, Conn., Box-
bury, Lynn, Boston, and Woburn, Mass., and
the city of New York. The first important im-
provement made by him was in New York in
1836, being a method of depriving India rubber
f its adhesiveness by dipping it into a prepa-
ion of nitric acid. The nitric acid gas pro-
as it was called, was introduced into pub-
c use, and met with great favor, especially in
the manufacture of shoes, which continued to
be made by that process in great numbers at
Providence, R. I., until it was superseded by
the superior method of vulcanization. The
beneficial effect of the nitric acid process was
confined to the surface, the interior body of the
gum remaining subject to all the defects of
native India rubber. It did not satisfy the
hopes of Goodyear, and in 1838-'9 he made at
Woburn, Mass., many experiments with com-
pounds of India rubber and sulphur. In Jan-
uary, 1839, he observed that a piece of India
rubber, mixed with ingredients among which
was sulphur, when accidentally brought in con-
tact with a red-hot stove, was not melted, but
that in certain portions it was charred, and in
other portions it remained elastic though de-
prived of adhesiveness. The material was vul-

canized; i. e., it had undergone the change
produced by a high degree of artificial heat.
Thus were presented the germs of the two
forms of vulcanized India rubber, now com-
monly known as the soft and the hard com-
pounds. From this time until his death the
process of vulcanization occupied his whole at-
tention, but he reaped no adequate pecuniary
reward for his labors. The Goodyear patents,
now more than 60 in number, have been very
expensive in themselves, and still more so from
the necessity of defending and protecting them
against infringers. The first publication of the
process of vulcanization was Goodyear's patent
for France, dated April 16, 1844. The French
laws require that the patentee shall put and
keep his invention in public use in France
within two years from its date. Goodyear
endeavored to comply with this and with all
other requirements of the French laws, and
thought he had effectually done so ; but the
courts of France decided that he had not com-
plied in every particular, and that therefore his
patent had become void. In England he was
still more unfortunate. Having sent specimens
of vulcanized fabrics to Charles Mackintosh
and co. in 1842, and having opened with them
a negotiation for the sale of the secret of the
invention or discovery, one of the partners of
that firm named Thomas Hancock, availing
himself of the hints and opportunities thus pre-
sented to him, rediscovered, as he affirms, the
process of vulcanization, and described it in a
patent for England, which was enrolled on
May 21, 1844, about five weeks after the speci-
fication and publication of the discovery to the
world by Goodyear's patent for vulcanization
in France. The patent of Hancock, held good
according to English law, thus superseded
Goodyear's English patent for vulcanization,
which bore date a few days later. Goodyear,
however, obtained the great council medal of
the exhibition of all nations at London in 1851,
the grand medal of honor of the world's ex-
hibition at Paris in 1855, and the cross of the
legion of honor, presented by Napoleon III.
(See CAOUTCHOUC.)

GOOKIN, Daniel, an American author and sol-
dier, born in Kent, England, about 1612, died
in Cambridge, Mass., March 19, 1687. He came
with his father to Virginia in 1621, held with
35 men his plantation, now Newport News,
against the savages during the Indian massacres
of March, 1622, and removed in 1644 to Massa-
chusetts, in consequence of his sympathy with
the doctrines of the Puritans. He settled in
Cambridge, and in 1656 became superintendent
of all the Indians who had submitted to the
government of Massachusetts, an office which
he held till his death. He protected the fugi-
tive regicides in 1661, was appointed one of the
two licensers of the Cambridge printing press
in the following year, became unpopular during
King Philip's war by the protection which he
extended to the Indians, and in 1681 was made
major general of the colony. He died so poor

GOOLE

GOOSE

that John Eliot solicited from Robert Boyle a
gift of 10 for his widow. His "Historical
Collections of the Indians of Massachusetts'
bears the date of 1674, and was first published
in 1792. He is said to have written a history of
New England, which is lost.

(,oou:, a town of Yorkshire, England, on
the Ouse, 22 m. W. of Hull ; pop. in 1871,
7,680. It is the terminus of the Pontefract
and Goole railway, and the railway from Hull
to Doncaster runs through it ; and it has com-
munication with Leeds, Manchester, and Liver-
pool by means of the Knottingley and Goole
canal. There are here extensive docks and
warehouses, and a slip for repairing vessels.
Boat building, sail making, and iron founding
are carried on to some extent. It contains a
new church, with a lofty tower, places of wor-
ship for various dissenting denominations, and
several literary and charitable institutions.

GOOMTEE, or Goomty (Hin. Gomati), a river
of British India, rising in the district of Shah-
jehanpoor, in a small lake, 19 m. E. of Pilli-
bheet, lat. 28 35' N., Ion. 80 10' E., and after
a 8. E. course of 482 m., in which it traverses
the territory of Oude, falling into the Ganges,
on its left side, in lat. 25 29', Ion. 83 15'. The
principal town on its banks is Lucknow, 308
m. from its mouth, to which it is navigable. It
is wide, in the dry season 4 ft. deep, and it
rises 15 ft. at Lucknow in the rainy season.

GOOSANDER, an American fishing duck of the
subfamily mergince and genus mergus (Linn.) ;
besides the goosander (M. Americanus, Cassin),
the subfamily includes the mergansers and the
smew. The bird is about 27 in. long, and 3 ft.
in extent of wings; the bill about 3 in., of a

Gooaander (Mergus Americanus).

bright r.-d rolor; weights Ibs. ; the female is
eooridermbly smaller. Common names of this
species are sawbill, sheldrake, and, for the fe-
male, dun diver. The feathers of the forehead
KKtcodia aa acute angle on the bill; the nos-
trils are large, and near the middle of the bill-

the plumage is full, soft, and glossy ; there is a
slight crest in the male ; the wings and tail are
short, the latter rounded, with 18 feathers; the
iris is carmine ; the feet orange red in winter,
vermilion in the breeding season ; the bill nar-
row, compressed, with a conspicuous black nail,
the edges with sharp recurved serrations; tarsi
two thirds the length of the middle toe, much
compressed. The head. and neck are metallic
green; lower neck and rest of body beneath
creamy white, becoming salmon red ; fore part
of back black ; lower back, rump, and tail
feathers ashy gray ; most of the wings creamy
white, except the greater coverts, which are
black at the base, forming a black bar, and the
tertials narrowly edged with black; primaries
black; sides with slight transverse bars. In
the female the head and neck are chestnut;
above ashy, salmon-colored below; the black
base of the secondaries is entirely concealed,
and there is less white on the wings. In the
European sheldrake (M. merganser, Linn.) the
bill is relatively longer and narrower; the elon-
gated feathers forming the crest are longer and
more erectile, and begin almost at the base of
the bill ; and the bar of black on the wings is
concealed by the lesser coverts. The American
bird was considered the same as the European,
until separated by Mr. Cassin in 1853. The
goosander is found throughout North America,
breeding in the temperate and northern re-
gions, in the neighborhood of both salt and
fresh water; it is abundant in the fur countries.
It is strong and active, a powerful swimmer,
excellent diver, and rapid flier; it swims very
deeply, presenting a small mark for the gun-
ner, diving at the flash or at the click of the
lock ; it can run very well on land. It is very vo-
racious, feeding on fish, mollusks, and reptiles;
it dives for its prey, rising to the surface with
the fish or other animal in its bill, and swallows
it head foremost; its flesh is tough and oily.
The nest is made near the water, of weeds and
roots, and is lined with its down ; it is about
7^ in. in diameter internally, and 4 in. deep ;
the eggs, 7 or 8, are 3 in. long by two broad,
smooth, elliptical, and of a uniform dull cream
color ; the young of a few hours old are ex-
cellent divers. The note is a harsh croak.
They are easily caught, like the loon, on hooks
baited with fish. In their digestive organs, the
mergansers are more allied to the divers (colym-
bidce) than to the ducks (anatidai), and seem
to form a connecting link between the two.

GOOSE, a web-footed bird, of the order an-
seres and family anatidce, of which the typical
species are in the subfamily anserine. The
other subfamily consists of the plectropterinw,
or spur-winged geese, in which the bend of
the wings is armed with a spur or blunt tuber-
cle; it contains the genera anseranas (Less.),
of Australia ; plectropterus (Leach), of Africa,
laving a naked protuberance at the base of
the culmen and a part of the neck bare ; sar-
kidiornis (Eyton), of the warm regions of
America, India, and Africa, having a large,

GOOSE

105

led, laterally compressed caruncle on the
top of the bill; and chenalopex (Steph.), of
Africa and tropical America. Of the last the
Egyptian or fox goose (G. ^Egyptiacus, Linn.)
is a species, bright-colored, and revered by the
ancient Egyptians on account of its attach-
ment to its young; it has been domesticated in
that country. The subfamily anserince, which
includes the genera cereopsis (Lath.), anser
(Linn.), lernicla (Stephens), nettapus (Brandt),
and a few others, are characterized by a mod-
erately long neck, bill elevated at the base, as
long as or shorter than the head, narrowing to
the tip, which is chiefly formed by a large nail,
and region in front of the eyes feathered ; the
long tibia and tarsus elevate the body more
than in others of the family, making them good
walkers on the land, while they are also ex-
cellent swimmers ; the plates on the front of
the tarsus are small and hexagonal, as in the
swans, and are not transverse scutellse as in
the true ducks ; the colors are rarely brilliant,
white, black, and gray predominating, and both
sexes, as in the swans, are colored alike. In
the genus cereopsis (Lath.) the bill is very short,
with a large and broad nail ; it belongs to Aus-
tralia, where it wanders on the land in search
of grasses, on which it principally feeds, be-
ing never seen on the water; the only species
(0. Novce Hollandice, Lath.) is of a gray color,
of the size of the common goose, and is said
to be easily domesticated. The genus anser
(Linn.) is characterized by a bill as long as the
head, mostly red or orange colored; the la-
mellae of the upper mandible project below
the edge of the bill as conical points ; the nos-
trils open behind the middle of the commis-
sure; the tip of the hind toe reaches the ground.
The wild goose or gray-lag of Europe (A.ferus,
Gesn.), the original of the common domestica-
ted race, is of a gray color, with a brown man-
tle undulated with gray, and an orange bill.
The bean goose (A. segetum, Gmel.) is by some
considered a distinct species, and by others a
mere variety of the wild goose ; the wings seem
to be longer, and the forehead is marked with
white spots; whether a species or a variety,
the bean goose is probably more or less mixed
with the former in some of the domesticated
races. Wild geese seek high latitudes in the
breeding season and in summer, returning to
the warmer parts of Europe in the winter; they
are found mostly in meadows and marshes in
the interior, where they feed in the daytime on
aquatic plants, grasses, and grains ; they walk
well, and are very light on the water, on which
they generally rest during the night ; they do
not dive, but plunge the' head under water
to the extent of their long neck; they are
rapid and powerful fliers, migrating in two
lines meeting at an acute angle ; they are not
polygamous, make their nests on the ground,
and are very fond of their mates ; the young
are able to walk as soon as born, and feed
of their own accord. The flight of wild geese
is performed without noise, and with an or-

der which indicates considerable intelligence;
each individual keeps its place in the ranks,
the male bird at the head of the triangle or
line, when it becomes fatigued, retiring to the
rear, and the next one coming forward to take
the leading and most fatiguing position. Their
sight and hearing are acute, and while they
feed or sleep a sentinel is always on the watch
to give the alarm at the approach of danger.
The awkward gait, outstretched neck, gaping
mouth, and disagreeable voice have obtained
for the goose the character of stupidity, while
in reality it is remarkably intelligent. The flesh
is not very wholesome nor digestible. The
Chinese tchin-tchu, or Guinea goose (A. cyg-
noides, Gmel.), called from its size the swan
goose, is more than 3 ft. long; the bill is
orange, with a large knob or excrescence on
the forehead ; under the throat is a pouch, al-
most bare of feathers ; the color above is pale
grayish brown, with paler edges ; a black line
on the back of the neck; anterior neck and
breast yellowish brown; belly white; sides
over thighs gray-brown and white; in some
varieties the bill, knob, and legs are black;
the throat may be wattled, and the plumage
mostly or entirely white. Originally from
China, they have spread extensively over Asia,
Africa, and Europe, and have been import-
ed into the United States; they mix freely
with the common goose, producing fertile hy-
brids ; they are very noisy and easily alarmed ;
they walk erect, with the neck much elevated,
more like a swan than a goose. Among the
American species of the genus is the white-
fronted or laughing goose (A. Gambelii, Hartl.),
which has been separated from the European
bird (A. albifrons, Gmel.) on account of the
greater length of the bill. The length is 28

Laughing Goose (Anser Gambelii).

in., and the extent of wings 5 ft. ; weight about
5J Ibs. The bill and legs are red; forehead
white, margined behind with blackish brown ;
rest of head and neck grayish brown, paler
on the throat; back and sides bluish gray,
feathers anteriorly tipped with brown ; breast

106

GOOSE

and belly grayish white, with brownish black
.\hiti- in the anal region; tail brown,
white tipped; secondaries and end of prima-
,rk brown, rest of wing silvery ash, the
greater coverts edged with white. This species
is found over the whole of North America,
but is rare along the Atlantic coast ; they re-
tire to the north in March and April, return-
ing in October ; they are not so shy as other
species, and their flesh is considered a deli-
cacy; their food consists principally of land
plants. The notes are loud, resembling a
laugh; hence one of their common names.
The egg is 2| by If in., of a dull yellowish
green color, with indistinct darker patches.
The snow goose (A. liyperboreus, Pallas) is
larger, measuring 30 in. in length and 62 in
extent of wings, with a weight of nearly 7 Ibs.
In the adult, the bill and legs are red; the
general color pure white, with the primaries
black toward the end and bluish gray at the
base ; the young, or blue-winged geese, have a
more bluish and ashy tint, with patches of
dark brown, constituting the A. ccsrukscens
(Linn.), which some regard as a distinct species.
It is found all over North America, breeding
in the far north ; when young, its flesh is ten-
der, and far superior to that of the Canada
goose ; those that feed on the seashore have a
fishy taste. The egg is yellowish white, 3 by
2 in. The usual food consists of grasses, rushes,
insects, and in the autumn berries; it mates
with the common goose, though the eggs are
rarely if ever hatched. The American wild
or Canada goose belongs to the genus ber-

CaiudA Goose (Bernicla Canadcnsis).

-'pli.), which is characterized by a bill
shorter than the head, and by the black
color of the I,-,; the lamella) of the upper

ncealed by the margin of the bill-

3 over the middle of the commissure
the bind toe d.-v.-it,.,! ; m,l rudimentary, not
touching the ground. The species or this ge-

L'rate from the high latitudes of Europe,

Asia, and America, where they spend the
summer, to the more southern parts in winter,
especially South America ; they feed chiefly on
marine grasses and algae, though some live far
from water, eating seeds, berries, &c. The
Canada goose (B. Canadensis, Linn.) is about
3 ft. long, with an extent of wings of 65 in.,
and a weight of 7 Ibs. The head, neck, bill,
feet, and tail are black; a large, triangular
patch of white on the cheeks behind the eyes,
confluent below ; upper parts grayish brown,
with paler edges; lower lid white; below
grayish white, passing into pure white near the
anal region; upper tail coverts white; pri-
maries and rump dark brown. It is found
throughout North America, and accidentally in
Europe; the spring migration northward be-
gins with the melting of the snow, from March
20 to April 30, and the return commences in
the first half of September, the birds passing
along the coast, but most numerous in the in-
terior; their flight is very high, their "honk"
often being heard when the bird cannot be
seen, and very regular unless interrupted by
fogs, storms, or unexpected accidents. The
food consists of the seeds of grasses and aqua-
tic plants, slugs and snails, worms, insects,
tender blades of corn, and Crustacea, shell fish,
and marine plants on the seashore. They are
not often found in company with other species ;
the senses of sight and hearing are very acute,
and their stratagems for avoiding their enemies
evince great cunning ; they rarely dive, unless
when attempting to escape, at which times
both old and young quickly disappear. The
males are very pugnacious during their court-
ship, and defend their mates against all ene-
mies ; the nest is built on the ground in some
retired spot near the water, of dried plants;
the eggs of the wild bird are usually about six,
though the domesticated birds lay a few more ;
they average 3 by 2 in., are smooth, thick-
shelled, and of a dull yellowish green color;
the period of incubation is 28 days, and they
have only one brood in a season ; the young
are able to follow their parents to the water in
a day or two, but many are destroyed in spite
of the watchfulness of the mother by snapping
turtles, gar fish, pickerel, and birds and beasts
of prey. They are shot from ambush at their
feeding places, and may be attracted by living
or artificial decoys ; the flesh of such as have
lived in the interior is very agreeable, but
rather strong and fishy in the shore-fed birds.
Besides man and the animals just mentioned,
their worst enemies are alligators, the couguar,
lynx, and raccoon, and the white-headed eagle.
They are readily domesticated, and when tame
are advantageously crossed with the common
goose, the resulting brood being larger and
more easily raised and fattened than the ori-
ginals. The flesh and eggs are valuable as food,
the feathers for beds, the quills for writing
purposes, and their oil in domestic medicine.
Ilntchins's goose (B. Hutcliimii, Rich.), called
by the gunners winter or flight goose, is 25 in.

GOOSE

107

ig,.with an extent of wings of 50 in., and a
w eight of about 4 Ibs. ; in its color it is precisely
like the Canada goose ; the eggs are pure white,
3 by 2 in. ; it is found throughout the northern
and western parts of America ; its flesh is of
llent flavor. The B. leucopareia (Brandt),

Brant Goose (Behiicla brenta).

from the west coast of America, is about 30 in. ,
long, with an extent of wings of about 5 ft. ; it |
resembles the Canada goose, but is smaller, and
of a darker color, especially on the under parts.
The brant goose (B. Irenta, Steph.) is about 2
ft. long, with an extent of wings of 4 ft. and a
weight of 3J Ibs. This species may be known
by the white crescent on the middle of the side
of its black neek ; the general color of the upper
parts is brownish gray with lighter margins to
the feathers; the wings and tail are darker,
and the upper tail coverts white ; lower parts
grayish, passing into white behind. It is a
salt-water bird, breeding in the north, and
coming along the Atlantic coast on its return
south in the middle of autumn ; its flesh is
considered a most savory food. It is shy, a
good walker, an excellent swimmer, and, when

Barnacle Goose (Bernicla leucopsis).

.founded, a most expert diver ; its food consists
of marine plants, mollusks, and crustaceans ; it
is easily tamed, and in captivity thrives well on
grain, and produces young ; the eggs are white.
It is found on the Atlantic coasts of North Amer-
ica and Europe. It is replaced on the Pacific

coast by the black brant (B. nigricans, Lawr.) ;
the anterior part of the body of the latter is
black, the rest dark plumbeous, with white
patches on the throat, sides of rump, and tail
coverts ; the bill is wider than in the common
brant. The barnacle goose (B. leucopsis, Bechst.)
is 28 in. long, with an extent of wings of 4| ft.,
and a weight of a little over 4 Ibs. ; the fore-
head, cheeks, and lower parts are white, the
belly with a bluish tint; the crown, neck, 'an-
terior back, rump, and tail black ; mantle ash-
colored. It is common in winter in northern
Europe, especially on the western shores of
Great Britain, but is doubtful as an inhabitant
of the United States ; it is a salt-water species,
very shy, and highly esteemed as food; the
eggs are yellowish cream-colored, about 3 by
2 in. It owes its name of barnacle goose to
the belief long entertained that it was pro-
duced by the barnacle, a cirriped articulate
animal often found adhering to old wood ; an
opinion expressed so lately as 1636 by Gerard,
in his "Herbalist." It has also been called
tree goose from the belief that it originated
from old and decayed trees. There are several
large species of geese in South America, of
which the most remarkable are the antarctic
(B. antarctica, Gmel.), the males snowy white,
and the females black with transverse lines;
and the Magellanic (B. Magellanica, Gmel.),
ferruginous brown and black, with white wing
coverts, and bar on tail. The painted goose
(B. Canagica, Bon., or picta, Pall.), of large
size, of a bluish gray color, with head, nape,
and tail white, black throat with white dots,
and quills with a black stripe anterior to the
white tip, is common in the Aleutian islands,
and is doubtless also found on the N. W. coast
of the United States. The last genus of an-
serince is nettapus (Brandt), found in the lakes,
rivers, and estuaries of continental India, Africa,
and Australia. The bill is small and elevated,
with short and widely set lamellae ; the nostrils
basal ; wings moderate and pointed ; tail short
and rounded; the species are of small size.
Mr. Blyth says that "the Indian species seems
totally incapable of standing or walking on the
ground, but invariably flutters along it in a
strange, scuffling manner, like a wounded bird ;
they always descend into the water, never
alighting on the ground of their own accord."
The Coromandel goose (N. Coromandelianus,
Gmel.), of the size of a teal, has the head and
neck white with black spots; crown black;
lower neck with black lines; above brown
with a greenish and reddish gloss; beneath
white. Prof. Baird places the genus dendro-
eygna (Swains.) in the goose family, but most
authors rank it with the anatince or ducks ; it
is allied to the geese more than to the ducks
by the elevated base and large nail of the bill,
the long legs, and the hexagonal scales in front
of the tarsus ; he describes three species as in-
habiting the United States. The common tame
goose is the European wild bird domesticated,
from which it varies considerably in color,

108

(iOOSK

I.-HS than docks and fowls do from theii
nil. I originals; it tends to a general gray color
though ilir vt-nt and upper tail coverts are al-
ways white; the males are sometimes entirely
white, and the females generally cinereous and
gray. In England, Lincolnshire is famous for
the raising of geese; on the continent, Ilam-
..n, and Emden, and their neighbor-
raise the hest breeds. The usual weight
of a tin- Arouse is 15 or 16 Ibs., and by cramming
with nourishing food this weight may be dou-
li.v I-OM lining the bird, to prevent mo-
tion, mid employing fattening diet and stupe-
fying substances, the body becomes loaded
with fat, and the liver becomes enlarged and
fatty with disease, forming the principal ingre-
dient in thepdtes defoie gras so much esteemed
by epicures. Geese are in the best condition
for the table about Christmas time ; in England
the feast of St. Michael, and on the continent
that of St. Martin, are almost universally cele-
brated by roast goose. Before the days of me-
tallic pens, goose quills formed a considerable
arficlo of trade, the living bird being stripped
once and sometimes twice a year for this pur-
pose; the value of the feathers for beds and
pillows is well known, the living birds being
plucked from three to five times in a year, at
which periods, if cold weather come on, many
die ; if well fed and cared for, a goose will yield
about a pound of feathers in a season. They
i." IM rally breed only once a year, laying every
other day, and depositing 7 or 8 eggs; incuba-
tion is about 80 days, and the female will some-
times produce enough for three broods, if the
eggs are taken away in succession ; they begin
to lay early, are close sitters, and careful of
th.-ir young; they grow fast, are little liable to
disease, and are fattened by grain in a short
time ; when in a locality where they can pick

Bremen UOOM.

"P. ""'.' ' " tl...jr food, they are profitable to

raise for th,,r h* and that of the goslings

..r tlu-ir ,|u,:U, .Mud r,|, ( - ( .ially for their feathers'

1 ""<"1 Mat,., the common tame goose

"' ferope,in whirl, the pmders are white and

females gray, is the most numerous, and

GOOSEBERRY

perhaps as profitable as any. The white Bre-
men goose is of larger size, handsome, and
easily raised, but less prolific and hardy. The
China or tchin-tchu goose, with its variety the
Guinea or African goose, is very large and
swan-like, at maturity weighing 50 Ibs. per
pair. A cross between the last and the Bremen
bird, called sometimes the mountain goose, is
highly prized for the table, and attains a weight
of 35 or 40 Ibs. per pair ; it comes to maturity
early, and can be reared in 16 weeks to a weight
of 14 Ibs., dressed. The Canada goose is some-
times tamed, especially in northern and thinly
settled localities; it mixes with the common
goose, though of a different genus, and the
mongrels, which are not prolific, are considered
a great delicacy. The goose is a very long-
lived bird, its age having been known to equal
100 years. It is probable that many wild
species, in different parts of the world, might
by a little care be brought into a state of do-
mestication, and thus increase the number of
these useful birds.

GOOSEBERRY (ribes grossularia, Linn.), the
name of a familiar garden fruit of small size.
The original species is indigenous to England,
France, Germany, and Switzerland, and has
been found in the Himalayas, and on the banks
of the Ganges (Royle). The cultivation of the
gooseberry in gardens was first successfully un-
dertaken by the Dutch ; but up to the time of
Miller it had gained but little reputation as a
table fruit in England. Some suppose that the
name originated from the use of the berry as a
sauce for the goose ; but Pryor states that it
comes through the German Kreuzbeere from the
Swedish Krusbar, meaning " frizzle berry " and
" cross berry," the last having allusion to the
triple spine, which is sometimes in the form of
a cross. The gooseberry is represented in the
United States by several species, of which the
most common is the wild gooseberry (R. cynos-
'xiti, Linn.), with large berries armed with long
trickles like a bur, or rarely smooth-skinned ;
t is found from Canada to the Rocky moun-
tains near the sources of the Platte river; its
ruit is pleasant to the taste. The commonest
smooth gooseberry of New England is the R.
hirtellum (Mx.), with small, smooth, purple,
sweet fruit. Another species, R. rotundifolium
MX.), grows upon rocky places in western
Massachusetts, and extends to Wisconsin, and
southward along the mountains to Virginia;
this bears a smooth-skinned, pleasant fruit.
The swamp gooseberry (R. laemtr,; Poire!) is
found in mountain swamps from Massachusetts
and New York to the arctic circle, and, ac-
cording to Douglas, in the mountains of Oregon
and northern California; this species differs
rom others in its many-flowered racemes; its
ruit is dark purple, and is unpleasant to the
taste. The cultivation of the foreign varie
.ies of the gooseberry is somewhat ditlieult in
>his country, in consequence ofdrv weather in
he early summer succeeding the rains of the
prmg; and when the atmosphere is moist,

GOOSE FISH

109

. High the soil is dry, the berries become
overgrown with an insidious mildew (erysiphe
mors uvce, Schw.), which effectually prevents
their perfect growth. Repeated application of
a wash made with flowers of sulphur and lime
alone destroy this mildew, and save the

>p ; hut the trouhle is generally considered
too great for the result. A variety or hybrid,
with #ood-sized berries of a greenish purple
color and pleasant flavor, called "Houghton's
seedling," originating in the vicinity of Boston,
is free from the attacks of this fungus ; this va-
riety furnishes the greater part of the fruit sold
in our markets. The cluster, Downing, and
mountain seedling are other American varieties.
The fruit in our markets is almost invariably
sold in the green state for cooking purposes.
The European varieties are seldom seen in this
country except in the gardens of amateurs. In
some of the manufacturing towns of England
the operatives have gooseberry societies and
hold exhibitions, the fruit being judged by
weight. The gooseberry thrives best in a ra-
ther cool and partially shaded aspect ; and it
has been observed that the direct rays of the
sun striking upon the bushes and fruit, when
grown near walls and fences, cause the berries
to scald, so that they fall, so rapid is the
evaporation from its succulent tissues.

GOOSE FISH, an acanthopterous fish of the
lophioid family, which contains some of the
most hideous and voracious of the class. It
belongs to the genus lophius (Artedi), charac-
terized by a head enormously large, broad, and
flat ; the body slender, smooth, with two sep-
arate dorsal fins; the mouth very wide, the
lower jaw the longer, armed with numerous
movable, sharp, conical, recurved teeth on the
jaws, palate, vomer, and pharyngeal bones;
tongue smooth ; branchial rays six, and bran-
chial arches three. Numerous fleshy appen-
dages or cirrhi are arranged along the edge

of the lower jaw, the pectoral fins, and to the
base of the tail ; there are several spines upon
the head, two just behind the snout, others
over the eyes and at the back part of the
skull ; the anterior rays of the dorsal, situated
on the head, are separated as two slender ten-
tacles, the first generally with a fleshy appen-
dage, joined to the skull by bony rings, and
capable of free motion at the will of the ani-
mal. The pectorals are elongated into a kind
of arm, the rays representing fingers, by which
some members of the family are enabled to
move as upon legs; hence Cuvier's name of
pectorales pediculati ; these fins are large and
digitate at the end, and behind and beneath
them are the large branchial apertures; the
ventrals are stout and fleshy, considerably in
front of the pectorals ; the tail is stout and digi-
tate at the end. The eyes are large and oval ;
the nostrils are peculiar in being placed at the
end of an erectile tube, the summit of which
expands like the cup of a flower, and which is
directed toward any odorous object. The skel-
eton is fibrous rather than bony ; the stomach
is very large and muscular, and the intestine
short ; the spinal cord is as long as in other
fishes, but is remarkably reduced in size below
its anterior third, while the nerves which arise
from it form a large bundle within the spinal
canal, completely concealing the cord. There
are five species described, of which the L. Ameri-
canus (Cuv.) and Z. piscatorius (Linn.) are the
best known. The American goose fish grows
to a length of 4 or 5 ft., varying in weight from
15 to 70 Ibs. Its appetite is most voracious,
and it feeds upon all kinds of fish ; entire sea
fowl, such as gulls and ducks, have been found
in its stomach; it is occasionally taken by the
hook and in nets, but is good for nothing, not
even its liver containing much oil. Being a
poor swimmer from the feebleness of its pec-
toral fins, it remains hidden in the mud or
sand, waving its fleshy appendages, which
fishes mistake in the turbid water for food,
and are thus drawn within the reach of its ca-

Goose Fish (Lophius Americanus).

pacious gape. From this habit of fishing, it
has been called angler and fishing frog, and
from its hideous appearance and immense
mouth,' sea devil, wide gab, and devil fish.
The color of the L. Americanusis dark brown,
sometimes in blotches, and dirty white below.

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112

GORDON

GORDON, a N. W. county of Georgia, wa-
tered by the Oostenaula river and several other
streams ; area, 830 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,268,
,,f whom 1,536 were colored. It has a hilly
surface, underlying which are heds of blue
limestone. The soil is fertile. The Western
and Atlantic railroad traverses it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 96,181 bushels of
wheat, 233,785 of Indian corn, 15,827 of oats,
11,214 of sweet potatoes, 80,316 Ibs. of butter,
and 354 bales of cotton. There were 936
horses, 3,416 cattle, 4,056 sheep, and 7,958
swine. Capital, Calhoun.

GORDON, George, commonly called Lord
George Gordon, an English political agitator,
born in London in December, 1750, died in
Newgate prison, Nov. 1, 1793. He was the
third son of Cosmo George, third duke of
Gordon, and at a very early age entered the
navy, from which he retired in 1772. He was
remarkable for his personal attractions, his
winning address, and happy facility of adapt-
ing himself to the tastes of all classes. In
1774 he entered parliament for the borough of
Ludgershall. For a year or two he voted
with the ministry, but in 1776 vehemently op-
posed them in a speech in which he alleged
that an attempt had been made to bribe him.
The ministry subsequently endeavored to per-
suade him to resign his seat in parliament and
accept the place of vice admiral of Scotland ;
an offer which he resolutely declined. From
this time ho ceased to act with either whigs or
tories, but spoke with so much effect upon the
proceedings of either side, that it became a
common remark that " there were three par-
ties in parliament, the ministry, the opposition,
and Lord George Gordon." In 1779 the prop-
osition to procure from parliament an act for
the relief of Scottish Roman Catholics, similar
to Sir George Saville's act passed the previous
year with reference to England and Ireland,
caused an extraordinary excitement; and in
November a society was organized in London
under the name of the " Protestant Associa-
tion," of which Gordon was elected president.
Early in 1780 he presented a petition pray-
ing for a repeal of Sir George Saville's act;
but finding the government indifferent to the
application, he convened a meeting of the as-
sociation on the evening of May 29, and en-
joined them to meet on the succeeding Friday
(June 2) in St. George's fields and carry up
their petition to parliament for the repeal of
the act. On the day appointed a concourse of
people, MtiniAtod at nearly 60,000, assembled in
8k George's fields, and accompanied him to the
houses of parliament, which they completely
arroanded. The house having several times
refused to take the petition into immediate con-
sideration, Gordon addressed the mob from
the top of the gallery stairs, naming the mem-
bers who had spoken against the measure, and
protesting that "there would be no help for
the Scottish people till all the popish chapels
-ed." At a late hour in the even-

GORE

ing they proceeded to the chapels of the Sar-
dinian and Bavarian legations, which they
sacked. On Sunday, the 4th, they renewed
their violence, and from the evening of that
day until the morning of Thursday, the 8th,
the city was almost entirely at their mercy.
The prisons were broken open, the public
buildings attacked, the houses of Lord Mans-
field and of many Roman Catholics pillaged
and burned, and at one time on the 7th 36 fires
were raging within the limits of London. On
the evening of that day troops began to pour
into the city from all sides, and on the next
afternoon the famous "Gordon" or "no po-
pery" riots were finally quelled, after more
than 450 people had been killed and wounded
by the military, exclusive of a number killed
by accident. On the 9th Gordon was arrested
on a charge of treason, and committed to the
tower. His trial came on in February, 1781,
and the prisoner, owing to his eloquent and
skilful defence by Erskine and Kenyon, was
acquitted on the ground that his intentions in
assembling the people were not malicious or
traitorous. In 1788 he was sentenced to sev-
eral years' imprisonment, and to pay heavy
fines, for having libelled the administration of
criminal justice in England, and the queen of
France. About this time he had become a
proselyte to Judaism. He continued to send
forth from his prison handbills and letters of
an eccentric character, and petitioned the na-
tional assembly of France to procure his re-
lease, but without effect. He died of a deliri-
ous fever, having been in all probability insane
during the last ten or twelve years of his life.

GORDON, Sir John Watson, a Scottish painter,
born in Edinburgh about 1790, died in 1864.
He received his professional education in Edin-
burgh, and devoted himself exclusively to por-
trait painting. Among his portraits are those
of Scott, De Quincey, and Wilson. In 1850
he became president of the royal Scottish
academy, and was made painter limner to the
queen; and in 1851, having been knighted, he
was made a member of the London academy.

GORDON, William, an English clergyman,
born at Ilitchin about 1730, died in Ipswich
in October, 1807. He removed to America
in 1770, was ordained minister of the third
church in Roxbury in 1772, and became chap-
lain to the provincial congress of Massachu-
setts. Returning to England in 1786, he pub-
lished his " History of the Rise, Progress, and
Establishment of the Independence of the Uni-
ted States of America " (4 vols., London, 1788).

GORE, Catharine Grace, an English novelist,
born in Nottingham in 1799, died Jan. 29, 1861.
Her maiden name was Francis. In 1822 she
married Capt. Charles Gore, and in the follow-
ing year published her first novel, "Theresa
Marchmont." This was followed by sever.il
other novels and tales, up to 1831. She passed
the five succeeding years on the continent,
writing little ; but in 1836 she fairly began her
career as an author. She brought out nearly

GORE

GORGES

113

TO works under her own name, besides several
which were published anonymously. Of her
novels the best known are " Mrs. Armytage,"
"The Diary of a Desennuyee," "Cecil, or the
Adventures of a Coxcomb," and its sequel,
" Ormington, or Cecil a Peer," "The Banker's
Wife," "Pin Money," "Peers and Parvenus,"
" Preferment, or my Uncle the Peer," " Temp-
tation and Atonement," "Mother and Daugh-
ter," "Opera, a Tale of the Beau Monde,"
"Woman of Business," and "Woman of the
World." Among her other works are "Paris,
Picturesque and Romantic," " Sketch Book
of Fashion," " Sketches of English Character,"
several translations from the French, among
which is the "Rose Fancier's Manual," and a
number of dramas. Her last work was "The
Two Aristocracies " (1857).

GORE, Christopher, an American statesman,
born in Boston, Sept. 21, 1758, died at Wal-
tham, March 1, 1827. He graduated at Har-
vard college in 1776, studied law, and was soon
engaged in good practice. In 1789 he was
appointed -the first United States district attor-
ney for Massachusetts ; in 1796 he was chosen
one of the commissioners to settle the claims
of the United States upon Great Britain for
spoliations, and remained in London, success-
fully engaged in the duties of this office, about
eight years; in 1803 he acted as charge
d'affaires ; in 1809 was chosen governor of
Massachusetts ; and in 1814 was elected to the
United States senate, where he served about
three years. He left the most of his property
to Harvard college.

GOREE, a small island belonging to France,
on the W. coast of Africa, 1^ m. S. of Cape
Verd, and separated from the continent by the
strait of Dacar ; pop. about 5,000. It is 3 m.
in circumference, and is nothing more than a
basaltic rock, which in some places is several
hundred feet high. The fort occupies an ele-
vated flat near the centre of the island, and
the town a sandy plain at the foot of the rock.
The roadstead is well sheltered, and affords
safe anchorage for eight months of the year.
The climate is healthy. In 1869 the imports
amounted to 10,692,000, and the exports to
7,270,000 francs; there were 578 arrivals of
vessels, and 600 clearances.

GORGES, Sir Ferdinando, lord proprietary of
the province of Maine, born in Somersetshire,
England, died at an advanced age in 1647. He
was a partner in the conspiracy of the earl of
Essex, against whom he testified on his trial
in 1601. During the war with Spain he served
in the navy, and after the peace, in 1604, was
appointed governor of Plymouth. When Way-
mouth returned in 1605 from his voyage to
North America, and brought with him five In-
dian captives, Gorges took three of them into
his house, caused them to be instructed in the
English language, obtained information from
them of their native country, and determined
to become a proprietor of domains beyond the
Atlantic. He persuaded Sir John Popham,

lord chief justice of England, to share his in-
tentions, while at the same time influential per-
sons in London were desiring to renew the at-
tempts which had been made by Raleigh in
Virginia. A joint application was arranged,
and in 1606 the king incorporated two com-
panies, the first called the London colony, and
the second the Plymouth colony, between
which was divided the territory extending 50
miles inland from the 34th to the 45th parallel
N. lat. The Plymouth colony had the north-
ern portion, which was styled North Virginia.
An exploring ship was sent out by Gorges, but
was captured by the Spaniards. Three ships
with 100 settlers sailed from Plymouth, May
31, 1607, and reached the mouth of the Kenne-
bec in Maine, where they began a settlement,
which was abandoned the next spring. In
1614 Gorges engaged Capt. John Smith, who
had already visited North Virginia (which he
called New England), in the service of the
Plymouth company. He set sail for New Eng-
land with two ships in March, 1615, but his
own was dismasted and returned to port, and
Capt. Dermer in the smaller vessel made the
voyage, but soon returned. Other attempts
of Smith were unsuccessful, but in 1616 Gorges
sent out a party, which encamped on the river
Saco through the winter, and in 1619-'20 Capt.
Dermer again made the voyage. In 1620 Gor-
ges and his associates obtained a new incorpo-
ration for " the governing of New England in
America," which was empowered to hold ter-
ritory extending westward from sea to sea be-
tween the 40th and 48th parallels N. lat. Gor-
ges himself united with John Mason in taking
grants of the district called Laconia, bounded
by the Merrimack, the Kennebec, the ocean, and
" the river of Canada," and under his auspices
several settlements were attempted. His son,
Capt. Robert Gorges, was appointed in 1623
by the council for New England " general gov-
ernor of the country." This council resigned
its charter to the king in 1635, surrendering
the administration of its domains to a governor
general to be appointed by him, and Gorges
vainly expected this appointment. He now
determined to establish a miniature sovereignty
on his own domain. To this end he obtained
from the king a charter constituting him lord
proprietary of the province of Maine, with ex-
traordinary governmental powers, which were
to be transmissible with the property to his
heirs and assigns. He sent his son Thomas
to be deputy governor, and the officers took
an oath of allegiance to the lord proprietary.
The province was divided into two counties,
of which Agamenticus (now York) and Saco
were respectively the principal settlements ;
the former received a city charter as Gorgeana
in 1642. When the four New England colo-
nies formed a confederacy in 1 643, the settle-
ments of Gorges were excluded from it, " be-
cause," says Winthrop, "they ran a different
course from us both in their ministry and their
civil administration," and because the proprie-

GORGEY

firv w:n tlu-n in arms in England for the king
Mftfcat the cause of the Puritans. On Jus
death the people repeatedly wrote to his heirs ;
but as no answer was received, they at length
formed themselves into a body politic for the
purposes of self-government, and submitted to
the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. His grand-
son FEBDINANDO, born in 1629, published
" America Painted to the Life " (London, 1659),
sold to Massachusetts in 1677 his proprietary
rights to the province of Maine for 1,250, and
died Jan. 25, 1718.

GORGEY, or Gorgel, Arthur, a Hungarian gen-
eral, born in the county of Zips, Feb. 5, 1818.
He entered the military school at Tuln, and
subsequently the royal Hungarian noble life
guards at Vienna, and was appointed lieutenant
in the regiment of Palatine hussars. He soon
left the army to devote himself to chemical
studies at Prague. He spent the spring of 1848
without any participation in the early events
of the Hungarian revolution ; but when the
insurrections of the non-Magyar tribes in the
south of Hungary had compelled the Hungarian
ministry to declare the country in danger, he
offered his services to the national government.
In August he received the command of the na-
tional guard of the circle W. of the Theiss, and
was sent to the island of Csepel, formed by the
Danube, to defend that line against the Croats
of Ban Jellachich. The ban having been de-
feated at Pakozd, and having fled toward Vien-
na, Gdrgey operated with Perczel against the
Croatian corps, which finally surrendered at
Ozora (Oct. 7). Kossuth then sent him as
colonel to the army of the upper Danube, which
was about to cross the frontier for the deliv-
erance of Vienna; and after the defeat at
Schwechat, near Vienna (Oct. 30), he made
him general-in-chief of the whole army which
was charged with defending the frontier. Gor-
gey's force was unfit to maintain a long line
of defence against the superior and victorious
army of Windischgratz, and on the approach
of that general he abandoned the frontier and
retreated toward Buda, which was also aban-
doned to the enemy early in 1849. Gorgey
then crossed the Danube at Pesth, and marched
toward the Waag. German in all except name
and descent, he had no sympathy with Kossuth
und the other revolutionary leaders, and on
reaching Waitzen issued a manifesto in the form

declaration of the royal Hungarian corps
d'armee of the upper Danube," which was di-
rected quite as much against the republican
tendencies of Kossuth and his associates as it
was against the unconstitutional reign of Fran-
cia Joseph, who had just been declared empe-
ror. This niaiiifi-.-to, which was followed by
acts of insubordination on his part, caused Gor-
aey to be suspected of treacherous designs.
He waa, however, protected by the various
perplexities of the government, and the sym-

- of his army. Hut his situation was not
leas critical than that of the government. His
army, consisting of about 15,000 men, was soon

hemmed in, in the midst of winter, among the
mountain towns of the mining district. The
offensive march westward was given up, and a
retreat toward the upper Theiss commenced.
After the defeat of Guyon at Windschacht
(Jan. 21), and of Gorgey at Hodrics (Jan. 22),
all the three divisions of the army were on tho
brink of destruction, and all escaped as by a
miracle, effecting their junction at Neusohl.
Separating again, they inarched toward tho
northernmost Hungarian region of the Car-
pathians, and entered Zips, Gorgey's native
county, at the beginning of February. Having
here been surprised at Iglo on the night be-
tween Feb. 2 and 3, and suffered some incon-
siderable loss, Guyon soon after (Feb. 5) saved
the army by his victory on Mount Branyiszko
over a division of Schlick's corps, which opened
a junction with the Hungarian corps under
Klapka on the upper Theiss. Gorgey, who had
neglected communication with the government
at Debrecziu, and disbelieved the non-official
reports of the successful operations of Klapka,
too late concerted with the latter a common
plan of attack, and thus missed the opportunity
of crushing Schlick's corps at Kaschau. Ar-
rived in that town, Gdrgey received an order
placing him, like Perczel and Klapka, under
the Polish general Dembinski, as commander-
in-chief of the united Hungarian main army.
Gorgey immediately began intrigues against
the foreign generalissimo, which much deranged
the offensive plans of the latter. Dembinski
doubted the fidelity of Gorgey ; the latter had
no confidence in the ability of his superior.
The unfavorable issue of the two days' battle
of Kapolna (Feb. 26, 27) was ascribed by the
one to unskilful dispositions, by the other to
treacherous slowness in execution. The chief
officers of the army, mostly partisans of Gor-
gey, openly declared their want of confidence
in Dembinski ; the government was forced to
yield, and after a few weeks of interregnum
Gorgey was appointed general-in-chief of the
united main army, which was again to take
the offensive against Windischgratz. Crossing
the upper Theiss, he began his march on the
line of operation chosen by Dembinski, but
with greater success. The whole camgaign was
an uninterrupted series of victories, which de-
stroyed the finest imperial troops in Hungary,
freed Pesth, and rescued the fortress of Comorn.
The road to Vienna was open, but Buda had
still to be conquered. Gorgey undertook the
latter task, but when he had executed it (May
21) the Russian armies were already approach-
ing the frontiers of Hungary, and the opportu-
nity of striking a decisive blow at Austria in
its capital was lost. Kossuth now conferred
upon Gorgey the title of lieutenant field mar-
shal, which he refused to accept. He set him-
self in opposition to Kossuth's republican plans ;
and having strengthened his personal position
by assuming also the duties of minister of war,
and by the removal from his army of some of
the most independent and ablest of his generals,

GORGIAS

he recommenced the offensive against the Aus-
trians simultaneously with the invasion of the
Russians. Political rather than strategical rea-
sons led him to choose the left bank of the
Danube as a basis of operations, and he changed
his plan only after a series of bloody and fruit-
less struggles on the Waag and Danube (June
16, 20, 21). On the right bank of the latter
river his army was forced to give up Raab (June
28), and he was obliged to retreat into the for-
tified camp at Oomorn, where he gained more
glory than success in the great battle of Szony
(July 2), in which he was wounded. At this
juncture, when Russians and Austrians were
advancing from every quarter, a concentration
of the main armies on the Theiss was resolved
upon at Pesth ; Meszaros received the nominal,
and Dembinski the virtual command in chief;
the capital was again evacuated, and Gorgey
was finally compelled to sacrifice his plans.
Leaving a part of his army under Klapka at
Comorn, he retreated toward Waitzen, where
he fought (July 15) against the Russian main
army under Paskevitch ; but being unable to
break through it, he took his direction toward
the upper Theiss, and defeated the Russians on
the Saj6 (July 25) and on the Hernad (July 28).
The division of Nagy-Sandor was soon after
surprised and defeated at Debreczin (Aug. 2) ;
and when Gorgey finally reached Arad, the last
appointed place of concentration, as well as the
last seat of the Hungarian government, his army
alone was still able to fight, all the others which
had been ordered there having been defeated
and dispersed ; Bern had lost Transylvania.
But to resist with success the overwhelming
forces of Paskevitch and Haynau was now im-
possible. Having summoned Kossuth to re-
sign, and been himself invested (Aug. 11) with
supreme civil and military powers, Gorgey in-
formed the Russian general Riidiger of his
intention to surrender his army, relying for
the fate of his men on the magnanimity of
the czar. The surrender took place at Vila-
gos, Aug. 13, 1849, when 20,000 infantry and
2,000 cavalry laid down their arms. The gen-
erals and soldiers were then delivered by the
Russians to the Austrians, the former to be
executed at Arad (Oct. 6), the latter to serve
a new term in their army. Gorgey was spared
at the intercession of the czar, and carried as
captive to Klagenfurth, where he resumed his
chemical studies, and wrote Mein Leben und
Wirlcen in Ungarn in den Jahren 1848 und
1849 (Leipsic, 1852 ; English translation, " My
Life and Acts in Hungary," London, 1852).
On the restoration of the Hungarian constitu-
tion in 1867, he returned to his country, and
in 1869 published anonymously Magyarorszdg
1849-fow es 1866 utdn (" Hungary in 1849 and
after 1866 "), a review of the situation from a
politico-strategical point of view.

GORGIAS, a Greek rhetorician and sophist,
born in Leontini, Sicily, about 487 B. C., died
about 380. Pie was a disciple of Empedocles
and Prodicus, and first appears in history in

GORILLA

115

427, when he was sent to Athens to beseech
succor for the Leontines attacked by the Sy-
racusans. He spent the remainder of his life
chiefly in Greece. He not only captivated
the Athenian populace by the splendor of his
eloquence, but gained Alcibiades, Alcidamas,
^Eschines, and Antisthenes for pupils or imi-
tators. Plato gave his name to the dialogue
which he composed against the sophists. The
views of Gorgias were set forth in a work " On
Nature," which was early lost, but of which
considerable extracts still exist. A full account
of it is given by Theophrastus. The book was
divided into three sections. In the first he
argued that nothing had any real existence ; in
the second, that if there were a real existence,
it was not in man's power to ascertain it; in
the third, that existence, even if real and as-
certainable, could not be communicated. To
prove these points, he made use of the conclu-
sions of the Eleatics, which however he did
not fully accept. , Sextus Empiricus also gives
a clear description of the work of Gorgias.
The charm of his oratory is said to have con-
sisted largely in a profusion of metaphors and
a poetical choice and arrangement of words.
According to Plato, he expressly declared that
he did not profess to impart virtue, but only
the power of speaking eloquently.

GORGONA, an island in the Pacific, 30m. from
the coast of the United States of Colombia,
to which it belongs; lat. 2 51' N., Ion. 78 4'
W. ; length from N. to S. 6 m., breadth from
E. to W. 2 m. The surface is varied, now low
and undulating, now swelling into mountains,
one of which is 2,000 ft. above the sea. The
lower portions are covered with a thick forest
growth. The soil is very fertile. There are
few inhabitants. It is chiefly remarkable as
having been visited by Pizarro immediately
prior to the conquest of Peru, and having long
been a favorite resort of buccaneers.

GORGONS, in Greek mythology, three sisters,
daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, who had but
one eye in common, and changed into stone
whomsoever they looked upon. Homer men-
tions but one gorgon, which appears as a hid-
eous phantom in Hades, and whose head, of
frightful aspect, was represented on the a?gis
of Athena. Hesiod mentions three, Stheno,
Euryale, and Medusa, who had hissing ser-
pents for hair, brazen claws, short wings, and
a single tusk-like tooth. They were placed in
the garden of the Hesperides near the realm
of Night, where Medusa was slain by Perseus.
Virgil places the gorgons with harpies and
other monsters at Pluto's palace gate.

GORILLA, the largest of the anthropoid apes,
a native of the equatorial region of western
Africa, and first introduced to the scientific
world by Dr. T. S. Savage in 1847. There
were vague reports by voyagers and travellers
of the existence in Africa of a quadrumanous
animal larger than the chimpanzee, and there
were in museums portions of a creature since
ascertained to be the gorilla; but naturalists

116

GORILLA

had their attention first called to it by the
paper of Dr. Savage in vol. v. of the " Boston
Journal of Natural History," in which he de-
: the external characters and habits, and
Prof. Jeffries Wyman described four crania and
several parts of the skeleton. Dr. Savage de-
scribed it as troglodytes gorilla; Prof. Owen
called it T. Savagei, retaining it in the same
genus with the chimpanzee; Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire established for it the genus gorilla in
1852, and in 1853 gave it the name of G. gina,
which is the best known, though G. Savagei
has a prior claim. The common names of the

n'Ma among the natives of the region where
found are engeena, geena, and engeela.
There are specimens of the animal, more or
less complete, in the collections at Philadelphia,
Boston, London, and Paris ; and Du Chaillu,
on his return to the United States in August,
1859, from the country about the Gaboon river,
brought with him several complete specimens,

Gorilla.

male and female, both skins and skeletons, in
excellent preservation, most of which are now
in the London collections. Du Chaillu is the
first white man who killed a gorilla with his
own hand, or who had an opportunity of study-
ing its habits in its native forests. The skull
male is longer and wider, but less heavy,
than that of man, and the capacity of the cavity
which contains the brain is less than one half of
that of the most degraded human races. The
most striking peculiarity is the great develop-
ment of the interparietal and occipital crests
and the ridges over the orbits, which give an
angular outline to the skull, resembling the
orangs in the first and the chimpanzee in the
: .ara.-t-r ; there is a great thickness of
the orhital walls, with much space between the
orbits, and a prominence on the inner wall di-
rected outward ; n noteworthy character is the
coalescence of the n.-i-al I .ones above, with a
median suture on their lower half, the upper

portion ascending above the nasal processes of
the superior maxillary and becoming contracted
between them, slightly projecting as in man ;
the crests are much less in the female. The
cranial crests, wide zygomatic arches, and mas-
sive lower jaw give indication of the power-
ful muscles. The dental formula is the same
as in man and the higher quadrumana; the
canines are enormous, the incisors very wide,
the lateral ones being more pointed, and the
lower molars have five tubercles instead of
four. The bones of the trunk and extremities
are remarkable for their size and strength;
the length of the cervical spines is such that
the nape is more prominent than the back of
the head ; the scapula and bones of the arm
indicate the attachment of muscles in com-
parison with which man's seem like those of
a child. The expression of the face is scowl-
ing; the nose is very flat and widely open ; the
ears are small ; the eyes are much sunk in the
head, and the lashes are short and thick ; the
mouth is very wide, the lips large and thin, the
lower one pendulous and very movable, the
chin short and receding, and the whole muzzle
prominent; the face is transversely wrinkled
and black. The chest is capacious, the shoul-
ders very wide, and the abdomen everywhere
projecting. The limbs are greatly developed
and of immense strength ; the arms are longer
than in the chimpanzee, reaching far down
the leg, but according to Owen, whose ob-
servations are generally confirmed by the
specimens of Du Chaillu, the arms do not
extend so low as the knee; while the arm
and forearm are longer than in the chimpan-
zee, the hand is shorter, wider, and more hu-
man in its carpal and metacarpal portions and
the lateral position of the thumb ; from the
length of the palm the fingers appear short
and thick as if swollen; they are also less
free, as the posterior portion of the three in-
termediate fingers is covered by the undivided
integument. There is very little appearance
of wrist, the circumference at this part being
twice that of a strong man's ; the fingers taper
to a point, are not arched, and the nails are
flat and relatively small ; the fingers are about
twice the circumference of man's, and the skin
of the middle joint is callous from the habit of
the animal of applying these surfaces to the
ground when it adopts a favorite way of pro-
gression by swinging its body forward sup-
ported by and between the hands; the thumb
is short, and not more than half the size of the
fore finger. The posterior extremities are oc-
casionally used alone in standing and in pro-
gression; the thigh is relatively short, and of a
nearly uniform size, in its middle portion not
surpassing in circumference the same part in
man ; the leg increases in thickness from be-
low the knee to the ankle ; the tendinous por-
tion of the muscles is developed more than the
fleshy, with a great gain in strength. Tho
foot is longer than the hand, and is human-
like also in having the three intermediate toes

GORILLA

>out the same length, and partly united at
their base by the integuments; the gorilla is
essentially quadrumanous, and the posterior
thumbs are largely developed, widely separated
from the toes, to which they are easily op-
posed, and well calculated for prehension. The
genus gorilla was established by Geoffroy
Saint-Ililaire on the following characters prin-
cipally : the head rounded in the young, very
much" elongated and depressed in the adult,
with very prominent crapial crests ; the pecu-
liar conformation of the organs of sense, above
detailed; the gigantic size; the proportions of
the limbs, and the characters of the hands and
feet; and the peculiarities of the teeth. It
seems sufficiently distinct from troglodytes ni-
ger. It is not easy to determine the precise
position of the gorilla in the quadrumanous
series ; in the structure of the hand and foot
it comes nearer to man than the chimpanzee
does ; in the canines it would seem to be below
even the orangs ; and in the proportion of the
arm and forearm it is below the chimpanzee.
The very indefmiteness of its position is an-
other argument for its separation as a genus
among the quadrumana. The adult male go-
rilla is from 5 to 6 ft. high in its natural alti-
tude, though after death it may be stretched
beyond this ; most specimens are under 6 ft.,
on account of the relative shortness and gene-
rally flexed position of the legs; it far sur-
passes man in the dimensions of the head,
neck, body, and arms, and in the width of the
shoulders ; some are said to measure from 7 to
9 ft. from the end of one outstretched hand to
that of the other ; one of Du Chaillu's speci-
mens measures 8 ft. 11 in. The general color
of the hair, which is coarse and about 2 in.
long on the arms, an inch on the belly, and
quite short on the back and legs, is gray in-
clining to black. There is a black stripe about
2 in. wide extending diagonally down the
sides from behind the shoulder to the belly,
which is entirely black. On the upper portion
of the back the hair is very thin ; old ones are
bare in that part. On the arms the hair is
black, and reversed from the wrist to the el-
bow ; the chest is nearly bare ; there are a few
white hairs in the anal region; the face, hands,
and feet are black ; the hands are hairy as far
as the division of the fingers, the palms naked
and callous ; the head has generally a reddish
tint; on the whole the male would be called
grayish and the female blackish. The young
differ greatly from the adults in the shape of
the head, and the females are less ferocious-
looking as well as much smaller than the
males. The gorilla is found on the W. coast
of Africa, both K and S. of the equator, but
especially in the wooded districts of the inte-
rior near the head waters of the Gaboon river,
and along the Muni river as far E. as the
Crystal mountains. It is principally an in-
habitant^ the woods, but though the struc-
ture of its four hands seems well adapted to
climbing on trees, it is very rare that a female

or a young male is seen on them the old
males never ; its favorite mode of progression
is on all fours, in a shuffling manner and rolling
from side to side, but with its head always
erect and its face looking forward ; on account
of the greater length of the arms it stoops less
than the chimpanzee, and is fond of thrusting
these forward, with the flexed fingers on the
ground, and of giving its body a half jumping,
half swinging motion forward between them ;
when it assumes the erect posture, it flexes the
arms upward or crosses them on the nape in
order to counterbalance the tendency of the
trunk to fall forward. Gorillas are generally
seen in troops of five r four females and one
male, but the old males are occasionally met
wandering alone ; though living in the same
neighborhood as the chimpanzees, they do not
associate with them. Their strength is enor-
mous, not only in the jaw r s, which are able to
crush the barrel of a musket, but in the hands
and feet, which they use in common with their
canines in attack and defence ; they are able
to break with ease trees three or four inches
in diameter. The males are exceedingly fero-
cious, generally attacking man and animals in-
truding upon their haunts; if wounded, they
are more terrible than the lion, and in this
event the hunter's death is sure and speedy if
his hand trembles or his gun misses fire. They
approach the enemy standing, advancing a few
steps at a time, pausing to beat their breasts
with both hands, and roaring terribly. When
near enough, they spring upon him, and de-
stroy him with their powerful hands. One of
Du Chaillu's men was eviscerated by a single
blow. The story of their carrying clubs is
untrue. They are perfectly untamable, in this
respect differing from the chimpanzee, which,
in youth at least, appreciates- kind treatment.
"When living in troops they are shy and diffi-
cult to approach, but when mated or alone
they almost invariably offer battle, and are
then the most terrible of animals. When liv-
ing near villages, they sometimes come at day-
break to eat the plantains and sugar cane of
the natives ; besides these they eat nuts, ber-
ries, fruits of the oil palm and banana, the acid
pulp of the amomum, the white portions of
the leaves of the pineapple, and roots. Unlike
the chimpanzee, the gorilla makes no shelter
for itself. In intelligence it is considerably
inferior to the chimpanzee. It exhibits great
fondness for its young, of which it has one at a
time. The reports of its visiting villages and
carrying off negresses into the woods are mere
fables. It is generally mute, but sometimes
amuses itself by a sort of roaring, which, be-
ginning low, increases till the forest echoes
with its reverberations. When about to at-
tack its enemies it gives a terrific yell, which
resounds far and wide. The negroes of the
interior are very fond of eating the flesh of go-
rillas as well as of chimpanzees and monkeys.
Among the coast tribes, on the other hand, it
is considered an abomination to eat the flesh

118

GORITZ

of either the gorilla or the chimpanzee, on ac-
count of their resemblance to man.

GOKITZ. See GOBZ.

GOR&HIS, the dominant people of Nepaul
in India. Little is known of their history un-
til about 1768, when, having consolidated or
conquered the petty independent tribes among
whom Nepaul was parcelled out, they found
themselves masters of the whole of that coun-
try, and eventually of almost the entire alpine
region, as it is called, of northern India. Hav-
ing invaded Thibet in 1790, they were defeated
by the Chinese, to whom the lamas had applied
for assistance, and during a short period they
remained in nominal subjection to the celestial
empire; but in 1792 their independence was
recognized by a commercial treaty with the
East India company. A few years later they
were involved in a war with the British. (See
NEPAUL.) The Gorkhas are of Mongol ori-
gin, but smaller and darker than the Chinese.
They are seldom over 5 ft. high, are hardy and
active, and make good soldiers. They form a
valuable portion of the native troops enlisted
in the British army, and won the enthusiastic
praise of the English officers by their uniform
fidelity during the sepoy revolt of 1857-'8, and
their services in the field, particularly during
the Delhi campaign. They are Hindoos in re-
ligion, but unlike Hindoos in appearance, cus-
toms, and freedom from caste prejudice.

GORKUM, or Gorenm (Dutch, Gorinchem), a
fortified town of the Netherlands, province of
South Holland, on the right bank of the Maas,
22 m. S. E. of Rotterdam ; pop. about 10,000.
It has a college, a scientific society, the ancient
church of St. Vincent containing the tombs
of the lords of Arkel, and the town hall adorned
with remarkable paintings. It has a consider-
able trade in corn, hemp, butter, cheese, sal-
mon, and Frisian horses; there are also yards
for boat building, and extensive rope walks.
A canal from Gorkum to Vianen unites the Leek
with the Maas. Gorkum acquired importance
in the 14th century, was considered the key of
Holland at the beginning of the French revolu-
tion, and was ruined by an inundation in 1809.
The martyrs of Gorkum is the name given
in the Roman Marty rology to 19 persons (17
priests regular and secular, and two Franciscan
lay brothers) put to death by William de la
Marck and his gueux de la mer in 1572. They
were beatified by Pope Clement X. Nov. 24,
1673, and their feast is held on July 9, the an-
niversary of their death.

GOKLITZ, a town of Prussian Silesia, situated
on an eminence which overhangs the left bank
of the Neisse, and on the Dresden and Breslau
railway, 53 m. E. of Dresden; pop. in 1871,
42,224. It consists of the inner town, which is
unrounded \\ith \\-alU having 11 gates, and the
suburbs. The Gothic Protestant church of Sts.
Peter an<l Paul lias a famous organ. A fine
Gothic buildini: was erected for the gymnasium
in 1856. The t.iwn H the seat of several scien-
tific and literary societies. The town hall con-

GORRES

tains a large library. The manufactures are
linen and woollen cloth, tobacco, starch, &c.
Gorlitz was a city of great importance in the
three centuries preceding the reformation, and
the capital of Upper Lusatia; it then declined,
but of late the population has rapidly increased
in consequence of the flourishing industry.

GOKKES. I. Jakob Joseph von, a German au-
thor, born in Coblentz, Jan. 25, 1776, 'died in
Munich, Jan. 29, 1848. After the proclama-
tion of the French republic he gave up the
study of medicine to devote himself to politics.
His ardent republicanism showed itself in his
first writings, and caused the suppression of a
periodical published by him. In 1799 he went
to Paris at the head of a deputation sent by the
German provinces on the left bank of the Rhine
to prepare the way for a complete union with
France. Bonaparte, just raised to power by
the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, could not
find time to confer with the German deputa-
tion, and Gorres returned homfe with his repub-
lican hopes much weakened. After his return
he was appointed professor of natural sciences
in the college of Coblentz, and he soon after-
ward published several philosophical works,
all pervaded with the prevalent idealism. In
1803 he lectured in the university of Heidel-
berg, where he resided till 1808, publishing Die
deutschen Volksbucher, and editing the Einsie-
dlerzeitung. Returning to Coblentz, he pub-
lished several works on Asiatic mythology and
German mediaeval literature. In 1814, after
the fall of Napoleon, he established Der Ehei-
nische Mercur, which advocated the restoration
of the German empire ; it was suppressed by
the Prussian government in 1816. In 1820
appeared his Deutsehland und die Revolution,
warning sovereigns that a new revolution was
inevitable unless God and the Catholic church
were made supreme in the restored political
state. In 1827, after having resided in France
and Switzerland, he was appointed professor of
history in the university of Munich. The diffi-
culty which arose in 1837 between the arch-
bishop of Cologne and the Prussian govern-
ment induced him to write his Athanatiut, in
which he espoused the cause of the archbishop,
and which had great influence on the Catholics
of Germany. This he followed up by other
writings, and he founded the periodical Histo-
risch-politische Blatter, which took a leading
part in Catholic literature. In 1844 he cnce
more advocated the political union of Germany.
In 1845 he was elected a member of the Mu-
nich academy of science ; and he published
about that time treatises on ethnology regard-
ed as fragments of a comprehensive universal
history, which he did not live to complete.
His principal work is Christliche Mystik (4
vols., Ratisbon, 1836-'42 ). A complete edi-
tion of his works, edited by his daughter, has
been published (8 vols., Munich, 1856-'60). A
sketch of his life was published by his pupil
Sepp in 1848. II. Gnldo, a German author,
son of the preceding, born in Coblentz, May

GORTCHAKOFF

119

28, 1805, died July 14, 1852. After the death
of his father he edited the HistoriscJi-politiscJie
Blatter, but is chiefly known hy his poems,
legendary writings, and juvenile books. Among
these are : Die Jungfrau von Orleans (1834) ;
Schon Roslein (1838) ; Testkalender in Bildern
und Liedern (3 vols., 1835-' 9); Marienlieder
(1842) ; Der Jiurnene Siegfried und sein
Katnpf init dem Drachen, illustrated by Kaul-
bach (1843) ; Die Gottesfahrt nach Trier und
des Teufels Landsturm (1844); and Die arme
Pilgerin zum heilige Itocke (1846).

GORTCHAKOFF, a Russian princely family, de-
scended from the royal house of Rurik, seve-
ral members of which have distinguished them-
selves. I. Petr, commander of Smolensk, is
celebrated for his defence of that place against
the army of Sigismund III., king of Poland,
from 1609 to 1611, when it was taken by as-
sault. II. Dimitri, born in 1756, won a place
among the poets of Russia by his odes, satires,
and epistles, and died in 1824. III. Alexander,
born in 1764, served under Suvaroff against
the Turks, the Poles under Kosciuszko, and the
French in the campaign of Switzerland, and
subsequently with great distinction under Ben-
ningsen in the campaign of 1807, when he de-
feated Lannes at Heilsberg and fought at Fried-
land, acted as chief of the war ministry in
1812, was appointed general of infantry, and
died in 1825. IV. Andrei served as major gen-
eral under Suvaroff in 1799, and commanded
a division during the French invasion in 1812,
when he distinguished himself in the battle of
Borodino ; he left the army in 1828, and died
in 1855. V. Alexander, a statesman, born July
16, 1798. He acquired experience in diploma-
cy under Nesselrode in various employments,
and in 1824 he was appointed secretary of
legation in London ; in 1830 charge d'affaires
in Florence; and in 1832 councillor of the
embassy at Vienna, where he often acted as
ambassador during the illness or absence of
his chief. In 1841 he was sent to Stuttgart,
and having negotiated the marriage between
the crown prince (now king) of Wtirtemberg
and the Russian grand duchess Olga, he was
in 1846 made privy councillor. In ] 850 he was
appointed plenipotentiary to the German diet
at Frankfort, and in 1854 he succeeded Mey-
endorff as ambassador in Vienna. He dis-
played consummate tact and ability during the
Crimean war, and it was mainly through his
influence that the treaty of Paris was signed
by Russia (March, 1856); after which he suc-
ceeded Nesselrode as minister of foreign af-
fairs. In 1857 he attended the emperor Al-
exander during his interview with Napoleon
III. in Stuttgart. As the policy of France
became hostile to Austria on the Italian ques-
tion, he increased in friendliness toward the
former. Ambitious above all to restore the
prestige of Russia after the calamities of the
Crimean war, he addressed in 1860 a circular
despatch to the European powers appealing to
the same principle of nationalities in the Two

Sicilies which Russia had always upheld in
regard to the Christians of the East, and re-
monstrated against any foreign interference in
Neapolitan affairs ; at the same time disclaim-
ing any idea of revenge for past defeats. He
favored the French expedition of 1861 to Syria
for the protection of the Christian population
against renewed massacres ; but preserving en-
tire independence in his foreign policy, he re-
fused to associate himself with France and
Great Britain in their unfriendly attitude to-
ward the United States after the outbreak of
the civil war. During the Polish insurrection
of 1863 he availed himself of the opportunity
presented by the interference of foreign powers
in behalf of the Poles, to vindicate the aversion
of Russia to foreign dictation, and her deter-
mination to settle her internal affairs in accord-
ance with the interests and the integrity of the
empire, and without regard to the views of
other nations. This course increased his pop-
ularity at home and his prestige abroad, and
the emperor, who had assigned to him the title
of vice chancellor in 1862, now (July, 1863)
promoted him to the office of chancellor. In
1866 he succeeded in securing the complete
separation of the Roman Catholic clergy of
Poland from the holy see. His most brilliant
achievement was begun in October, 1870, when,
after an understanding with Bismarck on the
subject, he availed himself of the Franco-Ger-
man war to undo the injury done to Russian
influence in the East by the treaty of Paris, by
securing at the London conference of January,
1871, the revision of that treaty, and the for-
mation of another (March 13) putting an end
to the neutralization of the Black sea ; for this
the emperor conferred upon him the dignity
of serene highness. In the central Asia ques-
tion (1873-'4) he exhibited a desire to avoid
disturbing the friendly relations with England,
without, however, receding from an aggressive
policy. Though suffering from the gout, he
continues (1874) to preside over the chancery,
but generally spends the summer in Switzer-
land or Germany for the benefit of his health.
His eldest son, MIKHAIL, was appointed Rus-
sian minister at Bern in 1872. VI. Petr, a gen-
eral, born in Moscow about 1790, died there
in 1868. He entered the army at an early age,
fought against Napoleon in the campaigns of
1807 and 1812-'14, served under Yermoloff
in the Caucasus, and distinguished himself in
the war against Turkey in 1828 and 1829,
when he signed the peace of Adrianople. He
was made governor general of western Siberia
in 1839, and general of infantry in 1843, and
retired from service in 1851 ; but reentered it
on the breaking out of the Crimean war, and
commanded a wing of the Russian army at the
Alma and at Inkerman in 1854. He resigned in
the spring of 1855, and was in 1858 appointed
member of the imperial council. VII. Mikhail,
born in 1795, died May 30, 1861. He served
against the French in the campaigns of 1807
and 1812-'14, against the Swedes in 1808-'9,

GORTON

GORTZ

and against the Turks in 1828-'9, when he led
the sieges of Shumla and Silistria, distinguish-
c-.l himself in the war of the Polish revolution
(1831) at Grochow, Ostrolenka, and the taking
<>f Warsaw, wa> made general of artillery, and
in 1846 military governor of Warsaw, where
he subsequently often acted as lieutenant of
Prince Paskevitch, whom he also accompanied
on the invasion of Hungary in 1849. In 1853 he
received the command of the army of invasion
sent to the Danubian principalities, ceded it
soon after to Paskevitch, but took it again after
the raising of the siege of Silistria, and led the
retreating army to Bessarabia. In 1855 he was
appointed commander-in-chief in the Crimea
and southern Russia, and suffered defeat on the
Tchernaya, but greatly distinguished himself
by the gallant defence of Sebastopol, as well
as by the skilful retreat to the North fort after
the fall of the fortress. In 1856, after the
death of Paskevitch, he was appointed gov-
ernor of Poland by Alexander II., and he was
carrying out that emperor's conciliatory mea-
sures at the time of his death.

GORTON, Samuel, a New England religious' en-
thusiast, the first settler of Warwick, R. I., born
in Gorton, England, about 1600, died in Rhode
Island in November or December, 1677. He
did business in London as a clothier till 1636,
when he embarked for New England, and
settled at Boston, and afterward at Plymouth,
where he began to preach such peculiar doc-
trines that he was banished from the colony
on a charge of heresy. With a few followers
he went to Rhode Island, which had recently
been settled by exiles from Massachusetts Bay ;
but falling again into trouble, he was publicly
whipped for calling the justices "just asses " and
for other contemptuous acts, and was forced
to seek an asylum with Roger Williams in
Providence, about 1641. Here he made him-
self so obnoxious that in November of that year
a petition was addressed to the authorities of
Massachusetts praying that Gorton and his
company might be "brought to satisfaction."
That colony having acquired a nominal juris-
diction over Pawtuxet, where Gorton had set-
tled, he was summoned to Boston in September,
1642 ; but he refused to recognize the jurisdic-
tion thus assumed, and about the same time
removed to Shawomet, on the W. side of Nar-
ragansett bay, where he purchased land from
the sachem Miantonomo. But in Jurue, 1643,
two inferior sachems contested his claims to
the land, and applied to the goneral court at
Boston for assistance. A body of 40 soldiers
was consequently marched to Shawomet, and
Gorton and ten of his disciples were carried
to Boston, where, the question of the land
being laid aside, they were put on trial for
their lives as "damnable heretics/' Gorton
and six others were found guilty, and sen-
tenced to confinement and hard labor in irons.
U M:uv!i. IC.H. tln-y \v,-re released, and or-
dered to leave the colony within 14 days
Gorton then went to England to obtain re-

dress, and having procured a letter of safe
conduct from the earl of Warwick to the
Massachusetts magistrates, and an order that
his people should be allowed peaceable pos-
session of their lands at Shawomet, he returned
in 1648 to his colony, which he named after
the earl. Though Massachusetts did not re-
linquish her claim over the Shawomet settle-
ment until some years later, Gorton's remain-
ing years seem to have passed quietly. He
discharged many important civil offices, and
on Sundays used to preach to the colonists
and Indians. It is difficult to determine what
were his religious opinions. He contemned
a clergy and all outward forms, and held that
by union with Christ believers partook of the
perfection of God, that Christ is both human
and divine, and that heaven and hell have no
existence save in the mind. He published
" Simplicitie's Defence against seven-headed
Policy," a vindication of his course in New
England (4to, London, 1646 ; reprinted in the
collections of the Rhode Island historical so-
ciety); "An Incorruptible Key composed of
the CX. Psalme " (1647) ; " Saltmarsh returned
from the Dead " (1655) ; " An Antidote against
the common Plague of the World" (1657);
" Certain Copies of Letters," &c. He also left
in manuscript a commentary on a part of the
Gospel of St. Matthew. See his life by J. M.
Mackie in Sparks's "American Biography."

GORTYNA, an ancient town of Crete, a little
S. of the centre of the island, on a plain
watered by the Lethaeus. It was 90 stadia
from the Libyan sea, on which it had two
ports, Lebena and Metallum. It was next in
importance and splendor to Cnossus, in alliance
with which it early reduced all the rest of the
island to subjection ; but it was afterward at war
Avith Cnossus, and also with Cydonia, against
which Philopcemen commanded its forces for
several years. The site of Gortyna is thought
to be near the modern Hagios Dheka. The
caverns in the neighborhood have been de-
scribed by Savary and Tournefort, and Captain
Spratt sees in them the labyrinth of Minos.

GORTZ, Georg Heinrich, baron, a Swedish
statesman, born in Germany, executed in
Stockholm in March, 1719. He belonged to
an ancient family, whose original name was
Schlitz. He became minister of Holstein, and
was sent in 1706 on a mission to Charles XII.,
who made him his minister of finance and
afterward prime minister. In both positions
he evinced rare abilities, as well as great un-
concern in the choice of his means. He was
endeavoring to restore the fallen fortunes of
Sweden by an extraordinary diplomatic com-
bination (see CHARLES XII.) when the king
was killed at the siege of Frederikshald (1718),
and he was arrested and sentenced to the block
by Ulrica Eleonora and her husband Frederick
of Hesse, who succeeded to the Swedish throne.
The pretext for his execution was that he
had mismanaged the finances and goaded on
Charles to fatal enterprises.

GORUCKPOOR

GORUCKPOOR. I. A district of the North-
west Provinces, British India, bounded N. by
Nepaul, W. and S. W. by Oude; area, 7,346
sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 2,044,281. The surface
is generally level, but broken in the E. and S.
E. parts by ridges of low steep hills. The
principal rivers are the Gogra, Gunduk, and
Raptee, which have a S. E. course. The dis-
trict also abounds in shallow lakes. The soil
is rendered fertile by careful irrigation. The
inhabitants are poor, and agriculture is almost
the only branch of industry. The district was
ceded to the British in 1801 by the vizier of
Oude, in commutation of subsidy. II. The
principal town of the district, on the left bank
of the Raptee, here crossed by a ferry 600 ft.
long, 104 m. N. by E. of Benares and 430 m.
. W. of Calcutta; pop. about 40,000. It is
surrounded by forests and plantations, and
during the rainy season is often encompassed
by water.

GORZ, or Goritz. I. A circle of Cisleithan
Austria (generally called Gorz and Gradisca),
forming with Istria and Trieste the Littoral
province, but having its own diet; area, 1,143
sq. m. ; pop. about 200,000, of whom 66 per
cent, are Slovens, 25 per cent. Friulians, 7 per
cent. Italians, and the remainder Germans. In
the middle ages the district belonged to the
counts of Tyrol ; it was united with the pos-
sessions of the house of Austria by Maximilian
L, about 1500. II. The capital of the circle,
on the Isonzo, 22 m. N. N. W. of Trieste ; pop.
in 1869, 16,823. It consists of two parts, the
upper or old town, and the lower or new town.
The upper is fortified and contains the castle
of the former counts of Tyrol and Gorz. It
is the seat of an archbishop and of a central
episcopal seminary for all the dioceses of the
Littorale, and has a deaf and dumb institute
and a chamber of commerce and industry.
The principal manufactures are leather, sugar,
and silk. Charles X., the exiled king of France,
died here in 1836, and his son the duke of
Angouleme in 1844.

GOSCHEN, George Joachim, an English states-
man, born in London in 1831. His father, who
died in 1866, was a German merchant doing
business in London. The son was educated
at Rugby and afterward at Oriel college, Ox-
ford, but did not graduate on account of his
scruples against taking certain prescribed oaths.
In 1853 he became a partner in his father's
commercial house, and gave special attention
to financial questions. In 1863 he published
"The Theory of Foreign Exchanges," which
is regarded as a standard work. In the same
year he was returned to parliament for the
city of London, and took a prominent part in
the movement for the abolition of religious
tests and for throwing the universities open to
dissenters. In July, 1865, under the Palmer-
ston ministry, he was made vice president of
the board of control, in November, under Rus-
sell, a member of the privy council, and in
January, 1866, chancellor of the duchy of Lan-

GOSHAWK

121

caster. In June, with the other members of
the ministry, he retired from office. On the
accession of the Gladstone ministry in Decem-
ber, 1868, he entered the cabinet as president of
the poor-law board, and in March, 1871, was
made first lord of the admiralty. He resigned
with the other ministers in February, 1874.

GOSHAWK, a bird of prey of the family fal-
conidce, subfamily accipitrina, and genus astur
(Lacep.). The bill is short, broad at the base,
with the culmen elevated and arched ; the tip
acute, with the lateral margins festooned in
the middle ; the nostrils large and in the basal
cere; wings reaching to the middle of the
tail, the third, fourth, and fifth quills nearly
equal and longest ; the tail long and broad ;
tarsi rather longer than middle toe, covered
with broad transverse scales in front and be-
hind ; toes long, strong, and well padded below ;
claws strong, long, and curved. Gray describes
13 species, which are found throughout the
world. The form is rather long and slender,
the wings comparatively short, and the legs
and tail long ; they fly very swiftly and strong-
ly, and always strike their prey while on the
wing; they lurk about poultry yards, seize a
duck or a chicken, and are out of shot before
the farmer is aware of his loss ; they also prey
upon wild ducks, grouse, pigeons, hares, rabbits,
squirrels, and other animals of this size ; they
build their nests on lofty trees, and Jay from
two to four eggs. The only species in the
United States is the American goshawk (A.
atricapillus, Wils.), found all over North Amer-
ica, but most abundant in the north and north-
west. The adult female is about 2 ft. long,
with an extent of wings of 4 ft. and a weight
of about 3 Ibs. ; the male is smaller ; both sexes

American Goshawk (Astur atricapillus).

are alike in plumage. In the adult the general
color of the upper parts is dark ash-gray, the
shafts and sometimes the edges of the feath-
ers black ; head above and neck behind black
with a grayish tinge; a broad line of white
over each eye; under parts grayish white,

122

GOSHEN

sides and abdomen tinged with brown ; black-
ish brown longitudinal streaks on the fore
ii. ck, and transverse blackish gray lines on
the breast, sides, and belly; quills brown, si<liy
on their inner webs; tail with four or live
broad brownish black bands, and narrowly
tipped with white. The young birds are dark
brown above, with light markings; the tail
ashy; the under parts white, with yellowish
red tinges, each feather with a longitudinal
stripe ending in a brown ovate spot. This is
one of the boldest and most rapid of the genus,
and follows with untiring wing the flocks of
wild pigeons and ducks ; it seldom alights un-
less to devour its prey, and when thus engaged
stands very erect. The nest is of large size,
flat, and made of coarse materials ; the eggs
are of a bluish white color, sometimes with
light brownish spots. The European goshawk
resembles the American, but the transverse
bands on the under surface are much more reg-
ular. It equals the gerfalcon in size, but not
in strength and courage; though an ignoble
bird, and falling obliquely on its prey, it is used
in falconry for the weaker and ground game,
such as hares and rabbits, or birds of low
flight like grouse and ducks.

GOSHEN, in Biblical geography, the district
of Egypt in which Jacob and his family set-
tled, and where his descendants remained till
their deliverance by Moses. The locality is
generally fixed in Lower Egypt, E. of the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile.

(.OSRKV, a town and village, one of the
county seats of Orange co., New York, on the
Erie railway, at the junction of two branches,
48 ra. N. N. W. of New York; pop. of the
town in 1870, 8,903 ; of the village, 2,205. It
is celebrated for its excellent butter, which
is made chiefly for the New York market.
The village contains a female seminary, several
classical schools, two national banks, and two
weekly newspapers.

GOSLAR, a town of Hanover, Prussia, 26 m.
8. E. of Hildesheim, on the Gose, at the base
of the Rammelsberg; pop. in 1871, 8,923. Its
most important public edifices are the town
house, which was erected in the 15th century,
the imperial palace, now in part a ruin, and the
Gothic church, whose library contains a con-
siderable number of Luther's manuscripts. In
the vicinity are slate quarries, from which N.
Germany is supplied with that material. The
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in mining and
quarrying. It was founded about 920, was the
residence of several German emperors, and
was a free imperial city till 1801.

GOSNOLD, Bartholomew, an English voyager,
died in Virginia, Aug. 22, 1607. He joined
Raleigh in his attempt to colonize Virginia,
and aftor th.- t'.iilure of that enterprise was
I'l.i- o-l in command of an expedition fitted out
for planting a settlement in New England. He
sailed from Falmonth, March 26, 1602, with
one small vessel and a company of 32 persons,
Ji of whom were colonists. Instead of follow-

GOSPORT

ing the usual route by the Canaries and West
Indies, he steered directly across the Atlantic,
and in seven weeks reached Massachusetts bay,
first seeing land probably not far N. of Nahant.
Thence he turned S., and landed on Cape Cod,
to which he gave the name it still bears. Sail-
ing around the promontory, and stopping at
the island now known as No Man's Land, but
which he called Martha's Vineyard, Gosnold
anchored at the mouth of Buzzard's bay, and
resolved to plant his colony on an island which
he called Elizabeth (now known by its Indian
name of Cuttyhunk). The adventurers here
built and fortified a house, but the hostility of
the Indians, scarcity of provisions, and disputes
about a division of the profits, disheartened
them, and the whole party returned to Eng-
land, accomplishing the voyage in five weeks,
and taking a cargo of sassafras root, cedar,
furs, and other commodities. The result of
the expedition was such as to encourage many
others to follow the same short route across
the ocean, and pursue the explorations which
Gosnold had begun. Gosnold next turned his
eyes toward Virginia, and succeeded in or-
ganizing a company for colonization in that
region, the heads of which were Edward Wing-
field, a merchant, Robert Hunt, a clergyman,
and Capt. John Smith. A charter was granted
them by James I., April 10, 1606, which was
the first instrument of that nature under which
the English were planted in America ; and on
Dec. 19, 1606, Gosnold set sail with three
small vessels and an ill-assorted band of 105
adventurers. After a tedious voyage, a storm
having driven them into Chesapeake bay (April
26, 1607), they sailed up James river, which
they named after the king, disembarked about
50 m. above its mouth, and founded the settle-
ment of Jamestown. Sickness and various
disasters destroyed 50 of their number before
autumn, among whom was Gosnold.

GOSPEL (Sax. god&pell, corresponding to the
Gr. eiayyAwv, a joyful message), either the
whole system of the doctrines of Christ, or one
of the four histories of his life and teachings
written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
The extant spurious gospels, forming a part of
the apocrypha of the New Testament, are the
" History of Joseph the Carpenter," the " Gos-
pel of the Infancy," the "Gospel of Thomas
the Israelite," the " Protevangelion " of James,
the " Gospel of the Nativity of Mary," and the
"Gospel of Nicodemus, or Acts of Pilate."
Many others, not extant, are mentioned by the
church fathers. (See APOCRYPHA.)

GOSPORT, a seaport town of Hampshire,
England, opposite Portsmouth, on the W. side
of the entrance to the harbor of the latter ; pop.
in 1871, 7,366. It is situated on level ground
and surrounded by fortifications, which form
part of those of Portsmouth and Portsea. It
contains two churches and four chapels for
Protestants and one for Roman Catholics. The
most conspicuous establishment is the royal
Clarence victualling yard for supplying vessels.

GOSSE

GOSSE, Philip Henry, an English zoologist,
born in Worcester, April 6, 1810. He went to
Newfoundland in 1827 in a mercantile capa-
city, and during a residence there of eight
years occupied his leisure in collecting insects
and making colored drawings of them. He
removed to Lower Canada, where he pursued
his studies of zoology, particularly entomology,
for three years, and af-
terward travelled in the
United States, making
in Alabama numerous
drawings of the lepidop-
tera of that region, and
wrote " Letters from
Alabama, chiefly rela-
ting to Natural Histo-
ry." After his return
to England in 1839, he
published the results of
his observations under
the title of the "Cana-
dian Naturalist" (Lon-
don, 1840). In 1844 he
visited Jamaica to study
its zoology, and on re-
turning after 18 months
published "The Birds
of Jamaica," which was
followed by an " Atlas
of Illustrations " and
" A Naturalist's Sojourn
in Jamaica." During the subsequent years
he published an " Introduction to Zoology,"
and prepared many works for the society for
the promotion of Christian knowledge. He
then devoted himself especially to the mi-
croscopic study of the British rotifera, and
took a prominent part in the formation of pub-
lic and private collections of marine animals.
In 1856 he was elected a member of the royal
society. His remaining works include : " The
Aquarium" (1854); "Manual of Marine Zool-
ogy" (1855); "Tenby, a Seaside Eomance"
(1856) ; " Life in its Lower, Intermediate, and
Higher Forms" (185T); "Omphalos, an At-
tempt to Untie the Gordian Knot" (1857);
" Evenings at the Microscope " (1 859) ; " Acti-
nologia Britanniea, a History of the British Sea
Anemones and Corals" (1860) ; " The Komance
of Natural History " (1860-'62) ; " A Year at the
Shore" (1865); and "Land and Sea" (1865).

GOSSELIES, a market town of Belgium, in
the province of Hainaut, on the Brussels and
Charleroi railway, 23 m. S. by E. of Brussels ;
pop. in 1866, 6,511. It has important manu-
factories of woollens, hats, steel ware, and
leather, and near it are large coal mines. The
battle fought near this place June 26, 1794, be-
tween the French and the Austrians, is known
as the battle of Fleurus.

GOTHA. I. Formerly an independent duchy
(Saxe-Gotha), but now politically united with
Coburg under the name of S axe- Coburg- Goth a ;
pop. of Gotha in 1871, 122,630. (See SAXE-
COBUKG-GOTHA.) II. The capital, and alter-

GOTHENBUKG

123

nately with Coburg the residence of the duke;
pop. in 1871, 20,591. It is the principal station
of the Thuringian railway, by which the dis-
tance to Halle is 83 m. and to Weimar 30 m.
The palace of Friedenstein adjoins the town,
and contains collections of fine arts and one
of the richest collections of coins in Europe ;
also a library with upward of 200,000 volumes

The Ducal Palace, Gotha.

and more than 6,000 manuscripts, among
which are 14 folio volumes of St. Bernard's
correspondence and about 3,000 Arabic and
Persian manuscripts. Gotha has a famous
gymnasium, many excellent educational and
charitable institutions, and an observatory es-
tablished in 1859 by Hansen. It is one of the
most prosperous trading and manufacturing
places of Thuringia. It is the seat of a celebra-
ted fire and life insurance company, and of the
geographical establishment of Justus Perthes,
the publisher of the Almanack de Gotha.

GOTHAM, a parish of Nottinghamshire, Eng-
land, the Boeotian rusticity of whose inhabi-
tants gained them the proverbial appellation
of " the wise men of Gotham." The name Go-
tham was satirically applied by Washington
Irving to the city of New York.

GOTHENBURG, or Gottenburg (Swed. Goteborg).
I. A Isen or province of Sweden, in the S. W.
part of the kingdom, bordering on the Catte-
gat, the Skager Rack, and Norway ; area, 1,890
sq. m. ; pop. in 1873, 236,899. It forms a nar-
row strip of land between the mountains which
separate it on the east from the province of
Elfsborg and the rugged coast, which is indent-
ed by numerous bays and bordered by many
small islands. The climate is severe ; the soil
is sterile, and there are few manufactures ex-
cept in the capital city. II. The capital _of the
province, and the second commercial city of
Sweden, at the head of a fiord on the Catte-
gat at the mouth of the Gotha river, 240 m.
W. S. W. of Stockholm ; pop. in 1873, 59,329.

124

GOTHIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

It has a good harbor, with 17 ft. of water,
enclosed by two long ridges of rock about 1 J m.
apart. There is anchorage for vessels of large
size, but only the smaller craft can come up to
the shore. The city is intersected by navigable
canals, and as it occupies marshy ground, the
houses of the lower town are generally built
on piles. The upper town stands on adjacent
rocky heights. The houses are mostly of stone
or stuccoed brick, with terraced roofs. The

principal public edifices are the cathedral, the
Swedish church, the new exchange, the arsenal,
the town hall, the theatre, and the East India
house. The manufactures comprise cottons,
woollens, sail cloth, tobacco, snuff, glass, paper,
leather, refined sugar, and porter. Most of the
merchants are Scotch and English. In 1872
the entries at the port were 2,161 vessels, of
598,487 tons; the clearances 1,800 vessels, of
648,545 tons. The city was founded by Gus-

Gothenburg.

tavns Adolphus in 1618, and was once well
fortified. It has had frequent fires.

GOTHIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The

Gothic language became extinct with that Ger-
manic race by whom it was spoken. The exist-
ing Gothic manuscripts are written in charac-
ters related in form and order to the Greek
alphabet, and, it is said, invented by Bishop
Ulfilas. The order of the alphabet has been
ascertained from the numerical values attached
to the letters. It is not customary in modern
books to make use of Ulfilas's characters. The
original form, order, and numerical value of
the Gothic alphabet, and the way in which it
is usually transcribed, are as follows :

ro**. Kim. TAUT*. TBANBC. FORM. ITCH. VALUE. TBANSC.

&
e

I'
i i

K
A

M
II

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
20
80
40
60

e
kv(q)

h
th(t>)

100

200

800

400

600

700

800

t
v(w)

z(ch)
hv

900

The transcription of several letters is not uni-
form. Some write, instead of kv, qu ; for 0, the
German w ; and instead of the aspirated hv, a
simple v or w. Diacritical points are put over
i at the beginning of a word, or after another
vowel with which it does not form a diphthong.
Numbers are distinguished in the manuscripts
by a dash over the letters, or by being enclosed
by two dots. For punctuation a colon is some-
times used, and it serves to divide a discourse
into parts generally larger than a proposition.
No Gothic manuscript, however, separates the
words of a sentence, or indicates whether a
vowel is long or short. The Gothic verb dis-
tinguishes two voices, active and middle ; two
tenses, present and past ; three moods, indica-
tive, optative, and imperative ; three numbers,
singular, dual, and plural; an infinitive; and
a present and a past participle. According to
the formation of the tenses, there are three
classes of verbs: the first forms the past by
reduplicating the verbal root ; the second dis-
tinguishes the tenses by a change of vowel ;
the third has a special form only for the present
tense, forming the past by means of formative
endings. Grimm designates the first two classes
as strong, and the third as feeble. Examples :
1st class, blanda, blend, baibland, blended;
teka, touch, taitok, touched ; 2d class, binda,
band, bund, bind, bound, bound ; giba, gab, geb,
give, gave, given ; 3d class, Jiaba, hdbaidm
habaips, have, had, had ; sokja, sokida, sokip,
seek, sought, sought. The past tense is formed
in the last class by adding da, reduplicated dad,
the auxiliary do, did. The verb to be is conju-
gated as follows : Pres. ind. singular, im, is, ist;

GOTHIC LANGUAGE, &o.

dual, siu or siju, siuts or sijuts ; plural, sium,
siup, sind. Past ind. singular, *, vast, vets;
dual, vesu, vesuts ; plural, vesum, vesup, vesun,
fec. Nouns have three genders and two num-
bers. They have inflections for the nominative,
genitive, dative, and accusative cases, and a few
have also a vocative case, but only in the sin-
gular. The stems end either in the vowels a,
i, u, or in the consonants n, r, nd, and these
terminations determine the modes of the de-
clensions. The thematic vowel of the declen-
sion in a is distinctly preserved only in the
dative singular and the dative and accusative
plural, and is lengthened into 6 in the femi-
nines. The i of the next declension takes gra-
dation, and an a is introduced before it. The
declension in u retains the vowel of its theme
quite persistently, even before the case sign s
of the nominative masculine and feminine, as
well as in the nominative neuter, where the
other declensions drop it. The n of the theme
disappears in the nominative and vocative of
the singular. The vowel of the primitive suffix
dar, par, or tar (as in fadar, father, ~bropar,
brother, dauh tar, daughter, and smstar, sister),
is dropped where a case sign is added ; as gen.
Iroprs, dat. Iropr. The themes in nd comprise
present participles declined as substantives.
Adjectives are inflected differently, adopting
in about half of the cases the demonstrative
pronoun ja, and assimilating with it ; as Jiardus,
hard, hardjis, hardjamma, &c. The compara-
tive degree is rendered by means of the suffixes
is and 6s, which retain their form at the end
of adverbs, but are lengthened into izan and
ozan at the end of adjectives. The superlative
is formed by adding ta or tan to the is or 6s
of the comparative ; as froda, clever, comp.
masc. and neut. frodozan, fern, frodozein, sup.
masc. frodista, fern, frodisto, &c. The per-
sonal pronouns are : ik, I ; pu, thou ; is, he ;
si, she ; ita, it ; Deis, we ; vit, we two ; jus,
you ; eis, they masc. ; ijos, they fern ; ija, they
neut. Prepositions govern the genitive, dative,
or accusative, and precede the words they gov-
ern. Only three interjections have been found :
6, oh ; sai, behold ; vai, woe ! The pronouns
%a, so, pata, he who, she who, that which, are
used as definite articles. There is no indefinite
article. The literary documents in which the
Gothic language has been preserved consist of
a few manuscripts. The Argenteus Codex, now
in the library of the university of Upsal, written
in silver and partly gold letters, is a purple
parchment, supposed to date from about the
beginning of the 6th century, at the time of the
rule of the Ostrogoths in Italy. (See ARGEN-
TEUS CODEX.) It comprised originally 330
sheets, with Ulfilas's translation of the gospels
of Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark, in this
order; but only 177 sheets have been pre-
served. (See ULFILAS.) The Codex Carolines
is a rescript, like all codices except the pre-
ceding, and is owned by the Wolfenbuttel
library. It was discovered in 1756, and is
also supposed to be of Italian origin. It con-

GOTHS

125

tains about 42 verses of the llth to the 15th
chapter of the epistle to the Romans. The five
Codices Ambrosiani form part of the Ambro-
sian library in Milan, and contain fragments
of the Pauline epistles, of the gospels of Mat-
thew and John, of the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah, and a calendar. They were dis-
covered in 1817 at the convent of Bobbio in
Italy. There is a parchment manuscript in
Vienna dating from the 9th century, which
contains a Runic and several Gothic alphabets,
with a few words and numerical notations.
Naples and Arezzo have each a Gothic certifi-
cate of sale written on papyrus. Another
manuscript was discovered in 1866 by Franz
Pfeiffer. It has received the appellation of
Codex Turinensis, and consists of four sheets
which had been used as the cover of a book or
manuscript, and which contain fragments of
the epistles to the Colossians and Galatians.
Von der Gabelentz published an account of it
in the Germania of 1867, and pronounced them
illegible. In the following year, however, a
translation by Massmann appeared in the same
periodical. A complete edition of the literary
monuments of the Gothic language has been
published in Leipsic by Von der Gabelentz and
Lobe (1836-'42), and another in Stuttgart by
Massmann (1856-'7). Andreas Uppstrom has
caused an exact reprint to be made of every
line of Gothic manuscript extant. He pub-
lished in this manner in 1854 the Codex
Argenteus, and in 1861 the Codex Carolinus
and some of the Ambrosian fragments. He
died in 1865, and his son published in 1868,
from his posthumous papers, the remaining
documents. Since the texts could thus be criti-
cally studied, the Gothic grammars and vocabu-
laries have been considerably changed. The
latest researches are embodied in the 5th edi-
tion of Stamm's Uljilas, oder die uns erhalte-
nen Denkmaler der gothischen Sprache : Text,
Worterbuch und Grammatik, which has been
revised by Moritz Heine (Paderborn, 1872).

GOTHLAND. See GOTTLAND.

GOTHS (Lat. Gothones, Guttones, &c.), an ex-
tinct Germanic race, first mentioned as dwell-
ing on the coasts of the Baltic during the 4th
century B. C., and disappearing from history in
the 8th century A. D. Their origin has not been
ascertained. Pytheas of Massilia is the first
who makes mention of them ; he found them
at the side of the Teutons in the southern por-
tion of the Baltic region. Pliny, in the 1st
century A. D., and Ptolemy, in the 2d, place
them in the same territory. The name of Getse
given to them by later historians does not prop-
erly belong to the Gothic race, though Grimm's
hypothesis connects the Getaa with the Goths.
Cassiodorus, the principal minister of Theodoric
the Great, wrote a history of the Goths, which
chronicles their migrations and wanderings
from regions beyond the Baltic. Procopins
speaks of Goths, Vandals, and Gepidae as one
people in all respects, and describes them as of
fair complexion, with reddish yellow hair and

126

GOTHS

tall manly forms. Modern authorities consider
the Vandals. Hernli, Rugii, Gepidro, Alani, Sue-
vi Longobards, Burgundians, and Franks as the
principal families of the Gothic race. In the
latter half of the 2d century A. D. the Goths
appear on the N. shores of the Black sea. In
the 3d century they were in possession of the
region N. of the lower Danube. They invaded
the Roman territory in 237, plundered Thrace,
and defeated the emperor Decius in 251. A few
years later they were defeated by ^Emilianus;
but in 262 they ravaged Greece, and in 269 in-
vaded the Roman empire again. The emperor
Claudius defeated them in that year at Naissus.
In 272 they obtained possession of Dacia. They
invaded Moasia in 332, but were repulsed. In
366 they assisted in the revolt of Procopius ;
but Valens defeated and drove them beyond
the Danube. Meanwhile they had become di-
vided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or East-
ern and Western Goths. The former inhabited
southern Russia between the Dniester and the
Don ; the latter the territory from the lower
Danube to the Carpathian mountains, and from
Hungary to Bessarabia. Ermanric, who ruled
over both bodies, came in collision with the
Huns in 375, and was defeated by them. The
Goths put themselves thereupon under the pro-
tection of Valens, who assigned them a terri-
tory in Thrace ; but reaching the provinces of
Moesia (Bulgaria and Servia), they took pos-
session of the country, defeated Valens in a bat-
tle near Adrianople in 378, and ravaged Achaia
and Pannonia. The Visigoths submitted to the
Romans in 382 ; but the Ostrogoths continued
their ravages several years longer, and finally
settled in Thrace and Phrygia. Several Gothic
tribes had already embraced the Christian faith,
and about the year 360 Ulfilas, bishop of the
tribes who dwelt in Moesia and Thrace, had
translated the New Testament into the Gothic
language. Upon the death of Theodosius, the
barbarian nations took advantage of the dis-
sensions of his successors to overrun the di-
vided empire. The Huns poured in from one
direction, while an army of Goths under Alaric
invaded the region between the Adriatic and
Constantinople, and subsequently marched into
Italy and sacked Rome. (See ALARIC.) The
Goths gradually intermingled in blood with
the inhabitants of Italy. The Huns under At-
tila, 600,000 barbarians of many tribes, now
threatened Italy and entered Gaul (A. D. 451).
They were encountered by Romans and Goths,
combined under command of Aetius, and suf-
terrible defeat. Theodoric, king of the
Visigoths, was among the slain on the side of
nans. Meanwhile Spain and southern
France came under Gothic dominion ; and
Odoacer, a prince of the Heruli, penetrating
into Italy, dethroned Augnstulus, the last of

-st-Roman emperors, and assumed the
title of king of Italy (A. D. 476). Zeno was
emperor of the East, and, becoming embroiled
with the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, con-

: to an invasion of Italy by this prince.

Theodoric accordingly crossed the Alps, de-
feated Odoacer, compelled from him, at Ra-
venna, the surrender of all Italy, and put him
to death (493). Italy had begun to prosper
under Odoacer, and the impulse was increased
by the new king, who reigned 33 years. Profit-
ing by the Gothic disorders consequent upon the
death of Theodoric in 526, Justinian sent Beli-
sarius to Italy. He took Rome, and, gaining the
admiration of the Goths, was invited to be their
king. This he refused, but held the Goths in
subjection for his master. Totila, a noble Goth,
rebelled, and mastered southern Italy. He was
about to destroy Rome, but, yielding to the
remonstrance of Belisarius that it would add
more to his honor to spare it, contented him-
self with dispersing the inhabitants (546), and
repeopling it before the arrival of a fresh army
from Constantinople under Narses. Totila fell
in battle (552), and his successor Teias suf-
fered the same fate (553). Italy was recon-
quered, and the Gothic monarchy founded by
Theodoric the Great was extinguished. In
Spain and southern France the Visigoths main-
tained a splendid monarchy till 711, when Ro-
deric was killed in battle against the Moors,
who, crossing from Africa, subjugated the king-
dom. The Goths became a cultivated and en-
lightened people. Grotius gives them high
commendation for moral it} 7 , integrity, love of
justice, and good faith. There never had been
a better administration in Italy than that of
Theodoric. He was an Arian, but the Catholics
were not only unmolested by him, but them-
selves generally acknowledged that at no other
period did their church enjoy greater prosper-
ity. The Gothic princes and tribes were gen-,
erally tolerant of the faith of others. They
were also distinguished in some degree as friends
of fine arts, science, and learning. Theodoric
maintained overseers of works of art, whose
duties were to guard the statues and to watch
over the preservation of public buildings.
These were kept in repair, and others were
erected. The old Gothic style of architecture,
comprising what are called transition styles
with the rounded arch, Byzantine, Lombard,
Norman, &c., was thus originated; a simple
massive character of art, which must not be
confounded with modern Gothic, which dates
even later than the Lombards in Italy. The
laws of the Visigoths were digested into a reg-
ular code 50 years before the Pandects of Jus-
tinian, who possibly borrowed the idea of a
code from the Visi^othic princes. Theodoric
and the Goths in Italy preserved and improved
the Roman laws. (See CIVIL LAW, vol. iv., p.
623.) Their form of government was absolute
monarchy of a mixed elective and hereditary
nature ; and it has been said of most of the
Gothic rulers in Italy, that they made good the
promise of Theodoric, who on ascending the
throne said that he would strive so to rule the
empire that the "only regret of the people
should be that the Goths had not come at an
earlier period."

GOTTINGEN

GOTTSCHALL

127

GOTTINGEN, a city of Prussia, in the prov-
ince and 57 m. S. by E. of the city of Han-
over; pop. in 1871, 15,841. It is the seat of
a university (Georgia Augusta), which was
founded in 1734 by King George II. of England
and elector of Hanover, and inaugurated Sept.
17, 1737. Through the eminence of several
of its professors, among whom were Gesner,
Heyne, Michaelis, and the two Eichhorns, it
became toward the end of the century the
most famous university in Europe. Its for-
tunes were not materially changed until the
foundation of the university of Berlin (1810),
which proved a formidable rival. The stu-
dents, however, still numbered 3,000 in 1825,
but the political disturbances of 1831 caused a
great diminution in the attendance, which in
1834 was reduced to about 900. Yet the uni-
versity could still boast of a brilliant array of
names on its staff, among whom were Blumen-
bach, Ewald, Mitscherlich, Muller, Gervinus,
Heeren, and the brothers Grimm. The new
university building was inaugurated on the day
of its 100th anniversary in 1837, but before
the end of the year the government expelled
seven of the ablest professors, who had pro-
tested against the abrogation of the Hanoverian
constitution by King Ernest. Two of the ex-
pelled professors, Ewald and Weber, resumed
their functions in 1848, but Gottingen has never
recovered from the shock which it had re-
ceived, although it numbered in 1873 101 pro-
fessors and 925 students. The university library
comprises 360,000 volumes and 5,000 manu-
scripts ; it surpasses almost all other German
libraries in its copious collections of modern
works, and is one of the best arranged libraries
in Europe. The academy of sciences comprises
sections for mathematics, natural sciences, and
history. The Gelehrte Anzeigen, the oldest
learned periodical in Germany, is published
under its auspices. The museum of natural
history contains a collection bequeathed to it
by Blumenbach, including human skulls of na-
tives of all quarters of the globe, a large col-
lection of coins, and some few works of art.
Connected with the university are seminaries
for theology, philology, mathematics, and nat-
ural sciences; hospitals, cliniques, and an an-
atomical theatre; a botanical and economical
garden, a school for veterinary surgeons, a
chemical laboratory, a fine physiological in-
stitution, an observatory, and an agricultural
school. Prominent among the other educa-
tional establishments is the industrial school of
Wagemann. There are five Lutheran churches,
including the university church, a Reformed
and a Roman Catholic church, and a syna-
gogue. The charitable institutions are numer-
ous. The manufactures consist of cloth, wool-
len stuff, surgical instruments, soap, leather,
turnery, gold and silver wares, &c.

GOTTLAND, or Gothland, an island in the Bal-
tic, belonging to Sweden, between lat. 56 55'
and 57 57' N. ; length about 80 m., greatest
breadth 33 m. ; area, about 1,200 sq. m. ; pop.
369 VOL. viii. 9

in 1873, 54,239. The island is generally level,
and but here and there slightly hilly. The
climate is temperate, the mulberry and grape
ripening in the open air. The people are chiefly
employed in rearing cattle and fishing off the
coast. The island possesses several good har-
bors. The chief towns are Wisby and Slite,
the latter protected by forts. A submarine
telegraph connects the island with the main-
land of Sweden.

GOTTSCHALK, Louis Moreau, an American
pianist and composer, born in New Orleans,
May 8, 1829, died in Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 18,
1869. His father was an Englishman of Ger-
man-Jewish descent, and his mother was of
French extraction. Louis was their eldest child,
and gave evidences of a remarkable musical
organization at three years of age. At six he
took lessons on the piano and violin, and at
twelve was sent to Paris, receiving there in-
struction from Halle and Camille Stamaty on
the piano and from Maleden in harmony. He
also formed the friendship of Hector Berlioz,
from whom he received valuable advice. His
first appearance as a pianist was on the conti-
nent, and it was not until Feb. 11, 1853, that
he was heard in the United States, in concerts
in New York and elsewhere. The class of mu-
sic that he played and his skill made for him at
once a widely extended reputation, and during
his whole career he commanded the admiration
of large and enthusiastic audiences. Although
a composer, his published works exceeding 50
in number, he was preeminently a pianist. His
compositions grew out of his love for the in-
strument, and were almost all written with a
view to its capabilities. He seemed to have
no grasp of musical effects except such as
were producible upon the piano. The pieces
on which his reputation principally rests were
illustrative of tropical life, such as Le bananier,
La savane, Ricordati, La marche de nuit, ma
charmante, Le mancenillier, Reponds moi, Ojos
criollos, and many Cuban dances. His arrange-
ments of the compositions of others are few in
number and of no special merit ; nor had he any
exceptional skill as an interpreter of the works
of other composers. He constantly played his
own compositions, and with a sensuous charm
that no other pianist could approach. His
touch was one of extreme delicacy as well as
force, and there were no difficulties of the in-
strument that he had not mastered. The piano
sang under his hand with wonderful expression.
He died suddenly while at the height of his
reputation.

GOTTSHALL, Rudolph, a German poet and
dramatist, born in Breslau, Sept. 30, 1823. He
studied law at Konigsberg, where he published
anonymously in 1842-' 3 Lieder der Gegenwart
and Censurfluchtlinge. He was afterward ex-
pelled from the university of Breslau on ac-
count of a political demonstration made in his
favor. After some time he was allowed to re-
sume his studies in that city, but could not
obtain a license as a professor, though he re-

128

GOTTSCIIED

ceived a diploma as doctor of philosophy at
Kdnigsberg, where he became a dramatist.
Subsequently he resided at Hamburg, Breslau,
and Posen, and from 1864 at Leipsic as editor
*,-re Zeit, of Blatter fur literarische Un-
terhaltungen, and of Der neue Plutarch (1874
et teg ) His poetical works include OedicJite
(1849), Die Gottin (1863), Carlo Zeno (1854),
Neue Gedichte (1858), Kriegslieder (1871), and
Janus: Friedens- und Kriegsgedichte (1873).
The most renowned of his plays are the com-
edy Pitt und Fox, the drama Mazeppa, and the
tragedies Kaiharina Howard and Herzog Bern-
hard von Weimar. Among his prose writings
are Die deutsche Nationalliteratur im 19. Jahr-
hundert (3 vols., 1853-'72), Poetik (1858), and
Portrait und Studien (4 vols., 1870-71).

GOTTSCHED, Jobann Christoph, a German au-
thor, born at Judithenkirch, near Konigsberg,
Feb. 2, 1700, died in Leipsic, Dec. 12, 1766.
He was educated at Konigsberg, studied the-
ology, but abandoned it for philosophy and
belles-lettres, and was for 32 years professor
of logic and metaphysics at Leipsic. He be-
came president of the literary society of Leip-
sic in 1726, held for a time a sort of literary
dictatorship in Germany, placing purity of
language and clearness and elegance of style
above all other literary merits, while his op-
ponents of the Zurich school, Bodmer and
others, contended for originality and genius.
He was an indefatigable author, and left trage-
dies, translations, philosophical treatises, and
various controversial and critical works. His
chief merit was in contributing to make the
German language the sole medium of instruc-
tion, by publishing popular manuals and abridg-
ments of scientific and philosophical works in
the vernacular tongue.

GOUD1, a town of the Netherlands, in the
province of South Holland, on both banks
of the Gouw at its junction with the Neder
Yssel, 11 m. N. E. of Rotterdam; pop. in
1868, 15,776. It is entered by five gates, and
has canals through the centre of all its streets.
It has five churches, that of St. John being
very magnificent. The principal manufactures
are tobacco pipes, cotton fabrics, parchment,
leather, and white lead.

GOUGH, Hngh, viscount, a British general,
born at Woodstown, Ireland, Nov. 3, 1779,
died March 2, 1869. He entered the army
in 1794, and, after serving against the Dutch
at the Cape of Good Hope and in the West
Indies, in 1809 joined the British forces in
Spain, distinguishing himself at Talavera, Ba-
rosa, Vitoria, Nivello, &c. During the war in
China (1841) he was commander-in-chief of
the land forces, and for his services was made
a baronet. Having been transferred to India
with the supreme command, in December,
1843, ho gained the battle of Maharajpore
gainst the Mahrattas of Gwalior. Upon the
taMkfoa out <.f tin- first Sikh war in 1845, he
defeated th- i-m-my at Moodkee, Dec. 18, and
again ut Ferozethah on the 22d. He finished

GOUJET

the campaign, Feb. 10, 1846, by taking the in-
trenched camp of the Sikhs at Sobraon, though
with terrible loss to his own troops. For these
victories he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Gough. His services in the second Sikh war
(1848-'9) were characterized by bravery rather
than generalship. At Mamnuggar an inde-
cisive battle was fought. Another at Chillian-
wallah (Jan. 13, 1849) came near being a de-
feat; but after a severe struggle the British
remained masters of the field, though with the
loss of nearly 2,500 men. On Feb. 21 Gough
completely routed the Sikhs at the town of
Guzerat. News of the dearly bought victory of
Chillianwallah having reached England, Gough
was superseded in the command of the In-
dian army by Sir Charles Napier. The vete-
ran, however, was raised to the additional rank
of viscount in acknowledgment of his bravery
and long service, was thanked by parliament,
and a pension of 2,000 was settled upon him-
self and his two next successors. He was
made field marshal in 1862, and at his death
was commander of the forces.

GOUGH, John B., an American orator, born at
Sandgate, England, Aug. 22, 1817. He came
to America in 1829, and soon after became a
bookbinder's apprentice in New York. He be-
came intemperate, and was accustomed to sing
and recite in grog shops, where his powers
of mimicry and action made him a favorite.
He fell into great poverty, but about 1840 took
the temperance pledge, and soon began to lec-
ture on temperance, both in America and Eng-
land. In time he added other subjects, and
became a very popular orator. In November,
1873, he recited one of his orations in New
York, announcing that this would probably
be his last public appearance in that city.
He has published his autobiography (1846),
and a volume of orations (1854). He resides
near Worcester, Mass.

GOUGH, Richard, an English antiquary, born
in London, Oct. 21, 1735~ died Feb. 20, 1809.
He was a fellow of the royal society, .and for
many years director of the society of anti-
quaries, of which he wrote a history, and to
whose Archceologia he was a frequent contrib-
utor. Among his works are enumerated an
edition of Camden's Britannia, the valuable
additions to which were the fruit of many
excursions through England, Scotland, and
Wales; "Anecdotes of British Topography"
(4to, 1768; enlarged, 2 vols. 4to, 1780); and
" Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain " (3
or 5 vols. fol., !786-'96).

GOUJET, Claude Pierre, a French author, born
in Paris, Oct. 19, 1C 97, died there, Feb. 1,
1767. He was educated at a college of Jesuits,
entered the order of Oratorians, and proved
a zealous Jansenist. His labors as historian,
compiler, and critic injured his health during
his later years; he lost his sight, and was
obliged to sell his library. Of his many works
the ^following are the most important: Billi-
otheque des ecrivaim eccUsiastiques (3 vols.,

GOUJON

GOULD

129

1736) ; Dissertations sur Vetat des sciences en
France depuis la mart de Charlemagne jusqu'a
celle du roi Robert (1737) ; Histoire du ponti-
ficat de Paul V. ; Bibliotheque francaise, ou
Histoire litteraire de la France (18 vols. 12mo.,
1740-'59) ; Memoire Jiistorique et litteraire
sur le college royal de France (4to, 1758) ;
and Memoires historiques et litteraires (1767).
He edited Richelet's Dictionnaire, and Moreri's
Dictionnaire historique.

GOUJON, Jean, a French sculptor, born in Pa-
ris about 1515, said to have been killed there on
St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572. Little
is known of his life until 1541, when he was
employed at Paris in producing the beautiful
sculptures of the rood loft of St. Germain-
1'Auxerrois, and at Rouen in the cathedral and
in the church of St. Maclou. In 1548 Henry
II. employed him in decorating the chateau of
Anet, which he was building for his mistress,
Diana of Poitiers. There he produced the
celebrated group, now belonging to the Louvre,
of Diana and the stag. Another huntress
Diana by him is in the chateau of Malmaison.
In 1550 the fontaine des innocents was com-
menced in the rue St. Denis; it was trans-
ported in 1788 to the square which it now
adorns. He was also employed as an architect
on the old Louvre. Several of his best works
are still extant. See (Euvres de Jean Goujon,
with 90 outline plates by Reveil (Paris, 1844).

GOULBURN, a city of New South Wales, Aus-
ia, in Argyle co., near the junction of the

Iwarree ponds and Wollondilly river, on
the Great Southern railway, 120 m. S. W. of
Sydney ; pop. about 3,500. It is the seat of
an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop.
Prominent among the public buildings are
several churches, the hospital, the mechanics'
institute, the court house, and the jail. The
progress of the town has thus far been chiefly
due to agriculture ; but in its vicinity are found
gold, copper, and other metals, and marble.
Goulburn was made a city in 1865. In 1872 it
had three newspapers.

GOULBURN, Edward Meyrich, an English cler-

man, born in 1818. He was educated at
ton, and at Balliol college, Oxford, became
fellow of Merton college in 1841, and for a
number of years was a tutor in the university,
being at the same time incumbent of Holywell,
Oxford. In 1850 he was elected head master
of Rugby school, and in 1858 became minister
of Quebec chapel and prebendary of St. Paul's,
London. He was also appointed one of the
chaplains in ordinary to the queen and incum-
bent of St. John's, Paddington, and in 1866
was made dean of Norwich. Dean Goulburn
is a voluminous and popular writer. Among
his chief works are : " The Doctrine of the
Resurrection of the Body " (Bampton lectures,
1850) ; " Principles of the Cathedral System
Vindicated;" "Thoughts on Personal Reli-
gion," with a sequel on the "Pursuit of Holi-
ness;" "Sermons in Norwich" (1870); and
"The Holy Catholic Church " (1873).

had

GOULD, Angnstns Addison, an American nat-
uralist, born in New Ipswich, N. H., April 23,
1805, died in Boston, Sept. 15, 1866. His
father's family name was Duren, which was
changed to that of Gould. He graduated at
Harvard college in 1825, took his medical de-
gree in 1830, and commenced practice in Bos-
ton. During his college life he devoted his
spare moments to the study of natural history;
in the early part of his professional career he
lectured frequently on scientific subjects, and
for two years gave instruction in botany and
zoology at Harvard college. In 1855 he deliv-
ered the annual discourse before the Massachu-
setts medical society, and in 1856 received the
appointment of visiting physician to the Mas-,
sachusetts general hospital. He was an accom-
plished naturalist, and in the department of
conchology stood preeminent both at home and
abroad. His principal published works are: a
translation of Lamarck's " Genera of Shells "
(1833) ; " System of Natural History " (1833) ;
" The Invertebrate Animals of Massachusetts "
(1841); "Principles of Zoology," with Prof.
Agassiz (1848) ; " Mollusca and Shells of the
United States Exploring Expedition under
Capt. Wilkes" (4to, 1852, with an atlas of
plates); the completion of Dr. A. Binney's
"Land Mollusks of the United States" (3 vols.
4to, 1851-'5) ; " The Mollusca of the North
Pacific Expedition under Capts. Ringgold and
Rogers" (1860); and " Otia Conchologica "
(1863). He was also a frequent contributor to
scientific and literary periodicals.

GOULD, Benjamin Apthorp, an American as-
tronomer, born in Boston, Sept. 27, 1824. Af-
ter graduating at Harvard college (1844), he
went to Gottingen, where he pursued his math-
ematical and astronomical studies under Gauss,
and took his degree in 1848. He was for some
time an assistant in the observatory at Altona
with Schumacher and Petersen. After visiting
many of the chief observatories of Europe and
spending some time at each, he returned to
America, and was employed in the United
States coast survey, having charge of the lon-
gitude determinations, the telegraphic methods
of which he very greatly improved. In 1866
he made the first determinations of transatlan-
tic longitude by telegraph cable. In 1856 he
was appointed director of the Dudley observa-
tory at' Albany, and superintended its building
and arrangement in 1857- 1 8. His occupancy
of this post ended in January, 1859, owing to
a disagreement with the trustees of the insti-
tution, which led to a prolonged and painful
conflict, carried on through pamphlets and the
public press. A committee of scientific men
subsequently justified the action of Prof. Gould
in the matters leading to this misunderstand-
ing. In 1868 he was appointed to organize
and direct the national observatory of the Ar-
gentine Republic at Cordova. After ordering
the instruments in Europe and erecting the
building at Cordova, he began work therewith
four assistants in 1870. Since that time he has

130

GOULD

completed a set of maps of the stars visible
with the naked eye from his observatory, with
their positions and magnitudes, and afterward
undertook a series of zone observations of
southern stars. Up to April 15, 1874, the great
number of 83,000 stars had been observed.
Prof. Gould's principal works are: "Report
on the Discovery of the Planet Neptune "
(Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1850);
" Investigation of the Orbit of Comet V."
(Washington, 1847); "Discussions of Obser-
vations made by the United States Astrono-
mical Expedition to Chili, to determine the
Solar Parallax" (Washington, 1856); "Dis-
cussion on the Statistics of the United States
Sanitary Commission ;" and the charts of stars
already named, with others of scarcely less im-
portance. In 1849 he founded at Cambridge,
Mass., the "Astronomical Journal," the ex-
penses of which were long borne by himself
and a few friends. He continued to conduct
it until its suspension in 1861.

GOULD, Hannah Flagg, an American poetess,
born at Lancaster, Mass., in 1789, died at
Newburyport, Sept. 5, 1865. She was a fre-
quent contributor to periodical literature, and
published a volume of poems in 1832, a second
in 1836, and a third in 1841. Her other books
are : " Gathered Leaves," a collection of prose
sketches (1846); "The Diosma," containing
original and selected poems (1850) ; " The
Youth's Coronal" (1851); "The Mother's
Dream, and other Poems" (1853); and
"Hymns and Poems for Children" (1854).

GOULD, John, an English naturalist, born in
Lyme, Dorsetshire, Sept. 14, 1804. Between
the ages of 14 and 20 he resided at the royal
gardens at Windsor, studying the habits of
birds and collecting specimens. He was after-
ward engaged to prepare specimens for the
museum of the London zoological society, and
published " A Century of Birds from the Him-
alayan Mountains," with illustrations by his
wife (fol., London, 1832). He next published
"The Birds of Europe " (1832-7). In 1838
he went to Australia, where he resided two
years, collecting materials for his "Birds of
Australia," also illustrated by his wife (7 vols.
fol., 1842-'8), and for the " Mammals of Aus-
tralia" (1845-'59). His "Monograph of the
Trochilida " (fol., 1850) was suggested by his
unrivalled collection of humming birds, of
which he had procured 2,000 specimens, illus-
trating 320 species. Among his remaining

Monograph of the Macropodid, or Family of
Kangaroos" (1841-'2) ; "Monograph of the
Odontophorinre, or Partridges of America"
(1844-'50) ; a supplement to the " Birds of
Australia," containing species recently discov-
ered ; and a " Handbook to the Birds of Aus-
tralia," giving all the information on the sub-
ject to the close of 1865. In 1873 he was pre-
paring works on Asiatic and on British birds.

GOUR

GOUNOD, Charles Francois, a French composer,
born in Paris, June 17, 1818. He studied
counterpoint at the Paris conservatory under
Hal6vy, receiving also instructions in composi-
tion from Lesueur and Paer. In 1837 he re-
ceived the second prize of the institute, and in
1839 *he obtained the first premium for his
cantata Fernand. In consequence of this suc-
cess he became privileged to pursue his train-
ing at Rome at the government expense, and
there devoted himself to ecclesiastical mu-
sic. In 1843 he visited Vienna, where he pro-
cured the performance, in the church of St.
Paul, of a mass for voices only, in the style of
Palestrina. Returning to Paris, he was appoint-
ed musical director at the church of the Mis-
sions Etrangeres. Here he adopted the mo-
nastic garb, and remained in obscurity till 1851.
On April 16, 1851, he produced unsuccessfully
his first opera, entitled Sappho. In 1852 some
choruses, written for M. Ponsard's classical
tragedy Ulysse, were performed at the Theatre
Francais. In October, 1854, La nonne san-
glante, a grand opera, was performed unsuccess-
fully, as was in 1858 an attempt at comic opera,
consisting of a musical setting of Moliere's
Medecin malgre lui. On March 19, 1859, was-
produced at the Theatre Lyrique the work on
which Gounod's reputation chiefly rests, Faust.
This was succeeded by Philemon et Baucis, a
three-act opera ; La reine de Sala, a grand
opera ; Mirella, an Italian version of the French
Mireille ; and Romeo e Oiulietta. In addition
to these works, he has composed masses,
psalms, and motets, for single and double cho-
rus. Among the most praiseworthy of his
compositions of this class are his " St. Cecilia
Mass " and a setting of the psalm "By. the
Waters of Babylon." Of late years he has
lived principally in London.

GOUR, Ganr, or Lneknonti, a ruined city of
Bengal, British India, 179 m. N. of Calcutta.
Its remains are spread over a range of low
hills which extend along the E. bank of the
Bhagruttee, and cover a space 7 m. long (15
m. including suburban villages) by 2 or 3 m.
broad. Many of the buildings have been de-
molished for the sake of the bricks of which
they were constructed, but several grand edi-
fices are still standing. Of these the most
remarkable are a mosque, built of brick, and
lined with a kind of black porphyry, a curious
building faced with bricks of various colors, an
obelisk 100 ft. high, numerous reservoirs, and
two lofty gates of the citadel. Several villages
have grown up on part of the site, and the rest
is mainly covered with forests or is under cul-
tivation. The earliest record of Gour dates
from 648, when it was governed by indepen-
dent chieftains. At the beginning of the 13th
century it was taken by an officer of the vice-
roy of Delhi under Shahal ud-Din, monarch
of Ghore in Afghanistan; and in 1212 it be-
came the capital of Bengal, an eminence which
it retained, except during an interval of about
50 years previous to 1409, until the British

GOURD

GOURGAUD

131

gained possession of the district in the 18th
century. Its decline, however, began about
1574, when Monaim Khan, commander of
\kbar's troops, captured it and made it the
3at of an independent power, but in a few
lonths fell a victim, with nearly all his troops,
3 the deadly climate. No cause lias since con-
ributed so much to its decay as the diversion
)f the Ganges from its former to its present
lannel, 4 or 5 m. distant, in the 17th century.
GOURD (Fr. gourde, a swelling), a name ap-
)lied in Europe to plants of the order cucurbi-
aceas in general, but restricted in the United
States to the lagenaria, the hard shell of which
put to various domestic uses. To the gourd
mily belong the pumpkin, squash, watermel-
i, cucumber, muskmelon, and several others
jultivated for ornament or known as weeds,
members of the family are succulent ten-
ril-bearing herbs with a watery juice ; alter-
,te and palmately ribbed, lobed, or Dangled
ives, and monoecious, sometimes dioecious

Common Gourd (Lagenaria vuigaris).

>wers; the calyx coherent with the ovary
ower superior) ; corolla mostly monopetalous;
e stamens are usually three and singularly
ntorted and united ; the fruit generally fleshy,
t sometimes with a hard shell when ripe,
e common gourd, bottle or calabash gourd,
jenaria vulgaris, is a native of Asia and Af-
ca; it climbs to a great distance, and has
my, unpleasantly scented leaves. The
lie flowers are on long stalks, white with
enish veins ; the fertile on short stalks, and
roducing a fruit that varies much in shape,
"le commonest form is shaped like a water
ttle with a large base and a swollen handle ;
e rind of this when ripe is very hard and
oody. By making an opening at the place
here the stem joins the fruit and removing
ie contents, it makes, after soaking to re-
move the bitterness, an excellent water bottle.
With an opening in the side it is a convenient
er; and when sawed in two across the

larger part, the lower portion forms a dish,
while the upper serves as a funnel. A variety
is known at the west as sugar-trough gourd,
the large flattened-spherical shell of which will
hold several gallons. Hercules' s club or Cali-
fornia gourd produces a fruit sometimes 5 or
6 ft. long. Under the name of ornamental or
fancy gourds several, mostly species of cucur-
lita, are grown for their small, handsomely
marked, and variously shaped fruit. (See
PUMPKIN, and SQUASH.)

GOURGAUD, Gaspard, baron, a French general,
born in Versailles, Sept. 14, 1783, died July
26, 1852. He studied at the polytechnic
school, and at that of Chalons, entered the
army in 1802, and fought in the campaigns of
Germany (1805-'6), of Poland (1807), of Spain
(1808), and again in Germany (1809). Sent to
Dantzic in 1811 to examine the strength of its
fortifications, his reports gained the favor of
Napoleon, whom he accompanied to Russia in
1812. He was wounded at Smolensk ; at Mos-
cow he prevented an explosion of 5,000 cwt.
of gunpowder stored in the Kremlin, and was
rewarded with the title of baron. On the re-
treat he proved his bravery at the passage of
the Beresina. He was first officier Cordon-
nance to Napoleon during the campaign in
Saxony in 1813, where after the battle of
Leipsic he saved the corps of Oudinot by de-
laying the command of Napoleon to destroy
the bridge of Freiberg. After the battle of
Brienne in the campaign of 1814, he saved Na-
poleon at Mezieres from a troop of Cossacks,
one of whom was already aiming his lance at
the emperor. After the fall of Napoleon he
was well treated by the Bourbons, on whose
flight he joined the emperor (1815). Made
general after the battle of Fleurus, he was
among the last on the battle field of Waterloo,
followed Napoleon to Malmaison and Roche-
fort, and carried his letter to the prince regent
of England. Chosen one of the three who were
allowed to follow the emperor in his exile, he
lived three years at St. Helena, but left the
island in consequence of illness and misunder-
standings, went to England, and tried in vain
to interest the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle and
Maria Louisa in favor of the emperor. In
1821 he was allowed to return to France,
where a legacy from Napoleon enabled him
to live independently, though deprived of his
titles. Together with Gen. Montholon he pub-
lished the Memoires de Napoleon d Sainte-
Helene (8 vols., London, 1823). His Examen
critique (1825) of Segur's "History of the
Grand Army " caused a duel between the two
generals, and was followed by a sharp contro-
versy with Sir Walter Scott, who accused him
of having compromised his master at St. He-
lena. Under Louis Philippe he was made peer
of France, and in 1840 accompanied the duke
de Joinville on his voyage to St. Helena, to
bring the remains of Napoleon to Paris. In
1849 he was elected to the legislative assembly,
where he voted with the conservatives.

132

GOURGUES

GOURGrES, Dominique de, a French adventurer,
born at Mmit-di-Marsan, Gascony, about 1530,
died in Tours about 1693. He served in the
war with Spain, was taken prisoner in Italy
and put in chains in the galleys, was captured
with the vessel by the Turks, and recaptured
by the knights of Malta. He afterward made
voyages to Africa, Brazil, and the East. In
1567 he sailed from Bordeaux, with three small
vessels equipped with 100 arquebusiers and 80
sailors, to avenge the massacre of the French
colonists in Florida by the Spaniards under
Menendez. He landed at St. Mary's river, made
an alliance with an Indian chief, who joined
him with 300 savages, captured Fort San Mateo
on the St. John's river, and two other forts,
slaughtered most of the garrisons, and hung
his prisoners on the same trees on which the
French had suffered. Menendez had placed
over his victims the inscription, " Not as to
Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans;" and Gour-
gues retaliated by putting over the Spaniards
whom he executed, " Not as to Spaniards, but
as to traitors, robbers, and murderers." On
his return to France his surrender was de-
manded by the Spanish ambassador, but he
found asylum among his friends at Rouen,
and lived in obscurity for many years. When
Queen Elizabeth of England, hearing of his mis-
fortunes, invited him to enter her service, the
French king restored him to favor. Shortly
before his death Dom Antonio of Portugal ap-
pointed him commander of his fleet against
Philip II. An account of his expedition to Flor-
ida was published by Basanier, Voyage du capi-
taine Qourgues dans la Floride (4to, 1586).
Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New
World" (1865) has a full account of Gourgues.

GorsSLT, Thomas Marie Joseph, a French pre-
late, born at Montigny-les-Cherlieux, Haute-
8a6ne, May 1, 1792, died in Rheims, Dec. 24,
1866. He was the son of a peasant, and labor-
ed in the field until his 17th year. In 1817 he
was ordained priest, and after a brief interval
was appointed professor of moral theology in
the seminary of Besancon, where he remained
for 17 years. In 1825 he published Exposition
de la doctrine de Vfigliae sur le pret a interet,
which showed that he was far in advance of
the common opinion regarding usury. Other
writings on the relations between the civil
code and moral theology brought him to the
notice of the government ; and in 1835 he was
made bishop of Perigueux, and in 1836 arch-
bishop of Rheims. In 1850 he was created
a cardinal and senator of France. Through-
out his citreor ho never forgot his humble
origin, and delighted to have his aged father,
chid in his homely peasant's garb, placed con-
pkmonily in a seat of honor near himself in
the services of his cathedral. His most re-
markable works are Theologie dogmatique (2
vols. 8vo, 1844 ; 8th ed., 1856), and Theoloqie
morale (2 vols. 8vo, 1848; 12th ed., 1862),
which are to be found in almost every priest's
library on both sides of the Atlantic.

GOUT

GOUT, a painful disease affecting principally
the fibrous tissues about the smaller joints, and
intimately connected with an excess of uric
acid and its compounds in the blood. Various
names have been given according to the part
affected, as podagra when in the feet, chiragra
when in the hands, &c. ; but all such, and
probably many cases of neuralgia accompanied
by oxalic deposits in the urine, are mere forms
of one disease. A common attack of acute
gout is generally preceded by uneasiness, indi-
gestion, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting,
biliary derangement, dull pains or numbness in
the parts to be affected, often with feverish
symptoms ; but in some cases, on the contra-
ry, the disease comes on in the midst of appa-
rent health and well-being, and occasionally at
night during refreshing sleep. In most cases it
makes itself known by an acute pain in the me-
tatarso-phalangeal joint of the great toe; dif-
ferent sufferers compare this to the sensations
produced by the contact of a drop of cold
water, or of cold or heated metal, or by twist-
ing, dislocation, or laceration, as by a nail or
wedge driven into the foot ; this is accompa-
nied by feverish symptoms, urinary sediment,
extreme tenderness, restlessness, involuntary
muscular contractions, sleeplessness, and per-
spiration ; the affected joint is swollen, red,
and hot. This series of symptoms may last
four or five days, to be followed after a day
or two by three or four others, continuing in
all from two to three weeks ; the severity
of the attack, its persistence, its seat, and its
metastases vary according to circumstances.
This first warning past, the luxurious epicure
may not receive another, even if he persist in
his indulgences, for months, or perhaps years ;
but the second comes, and the third, and so on,
the intervals between the attacks becoming
less ; though the pain be less severe, the joints
are more discolored and swollen, with O3dema
and chalky deposits in their neighborhood;
and by a sudden retrocession toward the inter-
nal vital organs, life may be seriously threat-
ened. When gout becomes chronic the attacks
are more irregular, less severe, more frequent
and sudden, leaving one joint for another after
slight exposure to cold and moisture, excess at
table, or vivid emotions ; in this form, the con-
tinuance of the pain and the fear of injuring
the gouty joints render its subjects cross, fret-
ful, and disagreeable, though persons thus af-
fected are often able to devote themselves to
serious study and important private and pub-
lic business. The pathology of gout reduces
itself chiefly to the abnormal presence of
uric acid in the blood, and to the deposit
of urate of soda in the fibrous tissue around
the joints and sheaths of tendons. Gout is
rare before the age of 20, and men of robust
constitution and of a mixed sanguine and bil-
ious temperament are far more liable to it
than females ; it may be inherited, and seems
independent of climate except so far as it in-
fluences the diet of a people, the northern races

GOUT

GOVERNOR'S ISLAND

133

ing generally less temperate in the use of
stimulating food and drinks than southern na-
tions. A life of indolent sensuality, amid the
excitements and passions of civilization in cities,
and the use of highly seasoned animal food
with alcoholic stimulants, are the predisposing
causes to this disease. A person may have
a gouty diathesis, and die from the evils arising
from it, without having experienced what is
popularly understood as a "fit of the gout;"
the gout poison (uric acid) may be eliminated
from the blood in any organ rich in fibrous
tissue, and from recent researches it would
seem that many cases of neuralgia (sciatica
and hemicrania), lithiasis, and oxaluria, with
oxalate of lime deposits in the urine, are symp-
toms of the same morbific action, and excess of
uric acid in the blood either from over pro-
duction or accumulation ; the habits and man-
ner of life, the tissues most affected, and the
peculiar urinary deposit, indicate the identity
of the above forms of disease, and the pro-
priety of the same treatment in all. Organic
chemistry teaches that in the gouty diathesis,
with excess of urates and oxalates, there is a
deficiency of oxygen in the system ; hence the
uric acid may remain unchanged, or may be
oxidized only into oxalic acid, the later remain-
ing as such instead of undergoing further oxi-
dation and being converted into carbonic acid
and urea, in which forms it can be removed
from the organism. We find gout attacking
the upper ranks of society, who indulge in a
highly nitrogenous diet, which tends to pro-
duce uric acid in excess, even though the nor-
mal quantity should be duly eliminated, and
the disease assumes the form of urate of soda
deposits in the joints ; in .the lower classes,
consuming less animal and stimulating food, and
taking in more oxygen from their daily exercise,
the uric acid becomes the oxalic, and the gouty
diathesis manifests itself in neuralgia with ox-
,te of lime in abundance in the urine. By
any authors rheumatism is considered closely
allied to gout; and accordingly cases of the
latter disease affecting especially fibrous tissues
are sometimes called rheumatic gout, a patho-
logical hybrid as absurd and impossible as scar-
latinic measles would be, as Dr. Garrod has
clearly shown ; a gouty person may have also
rheumatism, but the two diseases are distinct
and cannot pass the one into the other, the
former having as a prominent character an
excess of uric, and the latter of lactic acid.
There are few diseases which have more em-
pirical remedies extolled for their cure than
gout ; almost every drastic purgative, diuretic,
tonic, and narcotic has been pressed into the
service, either for external or internal use. To
say nothing here of soothing topical applica-
tions, colchicum has enjoyed, and deservedly,
a great reputation in the treatment of gout
and neuralgia, between the attacks and in their
chronic forms ; it is most efficacious when it
acts upon the skin and bowels. The acetate
of potash and other alkalies are in favor with

uia

many, both for their diuretic property and as
alkalizing the acid in the blood and urine. Ni-
tre-muriatic acid has been found of advantage
for supplying the oxygen necessary for the
conversion of the uric into oxalic acid, and
the latter into carbonic acid and urea. The
judicious use of purgatives, abstinence from
highly nitrogenous food and stimulating drinks,
attention to hygienic rules, and avoiding expo-
sure to dampness, cold, and fatigue of body or
mind, are absolutely necessary as aids in the
treatment of this disease:

GOIJVION SAINT-CYR, Laurent, a French mar-
shal, born in Toul, April 13, 1764, died at
Hyeres, March 17, 1830. He studied the fine
arts, and in 1792 enlisted among the volunteers
who marched to the invaded frontier. Being
elected captain by his companions, he was at-
tached to the staff of Gen. Custine, and in the
course of a year rose to the rank of general of
division. In 1796 he commanded a division of
the army on the Rhine under Moreau. In 1798
he was sent to Rome to reestablish discipline
in the army, which had nearly revolted against
Masse'na, and succeeded. After the 18th Bru-
maire he again served under Moreau, and de-
feated Kray at Biberach (May 9, 1800). In

1801 he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and in

1802 commanded the French army of observa-
tion in southern Italy. He was too indepen-
dent in his conduct and sentiments to please
Napoleon, who assigned him to employment
which gave him no opportunity of gaining dis-
tinction. In 1808 he was sent to Catalonia,
and relieved Barcelona in spite of the scanty
resources placed at his disposal ; but dissatisfied
with the treatment he received, he sent in his
resignation and left his post without waiting for
his successor. This being considered a breach
of discipline, he was cashiered and ordered to
his country seat, where he remained for two
years in a kind of imprisonment. In 1811 he
was called back to service, in 1812 commanded a
corps in the great army which invaded Russia,
and defeated Prince "Wittgenstein at Polotzk on
the Dtina, Aug. 17-18 ; for this victory he was
made a marshal. During 1813 he made a heroic
stand at Dresden, signing at last an honorable
capitulation, which however was not sanctioned
by Prince Sch warzenberg, and he and his troops
were sent prisoners to Austria. He consequently
took no part in the events which marked the
fall of the empire. He gave in his adhesion to
the Bourbons, and on the second restoration
became minister of war under Talleyrand, and
again in 1817. He retired in 1819, and devoted
his leisure to the preparation of his Memoires
(8 vols., 1829-'31).

GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, a fortified post of the
United States, lying in New York harbor, at
the entrance of East river, about m. S. of
the Battery, and separated from Brooklyn by
Buttermilk channel. It is about a mile in cir-
cumference, and contains Castle William, Fort
Columbus, and South battery, the last com-
manding the entrance to Buttermilk channel.

134

GOWER

GOWER, John, an English poet, born, accord-
ing to tradition, in Yorkshire, though some
authorities make him a native of Kent or of
. about 1325, died in 1408. He was a
gentleman of considerable estate, and appears
to have studied law and to have contracted a
friendship with Chaucer. It has been said,
hut on insufficient proof, that he attained the
dignity of chief justice of the court of common
pleas. Like Chaucer he was a Lancastrian,
and like him also a censurer of the vices of the
clergy. Chaucer dedicates his "Troilus and
Cressida" to Gower, calling him "moral
Gower," and the latter in his Confessio Aman-
tis introduces Venus calling Chaucer "my
disciple and my poete." Gower's chief works
are the Speculum Meditantis, a treatise on the
duties of married life, in French verse, in ten
books; the Vox Clamantis, a poem in seven
books, describing in Latin elegiacs the insur-
rection of the commons under Richard II.;
and the Confessio Amantis, an English poem
in eight books, said to have been written at
the suggestion of Richard II. Of these works
the first is supposed to have perished, the sec-
ond exists in manuscript copies, and the third,
which was finished about 1393, was first pub-
lished by Caxton in 1483. A new edition, with
the life of the author and a glossary, by Dr.
Reinhold Pauli, appeared in London in 1857
(3 vols. 8vo). Some smaller poems of no great
merit are preserved in manuscript in the libra-
ry of Trinity college, Cambridge ; and Warton
discovered in the library of the marquis of
Stafford a volume of lalades in French, which
was printed in 1818 by Lord Gower for the
Roxburghe club. Gower is known chiefly by
his Confessio Amantis, which was undoubt-
edly suggested by Chaucer's English poems.
Hallam says: "He is always sensible, pol-
ished, perspicuous, and not prosaic in the
worst sense of the word." In his latter years
he was blind.

GOYA, a city of the Argentine Republic, in
the province and 100 m. S. of the city of Cor-
rientes, on a email river of the same name,
near its junction with the Parana ; pop. in
1869, 10,907, of whom only 1,839 were able to
read. It is situated in a low, flat district,
which in the rainy season is converted into a
vast marsh. The city was founded in 1807,
and considerably enlarged in 1850. Its indus-
try is chiefly connected with cattle rearing.

GOYAMA, a city of Brazil, in the province
of Pernambuco, on the river Goyanna, here
crossed by two bridges, 1,200 m. N. N. E. of Rio
de Janeiro ; pop. about 9,000. There are sev-
eral churches, a convent, a tannery, and public
stores. A cattle fair is held weekly. The
port, large and spacious, with sufficient depth
f water for coasting craft, is 9 m. from the
sea. The surrounding country is fertile, and
in a high state of cultivation. The chief com-
merce is in cotton, sugar, rum, hides, timber,
fancy woods, and castor oil, which are gene-
rally sent to the port of Recife.

GOYAZ

GOYAZ. I. A central province of Brazil, ly-
ing between lat. 6 and 21 5' S., and Ion. 44
35' and 50 58' W. ; area, 284,000 sq. m. ; pop.
about 151,000, besides about 12,000 indepen-
dent Indians. It comprises the basin of the
Tocantins above its junction with the Ara-
guay, and the E. portion of the basin of the
latter river, together with nearly the whole of
the N. side of the basin of the Paranahyba.
The surface is generally mountainous. The
Cordilheira Grande traverses it from the ex-
treme north to about lat. 16 S., where it
unites with the Montes Pyrenees, the culmi-
nating point of which, Goyaz, has an elevation
of about 9,500 ft. Several sierras extend
from S. to N., forming for the most part the
E. boundary, and with the Cordilheira Grande
and the Pyrenees encircling the basin of the
Tocantins. The main ranges are intersected
by numerous subsidiary ones, from which the
country slopes gradually down to the sea level.
The geological structure is imperfectly known.
It has been appropriately described as " a met-
amorphic island in a sea of sandstone, the
sandstones having been swept away from the
greater part of the river basins, leaving irregu-
lar metamorphic rocks exposed." The great
plains and valleys lying between the mountains
are watered by numerous rivers, among which
is the Tocantins ; this, formed by the union of
the Maranhao and the Paranatinga, flows N".
to its confluence with the Araguay, in the N".
corner of the province, receiving in its course
many considerable affluents. The Araguay,
which belongs only in part to the province, is
much larger than the Tocantins, and hence is
properly the main stream, and is navigable for
steamers, which run to Pard (Belem), at the
mouth of the Amazon. Gold is found in
many parts, the neighborhood of the capital
being especially auriferous. Diamonds and
other precious stones have been discovered in
various places. The country is generally open,
although there is an extensive forest tract ly-
ing near the capital. The lowlands are not
well fitted for cultivation ; but the highlands
are fertile, producing millet, mandioca, rice,
and a small species of beans. Cotton, coffee,
and tobacco are produced ; the grape flourish-
es, affording two vintages in the year. Mel-
ons, bananas, oranges, &c., abound. The vanil-
la bean, sarsaparilla, rhubarb, and senna grow
spontaneously. Palms are numerous, especial-
ly the beautiful species known as the ~buriti,
from the fruit of which is produced a bever-
age resembling wine. A considerable part of
the province is especially adapted for grazing,
and there are many cattle, horses, and swine.
Wild animals and birds, especially macaws and
parrots, are numerous. II. A city, capital of
the province, on the river Vermalho, in lat. 16
20' S., Ion. 50 W., about 600 m. N. W. of Rio
de Janeiro ; pop. about 8,500. It is very nearly
in the centre of Brazil, being almost equidis-
tant from Para, Porto Alegre, and the fron-
tiers of Peru and Uruguay. The site is uneven,

GOZO

GRAAL

135

t the streets are regularly laid out, although
ill paved. Most of the houses are built with
mud walls. The principal edifices are the gov-
ernor's palace, the house of legislation, the
prison, and the municipal slaughter house.
One of the churches has a fine exterior. The
river is here crossed by two handsome bridges.
There is very little trade. The climate is sa-
lubrious, but in summer the heat is excessive.
The town was founded in 1736, and was then
called Santa Anna. It was incorporated as a
city in 1739, when it received its present name

Goyaz, or, in full, Villa Boa de Goyaz.

GOZO. See MALTA.

GOZZI, Carlo, count, an Italian dramatist,
born in Venice about 1720, died April 4, 1806.
He early published some poetry, but was
obliged to enlist in the army owing to pecuni-
ary embarrassment. After three years he re-
turned to Venice, and became the most witty
member of the Granalleschi society, which
was devoted to learning and also to convivial
and burlesque purposes. He began to ridicule
the plays of the abbate Cliiari, and ended by
attacking those of Goldoni, against whom he
directed his satire La tartana degli influssi
per Tanno Mssestile 1757, which made him
famous. His dramatic pieces, based on fairy
tales, were for a time exceedingly popular, es-
pecially Turandote, which Schiller adapted to
the German stage. He afterward wrote trage-
dies. He published a complete edition of his
plays in 12 vols. (Venice, 1791). Werthes trans-
lated his plays into German (5 vols., Bern,
1795), and Streckfuss prepared a German ver-
sion of his fairy tales (Berlin, 1805). He face-
tiously gave to his autobiography the title of
Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi (3
vols., Venice, 1797). His brother GASPARO
(1713-'86) was a voluminous writer in prose
and verse, but is best remembered as the author
of the Osservatore veneto (published periodical-
ly), Sermoni, and other humorously critical pro-
ductions. His works, including his Difesa di
Dante, were collected in 16 vols. (1818).

GRAAF, Regnier de, a Dutch physician, born at
Schoonhoven in 1641, died in Delft, Aug. 17,
1673. He was especially distinguished for hav-
ing originated the discovery that reproduction
takes place in the viviparous as well as in the
oviparous animals by means of ovarian eggs,
and that all animals are therefore essentially
oviparous. The "Graafian vesicles" of the
mammalian ovary were discovered and de-
scribed by him, although he mistook their ex-
act nature and considered, them as true eggs,
while they have since been shown to be only
the receptacles within which the microscopic
egg is contained. He also acquired a wide
reputation by his investigations on the pancre-
atic juice. His works are : Disputatio Medica
de Natura et Usu Sued Pancreatid (Ley den,
1664); De Virorum Organis Generationi in-
sermentibus, &c. (1668); Epistola de nonnullis
circa Partes Genitales novis invcntis (1668) ;
Tractatus Anatomico-Medicus de Sued Pancre-

atid Natura et Usu (1671) ; and De Mulierum
Organis Generationi insermentibus (1672).

GRAAL, or Grail, the Holy (in old French, san
greal; in old English, sancgreall; either from
Fr. saint, holy, and the Celtic greall, Provencal
grazal, and mediaeval Latin gradalis, a vase or
cup, or from the French sang real^ the "real
blood " of Christ), one of the leading themes
of mediaeval romance, fabled to have been the
cup or chalice used by Christ in the last supper,
and in which he changed the wine into his
blood. This chalice, preserved by Joseph of
Arimathea, had also received the blood which
flowed from the side of Christ on the cross.
So says the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus;
but no early mention is made of it by either
profane or ecclesiastical writers'. In the 12th
century, at the dawn of romantic literature, it
reappeared as the central subject of the prophe-
cies of Merlin, and the object of the adventurous
quest of the knights of the round table. Eo-
mance mixed it up with the struggles in Spain
between Moors and Christians, and with the
foundation of the order of templars in Pales-
tine. In the Arthurian romances Joseph of
Arimathea (sometimes confounded with a bish-
op named Joseph sent by St. Augustine from
Africa to England), on his arrival in Britain,
consecrated his son first bishop of the island,
and made his Christian relatives kings instead
of the British pagan kings. Kept in prison by
the Jews during the 50 years which imme-
diately followed the death of Christ, he had
been preserved from the approaches of old age
by the possession of the holy graal, and was
released by the Saviour in person, who taught
him the words of the mass, and bade him re-
new daily the sacrament of the last supper.
The holy graal lay thus at the foundation of
the Christian priesthood. St. Joseph of Ari-
mathea, in some forms of the legend, was the
ever-living possessor of the precious relic ; in
others he died after the lapse of several centu-
ries, bestowing his authority and the holy graal
on his son, who in his turn died after conse-
crating one of his relatives as his successor.
.The last possessor, a contemporary of King Ar-
thur, unmindful of his holy trust, sinned, and
forthwith the holy vessel disappeared and was
lost. The knights of the round table undertook
the task of recovering it; but it baffled the
seekers, as no one could see it who was not
a virgin in body. Lancelot of the lake had
arrived at the door of the chamber where the
holy graal was ; warned to depart, he neverthe-
less ventured to look in, " and saw a table of
silver and the holy vessel covered with red
samite, and many angels about it, whereof one
of them held a candell of wax burning, and the
other held a crosse and the ornaments of the
alter." Having dared to enter, a blast of fire
smote him to the ground, where he lay " twen-
ty-four days and as many nights as a dead
man." It was reserved to Sir Galahad, who
was possessed of perfect purity, to behold it
peacefully before his death. Immediately after

13G

GRACCHUS

this event the holy graal was taken up to heav-
en. In other romances Sir Percival is distin-
u'uished in tin- place of Sir Galahad. At a later
peril id >e\vral churches in France and Italy
claimed to possess the holy graal ; and in 1101
the crusaders obtained a cup which was believ-
ed for some time to be identical with it, and
which is still preserved in the cathedral of
Genoa. The Queste du Saint Graal is among
the longest of live great romances composing
the Arthurian cycle. The Parcival and Titu-
ral of Wolfram von Eschenbach treat the same
subject. See also Tennyson's "Idyls of the
King," and " History of the Holy Grail," edited
from MS. by F. J. Furnivall (London, 1874).

GRACCHUS. I. Tiberius Sempronins, a Roman
statesman, born about 168 B. C., died in 133.
His father, Tiberius Gracchus, had been censor
and consul, and had twice obtained a triumph.
His mother, Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Afri-
canus, had remained a widow, devoting herself
to the education of her children, in which she
was assisted by eminent Greek teachers. Tibe-
rius, the oldest, made his first campaign in Af-
rica under his uncle Scipio, and next tilled the
office of qua3stor under the consul Mancinus
in his unlucky campaign against the Numan-
tines. The high regard in which the latter
held both his father and his uncle induced them
to grant to Tiberius, with whom alone they
would treat, the favorable terms which saved
the Roman army. But the senate refused to
ratify the treaty, and had resolved to send back
Mancinus and all his officers, when Tiberius in-
terfered and saved the officers, the consul alone
being given up. At the close of 134 he was elect-
ed tribune, and commenced his career as a polit-
ical agitator. The multitude of slaves brought
into Italy by the long and frequent wars had
taken the place in agricultural occupations of
the original farmers, while the small proprie-
tors, during the protracted terms of military
service, had been bought out by the rich. Thus
all Italy was owned by a few large proprietors,
who employed slave labor almost exclusively
in the cultivation of the soil. The city at the
same time was crowded with veteran soldiers,
many of whom had thus lost their estates and
all of whom were needy. Prompted by his
own ambition and abetted by his mother and
friends, Tiberius from the commencement of
his tribuneship talked openly of reviving the
Licinian law, by which no man could hold
more than bWjugera (about 330 acres) of land,
and thus the surplus would become the prop-
erty of the poor citizens. He framed a modi-
fication of the Licinian law (see AGRARIAN
LAWS), which ho proposed to the tribes, and
which was firmly resisted by the patricians and
the wealthy. Three commissioners were to be
appointed to superintend the working of the
new law; and crowds hastened to Rome to
tak- -ides with Tiberius or the senate. Mean-
while the latter had obtained the veto of M.
OetaviiH derma, the other tribune, and thus
each time the law was proposed the proceed-

ings were quashed. Tiberius, incensed at this
mode of opposition, exercised his veto on other
questions, stopping the public supplies, and the
government came to a standstill. It was evi-
dent that one or both of the tribunes must re-
tire from office. Gracchus at length put the
question to the tribes, and it was voted to eject
Octavius, who was dragged from the tribune's
chair. The agrarian law was passed imme-
diately, and Tiberius, his brother Caius, and his
father-in-law Appius Claudius, were appointed
commissioners. Thereupon the senate refused
to vote Tiberius more than a denarius and a
half (about 20 cents) a day for his expenses as
a public officer. At this juncture Attalus,
king of Pergamus, died, bequeathing his king-
dom and treasures to the Roman people. Grac-
chus forthwith proposed to divide the trea-
sure among the recipients of land under the
new law, and to give the popular assembly,
instead of -the senate, the management of the
kingdom. He was formally accused of aspi-
ring to be king, and made a lame defence be-
fore the people. Seeing his popularity wa-
ning, he sought to be elected tribune for a
second term ; and this being demurred to as
illegal, a whole day's discussion ensued. Next
morning, learning that the senate would op-
pose his election by force, he armed his fol-
lowers, and was proceeding to clear the capi-
tol when Scipio Nasica at the head of the
senators attacked his partisans, and slew 300
of them, as well as Tiberius himself. II. Cains
Sempronins, brother of the preceding, born
about 159 B. C., died in 121. At the death
of Tiberius he was left with Appius Claudius
as commissioner for carrying out the agrarian
law, but abstained from taking any part in
politics for several years. In 124 he returned
to Rome from Sardinia, where he had been
consul's quaestor under L. Aurelius Orestes,
was immediately summoned before the censors
to give an account of his administration, de-
fended himself successfully, and became a can-
didate for the tribuneship. He was elected,
and commenced by having a law passed aimed
at Popilius, who had persecuted his brother's
friends. Popilius fled from Rome, and was
banished from Italy. Next came a poor-law,
by which a monthly distribution of grain was
to be made to the people at an almost nominal
price. After this he transferred the judicial
power in a very great measure to the knights.
These measures gained him great popularity.
During his second tribuneship (122) he pro-
posed the extension of the Roman franchise to
all Italy. But this ultimately led to his ruin.
M. Livius Drusus, his colleague, was persuaded
by the senate to veto this law, which he did
with the applause of the tribes. Furthermore,
Drusus outbid him again in the popular favor
by offering to establish at once twelve colonies
of 3,000 persons each, who were to have their
allotments free. Gracchus having seconded a
parallel proposition, mado by the tribune Ru-
brius, to colonize a spot near Carthage, the

GRACES

snate sent him thither as commissioner. When
he returned his popularity was gone. In the
next election for tribunes his name was omit-
ted. The law founding the colony near Car-
thage had been unpopular, and soon after his
return it was proposed to repeal it. This he
resisted, uniting with Fulvius, a commissioner
of the agrarian law, and inciting the populace
to acts of violence. In the tumult one of the
opposite party was slain by a follower of Grac-
chus, and the senate named the consul Opimius
dictator. He summoned Gracchus and Fulvius
to answer the charge of murder. Gracchus
submitted, but his partisans were in arms, and
a conflict ensued. He had crossed the Tiber
and taken refuge in a grove of the Furies,
where, hard pressed by his enemies, he com-
manded his servant to slay him. He is rep-
resented as a man of surpassing eloquence.

GRACES, The (Lat. Gratia, Gr. Xdpire^ my-
thological beings, generally described as daugh-
ters of Jupiter, but called by some daughters
of Apollo, and by others of Bacchus; their
maternity is still more undecided. The Spar-
tans and Athenians recognized only two Cha-
rites, but Hesiod enumerates three, whom he
names Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia; and
this number and nomenclature generally pre-
vailed. The Graces were the goddesses of social
festivity, happiness, and mirth, the inspirers
of those virtues and amenities which render
human intercourse delightful, and the patron-
esses of whatever is graceful and beautiful in na-
ture or in art. Great poets, painters, and sculp-
tors were the peculiar objects of their favor.
The Graces were commonly represented as the
companions of other divinities, especially Apol-
lo, Venus, and Cupid ; and their attributes are
made always to harmonize with those of the
deity upon whom they attend. Thus as the
companions of Apollo they bear musical instru-
ments, while as those of Venus they carry
myrtle, roses, or dice. They are usually rep-
resented as virgins in the bloom of life, em-
bracing each other, and sometimes appear
clothed, sometimes naked.

GRACIAS, or Gracias a Dios (" Thanks to God "),
an inland city of Honduras, capital of a de-
partment of the same name, situated in a fer-
tile plain, near the foot of a steep and craggy
mountain, 77m. W. by N". of Comayagua; lat.
14 30' N., Ion. 88 50' W. Though now having
only 3,000 inhabitants, Gracias was once a flour-
ishing city, with a large population, attracted
thither by the rich mines of the surrounding
country, and was the chief entrepot for mer-
chandise in transitu from Puerto Caballos to
the populous region of Guatemala. It was
founded in 1530 by Gabriel de Rojas, and en-
larged in 1536 by Gonzalo (or more probably
Pedro) de Alvarado. Until 1544 it was the
seat of government of Guatemala and Nica-
ragua ; but since then it has gradually fallen
from its original splendor, the only traces of
which are now visible in the parish church
and the convent of La Merced. Although mi-

GRADUATION

137

ning is still followed to a considerable extent,
and opals of the finest quality are found in the
vicinity, the inhabitants depend chiefly on agri-
culture for subsistence. The climate is very
salubrious. Near the town a mountain torrent,
one of the tributaries of the Rio Santiago or
Venta, plunges by two successive leaps to a
depth of 1,200 feet.

GRACIAS I DIGS, Cape, the K E. point of
Central America, at the mouth of the large
river Coco or Segovia, in lat. 15 N., Ion. 83
12' W. It was so named by Columbus, when,
in his fourth voyage, after beating for many
days against head winds and adverse currents,
he finally succeeded in turning the angle of the
continent, and taking his course southward.
There is a harbor near the cape, with but 16
feet of water.

GRACIOSA, one of the Azores, so called from
its beautiful situation and extreme productive-
ness, lat. 39 5' K, Ion. 28 4' W. ; area, 32 sq.
m. ; pop. about 12,000. Its chief exports are
corn, wine, brandy, fruit, hemp, and flax. Chief
town, Santa Cruz.

GRADUATION, the art of dividing astronomi-
cal, geodetical, and other mathematical instru-
ments. It was formerly done by hand with
ordinary dividing instruments, and so few
makers possessed the requisite skill that it was
very difficult to procure good instruments for
the ordinary purposes of navigation ; but now
the operation is performed with great exact-
ness by machines called dividing engines. Jesse
Ramsden, a cloth presser, who subsequently
turned his attention to engraving, being brought
in contact with mathematical instrument ma-
kers, was led to construct the engine which for
many years was called by his name. At that
time it was considered so valuable that the
English commissioners of longitude entered
into a contract with him (1775) to instruct a
certain number of persons, not exceeding ten,
in the method of making and using it, and to
divide sextants and octants at certain prices as
long as the engine remained in his possession,
they becoming the purchasers for the sum of
315, and giving 300 in addition for the in-
vention. Perfect as the instrument was then
considered, it has since been greatly improved,
so that it is now automatic, the whole operation
of dividing a circle, after it has been placed on
the engine, being performed by a motion given
by the descent of a weight, or by a crank
turned by hand. The engine consists of a large
wheel of bell metal, the circumference being
ratched into 720, 1,080, 1,440, 2,160, or 4,320
teeth, or any number which, divided by 2, 3,
4, 6, or 12, will give 360. These teeth are cut
with great accuracy, and the wheel is turned
on its centre by an endless screw, by which it
may be moved any number of degrees or parts
desired. The dividing point is fixed in a frame
which admits of a free and easy motion to and
from the centre. In England, Troughton,
Simms, Thomas, Jones, Ross, and a few others,
have been successful in making these engines,

138

GR^VIUS

while many others have failed. On the con-
tinent of Europe they were first made auto-
matic, and other improvements were also made
in them. Gambey of Paris has so arranged
his as to divide an instrument without any ec-
centricity, even when placed in a slightly ec-
centric position on the engine. Oertling of
Berlin has an arrangement for correcting any
original errors in the teeth while dividing, and
other mechanists of celebrity have constructed
them to suit their own views, and for their
own use. In the United States there is a large
one belonging to the coast survey, made by
Simms of London, and afterward made auto-
matic by Saxton; also one in Philadelphia
made by Young, and one in New York by the
Messrs. Blunt, both of which are automatic.
There'is no branch of the mechanic arts which
requires more skill in the use of tools, more
geometrical knowledge, and greater patience,
than the construction of a circular dividing
engine. The large astronomical instruments
are divided in a different manner, and, unless
placed on a large engine from which the divi-
sions may be in a manner copied, are original
divisions. Troughton, Simms, and Jones of
London have used movable microscopes with
micrometers; while others on the continent
of Europe have availed themselves of the
feeling lever, a powerful instrument for that
purpose invented by the astronomer Bessel.
Straight line divisions for scales, &c., are made
by means of a screw, a milled roller, or a wedge
which is employed to move a platform sliding
freely beneath a cutting frame, and carrying
the scale to be divided. In the use of the screw
much depends on its accuracy, and, with re-
gard to the roller or wedge, on the working
or manner of applying them. When great ac-
curacy is required, the divisions are tested by
means of two microscopes, and an error can be
detected of j^Vor f an inch. The ruling ma-
chines used by engravers in this country are
well calculated for this purpose.

GH KYII'S, Johann Georg (GRAEFE), a German
scholar, born in Naumburg, Jan. 29, 1632, died
in Utrecht, Jan. 11, 1703. He had begun to
study law at Leipsic, when, meeting with
Gronpvius at Deventer, he determined to be-
gin his education over again, devoting himself
to belles-lettres. After remaining two years at
Deventer, he passed to Amsterdam, where he
studied history under Morus and Blondel, and
abjured Lutheranism for Calvinism. In 1658
he succeeded Gronovius in the athengeum of
Deventer, and in 1661 obtained the chair of
eloquence in the academy of Utrecht, to which
was attached in 1667 that of politics and his-
tory. Louis XIV. gave him a pension, and the
mmvrsitk-s of Bddelbere. Leyden, and Padua
in vain sought to attach him to them. Among
his works are editions of Hesiod, Cicero, Ca-
tullus. Til.iillus, I'ropi-rtius, Suetonius, and Flo-
rus, and Thesauri of Italian antiquities.

GRAFE. I. Karl Ferdinand von, a German sur-
geon, born in Warsaw, March 8, 1787, died in

GRAFTING

| Hanover, July 4, 1840. He graduated as a
doctor of medicine at Leipsic in 1807, and in
1811 became professor of surgery in Berlin.
During the war with Napoleon he superin-
tended the military hospitals, and after the
restoration of peace (1815) he became a mem-
ber of the medical staff of the army. Students
from all parts of the world attended his lec-
tures, and on his visit to England he was the
guest of the king. In Paris Dupuytren invited
him to take his place as a lecturer. In 1840
he was summoned to Hanover to operate upon
the eyes of the crown prince (the present
ex-king George), but he suddenly died after
his arrival there. The revival of the rhino-
plastic process was due in a great measure
to the labors of Griife, who propounded his
system in his work Rhinoplastik (Berlin, 1818).
II. Albreeht von, a German oculist, son of the
preceding, born in Berlin in May, 1828, died
there, July 18, 1870. He studied mathematics
and the natural sciences, and afterward medi-
cine, at Berlin, Prague, Vienna, and Paris, devo-
ting himself particularly to ophthalmology, and
founded in Berlin a private establishment for
the treatment of the eyes. He was also pro-
fessor of ophthalmology in the university. He
was distinguished for great practical and scien-
tific acquirements in ophthalmology, the lead-
ing journal of this department of medicine at
Berlin, Von Grafts Archivfur OpJithalmologim
being conducted under his name with the col-
laboration of Profs. F. Arlt, F. C. Donders,
and Th. Leber. Most of Von Grafe's important
contributions were published in this journal.
These were papers on the "Physiology and
Pathology of the Oblique Muscles of the Eye-
ball," on " Double Vision after Operations for
Strabismus," on "Diphtheritic Conjunctivitis,"
on the " Effect of the most refrangible Solar
Rays upon Sensation," on the "Treatment of
Glaucoma by Iridectomy," on the " Cerebral
Causes of Blindness," and on a modified form of
the operation for the extraction of cataract. He
was also a frequent contributor to the medical
society of Berlin and to various medical jour-
nals. III. Alfred Karl, nephew and some time
assistant of the preceding, born Nov. 23, 1830.
In 1858 he graduated at Halle, afterward be-
came professor there, and founded an ophthal-
mic institute, which is visited by several thou-
sand patients annually. He was the first to
obtain a recognition of the study of diseases of
the eyes as a special science in the Prussian
universities. He has published KliniscJie Ana-
lyse der Motilitdtestdrungen des Aiiges (Berlin,
1858), Symptomenlehre der Augenmuslfellah-
mungen (1867), and Ein Wort zur Erinne-
rung an Albrecht von Grafe (1870).

GRAFEXBERG. See PRIESSNITZ.

GRAFTING, the process in horticulture by
which a portion of a plant is made to unite
with another plant, whether of the same kind
or of another variety or species. The plant
upon which the operation is performed is called
the stock ; the portion inserted in or joined

GRAFTING

139

with it the scion or graft. No attempts to-
ward grafting plants on others which do not
belong to the same natural order have been
successful. Generally speaking, varieties suc-
ceed best on varieties, species on species, or
species and varieties on allied genera. All our
cultivated fruits, for instance, are improved
varieties of some original species. Out of
thousands of varieties raised from the seeds of
some previous excellent variety, it is not likely
that any will be precisely like the immediate
parent; some few may be equal or superior
to it, but the great majority will be inferior.
When a new and decidedly valuable variety
occurs, it becomes a matter of importance to
perpetuate it in as many individual plants as
possible, and this, with trees, is usually done
by grafting. The trifling effect that the stock
has upon the scion enables the poorer varie-
ties to be employed in furnishing the trunk
and root to the smaller and younger scion. A
piece of well ripened wood, in the form of a
twig of the growth of the previous season hav-
ing three or four buds upon it, is thus transferred
to the poorer kind, and forms a living extrem-
ity, which extends itself into branches and
forms a new head or top. Fruit trees are
grafted on plants of their own kind, called free
stocks, or they are grafted upon a related
variety or species to accomplish some particu-
lar end. Certain stocks induce early fruiting
and a dwarfed growth ; to dwarf the apple, it
is grafted upon the paradise, a distinct varie-
ty of apple ; the pear is dwarfed by grafting
upon the quince. A species of cherry called the
mahaleb (prunus mahalcb) is used for dwarf-
ing the cherry, and the sloe and the beach
plum for the plum. The peach upon its own
roots does not grow well in stiff and cold soils,
and for such situations it is worked upon a
plum stock. The pear will grow when grafted
upon the apple, but the union is short-lived ;
it is also sometimes grafted upon the thorn and
mountain ash, but such unions are a matter of
fancy rather th an utility; nurserymen use only
the stocks we have mentioned. The raising of
stocks is an important part of the nurseryman's
business ; though a tree may be grafted at
almost any age, in nurseries where hundreds
of thousands are worked every year the stocks
used are as small as practicable. Free stocks
for the apple and pear are raised from seeds,
while the dwarfing paradise and quince stocks
are grown from layers and cuttings. Most of
the grafting in nurseries is done indoors in the
winter. The stocks, which are a quarter of an
inch or more in diameter, are taken up in the
autumn and buried in an accessible place ; when
worked, the root is shortened, the top cut off,
and the scion inserted at the " collar," or where
root and stem join. The grafted roots are set in
boxes of sand and kept in a cellar until they
can be planted in spring. The operation is
performed with great rapidity, and several me-
chanical appliances have been devised for facili-
tating the work. Sometimes pieces of the root

are used as stocks, but there has been much dis-
cussion and great difference of opinion as to the
value of the trees so produced. Stone fruits
are more difficult to graft than the apple and
pear, but if it- be done sufficiently early in
spring the plum may be so treated very suc-
cessfully ; the peach is rarely grafted at the
north, but it succeeds at the south ; this fruit
is usually propagated by that form of grafting
called budding. Although fruit trees are graft-
ed with scions of ripened wood, there are some
trees which will only succeed when green wood
is used for both scion and stock; this kind
of grafting is called herbaceous. Many ever-
greens can be grafted in the ordinary way, but
the pines only succeed with herbaceous graft-
ing, and the same may be said of some nut-
bearing trees. Ornamental trees of various
kinds are propagated by grafting, especially
where it is desired to perpetuate some indivi-
dual peculiarity, such as a pendent or weeping
habit, or foliage of an unusual shape or color.
Some weeping trees which are naturally low,
as the weeping beech, ash, and poplar, form
elegant specimens when grafted upon a stock
8 or 10 ft. high. Among ornamental trees
and shrubs grafting is resorted to as the
most rapid means of propagation: sometimes
a variety cannot be multiplied readily from cut-
tings, but can be grafted upon some related
stock that will grow rapidly. The choicer
species of clematis, now so much prized as
ornamental climbers, take root with great
difficulty, while some of the older kinds strike
root freely; the florist grows these from cut-
tings, and grafts the more difficult subjects
upon their roots. The fine double camellias
will not grow from cuttings, but are propaga-
ted by grafting upon the single kinds which
readily do so. Epiphyllums and other trail-
ing cactuses make fine plants by grafting them
upon a stout stem of cereus triangularis or
one of the pereskias. Successful grafting of
the apple upon the maple, the rose upon the
black currant, and the like, is impossible, al-
though instances of it are often narrated.
The utility of the operation of grafting de-
pends upon the fact that a bud is the repre-
sentative of the tree from which it is taken;
it has the possibility of unlimited development ;
and as it will, if allowed to extend into a
branch on the tree where it has formed, repeat
all the characters of the tree, so when taken
from the tree which produced it and planted as
it were in the substance of another tree, it will
develop a branch like the parent tree, and not
like the stock with which it is united. Between
the wood and bark of exogenous trees, inclu-
ding all northern fruit trees, there is a layer
in which the forces of vegetation are most
active ; here the wood of the tree receives
each year a layer of new wood, outside of the
old, and the inner bark has deposited upon it
a new layer upon the inside of that of previous
years. This portion, which is neither perfect
wood nor bark, but the place where both are

GRAFTING

being formed, is called the cambium layer. It
is this which, if a cut be made in a tree, sends
out a new growth to close over and repair the
wound ; and it is upon the extraordinary vital-
ity of this rumhium that the success of grafting
depends. The mechanical operations of graft-
ing are various, but they all have for their ob-
ject the bringing of the newly forming wood
and bark of the scion into the closest possible
contact with those of the stock. As a general
rule, grafting is most successful when the scions
are quite dormant, but the forces of vegetation
in the stock are active. Fruit-tree scions are
cut at any time after the fall of the leaf be-
fore the buds begin to swell, and kept in damp
sand or saw dust to prevent drying. Cleft
grafting is in this country the most common
and likewise the most clumsy method, and yet
very often the most successful. It is practised
upon stocks from an inch to several inches in
diameter. The branches of old trees are re-
newed by this method, the grafts being inserted
in the branches. Sometimes the entire tree of
four or five inches diameter is cut to a bare
stock and used in the same manner. The stock,
whether trunk or branch, is cut over horizon-
tally with a sharp saw, and the surface pared
smooth with a knife ; a cleft about two inches
deep is made in the stock with a grafting knife
and mallet ; the scion to be grafted is prepared
by sloping its lower end in the form of a wedge
about an inch and a half long, leaving it a little
thicker on the outer edge. The cleft being
kept open with a wedge, the scion is carefully

1. Cleft Gratting.

I. The Deration with the stock cut horizontally. 2. With
a sloping cat.

<l.wn to the place fitting its inner bark
on one si.U-, so that the inner edges of the bark
of stock Mini so'x.n may coincide. The wedge
i< thru withdrawn, and the scions are retained
in place by the springing together of the cleft,
Warn the graft H r<>\viv<l with a mixture of

loam and cow dung, or with grafting wax, to
exclude the air and to facilitate the union.
Until a few years ago clay and loam were ex-
clusively used, but grafting wax is neater and
more effective. Various compositions are in
use ; they consist of resin and wax melted to-

FIG. 2. Whip Grafting,
showing the tongues
prepared and after-
ward bound together.

FIG. 8.

-Whip Grafting on the
Collar.

gether, with lard or linseed oil, and should be
of such consistency as to remain plastic in cool
weather, yet not run in hot weather. It is best
applied by means of strips of well worn muslin
or calico saturated with the composition. For
root grafts, well waxed cotton twine, or paper
waxed on one side, may be used. Where the
stock is large two scions are put in on opposite
sides, but with small stocks only one is used,
and the stock at the side opposite to the scion is
cut in a sloping manner to facilitate healing.
Another process, called whip or tongue grafting,
is considered the most expeditious. The stock
upon which it is performed must be slender,
from the size of a goose quill to any diameter
which coincides with the thickness of the graft.
Some smooth, clear part of the stock being se-
lected, it is sloped on one side with a knife to
a very acute angle. A scion having two or
more buds, and of the size to match the stock,
is cut with a slope to correspond with that
upon the stock ; then upon each slope or cut
surface is cut a tongue ; the scion and stock
are locked together by means of these tongues
in a manner that will be understood by an ex-
amination of the engraving. The barks of both
being made to correspond, a piece of waxed
cloth or waxed twine is wound round them to
hold them in place. After the graft pushes its
buds, the binding should be loosened and finally
removed, when the adhesion is completed. This
method is used in root grafting, and may be
practised also on flowering shrubs. In saddle
grafting, the scion is cleft instead of the stock ;
the stock is pared away on each side to an acute
angle, so as to allow the scion to sit or ride

GRAFTING

upon it, and the union of the edges of the barks
made as complete as possible on each side.
Crown grafting is by many preferred to cleft
grafting, as there is no split made in the stock,
which often leads to decay ; it is practised upon
large trees of which the wood is too hard and
stubborn to be cleft, or upon small stocks. Sev-
eral scions are pared away on one side of the
lower end for about two inches, so as to make
that side flat and leave a shoulder forming a
right angle with it. The head of the stock
being sawn off horizontally, and the cut portion
smoothed, the bark is gently raised from the
wood and thin wedges inserted. The scions
are now pushed under the bark, their shoulders
resting on the crown of the stock ; the wedges
being withdrawn, the whole is covered with
wax or waxed cloth. After the grafts have
grown, and made long, tender shoots, which
they will be apt to do with much rapidity and
vigor, they should be secured to long stakes
ited near the stock and rising above it, to

GRAFTON

141

ti. Crown Grafting, showing the completed opera-
tion and an enlarged view of the scion.
ent the wind from breaking off the newly
ed top at the junction with the stock ; or
where the grafts are in the head of a tree, their
vigor is controlled by pinching. Sometimes
it is essential to replace limbs that have
been broken from young trees, or from branches
of older ones, and to restore the symmetry
of form ; and this is done by side grafting.
Here the bark and a little of the wood is
sloped off from the side of the trunk or of
the branch, and the lower end of the scion
is cut so as to fit the part as near as possible ;
lit is then fixed in the branch or trunk, first
tonguing both as in whip grafting, tying them
with bast, and claying or waxing over. Another
form of side grafting is used on the camellia
and other hard-wooded shrubs ; a long, nearly
perpendicular cut is made in the stem, in which
the scion is placed. Inarching is only a kind
of grafting, and is employed where the cut
scion is not easily united to the desired
stock. Two branches, or two stocks of the

two distinct plants, are brought close together,
and the prepared surfaces are matched and
tongued, as in whip grafting ; after a while a
perfect union will take place, when the inarched
portion is to be separated from its parent root,
and it henceforth becomes the branch or top of
its new foster moth-
er. The two plants
to 'be inarched must
be brought near to
one another, which is
usually accomplished
by having one of
them in a pot. In
some cases the same
object is effected by
placing the lower end
of the branch to be
inarched in a bottle,
which is kept sup-
plied with water.
Budding is only a va-
riety of grafting in
which a single bud
is used instead of a
scion with several ;
it is also called shield
grafting. (See BUD-
DING.) The prac-
tice of grafting seems
to have been long
known; but the pro-
cesses have multipli-
ed with the discov-
eries and improve- FIG. 5,-Inarching.
ments m horticul-
ture, and others besides those mentioned
here are employed for particular subjects. A
full account of all the processes known will
be found in L "Art de greffer, by Baltet. Du
Breuil's "Arboriculture," Barry's "Fruit Gar-
den," and Thomas's "Fruit Culturist" may
also be consulted for practical details.

GRAFTON, a W. county of New Hampshire,
bounded W. by the Connecticut river ; area,
1,463 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 39,103. It has a
mountainous surface, containing some of the
celebrated summits of the White mountains
and the Franconia range. Much of the land
is devoted to pasturage, but parts of it are sus-
ceptible of high cultivation. The Northern
(N. H.) and its Bristol branch, the White
Mountain, and the Boston, Concord, and Mon-
treal railroads pass through the county. The
chief productions in 1870 were 57,802 bushels
of wheat, 198,165 of Indian corn, 390,172 of
oats, 1,078,208 of potatoes, 1,095,623 Ibs. of
butter, 189,602 of cheese, 446,197 of wool,
650,445 of maple sugar, 26,377 of hops, and
140,220 tons of hay. There were 7,135 horses,
12,748 milch cows, 6,685 working oxen, 14,562
other cattle, 86,681 sheep, and 4,302 swine.
The number of manufactories was 646, with an
aggregate capital of $2,362,735 ; value of pro-
ducts, $5,012,033. The most important were
5 of agricultural implements, 15 of clothing, 1

11-'

GRAFTON

of elastic sponge, 7 of furniture, 14 of gloves
and mittens, 5 of hosiery, 3 of iron castings,
1 1 of dressed skins, 8 of paper, 4 of shoe pegs,
25 of starch, 6 of woollen goods, 69 saw mills,
10 tanneries, 5 currying establishments, and 6
flour mills. Capital, Haverhill.

GRAFTOX, a town of Worcester co., Massa-
chusetts, on the Blackstone and Quinsigamond
:ind on the Blackstone canal and t?he
Boston and Albany and Providence and Wor-
cester railroads, 38 m. S. W. of Boston ; pop.
in 1870, 4,594. It comprises several villages,
and is extensively engaged in manufacturing,
the canal and rivers furnishing water power.
There are 8 cotton mills, with 30,170 spindles,
several currying establishments, and extensive
boot and shoe factories. The town has also mica
quarries, two national banks, 18 public schools,
including a high school, and seven churches.

GRAGNANO, a town of S. Italy, in the prov-
ince of Naples, at the foot of Monte Pendolo,
19 m. S. E. of Naples; pop. about 10,000. It
is the seat of a bishop, and has manufactures
of macaroni and a considerable trade in wine.

GRAHAM. I. An extreme W. county of North
Carolina, formed since the census of 1870 from
Cherokee co., bounded N. E. by the Tennessee
river, and separated from Tennessee by the
Iron mountains ; area, about 300 sq. m. The
surface is mountainous; the soil of the val-
leys is fertile. Capital, Fort Montgomery. II.
A N. W. unsettled county of Kansas; area,
900 sq. m. It is intersected by the South fork
of Solomon river, and drained by Saline river.

GRAHAM, Isabella, a Scottish philanthropist,
born in Lanarkshire, July 29, 1742, died in
New York, July 27, 1814. Her maiden name
was Marshall. In 1765 she married Dr. John
Graham, an army surgeon, and went with him
to Canada and to Antigua, where he died in
1774. Returning to Scotland, she taught school
in Paisley and in Edinburgh. In 1789 she
came to New York, and established a seminary
for young ladies. Before leaving Scotland she
originated the " Penny Society," now known as
tho " Society for the Relief of the Destitute
Sick ;" and through her efforts in part or en-
tirely, the " Society for the Relief of Poor
Widows," the " Orphan Asylum Society," the
"Society for Promoting Industry among the
Poor," and the first " Sunday School for Ig-
norant Adults," were established in New York.
She aided also in organizing the first mission-
ary society and the first monthly missionary
prayer meeting in the city ; was the first presi-
dent of the Magdalen society ; systematically
visiu-d the inmates of the hospital, and the
sick IVmale convicts in the state prison ; and
to hundreds of families distributed Bibles, as
well as tracts prepared under her own direc-
tion. Hi T nit -mi lira were written by Dr. Mason
(8vo, 1816), and her letters and correspondence
1 1-y her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, were
published in New York in 1838.

GRAHAM, John, Viscount Dundee and Lord
O rah am of Claverhouse (by which latter title

GRAHAM

he is most generally known), a Scottish soldier,
born near Dundee in 1643, killed at the battle
of Killiecrankie, July 17, 1689. Educated at
the university of St. Andrews, he served both
the French and the Dutch as a soldier of for-
tune from about 1670 to 1677, when he re-
turned to England. Letters of recommenda-
tion from the prince of Orange to Charles II.
caused him to be appointed captain of one of
the troops of dragoons which the king was
sending into the western lowlands to force the
Covenanters to comply with the established
religion. His own merciless severity was so
well seconded by his troopers, that his name
is held in lasting execration. Defeated at
Drumclog by the exasperated Covenanters,
he took a fearful revenge at Both well bridge,
and continued his atrocities through the west-
ern shires. Ennobled in November, 1688, by
James II., he ardently espoused the king's
cause against the prince of Orange, attended
the parliament convened in Edinburgh to ar-
range the succession to the crown, and, be-
coming alarmed for his personal safety, fled
from the city with a squadron of horse. Sev-
eral disaffected clans and a body of Irish joined
him. At the pass of Killiecrankie he routed
the troops of William III., and fell by a chance
shot in the moment of victory. His qualities
as a soldier and a politician, which were con-
spicuously displayed during the last few months
of his life, have diverted attention somewhat
from his crimes; and Sir Walter Scott, in
his " Old Mortality," has presented a vigorous
though highly colored picture of him. One
of the latest attempts to relieve his character
from the odium which attaches to it was made
by Prof. Aytoun in the appendix to his " Lays
of the Scottish Cavaliers." See also '' Me-
morials and Letters illustrative of the Life and
Times of John Graham of Claverhouse, Vis-
count Dundee, by Mark Napier " (3 vols., Ed-
inburgh, 1859-'62).

GRAHAM, Sylvester, an American reformer,
born in Suffield, Conn., in 1794, died in North-
ampton, Mass., Sept. 11, 1851. Almost from
childhood he was dyspeptic and rheumatic, and
having tried successively farm labor, paper
making, travelling with a horse dealer, shop-
keeping, and teaching, was driven from them
all by feeble health and symptoms of con-
sumption. In 1823 he entered Amherst col-
lege to prepare for the ministry. There the
fervor of his elocution was ridiculed as the-
atrical, and this almost determined him to
seek some other profession; but in 1826 he
married, and soon after became a Presbyte-
rian preacher. In 1830 the Pennsylvania tem-
perance society engaged him as a lecturer,
and he took up the study of physiology and
anatomy, from which he was convinced that
the only permanent cure for intemperance
was to be found in correct habits of living
and judicious diet. This idea, which he ex-
tended to the cure of diseases generally, was
set forth in his "Essay on Cholera" (1832),

GRAHAM

and in a course of lectures which he delivered
at various places and published under the title
" Graham Lectures of the Science of Human
Life" (2 vols., Boston, 1839). He also pub-
lished a "Lecture to Young Men on Chastity,"
which made a great sensation, and a treatise
on " Bread and Bread Making." Bread made
from unbolted flour still bears his name. A
few years before his death he began a " Phi-
losophy of Sacred History," intended to show
the harmony between Scriptural teachings and
his views on dietetics ; he finished only one vol-
ume of it, which was published posthumously.

GRAHAM, Thomas, a Scottish chemist, born in
Glasgow, Dec. 20, 1805, died in London, Sept.
15, 1869. He studied at the universities of
Glasgow and Edinburgh, and after graduating
opened a laboratory in Glasgow and lectured
on chemistry at the mechanics' institute. He
was professor at the Andersonian university
in Glasgow from 1830 to 1837, and at the uni-
versity college in London from 1837 to 1855.
Having, as a non-resident assayer, submitted
all the specie in the mint to a uniform scien-
tific standard, he became, in February, 1855, Sir
John Herschel's successor as master of the
mint, and held this office till his death. He
was one of the founders and the first president
of the chemical society of London, for many
years president of the Cavendish society, and a
fellow and twice vice president of the royal
society, which gave him many medals. He
conducted many physical and chemical inves-
tigations for the government, including one of
especial interest on the effect of hail storms
in the Newcastle coal mines, reporting on the
ventilation of the houses of parliament, and in
1851, with Professors Miller and Hoffmann, on
ithe quality of the metropolitan water supply.
He discovered the law of diffusion of gases and
the polybasic character of phosphoric acid ;
demonstrated the existence of a diffusive pow-
er in liquids resembling that in gases, to which
he applied the name of omosis, and determined
its relation to endosmosis and exosmosis ; ex-
pounded new theories on the composition of
salts, and extended his researches to the tran-
spirability of gases. His discoveries and oth-
er labors are embraced in his u Elements
of Chemistry" (London, 1842), edited with
notes and additions by Dr. Robert Bridges
(Philadelphia, 1852; new eds., 2 vols., Lon-
don, 1856-'8, and 1865 ; German translation
by Otto, 3d ed., Brunswick, 1857). He con-
tributed important papers to the " Philosoph-
ical Transactions," and the annals of the chem-
ical and other scientific societies. His genius
is highly appreciated in Germany, and A. "W.
Hoffmann published in Berlin (1870) his Oe-
ddchtnissrede auf Thomas Graham. A bronze
statue of Graham was placed in George square,
| Glasgow, in 1872.

GRAHAM, William Alexander, an American

statesman, born in Lincoln co., K C., Sept.

6, 1804. He was educated to the law, and

in 1833 entered public life as a member of

370 VOL. vin. 10

GRAHAM ISLAND

143

the lower branch of the state legislature, of
which he was several times elected speaker.
He represented North Carolina in the United
States senate between 1841 and 1843, and was
governor of the state from January, 1845, to Jan-
uary, 1849. On the accession of Mr. Fillmore
to the presidency he was appointed secretary
of the navy, an office which he filled until June,
1852, when, receiving from the whig national
convention the nomination for vice president,
he resigned the secretaryship. During the last
year of the civil war he was a senator in the
confederate congress, and in 1866 he was a del-
egate to the union convention in Philadelphia.
GRAHAM ISLAJVD, or Isle of Julia, a volcanic
island, which appeared in the Mediterranean
in July, 1831, and disappeared toward the
close of October. The locality was about
midway between Sciacca in Sicily and the
island of Pantellaria, lat. 37 8' K, Ion. 12
42' E. The depth of water had been found,
a few years before, to exceed 100 fathoms.
An earthquake shock was felt over the spot
three weeks before the appearance of the
island ; and on July 10, a few days be-
fore land was observed, a waterspout was
seen by a Sicilian navigator, which was suc-
ceeded by an immense column of steam rising
to the estimated height of 1,800 feet. Fire
was seen on the 17th by the master of the
brig Adelaide of London. On the 18th the
Sicilian captain, repassing the spot, found a
small island, 12 ft. out of water, with a crater
in its centre, ejecting volcanic matter and im-
mense columns of vapor. About the same
time Commander Swinburne, R. N., reported
it to be 70 or 80 yards in external diameter,
and its lip as thin as it could be consistent with
its height, which might be 20 ft. above the sea
at the highest point. On July 23, as reported
and sketched by Mr. Russell of H. M. ship St.
Vincent, the circumference of the island was
three fourths of a mile, and its highest point
80 ft. above the water. At that time columns
of water were ejected to the height of 800 to
1,000 ft., and scorise were thrown, it was sup-
posed, twice as high. The first landing was
effected on Aug. 3, by Capt. Senhouse of the
St. Vincent, who hoisted the British flag, and
called the island by the name which was after-
ward adopted by the royal and geographical
societies. The island was then from 1J to 1
m. in circumference, and its highest point was
about 180 ft. above the surface. A deep cir-
cular crater lay between two longitudinal hills,
by which it was entirely shut in except for
about 250 yards on its S. E. side, where
a bank only 3 ft. high separated it from the
sea. The crater was filled with boiling salt
water of a dingy red color, from which rose
a nauseous and oppressive vapor. The only
gas evolved in large quantity was carbonic
acid. Some authorities have made it about this
time to be 3 m. in circumference, with a
maximum height exceeding 200 ft. On Aug.
25 it was reduced to 2 m., and on Sept. 3 to

144

GRAHAME

only f m., with a maximum height of 107
ft. The crater was then 780 yards in cir-
ruiMlVrence. The materials which composed
tin- island were scoriae, pumice, and lapilli,
arranged in regular strata which sloped steeply
away from the crater. The only substances
found not of volcanic nature were fragments of
dolomitic limestone. No lava was ever seen
to flow, and no solid beds were formed which
could resist the action of the waves. By these
all the loose materials were washed away, so
that at the close of October it may be said to
have entirely disappeared. Two years after-
ward Capt. Swinburne found a dangerous reef
at the spot, in the centre of which was a black
rock of the diameter of 26 fathoms, from 9 to
11 ft. under water. Around it, extending 60
fathoms to deep water, were banks of black
volcanic stones and loose sand. The black
rock in the centre was supposed by Lyell to be
solid lava which rose in the crater and became
solidified and formed a dike. Another shoal
460 ft. S. W. of the great reef marked the spot
where another outbreak of boiling water and
steam had been observed in the month of
August, 1881. In July, 1863, the island reap-
peared, and in a few weeks rose to the height
of 200 or 260 ft. ; but it was soon demolished
by the wash of the waves. The volcano had
appeared once or twice previous to 1831. It
is said that a smoking island existed in this
spot about the year 1801, and the shoal is
marked in old charts. This island has been
called by seven names, and is sometimes still
known as Ferdinandea.

GRAHAME, James, a Scottish poet, born in
Glasgow, April 22, 1765, died near that city,
Nov. 30, 1811. He was educated at the uni-
versity of Glasgow, went to Edinburgh, and
became a writer to the signet in 1791, and a
member of the faculty of advocates in 1795.
But the legal profession had always been dis-
tasteful to him, and in the spring of 1809 he
went to England, where he was ordained a
minister of the established church, and became
curate of Shipton, Gloucestershire, and after-
ward of Sedgetield, in Durham. His principal
Ccal works are "The Sabbath," "Mary,
m of Scots," "British Georgics" and
44 The Birds of Scotland."

GRAHAME, James, a Scottish historian, born
in Glasgow, Dec. 21, 1790, died in London, July
8, 1842. He studied at St. John's college,
Cambridge, but soon terminated his connection
with that institution, and after preparatory
studies was admitted an advocate at the Scot-
tish bar in 1812. For nearly 14 years he
practised his profession, until he was obliged
through ill health to seek a more genial cli-
mate. Settling in the south of England in the
spring of 1826, he devoted himself to the prep-
aration of a history of the United States. His
early education, his religious views, which
were those professed by the Scotch Covenant-
ers and Puritans, and his zeal in the cause of
civil liberty, combined to render the subject

GRAIN

attractive to him. In 1827 the first two vol-
umes were published, and in 1836 a new edi-
tion appeared in 4 vols. 8vo, bringing the his-
tory down to the year 1776. The thoroughly
American spirit in which the work was writ-
ten interfered with its success in England, and
for several years it attracted little notice in the
United States; but in 1839 the author received
from Harvard college the degree of LL. D., and
in 1841 an article on his history by Prescott
appeared in the "North American Review."
Four years later an edition of his work was
published at Philadelphia in 4 vols. 8vo, suc-
ceeded in 1846 and 1848 by editions in 2 vols.
each, that of 1846 containing a memoir of the
author by Josiah Quincy. Mr. Quincy also
published a work entitled "The Memory of the
late Jarnes Grahame, the Historian of the Uni-
ted States, vindicated from the Charges of Mr.
Bancroft" (8vo, Boston, 1846). In 1837 Mr.
Grahame, who for some years previous had re-
sided at Nantes, France, began to collect ma-
terials for continuing his history, but was com-
pelled by ill health toward the close of the year
to abstain from literary labor of all kinds. His
last work was a pamphlet entitled, " Who is to
Blame? or Cursory Review of the American
Apology for American Accession to Negro Sla-
very " (London, 1842). The subject had excited
his attention for many years, and he had testi-
fied his sincerity by joining with his children
in liberating a number of slaves they had joint-
ly inherited from his wife. He wrote pam-
phlets on various social and religious questions,
including a " Defence of the Scottish Presbyte-
rians and Covenanters against the Author of
the 4 Tales of my Landlord ;' " but the absorb-
ing study of the best years of his life was
American history. He delighted to call him-
self an American by adoption, and declared
that his daughter was " hardly dearer to him
than America and American renown." His
"History of the United States" is written, ac-
cording to Chancellor Kent, '' with great grav-
ity and dignity, moderation and justice."

GRAHAM'S TOWN, a town of Cape Colony,
capital of the district of Albany, 22 m. N. N.
W. of Bathurst, and 465 m. E. by N. of Cape
Town ; pop. about 8,000. It is pleasantly situ-
ated on an eminence surrounded by high grassy
hills. The streets are wide ; the dwellings pro-
vided with gardens well watered and stocked
with fruit trees. There are several handsome
churches, a public library, two banks, and a
flourishing grammar school. It is the see of
an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop.

GRAIL, Holy. See GEAAL.

GRAIN (Lat. granum, a seed), the smallest
measure of weight in use, about equal to that
of a kernel of wheat. A statute passed in Eng-
land in 1266 ordained that 32 grains of wheat,
taken from the middle of the ear and well
dried, should make a pennyweight, 20 of which
should make an ounce, 12 of which should make
a pound. The pound, therefore, consisted then
of 7,680 grains, but afterward of only 5,760, in

GRAIN COAST

mence of the division of the pennyweight
into 24 grains. The present troy pound is 5,760
grains, and the avoirdupois pound 7,000.

GRAIN COAST, a part of the coast of upper
Guinea, W. Africa, between Capes Mesurado
and Palmas, comprising a large part of the
coast of Liberia. It receives its name from the
cardamom, or grain of paradise, called other-
wise Guinea grains and Malagueta pepper,
which is exported. (See LIBERIA.)

GRAINGER, a K E. county of Tennessee,
bounded N. W. by Clinch river and S. E. by
Holston river, here navigable by steamboats ;
area, about 330 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 12,421,
of whom 1,030 were colored. The surface
is hilly, Clinch mountain crossing the county
from N. W. to S. E. The river bottoms are
fertile, and the highlands are rich in iron and
other ores. The chief productions in 1870
were 78,146 bushels of wheat, 363,260 of In-
dian corn, 86,005 of oats, 12,285 of Irish and
8,045 of sweet potatoes, and 709 tons of hay.
There were 2,233 horses, 2,248 milch cows,
4,670 other cattle, 9,797 sheep, and 17,723
swine. Capital, Rutledge.

GRARLE. I. A conirostral bird of the East
Indian genus gracula (Linn.), constituting in
itself the subfamily guaculince of the family
sturnidcs or starlings. The species, especially
the mina bird (G. religiosa), are celebrated for
their powers of song and speech. (See MINO
BIRD.) II* In the United States, the name
of birds of the subfamily quiscalina or boat-
tails, which includes the genera scolecophagus
(Swains.), quiscalus (Vieill.), and scaphidurus
(Swains.). The genus scolecophagus has the
bill shorter than the head, nearly straight,
slender, with the edges inflexed; the wings
moderate and pointed, the first quill shorter
than the second, third, and fourth, which are
longest ; the tail shorter than the wings, flat
and nearly even ; tarsi as long as the middle
toe, with broad scutellae ; toes long and slen-
der, the hind toe long, and the slender claws
sharp and slightly curved. The rusty grakle
(S. ferrugineus, Swains.) is about 9 in. long,
extent of wings 14 in., bill 1 in., tarsus 1 ;
the plumage is soft and glossy, of a deep black
color, with greenish and bluish reflections;
the female is smaller, of a general brownish or
rusty black, the feathers beneath margined
with brownish ; the young resemble the female,
with the head, neck, and lower parts light-
3r brown, and the rump tinged with gray;
n the autumn and winter even the males be-
come rather rusty. They are found from the
\tlantic coast to the Missouri, migrating to
he far north in the spring to breed ; in the
lutumn they return to the south in small flocks
vith the cow-bunting and red-winged black-
)ird, with which they associate until spring
eturns. The flight is quick and undulating,
nd the walk is graceful, the tail being jerked
ip and down at every step. They frequent
he corn fields and rice plantations, where they
o little mischief; they are fond of the com-

GRAKLE

145

pany of cattle, picking out the grain from their
droppings ; in the winter they resort to marsh-
es and watercourses, feeding on aquatic insects
and small mollusks. Their note is a kind of
chuck, but during the breeding season they are
noisy and have a lively and agreeable song.
They are not very shy. The nest is built on
low bushes in moist places, of coarse materials,
and the eggs, four or five, are light blue, streaked
and dashed with lines of brown and deep black.
The Mexican grakle (S. cyanocephalus, Cab.)
is a somewhat larger bird, with a stouter bill,
and a purplish gloss confined to the head and
neck ; it is found from Minnesota to the Pacific,
and as far south as Mexico. The other grakles
belong principally to the genus quiscalus, char-
acterized by a bill as long as the head, broad,
with the edges inflexed, and the tip of the
upper mandible overhanging the under ; the
wings moderate, the second, third, and fourth
quills the longest ; the tail longer than the
wings, graduated and the sides turned upward ;
the tarsi as long as the middle toe, strong, and
greatly scutellated ; the toes strong, and the hind
one long, all scutellated; claws short, robust,
and slightly curved. More than 12 species are
described, which migrate according to the sea-
sons ; in winter their immense flocks are very
destructive on plantations, while in spring they
devour from the fields and ploughed lands great
numbers of worms, grubs, and caterpillars, in-
jurious to vegetation ; they pull the young corn
soon after it has sprouted, and also attack it
when in the milky state. The species found in
the United States are best distinguished by the
size and form of the tail. The largest is the
great-tailed grakle (Q. macrourus, Swains.), 18
in. long, with an extent of wing of about 27,
and the tail 9 ; the color is shining black, with
purple and green reflections, and the feathers
of the head soft and velvety ; it is found from
the valley of the Rio Grande in Texas south-
ward. The boat-tailed grakle, great crow-
blackbird, or jackdaw as it is sometimes called
(Q. major, Vieill.), is about 16 in. long, with an
extent of wings of 2 ft. ; the color is shining
black, the purple gloss being confined to the
head, neck, and fore part of the breast, else-
where with green reflections ; the crown feath-
ers are coarse and stiff. Their habits are the
same as those of the other grakles ; they seek
their food among the salt marshes and along
the muddy shores, eating fiddler crabs, insects,
worms, shrimps, and other aquatic animals;
they are fond of the eggs of other birds, and
commit depredations in the corn and rice fields.
They are very shy, and fly at a considerable
elevation and for long distances ; the notes
are harsh and shrill, though rather pleasing in
the love season. The nest is large, of coarse
materials, placed on tall reeds growing in the
water, on smilax bushes, and on live oaks,
where they breed in communities ; they begin
to lay about the 1st of April, sometimes earlier ;
the eggs, four or five, are dull white with
irregular streaks of brown and black ; only one

L46

GRAMMAR

brood is raised in a season. This species is
found in the southern Atlantic and gulf states,
near the coast, and in Texas. During the
breeding season, the sides of the tail are turned
upward, whence its common name has been

Purple Grakl* (Qulscaluu veruicolor). 1. Female. 2. Male.

derived. The purple grakle, or common crow-
blackbird (Q. versicolor, Vieill.), is 13 in. long,
with an extent of wings of 19 ; the head and
neck are steel-blue, the rest of the plumage
with varied reflections of bronze, golden, green,
violet, and copper ; the female is smaller, with
a less brilliant and more brownish plumage.
The habits are the same as in the others of
the genus ; the friends of the farmer in spring
by devouring grubs, in summer and early au-
tumn they dispute the possession of the corn
fields with the planters, who seek to frighten
or destroy them ; their mischief is so great that
the corn is sometimes steeped in saline and
bitter solutions to prevent it from being pulled
up; in cold weather they feed upon beech
nuts, acorns, and the refuse of the cattle pens.
In the southern states the nest is generally in
a hole in a decayed tree ; the eggs, four to six,
are bluish, with brown and black streaks and
blotches ; in the north, pine trees are favorite
places for their nests. They are found in the
Atlantic states, from New England to Florida,
and on the high central plains of the continent.
The flesh is eatable. The genus seaphidurus
has a long bill, with the culmen advancing on
the forehead, and sloping to an acute and curved
tip ; the wings are long and pointed, the first
quill the longest ; the tail lengthened, gradu-
ated, with the sides turned upward. They are
found in the West Indies and in South America.

<<KAMMAR. See LANGUAGE.

MMM.lIK. tin- French unit of weight, equal
to 15- l :',i>r> r ra in8 troy, or very nearly of a
dram avoirdupois. It is the weight of a cubic
MOtimetre of distilled water at the temper-
ature of maximum density, 4 0., or 39-2 F.

GRAMONT

The gramme is divided, according to the French
system, into 10 decigrammes, 100 centigrammes,
or 1,000 milligrammes. Its multiples by 10 are
successively deca-, hecto-, kilo-, and myria-
grammes. The weight of the kilogramme, or
1,000 grammes, is equal to 2 -6793 Ibs. troy, or
2-2046 Ibs. avoirdupois. In rough estimates 50
kilogrammes are often conveniently taken as
equivalent to 1 cwt., being only If Ib. short
of this, and 1,000 kilogrammes as 1 ton, the
deficiency being only 35*4 Ibs.

GRAMONT, an ancient French family, which
traces its origin to the 14th century, takes its
name from the seigneurial estate of Gramont in
Lower Navarre, and has produced several dis-
tinguished men. I. Antoine 111., duke de, dis-
tinguished himself in several campaigns during
the reigns of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., be-
came marshal of France in 1641, was commis-
sioned in 1660 to bring from Spain the infanta
Maria Theresa as bride of Louis XIV., and
died in 1678. He left personal Memoires^
which were published by one of his sons. II.
Philibert, count de, brother of the preceding,
born in 1621, died Jan. 10, 1707. His innu-
merable love affairs, gambling adventures, and
intrigues have been handed down to posterity
in the sprightly narrative by his brother-in-
law, Anthony Hamilton. This hero of fashion-
able licentiousness, after figuring indifferent-
ly in several campaigns, was ordered to leave
France in 1662, because he had been pre-
sumptuous enough to pay his homage to Mile.
Lamothe Houdancourt, upon whom Louis
XIV. had fixed his affections. He then re-
paired to the court of Charles II. of England,
where he became the favorite of many ladies
of rank and beauty. He was stopped at last
in his career of debauchery by an enforced
marriage with Eliza Hamilton. He returned to
France with his wife, who was appointed lady
in the household of Queen Maria Theresa. He
was 80 years old when, to divert him, his
brother-in-law undertook the Memoires which
were to perpetuate his name. III. Antoine
Agenor Alfred, duke de, a French diplomatist,
born in Paris, Aug. 14, 1819. He commenced
his diplomatic career in 1852, and represented
France successively at Oassel, Stuttgart, Turin,
and Rome. He was sent to Vienna in 1861,
and held the post of ambassador there until in
May, 1870, he entered the Ollivier cabinet as
minister of foreign affairs. When Prince Leo-
pold of Hohenzollern spontaneously renounced
his candidacy for the Spanish crown, Gramont
further insisted that the king of Prussia should
give a solemn promise that no prince of his
house should in future be a candidate for the
throne of Spain. On July 15 Gramont offi-
cially announced to the French chambers that
war existed between France and Prussia.
When the Ollivier ministry were compelled to
resign, Aug. 9, 1870, Gramont retired to pri-
vate life. During and since the war he has
been the object of vehement attacks in the
French journals. In January, 1872, he was

GRAMPIANS

GRANADA

147

150

summoned, with Marshal Leboeuf, to appear
before a committee of inquiry into the causes
of the revolution of Sept. 4, 1870.
GRAMPIANS, a range of mountains traversing
tland diagonally from S. W. to N. E. for
m., and forming the natural boundary be-
tween the highlands and the lowlands. Be-
inning in Argyleshire, on the W. coast, near
S. W. extremity of Loch Awe, they pass
g the W. and N. boundaries of Perthshire,
eluding the Ben Lomond hills in Stirling-
ire to the south, and at Cairn Ealer divide
to two branches, which pass to the sea re-
vely on the N. and S. sides of the river
The term is not strictly limited in its
lication, but in its widest usage it includes
the highest mountains of Scotland. Seve-
of its summits, as Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui,
irntoul, and Cairngorm, rise to a height of
ut 4,000 ft.

GRAMPUS, a porpoise-like cetacean, belong-
to the genus phocwna (Cuvier); English
iters, however, make a generic name of the
grampus, calling the animal G. orca
abr.). The name seems to be a corruption
the French grand polsson (large fish), to
hich its size well entitles it. Other names
finner and black-fish whale, from its dorsal
and prevailing color; killer or thrasher,
its alleged habit of attacking and killing
e whale. It attains a length of 25 to 30 ft.,
th a circumference of 10 or 12 ; the snout is
and rounded, the lower jaw broader and
orter than the upper; the teeth are about
22 above and 22 below, large, strong, coni-
and somewhat hooked ; the so-called dor-
fin, near the middle of the back, is 4 ft.
, and the pectorals are large and oval ; the
is lunate, thick, and powerful. The color
black above, suddenly changing to white on
sides and beneath; a large white patch
ind and above the eyes. It is occasionally

Grampus (Grampus orca).

seen on our coast, and not unfrequently on the
shores of Europe and in the middle Atlantic ;
its favorite haunts are the northern regions, in
the vicinity of Greenland and Spitzbergen.
They are often met in small herds of six or
eight, chasing each other as if in sport ; they
are swift and strong, which renders their
capture difficult, and they yield comparatively
little oil. The grampus is exceedingly vora-

cious and entirely carnivorous, devouring large
fish, such as cod, halibut, skates, turbots, &c.,
smaller cetaceans, and even seals. American
whalemen call it killer and thrasher, and af-
firm that a herd of them will surround a large
whale, bite and tear away its flesh with their
powerful teeth, and finally weary and destroy
it; the accounts of such cetacean combats
are probably exaggerated, but from the size,
strength, and voracious habits of the grampus,
no doubt even whales sometimes fall victims to
their hungry herds. The oil, though small in
quantity, is of excellent quality. Gray, in the
Spicilegia Zoologica, vol. ii., describes other
species, as G. intermedius, Heavisidii, and ob-
scurus, the last two from the Cape of Good
Hope; all the species are frequently called
dolphins, though they have not the prolonged
beak of the latter.

GRAN (Hung. JSsztergom). I. A N. W. coun-
ty of Hungary, traversed from W. to E. by the
Danube ; area, 424 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 65,-
306, mostly Magyars. The surface toward the
centre is flat, in the north generally level, and
mountainous in the south. The river Gran
(Hung. Garam), which rises in the Carpathians,
traverses the N. E. portion of the county. The
soil, which is generally fertile, produces corn,
fruits, and wine, of which the Neszmelyi is
favorably known in commerce. Coal, lime-
stone, and gray, red, and variegated marble are
found. II. A city, capital of the county, on
the right bank of the Danube, crossed here by
a bridge, opposite the mouth of the Gran, 24
m. N. N. W. of Pesth ; pop. in 1870, 8,780. It
is a royal free city, the seat of an archbishop,
primate of Hungary, who was made cardinal
in 1874, and contains many remarkable build-
ings, the most conspicuous of which are the
palace of the primate, the houses of the chap-
ter, and the cathedral, in the Italian style, one
of the finest churches of Europe, built on a
precipitous height overlooking the Danube. It
has also a gymnasium and a theological semi-
j nary. The inhabitants are chiefly employed
I in the manufacture of woollen cloth. Gran is
j said to have been founded by the Romans. It
continued to flourish until it was destroyed
by the Tartars, on their. invasion of Hungary,
1241-'3. At a later period it was taken by
the Turks, and reconquered in 1683 by John
Sobieski.

GRANADA. I. A W. department of Nicara-
gua, between Lake Nicaragua and Lake Ma-
nagua, and bordering on the Pacific ; area,
2,943 sq. m. ; pop. about 56,000. The gen-
eral aspect of this department is that of an
extensive table land, with a gentle descent to-
ward the lakes and steep acclivities on the side
of the Pacific. A low central chain of moun-
tains divides the country into almost equal por-
tions, the northern and western being essen-
tially volcanic, though cultivated in every di-
rection and densely populated, in spite of the
great scarcity of water. Among the numerous
volcanoes are Mombacho, Masaya, Madera, and

143

GRANADA

Ometepe, on the beautiful island of Zapatera,
in Lake Nicaragua. A few of the volcanoes
are still active, but the most recent serious
eruption was that of Masaya in 1858. Be-
sides the two large lakes, there are several
small ones having no visible outlet. There
are no navigable rivers. The mineral pro-
ductions are abundant, and many mineral
springs exist. II. A city, capital of the de-
partment, on the W. shore of Lake Nicaragua,
27 m. S. E. of Managua; pop. about 10,000.
The streets are irregular and unpaved. There
are three ancient churches. On the lake side
stand the remains of the old fortifications of
the city. A company was formed in 1872 for
raising the water of the lake to the city by
machinery, the elevation being 58 ft. The
hospital is in a dilapidated condition, and one
wing is used as a prison for females. The
university courses are held in the halls of
the ancient cloister of San Francisco. The
situation of Granada is unequalled in a com-
mercial point of view by any other inland
town in Central America, but its trade is at a
low ebb, although the products of several de-
partments concentrate here for shipment by
the lake steamers, which leave twice or thrice
a month, and reach the Atlantic through the
Rio San Juan. The town was founded in 1523,
and was in the latter part of the 17th century
repeatedly plundered and partially destroyed
by buccaneers. The usurper Chamorro having
taken refuge here, the democrats besieged the
city from May, 1854, to February, 1855. After
the death of Chamorro, in 1855, the filibuster
William Walker took the city by surprise,
burned it, and established a provisional gov-
ernment which lasted till 1857, when Granada
was retaken by the united arms of San Salva-
dor and Guatemala. A large portion of the
city has been rebuilt since that time ; but whole
squares still lie in ruin, covered with vegetation.
GRANADA. I* An ancient kingdom of Spain,
in Andalusia, now comprising the three mod-
ern provinces of Malaga, Granada, and Alme-
ria, bounded S. and E. by the Mediterranean ;
greatest length about 200 m., greatest breadth
about 80 m. ; area, 11,063 sq. m. The surface
is diversified, with lofty mountains, beautiful
valleys, and extensive plains. The Sierra Ne-
vada mountains traverse the territory from E.
to W. ; their summits are crowned with per-
petual snow, and one of them, the Cerro de
Mulhacen, attains an elevation of 11,654 ft.
above the sea, and is the highest mountain in
Spain. The only railway of the province con-
nects the city of Granada with Antequera and
the railway from Malaga to Cordova. The
principal riven are the Jenil, the Almanzora,
and the Guadalorze. The climate of the

:in districts is cold, that of the plains
temperate, and that of the valleys sultry and

:i iy, ivsp.'rially during the prevalence of
the wind called solano, which blows periodi-
cally from the Mediterranean. The soil is
barren or fertile in proportion to the possibil-

ity of irrigating it from the mountain streams.
Agriculture is the chief business. The princi-
pal manufacture is silk. The wine is generally
inferior, but the tierno, muscatel, and Malaga
are exceptions, and have a high reputation.
The sugar cane grown in the neighborhood of
Velez Malaga is deemed fully equal to that of
the West Indies for size and juiciness. The
foreign trade is not important, and is chiefly
carried on through the ports of Alrneria and
Malaga. This province formed an opulent,
civilized, and powerful kingdom under a Moor-
ish dynasty founded in 1238, which was over-
thrown by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1492.
II. A modern province, bounded N. by Cor-
dova, Jaen, and Albacete, E. and S. by Al-
meria and the Mediterranean, S. W. by Malaga,
and N. W. by Cordova ; area, 4,937 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870 estimated at 485,000. It is al-
most entirely mountainous, the only large tract
of level country within its boundaries being
the Vega or plain of Granada, on the Jenil,
between the capital and Loja. HI. A city, the
capital of the province and kingdom, on two
declivities of the Sierra Nevada and on the
plain between them, 34 m. from the Mediter-
ranean, and 224 m. S. of Madrid ; lat. 37 13'
N., Ion. 3 40' W. ; pop. about 68,000. The
river Darro flows through it, and falls into the
Jenil just outside the walls. The site of the
city is about 2,000 ft. above the sea, and its
appearance from a distance is singularly pictu-
resque and beautiful. It is divided into the city
proper, the Alhambra suburb, the Albaycin
suburb, and the Antequeruela suburb. The
first three are partially fortified, but the fourth
is entirely open, and here the working classes
generally reside. The streets are narrow and
crooked, but the houses are well built in an-
tique oriental style. There are several hand-
some squares and numerous public fountains.
But the public edifices and the monuments of
its former splendor are the great attractions
of Granada, and first among these must be
ranked the Alhambra, or ancient palace of the
Moorish kings. (See ALHAMBRA.) The Gothic
cathedral is profusely ornamented with jasper
and colored marble, and surmounted with a
dome resting on 12 arches, beneath which
stands the gorgeously decorated altar. The
church of Nuestra Senora de las Angustias is
remarkable for its altar and towers ; the church
of San Jos6, a modern structure, for its ele-
gance. The monastery of San Ger6nimo con-
tains the tomb of its founder, Gonsalvo de
Cordova ; but his bones were dug up and cast
out by a mob who plundered the convent in
1836. Granada contains the unfinished palace
of Charles V., the Generalife, a Moorish palace
surrounded with gardens and fountains, an
episcopal palace, a university, and a general
hospital, as well as many conventual establish-
ments for both sexes. The chief manufactures
are silk, woollen stuffs, hats, paper, saltpetre,
and gunpowder. The trade is insignificant,
and the roads leading to the city are so wretch-

GRANADA

GRANDEE

149

ed that in the rainy season they are almost im-
passable. Granada was founded by the Moors
in the 10th century, and from 1238 was the

version in 1492, when it was taken by Fer-
dinand and Isabella after a protracted siege.
It prospered for another century, but when

capital of the kingdom of Granada till its sub- the Moors, who composed the greater part of

Granada.

population, were finally expelled from Spain
1609, it received a blow from which it has
7er recovered. At the height of its splen-
dor it is said to have contained as many as
500,000 inhabitants.

GRANADA, New. See COLOMBIA.
GRANADILLA (Span., diminutive of granada,
pomegranate), the Spanish-American name
)r the edible fruit of several species of passi-
ra, especially that of P. quadrangularis.
le genus passiflora, which will be described
ler PASSION FLOWER, is well known for the
beauty of the flowers of many species
rb.ich are common greenhouse climbers. Oth-
^ edible-fruited species are P. edulis, P. lau-
ifolia (the water lemon), P. maliformis (the
jweet calabash), and P. incarnata, the may-
)p of the southern states. P. quadrangu-
iris is a native of the West Indies, where its
rait is esteemed for the dessert. In French
rorks upon horticulture it is placed among
'ie exotic fruits to be grown under glass, and
aadillas thus produced are sometimes seen
the markets of Paris and London. In our
mouses the plant is often seen in flower,
>ut rarely in fruit, as gardeners do not seem to
be aware that the flowers require to be arti-
^cially fertilized with their own pollen or that
" some other species, else the fruit will not
3t. The fruit is 6 or 8 in. in diameter, of a
mulberry color, and with an odor something
like the pineapple or strawberry. The purple
pulp, which encloses numerous seeds, is sub-
acid, and is usually eaten with wine and sugar.
In contrast with the fruit, the root of this spe-
cies is powerfully narcotic and emetic.

GRANBY, John Manners, commonly called mar-
quis of, an English general, born Jan. 2, 1721,
died in Scarborough, Oct. 19, 1770. He was
the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland, was
educated at Eton and Cambridge, and during
the rebellion of 1745 raised a regiment of foot
at his own expense. In 1759 he was sent to
Germany as second in command, under Lord
George Sackville, of the troops destined to co-
operate with Prussia. Lord George having re-
signed, Granby succeeded to the chief com-
mand of the British, and served with distinction
during the remainder of the seven years' war.
In 1760, while still in the field, he was appoint-
ed a member of the privy council. In 1763 he
became master general of the ordnance, and
in 1766 commander-in-chief of the forces. He
also served several terms in parliament. He
was exceedingly popular, but his military quali-
ties appear to have been greatly overrated.

GRAND, the N. W. county of Colorado. See
SUMMIT.

GRANDEE (Span, grande de Etpafta), the
highest rank of Spanish nobility. The gran-
dees of Spain were the great nobles descended
from the ancient chief feudatories of the crown,
and from members of the royal family. They
had the right to levy soldiers under their own
banner, were free from taxes, and could not be
subjected to the jurisdiction of any civil or
criminal court without the express command
of the king. They also claimed the right to
make war upon the king without incurring the
guilt of treason. As the power of the mon-
arch increased, the privileges of the grandees
were restricted, till little was left but the right

150

GRAND FORKS

of wearing their hats in the royal presence,
and of being saluted by the guards at the royal
palace. The Spanish grandees considered them-
selves superior in rank to all the other nobil-
ity of Europe, and second only to princes of
royal blood. On public occasions the order of
precedence placed them next to the high pre-
lates. Many of the grandees had no title;
others had the titles of count, marquis, and
duke, and some possessed enormous estates.
Among the richest were the dukes of Medina
Celi, Alva, Ossuna, Altamira, Infantado, and
Arcos. The duke of Arcos, in the latter part
of the 18th century, maintained 3,000 servants.
The grandees have no privileges now.

GRAND FORKS, a N. E. county of Dakota
territory, recently formed, and not included in
the census of 1870; area, about 4,000 sq. m.
It is separated on the east from Minnesota by
the Red river, and is drained by several afflu-
ents of that stream.

GRAM) HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the
capital of Ottawa co., Michigan, at the mouth
of Grand river, on the E. shore of Lake Michi-
gan, opposite Milwaukee, and 90 m. W. N. W.
of Lansing ; pop. in 1870, 3,147. It is bounded
on two sides by hills, and in the neighborhood
are extensive peach orchards. Springs possess-
ing medicinai properties have lately been dis-
covered. The city contains one of the finest
hotels in the state, a cemetery of 40 acres, and
three school houses. It is the W. terminus
of the Detroit and Milwaukee railroad, and is
intersected by the Michigan Lake Shore line.
Steamers run throughout the year to Milwau-
kee, and in summer a daily line plies to Grand
Rapids. The principal manufactories are sev-
en saw mills, a shingle mill, a machine shop,
two ship yards, and one manufactory each of
agricultural implements and furniture, of sash,
doors, and blinds, of spinning wheels, and of
curtain rollers. There are a dry dock, a na-
tional bank, two weekly newspapers, a high
school, and 11 churches. Grand Haven was
laid out in 1836, though a trading post had
been established on its site by the northwest-
ern fur company in 1825. It received a city
charter in 1867.

GRAND ISLE, a N. W. county of Vermont,
consisting of a number of islands in Lake
Champlain and the S. part of a peninsula jut-
ting into the lake from Canada between Riche-
lieu or St. John's river and Missisquoi bay ;
area, about 77 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,082.
The chief islands are North Hero, South Hero,
and Isle La Motte. The surface is undulating,
and the soil fertile. The county is famous for
its orchards, which yield the finest apples in
the state. The chief productions in 1870 were
21,073 bushels of Indian corn, 105,431 of oats,
26,876 of buckwheat, 26,295 of peas and beans
51,599 of potatoes, 160,653 Ibs. of butter, 83,-
838 of wool, 12,271 tons of hay, and 15,982 Ibs.
of hops. There were 1,285 horses, 2,827 cat-
tle, and 16,087 sheep. The lake is here navi-
gable by vessels of 90 tons. The Vermont

GRAND RAPIDS

Central railroad crosses the N. part of the
county. Capital, North Hero.

GRAND MANAN, or Menan, an island off the E.
coast of Maine, at the entrance to the bay of
Fundy, belonging to Charlotte co., New Bruns-
wick ; pop. in 1871, 1,867. Its length is near-
ly 20 m., and its average breadth about 5 m.
It abounds with excellent timber, and has sev-
eral fishing stations. The coast is deeply in-
dented, and affords numerous good harbors.
There is a lighthouse on the island, lat. 44 45'
52" N., Ion. 66 44' 4" W.

GRANDPRE, Louis Marie Joseph Ohier, count de,
a French navigator and traveller, born in St.
Malo, May 7, 1761, died in Paris, Jan. 7, 1846.
After a long experience on the sea as a trader,
he entered the navy, and at the end of 15
years' service was admitted to the hotel de*
invalides, where he remained until his death.
He published Voyage d la cote occidental*
d>Afrique,fait dans les annees 1786 et 1787 (2
vols. 8vo, 1801), in which he gives an interest-
ing account from his own observation of the
Congo slave trade before the French revolution ;
Voyage dans Vlnde et au Bengalefait dans les
annees 1789 et 1790 (1801), followed by Voyage
dans la mer Rouge. He also published a Dic-
tionnaire universel de geographic maritime (2
vols. 4to, 1803), an Abrege elementaire de geo-
graphic physique (8vo, 1825), a Repertoire po-
ly glotte de la marine (2 vols. 8vo, 1829), and
many essays, among them a Memoire sur I 'em-
placement que VUe Atlantide peut avoir occupe
entre Pancien et le nouveau monde.

GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the capital of
"Kent co., Michigan, situated at the rapids of
Grand river, here spanned by five bridges, 30
m. E. of Lake Michigan and 60 m. W. N. W.
of Lansing; pop. in 1850, 2,686; in 1860,
8,085 ; in 1870, 16,507, of whom 5,725 were
foreigners. It is built on both sides of the
river, which here, deviating from its general
W. direction, runs nearly S. - between high
bluffs about a mile apart, which gradually di-
verge and nearly disappear above and below
the city. The central school building, erected
in 1868 at a cost of $50,000, is on the highest
part of the bluffs E. of the river, and com-
mands a fine view. The county jail, built in
1872, is a fine specimen of architecture. There
are many handsome residences, a number of
gravelled streets, and several miles of street
railroad. The river is navigable to this point
for steamers of considerable size. Six railroads
intersect here: the Detroit and Milwaukee,
the Grand Rapids and Indiana, the Grand
River Valley division of the Michigan Central,
the Kalamazoo division of the Michigan South-
ern, the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore,
and the Grand Rapids, Newaygo, and Lake
Shore. The rapids furnish extensive water
power, which is utilized by means of two
canals. The one on the E. side of the river is
2,600 ft. long, 140 ft. wide at the upper and 30
ft. at the lower end ; the W. side canal is 3,300
ft. long, 100 ft. wide at the upper and 50 ft. at

GRAND RIVER

GRANICUS

151

lower end. Only a portion of the available
power is in actual use. The principal manu-
factures are of wood work, embracing furni-
ire, barrels, and rim and bent work, tubs,
Is, sashes and blinds, carriages and wagons,
There are also manufactories of agricul-
iral implements and brushes, several founde-
3s and machine shops, chemical works, tan-
3ries, breweries, &c. The pine lumber pro-
iced in 1872 exceeded 60,000,000 ft. A
rge establishment for preserving fruit has re-
itly been erected. Four firms, with an ag-
sgate capital of $400,000, are engaged in
tarrying and manufacturing gypsum, which
abundant in the vicinity, the annual produc-
m being about 100,000 tons. Cream-colored
ricks, known as Milwaukee bricks, are also
lufactured here. There are two national
with an aggregate capital of $700,000,
id a savings bank. The city is divided into
wards, is lighted with gas, and has an
icient police force and a paid fire department,
le assessed value of property in 1873 was
,949,282. The United States circuit and
ict courts for the W. district of Michigan
held here. The school buildings are nine
number, including a high school. There is
public library with more than 7,000 volumes,
free reading room, and a scientific institute
rhich has a fine museum. There are three
ly and five weekly (one Dutch and one Ger-
i) newspapers, two monthly periodicals, and
churches. Grand Rapids was first settled
1833, and incorporated in 1850.
GRAND RIVER (Ind. name, Washtenong), a^
rer of Michigan, and the largest which lies*
rholly in that state. It rises in the S. E. part
the lower peninsula, in two branches which
ite near Jackson, and after a K W. and W.
>urse of about 270 m., including its numerous
indings, it discharges into Lake Michigan at
md Haven. It is about 950 ft. wide at its
ith, and deep enough for vessels of less than
ft. draught. Steamboats ascend 40 m. to
le rapids, where the river has a fall of 18 ft.
a mile; and small boats ply between the
of the rapids and Lyons, about 50 m.
ler. The principal affluents are the Rogue,
, Maple, Looking-glass, and Red Cedar from
le north, and the Thornapple from the south,
lackson, Lansing, Grand Rapids, and Grand
Haven are the chief towns on its banks.

GRAND RIVER, one of the constituents of the
Colorado of the "West, rises in the Rocky moun-
tains in Colorado territory, 5 or 6 m. W. of Long's
peak, in about lat. 40 17' K, Ion. 105 43' W.
It pursues a general S. W. course of about 350
m., and joins the Green in Utah territory. It
Is S. just before entering Utah, and then
as it crosses the boundary, resuming its
ineral direction. The only important tributary
the north is Milk creek, which joins the
lin stream near its source. From the south
it receives the Blue river (which, rising near the
base of Mt. Lincoln, has by some been regarded
as the true source of the Grand), Piney creek,

Roaring fork, the Gunnison or South fork (the
largest tributary), and the San Miguel and Do-
lores rivers, which unite and empty into the
Grand just beyond the Utah border. It flows
through a mountainous region, forming deep
and precipitous cafions.

GRAND TRAVERSE, a N. W. county of the S.
peninsula of Michigan, bounded N. E. by
Grand Traverse bay ; area, about 500 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 4,443. It is drained by Grand
Traverse river, which enters the bay of the
same name. The surface is undulating and
dotted over with a great number of small lakes.
The chief productions in 1870 were 31,157
bushels of wheat, 26,708 of Indian corn, 15,218
of oats, 94,174 of potatoes, and 3,544 tons of
hay. There were 2 flour and 9 saw mills. Cap-
ital, Grand Traverse City.

GRANDVILLE, Jean Ignace Isidore, whose real
name was GERARD, a French caricaturist, born
in Nancy in September, 1803, died at Vanves,
near Paris, in March, 1847. He was the son of
a miniature painter, and attracted attention in
1828 by his Metamorphoses dujour, illustrating
prevailing follies and vices by representing well
known personages with the faces of animals.
His political caricatures and his pictures of ani-
mals increased his reputation, and he furnished
many designs for illustrated and humorous
journals, for Lafontaine's fables, and for many
other works. In the latter part of his life he
took up fantastic and ghostly subjects, and he
died in a lunatic asylum. See Grandmlle, by
Charles Blanc (Paris, 1855).

GRANE, Gran, or Quade (Arabic, El-Kueit\ a
seaport town of Arabia, in the district of El-
Hasa or Ahsa, on a bay of the same name,
at the N. W. corner of the Persian gulf, 90 m.
S. of Bassorah ; lat. 29 23' K, Ion. 47 51' E. ;
pop. about 9,000. It is on a peninsula jutting
into the bay, which is 60 m. in circuit, affords
excellent anchorage for the largest vessels, and
is well protected by the small island of Felej
or Felitche. In the town there is a scar-
city of water. Most of the houses are built of
clay, but many wealthy merchants reside here.
Trade is carried on with the Red sea and India.

GRANGE, National. See HUSBANDRY, PA-
TRONS OF.

GRANGER, Gideon, an American statesman,
born at Suffield, Conn., July 19, 1767, died at
Canandaigua, N. Y., Dec. 31, 1822. He grad-
uated at Yale college in 1787, and rose to emi-
nence at the bar. In 1801 President Jefferson
appointed him postmaster general. He was
reappointed by President Madison, but was
displaced in 1814 for opposing Madison's policy.
He then removed to Canandaigua, N". Y. He
gave 1,000 acres of land to further the con-
struction of the Erie canal. His son FRAN-
CIS, born Dec. 1, 1792, was also a prominent
lawyer and member of congress, and post-
master general from March to July, 1841. He
died at Canandaigua, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1868.

GRAN1CUS (now Khodja Tckai), in ancient
geography, a small river of Asia Minor, rising

L52

GRANIER

N. W. of Mt. Ida, and emptying into the Pro-
pontis after a N. E. course of 50 or 60 m. It
is famous as the scene of the first decisive
victory of Alexander the Great over the Per-
sians, 334 B. 0.

GRAM KB, Adolphe Bernard, commonly called
A. GRANIER DE OASBAGNAC, a French journal-
ist, born in the department of Gers about 1806.
He was educated at the college of Toulouse,
and began his career at Paris in 1832, by wri-
ting literary criticisms for the Journal des De-
bats and the Revue de Paris. The asperity of
his articles displeased Bertin, editor of the De-
bats, and Granier joined the Presse, then just
founded by Girardin. In this journal he de-
fended Victor Hugo and the romantic school,
and wrote severe criticisms upon Racine. A
collection of these articles was published in
1852 under the title of Portraits litteraires. In
1837 he published Histoire des classes ounrieres
et des classes bourgeoises, and in 1840 Histoire
des classes nobles et des classes anoblies. He
also wrote pamphlets in defence of slavery, by
which he recommended himself to the planters
of Martinique and Guadeloupe ; and in 1840 he
made a visit to the "West Indies, of which an ac-
count was given in his Voyage aux Antilles (2
vols., 1842-'4). While there he married Mile.
Beauvallon, a Creole. On his return to Paris
he became editor of the Globe. His conduct
of this journal involved him in various contro-
versies and duels. In 1845 his brother-in-law
Beauvallon, who was employed upon the same
paper, killed Dujarrier, the manager of the
Presse, in a duel, and was prosecuted for having
nsed unfair means. He was acquitted, but was
afterward convicted of having procured his ac-
quittal with false witnesses. Granier de Cas-
sagnac testified on these trials in behalf of his
brother-in-law, and his character was compro-
mised by their result. The Globe having been
discontinued in 1846, he founded an ultra-con-
servative journal called ISfipoque, which exist-
ed for two years. He was then sent by Guizot
to found a journal at Rome for the promotion
of French interests. On the breaking out of
the revolution of 1848 he returned to France,
but did not go to Paris till 1850. He was a de-
clared opponent of the republic and a devoted
adherent of Louis Napoleon. He became in
1850 the principal editor of the Pouvoir, then
a regular contributor to the Constitutionnel,
mul in 1857 founded the Reveil. This survived
but a year, and he then assumed the direction
of the Pays. The next paper which he edited
was UKcho, which in 1863 was merged in the
Nation. In 1866 he resumed the direction of
the Pays. He was four times elected to the
chamber of deputies, as a government candi-
d.it,-. lH52-'69. In the chamber he was a vio-
lent partisan of the government. In 1868 he
\<>fr<l with six of his colleagues against a law
which was favorable to the press, and replied
to ar-L-nMirnts advanced by Picard and Ollivier
in relation to it with a challenge to fight.
Both he and his son, Paul de Oassagnac, be-

GRANITE

came notorious for the great number of con-
troversies, duels, and broils in which they were
engaged. After the French reverses in the
war of 1870-'71 he resided partly at Wilhelms-
hohe and partly at Brussels. After the res-
toration of peace he returned to Paris and
wrote occasionally for the Pays. In 1873 he
published Histoire des origines de la langue
francaise, in which he contended, as he had
done in the Presse in 1836 and in his Antiquite
des patois : anteriorite de la langue francaise
sur le latin (1859), that the French was spoken
in Gaul before Latin was introduced. He has
also published Histoire des causes de la revolu-
tion francaise (1850 ; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1856); His-
toire du directoire (3 vols., 1851-'6) ; Histoire
de la chute du roi Louis Philippe, de la repu-
blique de 1848 et du retablissement de V empire
(2 vols., 1857); Histoire des Girondins et des
massacres de septembre (2 vols., 1860) ; and
UEmpereur et la democratic moderne (1861).

GRANITE, a hard firm rock, made up essen-
tially of crystalline grains of feldspar and
quartz, deriving its name from its granular
structure. The typical granites are generally
described as composed of a potash feldspar
(orthoclase), quartz, and mica ; but there are
similar rocks which entirely lack the mica, and
others in which it is replaced by hornblende.
To this latter combination some writers give
the name of syenite, but this term appears to
have been originally employed to designate
a rock composed of hornblende with a soda
feldspar (albite, oligoclase, or labradorite), and
^without quartz, being identical with what by
other authors is called diorite. It seems bet-
ter therefore to follow the example of certain
German lithologists, who define granite as a
binary aggregate of orthoclase feldspar and
quartz, in which mica and hornblende may be
present as accidental minerals, giving rise to
micaceous and hornblendic granite, while the
variety from which they are both absent is
termed normal or binary granite. In some
cases a chloritic mineral, often confounded with
talc, takes the place of mica, and gives rise to
what has been called protogine or talcose gran-
ite. The color of the feldspar of granite is
generally white, gray, or reddish, while the
quartz is either colorless or somewhat smoky,
the hornblende greenish black, and the mica
varies in color from nearly white to brownish
or blackish. Associated with the orthoclase,
some granites contain portions of a soda feld-
spar, which may be either albite or oligoclase,
distinguished from the former by its whitp
or greenish-white color, which often contrasts
with the reddish tint of the orthoclase. There
are various degrees of fineness in the texture of
granites, and some of them, which have large
crystals of orthoclase imbedded in a finely
granular mixture of the constituent minerals,
are called porphyritic granites. Geologically
granite is described as an unstratified rock,
from the fact that it wants the banded or strat-
ified structure which characterizes gneiss, ft

GRANITE

153

granular rock made up of the same mineral
species arranged in layers, which are generally
supposed to represent planes of deposition.
Moreover, granite appears in irregular masses,
breaking through gneiss and various crystalline
stratified rocks, and often sending out veins or
dikes into the midst of these. All the rela-
tions of the true granites to the stratified rocks
are in fact such as to suggest the notion that
the former have been extruded in a more or
pasty condition from below the latter,
a the microscopic study of the minute cav-
ities often found in the quartz of granites,
rhich are filled with water or saline solutions,
>rby has concluded that this rock must have
jonsolidated at a temperature in some cases
ipproaching a red heat, and under a degree
)f pressure which implies that it was at that
time buried beneath a very great weight of
>ck. There is a popular notion that granite
the oldest of all rocks, and is in fact the sub-
ratum which underlies all others; but this
lea rests upon certain misconceptions, and is
jbably incorrect. It is true that it is found
making up through the newer crystalline
ratified rocks, the primitive slate formations
' some geologists ; but these are seen to rest
i an older formation composed in great
of highly crystalline gneiss, which, though
ra granite-like in its aspect, is clearly strat-
ied, and includes beds of quartzite, limestone,
ad iron ores. This oldest known series, to
rhich the name of Laurentian is given, was by
>me of the earlier geologists mistaken for the
anite which was supposed to underlie the
)wer series, and it has been suggested witn
mch probability that it is the gneisses of this
Id series, which in a softened condition have
een forced upward among the overlying for-
lations, where they take the form of unstrati-
ied granites. The primitive rock, which is
ipposed to have been before all stratified de-
sits, is everywhere concealed by these, and
m chemical analogies may be supposed to
lave been very unlike granite. The so-called
lites of the Alps are now shown to be strat-
[ rocks of eozoic age, which, by great and
>rofound folds have been brought up and made
n some cases to overlie the newer strata.
(See ALPS.) The dikes of a fine-grained gran-
ite, which appear as offshoots from the great
eruptive masses, are not to be confounded with
the granite veinstones, which appear to have
been formed by a process of gradual deposition
from aqueous solution in fissures or cavities in
~ie rocks. Such veins, although often made
in great part of feldspar and quartz with
lica, are closely related to the veinstones of
quartz and calc spar, which are so often the
gangue of metallic ores. They frequently pre-
sent a banded structure parallel with the walls
of the enclosing rock, and are remarkable for
containing in many cases large and beautiful
crystals, not only of the constituent minerals
of granite, but of rarer species. Among the
most common of these are garnet, tourmaline,

beryl, topaz, columbite, and cassiterite. The
gneisses and mica schists of what has been
called the Montalban or White mountain series
of the Appalachians are noted for the abun-
dance of these veins, and for the fine minerals
which these contain. Some of these granite
veins are mined for the mica which they afford,
and others for the pure and abundant white
orthoclase which is sought for the manufacture
of porcelain. These veins are of very various
sizes, sometimes 100 feet or more in breadth,
and often traverse the enclosing rocks at right
angles. A peculiar aggregate is sometimes
found in these veins, in which plates and im-
perfect skeleton crystals of quartz are so scat-
tered through the masses of cleavable ortho-
clase, that a section across the ends of these
plates presents the appearance of written
characters or hieroglyphics on a ground of
feldspar ; hence the name of graphic granite.
Granite is very strong and durable, and resists
the atmospheric influences ; but in the south-
ern and western parts of the United States and
in South America, as also in central France, it
is found to be softened and decayed to consid-
erable depths. This softening, which. Dolo-
mieu called the maladie du granit, and as-
cribed to the evolution of carbonic acid from
the interior of the earth, depends upon a chem-
ical decomposition of the feldspar, which loses
its alkali and a part of the silica in a soluble
form, leaving a hydrated silicate of alumina,
which in its purest form constitutes kaolin
or porcelain clay. The feldspars and horn-
blendes of the gneisses undergo a similar change.
According to Sterry Hunt, this decomposition
is not recent, and is not connected with an evo-
lution of carbonic acid from below, but was
effected in remote periods, when the whole at-
mosphere was highly charged with this gas, and
has ceased in modern times ; although it is not
impossible that some such changes may now be
going on in localities where an abundance of
carbonic acid is given off from the earth. The
red granites from Peterhead, near Aberdeen in
Scotland, are especially esteemed for their beau-
ty of color. Similar red granites are found on
the coasts of Maine and New Brunswick ; and
the hornblendic granites of Rockport and Quin-
cy in Massachusetts are quarried in very large
quantities and shipped to distant points.
True granite is found in masses of great solid-
ity, unbroken by seams and of remarkably uni-
form structure. It is seen upon the sides of
mountains covering acres, with hardly a crack
or seam. But, however massive and unbro-
ken it appears, it exhibits when quarried a ten-
dency to divide more easily in some directions
than in others, and is found to be realiy trav-
ersed by parallel seams, which separate it into
blocks more or less symmetrical. Having great
durability, and being so hard and compact that
the finer varieties are susceptible of a good
polish, and when carved retain better than any
other rock used for architectural purposes the
sharp edges of mouldings, granite has always

154

GRANSON

occupied the first rank among building stones.
Its great strength to resist pressure is exhib-
ited in the trial of the Aberdeen granite used
in the construction of the piers in the vaults
of the London custom house. A half-inch cube
of the best stone required to crush it the pres-
sure of 24,556 Ibs. It is easily split in large
blocks by a very simple process. With a hand
drill and hammer a workman bores a succes-
sion of holes from 3 to 6 in. in depth, and 2 to
6 in. apart, along the line where he wishes to
open the stone. The depth and number of the
holes are proportioned to the size of the block.
Into each of the round holes thus made he in-
troduces two slips of iron called half-rounds,
buckings, or feathers, being of wedge form,
but round on one side, and running to a point.
He then inserts a small steel wedge between
the flat faces of the two half-rounds and gently
tightens it with the hammer. This being done,
he moves along the line tapping each wedge in
order, and repeating the process till the strain
causes a crack, which gradually opens, sepa-
rating the block. Good granite of close grain
and uniform texture should in this way make
a clean separation, the crack going straight
through twice or three times the depth of the
holes. It may even be quarried out of the solid
ledge in the same manner, provided there are
natural seams; and where practicable the pro-
cess is much to be preferred to blasting, which
wastes the stone, breaking it into irregular frag-
ments. But the latter is necessary in quarrying,
to expose suitable faces for splitting, and to
open seams. Blocks of great size may be ob-
tained from good quarries, much larger indeed
than there is any demand for. They are often
split out from 40 to 80 ft. in length, and are
afterward reduced to smaller sizes. They are
sold in the rough blocks commonly by the ton
of 14 cubic feet, or if dressed, by the superficial
foot of hammered surface. In many parts of
the country gneisses of great homogeneousness
and with little evidence of stratification are
quarried under the name of granite, for which
they furnish an excellent substitute. Such is
the case with some of the gneisses of the Lau-
rentian in New York, and still more with the
fine-grained gray gneisses of the Montalban
series in New England and further southward
in the Blue Ridge. The so-called granites of
Hallowell and Augusta in Maine, and of Con-
conl in New Hampshire, are examples of these
granite-like gneisses. They are somewhat more
U-M.I.T than the true granites, but are more
easily wrought, and from their beauty of color
ami t.-xture are greatly esteemed for architec-
tural purposes. A very fine variety of so-called
granite is largely quarried on the James river
near Richmond. Virginia, but it is not certain
whether it is a true granite or one of the gneisses
above described.

<;U\\so\. or Grandson, a town of Switzer-
land, in the canton of Vaud, on the lake of '
Nrnt'rlmtel, near its S. W. extremity; pop.
about 1,600. It is chiefly memorable for the

GRANT

victory achieved near it, March 3, 1476, by the
Swiss over Charles the Bold of Burgundy.
(See CHARLES THE BOLD.)

GRANT, a word constantly used in deeds of
conveyance, and which once had a specific
meaning, that now is almost lost. By the rules
of the early common law all estates of land of
which actual delivery could be made, could be
transferred only " by livery (delivery) of seisin
(possession) ; " that is, by open and actual or
symbolic (a key for a house, a sward for a
field, &c.) transfer of possession from the one
party to the other. But there were valuable
interests which could not be transferred in this
way, as rents, estates in expectancy, reversions
and remainders, and generally all mere rights
and all incorporeal hereditaments. These could
be transferred only by deeds containing the
proper words of transfer. Of these, one of the
principal was concedo, translated by "grant;"
and all things which could be transferred only
in this way were said "to lie in grant," while
all of the first named class of interests and es-
tates were said " to lie in livery." With con-
cedo (grant), do (give) was always used; and
these two words, " give and grant," were said
to be the appropriate and peculiar words of
a grant. This distinction between livery and
grant was once very important ; but it is now
little more than a part of the obsolete learning
of the law. In all deeds of land, or of any in-
terest in land, corporeal or incorporeal, it is
customary to say " give and grant." In several
of the United States the peculiar meaning and
force of the word may be regarded as abrogated
by statute ; for all deeds of bargain and sale, of
lease and release, and all conveyances of the
freehold, are declared to be grants. The same
broad construction is given to the word by the
practice of conveyancers and of courts in other
states, and it would probably be found to pre-
vail generally for all practical purposes.

GRANT, the name of 11 counties in the United
States. I. A N. E. county of West Virginia,
bordering N. W. on Maryland, crossed by the
Alleghany mountains, and watered by the N.
and S. branches of the Potomac ; area, 500 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,467, of whom 331 were col-
ored. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Iron
ore is found. The chief productions in 1870
were 31,631 bushels of wheat, 52,350 of Indian
corn, 10,593 of oats, 67,587 Ibs. of butter, 20,-
689 of wool, and 4,787 tons of hay. There
were 1,435 horses, 1,739 milch cows, 4,730
other cattle, 7,551 sheep, and 3,116 swine.
Capital, Grant Court House. II. A N. central
parish of Louisiana, bounded E. by Little river
and S. W. by Red river ; area, about 500 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,517, of whom 2,414 were
colored. It is well watered. The surface is
level, and the soil productive. Pine timber
abounds. The chief productions in 1870 were
58,786 bushels of Indian corn, 9,948 of sweet
potatoes, 2,119 of peas and beans, and 4,377
bales of cotton. There were 651 horses,
1,097 milch cows, 1,771 other cattle, and 4,791

GRANT

155

nne. Capital, Colfax. III. A S. central
)unty of Arkansas, watered by the Saline
iver ; area, about 650 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
,943, of whom 339 were colored. The sur-
je is generally level, and the soil fertile. The
lief productions in 1870 were 105,664 bushels
Indian corn, 22,147 of sweet potatoes, and
,145 bales of cotton. There were 748 horses,
,367 milch cows, 3,303 other cattle, 2,022
leep, and 8,770 swine. Capital, Sheridan.
V. A N. county of Kentucky, drained by
jle river, an affluent of the Kentucky ; area,
rat 200 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,529, of whom
were colored. It occupies a part of the Dry
lidge, which separates the waters of the Lick-
from those of the Kentucky. The Louis-
le and Cincinnati short line railroad passes
the N. border. The surface is undulating
id well timbered, and the soil is fertile. The
lief productions in 1870 were 41,974 bushels
wheat, 20,384 of rye, 611,568 of Indian
i, 31,059 of oats, 17,668 of potatoes, 137,-
Ibs. of butter, 164,295 of tobacco, and
,541 tons of hay. There were 3,790 horses,
J64 milch cows, 3,960 other cattle, 7,233
ep, and 19,563 swine; 4 flour mills, 5 saw
Is, and 2 wool-carding and cloth-dressing
iblishments. Capital, Williamstown. V. A
itral county of Indiana, drained by Missis-
lewa river ; area, 420 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
1.8,487. It is intersected by the Pittsburgh,
mati, and St. Louis railroad. It has a
jvel surface and an excellent soil, adapted to
in, grass, and fruit. The chief productions
1870 were 374,574 bushels of wheat, 540,-
53 of Indian corn, 68,349 of oats, 41,657 of
rtatoes, 375,244 Ibs. of butter, 84,824 of wool,
,068 bushels of flax seed, and 9,448 tons of
ly. There were 6,942 horses, 5,052 milch
>ws, 6,636 other cattle, 25,290 sheep, and 27,-
swine. The principal manufactories were
of carriages, 2 of clothing, 2 of woollen
flour, 3 planing, and 32 saw mills,
ipital, Marion. VI. A S. W. county of Wis-
sin, separated from Iowa on the W. and S.
L by the Mississippi river, bounded N. and
r. W. by the Wisconsin and S. by Illinois ; area,
1. m. ; pop. in 1870, 37,979. The sur-
is diversified by valleys, ridges, prairies,
id woodlands; the soil, watered by Platte,
int, Blue, and other rivers, is fertile. Lead
id zinc are abundant, and the former metal
found throughout the S. part of the county,
rb.ich is said to produce more than 6,000,000
a year. There were 5 mines in operation
1870. The Milwaukee and St. Paul (Prai-
du Chien division) railroad crosses the N.
, and the Mineral Point railroad terminates
Platteville in this county. The chief pro-
luctions in 1870 were 914,455 bushels of wheat,
1,744,398 of Indian corn, 1,433,020 of oats,
44,316 of barley, 288,017 of potatoes, 17,-
971 of flax seed, 861,028 Ibs. of butter, 75,821
of wool, 44,585 of hops, and 39,244 tons of
hay. There were 13,901 horses, 13,312 milch
cows, 23,301 other cattle, 24,936 sheep, and

51,254 swine ; 18 manufactories of carriages,
9 of barrels and casks, 3 of bricks, 1 of gun-
powder, 6 of pig lead, 9 of saddlery and
harness, 5 of woollen goods, 5 saw mills, 4
breweries, and 13 flour mills. Capital, Lan-
caster. VII. A central W. county of Minneso-
ta; area, about 625 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 340.
There are a number of small lakes and streams.
The surface is level, and the soil fertile. The
St. Paul and Pacific railroad crosses the S. W.
part. Capital, Grant Court House. VIII. A
S. W. county of Nebraska, bordering on Kan-
sas, and bounded on the N. E. by the Platte
river; area, about 3,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
484. Since then it has been absorbed by
other counties. IX. A S. E. county of Oregon,
bordering on Nevada ; area, 21,000 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 2,251, of whom 940 were Chi-
nese. The N. W. portion is watered by John
Day's river, a branch of the Columbia, the E.
part by Malheur river, an affluent of the Snake,
and in the south are a number of lakes. The
Blue mountains cross the N. part. Along
the streams is some fertile land, the grazing
lands are more extensive, and forests are com-
mon, but much of the county consists of barren
sage plains and rocky hills. Gold was dis-
covered in this county in 1861, since which
time it is estimated that $10,000,000 have been
produced. The chief productions in 1870 were
17,459 bushels of wheat, 23,426 of oats, 22,172
of barley, 13,225 of potatoes, and 1,193 tons
of hay. There were 507 horses, 1,384 milch
cows, 2,112 other cattle, 1,154 sheep, and 1,248
swine. Capital, Canyon City. X. An E. coun-
ty of Dakota territory, bordering on Minne-
sota, recently formed, and not included in the
census of 1870 ; area, about 700 sq. m It is
bounded on the N. E. by Big Stone laie, and
is drained by affluents of the Minnesota river.
XI. The S. W. county of New Mexico, bounded
S. by Mexico and W. by Arizona ; area, about
10,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 1,143. The Gila
river and its tributaries drain the N. and W.
portions, while the Rio de los Mimbres flows
through the E. part. The Sierra Madre range
occupies a portion of the county. The soil in
parts is fertile. Copper and gold are found,
and there are three quartz mills and a saw
mill. Capital, Pinos Altos.

GRANT, Anne, better known as Mrs. Grant
of Laggan, a Scottish authoress, born in Glas-
gow, Feb. 21, 1755, died in Edinburgh, Nov.
7, 1838. Her father, Duncan McVicar, an
officer in the British army, was ordered to
America while she was a child. He received
a grant of land in Vermont, and added to it
by purchase. Ill health obliged him to return
to Scotland in 1768, and his lands were confis-
cated on the breaking out of the revolutionary
war. In 1779 Anne married the Rev. James
Grant of Laggan, Inverness-shire, and had a
large number of children. On his death in
1801 she was left in straitened circumstances,
and in 1803 published a volume of poetry,
which met with immediate favor. She next

156

GRANT

published "Letters from the Mountains" (3
vols., London, 1806-7), which contains descrip-
tions of highland scenery, character, and le-
gends. Her " Memoirs of an American Lady "
(2 vols., 1808) gives a pleasant picture of her
own childhood and of colonial life in America.
Other works are, "Essays on the Superstitions
of the Highlanders of Scotland" (2 vols.,
1811), and "Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a
Poem " (1814). After 1810 she resided in Ed-
inburgh, and toward the close of her life she
received a pension of 100. In 1844 appear-
ed the " Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs.
Grant of Laggan " (3 vols.), the memoir being
an autobiography, continued by her son, John
Peter Grant, who died in Edinburgh in 1871.

GRANT, Sir Francis, a Scottish artist, born in
Edinburgh in 1803. His precocious talent for
painting was encouraged by Sir Walter Scott,
and his earliest work was exhibited in 1834.
In 1837 he executed for the earl of Chester-
field "The Meet of his Majesty's Staghounds,"
with more than 40 portraits of noted sports-
men. Subsequently he produced " Melton
Hunt," which was purchased by the duke of
Wellington. Afterward he became distinguish-
ed as a portrait painter, and executed nume-
rous pictures of beautiful women and celebra-
ted men. In 1866 he succeeded Eastlake as
president of the royal academy.

GRANT, James, a British journalist, born in
Elgin, Scotland, in 1806. He started the " Elgin
Courier" in 1827, and removed to London in
1834, where he soon formed a connection with
the " Morning Advertiser," and became its
editor in 1850. He has published " Random
Recollections of the House of Commons " (Lon-
don, 1836), "The Bench and the Bar" (2 vols.,
1837), "The Metropolitan Pulpit" (2 vols.,
1839), "Travels in London," "Portraits of
Public Characters," and "Paris and its Peo-
ple." His " God is Love " and " Our Heaven-
ly Home " have passed through many editions.
In 1871 he published in two volumes "The
Newspaper Press, its Origin, Progress, and
Present Position."

GRANT, James, a Scottish novelist, born in
Edinburgh, Aug. 1, 1822. His father was an
officer in the British army, and his own educa-
tion was mostly received in barracks in Brit-
ish North America. After serving for a short
time in the 62d regiment as ensign, he resigned
his fMinmission in 1840, and devoted himself
to litiT.-itnrv. He has been a voluminous wri-
ter of military and historical romances, some
of which have had a very extensive circulation
in a cheap form. His chief publications are :
'Hi-- Romance of War" (4 vols., 1846-7);
"Adventures of an Aide-de-Camp " (1848)-
"Memoirs of Kirkcaldy of Grange" (1849);
r Fenton, or the Scottish Cavalier"
(1850); "Bothwell, or the Days of Mary
Queen of Scots " (1851) ; "Jane Seton " (1853) ;
"Harry Ogilvie " (1856); "Dick Rodney"
(1862); "Second to None" (1864); "The
White Cockade "(1867); and "Under the Red

Dragon " (1872). Most of his works have been
reprinted in the United States; some have
been translated into French, and all into Da-
nish and German. Mr. Grant is a frequent
contributor to periodicals.

GRANT, James Augustus, a British traveller,
born in Nairn, Scotland, in 1827. He was
educated at Marischal college, Aberdeen. In
1845 he received an appointment in the Indian
army, took part in both sieges of Mooltan and
in the battle of Guzerat, and was with Have-
lock at Lucknow. In 1861 he accompanied
Capt. Speke on his second expedition to the
lake region of central Africa. After traver-
sing a district never before visited by white
men, they reached Gondokoro in March, 1863,
whence they soon after returned to England.
Capt. Grant furnished the designs of the maps
and engravings in Speke's " Journal of the Dis-
covery of the Source of the Nile," and in 1864
published " A Walk across Africa, or Domestic
Scenes from my Nile Journal." In 1866 he
was made a commander of the bath. In 1868
he accompanied Lord Napier in the Abyssinian
expedition as head of the intelligence depart-
ment, and was nominated a commander of the
order of the star of India for his services. He
is now (1874) a major in the Bengal army.

GRANT, Sir James Hope, a British soldier, bro-
ther of Sir Francis Grant, born at Kilgraston,
Perthshire, July 22, 1808. He entered the army
in 1826, and was brigade major under Lord Sal-
toun in the first English war against China. He
served through the campaign in the Punjaub
in 1848-'9, continued in the Indian service,
and was made brevet colonel in 1854, and
major general and knight commander of the
bath in 1858. The last distinction was con-
ferred upon him especially in recognition of
distinguished service at the siege of Delhi, the
relief of Lucknow, and the operations at Cawn-
pore. He was put in command of the British
forces in China in 1859, and conducted the
campaign there to its successful termination in
the capture of Peking in 1860. For this he
was formally thanked by parliament, and made
a knight grand cross of the bath. In 1861 he
was made lieutenant general and commander-
in-chief at Madras, in 1867 quartermaster gen-
eral at headquarters, and in 1871 commander
of the division at Aldershott. In January,
1874, a compilation from his private journals
during his Indian campaigns was published in
London, under the title of " Incidents in the
Sepoy War, 1857-'8."

GRANT, Ulysses S., eighteenth president of
the United States, born at Point Pleasant, 0.,
April 27, 1822. His ancestors were Scotch.
In 1823 his parents removed to the village of
Georgetown, O., where his boyhood was passed.
He entered West Point military academy in
1839, appointed by the Hon. Thomas L. Hamer,
member of congress. His name originally was
Hiram Ulysses ; but the appointment was blun-
deringly made out for Ulysses S., and so it had
to remain. The study in which he showed

GRANT

157

lost proficiency during his course at the acad-
emy was mathematics. He graduated in 1843,
ranking 21st in a class of 39, and was made a
brevet second lieutenant of infantry and at-
tached as a supernumerary lieutenant to the 4th
regiment, which was stationed on the Missouri
frontier. In the summer of 1845 the regiment
was ordered to Texas, to join the army of
Gen. Taylor. On Sept. 30 Grant was commis-
sioned as a full lieutenant. He first saw blood
shed at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and took part
also in the battles of Resaca de la Palma and
Monterey, and the siege of Vera Cruz. In
April, 1847, he was made quartermaster of his
regiment, but still participated in all active
operations ; and after the battle of Molino del
Rey, Sept. 8, 1847, he was appointed on the
field a first lieutenant for his gallantry. In his
report of the battle of Ohapultepec (Sept. 13,
1847) Col. Garland, commanding the first bri-
gade, said : " The rear of the enemy had made
a stand behind a breastwork, from which they
were driven by detachments of the 2d artillery
under Capt. Brooks and the 4th infantry under
Lieut. Grant, supported by other regiments of
the division, after a short but sharp conflict."
"I must not omit to call attention to Lieut.
Grant, 4th infantry, who acquitted himself most
nobly, upon several occasions, under my own
observation." Grant was brevetted captain for
his conduct at Chapultepec, to date from the
battle. After the capture of the city of Mexico
he returned with his regiment, and was sta-
tioned first at Detroit, and then at Sackett's
Harbor. In 1848 he married Miss Julia T. Dent
of St. Louis, sister of one of his classmates. In
1852 he accompanied his regiment to Califor-
nia and Oregon, and while at Fort Vancouver,
Aug. 5, 1853, was commissioned full captain.
On July 31, 1854, he resigned, and removed to
St. Louis, cultivating a farm near that city and
engaging in business as a real estate agent.
In 1859 he was employed by his father in the
leather trade at Galena, 111. When the civil
war broke out, he was chosen to command a
company of volunteers, with which he marched
to Springfield. There he was retained as an
aid to Gov. Yates, and acted as mustering officer
of Illinois volunteers until he became colonel
of the 21st regiment, his commission dating
from June 17, 1861. He joined his regiment
at Mattoon, organized and drilled it at Casey -
yille, and then crossed into Missouri, where
it formed part of the guard of the Hannibal
and Hudson railroad. On July 31 he was
placed in command of the troops at Mexico,
forming a part of Gen. Pope's force. On Aug.

3 he was promoted to brigadier general of
volunteers, the commission being dated back
to May 17, and assumed command of the troops
at Cairo, which were soon increased by the
addition of Gen. McClernand's brigade. He
seized Paducah, at the mouth of the Tennessee,
on Sept. 6, and Smithland, at the mouth of the
Cumberland, on the 25th. In a proclamation
to the citizens of Paducah he said : " I have

nothing to do with opinions, and shall deal
only with armed rebellion and its aiders and
abettors." On Oct. 16 he sent out a detach-
ment under Col. Plummer to check the advance
of the confederate forces under Gen. Jeff
Thompson, which was accomplished by a bat-
tle at Fredericktown, Mo., on the 21st. On
Nov. 7, with two brigades, Grant fought the
battle of Belmont, where he commanded in
person and had a horse shot under him. Gen.
Halleck, on assuming command of the depart-
ment of Missouri, gave Gen. Grant the com-
mand of the district of Cairo (Dec. 21), which
was so extended as to form one of the largest
military divisions in the country, including the
southern part of Illinois, that portion of Ken-
tucky west of the Cumberland river, and the
southern counties of Missouri. After a re-
connoissance in force toward Columbus in Jan-
uary, 1862, Grant started on Feb. 3 from Pa-
ducah, with a force of 15,000 men, aided by
Commodore Foote with a fleet of gunboats, for
the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, the
former of which commanded the Tennessee
river, and the latter the Cumberland, near the
dividing line between Kentucky and Tennes-
see. Fort Henry, commanded by the confeder-
ate Gen. Tilghman, surrendered on Feb. 6, and
Fort Donelson, commanded by Gen. Buckner,
on the 16th. The reduction of Fort Henry
was mainly the work of the gunboats ; Fort
Donelson was only captured after a severe
battle (Feb. 15), in which the federal forces,
which had been increased to 30,000 or more,
sustained a loss of 2,300. In answer to Buck-
ner's proposal that commissioners be appoint-
ed to arrange the terms of capitulation, Grant
wrote : " No terms other than an uncondition-
al and immediate surrender can be accepted.
I propose to move immediately upon your
works." The capture of Fort Donelson with
all its defenders except Gen. Floyd's brigade
was the first brilliant and substantial victory
that had crowned the federal arms. To the
gratification at so great a military success was
added a popular admiration of the terse and
soldierly declaration in which the surrender
had been demanded ; and the hero of the affair
sprang at once into national celebrity. He was
immediately commissioned major general of vol-
unteers, to date from Feb. 16. Gen. C. F. Smith
had been directed by Gen. Halleck to make
an expedition up the Tennessee with about
40,000 men ; but he died soon after it started,
and the command devolved upon Gen. Grant.
A large portion of the force, after lying three
weeks at Pittsburgh Landing, in preparation
for an attack on Corinth, was surprised at day-
break of April 6 by an overwhelming confed-
erate force under Gen. A. S. Johnston, driven
from its camp, and routed with heavy loss.
Gen. Grant arrived on the field of battle at
8 A. M., and reformed the lines. Heavy re-
enforcements, under Gen. Buell, having ar-
rived in the night, the battle was renewed on
the 7th, and the enemy, defeated, withdrew

158

GRANT

to Corinth. The loss on each side was about
12,000. Gen. Grant was slightly wounded.
Gen. Halleck, arriving at the front two or
three days afterward, began siege operations
against Corinth ; but the confederates evacua-
ted the place on the last days of May. Hal-
leck was called to Washington on July 11, and
Grant became commander of the department
of West Tennessee, with headquarters at Cor-
inth. The most serious problem that demand-
ed his immediate attention was the disposal of
guerillas, spies, and traders, who were crossing
the lines on all' sorts of pretexts, carrying in-
formation and stores to the enemy. He issued
several severe orders against them, took pos-
session of all unoccupied buildings in Memphis
and rented them for the benefit of the United
States government, and gave the Memphis
"Avalanche" the alternative of suspending
publication or dismissing an editor who had
written an " incendiary and treasonable " ar-
ticle. On Sept. 17 Grant ordered an advance
from Corinth, to stop the progress of the con-
federate Gen. Price, who had a large force
concentrated at luka. A battle was fought at
this place, Sept. 19, and a complete victory
gained. As Gen. Bragg's force was pushing
toward the Ohio river, Grant now removed his
headquarters to Jackson, Tenn. The confed-
erates under Price and Van Dorn, 40,000 strong,
attacked his position at Corinth, which was
heW by Rosecrans with about 20,000 (Oct. 3
and 4). After a desperate fight, the assailants
were repulsed with heavy loss and pursued
beyond the Hatchie river. Buell moved out
to intercept Bragg, and defeated him at Perry-
ville, Oct. 8, whereupon he retreated to East
Tennessee. On the 16th Gen. Grant's depart-
ment was extended by the addition of a por-
tion of Mississippi, as far as Vicksburg, and
designated as the department of the Tennessee ;
the forces under his command were constituted
the 13th army corps. The most stringent mea-
sures were taken to prevent plundering and
illegal trading, as necessary to military disci-
pline under the peculiar circumstances of an
army so placed in a mingled community of
friends and foes. After unsuccessful move-
ments against Vicksburg, " the Gibraltar of the
Mississippi," from the north, and the loss of an
immense quantity of stores which the confed-
erates (Dec. 20) seized and destroyed at Holly
Springs, Grant moved his army down the west
bank of the river, crossed to the east side at a
point below the city on the last day of April,
1863, defeated the enemy in the actions of
Raymond, Jackson, Champion's Hill, and Big
mark, preventing Gen. J. E. Johnston from
joining Pemberton at Vicksburg, and laid
siege to that place, May 18. The city was sur-
rendered, with about 27,000 prisoners, on July
4, 1868. Thereupon Grant was promoted to
the rank of major general in the regular array.
In October he was placed in command of
the military division of the Mississippi, compri-
sing the departments commanded by Sherman,

Thomas, Burnside, and Hooker. Immediately
after the capture of Vicksburg he had sent
heavy reenforcements to Gen. Sherman on
the Big Black river, who was thereby enabled
to drive the confederate force under Johnston
out of Jackson. Grant concentrated his forces
for the defence of Chattanooga, which was
threatened by Bragg, and the latter's positions
on Missionary ridge and Lookout mountain
were carried by assault on Nov. 24 and 25.
Bragg's forces retreated to Dalton, Ga., being
followed as far as Ringgold. The pursuing
columns were then sent to the relief of Knox-
ville, which, held by Burnside, was closely in-
vested by Longstreet. Gen. Halleck, in his
annual report, said : " Considering the strength
of the rebel position and the difficulty of storm-
ing his intrenchments, the battle of Chatta-
nooga must be considered the most remarkable
in history. Not only did the officers and men
exhibit great skill and daring in their operations
on the field, but the highest praise is due to
the commanding general for his admirable dis-
positions for dislodging the enemy from a po-
sition apparently impregnable. Moreover, by
turning his right flank and throwing him back
upon Ringgold and Dalton, Sherman's forces
were interposed between Bragg and Long-
street, so as to prevent any possibility of their
forming a junction." The first measure passed
in the congressional session of 1863-'4 was
a resolution providing that a gold medal be
struck for Gen. Grant, and returning thanks
to him and his army. Resolutions of thanks
were also passed by the legislatures of New
York and Ohio. A bill reviving the grade of
lieutenant general in the army was passed by
congress, and on March 1, 1864, received the
signature of President Lincoln, who at once
nominated Gen. Grant for the position. The
senate confirmed the nomination on the follow-
ing day. On the eve of starting for Washing-
ton to receive the commission, Grant wrote
a letter to Gen. Sherman, in which he said:
" Whilst I have been eminently successful in
this war, in at least gaining the confidence of
the public, no one feels more than I how much
of this success is due to the energy, skill, and
the harmonious putting forth of that energy
and skill, of those whom it has been my good
fortune to have occupying subordinate posi-
tions under me. There are many officers to
whom these remarks are applicable to a greater
or less degree, proportionate to their ability as
soldiers; but what I want is, to express my
thanks to you and McPherson, as the men to
whom, above all others, I feel indebted for
whatever I have had of success." Grant ar-
rived in Washington on March 9, received his
commission at the hands of the president, and
on the 17th issued his first general order, dated
at Nashville, assuming command of the armies
of the United States, and announcing that
headquarters would be in the field, and until
further orders with the army of the Potomac.
Not before during the civil war had any one

GRANT

159

leral in the field commanded all the national
armies. Grant, with nearly 700,000 men in
the field, at once planned two campaigns, to be
directed simultaneously against vital points of
the confederacy by the two chief armies under
his command : the one, under Gen. Meade, to
operate against Richmond, defended by Lee;
the other, under Gen. Sherman, against At-
lanta, defended by Johnston. At midnight
on May 3 Grant began the movement against
Richmond, crossing the Rapidan with the
army of the Potomac, which was joined two
days later by the 9th corps under Burnside,
and, with an aggregate force of 140,000 men,
pushing through the Wilderness by the right
of Lee's position, in the endeavor to place him-
self between the confederate army and the
confederate capital. Lee was apprised of the
movement on the morning of the 4th, and
boldly took the offensive, pushing eastward to
strike the federal columns on the march. The
immediate result was the bloody battle of the
Wilderness, which foiled Grant's first attempt
to interpose his army between Lee's and Rich-
mond. Making another advance by the left
flank, he was again confronted by Lee at
Spottsylvania ; and after partial success and
a bloody repulse, he repeated the movement
again, only to find Lee in a strong position on
the North Anna river ; and still a fourth ad-
vance brought the army of the Potomac before
the absolutely impregnable rifle pits of Cold
Harbor. After a costly assault on these, Grant
once more moved his army by the left flank
and crossed the James. The day after the
success of Spottsylvania he had sent a des-
patch to the government, which closed with
these words : "I propose to fight it out on
this line if it takes all summer." His losses
in the campaign from the Rapidan to the
James (May 3 to June 15) were 54,551, killed,
wounded, and missing. Lee's losses were
about 32,000. Sherman opened his campaign
toward Atlanta as soon as Grant telegraphed
to him that the army of the Potomac had
crossed the Rapidan. At the same time Grant
had directed Sigel to advance from Winchester
up the Shenandoah toward Staunton, and Crook
to advance from Charleston up the Kanawha
toward Lynchburg. But Sigel was defeated
at Newmarket by Breckinridge, and Crook,
after considerable fighting, was compelled to
retreat. Meanwhile Gen. Butler, with the
army of the James, had been directed to cap-
ture and hold Petersburg, and if possible to in-
vest Richmond closely from the south side, but
had totally failed to do so. All these flanking
movements being foiled, and Lee being neither
defeated in the open field nor cut off from Rich-
mond, the great problem of the war instantly
narrowed itself down to a siege of Petersburg,
which Grant now began. Lee's attempt to
create a diversion by an invasion of Maryland
and an attack on Washington failed, Sheridan
ultimately driving back the invaders up the
valley of the Shenandoah ; while, in Georgia,
371 VOL. viii. 11

Johnston was unable to check the advance of
Sherman, and his successor in command, Hood,
was forced to evacuate Atlanta, and lost his
army before Nashville. The siege of Peters-
burg ended, after the victory at Five Forks, in.
the beginning of April, 1865, when Richmond
was evacuated and Lee retreated westward to-
ward Danville, followed closely by Grant, who
finally forced the surrender of his remaining
force, which took place at Appomattox Court
House, April 9. After the war Grant fixed
his headquarters at Washington ; and on July
25, 1866, he was commissioned general of the
United States army, the rank having been cre-
ated for him. On Aug. 12, 1867, when Pres-
ident Johnson suspended Secretary Stanton
from office, Gen. Grant was made secretary of
war ad interim, and held the position until
Jan. 14, 1868, when he returned it to Mr. Stan-
ton, whose removal the senate had refused to
sanction. The president wished Grant to re-
tain the office notwithstanding the action of
congress, and Grant, in a letter to him dated
Feb. 3, closing a somewhat tangled corre-
spondence, said : "I can but regard this whole
matter, from the beginning to the end, as an at-
tempt to involve me in the resistance of law for
which you hesitated to assume the responsibili-
ty in orders, and thus to destroy my character
before the country. I am, in a measure, con-
firmed in this conclusion by your recent orders
directing me to disobey orders from the secre-
tary of war, my superior and your subordinate,
without having countermanded his authority to
issue the orders I am to disobey." At the re-
publican national convention held in Chicago
May 21, 1868, Gen. Grant on the first ballot
was unanimously nominated for president, with
Schuyler Colfax for vice president. Their
democratic competitors were Horatio Seymour
and Francis P. Blair. Grant and Colfax car-
ried 26 states, and received 214 electoral votes,
against 80 for Seymour and Blair. Grant was
inaugurated president on March 4, 1869, and
on the next day sent in to the senate the fol-
lowing nominations for cabinet officers : Elihu
B. Washburne of Illinois, secretary of state ;
Alexander T. Stewart of New York, secretary
of the treasury ; Jacob D. Cox of Ohio, secre-
tary of the interior ; Adolph E. Borie of Penn-
sylvania, secretary of the navy ; John M. Scho-
field of Illinois, secretary of war ; John A.
J. Creswell of Maryland, postmaster general ;
E. Rockwood Hoar of Massachusetts, attorney
general. These nominations were at once con-
firmed, but it was discovered that Mr. Stewart
was disqualified by an act of 1789, which pro-
vided that no person should hold the office of
secretary of the treasury who was " directly
or indirectly concerned or interested in carry-
ing on the business of trade or commerce."
The president, in a brief message, thereupon
suggested to congress that Mr. Stewart be ex-
empted by joint resolution from the action of
the law. This was objected to, and Mr. Stew-
art declined, and George S. Boutwell of Massa-

160

GRANT

chusetts was appointed in his stead. Soon
afterward Mr. Washburne gave up the office
of secretary of state, being appointed minister
to France, and was succeeded by Hamilton
Fish of New York ; while Secretary Schofield
retired from the war department, and was suc-
ceeded by John A. Rawlins of Illinois, who
.Th.l in September, when the vacancy was
tilled by the appointment of William W. Bel-
knap of Iowa. Mr. Borie resigned in June, and
was succeeded by George M. Robeson of New
Jersey. Mr. Hoar resigned in July, 1870, and
was succeeded by A. T. Akerman of Georgia,
who resigned in December, 1871, and was suc-
ceeded by George H. Williams of Oregon. Mr.
Cox resigned in November, 1870, and was suc-
ceeded by Columbus Delano of Ohio. As
President Grant was in political harmony with
the majority in congress, the reconstruction
of the lately rebellious states, which had been
delayed by the lack of such harmony during
the previous administration, now went on. A
proclamation by President Grant, dated May
19, directed that there should be no reduction
of the wages paid to government employees in
consequence of the reduction in the hours of
labor which congress had enacted. In 1871
President Grant urged the annexation of Santo
Domingo as a territory of the United States.
A treaty to effect this, and also one by which
the peninsula and bay of Samana were ceded
to the United States for 50 years at an annual
rental of $150,000 in gold, had been signed
Nov. 29, 1869, on behalf of President Grant
and President Baez. Early in 1870 these
treaties were confirmed by a popular vote in
Santo Domingo ; but it was believed that a free
election had not been held, and it was said
that, in anticipation of annexation, the Domin-
ican government had granted to private indi-
viduals every valuable franchise or piece of
property in its possession. In conformity with
a resolution of congress, President Grant ap-
pointed B. F. Wade of Ohio, A. D. White of
New York, and S. G. Howe of Massachusetts,
as commissioners to visit Santo Domingo, ac-
companied by several scientific men, and re-
port upon the condition of the country, the
government, and the people. Their report,
submitted in April, 1871, was favorable to an-
nexation; but the senate withheld its appro-
val of the treaties. A "joint high commission "
of five British and five American members
met at Washington, Feb. 27, 1871, and on
May 8 signed a treaty on the subject of the
coast fisheries, river navigation, and the "Ala-
bama claims." The last named question was
submitted to a court of arbitration to meet
at ^Geneva, Switzerland, which on Sept. 14,
1872, awarded the gross sum of $15,500,000,
to be paid by the British government to the
United States for damages to American com-
merce by confederate cruisers fitted out in
British ports. The act to enforce the provi- I
sions of the 14th amendment of the constitu-
tion, popularly known as the Ku-Klux bill, I

GRANVELLE

was followed by a presidential proclamation
exhorting obedience to it; and on Oct. 17,
1871, the president suspended the privilege
of habeas corpus in the northern counties of
South Carolina. Under the provisions of an
act of congress of March 3, 1871, President
Grant appointed a board of seven commission-
ers to inquire into the condition of the civil
service and devise a plan for rendering it more
efficient. The chairman of the board, George
William Curtis, resigned in March, 1873, be-
cause of essential differences between his views
and the president's on the enforcement of the
rules. At the national republican convention
held in Philadelphia, June 5, 1872, President
Grant was renominated by acclamation, and
Henry Wilson of Massachusetts received the
nomination for vice president; while Horace
Greeley and B. Gratz Brown were the candi-
dates of both the liberal republicans and the
democrats. Grant and Wilson received 286
votes in the electoral college, against 80 for
other candidates. Grant's popular majority
over Greeley was 762,991. During the last
session of the 42d congress the salary of the
president was doubled, and those of the vice
president, speaker of the house, justices of the
supreme court, and heads of departments in-
creased 25 per cent. William M. Richardson
of Massachusetts became secretary of the trea-
sury March 4, 1873, and was succeeded on
June 2, 1874, by Benjamin H. Bristow of Ken-
tucky. On the death of Chief Justice Chase
in 1873, the president nominated successively
George H. Williams, Caleb Gushing, and Mor-
rison R. Waite of Ohio ; the last named was
confirmed. On April 22, 1874, he vetoed a
bill to increase the currency. Accounts of the
battles fought by Gen. Grant will be found
under their respective titles. See " Military
History of Ulysses S. Grant," by Adam Badeau
(vol. i., New York, 1868) ; " Life of Ulysses
S. Grant," by 0. A. Dana and J. H. Wilson
(Springfield, 1868); and "Report of the Oper-
ations of the Union Army from March, 1862, to
the Close of the Rebellion " (New York, 1866).
GRANVELLE, intoine Pemnot, cardinal de, a
Spanish statesman, born in Besancon, Aug.
20, 1517, died in Madrid, Sept. 21, 1586. He
was the son of Nicolas Perrenot, the chancellor
and minister of the emperor Charles V. He
was educated at Dole, Padua, and Louvain,
and mastered seven languages. At the age
of 23 he was appointed canon of Liege ca-
thedral and bishop of Arras. At the council
of Trent, in 1545, he defended the emperor's
war policy against France, and obtained an
appointment as councillor of state. After the
battle of Miihlberg (1547) he drew up the
treaty of peace between the emperor and the
German Protestants, and contrived to retain
the landgrave of Hesse a prisoner, contrary to
the promise made to him. In 1550 he suc-
ceeded his father as chancellor. He accompa-
nied the emperor on his flight from Innsprnck
in 1552, and displayed great ability in negotia-

GRANVELLE

g the treaty of Passau, which followed it.
The first service of importance which he ren-
dered Philip, the emperor's son, was in arrang-
ing (1553) his marriage with Mary of England.
On the accession of Philip II. in 1555, Gran-
velle became his minister, and delivered on his
behalf an eloquent address to the Flemish peo-
ple. While Philip remained in the Netherlands
he was guided by the counsels of his minister.
The regulations in reference to Protestantism,
adopted in 1550, were reenacted in 1556. The
Spaniards having gained the victory of St.
Quentin over the French, Granvelle was in-
strumental in negotiating the treaty of Ca-
teau-Cambr6sis, which was signed in 1559.
Soon afterward Philip II. returned to Spain,
and left Margaret of Parma regent of the Neth-
erlands ; but with her was associated a council,
advisory power in doubtful and important cases
being reserved to a consulta consisting of three
members of the council. Granvelle was one
of this select body, and had the other two com-
pletely under his control ; and it was soon
obvious that he wielded all the power of Spain
in the Netherlands. His administration became
odious, and his appointment was considered a
violation of the law, because he was a foreigner.
His paramount object was the restoration of
the supremacy of the Catholic church. Spanish
troops were retained in the country ; the gen-
eral assembly of the states was not called to-
gether ; and 13 new bishoprics were created.
In 1560 Granvelle was made archbishop of
Mechlin, and primate. But what incensed the
people most was the preparations for the intro-
duction of the Spanish inquisition. Granvelle
alone was held responsible for these abuses,
and the wrath of the nobles and the people was
concentrated upon him. In 1561 he was crea-
ted a cardinal. In 1563 William of Orange,
Egmont, and Horn united in a formal remon-
strance to the king against his proceedings, but
without avail. At last even Margaret of Parma
yielded to the pressure and joined in the request
for his recall. But it was not until Granvelle
himself had signified his acquiescence that
Philip II. commanded him " to leave the Low
Countries for a few days, and go to Burgundy
to see his mother." He obeyed the command
in 1564, and never returned. He retired to
Besangon, and occupied himself with litera-
ture and the physical sciences. In 1565 he
went to Rome by the king's order, and par-
ticipated in the election of Pope Pius V. In
1570 he was employed to negotiate the alliance
between Spain, Rome, and Venice against the
Turks. He next became viceroy of Naples, and
in 1575 was recalled to Madrid, where Philip
made him president of the supreme council of
Italy and Castile. He negotiated the terms of
union between Spain and Portugal, and when
Philip went to take possession of his new king-
dom, Granvelle acted as regent during his ab-
sence. The marriage contract between the
infanta Catharine and the duke of Savoy was
effected by his management. In 1584 he re-

GRANVILLE

161

signed the archbishopric of Mechlin, to accept
the less opulent see of Besancon. He was a
patron of letters, enriched the college of Be-
sancon, founded by his father, and contributed
largely to support the printing establishment
of Plantin at Antwerp. He left a large num-
ber of his own letters, of those of foreign min-
isters, of Charles V., and of Philip, and of state
papers and documents. Eighty years after-
ward they were assorted by the abbe Boissot,
forming a collection of 82 volumes. A selec-
tion from them has been published by the
French government (9 vols. 4to, 1841-'61).

GKANYILLE, a N. county of North Carolina,
bordering on Virginia, intersected by Tar river
and watered by the Neuse river ; area, about
750 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 24,831, of whom
13,355 were colored. The surface is slightly
hilly, and the soil generally good. The chief
productions in 1870 were 110,209 bushels of
wheat, 306,113 of Indian corn, 115,593 of oats,
16,484 of Irish and 34,298 of sweet potatoes,
129,595 Ibs. of butter, 2,134,228 of tobacco, and
277 bales of cotton. There were 2,722 horses,
4,073 milch cows, 4,828 other cattle, 881 sheep,
and 18,986 swine ; 2 iron founderies, and 39
manufactories of tobacco. The county is trav-
ersed by the Raleigh and Gaston and the Roa-
noke Valley railroads. Capital, Oxford.

GRANYILLE, a village of Licking co., Ohio,
pleasantly situated on an affluent of Licking
river, 3 m. from the Central Ohio division of
the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and 25 m. E.
N. E. of Columbus; pop. in 1870, 1,109. The
town is neatly built. Denison university (Bap-
tist) was organized in 1831, and in 1872 had
10 professors and instructors, 191 students (71
collegiate), and a library of 11,000 volumes.
The scientific department, organized in 1854,
had 21 students. The Granville female col-
lege had 8 instructors and 111 students; and
the young ladies' institute (Baptist) had 8 in-
structors and 115 students.

GRANVILLE, a seaport town of Normandy,
France, in the department of La Manche, on
the English channel, at the mouth of the Bosq,
29 m. S. W. of St. L6 ; pop. in 1866, 15,622.
It has a small harbor with a fine granite pier
capable of mounting cannon, is built in terraces
formed on the side of a promontory, is sur-
rounded with walls, and has a fort on the sum-
mit of the promontory. The town has a school
of navigation, and the inhabitants are chiefly
engaged in the cod and oyster fishery.

GRANVILLE, George, Baron Lansdowne, an
English author and statesman, born in 1667,
died Jan. 30, 1735. He entered Trinity col-
lege, Cambridge, at the age of 10, and three
years later received the degree of M. A. About
the same time he began to write poetry, and
on the accession of James II. addressed sev-
eral pieces of verse to him. During the reign
of William and Mary he lived in retirement
and wrote several plays, one of which, " He-
roic Love," is highly praised in a passage of
Dryden. His

162

GRANVILLE

formed 40 times. Becoming by the death of
his father and elder brother the head of the
influential family of Granville, he entered par-
liament in 1710, and in the same year was ap-
pointed secretary of war in place of Walpole.
In January, 1712, he was created Baron Lans-
downe of Biddeford. Upon the queen's death
he lost his offices, and, on account of his
avowed sympathy for the pretender and his
participation in the scheme for raising an in-
surrection in the west of England, was com-
mitted to the tower in September, 1715, where
he was confined till Feb. 8, 1717. Being sus-
pected again in 1722 of some connection with
the Atterbury plot, he retired to France, and
returning to England in 1732 published his
works in prose and poetry in 2 vols. 4to.

GRANVILLE, Granville George Leveson Cower,
second earl, a British statesman, born in Lon-
don, May 11, 1815. He was educated at Eton
and Oxford, and entered public life in 1835 as
attach6 to the British embassy at Paris, of
which his father, the first Earl Granville, a well
known diplomatist, was the head. In 1836 he
was returned to parliament for the borough of
Morpeth, subsequently became under secretary
of state for foreign affairs, and sat for Lichfield
from September, 1841, to January, 1846, when
he succeeded to his title. He held the seals of
the foreign office in the Russell cabinet from
December, 1851, to February, 1852, and was
lord president of the council from December,
1852, to June, 1854, from February, 1855, to
February, 1858, and from June, 1859, to June,
1866. In 1868 he again became a member of
the cabinet as secretary of state for the colonies.
In the house of lords he was a leader in de-
bate, and ably sustained liberal views in regard
to the Irish church bill, 1869, and the land
bill, 1870. On the death of Lord Clarendon in
1 870 he became secretary for foreign affairs. He
resigned with the other members of the Glad-
stone cabinet in February, 1874.

GRANVILLE, John Carteret, earl, an English
statesman, born in Bedfordshire, April 22, 1690,
died Jan. 2, 1763. He was educated at West-
minster school and at Oxford, and as Baron
Carteret took his seat in the house of lords
in 1711. His zeal in support of the Protestant
succession caused George I. to promote him in

1715 to be bailiff of the island of Jersey, and in

1716 to be lord lieutenant of Devonshire. In
1718 he was ambassador to Sweden ; in 1720
ambassador extraordinary at the congress of
Cambrai; from May, 1721, to April, 1724,
secretary of state ; and from that time till
1730, with a brief intermission, he was lord
lieutenant of Ireland. Afterward he was
prominent in the debates in the house of lords
till February, 1742, when he was again made
secretary of state, and in September following
was sent to the states general to assist in de-
vising measures to maintain the liberties of
the United Provinces. The succeeding year
he passed with the king in Hanover. In 1744,
by the death of his mother, he succeeded to

GRAPE

the title of Earl Granville, and shortly after
he was compelled to resign his office. Du-
ring his parliamentary career he was conspicu-
ous for his speeches on questions arising from
the Edinburgh riots, and he was the mover for
the settlement of 100,000 a year from the
civil list on the Prince of Wales. Macaulay
says : "No public man of that age had great-
er courage, greater ambition, greater activity,
greater talents for debate or for declamation,
No public man had such profound and exten-
sive learning. His knowledge of modern lan-
guages was prodigious. He spoke and wrote
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, German,
even Swedish." He alone of the ministers of
George I. could converse with the monarch in
his native tongue. His ministry was popularly
termed the "drunken administration," an ex-
pression not altogether figurative, for Gran-
ville's habits were extremely convivial, and
champagne lent its aid to keep him in that
state of joyous excitement in which his life
was passed. No misfortune could depress him.
His spirits were constantly high. When driven
from office, says Macaulay, "he retired laugh-
ing to his books and his bottle." Ill as he had
been used, he did not seem, says Horace Wal-
pole, " to have any resentment, or indeed any
feeling except thirst."

GRAPE, the fruit of woody vines of the genus
vitis (the ancient Latin name), the type of the
order vitacece, which includes shrubs climb-
ing by tendrils. At each node or joint of the
grape-vine is borne a leaf, with a tendril or
flower cluster upon the opposite side ; the
leaves are long-petioled, palmately veined, va-
riously lobed and smooth or downy in different
species; in the axil of each leaf are produced
two buds, one of which develops the same
season, producing what the vineyardist calls
"laterals," while the other remains dormant
as a provision for the growth of the following
year. The tendrils are branched ; the branches
have hooks at the ends, and when these catch
hold of some supporting object the tendril
coils spirally, rapidly becomes woody, and holds
the vine with great firmness. The tendril
may be considered as a modified branch, which
in some cases bears flowers and fruit ; nothing
is more common than to find in our native
vines clusters in which one of their branches
retains its tendril character and helps to hold
up the fruit. The flowers of the wild grape
are sometimes dioecious, but in cultivated ones
perfect ; they are very small ; the calyx short
and lined with a disk, which bears the petals
and stamens ; petals five, cohering at the apex T
and forming a little cap which in flowering
falls off entire ; stamens five, with a gland or
lobe of the disk between each pair ; a single
pistil, with a two-lobed stigma, has a two-
celled ovary with two ovules in each cell ; this
in ripening becomes a one- to four-seeded berry.
The flowers of the grape are delightfully fra-
grant, recalling the odor of mignonette. Grapes
are found in the temperate climates of both

GRAPE

163

___:iispheres. There is at present some con-
fusion about the species, but in a horticultural
view they are divided into European and
American grapes. The European grape, mtis
mnifera, is the species that in some of its nu-
3rous varieties is cultivated in most European

European Grape (Vitis vinifera).

Asiatic countries. Regel, the distinguished
1st and director of the imperial gardens
St. Petersburg, has recently given the some-
hat startling opinion that F. vinifera is not
a true species, but a hybrid between F. la-
brusca and F. milpina, both of which are na-
tives of North America, Japan, Mantchooria,
and the Himalaya. He bases his opinion upon
the facts that the European vine is not found
in a truly wild state, but only as an escape
from cultivation, and that the two species sug-
gested as its parents are found wild in that
portion of Asia in which the cultivation of the
vine originated. Whatever may have been its
origin, it will continue to be known by our
cultivators as the European or foreign grape.
Very early in the history of America attempts
ere made to cultivate the foreign grape in
e open air, and these have been repeated
m time to time up to the present day ; but
in no instance have they met with success east
of the Rocky mountains. In exceptionally fa-
vorable localities, as in city yards, the foreign
vine has here and there succeeded for a few
years ; but in order to grow it with certainty
it must have the protection of glass. Upon
A he Pacific coast the case is different; the
"esuit missionaries early discovered that the
il and climate were adapted to the foreign
ipe, and after California was settled by
mericans grape culture, confined almost ex-
lusively to foreign varieties, became one of
the important industries of the state. (See
AMERICAN "WINES.) The foreign vine is dis-
tinguished from American species principally
by the character of the fruit ; in the latter the

we
fro

more or less firm pulp, which slips from the
skin, while a foreign grape may be broken open
with the pulp still adhering to the skin, and
the seeds so free from it that they will fall
out or may be readily separated. The culti-
vation of the foreign grape under glass is fol-
lowed to a considerable extent both as a mat-
ter of luxury and of profit. Two modes of
culture are practised: in the cold grapery,
which is a glass house without artificial heat,
and in the forcing grapery, which is heated
and the vines brought into growth and fruiting
at such times as are desired. For details ref-
erence may be had to special treatises. Of
American species of the genus mtis producing
edible fruit, botanists recognize four: F. la-
~brusca, the northern fox grape; F. cestivalis,
the summer grape; F. cordifolia, the frost
grape; and F. vulpina, the muscadine or
southern fox grape. Several grapes from west
of the Mississippi have been described as dis-
tinct species by some botanists, but others re-
gard them as only forms of the above. The
American grapes differ so much in the wild
state, in form of leaf and size, shape, and color
of the fruit, that it is often difficult to decide
to which species a specimen should be referred ;
and when they are subjected to cultivation the
variation is still more strongly marked. In no
branch of fruit culture has there been greater
progress than in the cultivation of American
grapes. Twenty-five years ago the Catawba
and Isabella were the only kinds grown to any
considerable extent, while at the present time
the varieties are numbered by hundreds, and
additions are yearly made to the list. In the
article AMEKICAN WINES the leading varieties
are named, and the species from which they
are supposed to have originated indicated. In
the vineyards of the eastern states the growing
of the fruit for market is quite as important as
raising it for wine, and in the wine districts
the fruit is packed and shipped as table fruit
so long as it will bring a price above that at
which it can be profitably crushed for wine.
By keeping them at a low temperature some
varieties may be preserved in good condition

Flower of the Grape, magnified.

1 . Young flower. 2. Vertical section of flower. 8. Flower
without corolla.

for several months after they are gathered.
Aside from the commercial value of the grape,
it is of great importance as one of the few
fruits that can be conveniently produced in
cities and towns. While judicious treatment

seeds are enveloped and held together by a is essential to the best results, it will grow

164

GRAPE

and bear fruit under the most adverse cir-
cumstances, and it is cultivated for its abun-
dant shade as well as for its fruit. Within
a few years a new class of grapes has sprung
up, produced by hybridizing native varieties
with the foreign. Mr. Rogers of Salem, Mass.,
was the first to attempt this upon an exten-
sive scale, but the varieties he produced are
not very strongly marked with the charac-
teristics of the foreign vine. Dr. Wylie of
Chester, S. 0., Mr. Underbill of Croton Point,
N. Y., and others, have produced varieties
which in the fruit make a near approach to
the exotic grape, while the foliage is more like
that of its native parent. The vine is propa-
gated with the greatest ease by layers and from
cuttings; in commercial nurseries the propa-
gation is from cuttings, except with a few va-
rieties that take root with difficulty, and these
are grown from layers. Cuttings of the last
season's growth of wood removed in the au-
tumn pruning, with two or three buds upon
each, are buried in a dry place until spring, and
then set out in rows with one bud at the sur-
face of the ground and the others below ; with
some varieties a large percentage of such cut-
tings will form roots and make salable vines
by autumn; other kinds are very uncertain
when treated in this way, and these are started
under glass, from what are called single eyes,
which consist of one bud with a short piece of
the wood attached ; these eyes are planted in a
bed of sand, and by a proper management of
heat and moisture roots and leaves are soon
formed, when the young plants are transferred
to a rich soil. Vines are sometimes propagated,
especially in the case of rare kinds, from cut-
tings of green shoots, but planters do not ap-
prove of vines thus produced. In the matter
of pruning and training there is a considerable
difference of opinion and practice among vine-
yardists, but they all agree in controlling the
growth of the vine within certain bounds.
Whatever the system of pruning, its successful
practice depends upon a knowledge of the man-
ner of growth of the vine. The fruit of a vine
is produced upon shoots which in spring push
from buds upon branches or canes which grew
the season before. If a young vine consisting
of a single stem having 20 buds is left unprun-
ed, the majority of these buds will develop as
shoots ; the few uppermost will start first and
be the most vigorous, while those below will be
weak ; at the end of the season such a vine will
have two or three strong canes above and a
few slender ones below ; the next year, if still
unpruned, the stronger canes will follow the
same course as did the single one, and the most
vigorous growth and the fruit-bearing buds will
be still further from the root; and if the vine
be allowed to grow entirely wild for several
years, fruit will be found only upon the extreme
branches. One great object in pruning is to
keep the fruit-bearing portion of the vine near
the ground ; another is to keep up a constant
supply of fruit-bearing wood, and another to

GRAPE SHOT

so regulate the amount of fruit borne by each
vine that it shall attain the greatest possible
development and excellence. The methods of
pruning are thoroughly discussed in the recent
treatises upon grape culture. The vine grower
has many enemies to contend with, one of the
most destructive of which is mildew, which
consists of two or more forms or species of
parasitic fungi. The most common mildew up-
on native grapes, peronoapora, appears as small
grayish patches of down on the under side of
the leaves, and on the young shoots and fruit
stalks ; if not arrested, it soon destroys the foli-
age of the vine and checks the development of
the fruit. Flowers of sulphur, frequently and
persistently applied by means of a bellows in-
vented for the purpose, will prevent the further
spread of this destructive parasite. Another
form of mildew, oidium or erysiphe, makes its
appearance on the upper side of the leaves and
on the fruit, especially upon exotic vines under
glass, though in certain situations and in very
dry seasons it attacks vineyards of the native
grape; one form of "rot" upon the fruit is
due to this. Insects of various kinds, from the
time the' leaf begins to expand until the fruit is
gathered, demand the constant vigilance of the
cultivator. Of late years a minute aphis-like
insect has been discovered, though its ravages
were noticed long before the cause was ascer-
tained, the phylloxera vastatrix; this attacks
both the roots and the leaves, but not always
to the same degree in all varieties ; those that
have descended from the summer grape (V.
(Estwalis) seem to be more exempt from its
attacks than others. In Europe the devasta-
tions of this insect have been so great as to
completely destroy the grape industry in parts
of France as well as in other vine-growing
countries. It is believed in France that the in-
sect was introduced from this country, and in
1873 the commissioner of agriculture sent M.
Planchon to investigate the habits of phyllox-
era in what they regard as its native locali-
ties. The best history of this insect will be
found in the third, fourth, and fifth reports of
C. V. Riley, state entomologist of Missouri,
which are comprised in the reports of the
Missouri state board of agriculture for 1870, '71,
and '72. No satisfactory remedy has been
discovered. The principal varieties of foreign
and native grapes are described in Downing's
"Fruit and Fruit Trees of America" (revised
ed., 1869) and other general works upon fruits.
Special treatises upon the grape are numerous;
the most important to the American cultivator
are "American Grape Grower's Guide," by
William Chorlton, and "Grape Culture and
Wine Making," by A. Haraszthy, both mainly
devoted to the foreign grape; "The Grapo
Culturist," by A. S. Fuller; " Grapes and Wine,"
by George Hussmann ; and " Culture of the
Grape," by W. C. Strong.

GRAPE SHOT, formerly small shot put into a
canvas bag, which was corded into cylindrical
form to fit the piece of ordnance from which

GRAPHITE

it was to be fired. This was superseded by
canister shot, in which the balls are confined in
a canister of iron plate. The term grape shot is
now applied to an assemblage of iron shot fast-
ened around a metallic spindle, giving the ap-
pearance of a bunch of grapes. The shots fly
asunder as they leave the gun, and are very
destructive at short distances.

GRAPHITE (Gr. ypafaiv, to write), a mineral
commonly called black lead or plumbago, but
which titles are incorrect, as it contains no
lead. Its composition is similar to that of an-
thracite coal, containing usually from 90 to
95 per cent, of carbon, with from 4 to 10 per
cent, of iron, and traces of silica, alumina, lime,
and magnesia. Specimens have been found in
Ceylon said to contain 98*55 per cent, of car-
' Dn. It occurs in beds and imbedded masses
id laminae, in granite, gneiss, mica schist, and
illine limestone, and sometimes in green-
le. It is sometimes the result of alteration
heat of the coal formation, and is an ordi-
iry artificial product of the destructive dis-
lation of coal in the retorts of gas works. It
found in nature in both a crystalline and
)rphous condition, opaque, of a metallic,
si-gray color and lustre, and giving a pecu-
r, shining, greasy streak on paper. Its spe-
ic gravity is 2 '09, rising somewhat above
lis as impurities increase. Its hardness ranges
fcween 1 and 2. Crystallized graphite occurs
six-sided tables, belonging to the hexagonal
stem, cleaving perfectly in the direction of
base, and having the basal planes striated
llel to the alternate sides ; but the mineral
more commonly found in foliated or granular
It is found associated with olivene and
ihene at Ticonderoga, N. Y., and in beds of
leiss at Sturbridge, Mass., usually in a scaly
id granular, but sometimes approaching a
illine form. It is also found at North
)kfield, Brimfield, and Hinsdale, Mass., at
andon, Yt., and at Grenville, Canada, where
; is associated with sphene and tabular spar. It
jcurs near Amity, Orange co., N. Y., in white
nestone, associated with spinel, chondrodite,
id hornblende ; at Eossie, 4 St. Lawrence co.,
nth iron ore, and in gneiss; in Bucks co.,
., near Attleboro, associated with tabular
>ar, pyroxene, and scapolite, and also in sye-
ite at ManselPs black-lead mine near the
le locality. There is a large deposit at St.
John, N. B. The mine at Borrowdale in
imberland, England, has long been celebra-
" for yielding graphite of a superior quality
>r making black-lead pencils, one of its prin-
uses. The mine has been known since
le time of Queen Elizabeth, and probably
irnished the first lead pencils ever made, as
leir invention cannot be traced back as far
the discovery of the mine. It is in a moun-
lin, 8 m. S. of Keswick, 2,000 ft. high. The
ineral occurs in small nests in trap. The
are about the size of the fist. The mine
le so valuable as to be an object of plun-
, being reached underground from neigh-

GRASSE

165

boring mines, and being once forcibly taken
possession of at the surface. The graphite was
of so pure a quality that it required but little
preparation for the market; and much of it
was sawed up in its natural state for pencils.
The mine is now nearly exhausted, and has
not been worked for many years. Graphite
has been found in Germany, France, Austria,
and South America, and in enormous masses
in N. E. Siberia. Besides furnishing a material
for writing pencils, it is used for making cru-
cibles, and linings for small furnaces; as an
ingredient in lubricating compounds for ma-
chinery ; for giving a smooth surface to the
moulds of metal castings, and for polishing
stoves and iron castings generally ; and also for
a coating to wax or other impressions of ob-
jects designed to be electrotyped, for the pur-
pose of forming a good conducting surface for
the galvanic current. It has also been em-
ployed by Graham as a diaphragm in his dif-
fusiometer or instrument for observing the
comparative rate of diffusion of gases. (See
CETJOIBLE, and PENCIL.)

GRAPTOLITES (Gr. -yp&fetv, to write, and Woe,
stone), a genus of fossil acalephs, of as many
as 20 species, found only in the Silurian rocks,
abounding particularly in the slates of the Hud-
son river group. So numerous are these early
forms of zoophytes in the Llandeilo rocks of
Europe, that it has even been thought prob-
able that the carbonaceous character of the
slates was owing to the abundance of their re-
mains. As found in the black slates, their sil-

1. Graptolithus Logani, showing the centre of a branching
group. 2. Portion of a branchlet. 3. Same, much en-
larged. 4, 5. Forms of Phyllograptus typus. 6. Graptoli-
thus pristis. 1. Young of a graptolite.

very forms are obscurely retained, and the fos-
sils may easily be mistaken for impressions of
plants. They are long and slender, resembling
some algse, as well as the feather part of a
quill, whence their name. When found in cal-
careous strata their forms are more distinct.
Their nearest living analogues are the sea firs
or sertularians, of which the species inhabit
muddy sediment, such as the black slates must
once have been.

GRASS CLOTH. See RAMIE.

GRASSE, La, a town of 8. E. France, in the
department -of Alpes-Maritimes, 18 m. W. of
Nice; pop. in 1866, 12,241. It was formerly
the seat of a bishop, has a Gothic cathedral, a
college, a public library, and large manufacto-
ries of essences and perfumes, soap, and silk
goods. In the vicinity are quarries of marble
and alabaster, and extensive olive groves.

166

GRASSES

GRASSES, plants of the natural order grami-
nea, one of the most extensive in number of
species and individuals, and one of the most im-
portant in its relation to man. The stem (culm)
is jointed, sometimes solid, but usually hollow,
and closed at the joints (nodes) ; from each
joint rises a leaf stalk which is broad and en-
velops the stem, called the sheath (vagina),
which with few exceptions is split upon one
side for its whole length ; at the apex of the
sheaths are borne the leaves, which are alter-
nate, the blade (lami-
na) usually narrow,
and with parallel veins;
where the blade and
sheath join is a small
membranous appen-
dage, the ligule, which
is sometimes represent-
ed by a fringe of hairs.
The flowers are ar-
ranged at the summit
of the stem in strict
spikes, racemes, or
loose panicles, and are
in spikelets, which con-

F,o. i.-Phienm, .pikelet * of one or numerous
flowers (florets). The

parts of the flowers are chaffy, usually green
when young and becoming straw-colored
at maturity, and are described collectively as
glumaceous (Lat. gluma, a husk), a term also
applied to the flowers of some allied families.
In structure the flowers present some very
complex forms, while that in the more com-
mon species is exceedingly simple, and may be
readily understood by an examination of the
common red-top, a species of agro&tis, or timo-
thy (pTileum\ to be found almost everywhere.
A single spikelet of either of these will be
found, as in the engraving of phleum, to con-
sist of two concave scales called glumes, one
placed slightly above and within the other;
within these are the floret, consisting also of
two scales, and the palets, the upper and inner
of which is more or less covered by the outer,
and usually smaller and of more delicate tex-
ture ; the essential
parts of the flower
are within and pro-
tected by the palets ;
the stamens, one to
six (usually three),
have slender filaments
with anthers attached
l.y the middle (versa-
tile); pistil one, with
a one-celled, one-ovul-

ed ovary crowned by Fiu . 2..^ ikelet
two (rarely three)

the stigmas of which are feathery or
biury; the ovary in ripening becomes a grain
(caryopsis), which consists of the usually adhe-
rent pericarp (the hull), within which is the seed
proper, consisting of a small embryo situated at
the base and on the outside of a floury albumen ;

at the base of the pistil are situated one or two
minute scales (lodiculas), which are usually so
small as to escape the notice of a careless ob-
server, but in some genera are as long as the
ovary. This is the general structure of one-
flowered grasses, but it is varied in different
genera by the suppression of the upper palet,
or even by the absence of both glumes, and
the prolongation of the apex of one or both
glumes or the lower palet into a bristle-like
appendage, the awn. In the many-flowered
grasses, of which hair grass (aira) will serve as
a familiar illustration, there are two glumes, and
within these two to several florets placed one
above another upon a short axis (rachis), all
of which except the upper one contain stamens
and a pistil ; the uppermost floret in the oat
and in many other many-flowered grasses is
neutral or imperfect ; the lower palet in the
oat is strongly many-nerved, and bears below
its apex a strong and twisted awn. The nu-

FIG. 8. Poa, spikelet.

FIG. 4. Anthoxanthuin,
spikelet.

merous species of poa, including the meadow-
grasses, June grass, blue grass, &c., afford ex-
amples of many-flowered grasses in which the
spikelets are compressed, the palets without
awns, and more or less clothed with cottony
hairs. The suborders of the family and the
genera are founded upon various modifications
of a very simple structure, some of which have
been here indicated. In the sweet-scented ver-
nal grass we have another modification ; this
grass appears to be one-flowered, but it is real-
ly three-flowered, with the upper and lower
florets abortive and appearing one on each side
of the perfect one as an awned empty palet.
In barley (hordeum) and wheat (triticum) the
spikelets are sessile in the excavations of a zig-
zag stem or rachis; in the barley the spikelets
are one-flowered, only the central one some^
times being fertile, as in two-rowed barley,
and at others all three being fertile, when
the spike or head becomes six-rowed, and the
glumes are placed upon the side of the spike-
lets opposite the stem and form a bristle-like
involucre. Grasses are annuals or perennials,
and in some of the perennial species the root
stock runs for a long distance underground, as in
the couch grass, or "quack" (triticum repens),
which often becomes a serious pest to the cul-

GRASSES

16T

tivator. The root stocks, improperly called
roots, possess great vitality, and if broken in
the processes of cultivation, each joint is capa-
ble of producing a new plant. The genera and
species of grasses are numerous, and are esti-
mated to form ^ 2 part of all known flowering

FIG. 5. Sweet-scented
Vernal Grass (Antho-
xanthum odoratum).

FIG. 6. Eed-top
(Agrostis vulgaris).

ts; they are found in all parts of the
In temperate regions they are usually
low growth and carpet the surface of the
th, but toward the tropics they are taller
more tree-like in habit. The extremes in
,ture are striking when we contrast the
mute Phippsia of the arctic regions, only
inch in height, with the tropical bamboo,
hich elevates its stem, strong enough to serve
mast, to the height of 60 ft. The grasses
by far the most useful of all plants, the or-
r including wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize,
ce, millet, guinea corn, and sugar cane, be-
des numerous less known grains which fur-
ish breadstuifs to aboriginal people in various
arts of the world, and many species used for
animal food in the form of hay. In enumera-
ting the useful qualities and harmless character
'f grasses, an exception has been made in the
ise of darnel (lolium temulentum), which has
ng had the reputation of producing a poison-
s grain ; but, as will be seen under DARNEL,
is is doubted. Aside from furnishing food,
e economical uses of the grasses are many ;
e of the most important of these are given
nder BAMBOO ; other grasses furnish materials
r mats, cordage, the plaiting of hats, &c. One
' the sources of paper stock has within a few
ears- been found in the esparto grasses, ly-
geum sparteum and stipa tenacissima, of the
shores of the Mediterranean. Some species,
as the sand reed of our coasts, and especially
the tussock grass (dactylis ccespitosa) of the
Falkland islands, are of essential service in re-
taining the blowing sands. Different genera

FIG. 7. June or Blue
Grass (Poa pratensis).

have species which are highly fragrant; the
sweet-scented vernal grass (anthoxanthum odo-
ratum) has a grateful vanilla-like odor, and to
its presence is due the fact that the new-mown
hay of the older states is so much more fra-
grant than that in more recently settled locali-
ties, where this grass
has not yet become nat-
uralized. Seneca grass
or holy grass (hierochloa
fiorealis), a native spe-
cies, has a still more
marked odor. Two or
more species of andro-
pogon furnish the oil-
of-lemon grass or citro-
nelle, used in perfume-
ry ; and the vetiver of
the French comes from
another species of the
same genus. Perma-
nent Meadow and Pas-
ture Grasses. The num-
ber of grasses sown by
American farmers is
limited ; the common
practice being to sow
one or two sorts toge-
ther with clover, mow
it for hay for one or two
years, and then use the field for pasturing un-
til the land is required for cultivation. They
rarely sow grass expressly for making a per-
manent pasture ; and as the grasses best for hay
are not those most suited to grazing, our pas-
tures are of an inferior character compared with
, those of England.

Timothy (phleum
pratense) stands
at the head of the
hay-making grass-
es. (See TIMOTHY.)
Next in order is
red-top (agrostis
vulgaris), also call-
ed in different lo-
calities fine - top,
Rhode Island bent,
Borden's grass,
and in Pennsylva-
nia and southward
herd's grass, a
name which in
New York and
New England is
exclusively applied
to phleum or tim-
othy ; it was for-
merly called Eng-
lish grass. It
grows from 1 to 2 ft. high, according to sit-
uation, and has a slender open panicle of
small one-flowered spikelets, the reddish color
of which suggested its best known common
name. It varies greatly with the character of
the soil, but in no case yields as largely as tim-

FIG. 8. Orchard Grass (Dacty-
lis glomerata).

168

GRASSES

othy, and its great value is in its permanence
as a pasture grass. White-top (agrostis alba)
often appears spontaneously in pastures, and
is readily distinguished from red-top by its
greenish white flowers ; agriculturists are not
agreed as to its value. Orchard grass (dactylis
glomerata) is next in importance, as it is val-
uable for hay, and especially so for pasturage,
and it will grow better than most other grasses
in the shade of trees. It is a rather coarse spe-
cies, grows 3 and even 6 ft. high, and bears a
dense branching panicle, on which its several-
flowered spikeletsare arranged in crowded, one-
sided clusters ; it has a tendency to form tus-
socks, which unfits it for lawns ; and for hay
or pasturage the seed should be sown very
thickly in order to produce a fine herbage.
June grass (poa pratensis) is the most valuable
of the poas ; it is also known as smooth-stalked
meadow grass, green grass, and Kentucky blue
grass. By reason of its creeping root stocks it
rapidly forms a dense turf, and is more valued
for the pasture than the meadow; but it is
used for hay, its after-math or second cutting
being heavier than the first. It adapts itself
to a wide range of country, and endures ex-
treme cold without injury; it forms a large
portion of the best pastures of Europe as well
as of this country. Varying greatly in different
soils and climates, it has received a number of
local names besides those already given. It
attains its greatest luxuriance in the limestone
regions of Kentucky, where it spontaneously
takes possession of the land, or "comes in," as
the farmers say. The blue-grass pastures of
Kentucky have long been celebrated, and at
one time it was supposed that the grass was a
peculiar one; but it is now well ascertained
that it is only the common June grass grow-
ing in a peculiarly genial soil and climate. So
variable is this species that the English wri-
ters on grasses recognize a half dozen or more
named varieties. Other species of poa are
found in our fields and pastures, the principal of
which are the fowl meadow grass or false red-
top (P. serotina), and the roughish meadow
grass (P. trivialis), which resembles June
grass, but blooms in moist meadows nearly a
month later. The tall fescue (festuca elatior),
though rarely sown, often appears in meadows
and pastures ; the sheep's fescue (F. ovina) and
the hard fescue (var. duriuscula) grow upon
sandy hard soils, and in some localities form the
bulk of the sheep pasturage. The tall meadow-
oat grass (avena elatior) was some years ago
overpraised as " the grass of the Andes," and
fell into disrepute ; but it has latterly been re-
garded with more favor, and is valued by those
who have cultivated it. Meadow foxtail (alope-
curus pratensis) is highly prized as a pasture
grass in England, and is sparingly introduced
into this country; it has a resemblance to
timothy, but the structure of the flowers is
dUbrent, and it is much more soft to the touch.
Sweet-scented vernal grass, the odor of which
baa been already mentioned, is common in

meadows, though it is rarely sown; while it
adds to the enjoyment of the haying season, it
is of no agricultural value. Under the name
of rescue grass, a plant was much lauded in
Europe a few years ago as something that
would rescue fields from sterility and farmers

FIG.

.Buffalo Grass (Buchloo dactyloides).
1. Male. 2. Female.

from ruin ; the seed was sold as ~bromus ScJira-
deri, but it is probably a form of bromus unio-
loides, and of little value. Italian rye grass is
a form of the variable lolium perenne, other
varieties of which are known as Russell's,
Pacey's, and Stickney's rye grasses ; it is val-
uable for hay, pasturage, or soiling, especially
on irrigated meadows. Annual Grasses.
Among those of this class grown for hay are
Hungarian grass (panicum [setaria] Germani-
cum) and Italian millet (P. miliaceum), which
are often useful in supplementing a short hay
crop. The foliage of some of the cereal grains
is used for forage, it being cut before the grain
ripens and cured like hay ; oat, rye, and maize
are those principally grown. Grasses of Spon-
taneous Growth. Bermuda grass (cynodon
dactylon) is a native of Europe, Asia, and Af-
rica, and is abundantly naturalized south of
Pennsylvania. It is a low, much-branched
perennial, creeping extensively by root stocks,
and soon forms a dense mat that completely
excludes all other vegetation. In most locali-
ties it is regarded as a troublesome weed, but
it is of great value where other grasses will
not grow for pasturage, and even for hay ; in
this country, at least, it is not known to per-
fect seed. Buffalo grass (buchloe dactyloides),
in the prairies west of the Mississippi, extends
from the British possessions to Mexico, and is
the support not only of buffalo and deer, but
the animals of the recent settler ; it is one of
the few examples of a dioecious grass, and the
male and female plants are so unlike in their
flowering parts that until within a few years
they were regarded as belonging to distinct

GRASSES

genera; the pistillate or female flowers are
enclosed by a bur-like woody involucre; it
runs extensively by stolons, and forms a dense
turf, the foliage of which is but a few inches
high. Mezquite grass is often mentioned by
travellers in the far southwest; like other local
names in new countries, this is applied to quite
different plants; it seems to be given to what-
7QT grasses grow in the region of the mezquite
ee, and species of aristida, bouteloua, and
ren the buffalo grass, have this name given to
lem by different persons. Grama grass is
Iso praised by those who visit Spanish Amer-
m countries, and comprises a number of spe-
js of bouteloua. Another indefinite name
>f travellers is " bunch grass," given to any
id that forms clumps or tufts; festucas,
utelouas, triticums, and eriocoma all bear
lis name. Grasses regarded as Weeds. One
of the most troublesome weeds of the farmer
and gardener is couch grass (triticum repens),
already mentioned. Chess or cheat (bromus
secalinus) is a pest of the grain fields, often so
abundant from unclean seed as to induce igno-
rant farmers to believe that wheat really turns
into chess. Dogs-tail or wire grass (eleusine
Indica) is a common weed in the streets of
)wns and villages, and encroaches upon the
near them. Barnyard grass (panicum
alii) is common in waste places, and
rb.ere the soil is rich grows with great luxu-
iance, but being an annual is easily subdued.
The crab or finger grass (panicum sanguinale)
late in summer one of the most annoying of
le gardener's pests, as it roots at every joint,
id unless eradicated when very young is
iblesome. Marsh Grasses. Along the mar-
of rivers, especially where salt and fresh
3r meet, there are often wide tracts cover-
with verdure and known as meadows or
les. When the growth is sufficiently fine
lese meadows are mowed, and the product,
lown as marsh hay or salt hay, is largely
sed for bedding animals and for mulching.
)ften a large share of this hay consists of
rasses, but frequently it is made up of rushes
" sedges ; a small rush (juncus Gerardi and
perhaps others), called "black grass," often
covers large tracts. Among the grasses prop-
found in such localities are species of
irtina, glyceria, and phragmites. Orna-
mtal Grasses. Several tropical grasses are
>wn as greenhouse plants, and in late years
> taste for cultivating the hardier kinds in
le open border has greatly increased. Some
" these, like erianthus Ravenna and the pam-
s grass (gynerium argenteum), are grown
>r their stately appearance; their flower
;alks grow to the height of 12 ft., and
leir long leaves form large clumps of graceful
itline. Other species are cultivated for the
jauty of their flowers, which are dried for
laking ornamental bouquets. In some of the
lorticultural establishments of Germany bou-
lets of dried grasses are an article of export.
-Very many kinds of grass not here enumer-

GRASSHOPPER

169

ated are more or less well known, the more
important of which are treated in separate ar-
ticles, as CANARY GRASS, FEATHER GRASS, MIL-
LET, REED, &c. Many plants commonly called
grasses do not belong to the grass family. In
some agricultural works, clover, lucerne, sain-
foin, and other forage plants are incorrectly
classed as grasses ; these will be found under
their proper titles. The most complete general
scientific treatises upon grasses are Kunth's
Enumeratio Plantarum (5 vols., Stuttgart,
1833-'50) and Steudel's Synopsis Graminea-
rum (Stuttgart, 1855). The species east of
the Mississippi are described in Gray's "Man-
ual of the Botany of the Northern United
States" (New York, 1867) and Chapman's
"Flora of the Southern United States " (New
York, 1860) ; those of the far western portions
of our territory are scattered through various
reports and memoirs. Flint's "Grasses and
Forage Plants " (Boston, 1867) is the principal
American work upon the agricultural grasses.
GRASSHOPPER, a name properly applied to
orthopterous insects of the family locustadce.
Some European entomologists assign the gene-
ric name locusta to the grasshopper ; the sau-
terelles of the French include both locusts and
grasshoppers; great inconvenience has arisen
from this confusion of names, which will be
avoided by calling the grasshoppers locustadce,
and the locusts acrydii. The locustadw are
characterized by having long antennae, four
joints to all their feet, wing covers sloping
downward at the sides of the body, and the
end of the abdomen in the females provided
with a projecting sword-shaped piercer; the
jaws are formed for mastication; the upper
wings are thick and opaque, overlapping a lit-
tle on the back, this portion forming a long
triangle, traversed in the males by strong pro-
jecting veins, between which are thin, transpa-
rent, membranous spaces ; the under wings
are thin and folded in plaits like a fan ; they
undergo a partial transformation the larvas
and pupse being active, voracious, and wing-
less; they are injurious to vegetation in all
their forms. The males emit a shrill sound
produced by the friction of the overlapping
portions of the wings, intensified by the vibra-
tion of the air contained in the internal air
sacs, and its action upon a complicated series of
valves and membranous plates about the ori-
gins of the wings and legs. Most grasshop-
pers are of a green color, more or less resem-
bling the leaves upon which they feed ; they
are more active by night than by day ; when
taken, they emit from the mouth a dark-col-
ored fluid, known by every school boy as
"molasses;" they do not associate together,
nor migrate from place to place in large num-
bers, as do the locusts proper. Some live upon
grass and herbaceous plants, and the females
lay their eggs in the ground in holes made by
their nearly straight piercers; the eggs are
elongated, ellipsoidal, very numerous, from
one fourth to one fifth of an inch long, and

170

GRASSHOPPER

covered with a thin varnish-like film. Others
live upon trees and shrubs, like the katydid ;
their wings and covers are broader, and they
deposit tlu-ireggs on the branches of trees in
regular rows, having shaved off the bark with
tlu-ir short and curved piercer. The legs are

Oblong Leaf-winged Grasshopper (Phylloptera oblongifolia).

three pairs, the posterior being much the long-
est and capable of performing the jumps
whence these insects derive their name ; they
nil end in elastic hooks. The flight of the
grasshopper is short, unsteady, and noiseless,
compared with that of the locust. The Amer-
ican katydid (platypJiyllum concavum, Harris)
will be described under that title. Other na-
tive grasshoppers are : 1. The spotted wingless
grasshopper (phalangopsis maculata, Harris),
pale yellowish brown, with small light spots
on the darker back, smooth and shining, with
arched back, from half an inch to about an
inch long; it is common, under stones and
sticks in the woods, has the short thick body
and stout hind thighs of a cricket, and is en-
tirely destitute of wings. 2. The oblong leaf-
winged grasshopper (phylloptera ollongifolia,
De Geer) is of a brilliant green, with very deli-
cate wings, the under extending far beyond
the upper; the body is only about an inch
long, but to the end of the wings it often mea-
sures three inches; in its perfect state it is
found upon trees in September and October;

Narrow-leayed Grasshopper (Phancroptera angustifolia).

1'iriii- flight it makes a whizzing noise. 3
The curved-tailed grasshopper (P. curvicauda,
B Geer), of the middle and southern states, is
a larger species, with wing covers broadest in
the middle. 4. The narrow-leaved grasshopper
(phaneroptera angustifolia, Harris) is green

with wing covers rounded at the tips and
shorter than the wings, a short bent piercer,
and in the male a long tapering projection from
the under side of the body ; it measures in the
body three quarters of an inch, and to the end
of the wings about an inch and three quarters;
it comes to maturity early in September. 6.
The common meadow grasshopper (orchelimum
mtlgare, Harris), so numerous near the end of
summer at different ages, is of a general green,
with a brown stripe on the top of the head and
thorax; it measures at maturity about three
quarters of an inch to the end of the body, and
a quarter of an inch more to the end of the
semi-transparent wing covers ; the shrilling or-
gans consist of a transparent glassy spot in the
overlapping portion of each wing cover, which
is larger and stronger than in other grasshop-
pers; the hindmost thighs are smooth, there
are two spines on the middle of the breast, and
the antenna? extend beyond the end of the hind
legs. 6. The sword-bearer grasshopper (cono-
cepkalus ensiger, Harris) has the head conical,
extending to a blunt point between the eyes,
and along, straight, sword-shaped piercer; it
measures an inch to the end of the body, and

Common Meadow Grasshopper (Orchelimum vulgare).

an inch more to the end of the wing covers ;
it is pale green, with whitish head, and pale
brownish green legs and abdomen. The young
grasshopper comes from the egg without wings ;
passing through several moultings, the body
increases and little stump-like wings appear;
the wings gradually become longer with each
change of skin, the insect hopping about by
means of its muscular hind thighs ; after ceas-
ing to grow, the wings are perfect organs
of flight, and the grasshopper enters upon its
short life ; the song by degrees becomes less,
the body shrivels, the legs wither, the appetite
ceases, and in three or four weeks the whole
number are dead. The larvae remain in the
earth or wherever the eggs are deposited all
winter, and are hatched in the spring ; they
are voracious as larva, pupa, and perfect in-
sect, and in all these stages are eagerly de-
voured by fowls, especially turkeys. The
Cjen grasshopper of Europe (L. viridissima,
tr.) is two inches long, of a fine green with-
out spots. The L. verrucivora (Fabr.) is green,
with the wing covers spotted with brown and
black ; it bites severely, and the Swedes sub-
mit their warts to its mandibles, asserting
that after its bite the warts quickly disappear.

GRASSMANtf

There are many other species in different parts
of the world, but none merit attention for
their destructiveness in comparison with the
locusts; war is rarely waged against grass-
hoppers, as their natural enemies, birds, do-
mestic fowls, and sand wasps, keep them down
in proper limits.

GRASSMAM, Hermann Giinther, a German
mathematician, born in Stettin, Prussia, April
15, 1809. His father was professor of mathe-
matics in the gymnasium of Stettin and the
author of several mathematical text books.
Hermann studied theology and mathematics,
and from 1834 to 1852 was a teacher in the
Otto-Schule in Stettin, when he succeeded his
father as professor of mathematics in the gym-
nasium. In 1844 he published the first part
of Die Wissenschaft der extensiven Grosse, eine
neue mathematische Disciplin. This part also
bore the special title Die lineale Ausdehnungs-
lehre, ein neuer Zweig der Maihematik, darge-
stellt und durch Anwendungen avf die ubrigen
Zweige der MathematiTe, wie auch auf die
Statik, Mechanifc, die LeJire vom Magnetismus
und die Krystallonomie erlautert. In the
preface to this work he gave a short account
of his discovery, and declared his intention to
make its development and application the chief
object of his life. He further developed his
theory in Geometrische Analyse (1847), which
obtained the prize offered by the Prince Jablo-
novvski scientific society of Leipsic, and in arti-
cles in Oelle's mathematical journal treating
the higher classes of curves. In 1853 Cauchy
published in the Comptes rendus of the French
academy a method of resolving algebraical equa-
tions and other problems by means of certain
symbolical quantities, which he called clefs alge-
bralques. The method was identical with that
employed by Grassmann, and the latter imme-
diately addressed a " claim of priority " to the
academy. A committee was appointed to ex-
amine the question, but it never made any re-
port, and Cauchy abruptly broke off the publi-
cation of his articles. In 1862 Grassmann
completed the development of his theory by
publishing Die Ausdehnungslehre volhtandig
und in strenger Form "bearbeitet. This work
is in strict mathematical form, after the model
of Euclid's Elements, consisting almost entire-
ly of propositions and demonstrations. In it
he develops the connection of his theory with
every branch of mathematics, from arithmetic
to the integral calculus, and discusses its appli-
cation to geometry. The profoundly meta-
physical character of his first work and the ex-
ceedingly abstract form of the last, together
with the total absence of all geometrical fig-
ures and all simple illustrations, have very
much retarded the progress of his doctrine
among professed mathematicians, and have pre-
vented its comprehension by any others. It
has many striking analogies to the quaternions
of Sir William Rowan Hamilton. There can
be little doubt that the theory of Grassmann,
or one essentially the same, and only differing

GRATIAtf

171

somewhat in form, will in time supersede the
whole system of analytical geometry as founded
by Descartes and so greatly developed by the
labors of subsequent mathematicians. Grass-
mann has been a frequent contributor to the
leading scientific journals of Germany, and has
published text books on various branches of
science. He has an extensive knowledge of
languages, published in 1870 a work on the
German names of plants, and is now (1874) en-
gaged in publishing a Sanskrit-German diction-
ary to the Rig Veda.

GRASS TREE, one of the English names given
to plants of the genus xanthorrhcea, which are
also called grass-gum trees and black-boys.
They belong to the order liliacece, and are es-
pecially distinguished by their crowns of long,
pendulous, grass-like leaves, from the centre of
which arises a long stem bearing at its summit
a dense flower spike looking somewhat like a
large cat-tail (typha). Some species have very
short stems, while others have trunks 6 to 18
ft. high, which, with their singular tufts of
leaves, form a striking feature in the Australian
landscape. X. arlorea, X. australis, both ar-
borescent, and X. hastilis. nearly stemless, are
the best known species, as they are the prin-
cipal ones in cultivation as ornamental green-
house plants. Two resins obtained from these
plants have been known for some time ; one is
yellow and called Botany Bay resin and gum
acaroides, and the other red, resembling drag-
on's blood, and known as black-boy gum.
They are aromatic, contain cinnamic and ben-
zoic acids, and have the general properties of
the balsams proper. No important use seems
to have been found for these products.

GRATIAN (AUGUSTUS GKATIANUS), emperor
of Rome, born in Pannonia in 359, slain at
Lugdunum (Lyons) in 383. His father, Valen-
tinian I., bestowed upon him the title of Au-
gustus in his childhood, but when he died in
375 the officers of the army compelled Gratian
to give his half brother Valentinian II., then a
young child, a share in the western empire, the
East being in the hands of his uncle Valens.
Gratian received Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and
reigned over Italy, Illyricum, and Africa as
guardian of his brother. Great severity marked
the beginning of his reign. When the East
was attacked by the Goths, Gratian was de-
layed in aiding his uncle by another incursion
of barbarians from the north; and when he
finally marched to his rescue, he received the
news of his defeat and death (378), which
made him the ruler of both parts of the empire.
In the next year he ceded the East to the
younger Theodosius, Several wars with bar-
barous tribes on the Rhine and Danube were
successfully terminated, and Gratian, who is
praised by both Christian and pagan historians
as just, moderate, and virtuous, now enjoyed a
few years of repose at his residence in Milan,
where he became the friend of St. Ambrose.
By the confiscation of the property of the
temples and the abolition of the privileges of

172

GRATIOT

the priests, ho greatly contributed to the down-
fall of paganism. A military rebellion, which
broke out in Britain under Maximus, and spread
to Gaul, deprived him of his throne and life.

GRATIOT, a central county of the S. penin-
sula of Michigan, drained by Pine and Maple
rivers; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 11,810.
It has an undulating surface and a productive
soil, partially covered with pine timber. The
chief productions in 1870 were 127,111 bushels
of wheat, 81,655 of Indian corn, 64,923 of oats,
95,354 of potatoes, 306,436 Ibs. of butter, 44,-
903 of wool, and 13,297 tons of hay. There
were 2,072 horses, 3,288 milch cows, 4,748
other cattle, 11,536 sheep, and 4,890 swine; 4
flour mills, and 13 saw mills. Capital, Ithaca.

GRATRY, Angnste Joseph Alphons*, abbe, a
French theologian, born in Lille, March 30,
1805, died at Montreux, Switzerland, Feb. 6,
1872. In 1841 he was appointed director of
the college of Ste. Barbe, Paris, and in 1846
chaplain of the superior normal school. In 1851
a controversy with his colleague, M. Vacherot,
led to their resigning their positions. Gratry
now founded, in conjunction with the abb6
Petetot, a society of priests called "Oratory
of the Immaculate Conception," and devoted
himself in an especial manner to the conver-
sion and instruction of the Parisian youth. In
1861 he was appointed by Bishop Dupanloup
vicar general of Orleans, and in 1863 became
professor of moral theology in the Sorbonne.
On the publication of his Cours de philosophic
(1855-'7) he was hailed as a valuable auxiliary
by the ontologists. In 1864 he vehemently
attacked Renan and the whole rationalistic
school ; and in 1867 he was elected a member
of the French academy, chiefly, it is thought,
in consideration of his three works, Paix, medi-
tations historiques et religieuses (1862), Sources,
conseih pour la conduite de T esprit (2 vols. 8vo,
1861-'2), and Commentaires sur Vevangile de
Saint Matthieu (1863). In 1869 his connection
with Pere Hyacinthe and the "International
League of Peace" drew on him the censure of
the superior of the Oratory, from which body
he thereupon withdrew. In 1870 he published
two letters on the position of parties in the
council of the Vatican, which he retracted in
December, 1872, in a letter to the new arch-
bishop of Paris, Guibert. His principal works,
besides those above mentioned, are: Philoso-
vhie du Credo (1861); Jems-Christ, lettres a
M. Renan (1864); Lea sophittes et la critique
(1864) ; II, N // I'crreyce (1866) ; and La morale
etlaloide Wiutoire (2 vols. 8vo, 1868).

GRATTAN, Henry, an Irish statesman and
orator, born in Dublin, July 3, 1746, died in
London, May 14, 1820. His father, a barrister
and a Protestant, was for many years record-
' Dublin and also a member of the Irish
partUment Il.-nry entered Trinity college,
Dublin, in 1765, and graduated with distinction
in 17<:7, after which he removed to London
and became a student in the Middle Temple
Hi admiration for the eloquence of Lord Chat-

GRATTAN

ham determined him to become an orator.
He was admitted to the Irish bar in 1772, and
in 1775 entered the Irish parliament as repre-
sentative of Charlemont. He at once joined
the opposition, and united with Flood and the
leading patriots of the day in endeavoring to
obtain free trade for Ireland. On April 19,
1780, he introduced and supported with great
eloquence the famous declaration of right,
denying the power of the British parliament
to legislate for Ireland. His motion was lost,
but he became the idol of the Irish people.
He fired their national spirit, and through his
influence the volunteer bands assembling from
all parts of Ireland were swelled to the num-
ber of 80,000. These volunteers held a meet-
ing at Dungannon in February, 1782, and passed
unanimously the resolution drawn up by Mr.
Grattan, that " a claim of any body of men,
other than the king, lords, and commons of
Ireland, to make laws to bind this kingdom, is
unconstitutional, illegal, and a grievance." On
April 16, 1782, he repeated in the house of
commons his motion for a declaration of Irish
right. The resolutions were carried by an
overwhelming majority. Mr. Fox decided in-
stantly to yield, and brought in a Trill for re-
pealing the act (6 George I.) by which the
British parliament claimed the right to bind
Ireland by British laws. Grattan was now the
most popular man in Ireland, and parliament
proposed to vote him 100,000 " as a testimony
of the national gratitude for great national ser-
vices." It was only at the earnest request of
his friends that he agreed to accept half the
amount. During the following sessions of
parliament he found a bitter and sarcastic op-
ponent in Flood, who encouraged the story
which had been set on foot, that Grattan hav-
ing received his pay had ceased to be a patriot.
In 1785, by his opposition to the propositions
regarding the trade between Great Britain and
Ireland, known as Ord's propositions, he re-
gained his popularity. In 1790 he was returned
to parliament by the city of Dublin. On the
arrival in 1795 of Earl Fitzwilliam, he asso-
ciated himself with that nobleman in origi-
nating plans for the peace and prosperity of his
native country. After the earl's recall dissen-
sions arose, and the society of United Irish-
men proposed to form a republic, and opened
intercourse with France to gain help. Grat-
tan, after advising conciliatory measures in
vain, withdrew from parliament. When Mr.
Pitt proposed measures for uniting Great Brit-
ain and Ireland, he again obtained a seat in
parliament as member for Wicklo\v, for the
express purpose of opposing this measure ; but
when the union had been effected he entered
the imperial parliament as representative of the
borough of Malton in 1805, and of Dublin in
1806. In opposition to the corporation of his
native city, he advocated Catholic emancipa-
tion, and undertook a journey to London, while
in feeble health, to present a petition from the
Catholics to the house of commons. When

GRATTAN

his friends remonstrated, he replied that he
would be happy to die in the discharge of his
duty, and he did in fact sink under the exer-
tion soon after his arrival. Grattan was be-
low medium stature and exceedingly unpre-
possessing in appearance. His oratory was
impassioned, and he was often entirely over-
come by his subject. His private character
was without a blemish. His speeches were
edited by his son Henry Grattan (4 vols., Lon-
don, 1822), and a selection from them by D. O.
Maddyn (Dublin, 1845). A volume of his
miscellaneous works appeared in 1822, and his
"Life and Times" by his son in 1839-'46 (5
vols., London).

GRATTAN, Thomas Coltey, an Irish novelist,
born in Dublin in 1796, died in London, July
4, 1864. He studied law, and procured a com-
mission in the army, but renounced both pro-
fessions on his marriage, and afterward resi-
ded in France. At the age of 25 he published
"Philibert," a metrical romance, which was
a complete failure. He next became a contrib-
utor to various magazines and reviews, and
in 1823 published in two volumes the first se-
ries of " Highways and Byways." A second
series appeared in 1824, and a third in 1827,
each in three volumes. Establishing himself
in Brussels, he wrote a number of works, of
which "Traits of Travel" (3 vols., 1829),
"The Heiress of Bruges" (4 vols., 1830; new
ed., 3 vols., 1834-'49), " History of the Nether-
lands " (1830), " Jacqueline of Holland " (1842),
and " Legends of the Rhine " (3 vols., 1849),
are the best known. Having actively sup-
ported the candidacy of King Leopold in the
Belgian revolution of 1830, he was at the re-
quest of that sovereign appointed in 1839 Brit-
ish consul to Boston, which office he resigned
in 1852, to accept one in the queen's household.
His "Civilized America" (2 vols., London,
1859) is a spiteful record of his experiences in
North America. His last work was "Beaten
Paths" (2 vols., 1862).

JRATTONI, SeYerino, an Italian engineer, born
Voghera, Dec. 7, 1816. After extensive

idies, he was from 1845 to 1851 director of
an observatory under Plana, and formed the
acquaintance of Cavour, who consulted him on
public works, especially on the project of pierc-
ing Mont Cenis. Grattoni, being elected to
the chamber of deputies, supported Cavour's
policy, and was soon called upon, together with
Sommeiller and Grandis, to devote himself to
the Mont Cenis tunnel scheme. While Som-
meiller supplied the chief inventive power, and
Grandis a sound judgment on theoretical ques-
tions, Grattoni, by his skill, energy, and perse-
verance, became the organizing genius of the
work, which was completed in September, 1871.

GRATZ, or Gratz, a town of Austria, capital
of the province of Styria, on the Mur, 90 m.
3. S. W. of Vienna; pop. in 1870, 80,732. It
consists of the town proper, which is on the
left bank of the river, and is fortified, and of
four suburbs connected with the town and

GRAVEL

173

with each other by bridges. The chief public
buildings are a magnificent Gothic cathedral
erected by the emperor Frederick III. in 1456 ;
St. Catharine's chapel, built as a mausoleum by
Ferdinand II., whose remains repose here ; the
Landhaus, where the diet of Styria holds its ses-
sions ; the old palace of the Styrian dukes ; the
university, founded in 1586, subsequently abol-
ished, restored in 1827, and having in 1873-'4
70 professors and 975 students, with a library
of about 70,000 volumes and 7,500 MSS. ; the
Johanneum, an institution established in 1811
by Archduke John for the encouragement of
the arts, sciences, and manufactures of Styria;
and the refectory or convicte, the largest build-
ing in Gratz, formerly belonging to the Jesuits,
but now a collegiate school. It is the seat of
a Roman Catholic bishop, who bears the title
of bishop of Seckau. There are 22 Catholic
churches, a Protestant church, and 10 con-
vents. The principal manufactures are cot-
ton, woollen, silk, hardware, leather, and paper.

GRAUBUNDEff, or Graubiindten. See GEISONS.

GRAIDENZ, a fortified town of Prussia, in
the province of West Prussia, on the Vistula,
60 m. S. of Dantzic; pop. in 1871, 15,559. It
has a Protestant and five Roman Catholic
churches, a convent, a gymnasium, a normal
school, and two hospitals. There are manu-
factories of cloth, tobacco, and carriages, sev-
eral breweries and distilleries, a considerable
trade in cloth and corn, some shipping, and
four annual fairs. The fortress was built by
Frederick the Great, and became famous in
1807 for its brave defence by Courbiere.

GRAUN, Karl Heinrich, a German composer,
born in Wahrenbruck, Saxony, in 1701, died in
Berlin, Aug. 8, 1759. He studied music in
Dresden, subsequently became tenor and com-
poser to the opera house in Brunswick, and in
1740 was appointed by Frederick the Great
his chapelmaster, a position which he occupied
during the remainder of his life. He was the
author of 30 operas, and an immense number
of cantatas and miscellaneous pieces. His
best works are the oratorio Der Tod Jesii,
and his Te Deum.

GRAVE CREEK. See MOUNDSVILLE.

GRAVEL, small stones, commonly intermixed
with sand, and sometimes with clayey or cal-
careous earth. Such a mixture constitutes the
principal portion of the drift formation ; and
where this prevails, the surface of the coun-
try is often covered to unknown depths with
deposits of sand and gravel. It forms hills
throughout New England, and nearly the
whole of Long Island is covered with it. (See
DILUVIUM.) It is of more recent formation
wherever rocks, especially the granitic, are
comminuted by joint action of atmospheric
and fluviatile agents, and their materials are
gathered in the bed and banks of swift running
streams. On the beaches of seas and lakes,
the gravel, piled up in beds of coarse pebbles
and washed clean of sand and all earthy mat-
ters, is called shingle.

174

GRAVEL

GRAVEL, substances consolidated and pre-
cipitated from the urine within the body, in
certain diseased conditions of the system, dif-
fering from calculi by their small size, and
generally voided without surgical interference.
(See CALCULI.) The appearance of gravel is
important as evidence of a disposition to cal-
culous deposits, and as indicating the proper
treatment. When the disposition exists, any-
thing which obstructs the passage of urine fa-
vors the precipitation of gravel. There are
three kinds of gravel, as there are three princi-
pal forms of calculi, viz. : the lithic, the ox-
alic, and the phosphatic. Lithic or uric acid, a
highly nitrogenous compound, exists normally
in the urine in combination with soda ; if the
urine be abormally acid, the lithic acid will be
precipitated in a crystalline form, constituting
the lithic or red gravel ; lithic acid when pure
is white, but in human urine it assumes the
tint of its coloring matter, which causes it to
look like Cayenne pepper. The urine con-
taining this gravel is generally acid, high-col-
ored, scanty, but clear ; in what is called a " fit
of the gravel," this acid is precipitated in large
quantity, accompanied by fever, pains shooting
from the loins to the bladder, frequent and
scalding micturition, &c. The causes which
predispose to the excessive formation of lithic
acid have been detailed in the article GOUT,
with which disease gravel is intimately con-
nected ; it will be sufficient to say here that the
use of highly nitrogenous food and stimulating
drinks, and sedentary or slothful habits, are
very likely to induce both gout and lithic acid
gravel. Though not unfrequently occurring
in children, gravel is most common between
the ages of 40 and 65 ; it is comparatively rare
in warm climates, or in persons living chiefly
on vegetable food. On the principles of Lie-
big, the great indication for the treatment of
the red gravel is to promote the action of oxy-
gen on lithic acid so as to cause its conversion
into urea and carbonic acid, and its consequent
escape from the system through the urine and
the perspiration ; in other words, to take in
an increased supply of oxygen by exercise in
the open air, by preparations of iron, and by
the nitro-muriatic acid ; to moderate the quan-
tity of highly nitrogenous food, avoiding that
containing much starch and sugar, as well as
malt and fermented liquors; to secure a healthy
action of the skin by suitable clothing and at-
tention to cleanliness ; to remove all intestinal
obstructions, and to neutralize acidity, if neces-
sary, by the administration of alkalies. The
lithic acid gravel may be regarded as the sign
of an inflammatory or congestive habit, but the
next form, or the oxalic acid gravel, belongs
to an irritable or nervous constitution, and is
usually accompanied by a dry skin, dyspepsia,
boils, carbuncles in advanced life, and nervous
exhaustion or despondency ; the urine is trans-
parent, pale greenish yellow, of moderate speci-
fic gravity, and free from sediments, but con-
taining minute crystals of oxalate of lime. The

GRAVELOTTE

causes of this diathesis are such as produce
dyspepsia, nervous debility, and hypochondriac
diseases : residence in malarious districts, and
unwholesome vegetable food. The treatment
is very similar to that for lithic acid gravel, it
being remembered that in this case the sys-
tem craves less oxygen ; distilled water is ad-
vised in order that lime may not in this way
be introduced into the system and endanger
the formation of mulberry calculi; alkalies,
with ammonia, tonics, and the mineral acids,
are required according to circumstances. Oxa-
late of lime deposits, however, are usually
much less abundant and less irritating than
those of uric acid, and, as a general rule, are
less important indications of an unhealthy
state of the system. The white gravel may
be either the ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate
or the phosphate of lime, or the mixture of
the two. The earthy phosphates are naturally
held in solution by the acid reaction of the
urine ; and when this is neutralized or replaced
by an alkaline reaction, these phosphates are
precipitated in the form of a white amorphous
powder. If the urine become ammoniacal, a
new compound is formed, namely, the triple
phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. This
substance has the form of three-sided pris-
matic crystals, sometimes large enough to be
distinguished by the naked eye. The phos-
phatic diathesis is generally seen in pale and
weak persons, complaining of nervous exhaus-
tion, as Dr. Prout maintains, on account of
the great consumption of phosphorus in ner-
vous diseases ; it may be produced by exces-
sive fatigue of body or mind, intense study,
unwholesome food, weakening medicines, and
chronic urinary affections. The treatment
should consist of tonics.

GRAVELINES (Flem. G-ravelinglie ; Ger. Gra-
velingeri), a fortified seaport town of France,
in the department of Le Nord, near the mouth
of the Aa, 10 m. W. S. W. of Dunkirk ; pop. in
1866, 6,510. It contains a handsome market
place, a church built in the 16th century, and
a modern town hall, and has an extensive coast-
ing trade and active fisheries. Cheese, butter,
and eggs are exported ; sail cloth and linens
are manufactured, and there is some ship build-
ing. The town was founded in 1160 by Count
Thierry of Alsace and Flanders. A famous
victory was achieved here by the Spaniards
under Egmont over the French under the
marshal de Thermes, July 13, 155,8. It was
annexed to France by the treaty of the Pyre-
nees (1659). Louis XIV. had new fortifica-
tions constructed, designed by Vauban.

GRAVELOTTE, a village of Germany, in Al-
sace-Lorraine, on the Moselle, 8 m. W. of Metz ;
pop. 700. Here on Aug. 18, 1870, the first and
second German armies, commanded by Gen.
Steinmetz and Prince Frederick Charles under
King William in person, obtained a great vic-
tory over the French under Marshal Bazaine.
The battle of Gravelotte decided the fate of
Metz. It was probably the bloodiest and the

GRAVES

GRAVITY

175

on
G

3t hotly contested of the war, the loss of
le Germans being about 20,000 in killed and
wounded, and that of the French, who occu-
pied superior positions and acted on the defen-
sive, about 13,000.

GRAVES, a S. W. county of Kentucky, bor-
dering on Tennessee, and drained by Mayfield
creek and Obion river ; area, 515 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 19,398, of whom 2,329 were colored.
It is traversed by the Paducah and Memphis
railroad. The surface is level and the soil gen-
erally productive. The chief productions in
1870 were 96,453 bushels of wheat, 842,445 of
Indian corn, 24,424 of oats, 14,952 of Irish and
24,259 of sweet potatoes, 158,380 Ibs. of butter,
4,774,195 of tobacco, and 187 bales of cotton.
There were 3,935 horses, 2,311 mules and asses,
3,681 milch cows, 4,404 other cattle, 13,876
sheep, and 31,570 swine ; 1 woollen factory,
and 2 wool-carding and cloth-dressing estab-
lishments.' Capital, Mayfield.

GRAVES, Robert, an English engraver, born
May 7, 1798, died in London, Feb. 28, 1873.
He was the eldest son of Robert Graves, a noted
connoisseur of rare prints, and the grandson
of a printseller. Among his latest productions
were a series of portraits from the works of
Sir Joshua Reynolds and Gainsborough, and
" is last work was the portrait of Charles Dick-
after Frith.

GRAVESANDE, Willem Jakob ran >s, a Dutch
philosopher, born in Bois-le-Duc, Sept. 27, 1688,
died in Leyden, Feb. 28, 1742. He published
at the age of 18 an essay on perspective, and a
philosophical thesis on suicide. After comple-
ting his studies in the university of Leipsic in
1707, he was admitted to the bar at the Hague,
where he wrote for the Journal Litteraire
an examination of Fontenelle's " Geometry of
the Infinite," a dissertation on the construc-
tion of the air pump, one concerning the force
of bodies, in which he embraced the opinion
of Leibnitz against that of Newton, and dis-
sertations upon the motion of the earth, &c.
In 1717 he was appointed professor of mathe-
matics and astronomy in the university of
Leyden, and exchanged his chair in 1734 for
that of philosophy, which he held till his death.
His philosophical writings are eclectic in char-
acter, combining portions of the doctrines of
Locke, Descartes, and Leibnitz. His principal
works are: Phy sices Elementa Mathematica
(2 vols. 4to, the Hague, 1720-'23) ; Matheseos
Universalis Elementa (8vo, Leyden, 1727) ;
and Introductio ad Philosophiam, Metaphysi-
cam et Logicam (Leyden, 1736-'7).

GRAVESEND, a municipal borough, town, and
river port of Kent, England, on the right bank
of the Thames, 21 m. E. by S. of London ; pop.
in 1871, 21,183. The principal public edifices
are the town hall, parochial church (where
Pocahontas is buried), literary institution, and
theatre. Ship building is carried on to a con-
siderable extent, but the chief trade arises from
supplying outward-bound ships with stores and
clothing. Gravesend is the limit of the port
372 VOL. viii.12

of London ; inward-bound vessels stop here
for examination by the customs officers.

GRAVIER, Jacques, a French missionary in
America, died in 1708. Soon after his arrival
in Canada, in 1684, he was sent to the Illinois
region, where he followed up the labors of Mar-
quette and Allouez among the Kaskaskias and
other bands of the Illinois, and became the real
founder of the mission, which he directed for
many years, meeting much opposition from the
medicine men, and receiving at their hands a
wound which ultimately caused his death. He
compiled a grammar of the Illinois, which was
highly esteemed and formed the basis of all
subsequent works of the kind. "When Iberville
began the settlement of Louisiana, the Illinois
prepared to go down the Mississippi ; but the
Kaskaskias, the first to move, were induced by
Gravier to halt at the place which now bears
their name. He went down to confer with
Iberville, and has left a journal of his canoe
voyage. He descended again in 1706, and went
to Europe. He returned in February, 1708,
but must have reembarked, as he died at sea
in April. Of his writings the following have
been printed : Relation de ce qui tfest passe
dans la mission de Vlmmaculee Conception au
pays des Illinois 1693-'4 (8vo, New York,
1857) ; Relation ou Journal du voyage en 1700
depuis le pays des Illinois jusqu'd V embouchure
du Mississipi (1859) ; Lettre sur les affaires de
la Louisiane, fev. 23, 1708 (1865).

GRAY INA, a town of S. Italy, in the province
and 36 m. S. W. of the city of Bari, on a river
of the same name, an affluent of the Bradano ;
pop. about 14,000. It is the seat of a bishop,
and has five churches and a gymnasium. It was
unsuccessfully besieged by the Saracens in 975,

GRAVINA, GiOTanni Vincenzo, an Italian jurist,
born at Roggiano, Jan. 20, 1664, died in Rome,
Jan. 6, 1718. Devoting himself to civil and
canon law, he went to Rome in 1689, published
several brief works on morals and literature,
and in 1695, having collected 15 of his friends
in his garden, formed the academy of the Ar-
cadians. In 1699 he was appointed professor
of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and
in 1703 of canon law. He soon after published
his works on the " Origin of the Civil Law "
and on the " Roman Empire." A schism took
place in 1711 in the academy of the Arcadians,
and Gravina and his friends withdrew and
founded the Quirina academy. He was the
adoptive father of Metastasio.

GRAVITY, or Gravitation (Lat. granites,
weight), in physics, the tendency of bodies to-
ward each other or toward a centre of attrac-
tion. In the article ASTRONOMY we have con-
sidered the history of the discovery of the great
law of gravitation, and have sketched the ap-
plication of the law to elucidate a variety of
problems of interest connected with the mo-
tions of the celestial bodies; in the article
EARTH we have considered the application of
this law to determine the mass and figure of
the earth ; and in dealing with the lunar mo-

176

GRAVITY

tions, we shall have to consider more in detail
the perturbative action of gravity. In the
present place, therefore, we limit ourselves to
the consideration of terrestrial gravity in its
effects on bodies upon or close to the surface
of the earth. There are two ways in which
the action of gravity at any station can bo
measured. We can examine its effect in caus-
ing bodies to have weight ; this is the statical
action of gravity. Or we can consider its
effect upon bodies let fall to the earth ; the ve-
locity acquired in a given time affords the means
of estimating this, the dynamical action of
gravity. For many reasons the latter is the
more convenient method of measuring it. The
balance, the readiest and most trustworthy
method of weighing bodies, obviously fails us
when the measurement of the effect of gravity
is in question, since the weight and the body
weighed are equally under its influence. Nor
can the spring balance be trusted for compar-
ing the action of gravity at different stations,
even though the utmost precaution has been
exercised in freeing the instrument from the
disturbing influences of differences or changes
of temperature. No difficulties of this sort
attend the dynamical method of measuring
gravity; because bodies of different specific
gravity, or the same body in different condi-
tions of temperature, will fall (invacuo) through
the same space in the same time under the in-
fluence of gravity. The resistance of the air
may indeed be neglected where the difference
of specific gravity is very small, as in the case
of the same mass of metal at different tempera-
tures. The method of measurement here in-
dicated is however comparatively rough. It
was that used by Galileo to determine the
time of fall of bodies under the influence of
gravity, and by means of the mechanical ar-
rangement called Atwood's machine it can be
applied to obtain a fair approximation to the
velocity acquired in a given time. But for all
delicate researches the pendulum is employed.
It is known that when a pendulum swings in
a short arc its rate of swing is appreciably
constant (though the small arc should vary),
and depends on the length and figure of the
pendulum and the action of gravity. Contri-
vances have been invented by which the true
rate of swing at any place, for a pendulum of
known figure, can be most accurately ascer-
tained. This being effected, it becomes possi-
ble to compare the action of gravity at differ-
ent terrestrial stations. Gravity varies on the
earth's surface owing to two principal causes.
In the first place, the earth is rotating, and every
point on its surface therefore has a tendency
(constantly overcome by gravity) to move in
a straight line tangent to the earth's surface.
This tendency is commonly called the centrif-
ugal force due to the earth's rotation ; an ob-
jectionable mode of expression, because no
force properly so called is in question. The
tendency is mere inertia. If the tendency
were the same at all stations, gravity would

be uniformly affected, and no difference would
accrue; but the tendency is greatest at the
equator, where the motion is most rapid, and
diminishes thence to the poles, where it is zero.
The action of gravity in producing weight or
in causing the fall of a body is obviously di-
minished by this tendency; and being most
diminished at the equator, gravity is there least
on this account, and gradually increases to-
ward the poles. It is estimated that, so far as
this cause alone is concerned, gravity at the
equator should be less than at the poles by
^ part. But secondly, owing to the same
cause (the rotation of the earth), the terrestrial
globe is not a perfect sphere, but is compressed
at the poles. Hence a body placed at a pole
of the earth is nearer to the centre of gravity
than a body placed at the equator ; and though
this cause alone would not suffice to render the
action of gravity greater on the body at the
pole, since at the bottom of a mine gravity
may be and usually is less than at the mouth
(see EAETH), yet under the actual circum-
stances a body at the pole is on the whole
brought under the more effective action of
gravity. A complete mathematical comparison
of the attractions under the two conditions
shows that gravity at the equator, so far as the
cause we are now considering is concerned, is
less than gravity at the poles by about -^fa.
Combining the two effects, we obtain for the
total decrease of gravity at the equator:
y^+^zs-j^y. In other words, if gravity at
the poles be represented by 195, gravity at the
equator will be represented by 194. Minor
causes exist, which however need not here be
taken into consideration. We may simply
mention that they arise from the non-homo-
geneity of the earth's substance (near the
place of observation), as the existence of can-
ties, of great masses of unusual density, and so
on. The following table shows the results ob-
tained by Capt. Kater in different parts of the
British isles :

PLACE OF
OBSERVATION.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Vibrations
in a mean
golar day.

Leu-thofthe
pendulum
vibrating
lecondg.

TJnst

60 45'

28-01"

86096-90

89-17146

Portsoy
Leith Fort
Clifton
Arbury Hill . . .
London
Shanklin Farm .

57 40
55 53
58 27
52 12
51 81
50 87

58-65
40-80
43-12
55-32
8-40
23-94

86,086-05
86,079-40
86,068-90
86,065-05
86,061-52
86,058-07

39-16159
89-15554
89-14600
89-14250
89-13929
89-18614

Deducing from these values the velocity ac-
quired by a body in falling, Capt. Kater found
that a body falling at Leith Fort would acquire
in one second a velocity of 32-207 feet per
second ; and that the variation in this velocity
for one degree of difference of latitude is at
Leith only -0000832 of its own amount. The
following table gives the length of the seconds
pendulum at different places, and the value of
the accelerating force of gravity according to
Sir George Airy :

GRAVITY (SPECIFIC)

177

OBSERVER.

Place.

Latitude.

Length of pendulum
vibrating seconds,
in inches.

Velocity in feet ac-
quired in one second
by a body falling
from rest.

Sabine

Spitzbergen

N. 79 50'

39-21469

82-2528

Sabine

70 40

39 19475

82 "23 68

Stockholm '. ...

69 21

89-16541

82*2122

Bessel

Konigsberg

64 42

39-15072

82-2002

Sabine

51 29

89-13983

82*1912

Borda Biot and Sabine

Paris

48 60

89-12851

82*1819

Biot ...

Bordeaux

44 50

89-11296

82*1691

New York

40 48

89-10120

82 "1594

Sandwich islands

20 52

89-04690

32'1148

gabine

Trinidad

10 89

89 01888

82-0918

Kawak

8. 2

89 01433

82*0880

Ascension

7 55

89 02863

82 0956

Freycinet and Duperrey . .

Mauritius

20 10

89-04684

82*1151

Brisbane and Rumker

Paramatta

83 49

89-07452

82-1875

Frevcinet and Dunerrev. . .

Falkland islands...

51 85

89-13781

82*1895

these values the following very simple
and convenient formula has been deduced : If
L denote the length of a seconds pendulum
at any latitude A, and 39-017 inches be the
igth of a seconds pendulum at the equator,

YITY, Specific, the ratio of the weight of
one body to that of an equal volume of an-
other, adopted as a standard of reference. For
solids and liquids the standard is pure water,
at a temperature of 60 F., the barometer being
at 30 inches. Air is the standard for aeriform
bodies. A cubic foot of water weighing 1,000
oz., if the same bulk of another substance, as
for instance cast iron, is found to weigh 7,200
pz., its proportional weight or specific gravity
is 7'2. It is convenient to know the figures
representing this proportion for every sub-
stance in common use, that the weight of any
given bulk may be readily determined ; and
for all substances the specific gravity is used
among other tests for the purpose of distin-
guishing bodies from each other, the same
substance being found, under the same cir-
cumstances, to retain its peculiar proportional
weight or density. Hence tables of specific
gravity are prepared for reference, and in
every scientific description of substances the
specific gravity is mentioned. In practical use,
the weight of a cubic foot is obtained from the
figures representing the density by moving the
decimal point three figures to the right, which
obviously from the example above gives the
ounces, and these divided by 16 the pounds
avoirdupois, in the cubic foot. Different meth-
ods may be employed to ascertain the specific
gravity of solids. That by measuring the bulk
and weighing is rarely practicable, nor is it
desirable. As a body immersed in water must
displace its own bulk of the fluid, the specific
gravity may be ascertained by introducing a
body, after weighing it, into a suitable vessel
exactly filled with water, and then weighing
the fluid which is expelled. The proportional
weight is then at once obtained. Wax will
cause its own weight of water to overflow; its
specific gravity is then 1. Platinum, according
to the condition it is in, will cause only from
A- to FT? of its weight of water to escape,

showing its specific gravity to be from 21 to
21*5. But a more exact method than this is
commonly employed. The difference of weight
of the same substance, weighed in air and when
immersed in water, is exactly that of the water
it displaces, and may consequently be taken as
the weight of its own bulk of water. The spe-
cific gravity then is obtained by weighing the
body first in air, and then, suspended by a fibre
of silk or a hair, in water, and dividing the
weight in air by the difference. If the body is
lighter than water, it is to be attached to one
heavier, to make it sink; then find the loss
of the two by immersion, and also the loss of
the heavier body ; the difference will express
the weight of water displaced by the lighter
body, whose weight divided by this difference
will give its specific gravity. It is hardly neces-
sary to say that the substance examined must
be free from mixture of foreign matters, and
especially from cavities that may contain air.
Minerals, if suspected to contain such, should
be coarsely pulverized, and then the second
method above may be conveniently applied to
determine their density. The specific gravity
of fine powders may be determined by one of
the methods employed for ascertaining the spe-
cific gravity of fluids, viz. : by comparing the
weight of a measured quantity with that of the
same quantity of water. A glass vessel called a
specific gravity bottle is commonly employed,
which is furnished with a slender neck, upon
which is a mark indicating the height readied
by 1,000 grains of water. The substance to be
examined is introduced till it reaches the same
mark, and, the weight of the empty bottle be-
ing known, only one weighing is required to
obtain the result. A common method for find-
ing the specific gravity of fluids is by the in-
strument called a hydrometer or areometer, of
which several kinds are in use, all dependent
on the principle that the weights required to im-
merse a light body, as a bulb of glass, in different
fluids, are proportional to the densities of these
fluids. Such instruments are used for ascer-
taining the specific gravity of liquors, as an in-
dication of their strength. (See HYDROMETER.)
Gaseous bodies are weighed in a thin glass
flask or other vessel made for the purpose, and

178

GRAVITY (SPECIFIC)

GRAY

provided with a stopcock. The vessel is ex-
hausted of air before the introduction of the
gas. The experiment requires particular care,
as the result will be found to vary under differ-
ent conditions of pressure, temperature, and
the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. The
temperature of the air should be 60 and baro-
metric pressure 30 inches. The specific gravi-
ties may also be calculated from the atomic
weights of the gases : when the atomic volume
is equal to that of hydrogen, it is obtained by
multiplying the specific gravity of hydrogen by
the atomic weight of the gas ; when the atomic
volume is half that of hydrogen, the specific
gravity of the gas is equal to the specific gravi-
ty of hydrogen multiplied by twice the atomic
weight of the gas ; and when the atomic vol-
ume is twice that of hydrogen, the specific
gravity of the gas is equal to the specific gravi-
ty of hydrogen multiplied by half the atomic
weight of the gas. The proportions of two in-
gredients in a compound, as in an alloy of gold
and silver, may be found by multiplying the
specific gravity of each ingredient by the dif-
ference between it and the specific gravity of
the compound. As the sum of the products is
to the respective products, so is the specific
gravity of the body to the proportions of the
ingredients ; then as the specific gravity of the
compound is to the weight of the compound,
so are each of the proportions to the weight of
its material. The following table presents the
specific gravities of substances most likely to
be referred to, collected from various sources.
The weight of a cubic foot in ounces avoirdu-
pois is seen by moving the decimal point three
figures to the right.

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Acid, acetic 1-062

.irs.-nir

3-891

boracic, crystallized 1-479

boracic, fused

citric

hydrochloric

1-084
1-200

nitric 1-271 to 1-588

aquiaregia 1-284

phosphoric, liquid . 1-658
phosphoric, solid . . 2-800

sulphuric 1-841

Alabaster 1-874

Alcohol, absolute 1 792

of commerce 0-885

Ale or beer 1-085

Alum 1-724

Aluminum.... 2-560 to 2-670

Amber 1-064 to MOO

Ambergris .... 0'780 to 0^26
Amethyst, common. . . 2-750
oriental, or violet

sapphire. 8-809 to 4-1 60

Ammonia 0-876

Anthracite .
Antimony .
Asphaltum

0-876
1-860 to 1-850

6-702

0-905 to 1-650

4-000

Cadmium 8-600

Caoutchouc 0-938

Chalk 2-784

Cinnabar 8-998

Clay 1-980

Coal,bituminous 1-020 to 1-350

Cobalt, cast 7-812

Copal 1-045

Copper, native 8-940

cast 8-788

wire 8-878

coin 8-915

Coral 2-540 to 2-850

Diamond 8'521 to8'550

Dolomite 2-540 to 2 -830

Earth, mean of the

globe

5-210

sulphate of (heavy

par).... 4 800 to 4-720
2-864,

0-956 to 0-964

Bismuth 9-82-2

Brandy 0-887

Brass 7-824 to 8-896

wire 8-644

Emerald 2-678 to 2-775

Ether.sulphuric 632 to 0'775

Fat of beef 0-928

Feldspar 2-400 to 2 "620

Freestone 2-148

Garnet 8-150 to 4-800

Glass, bottle 2-783

crown 2-520

preen 2-642

flint 2-760 to 8'829

plate 2-760

plate of St. Oobain. 2-488
Gold, native. 15-600 to 19-500

pure, cast

hammered

coin

22 carats fine.
20 carats fine . ,

Brick 1-900 to 2-000 ! Granite, Quincy

Bronze, gun metal.... 8-700 Staten island! , w

Jiutu ' r 942 , Graphite 1-9S7 to 2'400

19-258
19-362
17-647
17-4^6
15-709
2-652
2-780

Grindstone ........... 2-143

Gunpowder, loose, -j to [JS
close shaken 0-937 to I'OOO
solid ....... 1-550 to 1-800

Gum arable ........... 1-452

Gypsum, compact. -j to J'Hl
Heliotrope or blood-

stone ...... 2-630 to 2-700

Hematite iron ore.

Honey ............... 1-456

Hyacinth ...... 4-000 to 4-750

Ice .................. 0-930

Iodine ................ 4-948

Iridium, hammered... 28-000

Iron, malleable. 7'645to7'S17

cast ............... 7-207

ore, magnetic 4-900 to 5'200
Ivory ......... 1-822 to 1-917

Lard ................ 0-947

Lead, cast. . . . 11-850 to 11-445

white ............. 7-235

ore, galena.. 7-250 to 7-780
Lime, quick .......... 0-804

Limestone, com- j 2-886
pact .......... 1 to8-000

crystallized ....... 2-722

Magnesia, carb. 2-222 to 2-612
Malachite ..... 8-700 to 4-000

Manganese ore (psilo-

melane). . . 3'700 to 4-330
Marble, Carrara ...... 2-716

Parian ............ 2-837

Egyptian ......... 2-668

Mercury, common 13-568
pure ............... 14-000

Mica .......... 2-750 to 3-100

Milk .......... 1-082

Myrrh ............... 1-360

Naphtha ...... 0-700 to 0-847

Nickel, cast .......... 8-279

Nitre (saltpetre) ...... 1-900

Oil, castor ........... 0-970

linseed ............ 0940

olive ............. 0-915

turpentine ........ 0-870

whale ............. 0-923

Opal ................. 2-114

Opium ............... 1837

Palladium ........... 11-800

Pearl, oriental. . 2-510 to 2-750

Peruvian bark ....... 0-784

Pewter .............. 7-471

Phosphorus .......... 1-770

Platinum, native.

refined ............ 19-500

hammered ........ 20-836

wire .............. 21-041

laminated ......... 22-069

Porcelain, China ...... 2-385

Sevres ............ 2-145

Porphyry ..... 2-458 to 2-972

Potassium ........... 0-865

Proof spirit .......... 0-923

Quartz ........ 2-500 to 2'800

Rhodium ............ 11-000

Rosin ................ 1-100

Ruby ................ 4-283

Salt, common ........ 2'130

Sand ......... 1-500 to 1-800

Sapphire, oriental ____ 8'994

Serpentine ____ 2 '507 to 2'59l

Silver, pure, cast ..... 10-474

hammered ........ 10-510

coin .............. 10-534

Slate ......... 2-110 to 2'672

Soapstone ..... 2-650 to 2-800

Sodium .............. 0-972

Spermaceti .......... 0-943

Steel, hard ..... 7-816 to 7-340

soft ............... 7-S33

Sugar ................ 1-606

Sulphur, native ...... 2-033

fused ............. 1-990

Tallow ............... 0-941

Tar ................. 1-015

Tellurium ..... 5-700 to 6-115

Tin, cast ............. 7291

hardened ..... 7-299

Topaz ......... 3-400 to 3-650

Tourmaline. . . . 2-940 to 8-300

Tungsten ............ 17-400

Turquoise ..... 2-600 to 2 '830

Ultramarine .......... 2-362

Vinegar ....... 1-013 to 1 080

Water, distilled ...... 1-000

sea ............... 1-023

Dead sea .......... 1-240

Wine, Burgundy ..... 0-991

white champagne . . 0-99T
Wood (see tables in

article FUEL).
Zinc, cast ............ 7'190

GRAY, a town of France, in the department
of Haute-Sa6ne, on the left bank of the river
Saone, 30 m. S. W. of Vesoul ; pop. in 1866,
6,764. It is on a hill, in the form of an amphi-
theatre, and the streets are narrow, but the
town is pretty well built. The river is spanned
by a suspension bridge and one of stone. There
are a college, a public library, and a theatre.
The chief manufactures are hair cloth, wool-
len goods, leather, and starch. In the environs
are several iron works. Gray is a very an-
cient town, and was the last place in Franche-
Comte which submitted to Louis XIV. in 1668.

GRAY, Asa, an American botanist, born in
Paris, Oneida co., K Y., Nov. 18, 1810. He
graduated at the Fairfield medical college in
1831, but abandoned the practice of medicine,
and applied himself to the study of botany. In
1834 he was appointed botanist to the United
States exploring expedition ; but as some time
elapsed before it was ready to sail, he resigned
that situation. In 1842 he was elected Fisher
professor of natural history in Harvard college.
In his numerous writings he has shown equal
ability in communicating elementary knowl-
edge and in elucidating recondite theory. His
elementary works, " Elements of Botany," pub-

GRAY

179

ished in 1836, and especially his later series,
"How Plants Grow," "How Plants Behave,"
"Lessons in Botany," and "Structural and
Systematic Botany " (1858), are unsurpassed in
the language for precision, simplicity, perspi-
lity, and comprehensiveness. His labors are
jcorded in numerous papers contributed to
principal scientific journals and academical
lemoirs of the day, and in several special
rorks. He came forward at a time when the
Id artificial systems of botany were giving
ray before the natural system. Dr. Gray,
dth Dr. John Torrey, was among the first
rho arranged the heterogeneous assemblage
species upon the natural basis of affinity,
bile actively engaged in describing the new
is which were pouring in upon them from
inmerous explorations in our hitherto almost
iknown territory, they were elaborating the
cumulated knowledge of their predecessors
rhich remained in a crude form. In 1838 Dr.
irray commenced, in conjunction with Dr.
Torrey, the publication of a "Flora of North
lerica," intended to give a thorough and
iprehensive history of the botany of the
mtry upon the basis of the then little known
itural system. This was continued as far as
le end of the order composites ; but as the ex-
plorations of several collectors were accumu-
ing masses of new material from our west-
borders, the " Flora '* was suspended until
lis wealth of matter could be aggregated un-
one head. The government expeditions to
le Pacific coast also returned laden with bo-
lical treasures, which were described by Dr.
rray and Dr. Torrey in the government re-
>rts. In 1848 Dr. Gray began his " Genera
the Plants of the United States, illustrated
>y Isaac Sprague," and in the same year the
' Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
tates," several editions of which, enlarged
id amended, have since appeared. In 1854
>peared the first volume of the " Botany of
United States Pacific Exploring Expedition
ler Capt. Wilkes," a work in which the au-
thor has shown himself able to treat of the
)otany of remote regions with the same criti-
power that he has applied to the North
imerican flora. In 1861 he published "A
Examination of Darwin's Treatise on the
)rigin of Species, and of its American Review-
"s." He is an associate editor of the " Amer-
in Journal of Science and Arts." In 1873
10 retired from active service in teaching, to
" jvote himself to the charge of the herbarium
)f Harvard college, and to scientific work. In
1874 he was appointed a regent of the Smith-
lian institution in place of Prof. Agassiz.
GRAY, David, a Scottish poet, born at Dunti-
le, near Glasgow, Jan. 29, 1838, died atMerk-
id, Dec. 3, 1861. His father was a hand-
weaver with a large family. David, the
Idest, was intended for the ministry. "When
was still very young the family removed
Merkland, on the other side of the Luggie,
with which stream much of his poetry is as-

sociated. He finished his education with a
partial course at Glasgow university, becoming
proficient in Greek, Latin, and French. After
spending some time there as a private tutor,
he wrote to Mr. Milnes (now Lord Houghton),
enclosing manuscript poems and asking for
advice. Milnes recognized his genius, but dis-
couraged his plan of going to London as a liter-
ary adventurer. Nevertheless he went, arri-
ving there early in May, 1860, with but a sov-
ereign in his pocket. He spent the first night
in Hyde Park, contracting the pulmonary dis-
ease of which he died. Meanwhile he had
sent his poem "The Luggie" in manuscript
to several literary men of celebrity, but none
of them found time to read it. He called on
Milnes, who befriended him and sent the
poem to Thackeray, recommending it for the
"Cornhill Magazine;" but Thackeray reject-
ed it. It soon became evident that Gray was
seriously ill, and Milnes sent him home to
Scotland. At last, through the agency of
Sydney Dobell, a publisher was found for his
poems, and a specimen page of proof reached
the author the day before he died. " The Lug-
gie and other Poems " appeared in London in
1862, and in Boston in 1864 (enlarged ed., 1874).

GRAY, Henry Peters, an American painter,
born in New York, June 23, 1819. He entered
the studio of Daniel Huntington in 1838, and
in 1839 went to Europe, where he painted his
pictures of "Thou art Gone," the "Roman
Girl," the "Billet Doux," &c. Returning to
New York in 1843, he executed a number of
small pictures of genre and history ; and after
another absence abroad in 1845-'6, during
which he produced his " Teaching a Child to
Pray," "Proserpine and Bacchus," Cupid beg-
ging his Arrows," &c., he settled in New York.
Among the most important of his works are
the " Wages of War," the " Apple of Discord,"
"Hagar and the Angel," "Portia and Bas-
sanio," "Charity," "Genevieve," "Cleopatra,"
"St. Christopher," "I Fiore di Fiesole," and
the " Origin of the American Flag." He has
also painted several hundred portraits. From
1869 to 1871 he was president of the national
academy of design. In 1871 he went to Eu-
rope, and still continues to reside there (1874).

GRAY. I. John Edward, an English naturalist,
born at Walsall in 1800. For nearly 50 years
he has been connected with the British mu-
seum, over the natural history department of
which he now presides (1874). In addition to
his labors in arranging the collections of the
museum, he has been a voluminous contributor
to natural history, particularly in the depart-
ment of zoology ; and profiting by the advan-
tages which his position has afforded him, he
has probably described and classified a larger
number of animal forms than any other natu-
ralist. The most valuable of his numerous
works are the catalogues of the museum, inclu-
ding those on mollusca, mammalia, and reptiles,
in which, besides the lists of animals, he gives
much information on the habits, character, and

180

GRAY

uses of the different species. His writings are
comprised under the following heads : the gen-
eral subject of natural history, the mammalia,
birds, reptiles, fishes, articulate animals, the
mollusca, and the radiata. His papers on the
mammalia and the mollusca in 1852 amounted
to considerably over 100 in each department,
those on the latter subject being particularly
valuable on account of their extensive and
exact information. The most important of
them is the " Systematic Arrangement of Mol-
luscous Animals, with Characters of Families."
In his conchological studies he has received
much assistance from his wife, an accomplished
naturalist, and the author of "Figures of Mol-
luscous Animals for the Use of Students," de-
scriptions of which have been given by Mr.
Gray. A larger share of his attention has
however been devoted to herpetology than to
any other branch of natural science, and more
than 70 papers describing the structure and
habits of species from many parts of the world
are included among his writings. Dr. Gray
has been prominent in the work of reforming
prison discipline and in sanitary measures,
founded the Greenwich society of useful knowl-
edge, and claims to have originated the plan
of cheap postage prepaid by stamps. II. George
Robert, an English naturalist, brother of the
preceding, born at Little Chelsea, July 8, 1808.
He early began the study of zoology at the
British museum, was employed in the zoolo-
gical department from 1831, and in 1869 be-
came assistant keeper of the zoological collec-
tions. He is the author of several works and
papers on entomology and ornithology, and in
1832 contributed the entomological portion to
the English edition of Cuvier's " Animal King-
dom." He published a "List of the Genera
of Birds," reedited in 1841 and in 1855. His
large work, "Genera of Birds " (3 vols., 1837-
'49), is universally valued by naturalists. In
1870 he published his " Hand List of the Gen-
era and Species of Birds," embracing 2,915
genera and subgenera, and 11,162 species.

GRAY, Thomas, an English poet, born in
Oornhill, London, Dec. 26, 1716, died July 30,
1771. He was educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge, where his expenses were borne by his
mother, his father refusing to maintain him.
At Eton Gray formed an intimacy with Richard
West, a son of the lord chancellor of Ireland,
and also with Horace Walpole, with whom in
1739-'41 he travelled in France and Italy. He
spent 11 months at Florence, and there began
his Latin poem De Principiis Cogitandi. He
returned in 1741, and became bachelor of the
civil law at Cambridge, though he never of-
fered to practise, but continued to live at his
university. He corresponded frequently with
West, and communicated to him a portion of a
tragedy called "Agrippina," in which Nero
and Jiis mother and Seneca were to be promi-
nent characters, but which West induced him
to abandon. He was easily affected by discour-
aging criticism, and had nearly laid aside his

" Progress of Poesy " because Mason said he did
not think it would take with the public. Hav-
ing become estranged from Walpole, and West
having died in 1742, Gray was much depressed.
At this time he wrote his " Ode to Adversity "
and the ode " On a Distant Prospect of Eton
College." About the same time he was en-
gaged on his Latin poem De Principiis, in
which he designed to teach Locke's meta-
physics in hexameters. From 1742 he remain-
ed at Cambridge, always dissatisfied with the
place, and never professing contentment. In
1748 he began a poem, which he never com-
pleted, "On Government and Education." If
has some fine lines, in spite of the unpoetical
subject. Gray, although of refined tastes and
manners, shrank from society, living chiefly
among scholars. He encouraged Mason, then
a young poet, revised his verses, and helped
him to an election as fellow of Pembroke hall.
Mason became his constant associate, and was
afterward his biographer. In 1749 Gray fin-
ished the " Elegy written in a Country Church-
yard," said to have been begun seven years
before, in the churchyard of Stoke-Pogis,
Buckinghamshire, in which town his mother
was living. It originally appeared in 1752,
and achieved an immediate popularity, four
editions being called for within a year. Seve-
ral of his pieces were printed in 1753 with de-
signs by Mr. Bentley, and, being too few to
make a book of the usual size, were printed
only on one side of the leaf. The poems and
the plates together sold well. In 1756 he re-
moved to Pembroke hall. His odes, "The
Progress of Poesy " and " The Bard," appeared
in 1757, and were received with much ridicule.
Few professed to understand them, but the
public finally learned to admire. His poems
were parodied in two odes which not long after
appeared on "Obscurity" and "Oblivion."
Between the years 1759 and 1762 he occupied
lodgings in Southampton row, near the British
museum, then just opened, and made extracts
from the Harleian and other collections which
filled a considerable folio volume. On the death
of Cibber the laureateship was offered to him,
which he declined. He was appointed in 1768
professor of modern history at Cambridge.
His health now rapidly declined. In the au-
tumn of 1770 he was able to travel in Wales;
he saw Westmoreland and Cumberland, and
wrote in correspondence a delightful narrative
of his travels. He died of gout in the stomach,
and was buried at Stoke-Pogis. Gray was
small, delicate, of handsome features, and stu-
diously refined. His manners were nice to ef-
feminacy, his dress carefully adjusted to the
fashions of the day. He speaks of himself as a
person of great pride and reserve ; but he was
capable of strong and tender emotion. He
could often be satirical, and among his inti-
mate friends his conversation was singularly
entertaining and instructive, but he spoke little
in company. To his great attainments all his
friends bear testimony, but he left no public

GRAYDON

GRAYSON

181

f of them. He was a botanist, a zoologist,
an architect, and an antiquary. He had read
all the Greek classics, and planned an edition
of Strabo. He was familiar with history, was
learned in art, had studied the schools of phi-
" sophy, and wrote better Latin verse than
y of his contemporaries. His "Elegy "is
e culmination of his genius, almost every line
ving fixed itself upon the popular mind,
mong the best of the numerous editions of
ay's poems are those by W. Mason, with his
irs and a memoir (4 vols. 8vo, York, 1778) ;
by the Rev. John Mitford, with notes and
memoir (London, 1814), several times repub-
" ed. An edition of his complete works,
ith Mason's memoir, was issued by T. J.
athias (2 vols. 4to, London, 1814). Mr. Mit-
d also published in 1853 Gray's correspon-
nce with Mason, showing that the poet's let-
were mutilated by Mason in his edition.
GRAYDON, Alexander, an American author,
rn in Bristol, Pa., April 10, 1752, died in
Philadelphia, May 2, 1818. He was educated in
"hiladelphia, and in 1775 joined the colonial
as captain. After carrying a supply of
.ey to the troops under the command of Gen.
uyler at Lake George, he joined the army at
ew York, and was taken prisoner in the ac-
n on Harlem heights. He was confined in New
York and at Flatbush, was afterward liberated
parole, and exchanged in 1778. He resided
Harrisburg from 1785 to 1799, when he re-
oved to a farm near that city, from which he
returned to Philadelphia in 1816. He pub-
lished in 1811 his "Memoirs of a Life, chiefly
d in Pennsylvania, within the last Sixty
ears," illustrative of revolutionary manners
d history. It was republished in Edinburgh
822) and in Philadelphia (1846).
GRAYLING, a soft-rayed fish, of the salmon
ily, and genus thymallus (Cuv.), found in
rivers of northern Europe, Asia, and Amer-
The English grayling has the head and
y elongated, the former pointed and flat-
.eil on the top ; two dorsals, the first much
ger than it is high and with numerous rays,
second small, adipose, and rayless; the
uth small; the teeth numerous, conical,
all, in a single series on the jaws and ante-
r part of the vomer, none on the tongue;
scales rather large, and the lateral line not
conspicuous ; the air bladder is capacious,
d communicates with the gullet by a very
.1 tube; the caudal is forked; branchios-
_, 1 rays seven or eight. It is very handsome
d lively, though less active than the trout ;
:e general color is light yellowish brown,
with reflections of golden, copper, green, and
blue, and some dark spots; the head brown,
and the tins darker than the body ; the dorsal
fin is varied with square dusky spots ; the col-
ors grow darker by age, and in dark waters ;
the iris is golden yellow, and the pupil blue.
This is probably the T. vulgaris (Nilss.), found
in a few of the rivers of England, in restricted
localities, in Sweden, Norway, and Lapland,

but probably not in Ireland or Scotland. It
prefers rivers with rocky and gravelly bottom,
with alternate stream and pool; it swims
deeper than the trout, and feeds on flies and
aquatic larvae, especially on those which con-
struct cases (like the May flies), and on small
shells and crustaceans. It is excellent for the
table, is in the finest condition in October and
November, and should be dressed soon after
being taken ; it rises to the fly, but less readily
than the trout. From the size of its dorsal it
cannot stem rapid currents nor leap falls. The
generic name was given from an alleged re-
semblance of the odor of its flesh to that of
thyme ; from its color and odor St. Ambrose
is said to have called it the "flower of fishes."
Unlike other salmoriidm, it spawns in April or
May; the average length is 10 or 12 in., with
a weight of about 1 lb., but they have been
taken weighing 4$ Ibs. For a full and inter-
esting account of the habits and history of this
fish, the reader is referred to the seventh
" Conversation " in " Salmonia," by Sir Hum-
phry Davy. Other species are the T. vexilli-
fer (Ag.), from the rivers of France and the
Swiss lakes and streams; and the naked-
throated grayling (T. gymnothorax, Val.), in

Back's Grayling (Thymallus signifer).

which the parts beneath the throat are desti-
tute of scales, found in Prussia and Russia.
The grayling is called ombre in French and
Aesche in German, probably from its prevailing
ashy gray color in the water. In America,
this fish has been found in the cold clear
waters of Great Bear and Winter lakes, and
in streams emptying into Mackenzie river.
Back's grayling (T. signifer, Rich.) has not
been discovered south of lat. 62 N. ; this is a
large species, about 17 in. long, and highly
esteemed by the Esquimaux and the wyageurs.
GRAYSON. I. A S. W. county of Virginia,
bounded S. by North Carolina and N. W. by
the Iron mountain ; area, 400 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 9,587, of whom 754 were colored. It is
intersected by Kanawha or New river. The
county is well adapted for grazing. Iron ore
is abundant. The chief productions in 1870
were 30,060 bushels of wheat, 42,704 of rye,
109,938 of Indian corn, 63,695 of oats, 12,313
of potatoes, 91,543 Ibs. of butter, 25,326 of
wool, and 4,016 tons of hay. There were 2,056
horses, 2,947 milch cows, 4,057 other cattle,
11,811 sheep, 7,778 swine, and 4 flour mills.
Capital, Independence. II. A N. county of
Texas, separated by Red river from the In-

182

GRAZIANI

dian territory; area, 950 sq. m.; pop. in 1870,
14,387, of whom 2,145 were colored. The sur-
face is undulating and partly covered with for-
ests of oak, ash, and elm. The soil is a dark
fertile loam, suitable for various kinds of fruit,
grain, cotton, and pasturage. The chief pro-
ductions in 1870 were 39,768 bushels of wheat,
577, 540 of Indian corn, 113,241 of oats, 39,411 of
sweet potatoes, 111,840 Ibs. of butter, and 2,885
bales of cotton. There were 7, 324 horses, 4, 840
milch cows, 26,167 other cattle, 5,911 sheep,
18,535 swine, 4 saw mills, and 4 wool-carding
establishments. Capital, Sherman. III. A cen-
tral county of Kentucky, bounded N. by Rough
creek and drained by several affluents of Green
river; area, about 700 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,-
580, of whom 407 were colored. It is traversed
by the Elizabethtown and Paducah railroad.
The surface is level or undulating and the soil
moderately fertile. Anthracite and carbonifer-
ous limestone are found in abundance, and
there are several white sulphur springs. The
chief productions in 1870 were 25,448 bushels
of wheat, 377,005 of Indian corn, 80,953 of
oats, 20,722 of potatoes, 149,001 Ibs. of butter,
859,760 of tobacco, and 1,398 tons of hay.
There were 3,172 horses, 2,816 milch cows,
4,158 other cattle, 14,543 sheep, and 17,934
swine ; 3 flour and 4 saw mills, and 3 wool-card-
ing and cloth-dressing establishments. Capi-
tal, Litchfield.

GRAZIANI, Franeeseo, an Italian vocalist, born
at Fermo, April 26, 1829. He became famous
in Paris in 1851 as Aston in Lucia di Lammer-
moor, and sustained his reputation as one of the
best baritones of the day by his subsequent per-
formances in Florence, New York, London, and
St. Petersburg. His brother LUDOVIOO, born
in August, 1823, excels as a tenor ; the part of
Germon in La traviata was written for him.

GREAT HARRINGTON, a town of Berkshire
co., Massachusetts, on the Housatonic river and
railroad, 40 m. W. of Springfield; pop. in 1870,
4,320. It is pleasantly situated, watered by a
number of good mill streams, and surrounded
by beautiful hills. It contains beds of iron ore
and quarries of fine variegated marble. The
manufactures embrace cotton goods, paper,
woollens, pig iron, bricks, and saw-mill pro-
ducts. It has a national bank, a savings bank,
a weekly newspaper, 18 public schools, inclu-
ding a high school, and 7 churches. It com-
prises three villages, viz.: Great Harrington,
Housatonic, and Van Deusenville. Great Har-
rington was the county seat till 1787

GREAT BASIN, or Fremont's Basin, the region
lying between the Wahsatch mountains on the
east and the Sierra Nevada on the west em-
bracing Nevada, the W. portion of Utah, and
the S. E. part of California. In shape it re-
sembles an ancient shield, the broad end toward
the north, and the S. extremity rounded to a
point. Its waters have no outlet to the ocean,
and it evidently formed at a remote period an
inland sea. The greatest depressions are near
the borders, especially along the E. and W.

GREAT BRITAIN

sides, while the central portion reaches a much
greater elevation, and is broken into a series
of detached ridges. Along the line of the
Central Pacific railroad the elevations are as
follows: at Brigham, on the border of Great
Salt lake, 4,220 ft. above the level of the sea;
at Pequop, a short distance W. of the Nevada
boundary, 6,184 ft. ; and at Desert, in the W.
part of Nevada, 4,017 ft. The height at the
points of greatest depression in the S. E. and
S. W. parts has not been accurately determined,
but in the neighborhood of Sevier lake it is not
more than 4,500 ft. above the sea. The high-
est ranges in the basin probably attain an ele-
vation of from 7,500 to 8,000 ft. The Wah-
satch range, which, running almost directly N.
and S. near the 112th meridian, forms the E.
rim, rises abruptly from the narrow plains, sel-
dom sending out foot hills or slopes. The moun-
tain ridges in the interior, separated by valleys
of various width, run parallel to each other in
a N. and S. direction, determining tho course
of the minor streams, though the few principal
rivers break through them. The elevation which
forms the N. rim, separating the basin from the
valley of the Columbia, also consists of parallel
ridges running N. and S. The principal body
of water is Great Salt lake in the N. E. part,
the region draining into it being known as the
Great Salt Lake basin. Other lakes are Utah
and Sevier, in Utah; Walker's lake, Carson
lake, Pyramid lake, and Mud lake, in Nevada ;
and Mono and Owen's lakes, in California.
Bear river empties into Great Salt lake; the
Provo or Timpanogas into Utah lake; while
the Jordan discharges the waters of Utah lake
into Great Salt lake. Sevier, Walker's, Car-
son, and Owen's lakes receive rivers of the
same names ; the Truckee empties into Pyramid
lake. Humboldt river rises in the N. E. part
of Nevada, and after a course a little S. of W.
of about 300 m. disappears in the " Humboldt
sink." Reese river flows N. toward the Hum-
boldt, but generally sinks before reaching it.
The greater portion of the basin is an arid
and sterile waste, covered with alkaline depos-
its, and producing only a growth of sage brush.
Considerable tracts, however, may be rendered
productive by irrigation, and larger portions
are adapted to grazing. Except upon the
mountains in the N. part forests scarcely exist.
The climate is dry, rain rarely falling from
April to October. The basin is rich in the
precious metals, particularly silver.

GREAT BEAR LAKE. See BEAR LAKE.

GREAT BRITAIN, in a geographical sense, the
largest and most important island of Europe,
and in a political sense, as popularly used, the
British empire, or the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland. Britain (Britannia)
was the ancient name of the island, by which
it was known to the Romans. The western
peninsular projection of France, called by the
Romans Armorica, was occupied by the same
race that constituted the aboriginal population
of Britain. As early as the 6th century of our

GREAT FALLS

GREAT SALT LAKE

183

the French applied the term Bretagne

Jritain) to Armorica, and to distinguish the
itinental from the insular Britain, called the
ler "Little Britain" and the latter "Great

itain." The term Great Britain was little
by the islanders themselves until the ac-
sion of James I. to the crown of England in
1603 united the whole of the island under one

>vereign. By the legislative union between

igland and Scotland in 1707 Great Britain

same the legal name of the kingdom. The

land comprises England, Wales, and Scotland.

jotland is frequently termed North Britain.

le official style of the empire is " The United
[ingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," but
in current language the term Great Britain in-
ludes politically the British and Irish king-
is, and is the common designation of the
Thole imperial power. (See BRITISH EMPIRE,
" D, SCOTLAND, and WALES.)

GREAT FALLS. See SOMEKSWORTH.

GREAT GRIMSBY, a parliamentary and mu-
nicipal borough and seaport of Lincolnshire,
England, on the right bank of the Humber, 30
m. N. E. of Lincoln ; pop. in 1871, 20,238. The
town consists of two portions : the older is at
the head of the harbor, and the newer, called
the Marsh, extends along the east side of
the harbor. It has free grammar schools, a
national school, a mechanics' institute, and a
new town hall. There is a large trade in fish,
timber, coal, and salt.

GREAT KANAWHA RIVER, a large stream of
North Carolina and the Virginias, called in
the upper part of its course New river. It
rises in the N. W. part of the former state,
between the Blue Ridge and Iron mountain,
and flows N. E. to the N. part of Grayson co.,
Va., where it passes through a defile in the
Iron mountain, and, bending toward the N. W.,
breaks through Walker's, Peter's, and Green-
brier ridges of the Alleghanies. After re-
ceiving Gauley river in Fayette co., W. Va., it
takes the name of Great Kanawha, passes
through the coal and salt region, and joins the
Ohio at Point Pleasant, Mason co., W. Va.
Its length is about 400 in. ; its width 66 m.
above its mouth is 450 ft., and at the junction
of Gauley river, 100 m. above its mouth, 1,500
ft. It is navigable at all seasons to a point
about 2 m. below the Gauley, where the river
has a picturesque perpendicular fall of 50 ft.
Its principal affluents are the Greenbrier,
Gauley, and Elk on the north, and Coal river
on the south. The principal towns on its
banks are Pearisburg, Va., and Fayetteville,
Charleston, and Point Pleasant, W. Va.

GREAT MAULOW, a town of Buckingham-
shire, England, on the Thames, 11 m. N. E. of
Reading; pop. in 1871, 6,619. It has a fine
church, manufactories of paper and lace, and
a considerable trade in lumber, coal, and corn.

GREATOREX, Eliza, an American artist, born
at Manor Hamilton, Connaught, Ireland, Dec.
25, 1820. She is the daughter of the Rev. J.
C. Pratt, a Wesleyan minister. When 19 years

old she came to the United States, and married
Henry W. Greatorex, the son of the organist
of Westminster abbey. From 1854 to 1856 she
studied landscape painting with W. W. Wither-
spoon of New York, and then visited England
and Ireland, making drawings of lake scenery.
In 1862 she studied under Edouard Lambinet in
Paris, and afterward sketched along the Rhine.
She went again to Europe in 1866, and made
pen-and-ink drawings in England, Holland,
Germany, Italy, and Paris. In 1868-'9 she
made pen-and-ink drawings of the old build-
ings in and around New York. In 1870 she
returned to Europe and studied landscape and
architectural drawing in Munich, where she
published in 1872 " The Homes of Oberammer-
gau" (New York, 1873), a series of 20 etchings
from pen-and-ink sketches, with notes from her
diary. In 1873 she published " Summer Etch-
ings in Colorado," with 21 illustrations, and an
album of " Etchings in Nuremberg." Her best
known oil paintings are a " View on the
Housatonic" (1863), "The Forge" (1864), and
" Somerindyke House " (1869).

GREATRAKES, Valentine, an Irish quack, born
at Affane, county Waterford, Feb. 14, 1628,
died in Dublin, probably about 1700. He was
educated at Trinity college, Dublin, and on
the outbreak of the rebellion went to England,
where he devoted some time to the study of
the classics and divinity. He served in the
parliamentary army from 1649 to 1656, when
he returned to Ireland and was made a justice
of the peace in county Cork, and held other
offices which were taken from him at the resto-
ration. Soon afterward he claimed the power
to cure the king's evil and all other diseases
by the touch ; and in 1665 he went to London,
where the king invited him to Whitehall, and
where he is alleged to have performed many
cures, which were attested by Robert Boyle,
Sir John Godolphin, and many other eminent
persons. Dr. Henry Stubbe published a pam-
phlet in praise of Greatrakes' s skill, under the
title "The Miraculist Conformist" (Oxford,
1666). Greatrakes having failed in one in-
stance to effect a cure, David Lloyd published
a pamphlet entitled " Wonders no Miracles "
(London, 1666), in which he denounced him
as a cheat. To this Greatrakes replied in a
letter addressed to Boyle, entitled "Account
of Val. Greatrakes and divers of his strange
Cures." In 1667 he returned to Ireland.

GREAT SALT LAKE, an extensive sheet of
water in Utah, lying in the Great Basin, be-
tween lat. 40 40' and 41 45' N., and Ion. 111
50' and 113 10' W. Its outline is somewhat
irregular. There are several islands, of which
the principal are Church or Antelope island
in the southeast, and Stansbury island in the
southwest. The lake is 75 m. long from N. W.
to S. E. and about 30 m. broad. Its surface
is 4,200 ft. above the level of the sea. It has
no outlet. The water is shallow, the depth
in many extensive parts being not more than
2 or 3 ft. Utah lake, a body of fresh water

184 GREAT SLAVE LAKE

85 m. long and 100 ft. above the level of Great
Salt lake is 26 m. S. E. of the latter, and flows
into it through a river called the Jordan. Utah
lake ahounds with fish. Bear river flows into
the Great Salt lake from the north, and several
smaller rivers from the east. The floods of
spring spread the lake over large tracts, from
which it recedes as summer advances. It was
evidently once vastly more extensive than at
present. The country around it is mostly des-
olate and barren, though there are portions
which irrigation would render very fertile.
The water is transparent, but excessively salt ;
it contains about 22 per cent, of chloride of
sodium (common salt), slightly mixed with
other salts, forming one of the purest and most
concentrated brines in the world. Its specific
gravity is 1-17. There are no fish in the lake,
but several species of insects and a species of
crustacean (artemia fertility have been found
(see " United States Geological Survey of the
Territories" for 1872, pp. 744-'5); and im-
mense flocks of gulls, wild ducks, geese, and
swans frequent its snores and islands. The
water is so buoyant that a man may float in it
at full length upon his back, having his head
and neck, his legs to the knee, and both arms
to the elbow, entirely out of water. If he as-
sumes a sitting position, with the arms extend-
ed, his shoulders will rise above the water.
Swimming, however, is difficult from the ten-
dency of the lower extremities to rise above the
surface ; and the brine is so strong that it can-
not be swallowed without danger of strangula-
tion, while a particle of it in the eye causes in-
tense pain. A bath in this water is refreshing
and invigorating, though the body requires to be
washed afterward in fresh water. The first
mention of the Great Salt lake was by Baron La
Hontan in 1689, who gathered from the Indians
west of the Mississippi some vague notions of
its existence. It was explored and described
in 1843 by Fremont, who was the first to navi-
gate its waters. A thorough survey was made
in 1849-'50 by Capt. Howard Stansbury of
the United States army, whose report of " An
Expedition to the Valley of the Great Salt
Lake" was printed at Washington by order
of congress in 1852. Another edition was
published at Philadelphia in 1855. "The City
of the Great Salt Lake," commonly called Salt
Lake City, is situated on the Jordan river,
which connects Lake Utah with the Great
Salt lake, about 7 m. S. of the latter. (See
SALT LAKE CITY.)

GREAT SLAVE LAKE (Fr. Lac de FEsclave),
a large irregular sheet of water in a district of
the same name in the northwest territories of
Canada, between lat. 60 40' and 63 N., and
Ion. 109 30' and 117 30' W. ; length from E.
to W., 300 m. ; greatest breadth, 50 m. Its N.
-h*r. 9 are steep and rough, and from them it
receives the outlets of Aylmer and Artillery
lakes. On the south it presents a less rugged
bank, and is entered by a river of its own name,
flowing N. for about 300 m. from the W. end

GREBE

of Lake Athabasca. It contains a number of
islands, some of which are well wooded. For
half the year it is frozen over. Mackenzie
river connects it with the Arctic ocean.

GREAVES, John, an English mathematician
and antiquary, born in Hampshire in 1602,
died in London, Oct. 8, 1652. He was edu-
cated at Oxford, and in 1630 was chosen geo-
metrical lecturer in Gresham college, London.
After visiting Holland, France, and Italy, he
embarked in 1637 for Constantinople, whence
he went to Egypt to examine the pyramids,
of which no satisfactory account had then been
given, and in 1640 returned to England, bring-
ing with him several Arabic, Persian, and
Greek manuscripts, and a large collection of
gems, coins, &c. Soon after his return he was
appointed Savilian professor of astronomy at
Oxford. In 1648, having been ejected from
Oxford for royalism, he settled in London. He
published a " Discourse on the Roman Foot
and Denarius" (1647), wrote a Persian gram-
mar, and partly compiled a Persian lexicon.
A collection of his minor papers was published
in two volumes in 1737.

GREBE, a lobe-footed bird of the family co*
lymbidce, and subfamily podicipinw, compri-
sing the genera podiceps (Lath.) and podilym-
bus (Lesson). The genus podiceps has a long,
straight, and slender bill, the culm en slightly
curved at the tip, which is sharp and entire,
the sides compressed, and the nostrils longitu-
dinal and in a short groove ; the wings short
and pointed, the first and second quills the
longest and slightly emarginated near the tips;
tail short, a mere tuft of loose feathers ; tarsi
shorter than the middle toe, much compressed,
covered with scales serrated posteriorly ; toes
long, lobed on the sides, and united by webs at
the base; hind toe short and broadly lobed;
nails short, broad, flat, and obtuse. More
than 20 species are -described, in all parts of
the world; they are usually seen in small
flocks on the shores of fresh-water lakes and
rivers and near the seacoast, and rarely on
land, as the posterior position of the legs ren-
ders it very difficult for them to walk ; they are
excellent swimmers and expert divers, flying
under water to a considerable depth in pursuit
of fish ; they are generally short and rapid
flyers, but during their migrations the flight is
elevated and long sustained ; when alarmed,
they hide among the reeds, or sink under wa-
ter, leaving only the bill out, till the danger is
over. The food consists of fish and aquatic
animals and plants ; the nest is made of grasses,
lined with down, attached to the reeds or float-
ing ; the eggs are three or four in number.
The American species vary much in size ; one
of the largest is the crested grebe (P. cristatus.
Lath.), 24 in. long, with an extent of wings or
33 ; the adult male has a blackish brown bill,
about 2 in. long ; upper part of head and
crest, nape and upper plumage, blackish brown ;
the ruff, which birds of this genus have in the
breeding season, is reddish brown ending in

GKEBE

GEEECE

185

lack ; cheeks, throat, band before eye, hume-
ral feathers, and secondaries white ; fore part
and sides of neck reddish brown; rest of
under parts silvery white; primaries dark
brown ; iris bright carmine ; in the females
young the crest is very slight, and the up-

Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus).

per parts are tinged with gray. It is found
along the Atlantic coast from the fur countries,
where it breeds, southward, and as far as Tex-
as in the winter, and also on the Pacific shore.
All the species have the head rather small, the
eyes near the bill, the neck long and slender,
and the body flattened ; the plumage is thick
and soft, and silky on the