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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPEDIA 


VOL  VIII. 
GLASGOW-HORTENSE, 


361 


THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


OF 


GENEBAL    KNOWLEDGE 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


SECOND    EDITION,    REVISED, 


VOLUME  VIII. 
GLASGOW-HORTENSE. 


NEW    YORK: 
I).    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549  AND  551   BKOADWAY. 

LONDON:   16  LITTLE  BRITAIN. 

1879. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  hi  the  year  1874,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in 
the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


the  Contributors  of  New.  Articles  to  the  Eighth  Volume  of  the  Revised 
Edition  are  the  following : 


Prof.  CLEVELAND  ABBE,  Washington,  D.  0. 

HAIL. 
WILLARD  BARTLETT. 

GONDS. 

HINDOO  KOOSH. 

Prof.  C.  W.  BENNETT,   D.  D.,  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity. 

HAMLINE,  LEONIDAS  LEKT. 
HAVEN,  ERASTUS  OTIS. 
HAVEN,  GILBERT. 
HEDDING,  ELIJAH. 
JULIUS  BING. 

GORTCHAKOFF,  ALEXANDER, 
HERTZEN,  ALEXANDER, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  &c. 

FKANCIS  0.  BOWMAN. 

GOTTSCHALK,  LOUIS  MOREATT. 

GOUNOD,  CHARLES  FRANCOIS. 

GUARNERI,  family  of. 

HALEVY,  JACQUES  FRANCOIS  FROMENTAL  ELIE. 
EDWARD  L.  BURLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

GREECE,  and  articles  in  biography  and  history. 
ROBERT  CARTER. 

HIGGINSON,  THOMAS  WENTWORTH. 
JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN,  Jr. 

GOLD  COAST, 

GUIZOT,  family  of, 

HEDJAZ, 

HERALDRY, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Prof.  E.  H.  CLARKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

HELLEBORE, 

HENBANE,  and  other  articles  in  materia  medica. 

T.  M.  COAN,  M.  D. 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

HILO. 

HONOLULU. 

Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

HEIR, 

HEREDITAMENTS,  and  other  legal  articles. 

Prof.  J.  0.  DALTON,  M.  D. 

HEART, 

HEMATINE, 

HISTOLOGY, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

EATON  S.  DRONE. 
GLASS, 

GOLD  (history  and  statistics), 
HAMILTON  COLLEGE, 
HARVARD  UNIVERSITY, 

and  articles  in  American  geography. 

Capt.  0.  E.  BUTTON,  U.S.  A., Washington, D.C. 

GUN  COTTON. 

GUNNERY. 

GUNPOWDER. 

EGBERT  T.  EDES;  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medica. 

Louis  ELSBERG,  M.  D. 

HAECKEL,  ERNST  HEINRICH. 

HELMHOLTZ,  HERMANN  LUDWIG  FERDINAND. 

W.  M.  FERRISS. 

GRASSMANN,  HERMANN  GI^NTIIEE. 
HEGIRA. 

Prof.  AUSTIN  FLINT,  M.  D. 

HAY  COLD. 

HEART,  DISEASES  OF  THE. 
AUSTIN  FLINT,  Jr.,  M.  D. 
GYMNASTICS. 

ALFRED  H.  GUERNSEY. 

GUISE,  House  of, 

HALL,  CHARLES  FRANCIS, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

EGBERT  GUERNSEY,  M.  D. 

HOMOEOPATHY. 

J.  W.  HAWES. 

HALIFAX,  N.  S., 

HARRISBURG, 

HARTFORD, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 


CHARLES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

Prof.  T.  STERRY  HUNT,  LL.  D.,  Mass.  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Boston. 

GOLD  (geology). 

GRANITE. 

HALL,  Prof.  JAMES. 

ROSSITER  JOHNSON. 

GRANT,  ULYSSES  S., 
GREELEY,  HORACE, 
HARTE,  FRANCIS  BRET, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Prof.   S.    KNEELAND,   M.  D.,   Mass.   Inst.   of 
Technology,  Boston. 
GLASS  SPONGE, 
GLOBIGERINA, 
HIPPARION, 

and  other  articles  in  natural  history. 

Prof.   ALFRED    M.   MAYER,   Stevens  Inst.   of 
Technology,  Hoboken,  3ST.  J. 

HARMONY. 
Rev.  FRANKLIN  NOBLE. 

HALL,  NEWMAN, 
HAYES,  ISAAC  ISRAEL, 
.   HOME,  DANIEL  DOUGLAS, 

and  other  biographical  articles. 

Rev.  BERNARD  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 
GREGORY,  popes. 
GUILD. 
HECLA. 
HONORIUS,  popes. 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  A.  M.,  London. 
GRAVITY. 
HALO. 

Prof.  ROSSITER  W.  RAYMOND,  Ph.  D. 
GOLD  MINING. 

PHILIP  RIPLEY. 

GODWIN,  PARKE. 
HAMBURG. 
HANOVER. 
HAREM. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 
HANKOW, 
HESBE-HOMBURG, 
HESSE-NASSAU, 

and  other  articles  in  geography  and  history. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

GOURGUES,  DOMINIQUE  DE, 
GROS  VENTRES, 
HENNEPIN,  Louis, 

and  articles  on  American  Indians. 

Prof.   J.   A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

GOULBURN,  EDWARD  MEYRICK. 
GRISWOLD,  ALEXANDER  VIETS. 
HOBART,  JOHN  HENRY. 

Prof.  GEORGE  THURBER. 
GRAFTING, 
GRAPE, 

GRASSES, 
HEMLOCK  SPRUCE, 

and  other  botanical  articles 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RHYN,  Ph.  D. 

GOTHIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE, 
GREECE,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF, 
HIEROGLYPHICS, 
HIMYARITES, 

and  other  articles  in  philology,  &c. 

I.  DE  VEITELLE. 

GUATEMALA, 
HAVANA, 
HAYTI, 
HONDURAS, 

and  other  Spanish  American  articles. 

C.  S.  WEYMAN. 

GREECE,  WINES  OF. 
HALSTEAD,  MURAT. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


GLASGOW 


/""^  LASGOW,  the  chief  commercial  and  manu- 
VJT  facturing  city  of  Scotland,  in  Lanarkshire, 
on  the  river  Clyde,  21  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
41  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Edinburgh ;  lat.  55°  51'  32" 
K,  Ion.  4°  17'  54"  W. ;  pop.  in  1660, 12,000  ;  in 
1765,  23,046 ;  in  1801,  83,769 ;  in  1851, 347,001 ; 
in  1861,  395,503 ;  in  1871,  of  the  parliamenta- 
ry burgh,  477,144,  of  the  whole  town,  547,538. 
The  city  is  about  3  m.  long,  and  lies  on  both  sides 


of  the  river,  here  about  500  ft.  wide,  which  is 
crossed  by  two  suspension  and  three  stone 
bridges,  below  which  are  several  ferries.  The 
site  is  mostly  level,  but  in  the  N.  and  K  W. 
parts  are  considerable  elevations.  The  original 
burgh,  which  took  its  rise  from  the  cathedral 
and  the  university,  is  on  the  N.  bank ;  but  the  va- 
rious suburbs  are  now  so  closely  connected  that 
they  can  hardly  be  considered  otherwise  than 


Albert  Bridge.  Glasgow. 


as  portions  of  one  compact  city.  The  principal 
streets  are  parallel  with  the  river,  two  of  the 
broadest  bordering  it  on  either  side.  There 
are  three  public  parks :  the  Green,  of  140  acres, 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Clyde,  near  the  E.  end 
of  the  city ;  Kelvingrove,  of  40  acres,  at  the 
W.  end ;  and  Queen's  park,  of  100  acres,  on 
elevated  ground  at  the  south.  These  parks  are 


all  handsomely  laid  out  and  ornamented.  The 
streets  mostly  cross  Jt  right  angles,  are  well 
paved,  lighted,  and  trained,  and  are  adorned 
with  several  fine  statues.  Many  of  the  houses 
are  of  white  freestone,  constructed  in  flats. 
There  are  two  theatres,  two  museums,  two 
public  libraries  (of  30,000  and  15,000  volumes), 
asylums  for  the  blind,  insane,  aged,  and  deaf 


GLASGOW 


GLASS 


and  dumb,  a  university,  and  175  churches  and 
chapels.  The  last  named  are  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  Free  church,  43 ;  Established  church, 
40;  United  Presbyterian,  37;  Roman  Catholic, 
12  ;  Independent,  9  ;  Baptist,  7 ;  Episcopal,  5  ; 
Reformed  Presbyterian,  4 ;  other  denomina- 
tions, 18.  A  bishopric  was  erected  in  .Glas- 
gow about  1115 ;  in  1488  it  was  made  an  arch- 
bishopric. At  present  it  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
of  the  Scotch  Episcopal  church  and  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  vicar  apostolic.  Five  daily  and  15 
weekly  newspapers  are  published.  There  is  a 
botanic  garden  of  40  acres  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  city,  which  is  open  to  the  public  in  sum- 
mer. The  cathedral,  said  to  be  the  finest  Gothic 
building  in  Scotland,  overlooks  the  city  from 
the  northeast.  It  was  built  by  David  I.  about 
1133,  but  was  burned  in  1192;  the  present 
edifice  was  immediately  begun,  and  was  con- 
secrated in  1197,  but  was  not  finished  until  the 
present  century.  Its  most  celebrated  features 
are  the  crypt  and  the  profusion  of  brilliant 
stained  glass.  The  university  was  chartered 
in  1443  by  James  II.,  but  it  had  only  a  feeble 
existence  until  1560,  when  Queen  Mary  be- 
stowed upon  it  half  of  the  confiscated  church 
property  in  the  city  ;  this  endowment  has  been 
greatly  increased  by  additional  grants  from  the 
corporation  and  the  crown.  It  has  a  library 
of  105,000  volumes,  founded  in  1473,  an  ob- 
servatory, and  numerous  cabinets  and  collec- 
tions. The  grounds  include  22  acres,  and  the 
new  buildings,  finished  in  1870,  cost  £370,000. 
The  number  of  matriculated  students  averages 
1,200.  The  university  confers  degrees  in  arts, 
law,  medicine,  and  divinity.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  royal  exchange,  the 
town  hall,  and  Hutcheson's  hospital.  The  city 
is  supplied  with  water  from  Loch  Katrine,  by 
an  aqueduct  26  m.  long. — Glasgow  was  erected 
into  a  burgh  about  11 90,  with  the  privilege  of  an 
annual  fair.  In  1556  it  ranked  eleventh  among 
the  towns  of  Scotland.  It  is  now  the  fourth 
exporting  city  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  second 
in  wealth  and  population.  Its  immense  growth, 
mainly  within  the  present  century,  is  due  to 
its  situation  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  coal  and 
iron  district,  and  its  seaport  facilities.  Large 
sums  have  been  spent  in  clearing  and  deepen- 
ing the  channel  of  the  Clyde,  including  the  re- 
moval of  several  islands,  and  it  is  now  naviga- 
ble for  vessels  of  2,000  tons.  The  quays  are  16,- 
680  ft.  in  extent.  In  the  18th  century  Glasgow 
was  the  centre  of  the  tobacco  trade  of  Great 
Britain,  and  its  merchants  also  dealt  largely  in 
the  sugar  and  other  products  of  the  West  In- 
dies. Later  it  entered  extensively  into  brew- 
ing, dyeing,  and  calico  printing,  and  finally 
into  ship  building  (especially  of  iron  ships),  iron 
casting,  and  machine  making,  and  the  prepa- 
ration of  chemicals.  The  St.  Rollox  chemical 
works,  the  largest  in  the  world,  N.  of  the  ca- 
thedral, cover  16  acres,  employ  more  than 
1,000  men,  and  have  a  chimney  450  ft.  high. 
A  still  taller  chimney  (460  ft.)  is  that  of  the 
artificial  manure  works.  In  1871  the  number 


of  spindles  was  2,000,000,  consuming  annually 
125,000  bales  of  cotton,  and  supplying  27,000 
power  looms.  There  are  large  glass  works  and 
paper  mills,  and  the  turkey-red  dyes  produced 
here  are  famous.  The  value  of  exports  in  1871 
was  £10,049,987,  of  which  £2,223,221  were  to 
the  United  States ;  the  value  of  imports  was 
£6,577,575,  of  which  £2,894,273  were  from 
the  United  States.  Glasgow  is  governed  by  a 
lord  provost,  8  bailies,  and  39  councillors,  with 
the  dean  of  guild  from  the  merchants'  and  the 
deacon  convener  from  the  trades'  house,  and 
returns  three  members  to  the  house  of  com- 
mons.— The  Romans  had  a  station  on  the  Clyde 
in  the  locality  of  the  city,  and  Antoninus's 
wall  commenced  a  few  miles  W.  of  it.  Tradi- 
tion assigns  the  foundation  of  Glasgow  to  St. 
Kentigern,  whom  it  makes  its  first  bishop, 
about  560.  In  1300  a  battle  between  the  Scots 
under  Wallace  and  the  English  under  Percy 
was  fought  in  the  High  street,  when  Percy  was 
defeated  and  slain.  In  1350,  '.80,  and  '81,  Glas- 
gow was  visited  by  the  plague.  About  1542 
the  regent  Arran  besieged  the  earl  of  Lennox 
in  the  bishop's  castle,  obtained  it  on  promise 
of  terms,  and  put  the  garrison  to  the  sword. 
The  same  leaders  subsequently  fought  a  battle 
at  the  Butts  in  the  E.  part  of  the  city,  when 
the  regent  gained  the  victory  and  plundered  it. 
In  1560  reformed  superintendents  superseded 
Catholic  bishops.  In  1638  the  famous  assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  was  held  here,  when 
episcopacy  was  abjured.  For  several  years 
thereafter  the  city  was  a  prey  to  both  parties 
in  the  civil  Avars.  Fire,  plague,  plunder,  and 
famine  desolated  the  place.  On  June  4,  1690, 
a  charter  of  William  and  Mary  conferred  on  the 
townsmen  the  right  of  electing  their  own  ma- 
gistrates. Glasgow  was  strongly  dissatisfied 
with  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England,  but 
in  1715  and  again  in  1745  sided  with  the  house 
of  Hanover  and  raised  a  force  against  the 
Stuarts,  for  which  the  pretender's  army  on 
the  retreat  from  Derby  levied  contributions. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  American  revolu- 
tionary war,  Glasgow  raised  a  regiment  of 
1,000  men,  and  fitted  out  14  privateers.  In 
1820  the  public  peace  was  disturbed  by  radical 
political  riots,  and  in  1848  by  the  chartists. 

GLASS  (Sax.  glees),  in  chemistry,  any  product 
of  fusion  having  the  peculiar  lustre  known  as 
vitreous,  hard  and  brittle,  whether  transparent 
or  not;  in  common  use,  the  transparent  pro- 
duct derived  from  the  fusion  of  silica  with  an 
alkali  to  which  lime  or  a  metallic  oxide  is  add- 
ed. No  material  invented  by  man  is  to  be 
compared  with  glass  in  the  service  it  has  ren- 
dered. To  its  aid,  applied  in  a  thousand  dif- 
ferent forms,  the  sciences,  particularly  chemis- 
try and  astronomy,  are  essentially  indebted  for 
their  advancement;  and  its  uses  in  common 
life  render  it  no  less  important  to  the  daily 
wants  of  mankind.  The  purity  of  its  material 
causes  the  presence  of  foreign  substances  to  bo 
instantly  detected,  and  it  is  consequently  the 
most  cleanly  substance,  and  especially  suited 


GLASS 


for  vessels  for  holding  and  keeping  liquids.  It 
resists  the  action  of  nearly  all  the  powerful 
chemical  reagents ;  and  but  for  this  substance 
many  of  them  would  never  have  been  known, 
nor  could  they  now  be  made  and  kept. — Noth- 
ing definite  is  known  concerning  the  discovery 
of  the  art  of  glass  making  or  the  early  history 
of  its  manufacture.  The  statement  made  by 
Pliny  that  some  Phoenician  mariners  having 
landed  on  the  banks  of  a  small  river  in  Pales- 
tine, "  and  finding  no  stones  to  rest  their  pots 
on,  they  placed  under  them  some  masses  of 
nitrum  [soda,  as  is  supposed],  which,  being 
fused  by  the  heat  with  the  sand  of  the  river, 
produced  a  liquid  and  transparent  "stream,"  is 
not  generally  accepted  as  showing  the  origin 
of  glass.  A  stronger  heat  than  could  be  ob- 
tained from  an  open  fire  would  be  required  to 
effect  this  result.  Nor  is  much  more  credit  to 
be  attached  to  his  accounts  respecting  the  pro- 
duction of  a  glass  of  malleable  character,  which 
when  thrown  upon  the  ground  was  merely  in- 
dented, and  could  be  restored  to  shape  with  a 
hammer,  as  if  it  were  brass.  Some  metallic 
salts,  as  chloride  of  silver,  possess  ductility  at 
the  same  time  with  a  glossy  appearance,  and 
of  one  of  them  the  articles  referred  to  may 
perhaps  have  been  made ;  but  all  modern  ex- 
perience is  opposed  to  the  possibility  of  a  vit- 
rified body  being  malleable.  It  has  been  es- 
tablished with  certainty  that  the  art  was  prac- 
tised among  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early 
period.  Paintings  on  a  tomb  at  Beni  Hassan, 
supposed  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Osortasen 
I.,  about  3,000  B.  C.,  represent  Theban  glass 
blowers  at  work  with  blowpipes  very  similar 
to  those  used  at  the  present  day.  A  necklace 
bead  of  material  similar  to  the  modern  crown 
glass  was  found  at  Thebes,  bearing  the  name 
of  the  queen  of  Thothmes  III.,  who  reigned 
about  1500  B.  C.,  inscribed  in  hieroglyphics. 
In  the  British  museum  there  is  an  interesting 
ancient  Egyptian  specimen  in  the  form  of  a 
small  bottle  of  opaque  light-blue  glass,  on  which 


FIG.  1.— Theban  Glass  Blowers. 

are  painted  in  yellow  the  names  and  titles  of 
the  same  monarch.  Ornaments  imitating  pre- 
cious gems  in  color  and  beauty  show  that  the 
art  had  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  by  the  Egyptians.  Not  only  was 
glass  used  by  them  in  making  drinking  vessels, 


but  also  for  mosaic  work,  the  figures  of  deities 
and  sacred  emblems,  and  even  for  coffins,  in 
all  of  which  they  attained  excellent  workman- 
ship and  surprising  brilliancy  of  color.  The 
glass  works  of  Alexandria,  in  operation  in  the 
time  of  Strabo  and  Pliny,  were  famous  among 


FIG.  2.— Blue  Glass  Bot- 
tle with  Name  of 
Thothmes  III. 


FIG.  3.— Green  Glass  Vase  with 
Name  of  Sargon. 


the  ancients.  According  to  Theophrastus,  the 
processes  of  cutting  or  grinding,  of  gilding  and 
coloring,  were  in  use  370  years  B.  0.  Arti- 
cles of  exquisite  workmanship  were  produced, 
but  of  great  cost,  and  known  only  as  luxuries. 
Vases  and  cups,  some  enamelled  and  beautiful- 
ly cut  and  wrought  with  raised  figures,  and 
some  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their 
colors,  were  furnished  to  the  Komans.  From 
the  Egyptians  the  Phoenicians  are  supposed  to 
have  received  the  art,  which  flourished  at  a 
very  early  period  at  Sidon  and  Tyre.  In  the 
ruins  of  Nineveh  glass  lenses,  vases,  bottles, 
&c.,  have  been  found ;  but  there  is  no  indica- 
tion of  the  use  of  glass  for  windows.  A  small 
vase  of  transparent  green  glass,  on  which  are 
engraved  in  outline  a  lion  and  the  name  and 
titles  of  the  Assyrian  monarch  Sargon,  719 
B.  C.,  is  preserved  in  the  British  museum,  and 
is  regarded  as  the  earliest  dated  specimen  of 
transparent  glass.  It  was  found  in  the  palace 
of  Nimrud  in  Nineveh.  That  the  manufac- 
ture of  glass  was  extensively  practised  by  the 
ancient  Greeks,  and  that  they  had  acquired 
great  skill  in  the  art,  are  shown  by  the  re- 
markable collection  of  specimens  taken  by 
Cesnola  from  the  tombs  at  Dali  on  the  isl- 
and of  Cyprus  in  1866-'70,  and  deposited  in 
the  metropolitan  museum  of  art,  New  York,  in 
1872.  This  collection  of  Greek  glass,  the  most 
extensive  known,  comprises  1,700  articles,  not 
only  plain  and  simple,  but  various  in  form  and 
color,  and  iridescent  and  incrusted.  There  are 
plates  plain,  fluted,  and  with  handles,  in  the  va- 
rious colors  and  in  different  shades  of  the  same 
color.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  ornamen- 
tal cups  and  vases,  and  bottles  of  all  sizes  and 
shapes  known  to  any  people.  (See  CESNOLA.) 
The  manufacture  of  glass  was  introduced  into 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  During  the  reign 
of  Nero  great  improvements  were  made  and 


8 


GLASS 


great  skill  was  attained  in  the  production  of 
ornamental  articles.  At  this  early  period  only 
articles  of  luxury  were  produced,  chiefly  vases 
and  cups  for  the  tables  of  the  wealthy,  or  urns 


Fio.  4. — Cesnola  Collection  of  Cypriote  Glass  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art,  New  York. 

and  lachrymatories  for  their  tombs.  In  the  3d 
century  articles  of  glass  were  in  common  use. 
Numerous  specimens  of  Roman  glass  have  been 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  and  Pom- 
peii. From  these  it  appears  that  glass  was  used 
for  admitting  light  to  dwellings  in  Pompeii,  al- 
though other  houses  had  window  frames  filled 
with  a  kind  of  transparent  talc.  The  great  per- 
fection which  the  art  had  attained  among  the 
Romans  is  attested  by  the  celebrated  Barberini 
or  Portland  vase  in  the  British  museum,  said  to 
be  the  most  beautiful  example  known  of  glass 
of  two  layers.  This  vase  was  found  about  the 
middle  of  the  IGth  century  in  a  marble  sar- 
cophagus near  Rome,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made  as  early  as  138  B.  C.  After  having 
been  for  more  than  two  centuries  the  principal 
ornament  in  the  Barberini  palace  in  Rome,  it 
was  purchased  by  the  duke  of  Portland  for 
£1,029,  and  placed  in  the  British  museum. 
Here  it  was  broken  by  a  madman  into  many 
pieces,  which  were  afterward  joined  together 


with  great  skill.  The  vase  is  about  10  inches 
high,  and  is  composed  of  two  layers  of  glass, 
the  under  one  being  of  a  deep  blue  color  and 
the  other  of  opaque  white.  The  raised  figures 
appear  in  white  upon  a  beautiful  background 
of  blue,  and  by  some  are  supposed  to  rep- 
resent the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis. — 
In  the  13th  century,  and  for  several  centu- 
ries after,  the  Venetian  was  the  best  and  the 
most  famous  glass  in  commerce.  The  princi- 
pal works  were  at  Murano,  one  of  the  islands 
adjacent  to  Venice.  Here  the  manufacture 
was  long  successfully  prosecuted,  being  sus- 
tained by  the  fostering  care  of  the  government, 
and  its  workmen  being  invested  with  extraor- 
dinary privileges.  Glass  mirrors  were  probably 
first  made  here,  and  they  became  famous  all 
over  Europe,  gradually  taking  the  place  of  the 
mirrors  of  polished  metal  which  were  before  in 
use.  Many  of  the  ornamental  objects  they 
produced  were  exceedingly  ingenious,  and  are 
reproduced  and  admired  even  at  this  day.  The 
Bohemians  next  acquired  reputation  in  this 
art ;  and  owing  to  the  purity  of  the  materials 
found  in  abundance  in  their  country,  as  well  as 


FIG.  5. — 1 .  The  Portland  Vase.    2.  Opposite  figures  enlarged. 
8.  Device  on  bottom.     4,  4.  Devices  on,  handles. 

to  their  skill,  their  wares  still  continue  famous. 
The  superiority  of  the  Bohemians  was  evinced 
especially  in  the  production  of  white  glass, 
made  with  pure  quartz  and  lime  and  the  pot- 


GLASS 


ash  obtained  by  burning  the  trees  of  their  im- 
mense forests.  This  glass  was  for  a  long  time 
held  in  the  highest  estimation,  but  was  des- 
tined to  lose  its  fame  when  flint  glass  with  lead 
was  produced  in  England.  The  engraved  glass 
of  Bohemia  became  especially  celebrated.  The 
French,  perceiving  the  importance  of  the  busi- 
ness, early  imitated  the  example  of  the  Vene- 
tians, and  gave  extraordinary  encouragement 
to  any  of  the  nobility  who  would  prosecute  the 
manufacture.  In  1634  attempts  were  made  to 
produce  mirrors  from  blown  glass,  as  was  prac- 
tised so  successfully  by  the  Venetians;  but 
about  the  year  1666  it  was  found  necessary  to 
procure  workmen  from  Venice.  Works  were 
then  erected  at  Tourlaville  near  Cherbourg, 
which  was  selected  from  the  resemblance  of 
the  locality  to  that  of  the  works  at  Murano. 
In  1688  Abraham  Thevart  introduced  in  Paris 
the  method  of  making  large  plates  by  casting 
the  glass  instead  of  blowing ;  he  thus  produced 
heavy  plates  measuring  84  inches  by  50,  while 
those  previously  made  had  barely  reached  in 
length  the  smaller  figure  named,  and  were  ne- 
cessarily thin.  In  1665  the  manufacture  of 
glass  was  established  at  St.  Gobain.  In  the 


FIG.  6.— Venetian  Glass  Bottle. 


18th  century  the  business  became  very  success- 
ful, and  has  continued  so  to  the  present  time, 
the  products  of  the  establishment  ranking 
among  the  first  in  quality  in  the  world. — The 


first  positive  allusions  to  the  use  of  glass  for 
windows  were  made  by  Lactantius  about  the 
close  of  the  3d  century,  and  by  St.  Jerome  about 
the  close  of  the  4th.  It  is  asserted  by  the 


FIG.  7.— Engraved  Bohemian  Drinking  Glass. 

Venerable  Bede  that  glass  windows  were  first 
introduced  in  England  in  674  by  the  abbot 
Benedict ;  but  at  this  time  and  for  many  cen- 
turies afterward  the  use  of  window  glass  was 
limited  to  ecclesiastical  structures.  Colored 
window  glass  is  known  to  have  been  used  in 
churches  in  the  8th  century;  but  for  private 
houses  glass  long  continued  to  be  a  rarity,  and 
in  England  in  the  12th  century  houses  provided 
with  glass  windows  were  regarded  as  magnifi- 
cent. Even  in  the  16th  century  in  England 
and  the  17th  in  Scotland  only  the  dwellings  of 
the  wealthy  were  provided  with  glass.  The 
manufacture  of  window  glass,  according  to  an 
old  builder's  contract  brought  to  light  by  Hor- 
ace Walpole,  and  copied  into  his  "  Anecdotes 
of  Painting,"  was  conducted  in  England  as 
early  as  1439 ;  but  a  decided  preference  was 
given  to  that  "from  beyond  the  seas."  It 


10 


GLASS 


was  commenced  in  London  in  1557;  and  soon 
afterward  flint  glass  also  was  made  there.  The 
production  of  plate  glass  was  undertaken  in 
1670  at  Lambeth  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
who  imported  Venetian  workmen.  The  gov- 
ernment encouraged  the  enterprise  by  a  bounty 
upon  the  glass  intended  for  exportation ;  and  un- 
der this  protection,  also  extended  to  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  the  manufacture,  by  which  the 
cost  was  reduced  from  25  to  50  per  cent.,  many 
other  glass  factories  sprung  up  in  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom ;  but  their  prosperity  and 
the  progress  of  the  art  were  afterward  greatly 
checked  by  the  excise  duties  imposed,  and  the 
surveillance  of  crown  officers  over  all  the  ope- 
rations of  the  works.  The  bounties  and  the 
duties,  with  their  annoying  restrictions,  were 
abolished  in  1845,  when  the  suddenly  increased 
demand  for  home  consumption  brought  into 
existence  many  more  establishments.  Their 
capacity  for  production  became  immense,  'as 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  firm  of  Chance 
and  co.  executed  the  large  order  in  sheet  glass 
for  the  crystal  palace  in  1851  without  mate- 
rially affecting  their  ability  to  fill  their  general 
orders.  The  quality  of  the  English  crown  glass 
is  unrivalled. — Glass  appears  to  have  been  one, 
of  the  earliest  branches  of  manufacture  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States;  but  to  what 
extent  it  was  carried  on  in  early  times  is  un- 
known. In  Salmon's  "  Modern  History  "  (Lon- 
don, 1746),  vol.  iii.,  p.  440,  mention  is  made  of 
glass  works  which  were  commenced  at  James- 
town, Va.,  and  the  completion  of  which  was 
interrupted  by  the  Indian  massacre  of  March 
22,  1622;  and  in  Howe's  "Historical  Collec- 
tions of  Virginia,"  p.  39,  is  a  quotation  from 
"Smith,  book  iv.,  p.  18,"  in  which, under  date 
of  1615,  it  is  said  that  "for  a  long  time  the  la- 
bor of  the  colony  had  been  misdirected  in  the 
manufacture  of  ashes,  soap,  glass,  and  tar,  in 
which  they  could  by  no  means  compete  with 
Sweden  and  Russia,"  In  Felt's  "Annals  of 
Salem,"  Mass.,  reference  is  made  to  the  "  Glass- 
house Field,"  so  named  from  the  fact  that  in 
1639  and  1640  several  acres  of  land  were  ap- 
propriated to  Ananias  Conklin  and  others  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  them  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass,  which  was  carried  on  for  a  consid- 
erable period.  About  1750  works  were  es- 
tablished by  Germans  at  Germantown,  Mass. 
(now  a  part  of  Quincy),  for  the  manufacture  of 
bottles,  but  they  were  burnt  before  the  revolu- 
tion. But  the  first  glass  factory  in  the  United 
States  of  which  we  have  a  precise  account  was 
built  by  Mr.  Robert  Hewes  of  Boston,  in  the 
town  of  Temple,  N.  H.,  in  1780.  It  appears 
that  the  works  were  established  there  on  ac- 
count of  the  cheapness  of  fuel  and  labor.  In 
the  winter  of  1780-'81  they  were  destroyed 
by  fire.  From  a  reference  to  this  subject  by 
Washington  in  his  diary  (1789)  it  would  ap- 
pear that  glass  was  made  at  that  time  in  New 
Haven.  It  is  believed  that  in  Salem  and  in 
Uewes's  works  only  bottles  and  ordinary  ware 
were  made,  and  that  the  first  window  glass  was 


manufactured  in  Boston.  In  1787  a  company 
was  incorporated  for  the  manufacture  of  crown 
glass,  and  after  numerous  embarrassments  the 
first  glass  was  made  in  1793,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a  German  named  Lindt.  The 
shares  of  the  company  attained  a  high  value,  and 
the  Boston  crown  glass  became  celebrated  for 
its  excellence.  The  subsequent  failure  of  the 
company  was  owing  to  the  mismanagement  of 
a  board  of  directors  who  attempted  to  substi- 
tute American  for  German  clay,  and  made 
other  expensive  and  unsuccessful  experiments ; 
among  these  was  the  expansion  of  their  busi- 
ness by  the  erection  of  other  works  for  ma- 
king thin  crown  glass  at  South  Boston  and 
sheet  glass  at  Chelmsford.  Works  were  es- 
tablished by  the  New  England  crown  glass 
company  for  the  manufacture  of  that  article 
in  East  Cambridge  about  1825,  and  others  for 
bottles  and  for  flint  glass  about  the  same  pe- 
riod. Other  crown  glass  works  were  erected 
in  New  York  and  other  states  at  subsequent 
periods,  but  all  were  discontinued  many  years 
ago.  The  New  England  glass  company,  estab- 
lished in  1817  at  East  Cambridge  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  flint  glass,  is  still  in  existence,  and 
has  gained  a  wide  reputation  for  the  excellence 
of  its  wares.  Besides  these  works,  the  chief  es- 
tablishments for  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass 
in  the  United  States  are  in  Sandwich,  Mass., 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  its 
vicinity.  Sheet  glass  is  made  in  Lanesbor- 
ough,  Mass.,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  a  few  places  in  the  western 
states.  The  first  plate  glass  manufactory  was 
established  at  Cheshire,  Berkshire  co.,  Mass., 
about  1853.  The  company  afterward  removed 
their  works  to  Lenox  in  the  same  county, 
and  became  known  as  the  "  Lenox  Rough  Plate 
Glass  Company."  They  have  the  machinery 
for  making  polished  plate  glass,  but  have  not 
yet  produced  it  in  large  quantities.  Henry  R. 
Schoolcraft  was  employed  in  his  youth  in  the 
works  at  Cheshire,  and  in  1817  he  published  a 
treatise  entitled  "  Vitreology,"  designed  to  ex- 
hibit the  application  of  chemistry  to  this  art. — 
Glass  is  a  chemical  compound  of  variable  ingre- 
dients, different  substances  of  similar  character 
replacing  each  other  to  produce  its  varieties. 
Silicic  acid  or  silica  is  its  principal  element, 
which  combines  with  the  potash,  soda,  oxide 
of  lead,  lime,  alumina,  and  other  substances 
that  may  be  added,  to  produce  silicates  of 
these  bases.  By  the  manufacturer  the  bases 
are  classed  as  fluxes.  Boracic  acid  may  take 
the  place  of  silicic  acid  to  produce  vitreous 
borates  or  glass.  The  proportions  of  the  bases 
named  admitting  in  their  use  of  indefinite  va- 
riations, a  wide  scope  is  given  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  skill  of  the  manufacturer  in  pro- 
ducing any  particular  quality  of  glass.  The 
metallic  oxides  also  afford  hirn  abundant  re- 
sources for  imparting  any  desired  hue  to  his 
product,  according  as  these  are  judiciously  se- 
lected and  introduced.  The  important  requi- 
site in  all  the  varieties  of  glass  is  a  fusible 


GLASS 


11 


compound,  which  solidifies  on  cooling  into  a 
transparent  mass,  without  assuming  a  crystal- 
line structure.  Such  a  substance  is  a  product 
of  the  process  of  reducing  metallic  ores.  The 
compounds  produced  by  the  glass  manufactu- 
rer range  from  the  most  fusible  combinations 
of  one  part  of  silica  with  two  or  three  of  soda  or 
potash,  which  melt  at  a  cherry-red  heat  and  dis- 
solve in  cold  water,  to  the  hard  and  refractory 
silicates  of  lime  and  alumina,  some  of  which 
require  the  powerful  heat  of  a  furnace  to  soft- 
en them.  Potash  especially  increases  the  fusi- 
bility of  glass ;  the  oxides  of  lead  and  of  zinc, 
and  to  some  extent  barytes,  produce  a  similar 
eft'ect,  while  they  also  add  to  its  softness, 
its  lustre,  its  specific  gravity,  and  its  power 
of  refracting  light,  and  do  not  interfere  with 
its  perfect  freedom  from  color,  unless  the  lead 
be  used  in  excess,  when  it  gives  a  yellowish 
tinge.  Iron,  in  the  state  of  the  silicate  of  the 
protoxide,  imparts  a  dark  green  color;  but 
on  adding  a  small  quantity  of  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese (Mn02)  the  color  disappears,  as  the 
protoxide  of  iron  is  converted  into  the  sesqui- 
oxide  (Fe2O3).  and  the  manganese,  losing  one 
atom  of  oxygen,  becomes  MnO.  Other  me- 
tallic oxides,  as  those  of  uranium,  copper,  sil- 
ver, and  gold,  are  also  employed  to  give  in- 
tense colors.  Without  reference,  however,  to 
substances  used  for  imparting  or  removing 
colors,  the  essential  materials  of  ordinary  glass 
may  be  regarded  as  silica  and  boracic  acid,  the 


alkalies,  lime,  and  oxide  of  lead.  The  varie- 
ties of  glass  are  classified  by  Dr.  Knapp  as 
follows:  1.  Bottle  glass,  including  the  varie- 
ties worked  into  hollow  vessels  and  tubes,  as 
common  bottles,  glass  for  medicinal  bottles, 
white  bottle  glass  for  vials,  tumblers,  tubes, 
&c.  The  dark-colored  varieties  are  distinguish- 
ed for  their  large  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron 
and  alumina,  and  none  contain  oxide  of  lead. 
The  white  bottle  glass  contains  silica,  soda 
or  potash,  and  lime.  2.  Window  glass,  inclu- 
ding English  crown  and  cylinder  or  sheet  glass; 
this  is  a  silicate  of  potash  or  soda,  lime,  and 
alumina.  3.  Plate  glass,  differing  from  the  pre- 
ceding only  by  the  greater  purity  and  freedom 
from  color  of  the  materials.  4.  Flint  glass, 
used  for  grinding,  &c.,  composed  of  silica,  pot- 
ash, and  oxide  of  lead.  5.  Crystal,  for  optical 
purposes  and  table  ware,  consisting  of  silica  or 
boracic  acid,  potash,  and  more  lead  than  the 
preceding.  6.  Strass,  the  paste  used  for  imita- 
tions of  precious  stones;  it  contains  much  oxide 
of  lead,  and  also  metallic  oxides  used  for  the 
colors.  7.  Enamel,  composed  of  silica,  soda, 
and  oxide  of  lead,  but  rendered  opaque  by  ox- 
ide of  tin  or  antimony,  which  form  a  stannate 
or  antimoniate  with  the  soda.  To  these  may 
be  added  the  soluble  glass,  which  is  a  sim- 
ple silicate  of  soda  or  of  potash,  or  a  mixture 
of  the  two  silicates.  The  following  analyses 
of  several  kinds  of  glass  are  from  Knapp's 
"  Chemical  Technology :  " 


VARIETIES  OF  GLASS. 

No. 

Analyit. 

Silica. 

Potash. 

Sod*. 

Lime. 

Mag- 
nesia. 

MnO. 

Alu- 
mina. 

Oxide 
of 
iron. 

Oxide 
of 
lead. 

Propor- 
tione.* 

5:2 
7:3 
2:1 
4:3 
9:2 
5:1 
4:1 
7:2 
7:2 
9:2 
6:1 
7:1 
5: 
6: 
4: 
5: 
8: 
6:1 
6:1 
9:2 
4:1 
7:2 

7:8 
6:1 

Bottle  glass,  French  

1 
2 
3 
4 
1 
2 
1 
2 
8 
4 
1 
2 
8 
1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 

4 
1 

Berthier.  .. 
Dumas 
Berthier    '.'. 
Dumas  .   .. 

Richardson. 
Cowper.   .. 
Berthier   .. 
Dumas  .   .. 
Berthier   .. 

Dumas  .   .  . 
Berthier   .  . 

Faraday    .  . 
Dumas  .   .  . 

Rowney    .  . 

60-00 
59-60 
53-55 
45-60 
69-60 
62-00 
69-25 
68-50 
66-37 
71-40 
72-00 
73-85 
68-60 
71-70 
69-20 
62-80 
59-20 
51-40 
51-93 
44-30 
42-50 
38  50 

31-60 
73-00 

8-10 
3-20 
5-48 
6-10 
8-00 

'5:50 
6-90 
12-70 
15-80 
22-10 
9-00 
9-40 
13-67 
11-75 
11-70 
7-90 

8-30 
11-50 

'8:66 
16-40 
11-30 
18-70 
14-23 
15-00 
17-00 
12-05 
8-10 
2-50 
8-00 

22-30 
18-00 
29-22 
28-10 
13-00 
15-60 
17-25 
7-80 
11-86 
12-40 
6-40 
5-60 
11-00 
10-80 
7-60 
12-50 

7-0 

0-6 
2-2 

2-1 
2V0 

1-2 

0-4 

0-8 

0-1 
0-2 

i-b 

8-00 
6-80 
6-01 
14-00 
8-60 
2-40 
.2-20 

10-00 

8-16 
0-60 
2-60 
8-50 
1-20 
0-40 
1-20 

i:20 

4-00 
4-40 
5-75 
6-20 

6:30 
1-90 

6:20 
0-30 
0-EO 
2-60 
0-40 
0-80 

l"-60 
0-70 

28-20 
37-40 
33-28 
43-05 
48-50 
53-00 

50-30 

U                             11 

Medicinal  glass  French 

Window  glass,  French  

English 

Plate  glass  French 

"       Venetian  .. 

White  glass,  goblet,  Bohemia  
French  fusible  tubing  . 

Crystal,  London  optical 

"       Newcastle  

Flint  glass,  Guinand  ... 

"         strass 

0-50 

•• 

2-0 

1-80 
1-00 

Ox.  tin. 
9-80 

"         enamel      

Bohemian  hard  glass  tubing  

3-00 

10-50 

The  later  editions  of  Dr.  Knapp's  work  give  the 
following  more  recent  analyses  by  Peligot  : 

VARIETIES  OF  GLASS. 

1 
i 

1 

1 

< 

1 

Oxide  of  tin. 

Oxide  of  lead. 

j 

i 

1 

1 

J_ 

3-5 

Bohemian  

76-015-08-0 
80-917-60-7 
67-7!  5-58-9 
67-721-09-9 

1-0 

o-s 
i'-4 

Bohemian  opal  glass.  .  . 
Venetian  Aventurine. 
Bohemian  mirror  

7-1 

2'3 

1-1 

3-9 

The  second  of  these  is  a  remarkable  glass,  being 
a  simple  silicate  of  potash  with  10  per  cent, 
more  silica  than  is  contained  in  Fuchs's  soluble 
glass.  (See  GLASS,  SOLUBLE.)  Particles  of  glass 
are  dispersed  through  the  semi-transparent,  im- 
perfectly melted  mass.  The  compound  is  not 
attacked  by  boiling  water,  and  does  not  attract 
moisture  from  the  air.  The  ingredients  of 

*  Relation  between  the  oxygen  of  the  acid  and  the  total 
amount  of  oxygen  in  the  bases. 


12 


GLASS 


glass  appear  to  be  in  the  proportions  of  chem- 
ical equivalents — results,  however,  obtained  by 
practice  and  not  by  mixtures  made  with  this 
view.  Various  causes  affect  the  stability  of 
the  combinations  and  the  qualities  of  the  com- 
pounds. The  alkali  in  window  glass  powder- 
ed and  moistened  is  detected  by  its  action  upon 
turmeric  paper,  and  may  be  partially  dissolved 
out  by  long  continued  digestion  in  boiling 
water.  Atmospheric  agents  sometimes  remove 
it  in  part  from  window  panes,  leaving  a  film 
of  silica  or  silicate  of  lime.  The  glass  of  sta- 
ble windows  is  liable  to  change  its  appearance, 
and  assume  prismatic  colors,  from  the  action 
of  the  ammoniacal  vapors  upon  the  silica. 
Changes  in  the  degree  of  oxidation  of  its  metal- 
lic ingredients,  which  are  sometimes  induced 
by  atmospheric  causes,  are  also  attended  by 
changes  of  colors.  Long  continued  cooling 
has  the  effect  of  changing  the  structure,  caus- 
ing it  to  lose  its  transparency  and  become 
devitrified.  Its  ingredients  form  among  them- 
selves a  new  arrangement  of  their  particles, 
and  compounds  are  produced  which  assume 
a  crystallized  structure.  By  remelting,  the 
vitreous  character  may  be  restored,  though 
with  a  loss  of  a  portion  of  potash  which 
was  volatilized  in  the  devitrification.  In  ma- 
king articles  of  glass,  and  especially  bottles,  it 
is  necessary  to  guard  against  this  tendency  to 
crystallize,  and  shorten  the  process  of  anneal- 
ing on  account  of  it.  Devitrified  glass  was  first 
described  by  Reaumur,  and  has  hence  been 
called  Reaumur's  porcelain.  In  consequence 
of  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  made  into 
any  shape,  and  its  tenacity  and  refractory  na- 
ture, not  unlike  porcelain  itself,  it  has  been 
thought  that  it  may  be  employed  as  a  cheap 
substitute  for  this  material,  especially  in  many 
articles  used  in  chemical  laboratories. — The 
specific  gravity  of  glass  varies  with  its  compo- 
sition, from  2-4  to  about  3'6,  although  optical 
glass  of  greater  specific  gravity  is  sometimes 
made,  amounting  in  some  instances  to  6.  Its 
density  and  also  its  refractive  property  are  in- 
creased with  the  proportion  of  oxide  of  lead  it 
contains.  Brittleness  is  a  quality  that  limits  the 
alteration  of  the  shape  of  glass  within  narrow 
bounds,  after  it  has  cooled;  but  when  softened 
by  heat  while  it  is  highly  tenacious,  no  substance 
is  more  easily  moulded  into  any  form,  and  it 
can  be  blown  by  the  breath  into  hollow  vessels 
of  which  the  substance  is  so  thin  that  they  may 
almost  float  in  the  air.  It  may  also  be  rapidly 
drawn  out  into  threads  of  several  hundred  feet 
in  length ;  and  these  have  been  interwoven  in 
fabrics  of  silk,  producing  a  beautiful  effect.  In 
the  soft  plastic  state  it  may  be  cut  with  knives 
and  scissors  like  sheets  of  caoutchouc.  It  is 
then  inelastic  like  wax ;  but  when  cooled  its 
fibres  on  being  beaten  fly  back  with  a  spring, 
and  hollow  balls  of  the  material  have,  when 
dropped  upon  the  smooth  face  of  an  anvil  from 
the  height  of  10  or  12  ft.,  been  found  to  rebound 
without  fracture  to  one  third  or  one  half  the 
same  height.  It  has  the  valuable  property  of 


welding  perfectly  when  red  hot,  and  portions 
brought  together  are  instantly  united.  When 
moderately  heated  it  is  readily  broken  in  any 
direction  by  the  sudden  contraction  caused  by 
the  application  of  a  cold  body  to  its  surface.  It 
is  also  divided  when  cold  by  breaking  it  along 
lines  cut  to  a  slight  depth  by  a  diamond,  or 
some  other  extremely  hard-pointed  body  of 
the  exact  form  suited  for  this  purpose ;  and  it 
may  be  bored  with  steel  drills,  provided  these 
are  kept  slightly  moistened  with  water,  which 
forms  a  paste  with  the  powder  produced.  Oil 
of  turpentine,  either  alone  or  holding  some 
camphor  in  solution,  is  also  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  Copper  tubes  fed  with  emery  also 
serve  to  bore  holes  in  glass.  Acids  and  alka- 
lies act  upon  glass  differently  according  to  its 
composition,  and  reference  should  be  made  to 
this  in  storing  different  liquids  in  bottles.  Sili- 
cate of  alumina  is  readily  attacked  by  acids,  and 
bottles  in  which  this  is  in  excess  are  soon  cor- 
roded even  by  the  bitartrate  of  potash  in  wine, 
and  by  the  reaction  the  liquor  itself  is  contam- 
inated. A  glass  that  loses  its  polish  by  heat  ia 
sure  to  be  attacked  by  acids.  Oxide  of  lead  when 
used  in  large  proportion  is  liable  to  be  in  part 
reduced  to  a  metallic  state  by  different  chemi- 
cal reagents,  and  give  a  black  color  to  the  glass. 
All  glasses  are  attacked  by  hydrofluoric  acid. 
— In  1863  a  series  of  experiments  showing  the 
action  of  sunlight  on  glass  was  begun,  and  has 
since  been  continued,  by  Mr.  Thomas  Gaffield, 
a  merchant  of  Boston,  whose  collection  of 
authorities  on  glass  and  kindred  subjects  is 
more  complete  than  any  other  in  this  country. 
As  early  as  1 824  Prof.  Faraday  had  noticed  a 
change  in  color  produced  in  glass  containing 
oxide  of  manganese  when  exposed  to  the  sun's 
rays,  and  this  effect  was  attributed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  solar  light  on  that  ingredient.  Mr. 
Gaflfield's  experiments,  embracing  about  80  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  glass,  colored  and  uncolored,  of 
English,  French,  German,  Belgian,  and  Ameri- 
can manufacture,  have  proved  that  this  remark- 
able phenomenon  is  not  limited  to  glass  con- 
taining oxide  of  manganese,  but  extends  to 
almost  every  species  of  glass.  That  the  effect 
is  not  due  to  heat,  but  solely  to  the  actinic 
rays  of  the  sun,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  no 
change  of  color  is  produced  in  the  glass  when 
it  is  exposed  to  heat ;  while  on  the  contrary, 
after  the  discoloration  has  been  produced  by 
solar  light,  the  colors  thus  acquired  disappear 
under  the  action  of  heat,  and  the  glass  as- 
sumes its  normal  color.  This  process  may  be 
repeated  indefinitely,  the  change  of  color  being 
produced  by  solar  light,  and  the  original  col- 
or restored  by  heat.  It  was  also  shown  that 
the  effect  was  not  produced  by  air  or  moist- 
ure. In  some  specimens  the  change  was  more 
easily  effected  than  in  others;  in  some  days 
were  sufficient,  in  others  years  were  required ; 
but  in  almost  all  the  change  was  produced. 
"It  is  very  interesting,"  says  Mr.  Gaffield,  "  to 
witness  any  one  of  these  series  of  specimens, 
showing,  as  in  one  of  white  plate,  a  gradual 


GLASS 


13 


change,  commencing  in  a  day  or  a  few  days  in 
summer,  from  greenish  or  bluish  white  to  a 
yellowish  white  or  light  yellow,  a  deep  and 
deeper  yellow,  until  it  becomes  a  dark  yellow 
or  gold  color ;  and  in  some  Belgian  sheet  speci- 
mens a  gradual  change,  commencing  in  a  few 
weeks  in  summer,  from  brownish  yellow  to 
deeper  yellow,  yellowish  pink,  pink,  dark  pink, 
purple,  and  deep  purple."  The  following  state- 
ment shows  the  changes  produced  in  nine  differ- 
ent kinds  of  window  glass  by  one  year's  ex- 
posure to  the  sun's  rays : 


KIND  OF  GLASS. 

Color  before  exposure. 

Color  after  exposure. 

French  white  plate  .  .  . 
German  crystal  plate  . 
English  plate 

Bluish  white. 
Light  green. 

Yellowish. 
Bluish  tinge. 
Yellowish  green. 

U               It 

Light  purple. 

Belgian  sheet         .... 

Brownish  yellow. 

Deep  purple. 

English  sheet  
American  crystal  sheet 

"     ordinary  sheet. 

Dark  green. 
Light  bluish  white. 
Lighter  "        " 

Bluish  green. 

Brownish  green. 
Purplish  white. 
Light   yellowish 
green. 
No  change. 

The  colors  named  above  are  given  from  an  ob- 
servation of  the  glass  edgewise,  when  a  body 
of  color  several  inches'  in  depth  is  seen,  where- 
as the  usual  thickness  of  the  glass  varies  from 
one  fourteenth  to  one  quarter  of  an  inch,  and 
shows  its  color  easily  only  when  a  white  curtain 
or  paper  is  placed  behind  it.  The  partial  or  en- 
tire disuse  of  oxide  of  manganese  in  many  win- 
dow-glass manufactories  of  late  years,  while  it 
has  produced  an  article  not  so  light  in  color,  has 
made  one  more  permanent,  which  the  action  of 
sunlight  changes  but  little,  if  any,  in  color  or 
shade.  Mr.  Gaffield's  experiments  were  also 
extended  to  showing  the  comparative  power  of 
the  different  kinds  of  glass  to  transmit  the  ac- 
tinic rays  of  the  sun.  Of  colored  glasses,  blue 
was  found  to  transmit  the  most  and  red  and 
orange  the  least. — The  crude  materials  employ- 
ed in  the  manufacture  of  glass  are  Selected  with 
more  or  less  care,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  articles  to  be  produced.  The  three  princi- 
pal elements  of  which  crown  and  sheet  glass 
are  composed  are  silica,  soda,  and  lime.  Of 
these  by  far  the  largest  element  is  silica,  which 
is  now  universally  supplied  in  the  form  of 
sand.  English  crown  and  sheet  glass  generally 
contains  about  73  per  cent,  of  silica,  and  13 
each  of  soda  and  lime.  On  the  continent  less 
sulphate  is  used  than  in  England  ;  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  foreign  sheet  glass  may  be  stated 
at  74  per  cent,  of  silica,  11  of  soda,  and  14  of 
lime.  In  both  cases  the  remainder  consists  of 
alumina  and  oxide  of  iron.  To  the  above  in- 
gredients it  is  generally  the  custom  to  add  a 
small  quantity  of  arsenic  to  assist  in  oxidizing 
any  carbonaceous  impurities  and  to  promote 
the  decomposition  of  the  other  materials,  and 
of  peroxide  of  manganese  to  peroxidize  and 
thus  reduce  the  coloring  property  of  the  oxide 
of  iron  present.  Silica  is  obtained  in  the  form 
of  quartz  sand  from  sea  beaches  and  from  the 
disintegration  of  quartzose  rocks  in  the  inte- 
rior. It  was  in  England  once  procured  from 


flints  calcined  and  ground  to  powder,  whence 
the  name  flint  glass.  The  purest  and  best  sand 
in  the  world  for  manufacturing  glass  is  from 
Lanesborough,  Mass.,  and  other  portions  of 
Berkshire  county.  Some  of  it  is  exported  to 
Europe,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "  Berkshire 
white  sand,"  and  there  used  in  making  the 
best  qualities  of  glass.  The  grains  are  remark- 
able for  their  purity ;  in  the  mass  they  appear 
white,  but  under  the  microscope  each  grain  is 
limpid  like  a  clear  quartz  crystal.  Other  quali- 
ties are  procured  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Next  to  the  American  sand  in  quality  is  that 
obtained  from  Fontainebleau  in  France,  and 
much  used  by  the  French  manufacturers.  It 
is  almost  entirely  free  from  iron,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  white  glass. 
The  sand  used  by  the  extensive  establishment 
of  Chance  and  co.,  near  Birmingham,  England, 
is  from  Leighton  Buzzard,  Bedfordshire.  Lime 
may  be  used  either  in  the  state  of  quicklime  or 
in  limestone  of  the  purest  qualities.  Common 
wood  ashes  have  been  used  to  furnish  potash, 
and  ashes  of  sea  plants  to  furnish  soda;  but 
these  have  been  replaced  by  the  crude  alkalies 
obtained  from  them  and  other  sources,  and  for 
some  purposes  refined  pearlash  is  employed. 
The  carbonate  of  soda  is  also  extensively  pre- 
pared from  common  salt ;  and  at  Newcastle,  Eng- 
land, black  bottles  are  made  from  rock  salt  and 
sand  from  the  bed  of  the  river,  with  carbonate 
of  lime  of  the  soap  works  and  the  tank  waste 
of  the  alkali  makers.  Sulphate  of  soda,  the 
waste  product  of  many  chemical  works,  is  suc- 
cessfully used,  except  for  plate  glass.  Although 
glass  can  be  produced  from  sand  and  alkali 
without  any  other  addition,  lime  is  a  very  im- 
portant element,  as  giving  to  it  hardness  and 
insolubility.  In  flint  glass  this  ingredient  is 
replaced  by  lead,  which  gives  greater  brilliancy 
to  the  glass  than  lime,  but,  in  consequence  of 
the  difference  between  its  specific  gravity  and 
that  of  the  other  materials,  is  the  cause  of  in- 
numerable stria?.  Saltpetre  and  binoxide  of 
manganese  and  arsenic  also  are  often  intro- 
duced into  the  mixtures  with  the  view  of  pro- 
moting the  same  object.  Alumina  and  oxide 
of  iron  are  commonly  not  intentionally  used ; 
'they  come  from  the  impurities  of  the  other 
materials.  Waste  glass,  called  cullet,  forms  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  raw  materials  in 
some  works;  it  promotes  the  fusion  and  the 
chemical  union  of  the  silica  and  bases  mixed 
with  it,  but  must  be  well  sorted,  so  that  no 
qualities  be  introduced  inferior  to  that  intended 
to  be  made. — In  melting  glass,  the  raw  mate- 
rials, thoroughly  ground,  mixed  together,  and 
sifted,  are  well  incorporated  with  from  one  quar- 
ter to  one  third  of  their  weight  of  broken  glass 
before  being  introduced  into  the  melting  pots. 
These  are  already  heated  to  a  white  heat  in 
the  furnace,  and  receive  only  two  thirds  of  a 
charge  at  a  time,  more  being  added  as  the  first 
portion  melts  down.  The  pot  being  at  last 
filled  with  the  melted  "metal,"  the  heat  is 
raised  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  progress 


GLASS 


of  the  operation  is  judged  of  by  the  workmen 
dipping  iron  rods  from  time  to  time  into  the 
mixture  and  examining  the  appearance  of  the 
drops  withdrawn.  A  nearly  homogeneous  pro- 
duct, which  becomes  transparent  on  cooling, 
indicates  that  the  most  refractory  ingredients 
have  been  all  dissolved.  Their  mixture  has 
been  facilitated  by  the  continual  disengage- 
ment of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  in  its  escape 
caused  the  whole  to  be  thrown  into  ebullition. 
Some  of  the  gas  remains  in  the  mass,  render- 
ing it  spongy  and  full  of  vesicles.  Unless  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  finer  qualities  of  glass, 
for  which  the  purest  materials  are  employed, 
there  is  also  a  scum,  called  glass  gall  or  san- 
diver,  floating  upon  the  surface,  consisting  of 
the  insoluble  matters,  and  the  sulphates  of 
soda  and  lime  not  taken  up  by  the  mixture. 
This  is  removed  by  ladling,  and  the  "metal" 
is  next  fined,  which  is  done  by  increasing  the 
heat  to  the  highest  degree,  and  keeping  the 
contents  of  the  pots  in  a  state  of  perfect  fluidity 
from  10  to  30  hours ;  in  this  time  the  bubbles 
disappear  and  the  insoluble  matters  settle  to 
the  bottom.  The  furnace  is  then  allowed  to 
cool  until  the  metal  has  become  viscid,  so  that 
it  may  be  taken  out  and  worked;  and  it  is 
afterward  kept  at  sufficiently  high  temperature 
to  maintain  the  glass  in  this  condition,  that  it 
may  be  used  as  required.  The  arrangements 
of  the  great  circular  glass  furnaces,  with  their 
central  fire  surrounded  with  eight  to  twelve 
pots,  each  reached  by  its  own  arch  under  the 
general  dome,  admit  of  enough  material  being 
melted  at  once  to  employ  all  hands  the  first 
four  working  days  of  the  week,  the  men  work- 
ing day  and  night  in  six-hour  shifts.  The  ma- 
terials of  the  furnaces  and  pots,  in  order  that 
they  may  withstand  the  excessive  heat  and  the 
action  of  the  various  melted  ingredients,  must 
be  carefully  selected  from  the  most  refractory 
substances,  and  the  work  must  be  most  skil- 
fully executed.  The  construction  of  the  great 
melting  pots  is  an  object  of  special  solicitude, 
and  the  placing  of  a  new  one  in  the  furnace 
while  this  is  in  operation  is  a  task  of  no  little 
apparent  difficulty  and  danger.  In  England 


Fw.  8.— Melting  Pots. 

they  are  made  of  the  best  Stourbridge  fire  clay, 
mixed  with  about  one  fifth  part  of  ground  pot- 
sherds. The  work  is  done  entirely  by  hand,  no 
machinery  having  yet  been  invented  for  that 
purpose.  An  average-sized  pot  is  about  4  ft. 
high,  4  ft.  in  diameter  at  top,  and  somewhat 


smaller  at  the  bottom,  and  will  contain  about 
25  cwt.  of  melted  glass.  The  average  duration 
of  a  pot  in  the  furnace  is  about  eight  weeks. 
In  the  case  of  window  and  ordinary  bottle 
glass,  the  pot  is  a  plain  round  vessel  open  at 
the  top ;  but  in  melting  flint  glass,  it  being 
necessary  to  protect  the  metal  from  all  external 
impurities,  the  top  of  the  pot  is  made  in  the 
form  of  an  arch  or  hood,  with  a  small  opening 
on  one  side  near  the  top,  which  corresponds 
with  the  nose  hole  of  the  furnace,  and  from 
which  the  workman  withdraws  the  melted 
glass.  Ordinarily  two  kinds  of  furnaces  are 
used  in  addition  to  the  annealing  oven,  one 
for  melting  the  glass,  and  the  other  for  reheat- 
ing it  at  different  stages  during  the  process  of 
manufacture.  One  of  the  most  important  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  glass  has 
been  the  adoption  of  the  Siemens  regenerating 
gas  furnace.  (See  FURNACE.)  The  novelty  of 
this  system  consists  in  taking  up  the  waste  heat 
from  the  furnace  in  large  chambers,  and  using 
it  for  raising  to  a  higher  temperature  the  ele- 
ments of  combustion.  The  whole  of  the  fuel, 
except  the  inorganic  portions,  is  converted  into 
gas,  not  in  the  furnace  itself,  but  in  adjacent 
"  producers."  The  gas  and  air  passing  through 
separate  chambers,  and  having  each  been  heated 
to  a  high  degree  in  the  waste-heat  chambers, 
meet  on  entering  the  furnace,  and  there  ignite, 
producing  a  heat  of  wonderful  intensity.  The 
advantages  of  this  system  are  a  greater  inten- 
sity of  heat  produced  from  less  fuel,  and,  what 
is  very  important  in  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
a  degree  of  cleanliness  which  cannot  be  at- 
tained by  the  older  methods  of  melting.  .The 
intensity  of  the  heat  produced  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  in  a  sheet-glass  furnace  contain- 
ing 1,800  cubic  feet,  materials  for  about  16 
tons  of  glass  in  eight  large  pots  are  melted 
and  refined  into  a  liquid  mass  in  25  hours. — 
Such  is  a  mere  outline  of  the  means  employed 
to  bring  the  materials  of  glass  into  their  desired 
combination.  The  production  of  each  kind  of 
glass  is  a  separate  branch  of  manufacture,  in- 
volving many  curious  details  and  processes,  too 
numerous  even  to  be  named  in  this  account. 
The  tools  employed  are  few  and  simple,  and 
differ  but  little  from  those  described  in  the 
work  of  Blancourt  "  On  the  Art  of  Glass," 
published  in  London  in  1699.  The  first  in  im- 
portance is  the  pipe  or  blowing  tube,  made  of 
wrought  iron,  4  or  5  ft.  long,  with  a  bore  from 
^  to  1  in.  in  diameter,  a  little  larger  at  the 
mouth  end  than  at  the  other.  It  is  a  long  hand, 
partly  covered  with  wood,  with  which,  the  end 
being  heated  red  hot,  the  workman  reaches 
into  the  pot  of  melted  matter  and  gathers  up 
the  quantity  he  requires,  and  which  afterward 
holds-  the  article  in  the  manipulations  to  which 
he  subjects  it;  and  it  is  at  the  same  time  the 
air  tube  through  which  the  breath  is  forced  to 
expand  the  vessel,  or  through  which  water  is 
sometimes  blown  to  produce  the  same  effect  by 
the  steam  it  generates.  A  solid  rod  of  iron, 
called  a  punty  or  pontil,  serves  to  receive  the 


GLASS 


15 


article  upon  its  end  when  freed  from  the  pipe, 
adhesion  being  secured  by  the  softness  of  the 
glass  or  by  a  little  red-hot  lump  already  attach- 
ed to  the  punty.  Spring  tongs,  like  sugar  tongs, 
are  used  to  take  up  bits  of  melted  glass ;  and  a 
heavier  pair,  called  pucellas,  furnished  with 


FIG.  9.— Tools  used  in  Glassmaking. 

1.  Pipe  or  blowing  tube.    2.  Pucellas.    8.  Shears.    4.  Pucel- 
las  with  wooden  blades.    5.  Spring  tongs.    6.  Battledore. 

broa'd  but  blunt  blades,  serve  to  give  shape  to 
the  articles  as  the  instrument  in  the  right  hand 
of  the  workman  is  pressed  upon  their  surface, 
while,  seated  upon  his  bench,  he  causes  with  his 
left  hand  the  rod  holding  the  article  to  roll  up 
and  down  the  two  long  iron  arms  of  his  seat, 
upon  which  it  is  laid  horizontally  before  him. 
At  the  same  time  the  vessel  is  also  shaped 
from  the  interior  as  well,  and  is  occasionally 
applied  to  the  opening  of  the  furnace  to  soften 
it  entirely  or  only  in  some  part  to  which  great- 
er distention  is  given  by  blowing.  The  pu- 
cellas are  sometimes  provided  with  blades  of 
wood,  as  at  4,  fig.  9.  Another  important  in- 
strument is  a  pair  of  shears,  with  which  a  skil- 
ful workman  will  cut  off  with  one  clip  the  top 
of  a  wine  glass,  as  he  twirls  it  round  with  the 


FIG.  10— Glass  Maker's  Chair. 

rod  to  which  it  is  attached  held  in  the  left 
hand.  The  edge  softened  in  the  fire  is  then 
smoothed  and  polished.  Besides  these  a  wood- 
en utensil  called  a  battledore  is  employed, 
with  which  the  glass  is  flattened  by  beating 
when  necessary;  compasses  and  calipers  and  a 
362  VOL.  viii.— 2 


measure  stick  are  at  hand  for  measuring ;  and 
a  slender  rod  of  iron  forked  at  one  end  is  used 
to  take  up  the  articles,  and  carry  them  when 
shaped  to  the  annealing  oven,  in  which  they 
are  left  for  some  time  to  be  tempered.  (See 
ANNEALING.)  The  marver  (Fr.  marbre,  marble) 
is  a  smooth  polished  cast-iron  slab,  upon  the 
surface  of  which  the  workman  rolls  the  glass 
at  the  end  of  his  tube  in  order  to  give  it  a 
perfectly  circular  form.  Those  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  common  black  bottles  are  fur- 
nished on  one  edge  with  several  concavities,  in 
which  the  mass  of  metal  taken  from  the  melt- 
ing pot  is  first  roughly  shaped  as  it  is  rolled  over 
and  over  and  made  to  swell  by  gentle  blow- 
ing. One  of  the  most  ordinary  forms  into  which 
glass  is  manufactured  is  that  of  bottles,  which 
are  made  in  moulds  by  the  process  of  blowing, 
the  kind  of  glass  generally  used  being  the  or- 
dinary green  or  window  glass,  and  flint  glass. 
The  method  of  making  bottles  is  described  and 
illustrated  in  the  article  BOTTLE.  Bottles  for 
champagne  and  aerated  waters  are  made  of  ex- 
traordinary strength,  and  are  sometimes  tested 
by  the  pressure  of  water  before  being  used. — 
Of  the  various  kinds  of  glass  in  common  use, 
none  require  more  care  to  insure  the  purity  of 
the  materials  employed  than  the  crystal  or  flint 
j  glass,  of  which  are  made  many  choice  articles 
'  for  domestic  purposes,  some  of  which  are  sub- 
jected to  the  processes  of  cutting  or  grinding 
and  polishing.  It  possesses  the  properties  of 
great  transparency  and  high  refractive  power, 
which  fit  it  for  lenses  for  ^optical  instruments. 
Flints  calcined  and  ground  were  formerly  used 
to  furnish  the  silica,  but  pure  sand  is  now  gen- 
erally used  in  its  stead.  Oxide  of  lead  enters 
largely  into  its  composition,  and  to  this  are  due 
its  brilliancy,  density,  and  comparative  softness. 
The  oxide  should  be  especially  prepared  to  in- 
sure its  purity.  Oxide  of  zinc  has  been  found 
to  produce  similar  effects.  The  fusion  must  be 
rapid  and  at  intense  heat,  and  this  must  be  re- 
duced as  soon  as  the  metal  is  thoroughly  melt- 
ed and  refined  by  the  escape  of  the  bubbles  of 
gas,  or  the  product  acts  upon  the  alumina  and 
iron  of  the  pot,  and  is  thus  so  contaminated  as 
to  be  worthless.  The  furnace  is  usually  circu- 
lar in  form,  and  contains  from  four  to  ten  pots, 
in  front  of  each  of  which  there  is  an  opening 
for  the  workman.  In  the  manufacture  of  arti- 
cles of  domestic  use  made  of  flint  glass  two 
processes  are  in  use,  blowing  and  pressing,  the 
latter  being  very  common  in  the  United  States. 
By  the  former  method  a  mould  is  sometimes 
used,  as  in  the  case  of  bottles,  when  the  opera- 
tions are  similar  to  those  described  in  working 
ordinary  green  glass ;  or  the  article  may  receive 
its  symmetrical  form  from  the  skill  of  the  work- 
man unaided  by  any  mould.  This  process  may 
be  illustrated  by  describing  how  a  wine  glas? 
in  three  parts  is  made.  The  workman,  having 
gathered  on  the  end  of  a  blowpipe  the  requisite 
amount  of  glass  (1,  fig.  11),  rolls  it  on  the  marver 
and  expands  it  by  blowing  into  the  tube  until 
it  assumes  the  form  shown  at  2,  and  after- 


16 


GLASS 


ward,  being  flattened  at  the  end  with  the 
battledore,  that  at  3.  A  lump  of  glass  is 
now  attached  to  the  flat  end  of  the  bowl  (4), 
which  the  workman  with  the  pucellas,  while 
rotating  the  pipe  on  the  long  arms  of  the  chair 
in  which  he  sits,  transforms  into  the  shape 
shown  at  5.  A  globe  is  now  attached  to 
the  end  of  this  stem  (6),  which  is  afterward 
opened  and  flattened  into  the  form  represented 
at  7.  A  punty  tipped  with  a  small  knob  of 
hot  glass  is  next  stuck  to  the  foot  of  the  wine 
glass,  which  is  severed  from  the  blowpipe  at 
the  dotted  line  shown  at  8!  The  top  of  the 
glass  is  then  trimmed  with  shears  (9),  after 
which  it  is  flashed  and  finished  as  at  10.  It 
is  now  severed  from  the  end  of  the  punty  by  a 
sharp  blow  and  carried  by  a  boy  to  the  anneal- 
ing oven  on  the  end  of  a  forked  rod.  In  the 
manufacture  of  articles  by  the  method  of  press- 
ing, a  hollow  mould  is  used  made  of  steel  or 
iron,  with  its  interior  surface  so  designed  as  to 
give  the  object  the  required  shape  and  figura- 
tion. This  mould  may  be  in  one  piece  or  consist 


Fio.  11.— Process  of  Making  a  Wine  Glass. 

of  several  parts,  which  are  opened  when  the 
moulded  glass  is  taken  put.  The  process  will 
be  illustrated  by  describing  the  production  of  a 
tumbler.  A  lump  of  glass  is  gathered  from  the 
pot  on  the  end  of  a  punty  by  the  "  gatherer," 
and  being  held  over  the  open  mould,  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  is  cut  off  with  a  pair  of  scissors  by 
another  workman  and  drops  into  the  mould. 
This  is  now  pushed  under  a  hand  press,  and  a 
smooth  iron  plunger  is  brought  down  into  the 
mould  with  such  force  that  the  hot  glass  is 
made  to  fill  the  entire  space  between  the  inside 
of  the  mould  and  the  plunger,  whose  size  and 
shape  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  interior 
of  the  tumbler.  The  plunger  being  raised  up, 
the  mould  is  taken  from  the  press  and  turned 
over,  when  the  tumbler  is  made  to  drop  out 
bottom  side  up.  A  punty  with  a  piece  of  hot 
glass  at  one  end  is  now  attached  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tumbler,  which  is  heated  at  an- 
other furnace  and  smoothed  by  being  skilfully 


rubbed  with  a  wooden  tool  while  rotated  on 
the  arms  of  the  workman's  chair ;  after  which 
it  is  taken  on  a  fork  to  the  annealing  oven. 
By  this  process  articles  can  be  produced  with 
a  rapidity  not  attainable  in  the  case  of  blown 
glass,  and  therefore  with  less  cost;  but  the 


FIG.  12. — Hand  Press. 

latter  is  generally  preferred. — The  glass  com- 
monly used  for  window  panes  is  one  of  the 
hardest  varieties,  and  of  unsuitable  quality  for 
shaping  into  vessels  or  manufacturing  by  cut- 
ting or  grinding.  Besides  plate  glass,  which 
is  also  used  for  windows  of  a  more  expensive 
character,  there  are  two  kinds  of  window 
glass,  known  as  crown  and  sheet  from  the 
different  processes  of  manufacture ;  the  former 
being  first  blown  into  a  globe  or  sphere  and 
flattened  out  into  a  circular  disk,  while  the 
latter  is  formed  into  a  cylinder  which  is  af- 
terward opened  out  into  a  sheet.  In  making 
crown  glass,  the  workman  gathers  from  the 
pot  on  the  end  of  a  blowpipe  the  requisite 
amount  of  molten  glass,  which  is  usually  about 
9  Ibs.  The  pipe  being  cooled  to  admit  of 
handling,  the  lump  is  rolled  upon  the  marver 
to  give  it  a  conical  form,  and  a  boy  blowing 
at  the  same  time  through  the  tube  causes 
the  glass  to  swell.  It  is  now  heated  by  hold- 
ing it  in  the  furnace,  and  is  then  again  rolled 
and  enlarged  by  blowing.  The  most  of  the 
glass  is  worked  down  to  the  end  of  the  con- 
ical or  pear-shaped  lump,  the  upper  part  being 
hollow.  The  solid  end  is  called  the  bullion. 
This  being  softened  in  the  furnace,  the  tube  is 
laid  across  a  rest  and  twirled  around,  while  the 
glass  is  blown  into  a  globe.  During  the  ex- 
pansion it  is  important  to  keep  the  bullion 
point  in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  pipe.  This 
is  done  by  a  boy  holding  against  the  bullion 
point  a  piece  of  iron  terminating  in  a  small 
cup,  while  the  workman  constantly  twirls  and 
blows  through  the  pipe  resting  upon  an  iron 
support.  The  globe  at  the  end  of  the  tube  is 
now  pointed  toward  the  flame  of  the  furnace, 
and  being  constantly  twirled,  the  end  toward 
the  fire  flattens  out,  the  bullion  point  still  form- 
ing a  prominence  of  thicker  metal  in  the 


GLASS 


17 


centre.  To  this  centre  a  punty  with  a  lump 
of  molten  glass  at  its  end  is  next  attached,  and 
the  blowing  pipe  is  separated  by  applying  a 
piece  of  cold  iron  around  the  nose.  As  it 
breaks  away  it  takes  a  portion  of  glass  with  it, 
leaving  a  circular  opening.  Taken  up  by  the 
punty,  the  glass  is  held  with  the  nose  (or  por- 
tion to  which  the  blowing  pipe  had  been  at- 
tached) presented  to  the  nose  hole  of  the  fur- 
nace. Here  it  is  softened  almost  to  melting, 
while  it  is  all  the  time  twirled  around ;  it  is 
then  presented  to  the  flame  issuing  from  the 
great  circular  opening  of  the  flashing  furnace, 
the  man  holding  it  being  protected  from  the 
fire  by  a  covering  over  his  head  and  face. 
Rapidly  revolving  in  this  flame,  the  opening  in 
the  end  grows  larger ;  the  heated  air  within 
prevents  the  two  opposite  faces  of  the  flattened 
spheroid  from  coming  together,  and  the  cen- 
trifugal force  is  constantly  enlarging  its  diame- 
ter. The  opening  rapidly  increases,  until  the 
glass  becomes  a  flat  circular  disk,  which  being 
removed  from  the  fire  is  kept  rapidly  revolving 
until  it  is  cool  enough  to  retain  its  form.  The 
punty  is  then  cracked  off,  and  the  disk  or  table 
is  removed  upon  a  fork  to  the  annealing  oven 
and  set  upon  edge  with  the  rest,  arranged  in 
rows  and  supported  by  iron  rods  so  as  not 
to  press  against  each  other,  and  the  thicker 
part  in  the  centre,  called  the  bullion  point  or 
bull's-eye,  also  keeping  the  tables  apart  and 
open  for  the  circulation  of  air.  The  anneal- 
ing is  completed  in  from  24  to  48  hours.  Ta- 
bles are  thus  commonly  made  of  54  inches 
diameter,  and  some  have  been  produced  of 
70  inches ;  but  the  difficulty  of  manipulation 
and  the  uncertainty  of  the  result  render  the 
making  of  very  large  sizes  unprofitable.  A 
pot  containing  half  a  ton  commonly  produces 
100  tables ;  and  in  the  crown  glass  houses  it  is 
customary  to  empty  eight  such  pots  in  three 
days  every  week.  From  the  annealing  kiln 
the  tables  are  taken  to  the  warehouse  and  sort- 
ed according  to  their  different  qualities  and 
defects.  Each  one  is  then  laid  in  turn  upon 
a  • "  nest "  or  cushion,  and  is  divided  by  the  dia- 
mond into  two  pieces,  the  larger  one  contain- 
ing the  bull's-eye.  These  are  next  cut  up  into 
rectangular  panes.  The  shape  and  the  bull's- 
eye  involve  considerable  waste  in  cutting;  and 
numerous  other  defects  are  found  in  many  of 
the  sheets.  These,  however,  are  compensated 
for  by  the  remarkable  brilliancy  of  surface  pe- 
culiar to  glass  made  in  this  way,  which  is  at- 
tributed by  some  to  the  influence  of  the  mar- 
ver,  and  by  others  to  the  effect  produced  by 
flashing  the  surface.  Crown  glass  is  also  free 
from  the  undulations,  or  cockles,  which  often 
disfigure  the  surface  of  glass  made  by  the  cy- 
lindrical process. — In  the  manufacture  of  sheet 
glass  two  furnaces  are  generally  used,  one  for 
melting  or  making  the  glass,  and  the  other  for 
reheating  it  during  the  process  of  blowing.  The 
latter  is  usually  of  an  oblong  form,  with  four,  five, 
or  six  holes  on  each  side  for  as  many  workmen. 
On  each  side  of  this  furnace  is  a  pit  about  7  ft. 


deep,  16ft.  wide,  and  as  long  as  the  furnace; 
over  this  at  intervals  of  about  2  ft.  are  erected 
in  front  of  each  hole  of  the  furnace  wooden 
stagings  or  platforms,  upon  which  the  workman 
stands  when  swinging  the  cylinder  to  and  fro  and 
over  his  head.  The  manufacture  of  this  kind 
of  glass  may  be  divided  into  three  processes : 
1,  blowing  the  cylinder ;  2,  flattening  it  out 
into  a  sheet ;  3,  polishing  the  sheet.  The  first 
step  is  to  gather  from  the  pot  a  lump  of  melted 
glass  of  the  required  weight,  which  experience 
enables  the  workman  to  do  with  great  accuracy. 
Dipping  the  end  of  a  blowpipe  into  the  melted 
metal  and  twirling  it  round,  he  gathers  a  pear- 
shaped  lump  of  2  or  3  Ibs.  After  thia  has 
cooled  to  a  dull  red,  it  is  again  dipped  into  the 
glass  in  the  pot,  and  a  larger  amount  withdrawn. 
Thus  by  degrees  a  sufficient  quantity  is  collect- 
ed, usually  about  20  Ibs.,  to  produce  a  sheet  of 
glass  of  the  required  size.  When  this  mass  has 
become  somewhat  cooled,  the  workman  places 
it  in  a  block  of  wood  so  hollowed  as  to  allow 
the  lump  of  glass  when  placed  upon  it  to  be 


FIG.  13.— Blowing  Cylinder  Glass. 

blown  to  the  required  diameter  of  the  cylinder. 
Here,  while  a  stream  of  cold  water  is  turned 
upon  the  block  to  prevent  the  wood  from  being 
burnt  and  the  glass  from  being  scratched,  the 
workman  revolves  the  pipe,  and  blows  through 
it,  occasionally  raising  it  to  an  angle  of  about 
75°,  until  he  has  formed  a  hollow  pear-shaped 
mass,  with  its  largest  diameter,  which  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  finished  cylinder,  next  to 
the  pipe.  It  is  now  taken  to  the  blowing  fur- 
nace, where  after  being  heated  it  is  swung  to 
and  fro  in  the  pit  and  round  in  a  vertical  plane 
over  the  head  of  the  workman,  who  stands 
upon  the  platform  above  mentioned  and  keeps 
the  lengthening  cylinder  full  of  air  by  occa- 
sionally blowing  through  the  tube.  Uniformity 
of  thickness  and  of  diameter,  which  was  de- 
termined by  the  wooden  block,  is  secured  by 
the  skill  of  the  workman,  who  when  the  metal 
runs  out  too  freely  holds  the  cylinder  vertically 


18 


GLASS 


above  his  head,  still  keeping  it  well  filled  with 
air.  This  operation  is  skilfully  continued  until 
a  cylinder  is  produced  about  11  in.  in  diameter 
and  about  50  in.  long,  closed  at  one  end  and 
attached  to  the  blowpipe  at  the  other.  The 
next  step  is  to  open  the  end  of  the  cylinder, 
which  the  workman  does  by  filling  it  with  air 
and,  after  closing  the  aperture  of  the  pipe  with 
his  thumb,  exposing  the  end  to  the  heat  of  the 
furnace.  The  heat  expands  the  air  in  the  cyl- 
inder, which  bursts  open  at  the  end  where  the 
glass  is  the  softest.  The  aperture  thus  made 
is  widened  to  the  required  diameter  by  rapid- 
ly revolving  the  cylinder  at  the  furnace  hole, 
the  pipe  resting  on  an  iron  support,  and  subse- 
quently holding  it  in  a  vertical  position  with  the 
open  end  downward  until  the  glass  is  cooled 
sufficiently  to  retain  its  shape.  The  cylinder 
is  now  laid  upon  a  wooden  rest,  or  trestle,  and 
detached  from  the  pipe  by  touching  with  a 
piece  of  cold  iron  the  pear-shaped  neck  near 
the  nose  of  the  pipe,  and  gently  striking  the 
pipe ;  an  opening  about  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter is  thus  formed.  This  end,  the  cap  of  the 


FIG.  14.- The  Cylinder  in  Different  Stages  of  Manufacture. 

cylinder,  is  now  taken  off  by  winding  around 
it  a  thread  of  hot  glass,  and  after  removing  it 
applying  a  piece  of  cold  iron  to  any  point  which 
the  thread  covered.  After  trimming  the  other 
end  by  cutting  off  about  two  inches  in  length 
with  a  diamond,  the  cylinder  is  split  open  longi- 
tudinally by  drawing  along  its  inside  surface  a 
diamond  attached  to  a  long  handle  and  guided 
by  a  wooden  rule.  Formerly  this  splitting  was 
done  with  a  red-hot  iron,  which  is  still  some- 
times used.  The  cylinder  is  now  taken  to  the 
flattening  oven,  where  it  is  placed,  with  the 
slit  uppermost,  upon  the  flattening  stone,  from 
the  irregularities  of  whose  surface  it  is  protect- 
ed by  a  sheet  of  glass.  The  cylinder  soon  be- 
comes heated  and  opens  out  into  a  wavy  sheet, 
the  movement  being  accelerated  by  the  iron 
rod  of  the  workman.  The  surface  of  the  sheet 
is  next  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  .wood  attached 
to  the  end  of  an  iron  rod  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving the  irregularities  of  the  surface.  The 
flattening  stone  is  now  moved  on  wheels  to  the 
adjoining  annealing  oven,  where  the  sheets  are 


placed  for  annealing,  which  usually  requires 
from  24  to  36  hours.  From  the  annealing 
oven  the  sheets  are  taken  to  the  warehouse, 
where  they  are  smoothed,  polished,  assorted, 
and  cut  into  panes  of  the  required  dimensions. 
The  former  method  of  grinding  and  polishing 
sheet  glass  by  imbedding  the  sheets  in  plaster 
of  Paris  proved  inadequate  to  remove  the  de- 
fects in  the  glass  consequent  upon  the  mode 
of  manufacture.  The  chief  of  these  was  the 
undulating  or  wavy  appearance  of  the  surface, 
called  cockles,  which  was  attributed  to  the  dif- 
ference of  diameter  between  the  inner  and  out- 
er surfaces  of  the  cylinder,  and  which  caused 
objects  seen  through  the  glass  to  be  distorted. 
Notwithstanding  the  glass  was  made  very  thick 
after  the  superficial  roughness  was  removed, 
the  result  was  a  thin  sheet  much  inferior  to 
plate  glass.  The  ingenious  process  devised  by 
Mr.  James  Chance  for  producing  patent  plate 
glass,  which  is  now  used  in  England  and  most 
factories  on  the  continent,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  improvements  in  the  manufacture. 
By  removing  the  thin  outer  surface  of  the  glass 
by  this  method,  an  evenness  and  a  polish  are 
secured,  even  on  the  thinnest  sheet,  which 
make  it  in  many  respects  equal  to  plate  glass, 
and  far  superior  to  the  sheet  glass  produced 
by  the  old  process.  The  improved  method 
consists  in  placing  the  sheet  to  be  ground  and 
polished  upon  a  flat  surface  covered  with  a 
piece  of  damp  soft  leather  or  cotton  cloth.  A 
slight  pressure  applied  to  the  glass  causes  it  to 
adhere  to  the  surface  of  cotton  or  leather,  and 
by  thus  producing  a  vacuum  the  entire  sheet 
is  firmly  maintained  in  a  flat  position  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  The  exposed  surfaces  of  two 
sheets  fixed  in  this  manner  are  rubbed  against 
each  other  in  a  horizontal  position  by  machine- 
ry, emery  and  water  being  constantly  supplied 
to  keep  up  the  friction.  Both  sides  of  the 
sheet  are  polished  in  this  manner,  with  only  a 
slight  diminution  of  the  thickness  of  the  glass. 
After  the  removal  of  the  sheets  from  these 
surfaces,  they  resume  by  their  own  elasticity 
their  original  shape,  which  is  often  more  or  less 
curved.  The  final  polish  is  given  to  the  sheets 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  used  in  polishing 
plate  glass.  In  each  process  through  which 
the  glass  has  passed,  it  was  exposed  to  some 
imperfection,  and  some  of  the  sheets  bear  the 
peculiar  defects  of  them  all  and  are  of  little 
value ;  others  are  suitable  for  inferior  uses,  and 
but  few  are  perfect.  The  wide  difference  be- 
tween the  quality  of  the  best  nnd  the  worst 
sheets  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  former 
are  valued  at  three  times  more  than  the  latter. 
The  same  kind  of  material  is  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  both  crown  and  sheet  glass.  The 
remarkable  brilliancy  of  surface  of  the  former 
gives  to  it  a  certain  advantage  over  sheet  glass; 
but  the  larger  size  easily  attained  in  making 
the  latter  gives  it  the  supremacy  in  commerce. 
Of  crown  glass  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  panes 
of  34  x  22  in.,  while  the  usual  size  of  the 
sheets  of  cylinder  glass  is  47x32  in.,  and 


GLASS 


19 


cylinders  are  occasionally  blown  77  in.  in 
length,  requiring  about  38  Ibs.  of  glass.  The 
largest  sizes  are  only  produced  by  the  most 
skilful  workmen.  The  relative  antiquity  of 
the  two  processes  of  making  crown  and  sheet 
glass  is  involved  in  no  little  obscurity.  ^  The 
cylindrical  process  is  the  only  one  mentioned 
by  Theophilus,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  12th  century,  and  this  method  was 
long  retained  by  the  Venetians  and  the  Bo- 
hemians, as  being  best  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  their  colored  glasses  on  account 
of  the  uniformity  of  thickness  and  of  color  se- 
cured. But  in  the  north  of  Germany,  France, 
and  England,  it  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  rotary 
principle  prevailed  exclusively.  Subsequently 
the  latter  was  abandoned  on  the  continent,  but 
held  its  supremacy  in  England,  where  crown 
glass  was  used  for  houses  of  the  better  class, 
while  the  use  of  sheet  glass  was  limited  to  infe- 
rior dwellings.  In  1832  the  improved  process 
of  making  cylinder  glass  was  introduced  into 
England  from  France,  and  subsequently  the 
improved  method  above  mentioned  of  polish- 
ing the  sheets  was  adopted.  The  cylindrical 
method  is  the  one  now  in  general  use  in  Eng- 
land, much  of  the  glass  being  known  in  com- 
merce as  patent  plate. — The  building  or  fac- 
tory for  the  manufacture  of  plate  glass  is  gen- 
erally of  very  large  size.  That  of  the  British 
plate-glass  works  at  Ravenhead,  where  it  is 
called  the  foundery,  is  339  ft.  long  by  155  wide; 
while  the  famous  halle  of  St.  Gobain  in  France 
is  174  by  120  ft.  In  the  centre  is  the  square 
melting  furnace,  with  openings  on  two  parallel 
sides  for  working  purposes,  while  along  two 
sides  of  the  great  building  are  arranged  anneal- 
ing ovens,  which  are  sometimes  30  by  20  ft.  in 
order  to  receive  the  immense  plates  that  are  to 
be  annealed.  Two  kinds  of  pots  are  used,  the 
ordinary  one,  open  at  the  top,  for  melting  the 
glass,  and  cisterns  or  cuvettes,  in  which  the 
molten  glass  is  carried  to  the  casting  table.  In 
France  the  cuvette  is  usually  of  a  quadrangular 
form,  with  a  groove  in  each  of  its  sides,  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  larger  cisterns,  in  two  paral- 
lel sides,  in  which  the  tongs  or  iron  frame  are 
fitted  when  the  cuvette  is  moved.  Between 
each  two  pots  in  the  furnace  are  placed,  ac- 
cording to  their  size,  one  or  more  cuvettes.  In 
some  establishments  the  cuvette  is  not  now 
used,  the  metal  being  poured  from  the  pot  in 
which  it  is  melted  on  to  the  casting  table.  In 
France  16  hours  are  allowed  for  the  melting, 
and  the  same  time  for  the  metal  to  remain  in 
the  cuvettes ;  but  the  latter  term  is  often  ex- 
tended in  order  that  the  aeriform  bubbles  may 
escape  and  the  excess  of  soda  become  vola- 
tilized. Toward  the  last  the  temperature  is 
allowed  to  fall,  and  the  glass  then  acquires  the 
slight  degree  of  viscidity  suitable  for  casting. 
The  molten  glass  is  transferred  from  the  pots 
into  the  adjacent  cuvettes  by  means  of  wrought- 
iron  ladles  with  long  handles.  When  the  glass 
is  in  the  proper  condition  to  be  cast,  the  "tongs 
carriage,"  consisting  of  two  powerful  bars  of 


iron  united  like  two  scissors  blades,  and  resting 
upon  two  wheels,  is  pushed  into  the  opening 
made  in  the  furnace,  and  the  cuvette  is  clamp- 
ed in  the  quadrant  formed  at  the  extremity  of 
the  tongs,  two  workmen  manipulating  the 
handles  at  the  other  extremity.  The  cistern 
thus  taken  from  the  furnace,  while  filled  with 
molten  glass,  is  placed  on  another  carriage  and 
quickly  conveyed  to  the  casting  table.  This 
consists  of  a  massive  slab,  usually  of  cast  iron, 
supported  by  a  frame,  and  generally  placed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  annealing  oven.  At  the 
Thames  works  in  England  the  casting  plate  is 
20  ft.  long,  11  ft.  broad,  and  7  in.  thick.  For- 
merly these  tables  were  of  bronze,  and  the 
great  slab  of  St.  Gobain  of  this  alloy  weighed 
50,000  Ibs. ;  but  cast  iron  was  found  less  liable 
to  crack,  and  is  now  generally  used  for  this 
purpose.  On  each  side  of  the  table  are  ribs  or 
bars  of  metal,  which  keep  the  glass  within  prop- 
er limits,  and  by  their  height  determine  the 
thickness  of  the  plate.  A  copper  or  bronze 
cylinder  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  resting  upon 
these  bars,  extends  across  the  table.  After 
being  heated  by  hot  coals  placed  upon  it, 


FIG.  15.— Casting  Table. 

the  table  is  carefully  cleaned  preparatory  to 
casting.  The  cistern  containing  the  melted 
glass  is  raised  from  the  carriage  on  which  it 
was  brought  from  the  furnace  by  means  of  a 
crane,  its  outside  carefully  cleaned,  and  the 
glass  skimmed  with  a  copper  sabre.  The  cu- 
vette is  now  swung  round  over  the  table,  over 
which  a  roller  covered  with  cloth  is  drawn  to 
remove  all  impurities,  and  the  molten  glass 
poured  out  in  front  of  the  cylinder,  which  be- 
ing rolled  from  one  extremity  of  the  table  to 
the  other  spreads  out  the  glass  in  a  sheet 
of  uniform  breadth  and  thickness.  The  ope- 
ration is  a  beautiful  one  from  the  brilliancy 
of  the  great  surface  of  melted  glass,  and  the 
variety  of  colors  exhibited  upon  it  after  the 
passage  of  the  roller.  While  the  plate  is  still 
red  hot  about  two  inches  of  its  end  is  turned  up 
like  a  flange,  against  which  an  iron  rake-like 
instrument  is  placed,  and  the  plate  is  thrust  for- 
ward into  the  annealing  oven,  the  temperature 
of  which  is  that  of  dull  redness.  Another  plate 
is  now  immediately  cast  upon  the  hot  table, 
and  the  annealing  oven  when  filled  is  closed 
and  left  for  about  five  days  to  cool.  The  pro- 
cess of  casting  is  done  so  systematically  and 
with  such  despatch  in  a  well  regulated  estab- 


20 


GLASS 


lishment,  that  the  glass  has  been  taken  from  the 
furnace,  cast,  and  put  into  the  annealing  oven 
in  less  than  five  minutes.  From  the  annealing 
oven  the  plates  are  taken  to  the  warehouse, 
where  they  are  carefully  examined  to  see  how 
they  may  be  cut  to  the  best  advantage.  In  dif- 
ferent manufactories  and  at  different  times  va- 
rious processes  have  been  in  use  for  grinding 
and  smoothing  the  surface  of  plate  glass,  but 
the  principle  has  been  the  same  in  all,  viz.: 
rubbing  the  surface  to  be  smoothed  with  an- 
other surface  either  of  glass  or  iron,  and  at  the 
same  time  applying  sand  or  emery  of  different 
degrees  of  fineness  and  water  between  the  two 
impinging  surfaces.  One  of  the  most  approved 
methods  of  grinding  and  smoothing  the  plates 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1856,  and 
adopted  in  the  British  plate-glass  works.  This 
apparatus  consists  of  a  revolving  table,  20  ft. 
in  diameter,  fixed  upon  a  strong  cast-iron  spin- 
dle, and  capable  of  running  at  an  average  speed 
of  25  revolutions  a  minute.  Above  the  table 
frames  are  arranged  to  hold  the  plates  of  glass, 
which  are  laid  in  a  bed  of  plaster  of  Paris,  with 
the  face  to  be  polished  resting  upon  the  table. 
These  frames  also  revolve  on  their  centres  by 
the  friction  of  the  table  upon  the  glass,  slowly, 
but  so  as  to  present  each  side  of  the  plates  they 
hold  to  an  equal  amount  of  rubbing  as  they 
are  moved  nearer  to  the  centre  of  the  table  or 
further  from  it.  Sand  and  water  are  applied  to 
facilitate  grinding  down  the  glass.  The  grind- 
ing by  this  process  is  found  to  be  even  and 
equal,  and  the  machinery  to  work  smoothly 
and  steadily  from  the  facility  with  which  the 
plates  accommodate  themselves  to  the  power 
applied.  After  grinding  they  are  smoothed 
with  emery  powder  of  finer  and  finer  quali- 
ties, and  are  thus  prepared  for  polishing.  By 
the  process  above  described  the  grinding  and 
smoothing  are  done  by  the  same  machine ;  but 
formerly  two  sets  of  apparatus  were  required 
for  this  purpose.  By  grinding  the  surface  of 
the  plate  is  made  true,  but  presents  a  rough 
appearance  which  is  removed  by  the  process 
of  smoothing,  At  this  stage  it  is  somewhat 
opaque,  and  this  defect  disappears  after  the 
final  process  of  polishing.  This  is  performed 
chiefly  by  machinery.  The  plate  of  glass  hav- 
ing been  fixed  upon  the  table  by  means  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  the  surface  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  a  series  of  wooden  blocks  covered 
with  felt  and  attached  to  a  frame  by  which 
they  are  made  to  move  over  the  surface  of  the 
glass.  At  the  same  time  a  polishing  powder, 
generally  red  oxide  of  iron,  is  applied,  while 
the  friction  may  be  increased  by  adding  weight 
to  the  rubbers.  Polishing  sometimes  brings 
out  defects  which  were  before  concealed ;  the 
plates  are  consequently  again  assorted,  and,  if 
need  be,  reduced  to  smaller  sizes.  (For  the 
methods  of  silvering  them,  see  MIRROR.)  Bend- 
ing the  large  plates  or  the  smaller  sheets  of 
glass  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  them  for  bow 
windows,  &c.,  is  an  especial  branch  of  the 
manufacture.  A  core  of  refractory  material 


and  suitable  shape  is  introduced  upon  the 
floor  of  the  furnace ;  and  upon  this  is  laid  the 
sheet  to  be  bent,  which  as  it  softens  by  gravity 
conforms  itself  to  the  shape  of  the  bed  upon 
which  it  is  laid.  The  value  of  plate  glass 
varies  greatly  with  the  size.  In  the  United 
States  the  price  of  a  plate  of  standard  British 
or  French  glass,  5x3  ft.,  is  about  $35 ;  but 
when  the  dimensions  are  double,  the  plate 
being  10x6  ft.,  the  price  is  increased  to  about 
$175.  A  plate  14  x  8  ft.  is  valued  at  about  $500. 
— No  glass  is  of  such  importance  in  the  arts 
as  that  of  which  the  lenses  of  optical  instru- 
ments are  made.  Both  flint  and  crown  glass 
are  applied  to  this  use,  but  each  of  them  has 
its  defects.  The  former,  from  the  great  differ- 
ence in  the  densities  of  its  ingredients,  is  with 
much  difficulty  obtained  of  homogeneous  struc- 
ture, an  essential  requisite  in  all  glass  used  for 
optical  purposes ;  and  the  latter  is  difficult  to 
procure  of  uniform  composition  and  texture, 
from  the  high  temperature  required  for  its  fu- 
sion and  the  consequent  tendency  to  devitrify 
in  cooling;  or  if  this  is  obviated  by  an  in- 
creased proportion  of  alkali  in  the  composition, 
the  excess  of  this  causes  attraction  of  moisture 
from  the  air  and  a  damp  surface  to  the  lens.  The 
best  flint  glass  is  subject  to  defects,  chief  among 
which  are  undulatory  appearances  called  striaa, 
resulting  from  a  want  of  uniform  density  in 
the  glass,  and  tending  to  refract  and  disperse 
in  different  directions  the  rays  of  light  passing 
through  it.  These  defects  are  of  great  impor- 
tance when  the  glass  is  to  be  used  for  optical 
purposes.  In  1753  John  Dollond,  an  English 
optician,  first  began  the  construction  of  achro- 
matic object  glasses,  formed  of  two  kinds  of 
glass  of  different  density,  in  accordance  with 
the  theory  announced  not  long  before  by  Euler. 
For  this  purpose  Dollond  used  fragments  of 
flint  and  of  crown  glass,  but  did  not  succeed 
in  making  object  glasses  with  a  larger  aperture 
than  2  or  3  in.  in  diameter ;  and  when  the 
need  of  telescopes  of  greater  magnifying  power 
was  strongly  felt,  it  was  difficult  to  produce 
flint  glass  sufficiently  free  from  striae  for  a  lens 
4  in.  in  diameter.  The  scientific  bodies  of 
France  and  England  offered  prizes  for  the  at- 
tainment of  this  result,  and  the  most  renowned 
glass  manufacturers  at  the  end  of  the  last  and 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  endeav- 
ored to  solve  the  problem.  This  was  done 
by  Guinand  of  Switzerland,  a  man  not  con- 
versant with  science,  nor  even  a  glass  man- 
ufacturer, but  an  optician.  By  methods  of  his 
own  he  made  the  furnaces,  crucibles,  and  mix- 
tures he  employed,  and  produced  the  glass, 
which  he  shaped  and  polished,  giving  without 
knowledge  of  mathematics  the  requisite  pro- 
portion to  the  curves  of  its  surface,  and  com- 
pleted lenses  of  flint  glass  of  great  perfection  of 
structure,  9  in.  in  diameter.  The  secret  of  his 
success  in  making  the  glass  is  believed  to  have 
consisted  in  keeping  the  mixture  agitated  by 
stirring  when  at  its  greatest  liquidity,  and  then 
j  suffering  it  to  cool  and  anneal  in  the  pot.  From 


GLASS 


21 


the  most  perfect  portions  of  the  comparatively 
homogeneous  mass  thus  obtained,  the  lenses 
were  cut  out  by  a  process  similar  to  that  of 
sawing  blocks  of  stone.  By  one  of  the  sons 
of  Guinand  the  secret  was  imparted  to  M. 
Bontemps;  and  in  1828  lenses  were  made  in 
France  of  12  to  14  in.  diameter.  In  1848  Bon- 
temps  went  to  England,  and  in  conjunction 
with  the  Messrs.  Chance  and  co.  made  disks  of 
flint  and  of  crown  glass  larger  than  any  be- 
fore produced.  At  the  exhibition  in  London 
in  1851,  a  disk  of  flint  glass  was  exhibited  by 
Messrs.  Chance  and  co.  29  in.  in  diameter  and 
weighing  2  cwt. ;  and  at  the  Paris  exposition 
in  1855  they  exhibited  one  of  the  same  diam- 
eter made  of  crown  glass.  One  of  these  was 
afterward  sold  to  the  French  government  for 
£1,000.  They  are  of  pure  color,  and  of  such 
homogeneous  structure  that  the  light  is  trans- 
mitted without  polarization.  Prof.  Faraday, 
one  of  a  committee  appointed  by  the  astro- 
nomical society  of  London  to  experiment  upon 
the  means  of  producing  optical  lenses,  while 
Guinand's  secret  method  of  making  these  6 
in.  in  diameter  was  exciting  the  admiration 
of  the  scientific  world,  discovered  the  heavy 
glass  called  by  his  name  (composed  of  protox- 
ide of  lead  104  Ibs.,  silicate  of  lead  24,  and  dry 
boracic  acid  25),  which  has  proved  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  investigations  connect- 
ed with  the  polarization  of  light ;  but  its  lia- 
bility to  change  unfits  it  for  general  optical  uses. 
Lenses  both  of  flint  and  of  crown  glass  are 
used  in  the  object  glasses  of  achromatic  tele- 
scopes, serving  by  their  combination  to  coun- 
teract the  unequal  tendency  of  each  to  dis- 
perse the  rays  of  light.  It  seems  to  be  con- 
ceded by  scientific  men  that  the  glass  best 
adapted  to  achromatism  would  be  a  flint  glass 
possessing  a  smaller  refractive  power  and  a 
larger  dispersive  index,  and  a  crown  glass  hav- 
ing, conversely,  a  greater  refractive  power 
and  a  less  dispersive  index. — The  annual  pro- 
duction of  plate  glass  in  Europe  may  be  stated 
in  round  numbers  at  upward  of  10,000,000  sq. 
ft.,  of  which  about  4,000,000  sq.  ft.,  valued  at 
about  28,000,000  francs,  is  produced  in  France, 
8,750,000  in  England,  1,500,000  in  Germany, 
and  1,000,000  in  Belgium.  The  industry  is 
limited  to  a  few  large  establishments,  there 
being  six  each  in  France  and  England,  and  two 
each  in  Germany  and  Belgium.  In  addition 
to  the  above,  large  quantities  of  rough  plate 
glass  are  made  in  England  for  horticultural  and 
other  cheap  purposes.  About  15,000,000  sq. 
ft.  of  window  glass,  of  the  value  of  about  15,- 
000,000  francs,  is  produced  annually  in  France, 
and  about  100,000,000  bottles,  valued  at  about 
20,000,000  francs;  the  production  of  flint  glass 
amounts  to  about  15,000,000  francs,  and  of 
ordinary  table  glass  about  the  same.  The  en- 
tire production  of  the  country  exceeds  75,000,- 
000  francs.  The  exports  of  glass  from  Eng- 
land in  1872  were  2,131,924  sq.  ft.  of  plate  glass, 
valued  at  £243,780;  113,004  cwt.  of  flint, 
valued  at  £300,484;  760,836  cwt.  of  common 


KINDS. 

No.  of 
establish- 
ment!. 

Hands 
em- 
ployed. 

Capital. 

Annual  pro- 
duct*. 

Cut  

29 
5 

18 
114 
85 

285 
200 
170 
12,308 
2,859 

$136,700 
195,700 
148,800 
10,385,882 
8,244,560 

$470,875 
355,250 
297,480 
14,300,949 
3,811,308 

Plate 

Stained  

Ware,  not  specified. 
Window  

Total 

201 

15,822 

$14,111,642 

$19,246,862 

bottles,  valued  at  £373,138;  and  other  kinds 
of  glass  to  the  value  of  £204,593.  The  latest 
statistics  on  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  the 
United  States  are  afforded  by  the  census  of 
1870,  as  follows : 


The  establishments  were  chiefly  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio.  Of 
the  five  manufactories  of  plate  glass,  three  were 
in  Ohio  and  one  each  in  New  York  and  New 
Hampshire.  Not  included  in  this  statement 
is  the  Lenox  rough  plate  glass  company  at 
Lenox,  Mass.  The  importations  of  glass  and 
glass  ware  into  the  United  States  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1873,  amounted  to  $5,834,712, 
including  cylinder,  crown,  and  common  win- 
dow, $2,759,728  ;  cylinder  and  crown  polished, 
$21,217;  fluted,  rolled,  or  rough  plate,  $34,- 
180 ;  cast  polished  plate  not  silvered  (2,482,- 
359  sq.  ft.),  $1,550,857;  cast  polished  plate  sil- 
vered (2,392,274  sq.  ft),  $823,076;  other  man- 
ufactures, $2,230,986.  Of  the  cylinder,  crown, 
or  common  window,  $2,181,044  worth  came 
from  Belgium  and  $451,223  from  England;  of 
the  cast  polished  plate  not  silvered,  1,955,666 
sq.  ft,  valued  at  $1,252,991 ,  from  England,  246,- 
698  sq.  ft,  valued  at  $155,450,  from  Belgium, 
and  39,047  sq.  ft.,  worth  $22,963,  from  France ; 
of  the  silvered  plate,  2,297,049  sq.  ft,  valued 
at  $764,913,  was  the  production  of  England. 
— COLORED  AND  ORNAMENTED  GLASS.  Mould- 
ed or  pressed  glass  never  exhibits  its  full  lustre 
or  the  clearly  cut  configurations  of  the  mould. 
This  defect  is  remedied  by  the  process  called 
cutting  glass,  which  is  in  reality  grinding  and 
afterward  polishing  it.  It  is  easily  effected 
upon  the  soft  flint  glass  by  applying  the  sur- 
faces to  be  cut  to  the  face  of  revolving  disks  of 
iron  or  copper  fed  with  emery,  or,  for  coarse 
grinding,  with  sand  and  water.  Stones  are 
also  used  instead  of  the  metallic  disks.  The 
marks  of  the  rough  grinding  are  removed  by  a 
smooth  grindstone,  and  the  polishing  is  then 
completed  by  wooden  disks,  to  which  pumice 
or  rotten  stone,  and  finally  the  preparation  of 
tin  and  lead  called  putty  powder,  are  applied. 
The  fine  polishing  of  chandelier  drops  is  effected 
by  a  lead  wheel  supplied  with  fine  rotten  stone 
and  water.  Glass  globes  and  lamp  shades  ac- 
quire their  interior  ground  surface  by  the  wear- 
ing action  of  sand  placed  within  them,  the  globes 
being  themselves  introduced  into  the  interior 
of  a  drum  which  is  caused  to  rotate  rapidly. 
Letters  and  designs  are  engraved  on  glass  by 
the  use  of  small  disks  of  copper  set  in  rapid 
revolution  by  means  of  a  lathe  operated  by  the 


GLASS 


foot  of  the  workman,  or  by  machinery,  and  fed 
with  fine  emery  mixed  with  oil.  Lead  disks 
are  used  for  the  polished  work.  The  object  to 
be  engraved  is  skilfully  pressed  against  the  re- 
volving wheel  or  disk  by  the  workman,  who  is 
guided  by  the  outlines  of  the  design  lightly 
traced  upon  the  glass.  The  art  of  engraving 
was  practised  by  the  ancients.  By  a  recent 
American  invention  glass  may  be  engraved  by 
means  of  a  blast  of  sand  directed  upon  it.  (See 
SAND  BLAST.)  Pleasing  effects  are  produced  by 
engraving  through  an  outer  casing  of  colored 
glass  into  an  interior  white,  transparent,  or 
enamelled  glass;  this  is  afterward  decorated 
with  gold  and  painted  in  arabesques  or  other 
patterns.  This  work  is  chiefly  the  produce 
of  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and  France.  Etching  is 
also  applied  to  the  ornamenting  of  glass,  a  pro- 
cess which  is  effected  by  the  property  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid  to  eat  into  the  material,  as  described 
in  the  article  FLUORINE.  The  glass  is  first  cov- 
ered over  with  a  varnish  that  resists  the  action 
of  the  acid,  and  when  this  coating  is  dry,  the 
lines  to  be  etched  are  marked  through  it  by 
means  of  a  point.  The  acid  is  then  poured  on, 
and  is  allowed  to  remain  till  it  has  produced  the 
desired  effect.  The  difficulties  and  danger  at- 
tending the  use  of  the  acid  restrict  this  process 
to  the  ornamenting  of  large  polished  plates,  and 
to  the  labelling  in  indelible  letters  of  the  bottles 
of  chemists  and  apothecaries.  "Work  done  by 
this  method  is  inferior  to  that  done  by  the  reg- 
ular process  of  engraving.  An  improvement 
upon  this  process  has  been  made  by  Mar6chal, 
by  employing  solutions  of  the  neutral  fluorides 
of  the  alkalies.  The  addition  of  hydrochloric 
acid  to  these  solutions  disengages  hydrofluoric 
acid,  which,  coming  in  contact  in  the  nascent 
state  with  the  silicic  acid  of  the  glass  placed  in 
the  liquid,  rapidly  produces  a  clearing  upon  the 
surface  exposed.  The  French  companies  of  St. 
Louis  and  Baccarat  have  adopted  this  process, 
by  which  very  rich  and  artistic  designs  have 
been  produced. — The  colored  glasses  are  pro- 
duced either  upon  the  colorless  composition 
called  strass  for  imitations  of  precious  stones 
(see  GEMS,  ARTIFICIAL),  or  by  introducing  the 
various  oxides  used  fpr  coloring  into  the  mate- 
rials of  flints  or  other  kinds  of  glass.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  the  coloring  matter  is  thoroughly  fused 
with  the  glass,  which  therefore  becomes  colored 
throughout  its  entire  body.  Pigments  are  also 
applied  to  the  surface  of  glass,  and  sometimes  by 
their  greater  fusibility  are  burnt  or  melted  in. 
Flint  glass  may  be  employed  for  vessels  orna- 
mented with  colors,  and  to  6  cwt.  of  it  the 
following  ingredients  are  added  for  producing 
the  respective  colors:  soft  white  enamel,  24 
Ibs.  arsenic,  6  Ibs.  antimony ;  hard  white  enam- 
el, 200  Ibs.  putty,  prepared  from  tin  and  lead ; 
blue  transparent  glass,  2  Ibs.  oxide  of  cobalt ; 
azure  blue,  about  6  Ibs.  oxide  of  copper ;  ruby 
red,  4  oz.  oxide  of  gold;  amethyst  or  pur- 
ple, 20  Ibs.  oxide  of  manganese ;  common  or- 
ange, 12  Ibs.  iron  ore  and  4  Ibs.  manganese; 
emerald  green,  12  Ibs.  copper  scales  and  12 


Ibs.  iron  ore ;  gold  topaz  color,  3  Ibs.  oxide  of 
uranium.  The  colors  produced  by  the  metallic 
oxides  are  found  to  vary  with  the  degree  of 
heat  employed.  All  the  colors  of  the  spectrum 
may  be  obtained  with  oxide  of  iron  ;  and  these 
various  results  do  not  seem  to  depend  upon  the 
different  degrees  of  oxidation,  but  are  thought 
to  result  from  variations  in  molecular  arrange- 
ment, induced  perhaps  by  the  action  of  light. 
By  another  process  the  surface  alone  of  the 
glass  may  be  colored.  This  is  done  by  first 
gathering  with  the  blowpipe  a  lump  of  clear 
glass,  which  after  being  rolled  upon  the  mar- 
ver  is  dipped  into  a  pot  of  melted  colored 
glass,  forming  a  lump  of  colorless  glass  envel- 
oped in  a  coating  of  colored  glass.  This  is 
blown  into  a  globe  or  cylinder  and  opened  out 
into  a  sheet  or  plate  in  the  usual  manner,  one 
surface  of  which  is  clear  and  the  other  colored. 
Vessels  of  various  kinds  having  colored  sur- 
faces on  the  outside  may  be  produced  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner.  By  cutting  through  the  thin  lay- 
er of  colored  glass  to  the  colorless  layer,  a 
great  variety  of  colored  ornamental  glass  may 
be  produced.  By  gathering  first  a  lump  of 
colored  glass  and  then  coating  this  with  melted 
clear  glass,  the  external  surface  of  the  vessel 
will  be  colorless  and  the  inner  layer  colored. 
"  Casing  "  is  a  somewhat  similar  process.  The 
article  of  flint  glass  when  partially  blown  is  in- 
serted into  a  thin  shell  of  colored  glass,  pre- 
pared at  the  same  time  for  its  reception,  and 
the  blowing  is  continued  till  the  inner  one  fills 
the  shell,  with  which  it  is  afterward  well  in- 
corporated by  softening  in  the  furnace  and  fur- 
ther blowing.  Several  partial  casings  of  dif- 
ferent colors  may  be  thus  applied. — In  making 
etched  enamelled  glass,  the  enamel  substance 
is  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  and  laid 
with  a  brush  in  a  pasty  state  upon  the  glass. 
After  the  paste  is  dried,  the  ornament  is  etched 
out  by  machinery  or  by  hand,  and  the  glass  is 
then  softened  till  the  enamel  is  vitrified  and 
incorporated  with  it.  From  this  it  is  removed 
to  the  annealing  kiln.  The  flocked  variety  of 
enamelled  glass  is  prepared  by  the  same  meth- 
od, except  that  a  fine,  smooth,  opaque  surface, 
like  satin,  much  softer  and  smoother  than  that 
of  ground  glass,  is  previously  given  to  the  whole 
surface  before  the  enamel  is  applied.  This  va- 
riety has  in  great  part  supplanted  the  other, 
and  is  justly  much  admired  for  the  softening 
of  the  light  diffused  through  it,  and  for  the 
delicacy  and  beauty  of  the  elaborate  and  ar- 
tistic designs  with  which  it  is  ornamented. — 
The  Venetians  and  the  Bohemians  have  long 
been  celebrated  for  their  skill  and  ingenuity  in 
the  production  of  ornamented  glass.  Many  of 
the  ingenious  effects  produced  are  imitations 
of  ancient  manufacture,  of  which  many  won- 
derful specimens  are  preserved  in  European 
museums.  The  process  of  drawing  out  tubes 
is  an  interesting  one.  The  workman,  having 
gathered  a  lump  of  glass  on  the  end  of  a 
blowpipe,  expands  it  into  a  globular  form  with 
very  thick  walls.  Another  workman  having 


attached  a  punty  to  the  opposite  end,  the  two 
men  separate  from  each  other  as  quickly  as 
possible,  thus  elongating  the  glass  into  a  tube. 
The  globe  immediately  contracts  across  the 
centre,  which,  being  drawn  out  to  the  size  of 
the  tube  desired,  cools,  so  that  the  hotter  and 
softer  portions  next  yield  in  their  dimensions, 
and  so  on  until  a  tube  of  100  ft.  or  more  hangs 
between  the  men.  It  is  kept  constantly  ro- 
tating in  the  hands,  and  is  straightened  as  it 
cools  and  sets  by  placing  it  on  the  ground.  It 
is  cut  into  suitable  lengths  while  hot  by  taking 
hold  of  it  with  cold  tongs.  The  diameter  of  the 
bore  retains  its  proportion  to  the  thickness  of 
the  glass ;  hence  thin  tubes  must  be  drawn  from 
globes  blown  to  large  size,  or  from  small  ones 
containing  very  little  metal.  In  producing 
canes  the  glass  is  drawn  out  without  being 
blown.  Tubes  thus  drawn  out  from  colored 
glass  are  converted  into  beads  by  other  curious 
processes.  This  branch  of  the  manufacture  is 
extensively  practised  at  Murano.  The  tubes 
are  drawn  out  150  ft.  in  length,  and  to  the 
diameter  of  a  goose  quill,  those  for  the  smallest 
beads  by  the  workmen  receding  from  each 
other  at  a  pretty  rapid  trot.  The  tubes  are  cut 
into  lengths  of  about  27  in.  and  assorted  for 
size  and  color.  Women  or  boys  then  take  sev- 
eral together  in  the  left  hand,  and  run  them  on 
the  face  of  an  anvil  up  to  a  certain  measure, 
and  with  a  blunt  steel  edge  break  off  the  ends 
all  of  the  same  length,  which  is  commonly 
about  twice  the  diameter  of  the  tubes  ;  the  bits 
fall  into  a  box.  These  are  next  worked  about 
in  a  moistened  mixture  of  wood  ashes  and  sand, 
with  which  the  cylindrical  pieces  become  filled ; 
and  they  are  then  introduced  with  more  sand 
into  a  hollow  cylindrical  vessel,  which  is  placed 
in  a  furnace  and  made  to  revolve.  The  glass 
softens,  but  the  paste  within  the  bits  prevents 
their  sides  from  being  compressed;  they  be- 
come spherical,  and  their  edges  are  smoothed 
and  polished  by  the  friction.  When  taken  from 
the  fire  and  cleaned  from  the  sand,  they  are 
ready  to  be  put  up  for  the  market.  The  Vene- 


GLASS 


FIG.  16.— Manufacture  of  Filigree  Glass. 

tian  filigree  glass,  which  consists  of  spirally 
twisted  white  and  colored  enamel  glasses  cased 
in  transparent  glass,  is  much  used  for  the  stems 
of  wine  glasses,  goblets,  &c. ;  and  when  ar- 
ranged side  by  side  in  alternate  colors,  it  is 
manufactured  into  tazzas,  vases,  and  other 


ornamental  articles.  In  making  this  kind  of 
glass,  pieces  of  plain,  colored,  or  opaque  white 
cane,  of  uniform  length,  are  arranged  on  end, 
the  different  colors  alternating,  around  the  in- 
terior of  a  cylindrical  mould.  The  selection 
and  the  arrangement  of  colors  depend  upon 
the  taste  of  the  manufacturer.  The  mould  and 
the  pieces  having  been  subjected  to  a  moder- 
ate heat,  a  solid  ball  of  transparent  flint  glass, 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  blowpipe  or  punty, 
is  placed  within  the  mould,  the  various  canes 
forming  an  external  coating  to  the  glass,  to 
which  they  become  welded.  The  ball  is  now 
taken  from  the  mould,  reheated,  and  marvered 
till  the  adhering  canes  are  rolled  into  one  uni- 
form mass.  This  being  covered  with  a  gath- 
ering of  clear  glass,  the  lump  thus  formed, 
with  the  ornamental  work  in  the  interior,  may 
be  drawn  into  canes  of  any  size  and  presenting 
either  the  natural  or  the  spiral  arrangement ;  the 
latter  being  effected  by  the  workmen  rotating 
the  glass  in  opposite  directions  while  drawing 
it  out  into  a  cane.  By  variously  arranging 
the  colors  in  this  process,  and  by  skilful  manip- 
ulations, many  wonderful  and  ingenious  effects 
are  produced.  Beautiful  vases  are  also  made 
by  the  above  process,  the  glass  when  prepared 
being  blown  into  that  form  instead  of  being 
drawn  into  canes.  The  mille-Jiori  consists  of 
a  variety  of  ends  of  variously  colored  tubes, 
cut  in  the  form  of  lozenges,  which,  having  been 
arranged  to  represent  flowers  or  other  orna- 
mental design,  are  enveloped  and  massed  to- 
gether with  transparent  glass.  The  lump  is 
then  worked  into  the  required  form,  a  very 
common  one  being  hemispherical  for  use  as 
paper  weights.  Portraits  and  even  watches 
and  barometers  have  been  represented  in  the 
interior  of  glass ;  but  in  this  case  these  articles 
and  the  glass  have  not  formed  a  homogeneous 
mass,  the  former  being  arranged  in  a  cavity 
of  the  latter.  Mosaic  glass  is  produced  by  ar- 
ranging vertically  side  by  side  threads  or  small 
canes  of  variously  colored  opa"que  or  trans- 
parent glass,  of  uniform  lengths,  so  that  the 
ends  shall  form  a  ground  representing  flow- 
ers, arabesques,  or  any  mosaic  design.  This 
mass  is  now  submitted  to  a  heat  sufficient  to 
fuse  the  whole,  all  the  sides  at  the  same  time 
being  pressed  together  so  as  to  exclude  the 
air  from  the  interstices  of  the  threads.  The 
result  is  a  homogeneous  solid  cane  or  cylinder, 
which,  being  cut  at  right  angles  or  laterally, 
yields  a  number  of  layers  or  copies  of  the  same 
uniform  design.  This  process  was  practised 
with  great  skill  by  the  ancients,  who  are  sup- 
posed to  have  produced  pictures  in  this  way ; 
but  in  existing  specimens,  the  pieces  have  been 
so  accurately  united  by  intense  heat  or  other- 
wise, that  the  junctures  cannot  even  be  dis- 
covered by  a  powerful  magnifying  glass.  Vitro 
di  trino  represents  fine  lace  work  with  inter- 
secting lines  of  white  enamel  or  transparent 
glass,  forming  a  series  of  diamond-shaped  sec- 
tions, each  containing  an  air  bubble  of  uniform 
size.  In  making  this,  a  lump  of  glass  is  blown 


GLASS 


in  a  mould,  around  the  inner  sides  of  which  are 
arranged  pieces  of  canes  of  the  required  colors, 
as  described  in  the  case  of  filigree  glass,  which, 
adhering  to  the  glass,  form  ribs  or  flutes  on  its 
external  surface.  The  lump,  having  been  twist- 
ed to  give  the  spiral  arrangement  to  the  ad- 
hering canes,  is  formed  into  a  conical  shape 
and  opened  at  the  base.  This  forms  the  inner 
case  of  the  vitro  di  trino.  A  corresponding 
outer  case  is  formed  in  the  same  manner,  which 
being  turned  inside  out,  the  projecting  canes 
appear  on  the  inside  of  the  cup  with  a  reversed 
spiral  arrangement.  One  case  is  now  placed 
within  the  other,  and  both  being  reheated  are 
collapsed  together,  forming  uniform  air  bubbles 
between  each  white  enamel-crossed  section. 
The  two  cases,  thus  welded  into  one,  may  be 
formed  into  the  bowl  of  a  wine  glass  or  other 
vessel.  Frosted  glass,  like  the  preceding,  is 
one  of  the  few  specimens  of  Venetian  work  not 
made  by  the  ancients ;  and  although  the  process 
of  making  it  is  exceedingly  simple,  it  was  con- 
sidered a  lost  art  until  recently  practised  at  the 
Falcon  glass  works  in  England.  The  appear- 
ance of  irregularly  veined,  marble-like  pro- 
jecting dislocations,  with  intervening  fissures, 
is  produced  by  immersing  the  hot  glass  in  cold 
water,  quickly  withdrawing  it,  reheating  the 
ball  of  glass,  and  simultaneously  expanding  it 
by  blowing.  Cameo  incrustation  is  also  of 


FIG.  17.— Cameo  Incrustation. 

modern  origin,  having  been  first  introduced 
by  the  Bohemians.  The  figure  intended  for 
incrustation  must  be  made  of  materials  requi- 
ring a  higher  degree  of  heat  for  their  fusion 
than  the  glass  to  be  used.  The  figure,  having 
been  heated,  is  introduced  into  a  cylindrical- 
shaped  piece  of  glass,  attached  at  one  end  to 
a  blowpipe  and  open  at  the  other.  The  open 
end  is  then  closed,  leaving  the  figure  in  the 
interior  of  the  hollow  pocket.  The  air  is  now 
exhausted  through  the  hollow  tube,  which  pro- 
duces a  collapse  and  causes  the  glass  and  figure 
to  form  into  a  homogeneous  mass.  In  making 
"  paper  weights,"  thin  sections  of  little  orna- 
mented rods  are  placed  in  a  circular  iron 


mould  or  bed,  in  the  form  of  the  required  de- 
sign. A  workman  presses  a  piece  of  hot  glass 
on  the  end  of  a  punty  into  the  mould  and  takes 
up  the  design.  Then  another  workman  drops 
a  piece  of  hot  glass  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
design.  The  whole  is  now  taken  to  the  fur- 
nace, where  the  parts  are  welded  into  a  hemi- 
spherical form,  which  magnifies  the  interior  de- 
sign and  presents  a  fine  picture  enclosed  within 
the  transparent  setting.  In  making  spun  glass, 
the  workman  heats  one  end  of  a  tube  of  glass, 
white  or  colored,  by  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and 
seizing  the  softened  end  with  a  pair  of  pincers 
draws  out  a  long  thread.  Owing  to  the  extreme 
ductility  of  glass,  these  threads  can  be  drawn 
to  an  extraordinary  fineness  and  length.  In 
some  cases  spun  glass  has  been  made  to  imitate 
the  hair  of  animals. — Among  the  most  valuable 
treatises  on  the  subject  of  glass  are  "  Curiosities 
of  Glass  Making,"  by  Apsley  Pellatt  (London, 
1849),  and  Guide  du  verrier,  by  G.  Bontemps 
(Paris,  1868),  both  of  these  authors  having 
been  for  many  years  extensively  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass.  Among  other  works 
are  those  of  Neri,  "The  Art  of  Glass"  (trans- 
lated, London,  1662);  Shaw,  "  The  Chemistry 
of  Porcelain,  Glass,  and  Pottery"  (London, 
1837) ;  Henry  Chance,  "  On  the  Manufacture 
of  Crown  and  Sheet  Glass"  (London,  1856), 
and  "On  the  Manufacture  of  Glass"  (1868); 
Peligot,  I? Art  de  la  verrerie  (Paris,  1862); 
Turgan,  Les  grandes  mines  de  Prance  (Paris, 
1862-'70) ;  Cochin,  La  manufacture  des  glaces 
de  Saint- Gobain  de  1665  a  1865  (Paris,  1865) ; 
Gaflield,  "Action  of  Sunlight  on  Glass,"  re- 
printed from  the  "  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence and  Arts  "  (New  Haven,  1867) ;  Sauzay, 
La  verrerie  (Paris,  1868),  and  "  Wonders  of 
Glass  Making  in  all  Ages  "  (London  and  New 
York,  1870) ;  and  Rapports  du  jury  interna- 
tional of  the  Paris  universal  exposition  of  1867, 
vol.  cxi.  (Paris,  1868). 

GLASS,  Soluble,  or  Water  Glass,  an  artificial  sili- 
cate of  soda  or  potash,  or  a  double  silicate  of 
both  these  alkalies.  It  may  be  formed  by  fusing 
8  or  10  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  or  pot- 
ash with  15  parts  of  white  sand  or  powdered 
quartz  or  flint.  Nearly  all  glass  is  to  a  slight 
extent  soluble  in  water,  in  consequence  of  the 
alkaline  matter  it  contains ;  and  the  solubility 
is  increased  by  raising  the  temperature  of  the 
water,  which  under  pressure  may  be  carried 
far  above  the  boiling  point.  Water  holding 
caustic  alkalies  in  solution  will  attack  glass 
vessels  containing  it  in  consequence  of  the  for- 
mation of  a  soluble  alkaline  silicate.  It  is  to 
this  quality  of  solubility  that  feldspar  ordina- 
rily owes  its  value  as  a  fertilizing  ingredient 
of  the  soil ;  and  it  is  from  the  affinity  of  caustic 
lime  for  silica  that  it  may  be  used  for  libera- 
ting the  alkali  in  the  feldspar.  Attention  was 
first  directed  to  soluble  glass  by  Fuchs  as  a 
suitable  composition  for  rendering  combustible 
bodies  fire-proof;  and  in  1824  portions  of  the 
new  theatre  in  Munich  were  coated  with  it. 
He  also  employed  it  in  the  style  of  fresco  paint- 


GLASSITES 

ng  called  stereochromy,  for  fixing  the  colors 
see  FBESCO  PAINTING);  and  it  was  used  not 
mly  upon  plastered  walls,  but  with  success 
>y  Echter  directly  upon  the  sandstone  of  the 
Strasburg  minster.  Fuchs  proposed  to  render 
wood  fire-proof,  and  even  linen  also,  by  means 
>f  it ;  to  protect  surfaces  from  the  action  of 
he  weather;  to  prepare  with  it  artificial  stone; 
and  to  use  it  as  a  cement  for  glass  and  porce- 
lain. But  it  appears  to  have  been  most  suc- 
cessfully applied  by  Prof.  Kuhlmann  at  Lille, 
who  employed  it  to  prevent  the  decay  of  walls 
and  edifices,  even  when  built  of  very  inferior 
stone,  and  in  print  works  and  tapestry  facto- 
ries for  fixing  colors  upon  cotton  and  paper. 
In  England  it  is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of 
the  celebrated  Kansome  artificial  stone,  de- 
scribed in  the  article  CONCRETE  and  in  Dr. 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard's  report  of  the  Paris  univer- 
sal exposition  of  1867.  Soluble  glass  is  also 
employed  by  Baerle  and  co.  of  Worms  for 
washing  wool.  Forty  parts  of  water  are  mixed 
with  one  of  soluble  glass  at  a  temperature  of 
from  122°  to  135°  F.,  and  the  wool  is  stirred  in 
the  mixture  for  a  few  minutes.  It  is  then  rinsed 
in  tepid  water,  when  it  is  found  perfectly  clean, 
white,  and  odorless,  without  having  lost  any 
of  its  softness  or  other  valuable  qualities. 
GLASSITES.  See  SANDEMANIANS. 
GLASS  PAINTING.  The  art  of  painting  upon 
glass  is  supposed  to  be  of  Byzantine  origin, 
and  to  have  arisen  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  first  authentic  account  of 
the  subject  is  given  in  the  Diversarum  Artium 
Schedula,  a  work  written  by  Theophilus,  prob- 
ably in  the  12th  century,  though  by  some  au- 
thorities its  date  is  assigned  to  the  10th.  The 
complete  description  given  in  this  treatise  of 
the  process  of  painting  on  glass  justifies  the 
conclusion  that  the  art  itself  must  have  been 
invented  at  a  much  earlier  period ;  but  the 
oldest  specimens  now  existing  do  not  date 
further  back  than  the  'beginning  of  the  llth 
century.  Indeed,  the  oldest  existing  specimens 
to  which  a  date  can  with  certainty  be  assigned 
has  been  considered  by  M.  de  Lasteyrie  and 
other  French  antiquaries  to  be  the  windows  in 
the  cathedrals  at  Angers  and  St.  Denis,  which 
were  painted  about  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century.  The  skill  of  the  French  painters  on 
glass  was  extolled  by  Theophilus,  and  to  the 
present  time  France  has  continued  to  be  the 
richest  storehouse  of  painted  glass  of  the 
earliest  style.  The  process  described  by  The- 
ophilus continued  to  be  practised  until  about 
the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  when  the  art 
reached  its  zenith.  The  most  eminent  painters 
practised  it,  as  Albert  Dtirer,  Bernard  Palissy, 
and  others,  and  their  works  are  still  admired 
in  the  churches  of  that  period,  as  the  Cologne 
cathedral,  York  minster,  and  many  others. 
But  in  the  next  century  the  art  had  entirely 
declined,  for  the  reason,  as  Labarte  suggests  in 
his  "Illustrated  Handbook,"  that  its  intention 
was  perverted  in  the  transformation  of  an  art 
of  purely  monumental  decoration  into  an  art 


GLASS  PAINTING 


25 


of  expression.  For  this  oil  painting  possessed 
greater  resources,  and  glass  painting  necessarily 
fell  into  neglect.  In  some  modern  attempts 
it  is  remarked  that  the  primary  object  of  the 
glass  in  transmitting  light  appears  to  be  over- 
looked and  sacrificed  in  the  opaque  shadows 
introduced.  In  the  ancient  glass  pictures  the 
figures  were  formed  of  pieces  of  stained  glass, 
and  the  shadows  were  laid  on  with  dark 
colors  and  fixed  in  the  fire.  Intense  colors 
were  exclusively  employed,  the  ruby  and  blue 
always  predominant.  The  ground  was  mosaic 
in  circles,  squares,  and  lozenges,  of  massive 
forms,  and  filled  with  foliated  ornaments  in  the 
Roman  style.  Over  this  were  medallions  rep- 
resenting historical  and  biographical  subjects 
from  the  lives  of  the  saints.  When  figures 
came  to  be  introduced,  they  were  generally 
grotesque  and  distorted ;  but  the  costumes 
were  remarkably  correct.  The  designs  always 
harmonized  with  the  style  of  architecture, 
stately  and  magnificent  in  the  Norman  struc- 
tures, and  light  and  elegant  in  those  of  the 
early  English  models  in  the  13th  century.  In 
these  the  brilliant  positive  colors  were  made 
more  subsidiary,  appearing  in  borders,  geo- 
metric bands,  and  central  points,  while  the 
ground  was  of  a  neutral  gray  produced  by 
lines  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  The 
designs  were  also  more  correctly  drawn,  and 
shaded  with  greater  delicacy.  For  the  violet 
tint  always  before  used  for  the  faces  of  the 
figures  was  substituted  a  gray  or  brown  upon 
colorless  glass.  The  pieces  of  glass  were  of 
larger  size,  and  a  single  figure  was  often  made 
to  occupy  a  whole  window,  standing  beneath 
an  elaborate  blue  or  red  canopy.  In  the  back- 
ground, among  the  architectural  fragmentary 
designs,  still  appeared  the  old  Roman  foliated 
ornaments,  but  intermixed  with  original  stud- 
ies from  nature,  a  style  of  the  art  which  was  af- 
terward carried  to  great  perfection.  Not  only 
leaves,  plants,  and  trees,  but  even  landscapes 
and  buildings  in  perspective,  appeared  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  15th  century.  The  Scripture 
pieces  were  often  explained  by  legends  painted 
upon  the  phylacteries,  and  in  the  background 
were  represented  rich  blue  or  red  hangings  of 
damask. — After  a  long  decline,  the  1 9th  century 
has  witnessed  a  revival  in  the  art  of  painting 
on  glass,  which  is  now  extensively  practised  in 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  the  finest  speci- 
mens being  produced  at  Munich.  In  earlier 
periods  it  was  devoted  chiefly  to  ornamenting 
cathedral  windows  with  sacred  illustrations, 
but  it  is  now  used  for  general  purposes  of  orna- 
mentation, embracing  a  wide  range  of  secular 
subjects.  The  belief  in  the  superiority  of  an- 
cient glass  painting,  which  was  even  regarded 
by  some  as  one  of  the  lost  arts,  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  opinion  held  by  the  highest  au- 
thorities that  painted  glass  can  now  be  manu- 
factured superior  to  the  best  specimens  of  the 
middle  ages.  Indeed,  the  processes  then  in  use 
have  been  brought  to  light  by  modern  research. 
In  1850  a  series  of  chemical  analyses  was  in- 


20 


GLASS  PAINTING 


stitutod  by  Mr.  C.  Winston  of  England,  who 
during  his  life  made  the  subject  of  painted 
tfla^  in  its  antiquarian  aspects  a  special  study, 
jiinl  tlio  earliest  specimens  were  carefully  ana- 
lyzed. The  results  reached  made  it  ea«y  to  re- 
produce both  the  quality  and  the  color  of  the  an- 
cient glass.— Glass  painting,  which  is  more  prop- 
erly a  process  of  staining,  differs  from  all  other 
styles  of  pictorial  art,  except  the  painting  of  por- 
celain. The  colors  are  different,  being  wholly 
of  mineral  composition,  and  are  not  merely 
laid  on  the  outside,  but  fixed  by  being  fused 
into  the  material,  undergoing  in  the  operation 
chemical  changes  that  develop  the  brilliancy 
and  transparency  of  which  the  compounds  are 
susceptible.  The  colors  are  mixed  with  a  flux 
of  much  easier  fusion  than  the  glass,  and  with 
some  vehicle,  as  boiled  oil  or  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine. The  mixture  is  usually  laid  on  with  a 
brush  as  in  ordinary  painting ;  and  the  glass 
being  then  exposed  to  heat,  the  flux  melts  and 
sinks  into  the  body.  None  of  the  clear  bright 
colors  are  perceived  until  the  work  is  com- 

Sleted,  and  the  artist  consequently  labors  un- 
er  great  disadvantage  in  applying  the  mate- 
rials that  are  to  produce  them.  He  is  guided 
either  by  lines  drawn  on  the  back  side,  which 
show  through,  or  by  a  cartoon  or  drawing  on 
paper  placed  there.  In  the  early  use  of  glass 
for  windows,  especially  those  of  churches,  bril- 
liant colors  were  highly  esteemed,  and  great 
success  was  attained  in  the  methods  of  color- 
ing. A  bright  red  color  was  imparted  by  the 
ancients  with  the  protoxide  of  copper.  In 
later  times  it  was  found  impracticable  to  suc- 
ceed with  this  on  account  of  the  tendency  of 
the  copper  to  pass  to  a  peroxide  and  produce 
a  green  tinge  ;  but  the  practice  has  been  again 
introduced  with  success  by  the  Tyne  company 
in  England,  at  Ohoisy  in  Franco,  and  in  other 
places.  The  discovery  of  the  preparation  of 
gold  and  tin,  called  purple  of  Cassius,  also  af- 
forded another  means  of  producing  a  brilliant 
red. — In  the  history  of  the  art  two  leadidg 
processes  have  been  prominent.  From  the 
earliest  period  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century  the  method  described  by  Tho- 
ophilus  and  known  as  the  mosaic  system  pre- 
vailed. In  this  process  the  glass  was  colored  in 
the  manufacture,  and  blocks  of  different  colors 
having  been  brought  together,  the.  outlines  and 
shading  of  the  design  were  produced  by  the  ap- 
plication of  an  enamel  color.  About  the  time 
incut ioiu-il  it  was  discovered  that  all  colors  be- 
sides yellow,  brown,  and  light  red,  which  had 
previously  been  imparted  by  this  method,  could 
be  given  to  glass  by  moans  of  the  enamel  pro- 
cess; but  the  works  produced  by  this  method 
were  greatly  inferior  to  those  by  the  mosaic  sys- 
tem. There  has  been  a  spirited  controversy 
between  the  advocates  of  the  German  method 
of  glass  painting,  in  which  enamel  is  used,  and 
the  English  glass  painters,  who  avoid  the  use 
of  enamel  as  far  as  possible,  as  it  sometimes 
scales  off.  It  seems  to  be  conceded  that  the 
beauty  of  the  cathedral  glass  of  the  18th  and 


14th  centuries  was  in  the  brilliancy  of  the 
glass  and  the  skilful  arrangement  of  designs 
and  colors,  and  not  in  any  enamel  work.  The 
ordinary  method  of  glass  painting,  as  prac- 
tised in  England,  is  to  use  for  the  colored  parts 
of  the  design  pieces  o^  glass  differently  colored 
in  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  to  employ 
only  one  enamel  color,  brown,  for  tracing  the 
outlines  and  painting  the  shadows  of  the  pic- 
ture upon  the  glass.  The  enamel  brown,  like 
any  other  enamel  color,  consists  of  coloring 
matter  mixed  with  pulverized  glass,  called  flux 
or  enamel.  When  this  is  laid  on  the  surface  of 
the  glass  and  heated  in  an  oven  or  furnace,  it 
melts,  in  consequence  of  being  more  fusible, 
while  the  glass  is  merely  at  a  red  heat;  on  be- 
ing cooled  it  hardens  and  produces  a  perma- 
nent color  on  the  surface  of  the  glass.  The 
general  colors  of  the  design,  'therefore,  are  not 
produced  by  the  painter,  but  by  the  glass  ma- 
ker; the  former,  as  has  been  stated,  using 
pieces  of  glass  already  colored.  The  only  ex- 
ception to  this  is  in  the  case  of  yellow,  which 
is  produced  on  the  glass  by  applying  a  "  stain," 
the  principal  ingredient  of  which  is  oxide  or 
chloride  of  silver.  On  being  exposed  to  the 
action  of  a  red  heat,  the  yellow  stain  penetrates 
the  glass  and  imparts  to  it  its  tint,  the  prepa- 
ration of  silver  being  afterward  brushed  off. 
This  process  was  discovered  in  the  early  part 
of  the  14th  century,  and  has  been  used  to  im- 
part a  yellow  tint  to  uncolored  and  most  kinds 
of  colored  glass.  The  various  tints  of  yellow 
are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  produced  on  glass 
without  altering  its  surface.  By  putting  on  a 
second  or  third  coating  of  the  silver  oxide  and 
burning  in,  orange  and  red  stained  glasses  are 
produced. — The  process  of  producing  a  paint- 
ed glass  window  is  an  interesting  one.  The 
artist  first  makes  an  outline  on  a  small  scale  of 
the  stone  work  of  the  window,  within  which 
ho  sketches  the  design,  indicating  the  colors 
to  be  used  and  the  general  treatment  of  the 
subject.  A  full-sized  drawing  or  cartoon  is 
next  made,  from  which  a  "cutting  drawing" 
is  traced,  showing  the  lines  where  the  strips 
of  lead  are  to  go,  and  omitting  all  other  de- 
tails. On  this  latter  drawing,  on  which  the 
colors  of  the  design  are  indicated  by  outlines, 
the  pieces  of  different  colored  glass  are  laid 
and  cut  with  a  diamond,  each  piece  being  cut 
out  of  that  particular  color  or  tint  required. 
The  artist  now  arranges  the  pieces  of  different 
colors  in  their  proper  places  on  the  cartoon, 
and  traces  the  outline  of  the  design  upon  them. 
On  being  heated  in  an  oven,  the  opaque  lines 
vitrify  and  are  formed  indelibly  on  the  surface 
of  the  glass.  After  the  outlines  have  been 
thus  "burnt"  on,  the  glass  is  taken  again  to 
the  painter,  who  covers  the  cartoon  with  a 
sheet  of  colorless  glass,  or  if  large  a  portion  of 
it  at  a  time.  Thus  having  the  cartoon  for  a 
guide,  he  arranges  in  their  proper  places  on 
the  sheet  of  colorless  glass  the  pieces  on  which 
the  outlines  have  been  traced,  and  secures 
them  firmly  with  drops  of  melted  resin  and 


GLASS  PAINTING 


GLASS  SNAKE 


beeswax,  or  other  suitable  substance.  The 
sheet  of  colorless  glass,  with  the  pieces  thus  ar- 
ranged adhering  to  it,  is  placed  upon  an  easel, 
and  the  shadows  of  the  picture  are  put  on  with 
the  same  material  as  that  used  in  tracing  the 
outlines.  The  shading,  however,  is  not  traced 
from  the  cartoon,  as  were  the  outlines,  but  is 
done  by  the  skill  and  experience  of  the  painter. 
When  the  shading  is  completed,  and  the  tints 
of  yellow,  if  any  are  required,  are  put  on,  the 
pieces  of  glass  are  detached  from  the  colorless 
sheet  and  again  subjected  to  heat,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  "  burning  in  "  the  shadows.  If  more 
work  by  the  painter  is  required,  the  process  is 
repeated,  the  glass  being  thus  subjected  to  heat 
in  some  instances  six  or  seven  times.  The 
work  of  the  painter  being  completed,  the  fin- 
ished pieces  are  taken  by  the  "leader,"  who, 
having  arranged  them  by  the  aid  of  the  "  cut- 
ting drawing"  so  as  to  form  the  entire  design, 
fastens  them  together  by  means  of  strips  of 
grooved  lead  skilfully  fitted  around  the  edges 
of  the  several  pieces.  If  the  window  is  a  largo 
one,  as  is  generally  the  case,  it  is  divided  into 
parts  of  convenient  size,  which  are  fitted  to- 
gether when  the  window  is  put  in  its  place. 
Bars  of  iron  are  also  sometimes  placed  across 
the  window  at  the  line  of  junction  and  at  other 
convenient  intervals.  This  general  process  of 
producing  mosaic  stained  glass  windows  has 
been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times,  though  it 
may  have  been  modified  in  some  of  its  details; 
and  until  some  other  method  of  imparting 
colors  to  glass  without  detracting  from  its 
transparency  and  brilliancy  is  discovered,  the 
opaque  lead  lines  in  the  design  must  be  accept- 
ed as  a  necessity.  In  his  "Art  of  Glass  Paint- 
ing," Mr.  0.  Winston  says:  "The  necessity 
of  leading  :i  glass  painting  together  is  one  of 
those  conditions  which  cannot  be  evaded  by 
any  ingenuity.  The  lead  work  and  saddle  bars 
must  be  accepted  as  necessary  parts  of  the 
composition.  The  design  must  be  made  with 
reference  to  them,  and  that  glass  painting  must 
be  acknowledged  to  be  the  best  which  admits 
of  the  leads  being  thrown  into  the  outlines, 
and  made  to  serve  as  outlines ;  and  which  by 
the  simplicity,  I  might  almost  say  roughness, 
of  its  design  and  execution,  prevents  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  saddle  bars  from  being  obtrusive. 
In  this  respect  the  glass  paintings  prior  to  1560, 
and  until  the  18th  century,  must  be  considered 
superior  to  those  later  works  in  which  the  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  ignore  the  leads  and 
saddle  bars,  by  leading  the  work  together  in 
squares  independently  of  the  outlines  of  the 
composition,  or  by  twisting  the  saddle  bars  so 
as  to  avoid  their  cutting  the  design  at  regular 
intervals;  because  both  methods  immediately 
suggest  the  idea  of  a  blemished  picture,  and 
make  us  immediately  perceive  how  much  bet- 
ter the  work  would  be  without  loads  or  saddle 
bars..  But  a  window  cannot  be  constructed 
without  them;  hence  it  is  better  to  adopt 
them  us  essential  parts  of  the  design;  and  the 
beautiful  windows  of  the  choir  of  this  [Lich- 


field]  cathedral,  which  bear  date  between  1632 
and  1589,  show  that  a  design  so  constituted  is 
compatible  with  high  pictorial  effect."  An- 
other condition  which  must  be  particularly  ob- 
served is  the  preservation  of  transparency  in 
the  highest  degree  consistent  with  the  pro- 
duction of  a  picture.  For  this  purpose  the 
high  lights  of  the  window  must  be  as  free 
from  shading  as  possible.  Indeed,  light  shading 
throughout  the  entire  design  is  one  of  the  con- 
ditions imposed  by  the  nature  of  the  material. 
These  conditions  were  fully  recognized  by  the 
artists  of  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century,  and 
this  fact  accounts  largely  for  the  superiority 
of  their  productions  to  those  of  their  prede- 
cessors. In  the  best  glass  paintings  of  that  pe- 
riod there  is  always  an  abundance  of  light  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  window,  while  in  the 
choice  of  subjects  and  their  general  treatment 
the  artist  selected  those  that  could  be  made 
the  most  effective  with  the  least  shading. — 
Among  numerous  works  on  this  subject  are : 
Lasteyrie,  Histoire  de  la  peinture  sur  verre 
d^apres  des  monument  en  France  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1838-'5G);  Gessert,  OescMcJite  der  Glasmalerei 
(Stuttgart,  1889);  Ballantino,  "Treatise  on 
Painted  Glass  "  (London  and  Edinburgh,  1845) ; 
Bontemps,  Peinture  sur  verre  au  dix-neu- 
vieme  si&cle  (Paris,  1845) ;  Weale,  "  Ancient 
Painted  and  Stained  Glass"  (London,  1846); 
Winston,  "  Inquiry  into  the  Difference  of 
Stylo  observable  in  Ancient  Glass  Paintings, 
especially  in  England,  with  Hints  on  Glass 
Painting"  (London,  1847),  and  "An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Painted  Glass  "  (Oxford, 
1849) ;  Warrington,  "  History  of  Stained  Glass  " 
(London,  1848);  Fromberg,  "An  Essay  on  the 
Art  of  Painting  on  Glass"  (London,  1851); 
Bielfeld,  "  A  Guide  to  Painting  on  Glass  "  (Lon- 
don, 1856);  and  Winston,  "Memoirs  illustra- 
tive of  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting"  (1865). 

GLASS  SNAKE  (ophisaurus  ventralis,  Daud.), 
a  North  American  reptile,  improperly  called  a 
snake,  belonging  to  the  order  sauropJiidia  of 
Gray,  and  to  the  chalcidian  or  cyclosaurian 


Glass  Snake  (Ophisaurus  vcn trails). 

family  of  saurians  of  Dum6ril  and  Bibron.  The 
head  is  lizard-like,  sub-oval,  with  rounded 
snout,  covered  above  with  numerous  polygonal 
plates,  largo  anteriorly,  the  frontal  the  largest; 


28 


GLASS  SNAKE 


the  tongue  arrow-shaped,  triangularly  grooved 
in  front,  free  in  its  anterior  extremity,  on 
which  the  papillae  are  granular;  the  nostrils 
are  near  the  snout,  lateral,  opening  upward; 
the  eyes  are  small,  protected  by  two  movable 
unequal  lids ;  there  are  several  rows  of  short 
conical  teeth,  about  36  in  number,  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  chiefly  on  the  pterygoid  bones ; 
the  intermaxillary  teeth  are  conical,  the  max- 
illary simple  and  nearly  cylindrical,  about  40 
in  all  above  and  36  below ;  the  external  ear  is 
a  small  oval  opening  just  behind  the  angle  of 
the  mouth.  There  is  no  distinct  neck;  the 
body  is  elongated  and  snake-like,  covered  with 
small,  smooth,  slightly  imbricated  scales,  dis- 
posed in  circles  around  the  body,  about  120  in 
number ;  there  is  no  vestige  of  anterior  or  pos- 
terior limbs  externally,  and  only  their  rudiments 
internally ;  there  is  a  deep  groove  separating 
the  sides  of  the  body  from  the  abdomen,  most 
visible  during  respiration,  and  which  doubtless 
affords  the  free  movements  of  the  ends  of  the 
ribs  necessary  for  progression.  The  tail  forms 
at  least  two  thirds  of  the  total  length,  round, 
and  tapering  gradually  to  the  tip,  covered  with 
about  140  rings  of  scales.  Though  the  shape 
of  this  reptile  is  snake-like,  the  movable  lids, 
external  auditory  openings,  less  movable  verte- 
brae, less  extensile  tongue,  rudimentary  ster- 
num, and  above  all  the  consolidation  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull  and  jaws,  sufficiently  show 
its  saurian  affinities.  The  length  varies  from 
2£  to  3£  ft.  The  head  above  is  mottled  with 
black  and  green,  with  a  yellowish  tinge  on  the 
jaws ;  the  body  and  tail  above  are  marked 
with  longitudinal  and  transverse  lines  of  black, 
green,  and  yellow,  each  scale  marked  with 
these  three  colors;  the  under  surface  is  yel- 
lowish, brightest  on  the  abdomen ;  some  slight 
varieties  of  color  are  described.  It  is  found  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  southern  Virginia  to 
Florida,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi,  Mis- 
souri, and  Ohio  rivers ;  it  has  been  seen  west 
of  the  Alleghanies  as  far  north  as  Michigan. 
From  the  smallness  of  its  gape  it  cannot  de- 
stroy and  swallow  large  prey,  like  the  serpents ; 
it  cannot  climb  nor  swim,  but  passes  its  life  on 
the  surface  of  dry  places  or  in  natural  cavities 
in  the  ground,  living  principally  on  mollusks, 
insects,  annelids,  and  other  small  animals,  and 
perhaps  also  partly  on  vegetable  food  like  the 
sweet  potato.  It  can  move  with  considerable 
speed,  and  is  taken  uninjured  with  difficulty 
on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  the  joints 
of  the  tail  are  separated;  the  name  of  glass 
snake  was  given  on  account  of  this  extreme 
fragility.  The  breaking  of  the  tail  into  small 
pieces  in  this  and  in  some  scincoid  reptiles 
seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  reflex  action  in  the 
spinal  cord,  as  an  irritation  of  this  nervous  cen- 
tre will  cause  a  separation  even  after  the  tail 
is  divided  from  the  body.  Dr.  Burnett  ("  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory," vol.  iv.,  p.  223)  ascertained  that  the  cau- 
dal muscles  in  this  reptile  do  not  pass  from  one 
vertebra  to  another,  but  that  a  portion  are  in- 


GLASS   SPONGE 

serted  into  the  skin,  while  others  terminate  mid- 
way between  one  vertebra  and  the  next,  dove- 
tailed as  it  were  between  the  fibres  sent  from 
that  vertebra,  and  attached  to  them  only  by 
the  myolemma;  so  that  there  is  no  rupture  of 
muscular  fibres,  but  only  a  separation  of  one 
layer  of  muscles  from  the  adjoining  one,  when 
the  tail  of  the  animal  is  broken ;  the  detached 
portion  is  said  to  be  reproduced  in  a  year.  The 
glass  snake  in  its  anatomical  peculiarities  resem- 
bles the  chalcidian  amphisbaena  and  the  scin- 
coid blindworm  (anguis  fragilis). 

GLASS  SPONGE,  or  Glass  Rope,  a  silicious  sponge 
of  the  genus  hyalonema  (Gray) ;  the  name  may 
also  be  properly  applied  to  other  allied  genera, 
and  especially  to  the  euplectella,  which  will  be 
described  under  VENUS'S  FLOWER-BASKET.  This 
sponge  was  first  described  and  named  by  Dr. 
J.  E.  Gray,  of  the  British  museum,  in  1835 ; 
he  regarded  it  as  a  coral  allied  to  the  sea  fans 
(gorgonia),  an  opinion  to  which  he  still  adheres, 
against  what  seems  to  be  an  overwhelming 
mass  of  evidence.  As  usually  seen,  this  sponge 
consists  of  a  loosely  twisted  bundle  of  glassy 
threads,  diverging  at  one  end  and  converging 
at  fhe  other,  which  is  more  or  less  covered  with 
a  brown  crust,  studded  with  wart-like  cylin- 
drical elevations,  terminating  in  radiating  ridges. 
The  threads  are  mainly  composed  of  silex,  and 
are  shining,  translucent,  and  very  flexible  ;  the 
fascicle  varies  from  12  to  20  in.  in  length,  and 
is  about  half  an  inch  thick,  the  threads  ranging 
from  the  size  of  a  bristle  to  that  of  a  knitting 
needle.  The  wart-like  elevations  are  generally 
regarded  as  polyps,  of  the  genus  palythoa,  con- 
tinuous throughout  the  crust,  of  which  Dr. 
Gray  considers  the  fascicle  the  central  axis. 
The  convergent  end,  in  its  natural  state,  is  en- 
veloped in  a  spongy  mass,  the  fascicle  on  which 
Dr.  Gray  regarded  as  a  parasite.  The  opinions 
of  scientific  men  since  Gray  have  been  various. 
Prof.  Brandt  of  St.  Petersburg  considered  the 
sponge  a  parasite  attaching  itself  to  the  polyp 
mass  and  gradually  destroying  it.  Dr.  Bower- 
bank  regards  all  the  structures  above  named 
as  parts  of  one  sponge,  the  wart-like  elevations 
being  the  oscula.  Prof.  Schultze  of  Bonn  rep- 
resents the  fascicle  and  the  sponge  mass  as 
belonging  together,  the  warty  crust  being  re- 
ferred to  the  polyp  palythoa.  Ehrenberg  re- 
gards the  fascicle  as  an  artificial  product  of 
Japanese  industry,  and  all  sponges  as  of  vege- 
table nature.  In  1867  Prof.  Loven  described 
a  little,  stalked,  deep-sea  sponge  from  the  coast 
of  Norway,  the  H.  boreale,  which  led  him  and 
naturalists  since  to  the  belief  that  this  sponge 
had  been  represented  upside  down;  in  fact, 
that  the  glassy  threads  were  below,  mooring 
the  structure  to  the  sand,  mud,  or  weeds,  the 
sponge  mass  forming  the  upper  portion ;  an 
opinion  which  Dr.  Leidy  in  1870  modified  by 
suggesting  that  this  sponge  may  be  suspended 
by  its  glassy  cable,  thinking  it  highly  improba- 
ble that  it  should  be  attached  by  or  rest  upon 
the  base  where  the  large  oscula  are  placed. 
All  agree  that  there  is  a  sponge  mass  attached 


GLASS  SPONGE 


GLAUBER 


29 


to  this  compound  animal,  as  the  microscopic 
structure  of  the  threads  is  perfectly  character- 
istic of  sponge  spicules ;  their  silicious  charac- 
ter shows  that  they  are  not  formed  by  polyps ; 
the  sponge  mass  at  the  upper  end  consists  of 
an  elegant  tissue  of  dense 
masses  of  very  short  si- 
licious spicules,  forming 
a  kind  of  felt ;  the  ter- 
minal sponge  is  more  or 
less  cup-shaped,  with  an 
open  conical  central  cav- 
ity. All  but  Dr.  Bower- 
bank  admit  a  parasite, 
the  question  being  wheth- 
er the  polyp  is  a  para- 
site on  the  sponge,  or  the 
sponge  a  parasite  on  the 
polyp.  The  characters  of 
hyalonema  will  be  best 
understood  from  the  an- 
nexed figure.  H.  mira- 
lile  or  Sieboldi  is  found 
in  the  seas  around  Japan, 
near  Yokohama ;  H.  Lu- 
sitanicum  was  found  by 
Prof.  Bocage  of  Lisbon 
off  the  coast  of  Portu- 
gal ;  II.  ~boreale,  accord- 
ing to  Wyville  Thomp- 
son not  belonging  to  this 
genus  but  to  a  corticate 
type,  was  found  by  Prof. 
Loven  on  the  coast  of 
Norway ;  and  this  or  an 
allied  species  has  late- 
ly been  dredged  on  the 
northern  part  of  our  own 
coast.  Other  glass  sponges 
are  ffoltenia,  figured  in 
the  "American  Natural- 
ist" for  July,  1873,  and 
pheronema  and  rossella, 
figured  in  the  "  Popular 
Science  Monthly  "  for 
September,  1873.  Where 
men  like  Gray,  Bow- 
erbank,  Brandt,  and 
Schultze  entertain  such 
different  opinions,  after 
the  examination  of  hun- 
dreds of  specimens,  du- 
ring a  period  of  nearly 
40  years,  it  is  certainly 
very  difficult  to  decide 
whether  hyalonema  be 
wholly  a  sponge,  or 
which,  if  either,  the 
sponge  or  the  polyp,  ia 
the  parasite.  Dr.  Leidy, 
in  the  "American  Natu- 
ralist" for  March,  1870,  alludes  to  a  specimen, 
very  much  like  one  in  the  possession  of  the 
writer  of  this  article,  in  which  the  fascicle  ap- 
pears to  have  been  withdrawn  from  the  sponge 
and  lain  for  some  time  in  the  sea ;  a  shark's 


egg  is  also  attached  near  the  top,  and  the 
tendrils  of  others  are  partially  imbedded  in 
the  crust,  which  has  no  warty  elevations ;  this 
seems  to  favor  Dr.  Bowerbank's  opinion  that 
the  whole  is  a  sponge,  and  that  the  crust  is 
not  made  by  a  polyp. 

GLASTONBURY,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Somersetshire,  England,  25  m.  S.  W.  of  Bath ; 
pop.  in  1871,  3,670.  The  town  occupies  a  pen- 
insula, formerly  an  island  (Avalon),  in  the 
river  Brue.  It  derives  its  interest  and  im- 
portance almost  wholly  from  its  ruins,  promi- 
nent among  which  are  those  of  a  famous  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  founded,  it  is  said,  by  St.  Augus- 
tin  in  605,  rebuilt  in  great  splendor  about  a 
century  later,  and  enriched  by  the  liberality 
of  successive  princes  until  the  time  of  Ethelred 
I.  It  suffered  from  the  Danes,  and  before  the 
conquest,  when  the  Normans  robbed  it  of  both 
wealth  and  influence,  had  gained  considerable 
importance  and  celebrity.  Its  half  ruined  walls 
were  rebuilt  by  Stephen  and  Henry  II.,  and 
its  abbot  was  honored  with  a  mitre  and  a  seat 
among  the  barons  in  parliament.  At  one  time 
it  was  annexed  to  the  see  of  Wells,  the  incum- 
bent of  which  was  called  bishop  of  Glaston- 
bury.  On  the  suppression  of  monasteries  by 
Henry  VIII.  it  enjoyed  a  revenue  of  £3,508 
13*.  4£d.  In  1539  Richard  Whiting,  the  last 
abbot,  for  refusing  to  surrender  the  abbey  to 
the  king,  was  hanged  in  his  robes  on  Torhill 
with  two  of  his  monks.  The  abbey  ruins,  con- 
sisting of  portions  of  the  church,  the  chapel  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  a  building  called 
the  abbot's  kitchen,  are  comprised  in  a  quad- 
rangle of  60  acres,  which  was  once  encom- 
passed by  a  high  wall.  A  reputation  for  sanc- 
tity clung  to  Glastonbury  long  after  the  refor- 
mation, and  as  late  as  1751  10,000  invalids 
flocked  hither  in  a  single  month,  to  drink  from 
a  spring  said  to  cause  miraculous  cures. 

GLATZ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neisse,  52  m. 
S.  W.  of  Breslau  ;  pop.  in  1871,  11,541.  The 
town  is  defended  by  an  old  citadel,  a  modern 
fortress,  and  other  works.  It  manufactures 
cotton  fabrics,  leather,  and  hosiery,  and  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  gymnasium,  a  hospital,  infir- 
mary, and  barracks.  It  was  fortified  as  early 
as  the  llth  century,  and  has  sustained  numer- 
ous sieges.  It  was  taken  in  the  beginning  of 
the  thirty  years'  war  by  the  Protestants,  capit- 
ulated in  1622  to  the  imperial  troops,  and  in 
1742  to  the  Prussians.— The  territory  of  Glatz 
was  made  a  county  of  the  empire  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  15th  century  by  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick III.,  and  subsequently  formed  a  part  of 
the  Austrian  dominions,  until  occupied  by 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1742.  A  part  of  the 
Sudetic  mountains  is  often  designated  by  the 
name  of  Glatzer  Gebirge. 

GLAUBER,  Johann  Rudolf,  a  German  chemist, 
born  in  Karlstadt  in  1604,  died  in  Amsterdam 
in  1668.  He  was  a  physician  and  alchemist, 
boasted  of  wonderful  secrets,  and  was  called 
the  Paracelsus  of  his  age.  He  passed  his  life 


30 


GLAUBER'S  SALT 


In  his  laboratory,  successively  at  Salzburg, 
Frankfort,  Cologne,  and  Amsterdam,  first  ex- 
hibited the  production  of  artificial  salts,  and 
discovered  the  salt  to  which  his  name  is  given. 
He  wrote  voluminously  on  chemistry  and  al- 
chemy, and  his  works  were  translated  into 
English  by  C.  Packe  (London,  1689). 

U.U  Bl'it'S  SALT,  sulphate  of  soda,  found  na- 
tive, and  produced  artificially.  The  artificial 
salt  was  named  from  its  discoverer  (see  above), 
who  obtained  it  in  making  muriatic  acid.  The 
natural  suit  is  usually  met  with  as  an  efflores- 
cence, sometimes  deposited  around  hot  springs, 
as  at  Carlsbad  and  Cheltenham,  or  about  saline 
ponds,  as  in  the  country  between  the  head  wa- 
ters of  the  Arkansas  and  Santa  Fe,  on  the  route 
to  the  Rocky  mountains.  It  also  occurs  in  a 
cavern  near  a  volcano  on  the  island  of  Hawaii, 
where  it  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  vol- 
canic heat  and  gases  upon  the  sea  water.  It  is 
found  as  an  efflorescence  on  the  limestone  rocks 
below  the  Genesee  falls,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  It 
crystallizes  in  forms  derived  from  an  oblique 
rhombic  prism.  The  crystals  effloresce  in  the 
air,  and  lose  their  water  of  crystallization.  It 
is  most  soluble  in  water  at  the  temperature  of 
98*2°  F.,  when,  according  to  the  experiments 
of  Lowel,  412-22  parts  of  the  hydrated  salt  are 
dissolved  by  100  of  water;  at  77°  only  98-48 
parts  are  taken  up,  and  at  68°,  68*35  parts. 

.It  has  a  taste  cool  at  first,  then  saline 
and  bitter.  It  is  white,  transparent  to  opaque, 
<>f  vitreous  lustre,  of  hardness  from  1'5  to  2, 
and  specific  gravity  1-481.  Its  composition  is 
represented  by  the  formula  NaO,  SO.  +  10HO, 
making  its  equivalent  161,  and  the  percentage 
of  water  .r).V7'i.  It  is  artificially  prepared  by 
decomposing  common  salt  by  sulphuric  acid 
(as  in  the  preparation  of  hydrochloric  acid,  of 
which  pnxv^  it  is  the  residue),  with  an  excess 
of  acid,  which  is  taken  up  by  the  addition  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  very  largely  manufac- 
tured in  England  and  France  in  order  to  pre- 
pare from  it  carbonate  of  soda  and  soda  ash ; 
to  avoid  the  production  of  muriatic  acid,  a  pro- 
cess has  been  introduced  of  making  the  salt 
by  the  reaction  of  common  salt  and  sulphate 
of  iron  upon  each  other.  It  is  also  obtained 
as  a  residuum  in  the  manufacture  of  bleaching 
salts,  muriate  of  ammonia,  &c.,  and  from  sea 
water,  by  exposing  the  water  to  intense  cold, 

:his  the  least  soluble  salt,  separates  by 
crystallizing.— Sulphate  of  soda  is  principally 
of  value  as  a  medium  for  obtaining  the  other 
talts  of  soda.  Formerly  it  was  much  used  in 
medicine  as  an  aperient  and  diuretic ;  but  sul- 

of  magnesia  has  taken  its  place,  though 

11  sometimes  used  in  small  doses  in  com- 

:i  with  other  drugs.     By  dissolving  it 

in  hydrochloric  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  cold 

is  prodiiivl.  by  which  water  may  be  frozen  in 

'  1  wine  coolers  have  been  made 

designed  for  its  use,  in  which,  with  12  Ibs.  of 

the  salt  and  lo  Ibs.  of  m-id,  lo  to  12  Ibs.  of  ice 

•een  formed  in  an  Imur.  The  salt  is  an 
ingredient  in  some  kinds  of  glass. 


GLEIG 

GLAUCHAU,  a  town  of  Saxony,  in  the  circle 
of  Zwickau,  15  m.  W.  of  Chemnitz;  pop.  in 
1871,  22,036.  It  contains  an  old  and  extensive 
castle  and  several  churches.  Next  to  Chem- 
nitz it  is  the  most  important  manufacturing 
town  of  Saxony.  The  staple  articles  made  here 
are  woollen  and  half- woollen  goods,  paper,  and 
engines.  The  annual  exports  exceed  in  value 
$15,000,000.  Glauchau  has  12,000  looms,  and 
employs  many  persons  in  neighboring  localities. 
The  population  has  almost  quadrupled  within 
the  last  40  years,  and  the  number  of  master 
workmen  has  increased  from  300  in  1804  to 
more  than  2,000  in  1874. 

GLAUCUS.  I.  Of  Potniffi,  the  grandson  of 
^Eolus,  son  of  Sisyphus  and  Merope,  and  father 
of  Bellerophon.  To  make  his  mares  more 
swift  and  fierce,  he  prevented  them  from  breed- 
ing, and,  according  to  some,  fed  them  upon 
human  flesh.  This  incensed  the  gods,  and 
especially  Aphrodite ;  and  when  Glaucus  took 
part  with  his  chariot  and  horses  in  the  funeral 
games  of  Pelias  at  lolcus,  the  horses  in  mad- 
ness upset  the  chariot,  and,  according  to  some, 
tore  Glaucus  to  pieces.  He  was  afterward 
believed  to  haunt  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and 
to  frighten  horses  engaged  in  the  race.  One  of 
the  lost  tragedies  of  ^Eschylus  was  named  from 
him.  II.  Of  Anthedon  in  Bceotia,  a  fisherman 
who  ate  of  the  divine  herb  planted  by  Saturn, 
and  became  immortal.  He  built  the  ship  Argo, 
and  was  her  steersman.  In  the  sea  fight  against 
the  Tyrrhenians,  he  alone  was  unhurt;  he 
leaped  overboard,  sank  to  the  bottom,  and  be- 
came a  sea  divinity.  He  was  said  to  visit  the 
coast  of  Greece  annually,  and  was  revered  by 
fisherman  and  sailors.  His  many  loves  were 
a  favorite  subject  with  poets.  Aristotle  says 
that  he  delivered  oracles  at  Delos,  which  by 
some  were  more  esteemed  than  those  of 
Apollo.  Philistratus  describes  a  statue  of  him, 
half  man  and  half  fish.  He  was  often  repre- 
sented on  the  stage  by  the  Greek  dramatists. 

GLEIG,  George  Robert,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  Stirling,  April  20,  1796.  He  abandoned  his 
studies  at  Oxford  to  join  as  a  volunteer  a  regi- 
ment going  to  Spain  in  1813,  and  served  both  in 
the  Peninsula  and  in  America.  On  retiring  from 
the  army  he  resumed  his  studies  at  Oxford, 
took  his  degree,  was  ordained,  and  in  1844 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  Chelsea  hospital, 
and  in  1846  chaplain  general  to  the  forces. 
His  exertions  to  establish  a  system  of  educa- 
tion for  the  soldiers  gained  for  him  the  office 
of  inspector  general  of  military  schools.  His 
works  are  for  the  most  part  histories  or  novels. 
Of  the  former,  "The  Family  History  of  Ens- 
land"  (1836;  2d  ed.,  1854)  and  the  "Military 
History  of  Great  Britain"  (1845)  are  most  es- 
teemed; and  of  the  latter,  "The  Subaltern" 
(1825),  "Chelsea  Pensioners"  (1829),  and 
"  Country  Curate  "  (1834).  His  eulogistic  "  Me- 
moir of  Warren  Hastings"  (1841)  has  been  se- 
verely criticised.  In  1858  he  collected  two 
volumes  of  his  "Essays,"  chiefly  from  the 
"Edinburgh"  and  " Quarterly "  reviews,  and 


GLEIM 

1859  published  his  chief  work,  a  life  of  the 
duke  of  Wellington  (new  ed.,  1862). 

GLEIM,  Johann  Wilhelm  Lndwig,  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Ermsleben,  near  Halberstadt, 
April  2,  1719,  died  in  the  latter  town,  Feb.  18, 
1803.  He  published  odes,  fables,  tales,  and 
songs,  which  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  the 
German  Anacreon.  His  Siegeslied  nach  der 
ScJilacht  bei  BossbacJi  is  the  most  famous  of  his 
battle  songs.  Gleim  was  very  popular  in  Ger- 
many, and  exercised  for  about  40  years  a  mas- 
ter influence  on  literature.  He  was  a  bachelor, 
but  his  home,  kept  by  his  accomplished  niece 
Sophie  Dorothea  Gleim  (celebrated  in  his  songs 
under  the  name  of  Gleminde),  was  a  favorite 
resort  of  poets  and  scholars.  An  edition  of 
his  works  (7  vols.,  Halberstadt,  1811-'13)  was 
completed  by  an  8th  volume  (Leipsic,  1841). 

GLEIWITZ,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Klodnitz,  40  m.  S.  E.  of  Oppeln;  pop.  in  1871, 
12,939.  It  has  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  a  Prot- 
estant and  two  Catholic  churches,  a  synagogue, 
a  convent,  a  hospital,  and  barracks,  and  is  the 
centre  of  the  mining  and  smelting  industry  of 
upper  Silesia. 

GLENCOE,  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  gloomy 
of  the  Scottish  glens,  in  the  district  of  Lorn, 
Argyleshire,  about  10  m.  long,  and  enclosed  by 
lofty  mountains.  The 
lower  part  of  the  glen 
near  Loch  Leven  is  cul- 
tivated and  wooded,  but 
the  upper  part  is  ex- 
ceedingly rugged  and 
barren,  the  mountains 
rising  almost  perpen- 
dicularly in  fantastic 
forms,  seamed  with 
deep  furrows  worn  by 
the  winter  torrents.  A 
small  lake,  from  which 
issues  the  Cona,  lies  in 
the  middle  of  the  val- 
ley. The  path  through 
the  glen  is  lined  by  im- 
mense masses  of  rock. 
Near  its  N.  W.  extrem- 
ity is  the  scene  of  the 
' '  massacre  of  Glencoe. ' ' 
After  the  revolution  of 
1688  many  of  the  Scot- 
tish clans  continued  in 

arms  for  King  James  against  King  William.  In 
August,  1691,  the  government  of  William  issued 
a  proclamation  offering  an  amnesty  to  such  in- 
surgents as  should  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
on  or  before  Dec.  31.  All  the  chiefs  sub- 
mitted within  the  prescribed  time  except  the 
aged  Maclan  or  Macdonald  of  Glencoe,  whose 
tribe,  a  few  hundred  in  number,  inhabited  this 
secluded  valley.  On  Dec.  31  he  went  to  Fort 
William  and  offered  to  take  the  oath ;  but  the 
colonel  in  command,  not  being  a  magistrate, 
could  not  administer  the  oath,  and  referred  the 
chief  to  the  sheriff  at  Inverary,  before  whom 
Macdonald  took  the  oath,  on  Jan.  6, 1692.  The 
363  VOL.  vin. — 3 


GLENDOWER 


31 


earls  of  Breadalbane  and  Argyll,  and  the  mas- 
ter of  Stair,  who  were  then  in  London,  deter- 
mined to  avail  themselves  of  this  unintentional 
delay  to  effect  the  destruction  of  the  tribe  of 
Macdonald,  to  whom  Argyll  and  Breadalbane 
were  hereditary  enemies.  The  master  of  Stair 
was  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland,  and  by 
representing  to  William  that  Glencoe  had  not 
submitted,  and  that  the  dwellers  in  the  valley, 
whom  he  described  as  a  band  of  robbers,  were 
the  only  remaining  obstacle  to  the  complete 
pacification  of  the  highlands,  he  obtained  an 
order  for  their  extirpation.  It  was  executed 
with  horrible  treachery  and  cruelty.  On  Feb.  1 
a  body  of  120  soldiers,  commanded  by  Campbell 
of  Glenlyon,  was  sent  to  occupy  Glencoe.  Pro- 
fessing peace  and  friendship,  they  were  received 
with  the  kindest  hospitality,  and  for  nearly  a 
fortnight  lived  at  free  quarters  in  the  utmost 
familiarity  with  the  people.  On  the  evening 
of  Feb.  12  the  officers  supped  at  Macdonald's 
house.  That  same  night  the  massacre  was  be- 
gun. Macdonald  and  two  of  his  attendants 
were  murdered,  and  his  wife  received  such  bar- 
barous treatment  that  she  died  the  next  day. 
About  40  persons  were  killed  that  night.  De- 
tachments of  soldiers  were  sent  to  guard  the 
outlets  of  the  valley ;  but  they  arrived  too  late, 


Pass  of  Glencoe. 

and  many  of  the  inhabitants  escaped  half  naked 
to  the  mountains,  where  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  the  women  and  children  perished  of  cold 
and  hunger.  In  the  morning  the  assassins  set 
the  village  on  fire,  and  took  away  with  them 
all  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  valley.  No  pun- 
ishment was  inflicted  on  the  authors  of  this 
crime.  A  graphic  account  of  the  massacre  of 
Glencoe  is  given  by  Macaulay  in  his  "History 
of  England,"  vol.  iv.,  exonerating  King  Wil- 
liam. Other  able  writers  inculpate  him,  and 
the  question  has  been  very  warmly  debated. 

GLENDOWER,  or  Glendwr,  Owen,  a  Welsh  chief- 
tain, born  in  Merionethshire  about  1349,  died 


M 


GLENGARRY 


Sept.  20,  1415.  His  father  was  Gryffydd  Vy- 
chan,  and  his  mother,  Elena,  was  granddaugh- 
ter if  Llewellyn,  the  last  Welsh  prince  of 
Wales  He  studied  law  at  the  inns  of  court  in 
London  and  became  a  barrister,  but  soon  quit- 
ted the  profession  for  that  of  arms.  He  was 
made  squire  of  the  body  to  Richard  II.,  to 
whom  ho  !ulh«Ted  throughout  his  disastrous 
In  1387  he  was  knighted,  and  at  an 
early  ago  married  Margaret,  daughter  of  Sir 
David  llanmer.  After  the  deposition  of  Rich- 
ard II.,  he  retired  to  his  lordship  of  Glen- 
dwrdwy  in  Wales.  His  retirement  was  wrong- 
fully construed  into  disloyalty  to  the  new  king 
Henry  IV.,  and  his  estates  were  declared  for- 
feited, and  seized  by  Lord  Grey  de  Ruthyn,  an 
Anglo-Norman  nobleman  whose  domains  ad- 
join.d  those  of  Glendower.  Glendower  then 
proclaimed  himself  prince  of  Wales,  and  called 
his  countrymen  to  arms.  The  Welsh  bards 
espoused  the  cause  of  Glendower,  and  he  was 
soon  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force  of  en- 
thusiastic partisans.  In  the  summer  of  1400  he 
seized  the  estates  of  Lord  Grey.  That  noble- 
man in  reprisal,  with  the  help  of  Lord  Talbot, 
who  had  been  sent  to  his  assistance  by  the 
king,  surprised  the  residence  of  Glendower, 
who  narrowly  escaped  capture.  Rallying  his 
followers,  he  pillaged  and  burned  the  town  of 
Ruthyn,  and  made  such  progress  that  the  king 
in  person  took  the  field  against  him.  A  long 
contest  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  Glen- 
dower in  1402  made  prisoner  his  old  enemy 
Lord  Grey,  whom  he  compelled  to  pay  a  ran- 
som of  10,000  marks  and  to  marry  his  fourth 
daughter,  Jane ;  he  also  captured  Sir  Edward 
Mortimer,  but  treated  him  with  such  kindness 
that  he  became  Glendower's  partisan,  and  ar- 
ranged for  him  an  alliance  with  the  Percys  of 
Northumberland.  The  confederates  agreed  to 
divide  the  kingdom  among  themselves.  Glen- 
dower then  called  together  the  estates  of 
Wales,  and  was  formally  crowned  prince  at 
Machynlleth.  In  1403  the  confederates  gave 
battle  to  Henry  near  Shrewsbury,  and  were  de- 
feated, Percy  being  killed.  Glendower  in  1404 
entered  into  alliance  with  France,  and  gained 
some  victories;  but  in  March,  1405,  he  was 
defeated  at  Grosmont  castle  and  at  Mynydd 
pwl  Melyn,  losing  2,300  men.  He  wandered 
about,  hiding  himself  in  woods  and  caves,  until 
the  French  king  sent  him  12,000  men,  to  whom 
Glendower  joined  11,000  Welsh,  and  marching 
into  England,  penetrated  as  far  as  Worcester. 
But  after  several  indecisive  engagements  the 
allies  retreated  into  Wales,  and  shortly  after- 
ward the  French  returned  to  their  own  coun- 
I'or  some  years  Glendower  waged  a  par- 
tisan and  predatory  war,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
•l.-.ith  was  negotiating  with  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot, 
who  had  been  sent  by  Henry  V.  to  offer  him 
til  followers  a  free  pardon.  Glendower 
had  five  daughters  and  several  sons,  most  or 
Jill  of  whom  t'.-il  in  kittl,-  iti  1400. 

umctKKY.  mi  K.  county  of  Ontario,  Cana- 
da, bordering  on  Quebec  and  the  river  St.  Law- 


GLOBE 

rence:  area,  462  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  20,524,  of 
whom  15,899  were  of  Scotch,  2,607  of  French, 
1  279  of  Irish,  and  509  of  English  origin.  It 
is  watered  by  several  streams,  and  is  intersected 
by  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Montreal  and  Ot- 
tawa Junction  railroads.  Capital,  Alexandria. 

GLEN'S  FALLS,  a  village  of  Warren  co.,  New 
York,  situated  on  the  Hudson  river,  which  is 
here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  at  the  terminus  of  a 
branch  of  the  Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  railroad, 
46  m.  N.  of  Albany  ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,500.  The 
surrounding  country  is  rugged,  and  in  the  vi- 
cinity are  quarries  of  black  marble.  The  river, 
here  flowing  through  a  ravine,  descends  50  ft. 
over  a  rocky  precipice  900  ft.  long.  The  vil- 
lage is  connected  by  a  feeder  with  the  Cham- 
plain  canal,  and  contains  a  planing  mill,  two 
saw  mills,  a  tannery,  a  brewery,  a  flour  mill,  a 
foundery  and  machine  shop,  and  manufactories 
of  carriages,  lime,  pumps,  &c.  Elmwood  semi- 
nary, for  the  superior  instruction  of  females, 
and  Glen's  Falls  academy  are  flourishing  insti- 
tutions. There  are  two  national  banks,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  six  churches. 

GLIDDON,  George  Robins,  an  American  Egyp- 
tologist, born  in  Devonshire,  England,  in  1809, 
died  in  Panama,  Nov.  16,  1857.  He  went  at 
an  early  age  to  Alexandria,  where  his  father 
was  a  merchant  and  also  United  States  con- 
sul. He  resided  in  Egypt  23  years,  and  was 
during  part  of  the  time  United  States  vice  con- 
sul at  Cairo.  After  leaving  Egypt  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  lectured  at  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia,  on  Egyptian  antiqui- 
ties. At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  agent 
for  the  Honduras  inter-oceanic  railway  com- 
pany. He  was  the  author  of  "  Appeal  to  the 
Antiquaries  of  Europe  on  the  Destruction  of 
the  Monuments  of  Egypt "  (1841) ;  "  Discourses 
on  Egyptian  Archaeology"  (London,  1841); 
"  Otia  jftgyptiaca  "  (1849)  ;  "  Ancient  Egypt " 
(4to,  London  and  Philadelphia,  1850;  new  ed., 
8vo,  London,  1853) ;  "  Types  of  Mankind," 
written  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  J.  C.  Nott  and 
others  (Philadelphia,  1 854) ;  "  Indigenous  Races 
of  the  Earth,"  also  with  Dr.  Nott  and  others 
(Philadelphia,  1857) ;  and  an  essay  on  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

GLOBE,  Artificial,  a  hollow  sphere,  on  the  sur- 
face of  which  is  delineated  a  map  of  the  earth 
or  heavens,  with  the  various  circles  to  which 
points  are  referred  to  determine  their  positions. 
Globes  are  thus  of  two  sorts,  terrestrial  and 
celestial.  They  serve  as  models  to  impart  cor- 
rect ideas  of  the  form  and  movements  of  the 
earth  and  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  of  their  po- 
sition in  relation  to  each  other  at  different 
times,  of  the  relative  positions  of  places  upon 
the  earth,  and  of  the  principle  of  designating 
these  by  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude.  Globes 
are  also  applied  to  the  mechanical  solution  of 
various  astronomical  problems,  as  the  difference 
of  time  in  different  places,  dependent  on  the 
position  of  the  sun  in  relation  to  those  places, 
the  times  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  at 
any  place,  and  many  other  similar  questions, 


GLOBE 


may  be  approximately  determined  with- 
out recourse  to  mathematical  calculations.  But 
it  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the  clear  instruction 
in  general  geography,  which  many  persons  fail 
to  derive  from  maps,  that  globes  are  especially 
valuable.  It  is  not  known  when  they  were 
first  constructed  ;  but  the  first  celestial  globe  is 
supposed  to  have  been  made  by  Anaximander 
of  Miletus,  a  pupil  of  Thales,  who  flourished  in 
the  6th  century  B.  C.  Ptolemy  made  use  of 
a  terrestrial  globe  provided  with  the  universal 
meridian,  such  as  is  applied  to  those  now  in 
use.  Martin  Behaim,  the  navigator,  constructed 
a  terrestrial  globe  at  Nuremberg  toward  the 
close  of  the  15th  century.  Tycho  Brahe  had 
one  of  copper  nearly  5  ft.  in  diameter.  Another 
was  made  in  Venice  in  1683  for  Louis  XIV., 
12  ft.  in  diameter.  Another,  11  ft.  in  diameter, 
constructed  by  Brousch  of  Limburg,  attracted 
the  attention  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  purchased 
it  and  removed  it  to  St.  Petersburg.  It  was 
large  enough  to  accommodate  12  persons  sitting 
around  a  table  within  it.  Its  inner  surface  was 
celestial,  the  stars  being  represented  by  gilded 
nails;  and  the  outer  surface  was  terrestrial. 
The  national  library  of  Paris  has  two  globes 
of  over  14  ft.  diameter.  A  magnificent  copper 
globe  made  for  Louis  XVI.  is  in  the  Mazarin 
library  ;  and  another  of  the  same  material  and 
of  admirable  workmanship,  designed  by  Poir- 
son  for  the  instruction  of  the  king  of  Rome, 
and  bought  by  Louis  XVIII.  for  36,000  francs, 
belongs  to  the  museum  of  the  Louvre.  In  1851 
a  large  globe  of  novel  construction  was  built 
in  Leicester  square,  London,  by  Mr.  Wyld.  It 
was  56  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the  delineations 
were  upon  the  inside  only.  These  were  model- 
led in  slabs  of  plaster  of  Paris,  which  were  set 
like  a  ceiling  on  the  ribs  of  zinc  which  formed 
the  framework  of  the  structure.  The  slabs 
were  cast  in  clay  moulds,  which  were  prepared 
with  care  from  the  most  correct  maps  on  a 
scale  of  10  miles  to  the  inch.  About  6,000 
slabs  were  required  to  cover  the  whole  surface, 
their  dimensions  varying  from  two  feet  square 
as  the  width  diminished  toward  the  poles.  The 
topographical  features  were  represented  in  re- 
lief, and  the  surface  painted  in  colors.  A  stair- 
way wound  around  from  the  base,  by  which 
the  circular  platforms  one  above  another  were 
reached  that  brought  the  spectators  near  to 
the  inner  surface  of  the  great  shell. — The  globes 
used  by  geographers  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  were  very  similar  to  those  now  in  use. 
Much  attention  was  directed  to  their  manufac- 
ture, and  a  treatise  on  their  construction  and 
use  was  published  in  1769  by  George  Adams. 
The  first  requisite  is  a  ball  to  receive  the  printed 
map ;  this  is  therefore  first  accurately  measured, 
and  due  allowance  is  made  for  the  shrinking 
each  segment  will  experience  after  being  wet. 
The  diameter  being  determined,  a  silver-steel 
semicircle  H  in.  wide  and  £  in.  thick  is  next 
made,  of  precisely  half  this  diameter  less  that 
of  the  wires  intended  for  the  poles.  A  globe 
of  wood  is  now  made  three  eighths  of  an  inch 


less  in  diameter  than  the  steel  circle.  Into  two 
opposite  points  of  this  so-called  mould  bits  of 
No.  7  wire  are  inserted  for  poles.  Dry  paper 
is  laid  all  over  it  to  prevent  the  pasted  paper 
to  be  next  laid  from  adhering.  This  is  of  coarse 
heavy  quality,  and  eight  or  ten  layers  saturated 
with  paste  are  applied  in  succession  as  evenly 
as  possible,  covering  the  whole  surface.  As  this 
coating  becomes  dry,  it  shrinks  and  fits  tightly 
over  the  mould.  It  is  then  hung  by  the  poles 
in  the  front  edge  of  a  bench  fitted  to  receive 
it,  and  by  applying  a  knife  on  the  line  of  the 
equator  while  the  ball  is  made  to  revolve,  the 
shell  is  cut  through,  so  that  it  may  be  taken 
off  the  mould  in  two  hemispheres.  This  being 
done,  a  turned  stick  of  right  length,  with  a 
short  wire  in  each  end  for  poles,  is  introduced, 
one  end  in  each  hemisphere,  and  the  two  shells 
being  brought  together  are  secured  by  glueing 
their  edges.  The  ball,  called  in  its  present 
state  the  foundation,  is  placed  in  the  steel 
semicircle,  and  coated  with  a  composition  of 
glue  and  whiting.  Being  made  to  revolve,  the 
excess  of  the  composition  is  removed  by  the 
circle,  and  the  ball  is  thus  turned  smooth  and 
true,  after  which  it  is  carefully  dried.  The 
next  process  is  to  lay  out  the  lines  of  latitude 
and  longitude,  which  is  done  by  a  beam  com- 
pass, commencing  with  the  colures  and  eclip- 
tic. The  first  meridian  is  usually  made  to  pass 
through  the  intersections  of  the  equator  and 
ecliptic,  the  points  of  the  vernal  and  autumnal 
equinoxes ;  and  from  the  former  of  these  points 
the  reckoning  of  the  degrees  on  the  equator 
and  ecliptic  begins.  The  maps  are  now  to  be 
cut  on  the  engraved  meridians  of  each  15°, 
thus  making  24  segments ;  and  these  are  pasted 
in  succession  with  white  paste  upon  the  foun- 
dation, the  lines  drawn  upon  it  serving  as  guides. 
The  fitting  requires  great  care,  that  the  edges 
may  be  made  to  exactly  coincide,  and  some 
stretching  of  the  equatorial  portions  is  some- 
times requisite.  When  dry  the  paper  covering 
is  colored,  and  then  sized  with  gelatine  and 
immediately  varnished.  The  final  process  be- 
fore mounting  is  to  dry  again  at  200°  F.  Holtz- 
apftel  says :  "  A  globe  is  usually  covered  with 
26  pieces  of  paper,  namely,  2  pole  papers  or 
circles,  including  30°  around  each  pole,  and  24 
gores  meeting  at  the  equator.  Sometimes  the 
gores  extend  from  the  pole  to  the  equator; 
every  gore  has  then  a  narrow  curved  central 
notch  extending  30°  from  the  equator."  The 
globe  is  hung  for  support  by  its  poles  in  a  brass 
circle,  which  goes  round  it  and  is  called  the 
universal  meridian,  inasmuch  as  any  point  upon 
the  surface  of  the  globe  revolving  in  this  may 
be  brought  under  it.  It  is  divided  into  de- 
grees, which  on  one  side  are  reckoned  from 
either  pole  toward  the  equator  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  the  elevation  of  the  poles,  and  on  the 
other  from  the  equator  toward  either  pole,  to 
be  used  for  finding  the  latitude  of  places.  A 
frame  or  stand  is  prepared  to  receive  the  globe 
with  its  brass  circle,  the  top  presenting  a  broad 
horizontal  circle  with  two  vertical  slots  placed 


34 


GLOBE 


opposite  each  other  for  receiving  the  brass 
meridian,  which  when  adjusted  is  free  to  slide 
around  in  its  own  plane,  so  that  the  poles  may 
be  upright,  horizontal,  or  at  any  angle  to  the 
horizontal  circle.  Around  this  circle,  which 
represents  the  rational  horizon  or  imaginary 
plane  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
are  drawn  several  concentric  circles ;  the  inner- 
most represents  the  horizon,  and  the  slots  for 
the  brass  circle  are  on  the  N.  and  S.  points ; 
the  degrees  on  the  northern  two  quadrants  are 
reckoned  from  E.  and  W.  toward  the  N.,  and 
those  on  the  southern  toward  the  S.  Outside 
of  this  is  the  circle  representing  the  calendar, 
with  the  names  of  the  months  and  divisions 
corresponding  to  the  days.  The  next  circle 
contains  the  signs  and  degrees  of  the  ecliptic, 
so  arranged  that  against  each  day  of  the  year 
is  found  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  in  which  the 
sun  is  situated.  In  some  globes  the  horizontal 
circle  is  made  to  revolve.  It  is  attached  to 
arms  which  extend  below  the  brass  meridian 
and  unite,  supporting  the  adjusting  clamp 
which  supports  the  brass  meridian.  A  taper 
pin  extends  down  three  inches  from  the  lowest 
part  of  the  arms,  and  fits  into  a  socket  in  the 
iron  base,  thus  securing  by  the  revolutions  of 
the  meridian  and  horizon  in  their  own  planes 
the  effect  of  a  universal  joint,  so  that  any  part 
of  the  globe  can  be  brought  under  observa- 
tion without  changing  the  position  of  the  base. 
To  the  N.  pole  of  the  globe  is  attached  a  small 
circle  of  brass,  called  the  hour  circle,  the  pole 
passing  through  its  centre,  and  holding  it  so 
that  the  two  move  round  together,  but  yet  per- 
mitting the  hour  circle  to  be  moved  round  by 
the  hand  upon  the  axis.  The  circle  is  divided 
into  24  equal  parts,  corresponding  to  the  hours 
of  the  day,  and  any  one  of  these  can  be  placed 
upon  any  meridian  by  turning  the  circle.  The 
quadrant  of  altitude  is  a  brass  slip  equal  in 
length  to  a  quarter  of  the  circumference,  and 
divided  into  90°.  It  is  fastened  to  the  brass 
meridian,  and  is  used  for  measuring  degrees  in 
any  direction  on  the  globe.  A  mariner's  com- 
pass is  sometimes  attached  to  the  frame  of  the 
globe  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  meridian 
in  a  N.  and  S.  line.  The  various  circles  con- 
nected with  the  terrestrial  globe  are  equally 
appropriate  to  the  celestial ;  and  as  the  latter 
are  ordinarily  constructed,  the  observer  is  sup- 
posed to  be  looking  down  upon  the  heavens 
presenting  a  convex  surface,  upon  which  the 
•tan  and  constellations  are  mapped  in  their 
proper  relative  positions.  To  render  the  na- 
ture of  the  imaginary  circles  to  which  the 
points  upon  both  globes  are  referred  more 
clear  for  the  student,  the  armillary  sphere  was 
contrived,  which  consists  of  the  several  circles 
in  the  f..rm  of  -rn.luated  brass  rings  placed  in 
their  appropriate  positions,  and  containing  in 
the  centre  a  small  globe  representing  the  earth. 
These  circles  are  the  horizon,  meridian,  equator. 
.  equinoctial  colure,  and  the  solstitial 
colure.  The  sphere  formed  by  them  is  sup- 
ported in  a  frame  in  the  same  manner  as  the 


GLOBIGERINA 

globes.— Celestial  and  terrestrial  globes  are 
sometimes  combined,  the  latter  being  enclosed 
in  a  glass  sphere  marked  with  the  constella- 
tions. Globes  are  sometimes  made  also  of 
India  rubber  or  thin  paper,  and  so  contrived 
that  they  may  be  inflated  with  air.  Some  ter- 
restrial globes  contain,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
geographical  delineations,  geological  strata,  at- 
mospheric currents,  isothermal  lines,  hydro- 
graphic  information,  and  trade  routes ;  and  in 
some  the  land  is  represented  in  relief.  Slate 
globes  for  school  use  are  made  with  only  the 
lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  drawn  on  them ; 
and  wooden  globes,  painted  black  and  similar- 
ly marked,  are  constructed,  on  which  maps  are 
drawn  with  chalk. 
GLOBE  FISH.  See  SEA  PORCUPINE. 
GLOBIGERINA)  a  microscopic  protozoan  ani- 
mal, of  the  foraminiferous  order  of  the  class  of 
rhizopods.  The  body  is  composed  of  simple 
sarcode  or  protoplasmic  matter,  enclosed  in  a 
shell  pierced  by  numerous  mi- 
nute openings,  through  which  a 
film  of  the  animal  substance  is 
exuded,  capable  of  thro  wing  out 
small  thread-like  processes,  or 
pseudopodia.  The  animals  in- 
crease by  budding,  each  sarcode 
mass  being  enveloped  in  its  cal- 
careous shell,  but  connected  irregularly  with 
all  the  rest  of  the  colony ;  there  is  no  definite 
shape,  the  mass  being  compared  by  Huxley  to 
that  of  a  badly  grown  raspberry.  Recent 
deep-sea  dredgings  (in  the  Gulf  stream  at  a 
depth  of  3,100  ft.,  near  the  Faroe  islands  at  a 
depth  of  3,900  ft.,  off  Cape  Farewell,  Green- 
land, at  7,560  ft.,  and  between  the  Azores  and 
Newfoundland  at  10,000  ft.,  and  in  the  north 
Atlantic  at  still  greater  depths  in  the  track  of 
the  Atlantic  cable)  have  brought  up  the  sheila 
of  living  globigerinffi  from  the  calcareous  ooza 
of  the  ocean  bottom.  In  the  compound  proto- 
plasmic animal  to  which  the  name  of  'bathybiw 
has  been  given,  are  found  globigerinso,  with 
coccoliths  and  coccospheres ;  the  ancient  chalk 
deposits  are  made  up  almost  entirely,  in  many 
specimens,  of  remains  of  the  three  last  named 
animals,  the  same  as  those  now  living  on  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  the  great  central  plain 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  1,000  m.  wide  and  many 
hundreds  in  length,  nearly  level,  is  covered 
with  a  chalky  mud  containing  innumerable  glo- 
bigerinee  with  their  attendant  coccoliths  and 
coccospheres,  and  the  deeper  the  sea  the  larger 
are  these  animals.  They  doubtless  constitute 
the  food  of  the  star  fishes,  which  also  have  been 
dredged  from  these  great  depths.  There  is  no 
reason  to  think  that  the  habits  and  the  habitats 
of  the  ancient  chalk  animals  were  different  from 
those  of  the  living  globigerinae  ;  hence  we  may 
conclude  that  the  chalk  formation,  constituting 
a  large  part  of  southern  Great  Britain  and  cen- 
tral and  southern  Europe,  often  1,000  ft.  thick, 
is  the  dried  and  elevated  mud  of  an  ancient 
deep  sea.  From  the  fact  that  this  present 
deep-sea  fauna  is  apparently  identical  with  that 


wl 

b", 


GLOGAU 

the  ancient  chalk,  there  seems  to  be  some 
>und  for  the  statement  that  the  cretaceous 
eriod  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  has  extended 
the  present  time.  For  very  interesting  sug- 
ions  concerning  the  geology  and  antiquity 
involved  in  the  study  of  these  animals,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  a  lecture  by  Prof.  Huxley 
"  On  a  Piece  of  Chalk,"  delivered  in  1868,  and 
published  in  "  Lay  Sermons  and  Addresses  " 
ew  York,  1871).  (See  BATHYBIUS,  Cocco- 

HS,  and  FOKAMINIFERA.) 

GLOGAIJ,  or  Gross-Glogan,  a  town  of  Prussian 
sia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  54  m. 

.  W.  of  Breslau;  pop.  in  1871,  18,265.      It 
strongly  fortified,  and  contains  an  old  cas- 
four  churches,  a  Protestant  and  a  Koman 

tholic  gymnasium,  extensive  barracks,  and 

veral  hospitals.     It  is  connected  by  a  bridge 

ith  an  island  in  the  Oder,  on  which  stand  the 
cathedral  and  a  strong  fortress,  built  in  1260. 
The  town  has  manufactories  of  cotton,  wool- 
len, and  linen  goods,  sealing  wax,  and  tobacco. 
A  principality  of  Glogau  was  founded  in  1252 
by  the  third  son  of  Duke  Henry  II.  of  Silesia. 
In  the  following  century  it  was  made  a  duchy, 
— hich  became  extinct  in  1506.  The  town  was 

rned  in  1420  and  in  1615. 

GLOMMEN,  the  largest  river  of  Norway,  ri- 
sing in  the  mountains  of  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
province  of  Drontheim,  near  lat.  63°  N".,  and 
flowing  for  the  most  part  nearly  due  S.  through 
several  lakes,  into  the  Skager  Back.  Its  length 
is  about  360  m.  The  entire  valley  through 
which  it  flows  is  remarkable  for  picturesque 
scenery,  cataracts,  and  forests  of  pine,  produ- 
cing the  finest  timber  in  Europe.  From  the 
town  of  Roraas  to  the  Ojeren  lake,  the  river  is 
a  mountain  torrent.  The  head  of  navigation 
is  at  Sarpsborg,  about  10  m.  from  the  mouth. 
The  Glommen  has  more  than  20  cataracts,  the 
principal  one  being  the  celebrated  Sarpfoss, 
half  a  mile  above  Sarpsborg.  The  river,  a  short 
distance  above,  is  divided  into  two  branches, 
which  flow  in  parallel  directions  to  the  sea. 
The  E.  branch,  having  forced  its  way  through 
a  rugged  defile,  reaches  the  brink  of  a  preci- 
pice, where,  although  divided  at  the  summit 
by  a  projecting  cliff,  it  falls  an  unbroken  cas- 
cade, about  75  ft.  The  abyss  is  strewn  with 
large  masses  of  granite,  which  break  the  vol- 
ume of  water  into  vast  sheets  of  foam.  On 
the  brink  of  the  fall  the  stream  is  about  120 
ft.  wide,  and  from  26  to  30  ft.  deep,  according 
to  the  season.  The  rapids,  for  a  short  distance 
inward,  are  remarkably  fine. 

GLORY  PEA,  a  name  given  by  Australians  to 
plants  of  the  genus  cliantTius,  of  the  order 
leguminosce,  especially  to  the  species  named,  in 
honor  of  the  navigator  Dampier,  C.  Dampieri. 
This  is  found  in  the  desert  regions  of  Australia 
as  a  low  straggling  shrub  with  light-colored, 
hairy,  pinnate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  borne 
in  clusters  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and 
are  very  singular  in  form  and  brilliant  in  color ; 
the  standard  or  banner  petal  of  the  flower  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  an  elongated  shield  of 


GLOUCESTER 


35 


the  most  intense  scarlet  color,  with  a  boss  in 
the  centre  of  so  dark  a  brown  as  to  appear 
black.  For  many  years  this  had  been  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  raise  of  all 
greenhouse  plants,  it  being  very  impatient  of 
any  disturbance  of  the  root,  and  being  subject 


Glory  Pea  (Clianthus  Dampieri). 

to  the  attacks  of  insects,  but  it  was  finally 
discovered  that  it  would  succeed  well  by  sow- 
ing the  seeds  in  the  open  border.  They  should 
be  sown  after  the  soil  is  well  warmed  by  the 
sun,  in  the  place  where  the  plants  are  intended 
to  remain. 

GLOSSOP,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  England, 
19  m.  N.  W.  of  Sheffield ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,074, 
and  of  the  borough,  17,046.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  a  new  town,  the  former  better  built 
than  the  latter,  and  contains  a  fine  parish 
church,  chapels  for  Roman  Catholics  and  dis- 
senters, a  town  hall,  and  various  charitable 
institutions.  It  is  the  chief  cotton  manufac- 
turing place  in  the  county,  having  more  than 
50  cotton  mills  in  the  town  and  its  neighbor- 
hood, besides  woollen  and  paper  mills,  bleach 
fields,  dye  and  print  works,  and  iron  founderies. 
On  a  hill  near  the  town  is  Melandra  castle,  the 
site  of  a  Roman  station,  and  a  Roman  road 
known  as  the  doctors'  gate  extends  from  the 
castle  to  Brough. 

GLOUCESTER.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Few  Jer- 
sey, separated  by  the  Delaware  river  from  Penn- 
sylvania on  the  N".  W.,  drained  by  Big  Tim- 
ber, Oldman's,  Raccoon,  and  Mantua  creeks; 
area,  280  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,562.  The 
surface  is  generally  level  and  much  of  it  cov- 
ered with  forests.  The  soil  along  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware  and  for  about  7  m.  inland 
consists  of  a  clayey  loam,  productive  and  well 
cultivated.  Marl  is  found  here,  and  iron  ore 
is  obtained  near  Woodbury.  The  S.  E.  part 
of  the  county  is  sandy  and  mostly  unimproved. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  West  Jersey  and  _the 
Swedesboro  railroad.  The  chief  productions 


GLOUCESTER 


,870  .er.  138,18.  ***£**& 


0382  swine;  3  manufactories  of  agricul- 
tural implement*,  2  of  hoots  and  shoes,  10  of 
writ**  5  ofVoffins,  2  of  glass  ware,  2  of 
wind^Tglaw,  7  of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of 

ppf^id  sheet-iron  ware,  13  flour  and 
6  «aw  mills.  Capital,  Woodbury.  II.  A  S.E. 


bay  bounded  N.  by  the  Piankatank  ami  ^ 
W.  by  York  river;  area,  280  sq.  m.;  pop.  in 
1870,  10,211,  of  whom  5,429  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  light  and  pro- 
ductive. Among  the  most  important  exports 
are  oysters  and  fish,  the  taking  of  which  em- 
ploys large  numbers  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
wood,  which  is  sent  to  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
21  966  bushels  of  wheat,  207,240  of  Indian 
_T,,856of  oats,  10,673  of  Irish  and  9,110 
of  sweet  potatoes.  There  were  808  horses, 
1,707  milch  cows,  8,130  other  cattle,  and  8,274 
There  were  6  saw  mills.  Capital, 
(ih.iirester  Court  House. 

(.l.oi  (  IM'KB,  a  N.  E.  county  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  bounded  N.  by  the  bay  of  Oha- 
leurs,  E.  by  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and 
drained  by  Nipisiguit  and  other  rivers ;  area, 
1,684  B«|.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  18,810,  of  whom 
12,680  were  of  French,  8,695  of  Irish,  1,215 
of  Scotch,  and  982  of  English  origin.  The 
e  inland  is  diversified  by  hills,  between 
w  hi.  h  lie  fertile  valleys.  The  climate  is  favor- 
able for  agriculture,  while  the  great  extent  of 
coast,  off  which  are  several  islands,  and  the 
number  of  good  harbors,  afford  opportunities 
for  fishing  and  lumbering.  Ship  building  is 
actively  carried  on.  Capital,  Bathurst. 

GLOUCESTER,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Es- 
sex co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the  peninsula  of 
Cape  Ann,  80  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Boston,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  branch  of  the  East- 
ern railroad.  It  formerly  comprised  the  whole 
of  Cape  Ann,  and  was  8  m.  long  by  5  broad ; 
but  in  1840  the  N.  E.  portion  of  the  peninsula 
was  formed  int..  the  town  of  Rockport.  The 
city  contains  six  distinct  villages,  each  having  a 
pott  office,  viz. :  East  G loucester ;  Annisquam, 
or  Squara,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  cape,  which 
has  a  safe  harbor  much  resorted  to  by  fishing 
Teasels;  Bay  View  and  Lanesville,  noted  for 
their  fine  granite  quarries;  West  Gloucester, 
formerly  known  as  West  Parish,  which  has 
a  beach  2  or  3  m.  long,  of  white  sand,  of 
•titles  an-  exported;  and  last- 
llage,  or  "The  Harbor,"  on 


the  8.  Hide,  which  Ims  one  of  the  best  ports  on 
the  coast,  capacious,  safe,  easy  of  access,  am 
I'th  of  water  to  admit  tin 
largest  vessels.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  : 
peninsula,  known  as  Ma-tern  point,  juttm-, 
out  from  thw  main  body  of  Cape  Ann  in  a 


S  W  direction,  and  opens  into  Massachusetts 
my  '  On  the  extremity  of  the  point  is  a  fort 
mounting  10  guns.     Gloucester  was  a  place  of 
mnortance  prior  to  1800.     It  increased  slowly 
until  1850,  since  which  its  growth  has  been 
•apid     The  population  in  1790  was  4,912 ;  in 
[800    5,318;  in  1810,  5,901;  in  1820,  6,384; 
n  1830,  7,513;  in  1840,  6,350;  in  1850,  7,780; 
n  1860,  10,904;    in  1870,   15,389,   of  whom 
4,007  were  foreigners.     The  principal  portion 
of  the  city,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  harbor,  is 
handsomely  and    compactly   built,   and   very 
beautifully  situated,  with  extensive  and  pic- 
turesque sea  views,  and  is  a  fashionable  sum- 
mer resort  for  bathing  and  sea  air.     The  city 
hall  is  an  elegant  brick  building,  erected  in 
1870  at  a  cost  of  $115,000,  and  two  of  the 
school  houses  are  large  and  handsome  struc- 
tures.    Gloucester  is  mainly  noted  for  its  cod 
and  mackerel  fisheries,  far  surpassing  any  other 
>ort  in  the  country  in  the  number  of  vessels 
md  men  employed,  and  in  the  value  of  the 
catch.     In  1865  the  number  of  vessels  engaged 
was  341,  having  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  24,- 
450,  and  employing  4,590  men;    capital  in- 
vested, $1,865,700;  mackerel  caught,  154,938 
barrels,  valued  at  $2,190,562;  cod  and  other 
dry  fish,  113,028  quintals,    worth   $706,425; 
value  of  cod-liver  oil  sold,  $90,420.     The  value 
of  all  fishery  products  was  $3,319,457.      In 
1878  the  catch,  with  the  value  of  each  item, 
was    as    follows:    codfish,    460,000    quintals, 
$2,070,000;  other  fish,  25,000  quintals,  $50,- 
000;  fresh  fish,   including  halibut,  9,000,000 
Ibs.,  $310,000;  oil,  275,000  gallons,  $165,000; 
mackerel,    86,544    barrels,    $1,125,000;    her- 
ring, 5,000  barrels,  $23,000;  shell  tish,  18,000 
barrels,  $18,000;  miscellaneous,  $40,000;   to- 
tal value,  $3,800,000.     The  number  of  vessels 
belonging  to  Gloucester  engaged  in  fishing  in 
1873  was  875,  with  about  3,500  men,  of  whom 
but  a  small  proportion  are  residents  of  the  city. 
The  business  is  attended  with  great  risk,  236 
vessels  and  1,200  lives  having  been  lost  since 
1880.    The  losses  in  1873,  the  heaviest  expe- 
rienced in  any  year,  comprised  31  vessels  and 
174  lives.     The  customs  district  includes  the 
adjoining  towns  of   Essex,   Manchester,   and 
Rockport.     The  value  of  foreign  commerce 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  was:  ex- 
ports, $1,512;  imports,  $60,735.     The  number 
of  vessels  cleared  was  127,  of  13,365  tons;  en- 
tered, 117,  of  17,771  tons.     In  the  coastwise 
trade  the  entrances  were  131,  with  an  auizre- 
gate  tonnage  of  9,807 ;  clearances,  54,  of  7,977 
tons.     On  June  30,  1872,  there  were  524  ves- 
sels, of  27,537  tons,  belonging  to  the  district; 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery,  448, 
of  -J-.M74  tons,  of  which  41,  of  497  tons,  were 
each  less  than  20  tons ;  built  during  the  year, 
18  vessels  of  823  tons.     The  tonnage  of  the 
district  on  June  30,  1873,  was  28,565 ;  num- 
ber of  vessels  (nearly  all  schooners),  517,  of 
which  420  were  employed  in  fishing,  90  in  the 
coasting  trade,  6  in  foreign  commerce,  and  1 
in  yachting.     A  line  of  steamers  from  Glou- 


GLOUCESTER 


37 


cester  runs  daily  to  Boston.  The  manufac- 
tures are  almost  exclusively  confined  to  articles 
pertaining  to  the  fisheries,  embracing  anchors, 
ice  crushers,  bait  mills,  ships'  blocks,  masts 
and  spars,  boats,  leads,  fish  guano,  &c.  There 
are  six  marine  railways  and  70  wharves.  The 
extensive  granite  quarries  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  cape  furnish  stone  which  is  mostly  used 
for  paving,  but  a  considerable  quantity  is  also 
prepared  for  other  purposes.  The  new  post 
office  in  Boston  is  built  of  Gloucester  granite, 
and  the  base  of  the  Scott  monument  in  Wash- 
ington, an  immense  block  weighing  nearly  100 
tons,  is  of  the  same  material.  The  city  con- 
tains three  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $570,000,  and  three  marine  insurance 
companies.  It  is  divided  into  eight  wards,  and 
is  governed  by  a  mayor,  a  board  of  aldermen 
of  8,  and  a  common  coun- 
cil of  24  members.  There 
is  a  police  court,  an  effi- 
cient police  force,  and  a 
well  organized  fire  de- 
partment. The  assessed 
value  of  property  in  1873 
was  $7,714,520 ;  taxa- 
tion, $161,352;  debt, 
$218,000;  value  of  prop- 
erty belonging  to  the 
city,  $330,785.  It  is 
lighted  with  gas.  The 
principal  charitable  as- 
sociations are  the  Glou- 
cester fishermen's  and 
seamen's  widows'  and 
orphans'  aid  society  and 
the  ladies'  charitable  so- 
ciety. There  are  24  pub- 
lic schools,  viz. :  1  high, 
7  grammar,  12  primary, 
and  4  ungraded,  attend- 
ed by  about  3,000  pu- 
pils, and  supported  at 
an  annual  cost  of  about 
$40,000.  Two  weekly 
newspapers  are  publish- 
ed. The  Sawyer  free  library  contains  about 
4,000  volumes.  The  number  of  churches  is 
12,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  2  Congregational,  1  Epis- 
copal, 3  Methodist,  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Unita- 
rian, and  2  Universalist.  Besides  these,  there 
is  a  society  of  Swedenborgians  who  do  not 
possess  a  church  edifice. — The  Indian  name  of 
Gloucester  was  Wingaersheek.  It  was  occu- 
pied as  a  fishing  station  in  1 624,  being  the  first 
place  settled  by  the  English  on  the  N.  side  of 
Massachusetts  bay.  In  1642  it  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  town  under  its  present  name,  some 
of  the  principal  inhabitants  having  come  from 
Gloucester,  England.  The  first  schooner  ever 
constructed  was  built,  here  in  1713  by  Capt. 
Andrew  Robinson.  The  British  sloop  of  war 
Falcon,  Capt.  Lindsay,  assailed  the  town  Aug. 
8,  1775,  bombarded  it  for  several  hours,  and 
attempted  to  cut  out  some  vessels  in  the  har- 
bor, but  was  driven  off  by  the  inhabitants.  In 


the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  Sept.  8, 
1814,  Gloucester  was  attacked  by  the  British 
frigate  Tenedos,  which,  however,  did  no  se- 
rious damage.  In  both  of  these  wars  the  town 
sent  out  swarms  of  privateers,  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  manning  of  the  navy.  It  be- 
came a  city  in  January,  1874. 

GLOUCESTER,  a  city  and  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  England,  one  of  the 
county  towns  of  Gloucestershire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Severn,  95  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Lon- 
don; pop.  in  1871,  18,330.  The  chief  public 
edifice  is  the  cathedral,  originally  the  church 
of  a  Benedictine  abbey.  It  was  built  and  added 
to  at  various  periods  from  the  llth  to  the  15th 
century,  and  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Eng- 
lish cathedrals.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  styles  of  architecture  which  indicate 


Gloucester  'Cathedral,  from  the  Southeast. 

the  different  periods  of  erection  and  addition, 
and  the  choir  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  florid  Gothic  in  the  world.  It  con- 
tains many  monuments,  among  others  those  of 
Robert,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  Edward 
II.,  Bishop  Warburton,  and  Dr.  Edward  Jenner. 
The  city  also  has  several  handsome  parish 
churches,  a  college,  blue-coat  and  free  grammar 
schools,  the  county  hall,  hospitals,  &c.  The 
handsomest  portion  of  the  town  is  at  the  S. 
end,  around  a  spring  of  saline  chalybeate  water 
discovered  in  1814.  The  staple  manufactures 
are  pins,  hardware,  gloves,  saddles,  canvas, 
cutlery,  ropes,  and  soap ;  and  some  ship  build- 
ing is  carried  on.  A  bell  foundery  was  estab- 
lished prior  to  1500,  but  it  has  recently  been 
removed.  Since  the  completion  in  1827  of  the 
Berkeley  ship  canal,  by  which  vessels  of  500 
tons  burden  can  come  up  to  the  city,  the  com- 
mercial importance  of  Gloucester  has  greatly 


M 


GLOUCESTERSHIKK 


increased.  The  city  is  probably  of  British 
origin.  It  became  a  Roman  station  under  the 
name  of  C'.-Ioma  (ilevuro,  and  under  Claudius 
received  the  name  of  Claudia  Castra.  The 
Saxon*  called  it  Gleau-ceaster,  and  it  flourished 
during  the  heptarchy.  In  the  17th  century  it 
was  strong  fortified,  and  took  a  conspicuous 
part  against  the  royalists.  The  bishopric  of 
rter  was  instituted  by  Henry  VIJl.,  and 

was  joined  to  Bristol  in  1886. 

UOHI.MI.KMIIHK.  a  S.  \V.  county  of  Eng- 
.r.U-rinir  «»n  Worcestershire,  Warwick- 

'xtor.lshire,  Berkshire,  Wiltshire,  Somer- 
tu-t -shire  Monmouthshire,  and  Herefordshire; 
area,  1.258  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  534,320.  It 
is  trav,-rse<l  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  by  the  Cots- 
wold  hills,  which  separate  the  basin  of  the 
Severn  from  that  of  the  Thames.  The  district 
between  these  hills  and  the  Severn  comprises 
the  vales  of  Evesham  (principally  in  Worcester- 
shire), Gloucester,  and  Berkeley,  of  surpassing 
beauty  and  richness.  Beyond  the  Severn  the 
greater  part  of  the  county  is  under  forest,  more 
than  20,000  acres  of  which  still  belong  to  the 
crown ;  it  is  called  the  forest  of  Dean,  and  was 
once  the  principal  source  of  supply  of  timber 
f..r  the  English  navy.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Severn,  Wye,  Lower  Avon,  Frorae,  Thames, 
Colne,  and  Windrush.  This  county,  having  ex- 
tensive and  exceedingly  rich  natural  pastures, 
has  long  been  famous  for  its  butter  and  cheese. 
The  celebrated  double  and  single  Gloucester 
cheese  is  principally  produced  in  the  Berkeley 
vale.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  are  reared  on 
the  Cotswold  hills  and  in  the  forest  region,  the 
latter  being  also  noted  for  its  orchards  and  the 
excellence  of  its  cider  and  perry.  Coal  exists 

:it  abundance ;  lead,  sulphuret  of  iron, 
oxide  of  zinc,  limestone,  coral,  quartz  crystals, 
celebrated  as  Bristol  diamonds,  and  gypsum, 
are  also  found.  The  manufactures  are  wool- 
lens, cottons,  silks,  hosiery,  hats,  tick,  hardware, 
glass,  paper,  and  carpets.  Capitals,  Gloucester 
and  Bristol ;  other  chief  towns,  Cheltenham, 
Cirencester,  Stnmd,  and  Tewkesbury. 

U.o\l.  .-uvi-ring  for  the  hand  (sometimes 
extending  up  the  arm),  with  a  separate  sheath 
for  each  finger.  Gloves  are  spoken  of  by  Ho- 
mer as  worn  by  Laertes  to  protect  his  hands 
while  working  in  the  garden.  Xenophon  speaks 
of  Cyrus  goinjr  without  his  gloves.  The  cus- 
tom of  giving  a  glove  as  a  pledge  in  conclu- 
ding a  contract  is  very  ancient,  and  from  this  is 
supposed  to  have  ln-»-n  d.-rived  the  later  custom 
of  throw  inir  down  a  glove  as  a  challenge,  which 

posite  party  accepted  by  picking  up  the 
glove  and  throwing  down  his  own.  This  is 
traced  in  Kn-hmd  as  tar  back  as  the  year 
1245.  In  the  middle  ages  gloves  were  an  ob- 
ject of  special  regard ;  they  were  made  in  the 
ni"-1  OOflUJ  in:i!iM.-r.  "Hi. tin.  nt.-d  \\ith  |,iv<-i<»ii< 

stones,  ari'l  worn  t.y  kings  and  church  digni- 
taries on  ceri-Mionijil  occasions.     A  glove  was 

>ny  ot  Inflowing  lands  and 
«li^tiiti.-s.  aii'l  «]«  privation  of  gloves  was  a  sign 
Of  degradation.  It  was  h»-r  glove  which  the 


GLOVE 

lady  gave  her  faithful  knight  to  wear  in  his 
helmet  as  a  pledge  of  her  favor.  Down  to  the 
present  time  curious  ceremonies  have  been 
associated  with  gloves,  as  the  custom  in  some 
parts  of  Europe  of  taking  them  off  when  enter- 
ing the  stable  of  a  prince  or  a  great  man,  or 
else  forfeiting  them  or  their  value  to  the  ser- 
vants. In  hunting,  the  same  ceremony  must 
be  performed  under  the  same  penalty  at  the 
death  of  the  stag.  Glove  money  is  a  term  of 
ancient  use,  meaning  money  given  to  servants 
to  buy  gloves.  Embroidered  gloves  were  first 
made  in  England  in  1580,  and  the  custom  of 
presenting  them  to  judges  at  maiden  assizes 
is  still  continued.  Presenting  a  pair  of  gloves 
for  any  favor  rendered  is  a  very  old  custom. 

Gloves  are  made  of  a  variety  of  materials. 

In  cold  regions  they  are  of  the  warmest  wool, 
or  of  the  skins  of  animals  with  the  fur  on 
the  outside.  Thick  buckskin,  often  lined  with 
soft  woollen,  is  also  used,  but  in  more  moderate 
climes  lighter  qualities  of  leather,  to  the  softest 
kid,  are  employed,  and  also  worsted,  cotton,  and 
silk.  The  preparations  of  caoutchouc  are  ap- 
plied to  the  same  purpose,  chiefly  for  the  pro- 
tection of  ladies'  hands  in  rough  work,  such 
as  gardening.  The  art  of  glove  making  is  car- 
ried to  its  highest  perfection  in  the  manu- 
facture of  kid  gloves  by  the  French,  being 
one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the 
country.  The  English,  who  make  excellent 
gloves  of  heavier  varieties  of  leather,  largely 
import  the  best  Parisian  gloves.  Woodstock 
and  Worcester  are  celebrated  for  their  fine 
leather  glove  manufactories,  and  kid  and  other 
gloves  are  also  extensively  made  in  London, 
Yeoville,  Ludlow,  and  Leominster,  generally, 
for  the  best  qualities,  of  skins  imported  from 
France  and  Italy.  Most  of  the  cheaper  kinds 
of  so-called  kid  gloves  are  made  from  lamb, 
rat,  and  other  thin  skins.  Sheepskin  gloves, 
generally  white,  are  made  for  the  army.  In 
1871  England  began  to  import  opossum  skins 
from  Australia  for  glove  making.  Many  first- 
class  real  kid  gloves  are  manufactured  in  Lon- 
don, but  they  are  generally  sold  as  French. 
Great  skill  is  required  for  the  cutting  of  the 
skins  to  the  best  advantage;  this  process  is 
performed  with  a  pair  of  scissors  after  stretch- 
ing and  rubbing  the  skin  upon  a  marble  slab 
with  a  blunt  knife.  A  skin  is  first  cut  longi- 
tudinally through  the  middle,  and  the  single 
strip  for  the  palm  and  back  is  next  cut  off  from 
one  end  of  the  half  skin.  The  pieces  for  the 
thumb,  the  gussets  for  the  fingers,  and  other 
small  pieces  to  be  inserted,  must  all  be  worked 
out  either  from  the  same  skin  or  from  others 
precisely  similar.  The  nearly  square  piece  cut 
off  is  folded  over  upon  itself,  giving  a  little  more 
width  for  the  side  designed  for  the  back  of  the 
hand ;  and  upon  this  oblong  double  strip  the 
workman,  measuring  with  his  eye  and  finger, 
marks  out  the  length  for  the  clefts  between  the 
fingers,  which  he  proceeds  to  cut  and  shape. 
Making  the  hole  for  the  thumb  requires  the 
greatest  skill,  for  a  very  slight  deviation  from 


GLOVER 


GLOWWORM 


39 


I 


the  exact  shape  would  cause  a  bad  fit  when  the 
parts  are  sewed  together,  resulting  in  unequal 
strain  and  speedy  fracture.  By  improvements 
introduced  by  M.  Jouvin,  the  thumb  piece, 
like  the  fingers,  is  of  the  same  piece  with  the 
rest  of  the  glove,  requiring  no  seam  for  its  at- 
tachment. The  cutting  also  is  performed  in 
great  part  by  punches  of  appropriate  patterns, 
and  some  of  these  are  provided  with  a  toothed 
apparatus  somewhat  resembling  a  comb,  which 
pricks  the  points  for  the  stitches.  The  seams  are 
sewed  with  perfect  regularity  by  placing  the 
edges  to  be  united  in  the  jaws  of  a  vice,  which 
terminate  in  fine  brass  teeth  like  those  of  a 
comb,  but  only  ^  of  an  inch  long.  Between 
these  the  needle  is  passed  in  successive  stitches. 
When  the  sewing  is  completed  the  gloves  are 

•etched,  then  placed  in  linen  cloth,  slightly 
amp,  and  beaten,  by  which  they  are  rendered 
softer  and  more  flexible.  The  last  operation 
is  pressing.  In  1866,  while  England  exported 
680,664  pairs  of  leather  gloves  of  British  make, 
it  imported  10, 61 9,220  pairs,  of  which  10,036,- 
092  were  from  France.  In  the  same  year  Eng- 
land exported  315,180  pairs  of  cotton  gloves, 
chiefly  to  the  United  States.  But  in  1868  Ger- 
many was  not  only  competing  with  England  in 
leather  gloves  in  the  London  market,  but  it 
sent  three  fourths  of  the  cotton  and  Lisle  thread 
gloves  sold  in  England,  and  for  export  had  se- 
cured nearly  the  entire  trade  of  the  United 
States,  which  had  formerly  bought  this  class 
of  goods  in  Nottingham  and  Leicester.  In 
1868  the  value  of  gloves  made  in  France  was 
estimated  at  50,000,000  francs,  and  the  manu- 
facture was  increasing. — The  chief  branch  of 
the  manufacture  carried  on  in  the  United  States 
is  that  of  buckskin  gloves,  a  kind  more  pecu- 
liarly American  than  any  other  ;  and  the  most 
important  seat  of  this  business  is  at  Glovers- 
ville,  Fulton  co.,  N.  Y.  Kid  gloves  are  now 
made  to  some  extent  there  and  in  New  York. 
t  GLOVER,  Richard,  an  English  poet  and  politi- 
cian, born  in  London  in  1712,  died  there,  Nov. 
25,  1785.  He  was  educated  for  a  mercantile 
life,  but  early  manifested  a  love  of  letters,  and  at 
the  age  of  16  wrote  a  poem  to  the  memory  of 
Sir  Isaac  Newton.  In  1737  he  published  an  epic 
on  the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece,  entitled  "  Le- 
onidas,"  which  was  thought  to  have  an  appli- 
cation to  English  politics,  and  was  for  a  time 
much  admired.  A  continuation  of  it,  under 
the  title  of  the  "  Atheniad,"  appeared  in  1787. 
His  "London,  or  the  Progress  of  Commerce," 
and  a  ballad  called  "Hosier's  Ghost"  (1739), 
were  written  to  rouse  his  countrymen  to  a  war 
with  Spain.  He  was  active  in  politics  as  an 
opponent  of  Walpole,  and  was  returned  to  par- 
liament for  Weymouth  in  1760.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral tragedies,  and  a  diary  which  was  published 
in  1813,  and  in  the  following  year  appeared 
an  "  Inquiry "  attempting  to  prove  that  he 
was  the  author  of  the  letters  of  -Junius. 

GLOVERSVILLE,  a  village  in  the  town  of 
Johnstown,  Fulton  co.,  New  York,  40  m.  N.  W. 
of  Albany,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Fonda,  Johns- 


town, and  Glovers ville  railroad,  which  con- 
nects with  the  New  York  Central  at  Fonda,  7 
m.  distant;  pop.  in  1870,  4,518.  It  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  extensive  manufactures  of  gloves 
and  mittens.  The  business  was  commenced  in 
1803,  and  the  village  now  contains  about  140 
establishments,  manufacturing  two  thirds  of 
the  kid  and  buckskin  gloves  and  mittens  made 
in  the  United  States.  There  are  also  manufac- 
tories of  machine  and  glove  patterns,  organs, 
railroad  lamps,  carriages,  kid  and  other  leath- 
er, a  planing  mill,  two  national  banks,  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  seven  churches. 

GLOWWORM,  a  name  given  to  several  serri- 
corn  beetles,  constituting  the  genus  lampyris 
(Fab.).  The  antennae  are  short,  with  cylindri- 
cal and  compressed  articulations ;  the  head  is 
concealed  beneath  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
thorax ;  the  eyes  and  the  mouth  are  small ;  the 
body  is  rather  soft  and  depressed,  with  the 
sides  of  the  abdomen  serrated;  the  elytra  are 
coriaceous  and  slightly  flexible.  The  females 
are  wingless,  with  rudiments  of  elytra  at  the 
base  of  the  abdomen,  and  their  general  appear- 
ance to  the  uneducated  eye  is  that  of  a  worm, 
explaining  fully  the  popular  name  of  glow- 


Glowworm  (Lampyris  splendidula). 
1.  Male.    2.  Female.    3.  Larva  of  L.  noctiluca. 

worm  in  England,  and  ver  luisant  in  France. 
In  the  old  Linnasan  genus  lampyris  there  were 
as  many  as  60  species,  which  have  been  distrib- 
uted into  different  genera,  so  that  there  were 
only  nine  species  left  in  the  genus  in  the  last 
edition  of  Dejean's  catalogue.  There  are  four 
well  known  species  of  glowworm  in  Europe, 
L.  noctiluca,  Italica,  splendidula,  and  Tiemip- 
tera  ;  the  second  is  probably  the  species  whose 
luminous  faculty  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
the  Aa/zTrovpt?  of  the  Greeks,  and  cicindela  of 
the  Romans.  Both  sexes  are  luminous,  though 
the  light  is  stronger  in  the  female ;  the  light 
does  not  come  from  the  thorax  as  in  the  fire- 
fly (elater),  but  from  the  posterior  part  of  the 
abdomen  on  its  upper  and  under  surfaces.  The 
English  glowworm  (L.  noctiluca,  Linn.)  is  the 
largest  European  species,  about  two  thirds  of 
an  inch  long  in  the  male,  and  the  female  about 
an  inch ;  the  male  is  brownish  gray,  with  a 
reddish  gray  margin  on  the  superior  portion  of 
the  thorax,  and  has  both  wings  and  elytra; 
the  female  is  wingless,  of  a  uniform  yellow 
white,  with  a  very  thin  skin  below ;  in  both 
sexes  the  luminous  spots  show  themselves  as 


GLOWWORM 


four  bright  j>ointa,  two  on  the  antepenultimate 

abdominal  segment,  and  two  on  the  next  pos- 

The  L.  Italiea  is  next  in  size,  and  is 

::lu-rn  Europe,  as  the  first  is  in  the 

niirtlii-rn  i-ountries;   the  color  is  black,  with 

•thorax  and  legs;  both  sexes  are  winged, 

:iinl  iniii-h  resemble  each  other,  the  apterous 

.  s  spoken  of  by  some  entomologists  being 
the  larva).  The  L.  splendidula  is  common  in 
Germany;  the  male  is  winged,  brown  gray, 
with  a  bright  glassy  spot  on  the  convex  mar- 
gin of  the  prothorax  ;  the  female,  whitish  yel- 

,  ith  a  brown  spot  on  the  centre  of  the 
prothorax,  has  no  wings,  and  very  short  oval 
elytra;  the  luminous  spots  are  two  transverse 
bands  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  two  penulti- 
mate abdominal  segments,  and  in  the  female 
the  whole  abdomen  diffuses  a  weak  light  L. 
hemiptera,  a  southern  species,  and  the  small- 
est one  third  of  an  inch  long,  is  opaque  black, 
liirhu-r  in  the  female,  the  posterior  ventral 
being  whitish;  the  males  have  truncated 
t-lvtr.-i,  the  females  none;  the  light  is  diffused 
iV'-in  two  round  spots  on  the  penultimate  seg- 
ment; the  larvae  are  probably  luminous,  as 
those  of  the  preceding  species  were  found  to  be 
by  Bunneister.  The  first  three  species  conceal 


Glowworm  (Latnpyria  noctilnca). 


themselves  in  the  daytime  and  appear  at  night, 
the  males  flying  about  in  the  warm  summer 
evenings,  while  the  females  betray  their  situa- 
tions by  their  tranquil  light  among  the  shrubs- 
the  last  species  creeps  also  by  day,  especially 
in  damp  weather,  appearing  toward  the  end  of 
April ;  the  third  species  occurs  about  the  end 
f  May  and  the  beginning  of  June,  while  the 
first  is  found  most  abundantly  toward  the  end 
of  summer.     The  light  is  greenish  or  more 
commonly  bluish  white,  intermittent  or  contin- 
uous at  the  will  of  the  insect,  extinguished  in 
of  danger,  and  increased  by  active  motion 
sexual  excitement,  or  artificial  heat;   it  may 
ntmue  some  hours  after  death,  and  when 
t  maj  be  reproduced  by  warm  water ;  pois- 
is  gases  destroy  the  li-rl.t  with  life,  while 
gen  increases  its  brilliancy  ;  electricity  pro- 
mt no  affect  on  the  light,  while  galvanism 
»  or  reproduces  it  in  dead  insects.    The 
•emipches  of  Kfllliker  and  others  show  that  at 
theshinmg  spots  is  a  whitish,  transparent,  fatty 
IM,  Permeated  by  very  numerous  trachea;  this 
•  Hill  8h,ne  wh,n  r,m,,ved  from  the  body, 

WMSWater  f°ur  a  long  time'  and  its  pS 
rubbed  up.,n  the  fingers  display  a  light 


resembling  that  from  phosphorized  mixtures. 
The  eggs  of  the  glowworm,  the  larvae,  and  the 
nymphs,  are  luminous;  the  eggs  are  hatched 
after  a  few  weeks,  and  the  larvae  resemble  the 
perfect  females,  having  a  body  of  twelve  seg- 
ments, the  first  three  of  which  bear  each  a 
pair  of  feet ;  the  head  is  small,  and,  like  the 
caudal  segments,  retractile;  they  thrive  well 
in  captivity  when  kept  in  moist  earth  or  herb- 
age, and  supplied  with  slugs  and  snails,  which 
they  kill  with  their  arched  and  sharp-pointed 
jaws,  and  eagerly  devour ;  about  a  week  is  oc- 
cupied in  assuming  the  state  of  nymph,  and  in 
about  eight  days  longer  they  appear  as  perfect 
insects.  The  nymph  is  larger  than  the  larva, 
but  not  quite  so  long ;  the  color  is  at  first  pale 
yellow,  with  two  reddish  spots  on  the  posterior 
part  of  the  thorax  and  the  segments,  but  the 
dull  color  of  the  perfect  insect  is  visible  toward 
the  end  of  the  nymph  state;  the  larval  jaws 
disappear,  and  the  antennae  are  seen  to  have 
eleven  joints,  and  the  tarsi  five;  the  last  ab- 
dominal rings  are  very  brilliant,  and  indeed 
the  whole  body  seems  phosphorescent.  Ac- 
cording to  Dufour,  the  alimentary  canal  of  the 
perfect  female  is  twice  as  long  as  the  body,  and 
the  oesophagus  exceedingly  short,  immediately 
dilating  into  a  short  crop. — The  substance  from 
which  the  luminous  property  is  derived  has 
been  often  made  the  subject  of  experiment,  but 
as  yet,  according  to  Matteucci,  without  the  de- 
tection of  any  phosphorus  in  it,  though  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  light  resemble  the 


being  increased  by  warmth,  diminished  by  cold, 
and  destroyed  by  irrespirable  gases,  oil,  alco- 
hol, acids,  and  strong  saline  solutions;  these 
phenomena  admit  of  a  better  explanation  on 
Matteucci's  theory.  This  author,  in  his  Lecons 
sur  les  phenomenes  physiques  des  corps  vivants, 
explains  all  cases  of  animal  phosphorescence  on 
physico-chemical  principles.  From  his  experi- 
ments we  know  that  the  light  of  the  glowworm 
may  cease  before  the  death  of  the  animal,  or 
may  be  considerably  prolonged  after  this  event; 
that  the  light  is  without  heat,  as  far  as  our  rude 
instruments  can  detect ;  that  it  ceases  soonest 
in  carbonic  acid,  and  in  hydrogen  in  from  30  to 
40  minutes ;  that  it  is  increased  in  oxygen,  and 
.asts  three  times  as  long  as  in  other  gases, 
both  for  parts  and  for  the  entire  insect;  that 
it  consumes  a  portion  of  oxygen,  which  is  re- 
placed by  carbonic  acid,  and  is  therefore  the 
vrpduct  of.  a  true  combustion ;  that  when  not 
hinmg,  and  in  contact  with  oxygen,  none  of 
-his  gas  is  taken  up,  and  no  carbonic  acid  is 
orrned;  that  heat  to  a  certain  extent  increases, 
while  cold  diminishes  its  brightness;  that  when 

e  luminous  substance  has  been  altered  by  too 
great  heat  or  the  action  of  gases  so  as  to  lose 
its  phosphorescence,  this  .property  cannot  be 
>v.  stabhshed;  finally,  that  carbon  and  not  phos- 

i  r?iS  '?  ?,ne  °f  the  elemei>ts  of  this  substance, 

that  the  phosphorescence  is  produced  by 

the  combination  of  the  carbon  with  the  oxygen 

The  luminous  matter  from  the  living  insect, 


GLUCINA 

cording  to  the  same  author,  has  a  peculiar 
.or  resembling  that  of  the  perspiration  of  the 
t ;  it  is  neither  acid  nor  alkaline,  dries  rap- 
ly  in  the  air,  seems  to  coagulate  in  contact 
ith  dilute  acids,  is  not  sensibly  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, ether,  or  weak  alkaline  solutions,  but  is 
dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  and  hydro- 
chloric acids  with  the  aid  of  heat;  chemical 
tests  exclude  the  idea  of  the  presence  of  albu- 
men, and  the  ordinary  ammoniacal  products 
are  disengaged  by  heat.  The  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere introduced  by  the  numerous  tracheae 
comes  in  contact  with  this  substance,  sui  gene- 
ris, composed  principally  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  The  intermittence  of 
the  glowworm's  light,  and  its  sudden  changes 
m  darkness  to  brightness,  as  far  as  present 
vestigations  go,  are  dependent  on  the  differ- 
,t  amounts  of  air  introduced  into  the  trachea, 
d  the  varying  activity  of  respiration  and  mus- 
lar  action.  The  change  in  the  food  of  the 
glowworm,  from  animal  juices  in  the  larva 
state  to  tender  plants  in  the  perfect  condition, 
explains  the  contradictory  statements  of  au- 
thors as  to  the  habits  of  this  insect;  and  the 
ilure  of  the  attempts  to  introduce  it  as  an 
ment  to  shrubberies  and  lawns  has  gener- 
y  arisen  from  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  the 
va  cannot  be  raised  on  vegetable  food  alone ; 
sides  moist  herbage  or  damp  earth,  minute 
d  shells  must  be  supplied. — A  few  specimens 
an  articulated  animal  which  may  be  called 
a  glowworm  have  been  found  of  late  years 
in  summer  in  various  parts  of  southern  New 
England.  The  head  is  small  and  flat,  with  very 
short  antenna ;  the  color  is  cream- white,  the 
length  about  14  lines,  and  the  whole  of  this  is 
lighted  up  at  night  with  a  permanent  lumi- 
nousness  less  than  that  of  the  elaters  of  the 
West  Indies;  the  light  begins  to  show  itself 
between  the  segments,  of  which  there  are  12, 
and  at  the  stigmata,  from  which  it  spreads  un- 
til the  whole  animal  is  illuminated,  seeming  a 
stick  of  light  without  joints  or  stigmata ;  most 
brilliant  soon  after  midnight,  they  gradually 
fade  to  the  ordinary  whitish  color  at  day- 
break.— In  all  these  cases  of  phosphorescent 
articulates  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  is  the  pre- 
cise purpose  of  the  light.  (See  FIREFLY.) 

GLUCINA  (Gr.  yAm^,  sweet),  an  earth,  first 
obtained  by  Vauquelin  in  1798,  consisting,  ac- 
cording to  Berzelius,  of  two  atoms  of  the  metal 
glucinum,  united  with  three  atoms  of  oxygen ; 
but  Awdejew  and  others  regard  it  as  a  protox- 
ide, G1O.  It  is  found  only  in  a  few  minerals, 
as  the  emerald,  beryl,  euclase,  &c.,  being  con- 
tained in  the  first  two  in  the  proportion  of  13f 
per  cent.,  combined  with  silicic  acid.  It  is  ob- 
tained in  the  form  of  a  white  powder,  of  specific 
gravity  about  3,  closely  resembling  alumina. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  solubility,  when  freshly 
prepared  in  a  cold  solution  of  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, and  by  its  tendency  to  form  a  carbon- 
ate by  exposure  to  the  air ;  also  by  not  giving 
a  blue  color  in  the  blowpipe  test  with  nitrate 
"*  —u-u  The  properties  of  glucinum,  the 


of  cobalt. 


GLUOK  41 

metallic  base  of  glucina,  have  been  investigated 
by  Debray  (Annales  de  cliimie  et  de  physique 
[3],  xliv.  5),  who  obtained  it  from  the  chloride 
by  reduction  with  sodium,  the  original  source 
being  the  emerald  of  Limoges.  He  found  it  a 
white  malleable  metal,  that  could  be  rolled  in 
sheets  like  gold,  of  density  2-1,  its  melting  point 
below  that  of  silver.  It  cannot  be  made  to 
burn  in  pure  oxygen,  but  appears  in  the  trial 
to  be  slightly  oxidized  on  the  surface,  by  which 
it  is  protected  from  further  change.  It  resists 
the  action  of  sulphur,  but  combines  with  chlo- 
rine and  iodine.  Its  alloy  with  silicium  is  a 
hard  brittle  substance,  susceptible  of  a  high 
polish.  Glucinum  is  soluble  in  sulphuric  and 
in  hydrochloric  acids,  hydrogen  being  evolved. 
Nitric  acid  acts  upon  it  only  when  heated,  and 
then  slowly.  It  dissolves  in  caustic  potash. 
Its  symbol  is  G;  chemical  equivalent,  9*2. 

GLUCK,  Christoph  Wilibald  von,  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Weidenwang  in  the  Upper  Pa- 
latinate, July  2, 1714,  died  in  Vienna,  Nov.  15, 
1787.  The  dates  and  other  particulars  in  this 
article  which  differ  from  those  usually  given, 
are  drawn  from  documentary  evidence  sub- 
stantiated or  first  given  to  the  public  by  Anton 
Schmid,  of  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna,  in 
1854  (Gluclcs  Leben  und  tonkunstleriscJies  Wir- 
Tcen).  The  father,  Alexander  Johannes  Klukh 
(as  he  always  wrote  his  name),  was  first  a 
huntsman  of  Prince  Eugene,  afterward  remov- 
ing to  Weidenwang  as  forester.  In  1717  he 
entered  the  service  of  Count  Kaunitz  in  Bohe- 
mia, and  thus  the  young  Christoph  came  at  the 
age  of  three  to  the  land  which,  owing  to  its 
great  number  of  wealthy  nobles  and  convents, 
was  then  the  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  musical  talent.  In  the  gymnasia  and 
the  Jesuit  colleges  music  was  earnestly  culti- 
vated, and  every  nobleman  had  his  musical 
chapel ;  all  churches  of  any  pretensions,  very 
many  of  the  smaller  parish  churches  even,  had 
their  choirs  supported  by  ample  funds.  The 
treatment  of  Gluck  and  his  brothers  by  the 
father  was  hard  even  to  tyranny;  the  composer 
in  his  old  age  well  remembered  being  forced 
with  his  brother  Anton  to  follow  his  father  in 
the  coldest  winter  weather  into  the  forests, 
sometimes  barefoot,  "to  make  them  tough." 
The  children  had  the  best  school  instruction  in 
Kamnitz  and  Eisenberg,  and  from  his  12th  to 
his  18th  year  Christoph  was  sent  to  the  gym- 
nasium at  Kommotau.  The  boy  carried  with 
him  a  good  degree  of  knowledge  both  in  sing- 
ing and  playing  bowed  instruments,  and  in  the 
school  of  the  Jesuits  his  musical  talents  were 
specially  cultivated.  He  became  a  chorister 
in  the  principal  church  of  the  place,  and  gained 
some  knowledge  of  the  harpsichord  and  organ. 
At  18  he  went  to  Prague  to  enter  the  univer- 
sity, but  was  finally  obliged  to  devote  himself 
to  music  for  subsistence.  He  gave  lessons  in 
singing  and  upon  the  violoncello,  sang  and 
played  in  several  churches  for  a  small  salary, 
and  during  vacation  sang  and  played  in  the 
villages  of  the  surrounding  country,  sometimes 


GLUCK 


being  paid  in  one  with  eggs,  which  in  another 
he  exchanged  for  bread.  After  a  time  he  ap- 
peared in  the  large  towns  as  a  violoncellist, 

tracted  the  attention  of  Prince  Lobko- 
witz,  so  that  when  in  1736  he  went  to  Vienna, 
the  house  of  the  prince  was  opened  to  him, 
and  a  salary  was  given  which  enabled  him,  at 
22,  to  study  musical  science.  He  now  had  op- 
portunity also  to  hear  the  works  of  Fux,  Cal- 
dara,  the  brothers  Conti,  Porsile,  and  other 
dramatic  and  church  composers,  adequately 

aed.  The  Lombard  prince  di  Melzi, 
hearing  Gluck  both  as  a  singer  and  violinist, 
in  the  soirees  of  Lobkowitz,  appointed  him 
chamber  musician,  took  him  to  Milan,  and 
placed  him  under  Sammartini.  Having  mean- 
while shown  talent  in  composition,  in  1740  he 
received  an  order  to  compose  an  opera  for  the 
court  theatre  of  Milan.  The  old  field  of  the 
Italian  opera  of  Handel's  time  had  now  been 
nearly  exhausted,  and  the  works  of  the  day, 
even  those  of  the  greatest  masters,  had  gone 
down  in  the  scale  until  they  were  little  more 
than  pieces  of  music  written  to  give  the  sing- 
ers opportunity  to  exhibit  their  powers.  Real 
musical  expression  was  one  of  the  last  things 
which  entered  into  the  thoughts  of  the  com- 
poser. Hence  the  first  work  of  Gluck  has  an 
importance  in  musical  history  beyond  any  oth- 
er of  that  time,  unless  the  oratorios  of  Han- 
del be  excepted.  The  text  chosen  for  him  was 
the  Artaserae  of  Metastasio,  a  libretto  which 
in  its  form  was  sufficient — in  case  Gluck  had 
then,  which  he  had  not,  thought  out  the  system 
which  he  afterward  adopted  and  which  pro- 
duced an  entire  revolution  in  the  musical 
drama— to  prevent  him  from  striking  out  an 
entirely  new  path.  Still  the  composer  had  an 
indistinct  feeling  of  the  hollowness  and  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  recognized  forms  of  dramatic  com- 
position, and  ventured  to  make  expression  the 
great  object  of  his  music.  He  completed  the 
work,  with  the  exception  of  one  air,  in  his  own 
manner,  and  in  1741  had  it  in  study.  At  the 

hearsal  in  the  theatre  a  large  company 
was  present.  The  new  work  proved  so  differ- 
ent from  what  they  were  accustomed  to  hear 

be  generally  received  with  smiles,  and 
shnifrs,  and  jokes  upon  the  German  composer, 
(ilurk  let  all  pass  without  remark.  For  the 
final  rehearsal  he  composed  the  wanting  air  in 
the  strictest  style  of  the  day.  It  was  a  beau- 
tiful piece  for  the  singer,  and  when  the  audience 
h.  an!  it  they  broke  into  the  loudest  applause, 
nrnl  with  iiiiu  consent  attributed  it  to  Sammar- 
tini. Gluck  remained  silent.  The  first  public 
performance  came  off  with  appropriate  scene- 
ry and  action.  The  house  was  crowded.  The 
interest  rose  with  every  number,  the  music 
meeting  with  the  most  decided  success,  until 
tin-  modish  air,  which  proved  so  "stale,  flat, 
and  unprofitable,"  so  out  of  character  with  all 
the  rest,  that  Gluck  had  to  withdraw  it  and 
substitute  one  more  in  the  spirit  of  his  work. 
The  success  was  triumphant,  and  the  composer 
was  called  from  city  to  city  of  Italy  to  direct 


the  Artaserse.  He  was  now  the  great  operatic 
composer  of  that  era.  In  1742  he  wrote  Demo- 
foonte,  text  by  Metastasio,  for  Milan ;  Deme- 
trio  and  Ipermnestra,  texts  by  the  same,  for 
Venice ;  in  1743,  Artamene  for  Cremona,  and 
Siface  for  Milan ;  in  1744,  Fedra  for  Milan ; 
in  1745,  Alessandro  neW  Indie,  by  Metastasio, 
under  the  title  Poro,  for  Turin.  Lord  Middle- 
sex invited  him  to  London  to  compose  for  the 
theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  and  in  1745  he  set 
out  for  the  English  capital,  but  found  the  thea- 
tre closed.  On  Jan.  7,  1746,  it  was  reopened, 
with  La  caduta  de"1  giganti,  by  Gluck.  It  was 
not  successful,  and  was  only  performed  five 
times.  He  afterward  produced  Artamene  with 
better  fortune,  and  Piramo  e  Tisbe,  in  which 
pieces  from  his  earlier  works  were,  at  the  wish 
of  the  managers,  adapted  to  a  new  text.  This 
failed  comparatively  ;  and  this  event  led  Gluck 
to  his  permanent  system  of  composition,  whose 
principles  are  as  follows :  1,  that  dramatic 
music  can  only  reach  its  highest  power  and 
beauty  when  joined  to  a  text  simple,  truly 
poetic,  and  exhibiting  natural  and  definite  emo- 
tions and  passions  with  the  highest  possible 
truth  to  nature ;  2,  that  music  might  be  made 
the  language  of  emotion,  capable  of  expressing 
the  various  feelings  of  the  heart ;  3,  that  the 
music  must  follow  with  all  possible  exactness 
the  rhythm  and  melody  of  the  words ;  4,  that 
in  accompaniments  the  instruments  must  be 
used  to  strengthen  the  expression  of  the  vocal 
parts  by  their  peculiar  characters,  or  to  height- 
en the  general  dramatic  effect  by  employing 
them  in  contrast  to  the  voice,  as  the  text  or 
dramatic  situation  might  demand.  From  these 
principles  it  followed  that  the  beautiful  arias 
then  esteemed  the  highest  efforts  of  the  musi- 
cal art,  though  in  fact  unsurpassable  as  means 
of  sensual  gratification  to  the  ear,  could  never 
deeply  touch  the  soul  nor  rouse  any  lasting 
emotion.  In  his  later  years  Gluck  was  in  the 
habit  of  saying,  when  an  air  of  this  kind  was 
commended  :  "  Yes,  it  is  right  beautiful ;  but 
it  does  not  draw  blood."  Toward  the  close  of 
1746  the  composer  returned  to  Germany.  Dla- 
vacz  says  he  became  a  member  of  the  electoral 
orchestra  of  Dresden  with  a  respectable  salary, 
which  seems  probable,  but  in  fact  none  of  the 
biographers  have  cleared  up  the  chronology 
of  his  life  for  the  two  or  three  years  after  his 
return.  On  June  29, 1747,  an  opera  in  one  act, 
Le  nozze  d^Ercole  e  cTEbe,  music  by  Gluck,  was 
performed  at  Pilnitz  in  honor  of  the  marriage 
of  Princess  Anna,  daughter  of  Augustus  III. 
According  to  Schmid,  La  Semiramide  rico- 
nosciuta,  text  by  Metastasio,  music  by  Gluck, 
was  performed  at  Vienna  on  Maria  Theresa's 
birthday,  in  May,  1748  ;  and  in  the  autumn  of 
the  same  year  a  newspaper  contains  a  para- 
graph of  news  from  Hamburg,  which  is  dated 
Oct.  3,  and  says :  "  Herr  Gluck,  so  well  known 
in  music,  is  at  present  chapelmaster  here  in 
place  of  Scalabrini."  In  1749  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  and  only  left  that  city  when  called  to 
Italy  and  Paris  to  produce  his  works.  In  the 


GLUOK 


43 


house  of  Joseph  Pergin,  a  banker  and  wholesale 
merchant,  he  was  received  both  as  a  friend  and 
as  music  teacher  of  the  two  daughters.  With 
Marianne  he  fell  in  love,  and  his  passion  was 
returned.  The  mother  approved  the  match, 
but  when  the  young  man  applied  to  the  father 
for  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  he  was  rudely 
refused,  as  being  but  a  musician.  Wounded 
by  this,  Gluck  now  accepted  an  order  to  com- 
pose Telemacco  for  the  theatre  Argentina  at 
Eome,  and  left  Vienna  at  once,  in  such  haste 
to  be  away  that,  without  waiting  for  his  passr 
port,  he  smuggled  himself  across  the  boundary 
in  the  habit  of  a  Capuchin  monk.  In  1750 
news  came  to  him  that  Pergin  was  dead.  As 
m  as  his  opera  was  upon  the  stage,  where, 
all  his  other  works,  it  was  successful,  he 
hastened  back  to  Vienna,  and  on  Sept.  15  was 
larried.  The  marriage  was  childless,  but  few 
been  happier,  and  seldom  even  during  his 
lost  tedious  journeys  were  Gluck  and  his  wife 
iparated.  In  1751  he  visited  Naples,  to  pro- 
La  clemema  di  Tito;  in  1754  he  com- 
Le  Cinesi,  a  fantastic  production,  per- 
led  at  Schlosshof  before  the  emperor  and 
Theresa ;  and  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  chapelmaster  of  the  imperial  opera 
at  Vienna,  which  office  he  held  until  1764. 
jfore  the  close  of  the  year  he  was  again  called 
Rome,  and  produced  there  II  trionfo  di  Ca- 
millo  and  Antigono,  which  gained  him  from  the 
>pe  the  order  of  knight  of  the  golden  spur ; 
lence  his  title  in  musical  history,  Chevalier  or 
r.  In  1755  he  produced  the  music  to  Me- 
sio's  Ladanza;  in  1756,  Vinnocenzagim- 
ita  in  one  act,  and  II  re  pastore  in  three, 
tween  1755  and  1762  he  composed  also  a 
3at  number  of  airs  and  other  pieces  for  a 
jries  of  ten  French  operettas  and  vaudevilles 
srformed  in  Vienna.  In  1760  his  principal 
/ork  was  Tetide,  a  serenata  composed  for  the 
mptials  of  the  archduke  Joseph  ;  and  in  1761 
a  most  successful  ballet,  Don  Juan,  or  Das  stei- 
nerne  Gastmahl,  founded  upon  the  same  fable 
jrward  employed  by  Da  Ponte  in  his  text  to 
Mozart's  immortal  opera.  In  1762  77  trionfo 
li  Clelia  was  composed  at  Bologna,  and  met 
rith  the  invariable  success  of  Gluck's  produc- 
tions, and  then  its  author  returned  to  Vienna. 
Calzabigi  had  there  ready  for  him  the  libretto 
Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  a  poem  differing  com- 
)letely  in  construction  from  the  Metastasian 
type,  which  then  alone  was  recognized  as  clas- 
sic throughout  Europe.  Orpheus,  Eurydice, 
and,  in  two  or  three  short  scenes,  Amor  are 
the  only  characters  represented.  At  the  be- 
ginning and  end  a  chorus  of  Greeks,  in  Tarta- 
rus a  chorus  of  shades  and  demons,  in  Elysium 
a  chorus  of  blest  spirits,  each  occupying  a  sin- 
gle scene,  with  choral  music  and  ballet,  is  all 
that  divides  the  attention  from  the  three  lead- 
ing characters.  The  subject,  opening  with  a 
chorus  at  the  tomb  lamenting  the  death  of  Eu- 
rydice, is  the  familiar  myth,  only  changed  at 
the  close,  where  Amor  appears  and  finally  re- 
stores the  beloved  one  to  Orpheus.  There  is 


but  little  action,  and  that  of  the  simplest  char- 
acter. Everything  depended  upon  exciting 
the  sympathies  of  the  audience  at  the  outset, 
and  holding  them  to  the  end,  and  this  too  by 
musical  means  then  new  and  strange.  Twice 
in  this  work  Gluck  has  shown  the  daring  of 
genius  trusting  to  its  own  powers,  in  a  manner 
not  surpassed  by  Beethoven  himself.  At  the 
close  of  the  first  chorus  Orpheus  dismisses  his 
friends,  and  is  left  alone  not  merely  to  execute 
a  recitative  and  single  air,  written  expressly 
for  the  singer  to  exhibit  his  powers,  but  a  series 
of  them,  in  which  not  an  ornament  or  cadenza 
is  admitted,  and  which  nothing  but  the  depths 
of  expression  in  Gluck's  music  could  redeem 
even  now  from  the  fatal  fault  of  tedium.  The 
other  case  is  that  in  which  Orpheus  entering 
Tartarus  is  confronted  by  demons  and  shades, 
who  by  the  force  of  his  music  at  length  are  led 
to  give  way  and  allow  him  to  pass  on  to  Ely- 
sium. On  Oct.  5,  1762,  the  opera  was  perform- 
ed in  public.  Surprise  and  astonishment  were 
the  emotions  with  which  the  audience  left  the 
house.  All  hearts  had  been  strangely  moved. 
It  had  interested  the  company  from  the  first 
singer  to  the  most  insignificant  dancer  in  the  bal- 
let, and  was  given  with  rare  perfection.  The 
music  made  its  way  to  all  hearts,  it  became  a 
most  popular  work  in  Vienna,  and  is  still  a 
stock  piece  in  Berlin.  In  1763-'5  Gluck  com- 
posed Enzio,  text  by  Metastasio;  La  rencontre 
imprevue,  text  by  L.  H.  Dancovot  (afterward 
very  popular  in  a  German  translation  with  the 
title  Die  Pilgrime  von  Melcka)  ;  and  II  Par- 
nasso  confmo,  a  dramatic  poem  by  Metastasio, 
performed  in  the  palace  at  Schonbrunn  by  the 
four  daughters  of  Maria  Theresa,  sisters  of 
Marie  Antoinette,  their  brother,  the  future 
emperor  Joseph,  playing  the  harpsichord  ;  re- 
vised Telemacco  for  the  Vienna  stage,  and  com- 
posed La  corona  for  the  archduchesses.  The 
last  piece  was  never  performed,  owing  to  the 
sudden  death  of  the  emperor  Francis.  The 
dramatic  form  of  none  of  these  works,  although 
they  gave  Gluck  opportunity  to  prove  his  inex- 
haustible fund  of  melodic  and  harmonic  beauty, 
enabled  him  to  follow  the  path  struck  out  in 
the  Orfeo.  In  the  mean  time  Calzabigi  prepared 
another  libretto  for  him,  founded  upon  the 
"  Alcestis  "  of  Euripides,  and  it  was  successful. 
In  1769  it  was  printed  in  score,  with  the  cele- 
brated dedicatory  epistle  to  the  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany.  "  When  I  undertook  to  set  the  opera 
Alceste  to  music,"  he  writes,  "I  purposed  care- 
fully to  avoid  all  those  abuses  which  the  mis- 
taken vanity  of  the  singers,  and  the  too  great 
good  nature  of  composers,  had  introduced  into 
the  Italian  opera ;  abuses  which  reduced  one 
of  the  noblest  and  most  beautiful  forms  of  the 
drama  to  the  most  tedious  and  ridiculous.  I 
sought  therefore  to  bring  back  music  to  its  true 
sphere,  that  is,  to  add  to  the  force  of  the  poetry, 
to  strengthen  the  expression  of  the  emotions 
and  the  interest  of  the  situations,  without  inter- 
rupting the  action  or  deforming  the  music  by 
useless  ornamentation.  I  was  of  opinion  that 


44 


GLUCK 


the  music  must  be  to  the  poetry  what  liveliness 
of  color  and  a  happy  mixture  of  light  and  shade 
•M  feri  fruitless  and  u.-n  iirranged  tawing, 
whii-h  serve  only  to  add  life  to  the  figures 
without  injuring  the  outlines.  I  have  therefore 
taken  care  not  to  interrupt  the  actor  in  the  fire 
of  his  dialogue,  and  compel  him  to  wait  for  the 
performance  of  some  long  tedious  ritornello,  or 
m  the  midst  of  a  phrase  suddenly  hold  him  fast 
at  some  favorable  vowel  sound,  that  he  may 
have  opportunity  by  some  long  passage  to  ex- 
hibit his  voice,  or  to  make  him  wait  while  the 
orchestra  gives  him  time  to  get  breath  for  some 
long  fcrmate.  Nor  have  I  thought  myself  at 
liberty  to  hurry  over  the  second  part  of  an  aria, 
wh'-ii"  perhaps  this  is  just  the  most  passionate 
and  important  part  of  the  text,  and  this  only 
to  allow  the  customary  repetition  of  the  words 
four  times;  and  just  as  little  have  I  allowed 
myself  to  bring  the  aria  to  an  end  where  there 
was  no  pause  in  the  sense,  just  to  gain  an  op- 
portunity for  the  singer  to  show  his  skill  in 
varying  a  passage.  Enough ;  I  wished  to  ban- 
ish all  those  abuses  against  which  sound  com- 
mon sense  and  true  taste  have  so  long  contend- 
ed in  vain.  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  overture 
.should  prepare  the  auditors  for  the  character 
of  the  action  which  is  to  be  presented,  and  hint 
at  the  progress  of  the  same ;  that  the  instru- 
ments must  be  ever  employed  in  proportion 
only  to  the  degree  of  interest  and  passion ;  and 
the  composer  should  avoid  too  marked  a  dis- 
parity in  the  dialogue  between  air  and  recita- 
tive, in  order  not  to  break  the  sense  of  a  pe- 
riod, or  interrupt  in  a  wrong  place  the  energy 
of  the  action.  Further,  I  considered  myself 
bound  to  devote  a  great  share  of  my  pains  to 
the  attainment  of  a  noble  simplicity ;  therefore 
I  also  avoided  an  ostentatious  heaping  up  of 
difficulties  at  the  expense  of  clearness ;  I  have 
not  valued  in  the  least  a  new  thought  if  it  was 
not  awakened  by  the  situation  and  did  not  give 
the  proper  expression.  Finally,  I  have  even 

Mipelled  to  sacrifice  rules  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  effect."  In  1769  Gluck  produced 
a  third  opera  in  the  new  style,  Paride  ed  Elena, 
but  it  became  popular  only  with  musicians,  and 
has  in  late  years  never  been  revived.  In  that 
yrar  ho  was  called  to  Parma  to  compose  festi- 
val music  for  the  marriage  of  the  grand  duke 
to  Maria  Amalia,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Instead  of  a  long  opera,  divided  into  acts,  four 
short  one-act  pieces  were  prepared,  Le  feste 
di  Apollo^  LAtto  di  Baud  e  Filemone,  ISAtto 
(TAriiteo,  and  for  the  fourth  the  Orfeo  given  in 
seven  scenes,  with  the  greatest  success.  For 
several  years  afterward  he  remained  in  Vienna, 
enjoying  great  social  distinction,  but  composing 

u'  for  the  stage.  His  next  great  effort 
was  the  Iphigenie  en  Aulide,  which  after  many 
struggles  and  the  removal  of  innumerable  ob- 
stacles was  finally,  through  the  influence  of 
Marie  Antoinette,  produced  on  April  19,  1774, 

royal  opera  in  Paris,  whither  Gluck  had 
gone  in  the  previous  summer.  It  was  followed 
by  an  embittered  warfare  between  the  adhe- 


rents of  the  old  school,  then  chiefly  represented 
at  Paris  by  Piccini,  and  the  converts  to  the 
new  ideas  of  Gluck.  A  catalogue  of  the  wri- 
tings of  the  Gluckists  and  Piccinists  on  the 
two  sides  of  this  question  would  fill  one  of  our 
pages.  The  final  result  was  the  complete  vic- 
tory of  Gluck.  The  composer  followed  up  the 
Iphigenie  with  the  Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  adapted 
to  the  French  stage,  with  the  very  material 
alteration  of  changing  the  part  of  Orpheus  to 
that  of  a  tenor,  to  suit  the  voice  of  Legros, 
there  being  no  contralto  adequate  to  it.  The 
success  of  the  work  was  as  striking  in  Paris  as 
in  Vienna  and  Turin.  In  February,  1775,  Gluck 
produced  VArbre  enchante,  in  one  act,  at  Ver- 
sailles, a  work  of  no  great  importance,  and 
written  merely  for  a  festival  given  by  Marie 
Antoinette  to  her  young  brother  Maximilian. 
In  August  his  Cythere  assiegee  was  produced 
at  the  academy,  but  met  with  no  distinguished 
success.  Meantime  he  was  zealously  engaged 
upon  three  works,  an  adaptation  of  Alceste  to 
the  Prussian  stage,  and  the  operas  Roland  and 
Armide,  texts  by  Quinault.  Roland  he  laid 
aside  on  hearing  that  it  had  also  been  intrusted 
to  Piccini,  and  wrote  a  sharp  letter  to  Bailly 
du  Rollet,  which,  without  the  consent  of  the 
writer,  was  printed  in  the  Annee  litteraire, 
and  enraged  the  Piccinists.  Early  in  1776 
Gluck  was  again  in  Paris  with  his  Alceste.  It 
was  produced,  and  hissed  off  the  stage.  The 
unlucky  composer,  who  had  been  behind  the 
scenes,  rushed  from  the  opera  house,  and  meet- 
ing a  friend  threw  himself  into  his  arms  in 
tears.  As  this  ill  success  was  mostly  owing  to 
cabals  among  the  singers  and  the  personal  ef- 
forts of  Gluck's  opponents,  and  as  the  compo- 
ser had  influence  enough  to  insure  its  repeti- 
tion, it  made  its  way  with  the  public,  and  soon 
took  its  place  only  below  the  Iphigenie  and  the 
Orfeo.  The  war  of  the  wits  and  critics  was, 
however,  more  bitter  than  ever.  Gluck  him- 
self seems  to  have  been  not  a  little  embittered, 
and  his  polemical  writings  are  often  excessive- 
ly keen.  In  the  midst  of  his  ill  success  with 
the  Alceste  came  the  news  that  his  niece  Ma- 
rianne, whose  ill  health  had  caused  him  this 
time  to  visit  Paris  alone,  had  been  carried  off 
at  the  age  of  16  with  the  smallpox.  Upon  her 
the  childless  musician  had  lavished  all  a  fa- 
ther's love.  She  had  been  a  pupil  of  Millico, 
and  when  but  a  child,  as  Burney  records,  was 
already  a  songstress  of  wonderful  powers.  It 
was  not  until  Sept.  23,  1777,  that  the  Armide, 
text  by  Quinault,  from  Tasso,  was  produced. 
It  was  rather  coldly  received,  but  is  by  many 
considered  the  greatest  composition  of  Gluck, 
and  by  others  only  inferior  to  his  later  work, 
the  Iphigenie  en  Tauride.  Gluck  returned  to 
Vienna  to  work  upon  a  new  text,  Iphigenie  en 
Tauride,  by  a  young  poet  named  Guilbard. 
In  November,  1778,  he  was  so  far  advanced 
with  it  that  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  on 
May  18,  1779,  it  was  produced.  Like  Haydn's 
"  Creation,"  written  when  he  was  nearly  70 
years  of  age,  this  opera  of  Gluck,  written  at 


GLtfCKSTADT 


age  of  64,  ranks  among  the  highest  efforts 
of  the  composer ;  with  many,  as  before  stated, 
it  ranks  the  first.  It  is  still,  in  a  German  trans- 
lation, one  of  the  favorite  pieces  on  the  Berlin 
stage.  It  was  the  crowning  triumph  of  Gluck's 
system  of  operatic  writing,  and  ended  the  se- 
ries of  works  which  gave  direction  to  the  ge- 
nius of  Mehul  and  Cherubini  in  Paris,  Mozart 
and  Beethoven  in  Germany,  in  their  works  for 
the  stage.  Another  piece  brought  by  Gluck 
Paris  at  this  time,  the  Echo  et  Narcisse,  met 
dth  no  great  success.  He  returned  to  Vienna, 
id  in  1783  had  an  attack  of  apoplexy,  which 
msed  him  to  decline  the  text  of  Les  Danaides, 
it  him  from  Paris.  To  his  dramatic  compo- 
tions  Gluck  added  only  for  the  church  a  De 
Profundis,  a  psalm,  Domine  Dominus  noster, 
and  a  part  of  the  sacred  cantata,  finished  by 
Salieri,  Le  jugement  dernier.  For  months  be- 
fore his  decease,  Gluck  had  been  obliged  to  use 
the  greatest  precautions  to  prevent  a  return  of 
apoplexy.  One  day  he  invited  two  old  Paris- 
ian friends  to  dine  with  him.  After  the  meal, 
coffee  and  spirits  were  placed  upon  the  table, 
and  Mme.  Gluck  went  out  to  order  the  carriage 
for  the  daily  drive  prescribed  by  the  physician. 
One  of  the  friends  excusing  himself  from  emp- 
tying his  glass,  the  host  at  last  seized  it,  swal- 
lowed its  contents,  and  laughingly  told  them 
not  to  let  his  wife  know  of  it,  as  everything  of 
the  kind  was  forbidden  to  him.  The  coach 
being  ready,  Mme.  Gluck  invited  the  guests  to 
amuse  themselves  in  the  garden  for  a  short 
time.  Gluck  took  leave  of  them  at  the  coach 
door.  Fifteen  minutes  afterward  he  had  an- 
other stroke;  the  coachman  hurried  home ;  his 
master  had  already  lost  all  consciousness,  and 
soon  breathed  his  last. — See  Gluck  et  Piccine, 
by  Gustave  Desnoiresterres  (Paris,  1872). 

GLliCKSTADT,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Schleswig-Holstein,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Elbe,  27  m.  N.  W.  of  Altona ;  pop.  in 
1871,  5,073.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  commerce  and  the  whale  fishery. 
The  town  was  fortified  in  1620  by  Christian 
IV.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  Wal- 
lenstein  in  1627,  by  Tilly  in  1628,  by  Torsten- 
son  in  1644,  and  yielded  to  the  allie's  in  1814. 
The  fortifications  were  demolished  in  1815, 
and  it  was  declared  a  free  town  in  1830.  It 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1866. 
The  town  has  a  gymnasium,  and  is  connect- 
ed by  rail  with  Altona,  Kiel,  and  Rendsburg. 
The  royal  line  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein  assumed 
from  this  town  the  name  of  Holstein-Gluck- 
stadt,  while  the  ducal  line  bore  the  name  of 
Holstein-Gottorp. 

GLUE  (Lat.  gluere,  to  draw  together),  an  im- 
pure variety  of  gelatine,  used  in  the  arts  for 
uniting  substances  through  its  adhesive  quality. 
It  is  obtained  much  in  the  same  manner  from 
the  same  substances  as  gelatine,  but  usually 
from  the  more  refuse  portions,  as  damaged 
hides  and  other  tissues  undergoing  putrefaction. 
Glue  obtained  from  bones  by  the  use  of  acids 
is  preferred  to  that  which  is  obtained  by  steam, 


GLUE 


45 


the  latter  being  more  soluble  in  cold  water. 
The  strongest  glue  is  made  from  the  parings 
of  ox  hides,  which  yield  over  50  per  cent. 
They  are  steeped  for  several  days  in  milk  of 
lime  to  remove  the  hair,  blood,  and  other  im- 
purities; then  washed  in  cold  water,  drained 
on  an  inclined  plane,  and  again  washed.  Ex- 
posure to  the  air  converts  the  lime  into  car- 
bonate, so  that  in  boiling  the  caustic  action  of 
the  lime  is  prevented.  The  material  is  then 
enclosed  in  a  coarse  cloth  and  put  into  a  cop- 
per boiler,  which  is  two  thirds  filled  with  rain 
water,  and  the  whole  is  boiled.  The  dissolved 
glue  mingles  with  the  water  outside  of  the 
cloth,  and  when  the  liquid  sets  into  a  firm  jelly 
on  cooling  it  is  run  into  a  deep  vessel  or  set- 
tling back  and  kept  warm  for  impurities  to  sub- 
side. "Water  is  again  added  to  the  boiler,  and 
the  material  in  the  cloth  subjected  to  a  second 
boiling,  by  which  an  inferior  glue  is  obtained. 
The  liquid  in  the  settling  back  is  drawn  into 
coolers,  where  it  solidifies,  and  is  then  cut  into 
slices  with  a  wire  frame.  The  slices  are  laid 
upon  netting  in  a  drying  room,  in  which  there 
is  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The  operation  of 
drying  is  a  critical  one.  Too  much  heat  will 
cause  liquefaction ;  a  fog  may  cause  mouldiness, 
and  frost  will  split  the  slices.  Good  glue  is 
of  a  pale  brown  color,  hard  and  brittle,  and 
breaks  with  a  glassy  fracture.  Its  other  chem- 
ical and  physical  properties  are  like  those  of 
gelatine.  The  quality  of  glue  may  be  judged 
of  by  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  dry 
glue  will  absorb  in  24  hours.  The  best  glue 
kept  immersed  in  water  of  the  temperature  of 
60°  F.  has  absorbed  12  times  its  weight.  Oth- 
er qualities,  it  is  said,  take  up  a  proportionally 
less  quantity.  Besides  its  use  for  cementing 
wood  and  hard  substances,  glue  is  employed  in 
preparing  the  felt  bodies  of  hats,  and  as  an  in- 
gredient in  the  composition  of  inking  rollers,  to 
give  them  flexibility. — Several  varieties  of  glue 
are  employed  in  the  arts,  some  of  which  may 
properly  be  noticed  here,  although  they  are  not 
all  preparations  of  gelatine.  If  glue  is  treated 
with  a  small  proportion  of  nitric  acid,  it  loses 
its  property  of  gelatinizing  when  cold,  though 
not  that  of  causing  substances  to  adhere  to- 
gether. With  acetic  acid  a  similar  effect  is 
produced.  What  is  called  liquid  glue  is  made 
by  slowly  adding  nitric  acid  to  the  ordinary 
preparation  of  glue  in  the  proportion  of  10  oz. 
of  strong  acid  to  2  Ibs.  of  dry  glue  dissolved  in 
a  quart  of  water.  The  product  is  a  strong 
glue,  which  remains  in  a  liquid  state,  and  may 
be  thus  kept  for  years  always  ready  for  use. 
Marine  glue  is  a  preparation  of  caoutchouc 
dissolved  in  naphtha  or  oil  of  turpentine,  with 
the  addition  of  shell  lac  after  the  solution  has 
by  standing  several  days  acquired  the  consis- 
tency of  cream ;  two  or  three  parts  by  weight 
of  shell  lac  are  used  for  one  of  the  solution. 
The  composition  is  then  heated  and  run  into 
plates,  and  when  used  it  is  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  about  250°  F.  It  possesses 
extraordinary  adhesive  properties,  and  being 


GLUKHOV 


GLUTTON 


quite  insoluble  in  water,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  material  for  fastening  together 
the  timbers  of  ships;  so  securely  are  these 
held  by  its  application  that  it  is  said  they 
will  sooner  break  across  the  fibres  than  sepa- 
rate at  tin-  joint. 

GLI KHOV,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment and  108  m.  E.  by  N.  of  the  city  of  Tcher- 
nigov,  on  the  Yesmana;  pop.  in  1867,  10,747. 

eight  churches  and  several  schools,  and 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  governor  general 
ot  I.ittk-  liussia. 

M.I  TEX,  or  Vegetable  Flbrine,  a  tough  elastic 
substance,  named  from  its  adhesive  glue-like 
property,  an  ingredient  in  wheat  especially,  and 
in  smaller  proportion  in  most  of  the  cerealia 
and  in  some  leguminous  plants.  When  wheat 
flour  is  well  kneaded  upon  a  sieve  under  a 
stream  of  water,  the  starch  is  removed  in  sus- 
pension in  the  water,  and  the  soluble  dextrine 
and  sugar  are  washed  away,  and  the  gluten  re- 
mains behind.  This  was  supposed  by  Beccaria, 
who  first  noticed  it,  to  be  a  distinct  principle ; 
but  it  is  found  still  to  retain  a  little  starch,  and 
other  ingredients  are  separated  from  it  ac- 
cording to  their  different  reactions  when  treat- 
ed with  boiling  alcohol.  The  pure  vegetable 
fi brine  is  then  found  to  constitute  about  72  per 
cent,  of  the  original  gluten,  while  an  albumin- 
ous substance  called  gliadine,  vegetable  caseine, 
and  a  vegetable  oil  make  up  the  remainder. 
Gluten  from  rye  flour  contains  very  little  of 
the  tenacious  ingredient,  gliadine;  and  other 
grains  furnish  gluten  of  variable  proportions  of 
its  ingredients.  It  is  gluten  which  gives  to  the 
dough  of  wheat  flour  its  peculiar  tenacity,  and 
A  ing  to  this  that  the  escape  of  carbonic 
-acid  gas  is  arrested  in  the  fermentation  of 
wheat  bread,  and  the  product  is  consequently 
and  more  spongy  than  other  bread. 
Macaroni  and  vermicelli  are  preparations  of 
^  In ten.  and  the  flour  of  the  south  of  Europe  is 
>aid  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  this  manufac- 

is  it  generally  contains  a  considerably 
lar<rer  proportion  of  gluten  than  that  grown 
further  north.  But  the  proportion  is  variable 
in  wheat  of  the  same  vicinity,  and  it  may  be 

••d  by  the  use  of  animal  manures,  espe- 
cially those  richest  in  nitrogen.  Liebig  noticed 

h« -at  manured  with  cow  dung  (which 
contains  but  little  nitrogen)  produced  11-95  per 
cent,  of  00 ton;  while  another  portion  ma- 
nured with  human  urine  yielded  the  maximum 
of  gluten. :;:,- 1  per  cent.  Summer  wheat  grown 
in  thejardin  de»  plants  at  Paris  was  found  to 
1  per  cent,  of  gluten,  while  a  sample 
<>t  wmt.T  wheat  gave  but  3'33  per  cent.  As 
gluten  is  the  ino-t  nutritious  ingredient  in  the 
grain*,  its  proportion  has  been  carefully  esti- 
lated  by  chemists.  Vauquelin  found  it  in 

avenging  II-IM  ,,,.r  cent:  Dumas  12-50 
per  cent.;  and  Dr.  Lewis  C.  Meek,  from  33 
Mmplei  gathered  from  different  parts  of  the 
1  Ditad  Mates,  found  an  average  of  11-72  the 
range  being  from  9-85  to  15-25  per  cent.  Prof 
Hereford,  by  ultimate  analysis  of  the  wheat,  in- 


stead  of  separation  of  the  gluten  by  mechanical 
washing,  obtained  an  average  of  15-14  per  cent. 
from  six  samples.  Payen  found  the  propor- 
tions of  gluten  and  other  nitrogenous  matters 
in  wheat  to  range  from  11*20  to  22*75  per  cent.  ; 
in  rye,  13-15;  barley,  13-96;  oats,  14-39;  corn 
meal,  12-50;  rice,  7'05.  Prof.  Johnston  found 
in  English  fine  wheat  flour  10,  in  bran  of  the 
same  flour  18,  in  Scotch  oatmeal  18,  and  in 
corn  meal  12  per  cent,  of  gluten.  It  is  found  by 
very  careful  and  repeated  analyses  that  the  bran 
of  wheat  and  of  most  other  cereals  is  richer  in 
gluten,  and  consequently  more  nutritious,  than 
the  rest  of  the  grain.  Hence  the  preference  for 
flour  that  by  thorough  bolting  has  been  most 
completely  deprived  of  bran  is  unwise  ;  and  the 
whitest  flour  is  less  valuable  for  its  nutritive 
qualities  than  that  made  from  the  whole  grain. 
The  bran  sometimes  constitutes  one  quarter 
or  more  of  the  grain,  and,  according  to  the 
analyses  of  Prof.  Johnston,  contains  14  to  18 
per  cent,  of  gluten,  while  the  fine  flour  con- 
tains only  10  per  cent.  Gluten  is  readily  re- 
duced in  quantity,  and  its  tenacity  is  dimin- 
ished by  injury  to  the  grain.  Flour  dealers  and 
bakers  judge  of  the  quality  of  flour  by  the 
tenacity  of  the  dough  made  from  a  few  grains 
of  it.  —  The  subject  is  further  treated  under 
ALIMENT. 

GLUTTON,  a  carnivorous  mammal,  belonging 
to  the  family  mustelida,  subfamily  martinm, 
and  genus  gulo  (Storr).  The  dental  formula  is 
that  of  the  true  martens,  viz.  :  incisors  f  if  ,  ca- 
nines \~\,  premolars  |z|,  molars  £!£=£?,  in  all 
38  ;  the  first  three  molars  in  the  upper  and  the 
first  four  in  the  lower  jaw  are  small,  succeeded 
by  a  larger  carnivorous  tooth.  In  dentition  and 
general  structure  the  glutton  resembles  the 


Glutton  or  Wolverene  (Gulo  luscus). 


martens;  but  in  its  shape,  and  partially  planti- 
grade feet,  it  so  much  resembles  a  small  bear 
that  many  writers  have  placed  it  among  the 
ursidai.  Ihe  head  is  rather  pointed  and  bear- 
like,  the  eyes  and  ears  very  small,  the  body  long 
and  stout,  the  legs  short  and  robust,  the  claws 


GLYCERINE 


large  and  sharp,  the  soles  covered  for  the  most 
part  with  bristly  hairs,  and  the  tail  short  and 
bushy.  The  glutton  of  Europe  ( O.  luscus,  Linn.) 
is  about  as  large  as  a  badger,  of  a  deep  brown, 
darkish  on  the  back.  The  voracity  of  this  ani- 
mal, though  great,  has  been  much  exaggerated. 
It  is  nocturnal,  inhabits  the  coldest  countries, 
as  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  is  active  all  winter. 
The  American  glutton,  called  also  wolverene 
and  carcajou,  seems  to  be  a  paler  variety  of  the 
0.  luscus  ;  the  color  is  dark  brown  above,  pass- 
ing into  black ;  a  pale  band  runs  on  each  side 
from  the  shoulder  around  the  flanks,  uniting 
on  the  hips ;  tail  with  long  bushy  hairs.  The 
inner  fur  is  soft  and  short,  the  outer  long  and 
coarse,  like  that  of  the  black  bear ;  across  the 
forehead,  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  between 
the  legs,  are  patches  and  tufts  of  white  hairs. 
The  average  length  to  root  of  tail  is  2f  ft.,  the 
tail  from  10  to  12  in.,  and  the  height  at  shoulder 
about  a  foot;  the  width  of  the  hind  feet  is 
nearly  5  in.,  so  that  their  tracks  in  the  snow 
are  not  unlike  those  of  the  bear.  The  wolver- 
ene is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  north- 
ern regions  of  the  continent,  being  most  abun- 
dant in  the  Rocky  mountains  near  the  arctic 
circle ;  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  northern  New 
York,  and  in  the  west  has  been  found  as  far 
south  as  Great  Salt  lake.  The  strength,  agility, 
cunning,  and  voracity  attributed  to  the  glutton 
by- the  older  writers  are  mostly  fabulous;  it  is 
by  no  means  ferocious,  is  slow  and  heavy  in 
its  motions,  not  remarkably  voracious,  neither 
strong  nor  agile  enough  to  pounce  upon  and  kill 
deer  and  other  large  game,  and  avoids  entering 
water  in  pursuit  of  prey.  The  wolverene  gen- 
erally hunts  at  night,  spending  the  day  in  holes 
and  caves;  its  food  consists  principally  of  mice, 
marmots,  and  other  rodents,  grouse  and  other 
birds  which  have  plunged  under  the  snow; 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  destroys  the  beaver,  ex- 
cept occasionally;  it  may  sometimes  finish  lar- 
ger animals  disabled  by  the  hunter,  by  old  age, 
or  by  accident,  and  when  very  hungry  will  eat 
carrion.  It  is  notorious  for  following  the  traps 
of  the  hunter,  and  stealing  therefrom  both  the 
bait  and  the  captured  animal,  and  for  digging 
up  and  destroying  caches  of  provisions.  The 
wolverene  is  very  suspicious,  and  rarely  caught 
except  in  carefully  concealed  steel  traps ;  it  is 
very  strong  for  its  size,  its  weight  being  from 
25  to  30  Ibs.  The  young  are  produced  once  a 
year,  two  to  four  at  a  time.  The  fur  of  the 
wolverene  is  used  for  muffs  and  sleigh  robes. 
The  specific  name  luscus  was  given  by  Linnaeus 
to  an  American  animal,  which  happened  to 
have  but  one  eye ;  should  the  European  glut- 
ton be  separated  from  the  wolverene,  it  would 
be  properly  called  G.  lorealis  (Nilsson). 

GLYCERINE  (Gr.  yAwuf,  sweet),  the  sweet 
principle  of  oils,  a  triatomic  alcohol,  the  base 
of  the  compounds  found  in  animal  fats  and  also 
in  some  vegetable  substances,  discovered  by 
Scheele  in  1779.  Its  composition  is  represent- 
ed by  the  formula  C3H8O3.  It  is  a  colorless, 
transparent,  sweet  sirup,  without  odor,  of  spe- 
364  VOL.  vm. — 4 


cific  gravity  1'28 ;  it  is  inflammable,  mixes  free- 
ly with  water,  taking  it  from  the  air,  is  also 
soluble  in  alcohol,  sparingly  in  ether,  and  dis- 
solves salts  that  are  soluble  in  water ;  it  does 
not  become  rancid  by  exposure,  but  with  ani- 
mal tissue  may  be  made  to  ferment.  At  a 
temperature  above  600°  F.  it  is  decomposed, 
being  converted  into  acroleine,  acetic  acid,  and 
inflammable  gases.  Between  500°  and  600°  it 
may  be  distilled  with  only  partial  decomposi- 
tion. It  may  be  cooled  to  — 4°  F.  without 
freezing.  Berthelot  has  succeeded  in  combi- 
ning it  with  the  fatty  acids,  and  has  thus  pro- 
duced the  organic  fatty  substances,  stearine, 
margarine,  oleine,  &c.  This  was  eifected  by 
keeping  the  mixture  of  acids  and  glycerine  at 
a  temperature  of  212°  for  several  days  in  close 
vessels.  At  higher  heat  much  less  time  is  re- 
quired.— Glycerine  is  a  product  of  the  process 
of  saponification.  As  prepared  by  the  phar- 
maceutists, it  is  taken  up  with  boiling  water 
from  its  mixture  in  a  free  state  with  the  plum- 
biferous  soap  called  lead  plaster.  The  plaster 
is  made  by  boiling  together  litharge  (oxide  of 
lead),  olive  oil,  and  water.  The  oil  is  decom- 
posed by  the  lead  taking  its  acids,  and  the  gly- 
cerine is  thus  liberated.  When  hot  water  is 
added  in  equal  quantity  to  the  plaster,  the 
mixture  is  well  stirred,  and  the  liquid  part  is 
decanted  ;  any  lead  that  may  be  present  is 
thrown  down  by  a  current  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  is  got  rid  of  by  filtering.  The 
water  is  finally  removed  by  evaporation  at  a 
temperature  below  212°,  leaving  the  glycerine. 
Various  other  methods  of  preparing  it  are  in 
use.  The  mother  liquor  of  the  soap  factories 
affords  a  convenient  source  of  it.  From  thia 
it  is  separated  by  adding  a  slight  excess  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  heating  the  solution  with  carbonate 
of  baryta,  filtering,  and,  after  the  filtrate  has 
been  concentrated  by  evaporation,  taking  up 
the  glycerine  with  alcofiol,  which  is  afterward 
to  be  distilled  off.  A  hot  solution  of  fat  has 
been  decomposed  by  injecting  into  it  super- 
heated steam.  The  fatty  acids  and  glycerine, 
collected  in  a  receiver,  separate  in  two  layers, 
the  glycerine  at  the  bottom.  The  acids  can  be 
drawn  off,  so  as  to  leave  the  glycerine  with  no 
other  mixture  than  water.  The  method  of  de- 
tecting the  presence  of  glycerine  when  in  small 
quantity  is  based  on  the  marked  qualities  of 
the  substance  acroleine  into  which  it  is  in  part 
converted  by  heat.  If  the  substance  supposed 
to  contain  it  be  separated  from  foreign  mixture 
as  far  as  possible  and  rapidly  heated,  either 
alone  or  with  a  little  anhydrous  phosphoric 
acid,  the  acroleine  generated,  in  case  glycerine 
was  present,  will  be  detected  by  the  pungent 
acrid  odor,  somewhat  like  that  from  the  wick 
of  a  candle  just  extinguished.  Glycerine  is 
formed  in  small  quantities  during  the  process 
of  alcoholic  fermentation.  0.  Friedl  and  R. 
Silva  have  succeeded  in  preparing  it  artificially 
from  the  chloride  of  propylene,  which  in  turn 
is  made  without  the  use  of  glycerine  itself. — 
Owing  to  its  property  of  long  continuing  moist, 


48 


GLYCERINE 


and  its  strong  affinity  for  water,  it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  skin  or  to  mucous  surfaces,  when 

sired  to  prevent  dryness  and  to  use  a 
bland  and  soothing  application,  as  in  chapped 
hands  or  lips,  many  skin  diseases,  a  parched 
and  glazed  condition  of  the  mouth,  &c.  If  ap- 
plied undiluted,  it  withdraws  water  from  the 
raoister  tissues  under  it.  For  external  uses  it 
mar  be  advantageously  combined  with  tannin, 
carbolic  acid,  or  borax,  all  of  which  are  readily 
dissolved  by  it  With  starch  a  plasma  of  any 
required  consistency  may  be  formed,  which 
takes  the  place  of  an  ointment,  and  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  not  being  greasy,  and  being  capable 
of  easy  removal  by  washing.  Inferior  varieties 
of  glycerine  may  contain  irritating  impurities. 
Either  alone  or  with  a  small  proportion  of  car- 
bolic acid,  it  is  a  very  useful  medium  for  the 
preservation  of  anatomical  specimens  in  a  con- 
dition of  pliability,  and  is  also  of  great  value  in 
microscopic  anatomy.  Glycerine  is  a  powerful 
solvent,  and  may  be  used  in  pharmacy  to  pre- 
vent drying  as  well  as  decomposition.  The 
vegetable  alkaloids  dissolve  in  it  readily,  and 
may  be  used  in  this  form  for  subcutaneous  in- 
jection. It  has  been  suggested  for  internal  use 
in  diabetes,  instead  of  sugar,  and  also  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  cod -liver  oil;  but  experience  does 
not  assign  to  it  much  value  for  these  purposes. 
For  use  in  cosmetics  and  perfumery  it  is  large- 
ly manufactured,  its  soft  agreeable  qualities, 
without  greasiness  or  liability  to  putrefy,  ren- 
dering it  an  excellent  ingredient  in  soaps  for 
the  toilet,  pomade,  hair  tonics,  &c.  It  is  lately 
employed  in  the  photographic  art,  and  its  use 
is  extending  for  a  variety  of  new  purposes.  A 
jrly<-orine  ointment  of  much  repute  for  chapped 
hands  and  excoriations  is  made  as  follows: 
•}  oz.  of  spermaceti  is  melted  together  with  a 
drachm  of  white  wax  and  2  fluid  oz.  of  oil  of 
almonds,  by  a  moderate  heat ;  the  mixture  is 
l>oured  into  a  Wedgwood  mortar,  when  a  fluid 
ounce  of  glycerine  is  added  to  it  and  rubbed  till 
the  ingredients  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  cold. 
The  consumption  of  glycerine  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  beer  amounts  to  more  than  20,000  cwt. 
per  annum.  It  also  finds  extensive  use  for  the 
toll.) wing  purposes:  mixed  with  water  to  fill  wet 
gas  metres ;  to  lubricate  the  inside  of  moulds 
l'»>r  piaster  casts;  to  prevent  the  shrinkage  of 
wooden  vessels;  to  preserve  meat,  fruit,  can- 
die*,  medicines,  mustard,  and  tobacco;  as  a 
hair  wash;  in  soaps  and  cosmetics;  for  the 
extraction  of  perfumes ;  to  impart  elasticity  to 
paper ;  in  various  photographic  operations ;  as 
a  solvent  for  certain  aniline  colors;  in  calico 

MK;  in  the  preparation  of  leather;  as  a 
ito  for  oil  in  delicate  machinery ;  as  a 
float  to  swimming  compasses;  in  mercurial 
manometers;  as  a  substitute  for  alcohol  in  the 
preservation  of  anatomical  preparations;  to 
prevent  the  rusting  of  instruments ;  in  the  ar- 
tificial production  of  oil  of  mustard ;  to  cure 

1*,  burns,  and  bites  of  venomous  insects; 
•i  «•!'  tvim-nts;  fur  throat  dis- 
iu  •  upyin-  ink  ;  in  chemistry  to  prevent 


GLYPTODON 

the  precipitations  of  the  heavy  metals;  and 
very  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  the  explosive 
compounds  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite,  dualline, 
and  lithofracteur.  (See  EXPLOSIVES.) 

GLYNN,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bordering 
on  the  Atlantic,  and  bounded  N.  by  the  Alta- 
maha  river ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,376,  of  whom  3,450  were  colored.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Macon  and  Brunswick  and 
the  Brunswick  and  Albany  railroad.  The  sur- 
face is  level  and  occupied  partly  by  sandy  pine 
barrens,  partly  by  vast  swamps,  which  when 
drained  are  productive.  The  sea  island  cotton 
grows  here  in  perfection.  Several  islands  on 
the  coast,  one  of  which  is  about  12  m.  long, 
are  included  in  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  15,589  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  6,774  of  sweet  potatoes,  167  bales  of 
cotton,  and  740,880  Ibs.  of  rice.  There  were 
2  manufactories  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  1  iron  foundery,  and  4  saw  mills.  Capi- 
tal, Brunswick. 

GLYPTODON,  a  gigantic  fossil  mammal,  be- 
longing to  the  edentate  order  with  the  mega- 
therium and  mylodon,  but  to  the  family  dasy- 
pidrn  or  armadillos,  found  in  the  post-tertiary 


Glyptodon  clavipes. 

deposits  of  the  pampas  of  South  America,  and 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
This  animal,  with  the  fossil  genera  above  men- 
tioned, establishes  the  transition  between  the 
sloths  and  the  armadillos,  and  also  indicates 
some  pachyderm  affinities.  Four  species  have 
been  described  by  Prof.  Owen,  of  which  the 
largest  is  the  G.  clavipes;  this  species,  in  the 
structure  of  the  foot  and  the  articulation  of 
the  lower  jaw,  approaches  the  pachyderms ;  it 
resembles  the  megatherioids  in  the  strong  de- 
scending process  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  com- 
pressed from  before  backward;  the  cranium 
was  protected  by  dermal  plates,  and  its  well 
developed  ridges  indicate  the  existence  of  very 
powerful  muscles.  The  teeth,  eight  on  each 
side  of  each  jaw,  have  a  large  proportion  of 
hard  dentine,  and  are  characterized  by  two 
lateral  sculptured  grooves,  whose  wide  and 
deep  channels  divide  the  grinding  surface  into 
three  portions;  hence  the  generic  name  ap- 
plied by  Owen,  which  means  "sculptured 
tooth."  The  back  and  sides  were  covered  by 
a  carapace  composed  of  thick  polygonal  bony 
plates,  united  by  sutures,  smooth  on  the  inside, 
rough  and  sculptured  externally,  to  the  num- 
ber of  more  than  2,000.  The  length  of  the 
largest  living  armadillo,  covered  with  a  flat- 


GMELIN 


GNAT 


tened  shield,  is  about  3  ft. ;  the  size  of  the 
glyptodon  may  be  imagined  from  the  measure- 
ment of  its  carapace  in  the  museum  of  the  royal 
college  of  surgeons:  the  length,  following  the 
curve  of  the  back,  is  5  ft.  7  in. — in  a  straight 
line,  or  the  chord  of  the  arc,  4f  ft. ;  the  breadth, 
following  the  curve,  is  7£  ft. — in  a  straight 
line,  3£  ft.  The  tail  measured  H  ft-  in  length, 
and  14  in.  in  circumference  at  the  circular 
base;  it  was  slightly  depressed  toward  the 
apex,  and  gently  curved,  with  the  concavity 
upward ;  the  caudal  vertebrae  were  enclosed  in 
an  inflexible  sheath  of  bony  plates,  terminated 
by  two  ossicles,  like  a  bivalve  shell,  enabling 
it  to  pierce  the  soil  if  necessary.  The  feet 
were  short  and  stout,  armed  with  depressed 
nails.  The  glyptodon,  in  its  firm,  convex  car- 
apace, scale-covered  tail  and  head,  short  limbs, 
and  consequent  slow  motions,  presents  many 
external  analogies  to  chelonian  reptiles,  and  in 
its  size  and  shape  must  have  resembled  rather 
the  living  Galapagos  tortoise  than  the  great 
armadillo.  Like  the  living  armadillo,  the  ex- 
tinct glyptodon  was  confined  to  the  warm  parts 
of  South  America.  Other  species  described 
by  Owen  are  G.  ornatus,  G.  reticulatus,  and 
G.  tuberculatus,  all  obtained  from  the  vicinity 
of  Buenos  Ayres. 

GMELIJf.  I.  Joliann  Georg,  a  German  natural- 
ist, born  in  Tubingen,  June  12, 1709,  died  there, 
May  20,  1755.  In  1731  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  1733-'43  he  made  a  scientific  journey 
through  Siberia.  In  1747  he  returned  to  Tu- 
bingen, and  in  1749  was  appointed  professor  of 
botany  and  chemistry  there.  His  Reisen  durch 
Sibirien  (4  vols.,  Gottingen,  l751-'2)  and  Flora 
Sibirica  (4  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1749-70)  are 
his  principal  works.  II.  Samuel  Gottlieb,  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Tubingen  about  1744,  died  at  Akhmetkent,  in 
the  Caucasus,  July  27,  1774.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  botany  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  travelled 
extensively  through  southern  Russia  and  the 
adjacent  countries.  While  on  his  way  from 
Derbend  to  Kisliar,  he  was  seized  and  im- 
prisoned by  the  khan  of  the  Kaitak  tribe, 
and  died  of  privation  and  ill  treatment.  His 
chief  works  are  Historia  Fucorum  (1768),  and 
Reisen  durch  Russland  zur  Untersuchung  der 
drei  Naturreiche  (4  vols.,  l770-'84),  of  which 
the  concluding  part  is  by  Pallas.  III.  Joliann 
Friedricb,  nephew  of  Johann  Georg,  born  in 
Tubingen,  Aug.  8,  1748,  died  in  Gottingen, 
Nov.  1,  1804.  In  1771  he  became  professor 
of  natural  history  and  botany  at  Tubingen, 
and  in  1778  professor  of  medicine  and  chem- 
istry at  Gottingen.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  Onomatologia  Botanica  completa  (10 
vols.,  177l-'8) ;  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der 
mineralischen  Gifte  (1777);  Allgemeine  Ge- 
schichte  der  Pflanzengifte  (1777) ;  and  Ge- 
schichte der  Chemie  (3  vols.,  !797-'9).  He  was 
also  the  editor  of  the  13th  edition  of  Linnseus's 
Systema  Natures.  IV.  Leopold,  a  German  chem- 
ist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Gottingen, 


Aug.  2,  1788,  died  in  Heidelberg,  April  13, 
1853.  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen,  Tubin- 
gen, and  Vienna,  and  from  1817  to  1851  was 
professor  of  medicine  and  chemistry  at  Heidel- 
berg. In  1820  he  made  with  Tiedemann  a 
series  of  experiments  on  digestion,  the  result 
of  which  was  published  in  his  Die  Verdauung 
(2  vols.,  1826-'7).  His  principal  work  is  his 
Handbuch  der  theoretischen  Chemie  (3  vols., 
1817-'19;  5th  ed.,  completed  by  Schloss- 
berger,  List,  and  Liebig,  7  vols.,  1853-'62). 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  this  work, 
by  Henry  Watt  (9  vols.,  London,  1848-'55). 

GMUND,  or  Schwabish-Gmiind,  a  town  of  Wur- 
temberg,  in  the  circle  of  the  Jaxt,  on  the  Rems, 
28  m.  E.  K  E.  of  Stuttgart ;  pop.  in  1871, 10,- 
739.  It  has  a  Latin  school,  a  Catholic  normal 
school,  institutions  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  an  insane  asylum,  two  hospitals, 
important  manufactures  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  bronze  ware,  and  considerable  hop  culture. 

GNAT,  a  name  commonly  given  to  the  fam- 
ily culicidce,  of  the  proboscidean  division  of 
the  order  diptera  or  two-winged  insects ;  the 
cousin  of  the  French,  the  mosquito  of  the 


1.  Female  (greatly  magnified).    2.  Male. 

United  States.  The  gnats  belong  to  the  genus 
culex  (Linn.),  which  is  characterized  by  a  soft, 
elongated  body ;  long  legs ;  large  head  and 
eyes;  long,  many-jointed  antennae,  most  plu- 
mose in  the  males;  uniform  and  hairy  palpi, 
longest  in  the  males;  a  sucking  proboscis, 
formed  of  a  membranous  sheath  enclosing  from 
two  to  six  sharp  bristles  or  lancets,  which 
take  the  place  of  jaws,  and  whose  punctures, 
therefore,  are  properly  called  bites ;  the  side 
pieces  of  this  apparatus  serve  not  only  as  suc- 
tion tubes,  but  as  supporters  and  protectors  of 
the  lancets ;  wings  horizontal,  delicate,  and 
many-veined ;  the  winglets,  two  little  scales 
behind  the  wings,  and  moving  with  them,  are 
small ;  behind  these  are  the  knobbed  balancers 
or  poisers.  The  old  genus  culex  was  divided 
by  Meigen  into  three,  and  was  by  him  re- 
stricted to  such  gnats  as  have  the  palpi  in 
the  males  longer  than  the  proboscis,  and  very 
short  in  the  females;  the  other  two  were  ano- 
pheles (Meigen),  in  which  the  palpi  of  the  males 
are  as  long  as  the  proboscis,  and  cedes  (Hoff- 
mannsegg),  in  which  they  are  very  short  in 
both  sexes;  to  these  were  afterward  added 
sdbeihes,  with  palpi  shorter  than  proboscis; 
megarhinus,  with  very  long  recurved  proboscis 
and  short  palpi;  and psorophora,  with  a  small 


10 


GNAT 


appendage  on    each  side  of  the  prothorax 
Other  genera,  ill-characterized  for  the  most 


thaVeb^n  added  by  modern  systematists. 
the  names  gnat  and  mosquito  are  also  given  in 
ne  places  to  members  of  the  family  tipulada* ; 
TnTour  own  mosmiitoes  belong  to  several 
irenera,  among  which  is  the  genus  culex,  prop- 
erly confined  to  the  more  northern  regions  of 
the  continent.  Dr.  Harris  mentions  five  species 
,,f  rnler  and  one  of  anopheles  as  found  in  New 
Enffland ;   to  these  many  species  and  several 
genera  must  be  added.    Some  species  are  ac- 
tive by  day,  others  only  by  night,  but  both  are 
equally  fond  of  human  blood;  the  former  are 
found  principally  in  marshes  and  damp  woods 
and  rarely  in  houses,  and  are  of  more  brilliant 
colors  than  the  nocturnal  species.     The  males 
with  plumed  antennae  do  not  annoy  us  by  their 
bites,  but  simply  flit  from  flower  to  flower, 
sipping  the  dew  and  sweet  juices,  requiring 
but  little  if  any  food,  propagating  their  species, 
and  soon  after  perishing.    The  female  gnats 
are  most  persistent  biters  and  annoying  mu- 
sicians, at  almost  all  seasons  of  the  year ;  from 
the  tropics  to  Lapland  and  arctic  America,  man 
is  obliged  to  adopt  some  contrivance  to  protect 
himself  from  their  attacks,  either  the  thick 
coat  of  grease  of  the  northern  regions,  the  sand 
bed  of  the  tropics,  the  smoky  smudge  of  the 
woods,  or  the  mosquito  bars  and  curtains  of 
civilized  life.    Gnats  have  been  known  to  ap- 
pear in  such  swarms  as  to  constitute  an  insect 
plague,  darkening  the  air  like  clouds  of  smoke, 
arresting  the  progress  of  invading  armies,  and 
rendering  whole  districts  for  the  time  uninhab- 
itable;  attacking  not  only  man  but  beasts, 
and,  even  when  not  biting,  filling  every  crack 
and  corner  with  their  countless  multitudes. 
When  we  consider  the  immense  number  of 
these    insects,   and  the    comparatively  small 
proportion    which    can    ever    taste    human 
blood,    we    must    admit,    what    experiments 
with  sweetened  fluids  have  confirmed,  that 
vegetable  juices  form  the  food  of  the  greater 
number  of  females,  and  perhaps  the  natural 
food  of  all ;  many  males  probably  do  not  eat 
at  all.    The  sucking  apparatus  is  admirably 
contrived  for  obtaining  fluids,  animal  or  vege- 
table, and  these  insects  are  provided  with  \ 
sucking  stomach  independent  of  the  proper  di 
gestive  cavity.    The  sucker  is  well  describee 
and  figured  by  Reaumur  in  his  "Memoirs;' 
the  flexible  sheath  gives  support  to  the  lancets 
while  they  penetrate  the  skin  ;  the  point  of  the 
combined  lancets  is  sharper  than  the  finest 
needle,  so  that  the  size  of  each  of  the  severa 
weapons  most  be  very  small ;  the  wounds  made 
by  this  instrument  would  be  insignificant,  were 
it  not  for  an  irritating  secretion  from  the  pro 
boacia,  which  in  some  delicate  skins  produce 
obstinate  itching,  and,  in  rare  instances,  even 
irritable  ulcers. —The  metamorphoses  whicl 
gnats  and  mosquitoes  undergo  are  very  curious 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  almost  any  natura 
or  artificial  receptacle  for  fresh  water,  and  ar 
arranged  in  a  boat-shaped  form ;  fixing  herself 


>y  the  four  anterior  legs  to  some  object  at  the 
urface  of  the  water,  the  female  crosses  her 
lind  legs  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X ;  bringing 
he  latter  close  to  the  end  of  the  body,  on  a 
evel  with  the  water,  the  first  egg  is  received 
ind  retained  in  place  by  the  crossed  legs ;  as 
he  eggs  are  extruded  they  are  placed  side  by 
ide  vertically,  adhering  firmly  together  by  the 
glutinous  substance  which  covers  them  ;  when 
he  stern  of  the  egg  raft  is  properly  raised,  it 
s  pushed  further  from  the  body  by  the  succeed- 
ng  ova,  always  retained  in  place  by  the  legs 
on  the  sides ;  when  the  raft  is  about  half  made 
and  its  shape  is  determined,  the  legs  are  un- 
jrossed  and  placed  parallel,  and  the  prow  of 
.he  boat  is  narrowed  and  raised  like  the  stern. 
The  boat  is  always  of  the  same  shape,  contain- 
ng  from  250  to  350  eggs,  and  is  abandoned  by 
.he  mother  to  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and 
waves,  which  can  neither  sink,  wet,  nor  break 
t  up ;  even  a  temperature  below  freezing  can- 
not destroy  the  life  within  these  eggs.  The  larvro 
some  out  in  a  few  days  from  the  lower  end  of 


1.  Wing  of  gnat,  showing  nervures  and  small  cells.  2.  Ter- 
mination of  abdomen  of  male.  8.  Termination  of  abdo- 
men of  female.  4,  5,  6.  Modes  of  operation  of  gnat's 
sucker.  7.  Gnat's  eggs.  8.  Boat  of  gnat's  eggs. 

the  eggs,  which  are  arranged  somewhat  like 
the  seeds  of  the  ripe  sunflower,  and  the  empty 
shell  boat  is  soon  destroyed  by  the  weather. 
The  larvae  of  gnats  and  mosquitoes  are  the 
well  known  "  wigglers  "  seen  in  warm  wea- 
ther in  almost  every  collection  of  standing 
water;  they  remain,  as  it  were,  suspended 
from  the  surface  of  the  water,  head  downward, 
breathing  air  by  means  of  a  respiratory  tube 
which  goes  off  at  an  angle  from  near  the  end 
of  the  body,  communicating  with  the  tracheae ; 
the  tube  and  the  terminal  joint  are  provided 
with  radiating  hairs ;  the  head  is  round,  dis- 
tinct, with  antennae  and  ciliated  organs  which 
keep  up  a  constant  current  of  water  toward 
the  mouth,  and  bring  within  their  reach  the 
minute  animalcules  on  which  they  feed ;  the 
thorax  and  ten-jointed  abdomen  are  furnished 
with  lateral  pencils  of  hairs.  If  disturbed, 
these  larvae  quickly  wriggle  to  the  bottom,  but 
soon  come  again  to  the  surface  and  suspend 
themselves  by  the  respiratory  tube.  Some 
species  are  comparatively  free  from  hairs  in 


GNAT 

lis  condition.  After  remaining  in  tlie  larva 
state  from  five  to  fifteen  days,  according  to  the 
weather,  and  changing  their  skins  two  or  three 
times,  they  are  changed  into  pupro,  called  tum- 
blers from  the  manner  in  which  they  roll  over 
and  over  in  the  water  by  means  of  the  fin-like 
paddles  at  the  end  of  the  tail ;  they  are  very 
quick  in  their  motions,  and  swim  with  the 
head  upward ;  the  respiratory  openings  are  at 
the  end  of  two  tubes  situated  just  behind  the 
head,  so  that  the  little  tumblers  remain  near 
the  surface,  head  upward,  to  take  in  air ;  in 
this  state,  which  lasts  five  or  ten  days,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  the  insect  takes  no  food ; 
the  future  gnat  can  be  distinguished  through 
the  transparent  covering  of  the  pupa.  When 
the  perfect  insect  is  ready  to  come  forth,  the 
pupa  skin  bursts  open  on  the  back  toward  noon 
on  a  warm,  still,  sunny  day,  and  the  head  of 
the  gnat  makes  its  appearance,  followed  soon 
by  the  thorax ;  this  is  a  process  of  great  dan- 
ger to  the  insect,  as  the  slightest  breeze  would 
tip  over  the  emerging  form,  and  consign  it  to 
certain  death  in  the  water;  after  it  has  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  its  body  except  the  tail,  and 
stands  erect  like  a  mast  in  the  pupa  shell  boat, 
it  extricates  the  front  pair  of  legs  and  places 
them  for  support  on  the  surface  of  the  water ; 
the  heavy  and  wet  wings  are  now  slowly  un- 
folded, that  the  sun  and  air  may  dry  them; 
this  effected,  the  danger  is  over,  and  the  other 
legs  are  drawn  forth  and  extended  on  the  edge 
.of  the  pupa  case,  the  body  is  stretched  out, 
the  antennae  and  proboscis  elevated ;  by  this 
time  the  wings  are  dry  and  fully  expanded,  and 
the  insect  flies  off  to  revel  among  the  flowers 
or  in  search  of  blood,  according  to  the  sex. 
The  source  of  the  buzzing  noise  has  been  much 
discussed  by  naturalists,  and  is  still  the  subject 
of  dispute ;  it  has  been  ascribed  to  the  mouth 
by  Mouffet,  to  the  friction  of  the  base  of  the 
wings  against  the  chest  by  Kirby ;  the  wing- 
lets,  the  poisers,  the  motion  of  the  wings,  the 
rapid  passage  of  air  through  the  thoracic  stig- 
mata, and  the  vibrations  of  the  thorax  from 
the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  wings, 
have  been  supposed  to  be  the  cause  by  other 
entomologists ;  by  whatever  organ  it  be  pro- 
duced, Siebold  says  it  is  always  due  to  the  ac- 
tion of  voluntary  muscles,  and  has  no  connec- 
tion with  the  respiratory  system.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  wings  and  by  the  thoracic 
vibrations  consequent  thereon.  It  has  been 
estimated  by  Baron  de  la  Tour  that  the  gnat 
vibrates  its  wings  50  times  in  a  second.  This 
very  rapid  movement  probably  depends  on  a 
peculiar  form  of  muscle  which  has  been  detect- 
ed in  the  mosquito  and  other  diptera ;  the 
fibrillse  are  not  bound  together  as  in  ordinary 
striated  muscles,  but  are  separate  and  parallel, 
formed  by  the  aggregation  in  a  linear  series  of 
little  disks  with  regular  interspaces ;  contrac- 
tion of  these  independent  fibrillae  takes  place 
by  the  approximation  of  these  disks  to  each 
other ;  some  are  contracting  while  others  are 


GNEISENAU 


51 


relaxed,  so  that  a  constant  and  rapid  move- 
ment of  the  wings  is  secured.  It  is  certainly 
a  remarkable  example  of  the  extent  of  mod- 
ern microscopic  investigation,  that  the  minute 
muscles  of  the  wings  and  legs  of  the  mosquito 
can  be  dissected  and  studied.  Some  of  the  bi- 
ting culicidoB  do  not  make  a  boat  of  eggs,  but 
string  their  ova  end  to  end ;  others  deposit  them 
in  soft  mud  or  in  dry  sand ;  but  all  require 
moisture  in  the  larva  state.  As  the  eggs  are 
developed  into  the  perfect  insects  in  about  three 
weeks,  many  broods  are  hatched  in  the  course 
of  the  warm  season,  fully  explaining  their  oc- 
currence in  large  numbers ;  fortunately  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  pupaa  succeed  in  extrica- 
ting themselves  from  their  cases ;  thousands  of 
them  perish  by  drowning,  and  are  devoured 
by  fish,  reptiles,  and  aquatic  insects ;  the  per- 
fect gnats  supply  food  for  carnivorous  insects, 
the  great  tribe  of  fly-catching  birds,  and  the 
bats. — The  family  of  tipuladce  are  also  called 
gnats;  these  are  often  seen  performing  their 
aerial  dances  during  the  summer,  and  in  shel- 
tered places  even  in  mild  days  in  winter,  pre- 
ferring the  decline  of  day ;  these  dancing  com- 
panies are  said  always  to  consist  exclusively 
of  males;  any  attempt  to  intrude  upon  their 
sportive  circles  shows  their  quickness  of  vision 
and  of  motion,  as  the  whole  company  is  at 
once  removed  to  a  distance.  These  gnats  some- 
times crowd  into  houses  in  immense  numbers. 
GNEISENAU,  August,  count,  a  Prussian  general, 
born  at  Schilda,  Oct.  28,  1760,  died  in  Posen, 
Aug.  24,  1831.  He  served  in  the  Austrian 
army,  and  in  that  of  the  margrave  of  Anspach- 
Baireuth,  with  whose  troops  he  served  in 
America  under  the  English,  shortly  before  the 
close  of  the  revolutionary  war.  He  became 
captain  in  the  Prussian  army  in  1789,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Jena  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  fortress  of  Colberg  (1807),  and  held  the 
place  till  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  The  resentment 
of  Napoleon  caused  hia  dismissal  (1809),  but 
he  was  sent  on  secret  missions  to  various  courts. 
Afterward  he  was  attached  to  Bliicher's  army 
as  quartermaster  general,  and  as  chief  of  the 
staff.  (See  BUTCHER.)  He  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  Silesian  campaign  of  1813,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  was  made  lieutenant  general. 
He  rendered  important  services  during  the  cam- 
paign of  1814  in  France,  and  is  said  to  have 
advised  the  march  to  Paris.  After  the  peace 
he  was  made  count  and  general,  and  received 
a  large  estate.  After  the  return  of  Napoleon 
from  Elba  he  again  served  with  Blucher,  and 
effected  a  skilful  retreat  from  Ligny  (June  16), 
enabling  the  Prussians  to  reappear  at  Waterloo 
(on  the  18th),  and  to  decide  the  fate  of  the 
campaign.  He  now  took  part  in  the  negotia- 
tions for  peace,  was  made  commander  of  the 
Rhenish  corps,  and  accompanied  Blucher  to 
England.  Disappointed  in  his  expectation  of 
constitutional  liberty,  he  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion. In  1818  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Berlin,  and  in  1825  field  marshal;  and  in  1831, 
during  the  Polish  insurrection,  he  commanded 


-.>  GNEISS 

the  array  of  observation  on  the  Polish  borders, 
soon  after  which  he  died  of  cholera. 

GMH88,  one  of  the  roetamorphio  rocks,  of 
the  same  composition  with  granite,  from  which 
it  differs  in  presenting  the  three  ingredients, 
quartz  mica,  and  feldspar,  in  tolerably  distinct 
layers.  The  whole  mass  is  often  divided  into 
distinct  beds  or  strata,  and  these  exhibit  a  ten- 
dency to  cleave  along  the  planes  in  which  the 
mica" is  most  largely  distributed.  By  increased 
proportion  of  mica  and  loss  of  feldspar,  it  passes 
into  micaceous  slate.  The  name  gneissic  is 
sometimes  given  to  the  group  of  metamorphic 
rocks,  including  the  micaceous  and  hornblende 
slates,  quartz  rocks,  &c.  They  are  also  called 
hypozoic  in  reference  to  their  position  beneath 
the  fossiliferous  strata.  The  series  is  familiarly 
known  in  the  eastern  and  middle  states,  rang- 
ing through  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  the  S.  E. 
part  of  New  York,  northern  New  Jersey,  east- 
ern Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia. 
The  gold  region  lies  in  this  group. 

GNEIST,  Eidolf,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  18, 1816.  He  is  professor  of  juris- 
prudence in  and  pro-rector  of  the  university  of 
Berlin,  has  been  a  leading  liberal  member  of 
the  Prussian  chamber,  and  is  the  author  of 
Dot  heutige  englische  Verfasvungt-  vnd  Ver- 
v>altung*recht  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1857-'60),  Die 
Getchichte  det  Selfgovernment  in  England 
(1868),  Gachichte  vnd  heutige  Gestalt  der 
Aemter  vnd  de*  Verwaltungsrecht*  in  England 
(2  vols.,  1866),  Freie  Advokatur  (1867),  Die 
preuuuche  Kreisordnung  (1870),  Der  RecJits- 
ttaat  (1872),  and  other  works  on  Roman  and 
German  jurisprudence  and  British  institutions. 

GNESEN  (Pol.  Gniezno),  a  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  and  80  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Posen ;  pop.  in  1871,  9,910.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  has  a  fine  cathedral  and  other  church- 
es, an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  a  monastery,  and 
a  nunnery,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  cathedral  chap- 
ter. Four  annual  fairs  are  held  there.  It  was 
the  capital  of  Poland  till  1320,  when  it  was 
superseded  by  Cracow.  It  has  been  many 
times  besieged,  taken,  and  pillaged.  The  arch- 
bishops of  Gnesen  were  the  primates  of  the 
state,  and  acted  as  vicars  during  the  often  dis- 
puted elections  of  the  kings. 

GHOfiSrs,  or  GBOSIS.    See  CNOSSUS. 

GM08TICS  (Gr.  yvuats,  knowledge),  a  name 
to  variom  heretical  sects  in  the  early 
in   church.      We    know  them  mainly 
through  tlu-ir  opponents,  almost  nothing  re- 
•iif  of  Gnostic  writings  except  the  frag- 
rj  quotations  found  in  orthodox  authors, 
was  a  natural  result  of  the  con- 
tact of  Christianity  with  oriental  and  Greek 
philosophy,  ninl   was  the  earliest  attempt  to 
oonatruct  a  philosophical  system  of  faith.     It 
undertook  to  answer  the  most  difficult  ques- 
tions, such  as  that  of  the  origin  of  evil,  and 
soon  became  extravagant,  and  met  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  hading  ( 'hristian  writers.     Gnosti- 
™m  «  rail  v  n mdenmed  as  heretical, 

and,  after  having  been  most  prosperous  in  the 


GNOSTICS 

2d  century,  declined  in  the  3d,  and  in  the  6th 
came,  with  other  heresies,  under  the  ban  of  the 
Justinian  code.  It  was  a  speculative  system, 
and  exercised  little  influence  upon  the  masses 
of  the  people.  It  was  also  mainly  confined  to 
the  eastern  church,  and  had  little  to  do  with 
the  development  of  the  West. — There  are  three 
principal  theories  of  the  character  of  Gnosti- 
cism. Baur  treats  it  as  a  philosophy  of  religion 
resulting  from  the  comparison  of  various  reli- 
gious systems ;  Neander  as  a  fusion  of  Christian 
ideas  with  oriental  theosophy,  caused  by  the  pre- 
valence of  sensuous  ideas  within  the  church  ; 
Mohler  as  an  intense  and  exaggerated  Christian 
zeal,  seeking  some  practical  solution  of  the 
problems  of  sin  and  evil.  All  minor  theories 
of  the  purpose  and  motives  of  Gnosticism  can 
be  comprehended  in  one  of  these ;  and  these 
three  agree  in  the  general  definition,  that 
Gnosticism  is  an  attempt  to  solve  the  great 
problems  of  theology  by  combining  the  ele- 
ments of  pagan  mysticism  with  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  traditions.  It  is  impossible  to  make 
an  accurate  definition  of  a  system  of  which 
the  speculations  are  so  vague,  and  the  materials 
for  judgment  so  scattered  and  fragmentary. 
Different  writers  vary  widely  in  their  method 
of  classifying  the  various  Gnostic  schools.  Some 
classify  them  by  opinions,  some  by  origin,  and 
some  by  locality.  The  chief  Gnostic  ideas  may 
be  summed  up  under  seven  heads:  1.  God  is 
infinitely  removed  from  the  actual  world,  en- 
closed in  the  abyss  (Gr.  /&0oc),  with  which  he 
is  in  fact  confounded ;  he  is  separate  from  every 
work  of  temporal  creation,  incomprehensible 
by  any  mortal,  and  communicates  with  the 
lower  world  only  through  the  mediation  of  the 
aeons  (Gr.  ci<5v,  age  or  era),  whom  he  sends 
forth  from  the  depths  of  his  grand  solitude.  He 
has  infinite  development  in  the  forces  which  he 
sends,  but  no  personal  or  special  providence. 
He  is  the  sum  of  being,  yet  the  extreme  of  ab- 
straction, and  is  even  called  the  Not  Being 
(OVK  uv).  2.  Below  the  abyss,  in  which  God 
alone  dwells,  or  surrounding  this  abyss,  is  the 
Pleroma  (Gr.  Tr^pu^a,  fulness),  that  world  of 
light  and  glory  which  the  aeons  inhabit.  These 
seons  are  emanations  from  God's  central  ful- 
ness, are  embodiments  of  his  divine  attributes, 
and  fulfil  the  functions  denoted  by  their  seve- 
ral names.  Among  the  higher  seons  are  Mind, 
Reason,  Power,  Truth,  and  Life.  All  of  these 
are  styled  ceons,  because  they  are  in  some  way 
the  representatives  of  the  Eternal  Being ;  but 
only  one  of  them,  Nous  or  Mind  (v6oc,  or  in 
late  authors  vovf,  intellect),  proceeds  directly 
from  the  Deity.  The  others  emanate  in  de- 
scending succession  from  the  first  aeon.  One 
Gnostic  writer  compares  the  emanation  of 
these  aeons  from  the  Supreme  Being  to  the 
tones  of  the  voice  lessening  steadily  to  a  faint 
echo.  The  number  and  characteristics  of  these 
aeons  are  variously  stated ;  according  to  Valen- 
tinus,  there  were  365  of  them ;  but  according 
to  all,  only  the  lowest  of  them  has  anything  to 
do  with  the  material  world,  occupying  the  point 


GNOSTICS 


53 


3re  the  spiritual  and  material  worlds  touch 
each  other.  The  office  of  the  higher  aeons  is  to 
people  and  take  care  of  the  spiritual  world. 
3.  Matter  is  infinitely  separated  from  God,  and 
the  material  world  is  the  antithesis  of  the 
spiritual  world.  Hyle  (vty,  matter)  is  either 
absolute  deadness  and  emptiness  (/c^vw^a),  or 
is  a  positively  evil  substance.  The  creator  of 
this  material  universe  is  the  Demiurge.  He  is 
himself  a  creature  of  the  lowest  of  the  aeons, 
Achamoth.  He  not  only  creates  and  rules  the 
terrestrial  world,  but  has  equal  sovereignty 
over  the  planets  and  stars.  He  fulfils,  or  as 
some  say  usurps,  the  functions  of  the  infinite 
God.  He  appears  in  Jewish  history  as  Jehovah. 
Other  names  by  which  he  is  known  are  those 
of  Archon  and  Jaldabaoth,  the  son  of  Chaos. 
The  immediate  work  of  the  Demiurge  is  evil, 
and  it  takes  the  world  of  man  and  matter  fur- 
ther away  from  God  and  the  world  of  light.  4. 
Man  has  a  threefold  nature,  of  spirit,  of  body, 
and  of  soul.  His  soul-nature  stands  between 
the  other  two,  and  forms  their  connecting  bond. 
Men  are  divided  into  three  classes,  according 
to  the  predominance  of  one  or  other  of  these 
three  natures.  The  first  of  these  classes  enjoy 
a  light  from  the  world  of  aeons ;  the  second  are 
left  wholly  to  material  and  hylic  influences; 
while  the  third  are  under  the  direction  and  in- 
fluence of  the  Demiurge,  who  can  save  them 
from  utter  debasement,  but  cannot  give  them 
spiritual  life.  Historically,  the  Christians  con- 
stitute the  spiritual  world;  the  pagan  world 
forms  the  carnal  class;  and  the  Jews  occupy 
the  intermediate  place.  But  in  dividing  the 
Christians  of  their  own  time,  the  Gnostics 
numbered  two  classes,  the  select  few  of  their 
own  number  who  were  admitted  to  the  divine 
secrets,  and  the  large  body  of  common  believ- 
ers, who  were  not  able  to  rise  above  the  psychi- 
cal condition.  Some  of  them  maintained  that 
though  man  as  connected  with  matter  is  by  na- 
ture sinful,  and  though  the  Demiurge  wished  to 
create  man  in  his  own  image,  yet  unwittingly 
he  reproduced  in  this  work  of  his  breath,  not 
his  own  image,  but  a  shadow  of  that  divine 
original  which  moved  before  his  imagination. 
Man  is  better  than  the  intention  of  his  creator. 
5.  Redemption  reaches  only  the  pneumatic 
and  psychic  classes;  the  carnal  or  hylic  class 
are  destined  to  annihilation  when  their  mate- 
rial life  shall  close,  and  with  them  such  of  the 
psychic  class  as  have  not  accepted  the  influence 
from  the  Pleroma.  The  instrument  of  redemp- 
tion is  the  aaon  Christ.  This  aeon  came  down 
from  the  spirit  world,  assumed  bodily  shape 
without  being  actually  united  to  any  material 
body,  and  walked  among  men  in  Judea  as  Je- 
sus of  Nazareth,  not  a  real  human  person,  but 
an  optical  illusion,  the  phantasm  of  a  spiritual 
idea.  Some  of  the  Gnostics  were  willing,  in- 
deed, to  speak  of  the  human  life  of  Christ ;  but 
all  denied  that  his  body  was  composed  of  the 
elements  of  corrupt  and  sinful  matter ;  it  was 
an  ethereal  body  of  more  delicate  fabric  than 
the  common  human  body.  Hunger  would  not 


impel  him  to  eat,  nor  thirst  to  drink.  Yet  this 
ethereal  body  was  too  gross  for  the  Pleroma, 
and  was  left  in  the  sun  at  Christ's  ascension. 
The  advent  of  Christ  upon  the  earth  was  not 
the  birth  of  a  prophet,  or  the  coming  merely 
of  a  promised  Messiah,  but  a  spiritual  appari- 
tion to  overthrow  the  work  of  the  evil  spirit — 
"  an  incarnation  of  the  spirit  of  the  sun."  The 
presence  of  Christ  anywhere  made  men  con- 
scious of  this  divine  nature.  They  might  doubt 
of  the  humanity  of  Christ,  but  not  of  his  di- 
vinity. The  process  of  redemption,  in  the 
Gnostic  theory,  is  the  communication  through 
the  aeon  Christ  of  a  divine  life  to  the  world  of 
man,  the  revelation  of  that  life  through  this 
mediator.  Christ  redeems  the  world  as  he 
draws  the  spiritual  in  the  world  toward  the 
heaven  of  God.  His  sufferings  and  death  have 
no  influence  in  the  redeeming  work,  since,  in 
the  first  place,  they  were  illusory,  and  in  the 
second  place,  sufferings  do  not  redeem,  but 
only  punish.  The  manifestation  by  his  acts 
and  words  of  the  spirit  of  God  made  Christ  the 
redeemer.  Some  expressions  in  Gnostic  wri- 
tings might  be  interpreted  as  teaching  views  of 
redemption  more  in  harmony  with  the  church 
creeds;  but  nowhere  was  any  doctrine  of 
atonement  stated,  or  any  stress  laid  upon  the 
crucifixion  as  its  central  point.  Marcion  ex- 
tends the  redemption  into  the  world  of  Hades, 
and  maintains  that  Christ  descended  into  hell 
to  lead  back  the  virtuous  and  believing  heathen 
to  share  salvation  with  the  spiritual  Chris- 
tians. In  regard  to  the  means  of  profiting  by 
the  redemption  of  Christ,  the  Gnostic  teachers 
were  not  agreed.  Marcion  taught  a  doctrine 
resembling  that  of  Paul,  making  faith  the 
means  of  justification  and  the  ground  of  re- 
conciliation. But  most  of  the  sect  held  that 
only  "  gnosis,"  the  rare  superior  intelligence  and 
comprehension  of  divine  truth,  could  enable 
men  to  receive  the  gift  of  Christ.  This  spirit- 
ual knowledge  was  the  evidence  of  salvation 
to  believers.  The  actual  manner  of  union  be- 
tween Christ  and  his  redeemed  ones  is  very 
vaguely  described  in  the  Gnostic  writings,  and 
their  language  in  speaking  of  redemption  and 
its  issues  is  confused.  6.  Although  the  Gnos- 
tics were  charged  with  boasting  that  they  had 
schools  rather  than  churches,  yet  they  held  to 
a  church  which  should  have  a  twofold  life, 
for  the  mass  of  believers,  and  for  the  initiated : 
for  the  first,  common  exoteric  doctrines,  and  for 
the  second,  spiritual  esoteric  doctrines,  reveal- 
ed to  a  secret  sacred  society  within  the  proper 
circle  of  the  church.  Practically  they  did  lit- 
tle, and  many  of  them  were  content  to  theorize 
about  spiritual  truth,  while  submitting  to  the 
recognized  ecclesiastical  order.  Baptism  was 
to  them  the  important  rite,  since  Jesus  became 
Christ  at  his  baptism,  and  through  this  rite 
the  higher  spirit  was  imparted  to  the  sensuous 
soul.  It  was  the  sign  of  their  emancipation 
from  demiurgic  rule.  A  few  objected  to  bap- 
tism as  too  physical  a  rite,  but  most  of  them 
celebrated  it  with  great  show  and  solemnity. 


GNOSTICS 


•rd's  sapper  was  to  them  of  less  impor- 

only  the  sign  of  a  material  feast, 

,,.i  tli.-  reality  «»f  which  their  views  of  the  na- 

:  Christ  threw  doubt.  Some  of  them 
kept  the  feast  days  of  the  church,  and  the  fol- 


lowers of  Carpocrates  allowed    the 
images  both  of  Jesus  and  the  saints. 


use   of 
While 


the  idea  of  the  church  was  to  a  great  extent 
discarded,  much  of  its  ritual  and  its  splendor 
was  retained.  7.  In  practical  morals  two  ten- 
•i  are  to  be  observed  in  the  Gnostic 
a.  On  one  side  is  the  ascetic  tendency, 
whi.-h  seeks  a  complete  emancipation  from 
matter  and  from  bodily  passion,  as  the  seat  of 
sin;  on  the  other  side  the  licentious  tendency, 
whk-h  plunges  into  excess,  on  the  plea  that 
sensual  passion  is  most  surely  overcome  by 
satiety.  Many  of  the  charges  brought  against 
this  latter  class  of  Gnostics  are,  however,  to 
be  taken  with  large  abatement.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  their  average  morality  was  be- 
low that  of  the  orthodox  Christians,  or  that 
the  ascetic  tendency  was  carried  to  such  ex- 
tremes among  them  as  among  the  Jewish  Es- 
senes  or  the  later  Christian  hermits.  Gnosti- 
cism, in  the  2d  century  at  least,  was  rather 
a  speculative  than  a  practical  heresy,  a  sys- 
tem of  intellectual  vagaries  rather  than  of  mor- 
al corruptions.—  In  speaking  of  the  principal 
Gnostic  teachers,  the  geographical  division 
may  be  adopted  as  most  convenient,  if  not 
most  philosophical.  Of  the  precursors  of  Gnos- 
ticism before  the  formation  of  its  principal 
schools  are  mentioned:  Simon  Magus,  whose 
authentic  history  is  related  in  the  Acts,  but 
of  whom  legends  abound,  and  after  whom  the 
sect  of  the  Siraonians  was  named;  Menander, 
said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Simon  ;  Corin- 
th us,  who  considered  Judaism  a  preparation 
for  Christianity;  Nicolaus,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known  except  that  he  is  reckoned  as  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Nicolaitans,  noted 
for  thoir  lax  morality,  and  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse.  Of  the  Syrian  school,  the  chief 
characteristic  of  which  is  dualism,  the  princi- 
pal teachers  were:  1.  Saturninus,  a  follower 
lander,  who  lived  at  Antioch  about  the 
year  125,  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  He  main- 
tained that  the  lowest  coon  was  formed  from 
the  spirits  of  the  seven  planets;  that  the  evil 
spirit  formed  a  race  of  hylic  men  to  counteract 
the  race  formed  by  this  aeon  ;  and  that  Christ 
was  the  »on  Nous  in  a  visible  but  not  corporeal 
body.  His  school,  never  very  numerous,  was 
confined  to  the  neighborhood  of  Antioch,  and 
was  hardly  known  in  the  succeeding  century. 
2.  Bardesanes,  who  flourished  at  Edessa  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  2d  century.  (See  BARDE- 
SAHKS.)  8.  Tatian,  who  lived  in  the  2d  century, 
and  is  commonly  reckoned  among  the  Christian 
apologists.  (See  TATIAN.)  In  the  Egyptian 
characterized  by  the  emanation  theory, 
rere:  i.  IJasili.K-s.  \\lm 
in  Alexandria  about  the  year  120,  whose 
follower*,  the  Badlidiana,  existed  as  late  as  the 
4th  century.  (See  BASILIDES.)  2.  Valentinus 


an  Alexandrian  Jew,  who  taught  in  Eome 
about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  and  died 
in  Cyprus  about  the  year  1GO.  His  system  of 
a3ons  is  divided  into  three  series  of  15  pairs, 


an  ogdoad,  a  decad,  and  a  dodecad. 

" 


male  and  female. 


, 
His 


They  are 
threefold  Christ  "  dif- 


fers from  that  of  Basilides.  His  elaboration 
of  Gnostic  ideas  was  more  complete  and  inge- 
nious than  that  of  any  other  writer,  and  his 
influence  was  longer  and  wider  in  its  extent. 
J.  Matter  numbers  seven  distinguished  names 
among  the  successors  of  Valentinus,  five  of 
whom  founded  schools;  these  are  Secundus, 
Ptolemy,  Marcus,  Colarbasus,  Heracleon,  The- 
odotus,  and  Alexander.  3.  The  Ophites,  or 
Naasenes,  a  powerful  sect,  yet  without  any 
distinguished  name  among  their  teachers,  who 
traced  their  doctrine  to  James,  the  brother  of 
the  Lord,  and  existed  at  a  later  period  than 
the  other  Gnostic  sects.  As  their  name  im- 
plies, the  serpent  was  for  them  a  sacred  em- 
blem. They  regarded  the  fall  of  man  as  a  pro- 
gress rather  than  as  a  loss,  named  the  Jewish 
Jehovah  "  Jaldabaoth,"  or  the  God  of  chaos, 
preferred  Judas  to  the  other  disciples,  affirm- 
ing that  he  betrayed  Christ  to  destroy  the 
kingdom  of  God's  enemy,  and  denied  that  the 
real  Christ  was  ever  crucified.  The  Sethites 
and  Cainites  were  branches  of  this  sect.  The 
moral  character  of  the  Ophites  was  bad,  and 
the  sect  came  not  only  under  the  constant  re- 
buke of  the  church  teachers,  but  under  the  im- 
perial ban.  Of  the  Gnostics  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  one  eminent  name  is  that  of  Marcion,  an 
austere  moralist  and  a  vigorous  reasoner.  Ho 
taught  at  Kome  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century.  His  system  is  characterized  by  the 
constant  antithesis  between  Christianity  and 
Judaism,  by  a  rejection  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  of  all  apostolic  authority  except  that  of 
Paul,  and  by  a  rigid  asceticism.  His  followers 
were  numerous  even  to  the  time  of  Moham- 
med. Of  the  Gnostics  not  localized,  but  most- 
ly related  by  their  doctrines  to  the  Gnostics  of 
Egypt,  may  be  mentioned  the  schools  of  Car- 
pocrates and  his  son  Epiphanes,  the  Antitacts, 
the  Bortonians,  the  Phibionites,  the  Archon- 
tics,  the  Adamites,  and  the  Prodicians.  Her- 
mogenes  of  Carthage  is  also  by  some  regarded  as 
a  Gnostic  teacher.  —  While  the  particular  sect 
and  schools  of  the  Gnostics  had  disappeared 
almost  wholly  in  the  6th  century,  their  opin- 
ions survived  to  a  much  later  age,  seriously 
affecting  not  only  the  orthodox  faith,  but  ap- 
pearing in  many  of  the  famous  and  troublesome 
heresies.  Their  earlier  influence  is  to  be  no- 
ticed in  the  views  of  the  Ebionites  and  the  Do- 
cetfB,  in  the  speculations  of  the  Clementine  Ho- 
milies, in  the  radical  theories  of  Montanism,  in 
the  fantasies  of  the  New  Platonists,  and  above 
all  in  the  powerful  and  wide-spread  Manichsean 
heresy.  Some  have  also  endeavored  to  find 
traces  of  Gnosticism  in  the  Sabellian,  Arian, 
and  Pelagian  heresies.  In  the  7th  century 
their  doctrines  were  repeated  by  the  Pauli- 
cians,  in  the  9th  by  the  Athinganians  or  "  chil- 


GNU 


55 


of  the  sun,"  about  the  close  of  the  llth 
by  the  Catharists,  and  in  the  12th  by  the  Bogo- 
miles  of  Byzantium.  Some  of  the  opinions  of 
the  knights  templars  and  of  the  Waldenses 
seemed  to  be  borrowed  from  this  source,  and 
the  reveries  of  Spanish  and  German  mystics  are 
not  unlike  the  hymns  of  Bardesanes.  The 
sources  from  which  our  knowledge  of  Gnosti- 
cism is  drawn  are  the  single  Gnostic  work  Pis- 
tis  Sophia,  translated  from  Coptic  into  Latin  by 
M.  G.  Schwartze  (edited  by  J.  H.  Petermann, 
Berlin,  1851);  IrenasusVE/ley^oc  TW  ^ev6uvv[j.ov 
yvucsag  (edited  by  Stieren,  Leipsic,  1853) ;  frag- 
ments from  Irenasus  and  Hippolytus  (edited  by 
Emanuel  Miller,  Oxford,  1851) ;  and  the  works 
of  Ignatius,  Justin,  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Origen,  Eusebius,  Philastrius,  Epipha- 
nius,  Theodoret,  Augustine,  Plotinus,  and  oth- 
ers. The  more  important  modern  works  which 
treat  of  Gnosticism  are :  Neander,  Genetisclie 
Entwiclcelung  der  vorneJimsten  gnostischen  Sys- 
teme  (Berlin,  1818);  E.  A.  Lewald,  De  Doc- 
trina  Onostica  (Heidelberg,  1818);  Mohler, 
Ursprung  des  Onosticismus  (Tubingen,  1831) ; 
Baur,  Die  christliche  Gnosis,  oder  die  christ- 
liche  KeligionspMlosophie  in  ihrer  geschicht- 
lichen  Entwiclcelung  (Tubingen,  1835);  Mat- 
ter, Histoire  critique  du  gnosticisme  (2d  ed.,  3 
vols.,  Paris,  1843-'4);  the  church  histories  of 
Mosheim,  Neander,  Gieseler,  Hase,  and  Schaff ; 
Beausobre's  "  History  of  Manichaeism,"  Miin- 
ter's  "  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities,"  Hitter's  "His- 
tory of  Philosophy,"  Corners  "  Christology," 
and  Bunsen's  "  Hippolytus  and  his  Age." 

GNU,  a  hollow-horned  ruminating  animal,  in- 
habiting the  plains  of  southern  and  central  Af- 
rica, generally  classed  with  the  bovidw  or  ox 
family,  of  the  genus  catoblepas  (H.  Smith)  or 
connochetes  (Gray) ;  the  wilde  freest  of  the  Dutch 
colonists  at  the  Cape.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
singular  of  animals,  having  the  head  and  horns 
of  a  buffalo,  the  body  and  mane  of  a  horse,  and 


White  Gnu  (Catoblepas  gnu). 

the  limbs  of  an  antelope.  The  form  of  the  head, 
neck,  and  shoulders  is  decidedly  bovine,  robust, 
and  clumsy;  the  forehead  wide  and  flat,  the 
muzzle  broad,  and  covered  with  hair  except  the 
valvular  opening  of  the  nostrils ;  the  eyes  large ; 
ears  long,  narrow,  and  pointed  ;  horns  present 


in  both  sexes,  above  and  behind  the  eyes,  close 
together  at  their  origin,  descending  at  first 
downward  and  outward,  then  curving  upward 
and  backward,  flattened  at  the  base,  cylindrical 
at  the  tip,  rough  and  irregular.  The  hair  on 
the  brows  and  forehead  is  long  and  shaggy, 


Brindled  Gnu  (Catoblepas  gorgon). 

giving  a  fierce  expression  to  the  face ;  the  neck 
has  a  rigid  mane  above,  and  a  long,  hairy  dew- 
lap below;  the  shoulders  are  deep,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  moderate  hump ;  the  body  is 
rounded  like  that  of  a  horse,  and  the  limbs 
delicately  formed ;  the  tail  is  moderately  long, 
with  a  brush  at  the  end;  the  hair  elsewhere 
on  the  body  is  short;  the  hoofs  are  rather 
large  for  the  limbs,  and  the  skin  of  the  knees 
is  bare  and  callous,  from  their  habit  of  going 
on  their  knees  in  attack  and  defence.  The 
general  color  of  the  common  species  (C.  gnu, 
H.  Smith)  is  yellowish  tawny,  darkest  on  the 
back  and  legs,  with  the  tips  of  the  long  hair 
blackish.  The  gnu,  though  clumsy  in  appear- 
ance, is  very  swift  and  active,  galloping  over 
the  plains  like  a  horse,  and  feeding  in  large 
herds  like  wild  cattle ;  when  alarmed,  it  rarely 
takes  to  flight  until  it  has  examined  into  the 
cause  of  the  danger,  a  curiosity  of  which  the 
hunter  is  able  to  take  advantage;  it  is  very 
pugnacious,  and  is  tamed  with  difficulty.  The 
common  species  is  about  3  ft.  10  in.  high  at  the 
shoulders,  and  6^  ft.  long  from  nose  to  tail.  A 
second  and  larger  species  is  the  Icokoon  or 
brindled  gnu,  ~blauwe  wilde  beest  (C.  taurina  et 
gorgon,  H.  Smith),  which  measures  about  5  ft. 
at  the  shoulders  and  7$  ft.  from  nose  to  tail, 
the  tail  If  ft,  and  the  horns  about  2  ft.  long. 
The  face  is  blackish,  the  sides  of  the  head  and 
neck  yellowish  gray,  the  latter  and  the  shoul- 
ders with  vertical  dark  stripes ;  the  body  above 
and  the  sides  glossy  reddish  gray ;  below,  and 
the  limbs,  reddish  brown.  Both  species  in- 
habit the  extensive  grassy  plains  of  central 


56 


GOA 


Africa,  advancing  southward  after  the  summer 
rains  to  the  Orange  river,  south  of  which  only 
the  common  and  first  named  species  ranges. 
Great  numbers  are  killed  every  year  by  the 
Cape  colonists,  but  their  annual  visitations  still 
continue;  the  flesh  is  considered  excellent. 

GOA.  I.  A  Portuguese  colony  in  India,  on  the 
W  coast,  between  lat.  14°  54'  and  15°  45'  N., 
and  Ion.  78°  45'  and  74°  26'  E.,  bounded  N.  by 
Sawuntwarree,  E.  by  N.  Canara,  and  W.  and  S. 
by  the  Indian  ocean ;  pop.  about  41 8,000.  With 
the  exception  of  Damaun  and  Diu,  it  is  the 
only  Portuguese  possession  in  India.  It  is  well 
watered  and  fertile,  producing  rice,  pepper,  co- 
coanuts,  betel  nuts,  and  salt.  The  inhabitants, 
two  thirds  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics,  are 
chiefly  descendants  of  Europeans  by  native 
women.  II.  Old  Got,  a  city  of  the  above  named 
colony,  and  formerly  capital  of  the  Portuguese 
possessions  in  India,  on  an  island  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  river  Mandova,  250 
m.  8.  8.  E.  of  Bombay;  pop.  about  4,000. 
The  houses  are  built  of  stone  in  the  European 

the  streets  are  regular,  and  the  public 
buildings  far  surpass  everything  else  erected 
by  Europeans  in  India,  but  are  falling  to  de- 
cay, and  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  edifices  have 
been  used  as  quarries  for  building  materials  in 
the  new  town.  During  the  16th  century  it 
was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  European  set- 
tlements in  the  East ;  its  walls  described  a  cir- 
cuit of  6  m.,  and  enclosed  a  population  of  150,- 
000  Christians  and  50,000  Mohammedans ;  but 
the  site  is  unhealthy,  and  was  abandoned  early 
in  the  18th  century.  St.  Francis  Xavier  was 
l>uriod  there,  March  15,  1554;  but  his  remains, 
with  his  magnificent  tomb,  covered  with 
sculptures  representing  passages  in  his  life, 
have  been  removed  to  the  new  town.  Old 
Goa  is  now  nearly  deserted ;  but  some  pains 
are  taken  to  keep  the  ancient  churches  and 
public  buildings  in  repair.  III.  New  Goa,  Pan- 
Jim,  or  PangaiM,  situated  on  the  same  island,  5 
m.  nearer  to  the  sea  than  the  old  town,  on  a 
fine  bay  8.  of  a  headland  called  Algoada 
point,  with  two  lighthouses,  is  a  fortified  place, 
ati'l  since  1768  the  Portuguese  capital  in  the 
East;  pop.  about  24,000.  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  governor  and  principal  Portuguese  in- 
habitant-*, and  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  custom 
house,  and  the  palaces  of  the  archbishop  and 
the  governor.  The  trade,  once  the  most  im- 
portant of  any  place  in  India,  is  now  trifling, 
and  is  limited  to  the  mother  country  and  the 

niese  settlements  on  the  coast  of  China 
and  Africa.    The  revenue  of  the  colony  is  about 
1600,000  annually.    Goa  was  taken  from  the 
Hindoos  by  the  Mohammedan  sovereign  of  the 
Deccan  in  1469.    In  1510  it  was  captured  by 
'icse,  who  made  it  the  capital  of 
••-ts  in  India;  and  it  has  ever  since 
remained  in  their  hands  except  during  the  pe- 
riod from  1807  to  1815,  when  it  was  held  by 

itish.  In  no  part  of  the  world  was  the 
inquisition  more  vigorously  maintained  than  in 


GOAT 

Goa.  A  mutiny  of  the  native  troops  took  place 
here  in  November,  1871. 

GOALPARA,  or  N.  E.  Rnngpoor,  a  district  of 
Bengal,  British  India,  bounded  N.  by  the  na- 
tive state  of  Bootan,  E.  by  the  district  of  Cam- 
roop,  S.  by  Mymunsing  and  the  territory  of 
the  Garrow  tribes,  and  W.  by  Rungpoor  and 
Cooch  Behar ;  area,  4,433  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
442,761.  It  produces  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar, 
and  mustard.  Though  belonging  properly  to 
Bengal,  of  which  it  formed  a  part  on  the  ac- 
quisition of  that  territory  by  the  British  in 
1765,  it  is  often  regarded  as  a  district  of  As- 
sam, with  which  country  it  is  naturally  con- 
nected by  similarity  of  climate,  soil,  &c. — The 
town  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Brahmapootra, 
280  m.  N.  E.  of  Calcutta,  is  the  chief  trading 
place  of  the  region. 

GOAT  (capra,  Linn.),  a  hollow-horned  rumi- 
nant, of  the  subfamily  ovince,  which  also  con- 
tains the  sheep.  The  genus  is  characterized 
by  a  convex  forehead,  nose  for  the  most  part 
straight  in  its  upper  outline,  and  the  absence 
of  lachrymal  sinuses  and  secreting  glands  be- 
tween the  hoofs ;  the  horns,  present  in  both 
sexes,  but  larger  and  more  angular  in  the  males, 
are  of  a  dull  yellowish  brown  color,  compress- 
ed and  nodose,  with  a  sharp  edge  behind  and 
before,  curving  backward,  but  not  completing 
a  circle,  and  the  tips  never  coming  forward ; 
their  curve,  unlike  those  of  the  sheep,  forma 
part  of  a  circle,  whose  diameter  is  much  longer 
than  the  head ;  their  osseous  nucleus  is  porous 
or  cellular,  communicating  with  the  frontal 
sinuses ;  the  chin  is  bearded,  the  tail  very  short 
and  naked  below,  the  hoofs  as  high  on  the  in- 
ner as  on  the  outer  side,  and  the  mammas,  gen- 
erally two,  forming  an  udder ;  the  nose  is  cov- 
ered with  hair,  except  a  narrow  naked  space 
between  the  nostrils;  the  limbs  are  strong, 
with  a  callosity  on  the  carpus.  The  dental  for- 
mula is:  incisors  $;  canines  none;  molars  |z|; 
in  all  32  teeth.  The  hair  is  never  very  coarse, 
and  sometimes  remarkably  fine,  with  a  woolly 
down  underneath.  The  period  of  gestation  is 
five  months,  and  the  number  of  young  general- 
ly two ;  the  female  is  capable  of  propagating 
at  seven  months,  and  the  male  at  a  year  old ; 
the  age  of  the  goat  may  be  extended  to  15  years, 
though  they  are  generally  old  at  6.  The  males 
emit  a  powerful  odor,  and  are  libidinous  and 
pugnacious.  They  ascend  giddy  heights,  and 
spring  with  great  precision  from  rock  to  rock 
where  there  seems  hardly  a  possibility  of  their 
obtaining  a  foothold ;  their  sight  and  smell  are 
acute.  The  hunting  of  the  wild  species  is  both 
difficult  and  dangerous.  The  goats  include  the 
ibex  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  (see  IBEX)  ; 
the  wild  agagrus,  and  the  Jemlah  goat  or  the 
jharal.  There  is  no  goat  indigenous  to  Amer- 
ica, the  so-called  Rocky  mountain  goat  being 
in  reality  an  antelope. — The  common  wild  goat 
(<?.  [hircut]  cegagrus,  Pallas)  inhabits  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  and  Persia, 
and  according  to  some  the  European  Alps.  It 
is  higher  on  the  legs  than  the  domestic  goat, 


GOAT 


57 


ad  the  horns  are  large  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  animal.  The  general  color  is  gray- 
ish brown  alwve,  with  a  dark  dorsal  line  and 
blackish  tail ;  the  colors  are  paler  in  the  female. 
Another  wild  species  is  the  Jemlah  goat  (G. 
Jemlahica,  H.  Smith),  with  depressed,  knobby, 


Domestic  Goat  (Capi-a  hircus). 


wrinkled  horns,  a  solid,  heavy  skull,  and  ro- 
bust limbs;  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  back  is 
abundant,  long,  and  loose,  and  on  the  sides  of 
the  head  very  coarse ;  the  tail  is  very  short ; 
the  color  is  a  dirty  whitish  fawn.  It  inhabits 
the  district  of  Jemlah,  in  the  elevated  mountain 
chain  of  central  Asia.  The  C.  cossus  and  C. 
imberbis  (De  Blainville)  are  believed  to  be  do- 
mesticated varieties  of  this  species.  The  jha- 
ral  of  Hodgson  is  by  Gray  referred  to  the  same 
species  as  the  last,  forming  the  genus  hemitra- 
gus  (Hodg.);  they  have  four  mammae.  The 
domestic  goat  (C.  hircus,  Linn.)  resembles  the 
C.  cegagrus  more  than  any  other  wild  species. 
The  common  goat  of  the  mountainous  coun- 
tries of  Europe  much  resembles  the  aegagrus, 
and  has  in  some  places  become  so  wild  as  to 
be  difficult  of  approach ;  the  ears  are  small  and 
upright;  the  size  of  the  body  is  smaller,  the 
hair  coarser,  the  horns  more  vertical  and  turn- 
ing outward,  and  the  colors  more  varied.  The 
Persian  goat  resembles  a  small  segagrus ;  the 
hair  is  long  and  coarse.  The  "Welsh  breed  is 
large,  generally  white,  with  long  fine  hair,  and 
with  vertical  horns  about  3  ft.  long.  There 
are  small  hornless  breeds  of  goats  in  South 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  Pacific  isl- 
ands, supposed  to  have  originated  from  Africa. 
The  Angora  has  long  soft  hair,  mostly  white, 
long  ears,  upright  yellowish  horns,  and  a  sheep- 
like  look.  The  famous  Cashmere  (properly 
Thibet)  breed  have  long,  straight,  silky  hair, 
large  pendent  ears,  and  slender  legs.  The  Ne- 
paul  goat  is  black,  of  a  high  and  slender  figure, 
with  an  arched  form  of  nose,  and  long,  hanging, 


whitish  ears.  The  goat  of  upper  Egypt  is  of 
a  brownish  color  and  high  stature,  with  long 
shaggy  hair,  arched  nose,  ample  pendent  ears, 
and  the  upper  jaw  so  much  shorter  than  the 
under  that  the  lower  incisors  and  chin  are  ex- 
posed.— Goat  skins  were  probably  among  the 
first  materials  used  for  clothing  among  the 
northern  nations.  The  milk  of  the  goat  is 
used  for  making  cheese,  and  is  prescribed  as  a 
medicine  in  debilitated  constitutions  and  pul- 
monary diseases.  In  the  malarious  regions 
of  Asia  cow's  milk  is  regarded  as  a  predis- 
posing cause  of  bilious  fevers  and  diseases  of 
the  liver,  and  goat's  milk  is  therefore  sub- 
stituted. The  flesh  of  the  kid  is  esteemed  as 
food  ;  from  the  skin  are  made  fine  gloves,  va- 
rious garments,  and  the  real  Morocco  leather ; 
from  the  hair  of  one  variety  are  manufactured 
the  costly  fabrics  of  Cashmere.  (See  CASH- 
MEEE.) — The  Rocky  mountain  goat  is  referred 
to  the  genus  capra  by  Desmoulins,  Harlan,  Sun- 
devall,  Eichardson,  Bachman,  and  Van  der 
Hoeven ;  but  recent  examinations  go  to  show 
that  in  all  its  essential  features  and  affinities  it 
is  an  antelope,  and  belongs  to  the  genus  aplo- 
cerus  (H.  Smith).  It  resembles  the  goat  and 
merino  sheep  in  its  figure  and  size  ;  the  horns 
are  small,  conical,  smooth,  nearly  erect,  and 
jet  black.  The  outer  hair  is  long,  straight,  and 
white,  as  fine  and  soft  as  that  of  the  Cashmere 
goat ;  the  chin  is  bearded ;  the  external  fleece 
hangs  down  all  over  the  body  and  upper  part 
of  the  legs ;  the  under  hairs  are  soft  and  silky 
like  wool.  It  inhabits  the  highest  and  most 
inaccessible  peaks  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  65°  N.,  and  is 
most  abundant  in  Washington  territory ;  it  is 
very  difficult  to  procure ;  the  mountain  sheep 


Eocky  Mountain  Goat  (Aplocerus  montanup). 

(ovis  montana,  Cuv.),  or  big-horn,  has  been 
often  mistaken  for  it  by  travellers. — The  goats 
are  rarely  found  fossil,  and  belong  nearly^to 
the  same  epoch  of  creation  as  man,  forming 
probably  the  first  step  by  their  domestication 
in  his  progress  toward  civilization.  The  goat 


58 


GOATSUCKER 


was  one  of  the  signs  of  the  ancient  zodiac 
(Capricorn) ;  the  mythological  Pan,  the  god  of 
shepherds  aiid  the  supreme  power  over  nature, 
was  represented  with  the  horns  and  legs  of  a 
goat ;  the  agi»,  or  shield  of  Jupiter,  was  cov- 
ered with  the  skin  of  a  goat ;  this  animal  was 
sacred  to  several  ancient  divinities,  and  even 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation  was  emblemati- 
cal of  atonement. 

MUlMt  Mill,  a  nocturnal  fissirostral  bird, 
of  the  order  passeres  or  insesaores,  suborder 
ftruore*,  and  the  family  caprimulgidce.  The 
family  are  characterized  by  a  short,  very  broad, 
depressed  bill,  with  an  immense  gape  extending 
beneath  the  eyes  and  rendered  larger  by  nu- 
merous bristles  for  arresting  their  insect  prey  ; 
the  eyes  are  very  large,  and  easily  dazzled  by 
the  full  light  of  day ;  the  tarsi  are  short  and 
weak,  the  toes  long,  the  hind  toe  closely  united 
to  the  base  of  the  inner ;  the  plumage  is  soft, 
enabling  them  to  fly  without  noise.  In  the 
sombre  colors  and  texture  of  the  feathers,  in 
the  large  head  and  eyes  and  nocturnal  habits, 
they  resemble  the  owls,  but  zoologically  they 
come  nearest  to  the  swift  family.  The  name 
goatsucker  is  derived  from  the  Latinized  Greek 
appellative  caprimulgus,  which  originated  in 
the  idea  that  they  suck  the  mamma  of  goats; 
the  French  call  these  birds  engoulevente,  or 
wind  swallowers,  and  crapauds  volants,  or  fly- 
ing toads,  probably  on  account  of  the  great 
capacity  of  the  mouth.  Like  the  owls,  they 
hide  themselves  by  day,  coming  out  toward 
sunset,  and  pursuing  insects  on  the  wing  with 
great  rapidity  during  the  twilight ;  they  make 
no  nests,  but  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  bare 
ground  or  in  slight  concavities ;  they  are  found 
in  ull  parts  of  the  world,  but  most  abundantly 
in  South  America.  There  are  three  subfami- 
lies: tteatornina,  or  oil  birds,  found  in  the 
West  and  East  Indies,  Australia,  Africa,  and 
South  America;  caprimulgince,  alone  repre- 
sented in  the  United  States ;  and  podagerince, 
in  Africa  and  South  America.  In  the  first  sub- 
family the  genus  steatorni*  (Humboldt)  become 
so  plump  on  the  rich  palm  fruits  of  Guadeloupe 
and  Trinidad  in  the  breeding  season  that  their 
fat  is  compared  to  that  of  olive  oil,  and  as  such 
is  permitted  to  be  used  during  Lent.  Some 
species  of  the  genus  nyctibiu*  (Vieill.)  are  as 
large  as  a  short-eared  owl.  Among  the  capri- 
mulgina  are  included  the  European  goatsucker, 
the  North  American  chuckwill's  widow,  whip- 
)•«»" r\\  ill,  and  night  hawk,  and  the  South  Amer- 
ican scissors-tailed  goatsucker.  The  European 
species  (oiprimnlgut  Europasus,  Linn.)  is  as 
large  as  a  thrush,  of  a  gray  brown  color,  undu- 
lated and  spotted  with  blackish  brown,  with  a 
band  of  white  from  the  bill  to  the  nape;  it 
nestles  in  the  furze,  and  lays  two  eggs.  From 
the  nature  of  its  food  and  its  method  of  taking 
it,  and  its  manner  of  flying,  it  is  often  called 
i;ire-tailcd  swallow;  it  feeds  on  noctur- 
n.ii  inMCti  likr  moths  and  beetles,  and  migrates 
faring  winter  into  southern  Europe  and  north- 
vrii  Africa,  The  chuckwill's  widow  (antrosto- 


mus  Carolinemis,  Gould)  is  the  largest  of  the 
North  American  species,  being  about  13  in. 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  26  in. ;  it  has 
very  strong  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  each 
with  lateral  filaments ;  the  wings  are  long,  and 
the  tail  slightly  rounded ;  the  prevailing  color 


CbuckwilTs  Widow  (Antrostomus  Carolinensis). 

is  pale  rufous,  the  top  of  the  head  reddish 
brown  with  longitudinal  black  streaks,  the  last 
two  thirds  of  the  tail  feathers  (except  the  four 
central)  rufous  white,  with  the  outer  webs  of 
all  mottled ;  the  female  has  no  white  patch  on 
the  tail ;  it  is  found  in  the  southern  Atlantic 
and  gulf  states.  The  popular  name  of  the  bird 
is  derived  from  the  sounds  which  it  utters  very 
clearly  and  strongly  six  or  seven  times  in  quick 
succession  in  a  melancholy  tone  ;  they  are  sel- 


Leona  Goatsucker  (Macrodipteryx  longipennis). 

dom  heard  in  cloudy  weather,  and  never,  ac- 
cording to  Audubon,  when  it  rains.  The  flight 
is  rapid,  graceful,  and  elevated.  It  makes  its 
appearance  from  the  south  in  the  gulf  states 
about  the  middle  of  March ;  no  nest  is  made, 
but  the  eggs  are  laid  among  the  dead  leaves ; 


GOBELINS 


59 


the  eggs  be  disturbed,  the  birds  remove  them 
their  mouths  (according  to  Audubon,  who 
itnessed  the  fact),  and  place  them  in  another 
locality ;  they  probably  remove  the  young  in 
the  same  manner.     They  manifest  a  great  an- 
tipathy to  all  kinds  of  snakes.     They  leave  the 
United  States  about  the  middle  of  August.  The 
whippoorwill  (A.  vociferus,  Wils.)  and  the  night 
hawk  (chordeiles  Virginianus,  Briss.)  will  be 
described  under  their  proper  titles.     The  scis- 
sors-tailed species  (C.furcifer,  Vieill.)  of  Para- 
uay  is  remarkable  for  the  length  of  the  outer 
thers  of  the  tail,  gradually  diminishing  to 
tip.     Among  the  podagerince  is  the  Leona 
tsucker  (macrodipteryx  longipennis,  Shaw), 
native  of  Africa,  having  the  innermost  quill 
the  wings  extremely  prolonged  and  deficient 
webs  except  at  the  end,  and  longer  than  the 
itself.     The  genus  podager  (Wagl.)  has 
ig  wings  and  short  even  tail,  and  short  and 
.thered  tarsi ;  it  is  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  South  America,  frequenting  fields  and  moist 
places,  usually  in  pairs,  but  occasionally  in  large 
flocks,  chasing  insects  in  the  full  light  of  day ; 
it  lays  two  eggs  on  the  bare  ground.     Most  of 
the  goatsuckers  have  the  inner  edge  of  the 
iddle  claw  pectinated,  like  a  comb,  for  the 
rpose  of  cleansing  the  bristles  of  the  bill 
m  remains  of  insects  and  particles  of  dirt. 
GOBELINS,  Manufactory  of  the,  an  establish- 
ent  in  Paris  belonging  to  the  French  govern- 
ent,  devoted  to  the  production  of  tapestry 
d  carpets.      It  is  situated  in  the  faubourg 
Marcel,  upon  the   Bievre,  being  No.  254 
Mouffetard.     It  derives  its  name  from  the 
others  Jehan  and  Gilles  Gobelin,  who  discov- 
an  improvement  in  scarlet  dye,  and  erect- 
this  building  as  they  believed  that  the  water 
the  little  stream  Bievre  possessed  qualities 
vantageous  to  their  art.    Jehan,  the  head 
the  Gobelin  family,  died  in   1476 ;   some 
intain  that  he  was  a  native  of  Rheims,  and 
hers  that  he  came  from  Holland.     His  scar- 
dye  soon  rose  into  great   repute.      The 
tablishment  was  purchased  by  Louis  XIV., 
.d  transformed  in  1667  into  the  manufacture 
ale  des  meubles  de  la  couronne.     The  royal 
ry  was  not  only  a  dye  house  and  a  manu- 
tory  of  tapestry,  but  an  immense  workshop 
which  everything  was  executed  that  was 
eeded  for  furnishing  and  decorating  houses, 
vers  in  metal  and  gold  and  silversmiths 
roduced   chandeliers,   torch-holders,    candle- 
cks,  and  statuary  bronzes,  in  keeping  with 
e  magnificent  tapestry  designs,  which  skilful 
eavers  wrought  after  patterns  furnished  by 
e  royal  painters ;    cabinet  makers  carved, 
rned,  and  gilded  the  wood  of  the  furniture ; 
orentine  artists  inlaid  beautiful  mosaics ;  and 
us  everything,  even  the  knobs  and  locks  of 
dows  and  doors,  was  executed  in  the  high- 
style  of  art.     The  royal  painter,  Lebrun, 
as  the  director  of  this  immense  establishment, 
ignard,  who  succeeded  Lebrun,  opened  in  it 
school  of  design.     Though  the  works  were 
~.y  to  execute  private  orders,  their  prosper- 


ered 


ity  was  chiefly  dependent  on  the  patronage  of 
Louis  XIV.  ;  and  when,  on  account  of  the  pe- 
cuniary embarrassments  of  the  crown  after  the 
year  1694,  this  patronage  was  withdrawn,  all 
the  skilled  workmen  had  to  be  dismissed.  Af- 
ter the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697)  the  Gobelins 
was  opened  again,  but  the  operations  were  re- 
stricted to  the  manufacture  of  tapestry,  which 
was  generally  made  only  for  presentation  to 
crowned  heads  and  persons  of  distinction.  The 
revolution  threw  the  establishment  into  neg- 
lect, and  Napoleon  gave  it  little  encourage- 
ment ;  but  the  Bourbons,  who  returned  to  the 
old  custom  of  making  gifts  with  the  celebrated 
tapestry,  brought  it  again  into  a  flourishing  con- 
dition, in  which  it  remained,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, till  it  was  partly  burned  by  the  com- 
munists, May  24,  1871. — The  manufactory  of 
the  Gobelins  is  now  divided  into  three  distinct 
sections :  the  dye  house,  the  tapestry  workshop, 
and  the  carpet  factory.  The  dye  house  pro- 
duces not  only  all  different  colors,  but  from  20  to 
30  shades  of  each.  While  many  of  the  hang- 
ings worked  50  years  ago  are  already  faded, 
the  factory  is  now  able  to  produce  any  color 
perfectly  fast.  This  great  progress  is  due  to 
the  labors  of  the  eminent  chemist  Chevreul, 
who  was  employed  by  the  government  to  in- 
struct the  Gobelins  dyers.  Large  rooms  are 
devoted  to  the  Jiautes  lisses,  or  high  warps, 
upon  which  the  tapestries  are  suspended  as  the 
work  goes  on.  The  warp  hangs  from  a  horizon- 
tal cylinder,  and  as  every  yard  or  thereabout 
in  length  is  completed,  it  is  wound  upon  an- 
other cylinder  in  the  lower  part  of  the  frame. 
The  principal  features  of  the  design  being  traced 
with  white  chalk  by  the  artist  upon  the  stretched 
thread  of  the  warp,  he  marks,  with  the  aid  of 
tracings  from  the  picture,  which  he  attaches 
to  the  warp,  the  exact  positions  of  the  light 
and  dark  shades.  Then,  with  the  pattern  con- 
veniently placed  for  reference,  the  artist  sta- 
tions himself  against  the  back  of  the  tapestry, 
and,  with  his  worsteds  and  silks  at  hand,  be- 
gins to  work  in  the  different  colors.  The  ver- 
tical threads  of  the  warp  are  divided  by  a  hed- 
dle  or  cross  stick  which  keeps  half  of  them  in 
advance  of  the  rest ;  but  those  behind  can  be 
brought  forward  whenever  required  by  means 
of  small  cords,  one  of  which  is  attached  to  each 
warp  thread.  The  left  hand  is  introduced  be- 
tween the  two  sets  of  threads,  taking  up  as 
many  as  need  be,  and  through  these  tbe  needle 
is  passed  from  left  to  right.  The  thread  when 
stretched  is  piled  with  the  point  of  the  needle, 
and  is  then  passed  back  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion through  the  space  opened  by  shifting  the 
position  of  the  front  and  back  threads.  By 
ingeniously  combining  the  woofs,  the  colors 
are  made  to  blend  perfectly,  and  effects  are 
obtained  like  those  of  painting.  The  work  is 
so  slowly  executed  that  an  artist  is  not  expect- 
ed to  average  in  a  year  a  production  of  more 
than  about  39  inches  square. — In  1826  the 
manufactory  of  carpets,  called  la  savonnerie, 
from  an  old  soap  factory  in  which  the  making 


60 


GOBERT 


of  carpets  had  been  carried  on  from  the  year 
1815,  was  connected  with  the  tapestry  estab- 
lishment. The  carpets  are  remarkable  for 
smoothness  and  evenness  of  texture  and  their 
strength  and  fineness,  excelling  even  the  Per- 
sian in  these  respects.  Some  of  them  require 

vo  to  ten  years  for  their  completion,  and 
cost  80  000  to  150,000  francs.  All  the  carpets 
made  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  were 
used  for  the  decoration  of  the  imperial  palaces. 
The  largest  ever  made  was  manufactured  for 
the  gallery  of  the  Louvre.  It  consists  of  72 
pieces,  the  total  length  being  more  than  1,300 
ft.  — Among  the  celebrated  pieces  executed 
at  this  establishment  is  a  picture,  completed 
about  the  year  1844,  of  the  "Massacre  of  the 
Mamelukes,"  after  the  celebrated  work  of 
Horace  Vernet,  which  has  been  presented  to 
the  queen  of  England.  The  portrait  of  Louis 
XIV.,  by  Rigaud,  is  considered  the  finest  work 
of  the  Gobelins.  Titian's  "Assumption"  was 
worked  after  a  copy  by  Serrur  into  a  magnifi- 
cent tapestry  21  ft.  high. 

GOBERT,  Napoleon,  baron,  a  French  philan- 
thropist, born  in  1807,  died  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  in 
1833.  He  was  the  son  of  a  general,  and  godson 
of  Napoleon.  He  served  in  the  army  without 
«li>rim-tion.  By  his  will  the  French  academy 
and  the  academy  of  inscriptions  were  made  his 
residuary  legatees,  on  condition  that  the  for- 
mer should  award  nine  tenths  of  the  income 
of  its  share  of  the  legacy  as  a  prize  to  the  au- 
thor of  the  most  eloquent  work  on  French 
hi-tory  that  had  appeared  during  the  year  pre- 
ceding the  distribution,  and  one  tenth  to  the 

ii  merit;  and  that  the  academy  of  in- 
scriptions should  award  similar  prizes  to  the 
authors  of  the  first  and  second  most  learned 
nn«l  profound  works  on  the  history  of  France ; 
this  income  to  be  paid  annually  to  the  recipi- 
ents until  better  works  of  the  same  kind  should 
appear.  The  heirs  unsuccessfully  contested 
the  bequest,  but  the  academies  compounded 
with  them,  and  secured  an  income  of  10,000 
francs  each,  which  has  since  1840  been  dis- 
posed of  in  accordance  with  the  will. 

GOBI  (Mongol,  a  desert),  an  immense  tract 
of  country  in  central  Asia,  occupying  mainly 
the  table  land  between  the  Altai  mountains 
on  the  north  and  the  Kuenlun  on  the  south, 
between  lat.  37°  and  50°  N.,  and  Ion.  80°  and 
120°  E.  It  is  about  1,800  m.  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  nearly  350  m.,  though  in 
some  parts  it  is  much  greater;  area,  about 
600,000  sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  two  nearly 
i,  the  western  being  comprehended 
in  Torkistap,  the  eastern  in  Mongolia,  a  small 
in;:  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Kansu, 

.•i.-hiiiK  to  the  Chinese  wall.  Of  the 
western  part  little  is  known;  the  surface  con- 
sists mainly  of  lino  loose  sand,  which  is  drift- 
ed about  by  the  winds,  and  sand  storms  are 
re-nee.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Y:irk:md  or  haria,  which  falls  into  Lake  Lob- 

fa  ha*  no  outlet,  and  is  consequently 
brackish.  Similar  salt  lakes  are  numerous 


GODAYERY 

throughout  the  desert ;  and  upon  these  and  the 
rivers  which  flow  into  them  the  Tartars  pitch 
their  tents  and  raise  their  cattle.  The  eastern 
part  is  somewhat  better  known ;  there  are  a 
few  fertile  valleys  and  some  towns ;  but  a  large 
part,  called  by  the  Chinese  Shamo,  or  the  Sand 
sea,  'is  a  plain  2,500  to  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
covered  with  gravel  and  small  stones.  Pastur- 
age is  the  usual  occupation  of  the  Mongolians, 
who  lead  a  nomadic  life  in  the  mountain  frin- 
ges of  E.  Gobi.  It  is  drained  toward  the  east 
by  the  head  waters  of  the  Amoor,  which  falls 
into  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  toward  the  north 
by  the  Selenga,  which,  bursting  through  the 
Altai  range,  falls  into  Lake  Baikal.  The  cli- 
mate of  the  entire  desert  is  intensely  cold  du- 
ring the  winter,  which  lasts  nine  months. — See 
Atkinson's  "Explorations  in  Siberia,  Mongo- 
lia," &c.  (1857). 

GOBY,  a  spiny-rayed  fish,  of  the  genus  gobius 
(Linn.),  found  on  the  rocky  and  sandy  coasts 
of  the  old  world.  The  black  goby  (G.  niger, 
Linn.),  the  largest  on  the  British  coasts,  is  about 
6  in.  long ;  it  has  two  dorsal  fins,  and  the  ven- 
trals  are  united  below  the  throat  into  a  sucking 
disk  by  which  it  can  attach  itself  to  the  rocks, 


Goby  (Gobius  niger) 


to  which  it  retires  to  devour  its  living  prey. 
Gobies,  like  the  allied  blennies,  are  very  tena- 
cious of  life,  and  will  live  a  considerable  time 
out  of  the  water.  It  was  known  to  the  an- 
cients that  the  goby  of  the  Mediterranean  built 
in  the  spring  a  nest,  well  made  of  seaweeds,  in 
which  the  female  deposited  her  eggs,  guarded 
by  the  male  until  they  were  hatched;  other 
species  make  a  similar  nest.  Gobies  are  some- 
times found  in  very  deep  water. 

GODAVERY,  a  large  river  of  British  India, 
rising  in  the  Western  Ghauts,  about  60  m.  from 
the  Indian  ocean,  lat.  19°  58'  N.,  Ion.  73°  30'  E., 
and,  after  a  S.  E.  course  of  900  m.  across  the 
peninsula,  flowing  into  the  bay  of  Bengal  by 
two  principal  channels.  It  receives  in  its  course 
the  Manjera  from  the  south,  and  the  Poorna 
and  Wurdah  from  the  north.  After  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Wurdah  it  is  a  mile  wide,  and  after 
passing  through  the  mountainous  region  it  be- 
comes 4  m.  wide.  The  delta  commences  at 
Pechakalunka,  in  lat.  16°  57'  N.,  Ion.  81°  49' 
E.,  and  contains  an  area  of  500  sq.  m.  The 
banks  of  the  river  on  each  side  are  marked  by 
ridges  a  few  feet  high,  formed  by  deposits  du- 
ring the  inundation.  From  Coringa,  at  its  prin- 
cipal mouth,  the  navigation  was  until  recently 


25O  L 


GODDARD 


cticable  only  for  vessels  drawing  not  more 
than  3  ft.,  and  at  Sinteral,  about  140  m.  up 
the  river,  were  several  barriers.  A  dam  now 
stretches  across  the  Godavery  above  one  of 
these  barriers,  nearly  a  mile  long,  and  from  10 
to  12  ft  wide.  A  canal  is  thus  formed  about 
26  m.  long,  which  is  provided  with  double  locks 
ft.  long  and  25  ft.  wide.  At  Enchapully  is 
barrier  of  rocks,  and  the  river  becomes  very 
uous ;  here  another  dam  has  been  formed 
of  loose  stones,  3,600  ft.  long  and  12  to  24  ft. 
high,  and  a  canal  was  made  to  connect  it  with 
the  lower  level.  By  these  means  the  river  is 
open  for  navigation  up  to  the  Wurdah,  which 
can  be  ascended  near  to  the  cotton  mart  of 
Umrawutty.  The  completion  of  these  works 
has  given  a  strong  impulse  to  the  progress  of 
the  country.  As  early  as  1846  the  East  India 
company  began  their  construction,  but  the  out- 
break of  the  mutiny  in  1857  checked  the  work 
for  a  long  time.  In  1863  the  work  was  re- 
sumed, and  the  river,  formerly  navigable  only 
for  small  craft  and  during  the  rainy  season,  now 
carries  large  ships  and  steamboats  far  inland. 

GODDARD,  Arabella,  an  English  pianist,  born 
at  St.  Servan,  near  St.  Malo,  Brittany,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1836.  She  very  early  manifested  great  mu- 
sical talent,  and  was  instructed  on  the  piano  by 
Kalkbrenner  in  Paris,  and,  after  the  removal 
of  her  parents  to  London  in  1848,  by  Mrs. 
Anderson,  pianist  to  the  queen,  and  Thalberg. 
Her  first  public  appearance  was  at  a  concert  in 
her  father's  residence,  March  30,  1850  ;  and  in 
October  she  played  at  the  grand  national  con- 
certs, becoming  known  as  a  brilliant  performer 
of  the  music  of  Thalberg  and  the  modern  ro- 
mantic school.  Subsequently  she  studied  har- 
mony with  Macfarren,  and  has  played  more 
classical  music.  In  1854-'6  she  gave  concerts 
in  the  principal  cities  of  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy.  In  1860  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Davison, 
a  musical  critic,  but  still  retains  professionally 
her  maiden  name.  In  1872  she  visited  the 
United  States  and  played  at  the  great  musical 
festival  in  Boston. 

GODERICH,  a  town,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Huron  co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the 
E.  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Maitland  river,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the 
Buffalo  and  Goderich  branch  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  railway,  118  m.  W.  of  Toronto ;  pop.  in 
1871,  3,954.  The  surrounding  country  is  fer- 
tile and  picturesque,  and  the  town  is  much  fre- 
Suented  in  summer  for  the  cool  air  from  the 
ike.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  protected  by  a 
pier,  and  is  furnished  with  a  lighthouse.  Daily 
lines  of  steamers  run  to  Sarnia,  Detroit,  and 
ports  on  the  lake.  The  fisheries  are  valuable. 
The  town  is  celebrated  for  its  salt  wells,  of 
which  eight  are  in  operation.  It  also  contains  a 
large  grain  elevator,  manufactories  of  woollens, 
iron  castings,  machinery,  leather,  boots  and 
shoes,  wooden  ware,  &c.,  several  saw  and  grist 
mills,  two  branch  banks,  two  weekly  newspa- 
pers, and  churches  of  four  denominations. 
GODERICH,  Viscount.  See  RIPON,  earl  of. 


GODMAN 


61 


GODFREY,  Thomas,  an  American  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  Philadelphia,  died  in  December, 
1749.  He  had  but  a  common  education,  and 
followed  the  business  of  a  glazier  in  his  native 
city ;  but  he  mastered  all  the  books  on  mathe- 
matics that  he  could  obtain,  and  learned  Latin 
to  read  mathematical  works  in  that  language. 
He  borrowed  a  copy  of  Newton's  Principia 
from  James  Logan,  secretary  of  the  common- 
wealth, and  in  1730  communicated  to  him  an 
improvement  that  he  had  made  in  Davis's 
quadrant.  In  1732  Logan  gave  an  account  of 
the  invention  to  Edmund  Hadley  of  England, 
and  Godfrey  also  prepared  a  description  of  it 
addressed  to  the  royal  society  of  London,  but 
did  not  send  it,  awaiting  the  eifect  of  the  letter 
to  Hadley.  No  answer  was  received  after  an 
interval  of  a  year  and  a  half,  and  then  the  in- 
vention of  Godfrey  was  laid  before  the  royal 
society  by  the  botanist  Peter  Collinson.  Mean- 
time, in  1731,  Mr.  Hadley  had  presented  a  paper 
containing  a  full  description  of  an  improve- 
ment of  the  quadrant  similar  to  that  of  God- 
frey. 'The  rival  claims  were  investigated  by 
the  royal  society,  and  it  was  decided  that  they 
were  both  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  inven- 
tion, and  a  reward  of  £200  was  bestowed  on 
Godfrey,  in  household  furniture  instead  of 
money,  on  account  of  his  intemperate  habits. 
Godfrey's  or  Hadley's  quadrant  is  the  same  in 
principle  and  application  as  the  sextant. 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON.     See  BOUILLON. 

GODIVA.     See  COVENTRY. 

GODKIN,  Edward  Laurence,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Moyne,  county  Wicklow,  Ireland, 
Oct.  2,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's 
college,  Belfast,  and  during  the  Crimean  war 
(1854-' 6)  was  correspondent  in  Turkey  and 
Russia  of  the  London  "Daily  News."  In  1856 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  made  a  jour- 
ney on  horseback  through  the  southern  states, 
which  he  described  in  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
"Daily  News."  He  then  studied  law  in  New 
York,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858,  but 
has  never  practised.  In  1862  he  was  again 
employed  as  correspondent  of  the  "Daily 
News,"  and  was  also  a  writer  of  leading  arti- 
cles for  the  "  New  York  Times."  In  July,  1865, 
he  became  editor  of  "The  Nation,"  and  since 
1866  has  also  been  its  proprietor. 

GODMAN,  John  D.,  an  American  naturalist, 
born  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  Dec.  20,  1794,  died  in 
Germantown,  Pa.,  April  17,  1830.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  printer  in  Baltimore,  but  at 
the  age  of  20  enlisted  in  the  navy  and  was 
present  at  the  defence  of  Fort  McIIenry.  Af- 
ter the  war  he  studied  medicine,  and  practised 
till  1821,  when  he  became  professor  in  the 
medical  college  of  Ohio  at  Cincinnati,  and 
commenced  there  the  "  Western  Quarterly  Re- 
porter." In  1822  he  removed  to  Philadelphia 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  science  of  anatomy, 
of  which  in  1826  he  became  professor  in  Rut- 
gers medical  school,  New  York;  but  he  soon 
resigned  and  went  to  the  "West  Indies  for  his 
health,  and  on  his  return  settled  in  German- 


62 


GODOLPIIIN 


town  He  prepared  the  zoSlogical  articles  for 
the  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana  "  as  far  as  the 
end  of  the  letter  C,  and  contributed  to  various 
M-u-ntitic  periodicals.  His  principal  work  is 
\merican  Natural  History"  (3  vols.  8vo, 
Philadelphia,  1823-'8),  besides  which  he  pub- 
lished an  "Account  of  some  Irregularities 
of  Structure  and  Morbid  Anatomy,"  "Bell's 
Anatomy,"  with  notes,  "  Anatomical  Investi- 
gations," and  "  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist." 

GODOLPIIIN,  Sidney,  earl  of,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  Cornwall  about  1635,  died  Sept. 
5,  1712.  Soon  after  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  he  was  made  one  of  the  grooms  of 
the  bedchamber  to  Charles  II.,  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  in  1661,  and  became 
privy  councillor  in  1679.  He  voted  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  duke  of  York  from  the  throne 
in  1680,  was  made  first  commissioner  of  the 
treasury  in  1684,  and  after  the  accession  of 
James  II.  was  retained  in  office  as  chamberlain 
to  the  queen,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  roy- 
al advisers.  He  took  office  under  William  III., 
having  become  an  almost  indispensable  part  of 
the  machinery  of  state,  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  treasury,  and  on  the  accession  of  Queen 
Anne  in  1702  was  created  lord  high  treasurer, 
being  the  first  person  who  had  held  that  office 
since  the  revolution.  He  was,  however,  led 
by  Marlborough  to  doubt  the  stability  of  the 
government  created  by  the  revolution,  and  he 
served  it  for  six  years  while  at  the  same  time 
sending  professions  of  attachment  and  prom- 
ises of  service  to  James.  In  1706  he  was 
created  Viscount  Rialton  and  earl  of  Godol- 
pliin,  attached  himself  to  the  whig  party,  and 
the  final  result  of  his  struggle  with  Harley  for 
the  premiership  was  his  sudden  and  rude  dis- 
missal from  office  in  1710.  Godolphin  was  the 
most  prudent  and  experienced  of  the  finan- 
ciers of  his  time.  "  Every  government,  there- 
fore," says  Macaulay,  "  found  him  a  useful  ser- 
vant ;  and  there  was  nothing  in  his  opinions  or 
in  his  character  to  prevent  him  from  serving 
any  government."  He  was  a  keen  gambler 
und  horse  racer. 

GODOY,  Mtnntl  de,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born 
in  Badajoz,  May  12,  1767,  died  in  Paris  in  Oc- 
tober, 1851.  Descended  from  an  old  and  noble 
family,  yet  poor,  he  went  to  Madrid  at  the  age 
of  17  to  seek  his  fortune.  He  entered  the  mili- 
tary service,  and  his  handsome  figure,  amiable 
character,  and  elegant  manners  soon  attracted 
the  notice  first  of  the  ladies  of  the  court,  then 
of  the  queen,  and  next  of  the  king.  His  talent 
for  intrigue  gained  him  rapid  advancement,  and 
he  was  successively  created  duke  of  Alcudia, 
generalissimo  of  the  land  forces,  grand  admiral 
.in  and  of  the  Indies,  secretary  of  state, 
prim.-  minister  to  succeed  Aranda  in  1792, 
knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  a  grandee  of 
Spain  of  the  first  class.  When  Louis  XVI. 
was  brought  to  trial  by  the  convention,  Godoy 
declared  war  against  France ;  but  by  the  treaty 
of  Basi-1  in  17'.i">  Spain  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  republic.  For  this  service  Charles  IV.  gave 


GODUNOFF 

him  the  title  of  "  prince  of  the  peace,"  and  a 
domain  which  yielded  him  a  large  revenue.    In 

1797  he  married  Maria  Theresa  de  Bourbon, 
niece  of  the  king,  although  it  is  alleged  that  he 
was  already  secretly  married  to  Josephine  Tudo, 
the  daughter  of  a  military  officer.     Obliged  in 

1798  to  resign  his  power  for  a  time,  he  re- 
sumed it  in  1801,  when  he  signed  the  treaty 
of  Badajoz,  which  proposed  to  partition  Por- 
tugal between  France  and  Spain,  and  which 
by  a  secret  article  gave  to  himself  more  than 
$3,000,000.     During  his  ministry  the  Spanish 
possession  of   Louisiana  was    transferred   to 
France.     In  the  height  of  his  power,  however, 
he  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  nobles  by  his  pre- 
ponderance in  the  government,  of  the  priests 
by  his  opposition  to  the  inquisition,  and  of  the 
people,  who  attributed  to  him  all  the  political 
evils  they  endured ;   and  soon  a  strong  party 
was  formed  against  him  under  the  patronage 
of  the  prince  of  Asturias,  afterward  Ferdinand 
VII.     When  Napoleon  determined  upon  the 
dethronement  of  the  Bourbons  of  Spain,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  criminal  suit  instigated  by  the 
prince  of  Asturias  was  pending  against  Godoy, 
the  latter  advised  the  royal  family  to  take  ref- 
uge in  America.     This  project  was  not  matured 
when  an  insurrection  broke  out  against  Godoy, 
who  was  seized  by  the  populace  in  his  hotel, 
and  his  life  having  been  with  difficulty  saved, 
he  was  held  prisoner  to  await  the  course  of 
justice.     Napoleon  however,  who  wished  to 
avail  himself  of  his  influence  over  Charles  IV. 
to  secure  the  renunciation  of  the  crown  of 
Spain  by  that  monarch,  obtained  his  freedom, 
and  invited  him  to  the  conferences  of  Bayonne 
(1808).     Godoy  drew  up  the  act  of  abdication 
signed  by  the  king,  whom  he  then  accompanied 
in  his  exile  to  Rome ;  and  his  immense  posses- 
sions in  Spain  were  confiscated.     Godoy  lived 
in  Paris  after  the  death  of  Charles  IV.,  and 
received  a  pension  of  5,000  francs  from  Louis 
Philippe,  although  in  1842  he  was  reinstated 
in  his  dignities  in  Spain.     His  "Memoirs,"  of 
which  he  was  only  nominally  the  author,  ap- 
peared in  Madrid,  Paris,  and  London  in  1836. 

GODFflOFF,  Boris  Fedoroviteh,  a  czar  of  Rus- 
sia, bora  in  1552,  died  in  1605.  He  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  the  czar  Feodor  L,  whose 
infirmities  of  body  and  mind  enabled  Godunoff 
to  obtain  complete  control  of  the  government. 
He  aspired  to  the  throne,  and  had  most  of  his 
rivals  put  to  death  or  exiled.  Among  his  vic- 
tims was  Demetrius,  the  younger  brother  of 
Feodor  and  heir  to  the  crown,  who  was  ban- 
ished to  Uglitch,  where  he  died  by  violence 
in  1591.  On  the  death  of  Feodor,  in  1598, 
Godunoff  succeeded  to  the  throne,  mainly 
through  the  aid  of  the  patriarch  of  Moscow, 
the  head  of  the  national  church.  He  sought 
to  distinguish  his  reign  by  various  reforms 
and  by  promoting  education,  and  to  dazzle 
the  people  by  magnificent  monuments.  Great 
disaffection  arose  in  the  empire,  and  in  1604 
a  pretender  claiming  to  be  Demetrius  appear- 
ed from  Poland  at  the  head  of  a  consider- 


GODWIN 


63 


able  army.  He  won  a  battle  at  Novgorod, 
but  was  signally  defeated  at  Dobrynitcbe. 
(See  DEMETRIUS.)  At  this  juncture  Godunoff 
suddenly  died,  and  his  death  was  popularly 
ascribed  to  poison  administered  by  himself. 
His  son  and  successor,  Feodor,  perished  soon 
after.  Russian  historians  generally  consider 
Godunoff  as  a  usurper;  but  the  house  of  Ro- 
manoff regard  him  as  a  legitimate  sovereign. 

GODWIN,  earl  of  Wessex,  a  Saxon  noble,  born 
about  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  died  in 
April,  1053.  He  was  a  cowherd,  but  having 
ingratiated  himself  with  Ulfr,  the  brother-in- 
law  of  King  Canute,  he  received  in  marriage 
the  daughter  of  that  chieftain,  and  became  the 
most  powerful  nobleman  in  England.  In  the 
interest  of  Harold  Harefoot  he  was  believed  to 
have  procured  the  murder  of  Prince  Alfred ; 
but  he  was  pardoned  both  by  Hardicanute  and 
Edward  the  Confessor,  Alfred's  brothers,  and 
exerted  himself  to  secure  the  crown  for  the 
latter.  He  afterward  rebelled  against  Edward, 
by  refusing  to  punish  arbitrarily  the  men  of 
Dover  for  the  riot  against  Earl  Eustace,  and 
was  obliged  to  flee  the  kingdom ;  but  returning 
with  a  body  of  troops,  he  compelled  the  king 
to  restore  his  possessions  and  dignities.  Within 
a  year  after  his  restoration  Godwin  died.  The 
Norman  historians  relate  that  he  stood  up  at 
the  king's  banquet  to  aver  his  innocence  of  the 
death  of  Alfred,  but  fell  speechless  to  the  earth, 
and  died  soon  after.  He  was  the  father  of 
Harold,  the  last  Saxon  king. 

GODWIN,  George,  an  English  architect  and 
author,  born  at  Brompton,  Middlesex,  Jan.  28, 
1815.  He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the 
London  art  union  in  1836-7,  of  which  in  1839 
he  was  made  chief  honorary  secretary ;  and 
to  the  "  Art  Union  Magazine,"  now  the  "  Art 
Journal,"  he  became  a  constant  contributor 
after  its  establishment  in  1839.  In  1844,  hav- 
ing previously  published  "  The  Churches  of 
London,"  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Builder." 
His  chief  architectural  works  are  St.  Mary's 
church,  West  Brompton,  and  the  restoration 
of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Redcliff,  Bristol. 
He  has  published  "  Churches  of  London " 
(1838),  "Facts  and  Fancies"  (1844),  "History 
in  Ruins"  (1853),  "London  Shadows"  (1854), 
"Buildings  and  Monuments,"  "  Town  Swamps 
and  London  Bridges  "  (1859),  "  Memorials  for 
Workers,"  and  "Another  Blow  for  Life" 
(1864).  He  has  also  written  several  dramas. 

GODWIN,  Parke,  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  Feb.  25,  1816.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1834,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Kentucky, 
but  did  not  practise.  From  1837  to  1843  he 
was  an  editorial  contributor  to  the  New  York 
"Evening  Post,"  edited  by  his  father-in-law, 
William  Cullen  Bryant ;  and  in  February,  1848, 
he  began  a  literary  and  political  weekly  jour- 
nal, "The  Pathfinder,"  which  he  continued 
three  months,  when  he  resumed  his  connec- 
tion with  the  "  Evening  Post."  In  February, 
1843,  he  advocated  free  trade  in  a  public  de- 
365  VOL.  vin. — 5 


bate  in  New  York  with  Horace  Greeley  and 
others.  In  1844  he  published  "A  Popular 
View  of  the  Doctrines  of  Charles  Fourier," 
and  a  treatise  on  Fourier's  ideas  of  industrial 
association,  entitled  "  Democracy,  Pacific  and 
Constructive."  In  1845  he  was  appointed  a 
deputy  collector  in  the  New  York  custom 
house.  For  some  years  he  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Democratic  Review,"  several 
of  his  papers  advocating  important  reforms 
which  were  subsequently  carried  out  in  the 
revision  of  the  constitution  and  code  of  the 
state  of  New  York.  In  1852  he  made  an  ex- 
tended tour  in  Europe.  In  1853  he  became 
one  of  the  editors  of  "  Putnam's  Monthly 
Magazine,"  to  both  the  first  and  second  series 
of  which  (1853-'7  and  1867-'70)  he  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor ;  and  two  collections  of  his 
articles  have  been  reprinted  in  volumes,  "  Po- 
litical Essays"  (12mo,  1856),  and  "Out  of  the 
Past,"  critical  and  literary  papers  (1870).  In 
1860  he  published  the  first  volume  of  a  "His- 
tory of  France,"  embracing  ancient  Gaul,  and 
terminating  with  the  era  of  Charlemagne. 
Since  1860  Mr.  Godwin  has  made  two  pro- 
tracted visits  to  Europe,  during  which  he  pros- 
ecuted his  researches  in  French  history.  In 
addition  to  the  publications  above  enumerated, 
he  has  written  "Vala,  a  Mythological  Tale," 
founded  upon  incidents  in  the  life  of  Jenny 
Lind  (1851) ;  translated  a  part  of  Goethe's  au- 
tobiography and  a  volume  of  Zschokke's  tales, 
and  compiled  a  "Handbook  of  Universal  Biog- 
raphy "  (1851 ;  new  ed.,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biogra- 
phy," 1865).  He  is  now  (1874)  preparing  "  The 
History  and  Organization  of  Labor,"  a  volume 
on  "The  Nineteenth  Century,  with  its  Leading 
Men  and  Movements,"  and  "A  Winter  Harvest," 
a  book  of  European  travels.  Until  recently  he 
was  managing  editor  of  the  "  Evening  Post." 

GODWIN.  I.  William,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Wisbeach,  Cambridgeshire,  March  3,  1756, 
died  in  London,  April  7,  1836.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  dissenting  clergyman,  was  educated 
in  the  dissenting  college  at  Hoxton,  and  in 
1778  became  minister  of  a  congregation  at 
Stowmarket,  Suffolk.  At  the  end  of  five  years 
the  incompatibility  of  this  occupation  with  the 
new  moral  and  political  theories  he  had  begun 
to  entertain  induced  him  to  sever  his  connec- 
tion with  the  ministry,  and  going  to  London 
he  thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  soon  began  to  promulgate  doctrines  which, 
if  carried  out,  would  have  subverted  the  whole 
structure  of  society.  Having  already  acquired 
some  reputation  by  his  "  Sketches  of  History  " 
(London,  1784)  and  contributions  to  the  "An- 
nual Register,"  of  which  he  was  at  one  time 
the  principal  conductor,  he  published  the  "  In- 
quiry concerning  Political  Justice,  and  its  In- 
fluence on  General  Virtue  and  Happiness  "  (2 
vols.  4to,  1793),  in  which  an  intellectual  re- 
public, founded  upon  universal  benevolence,  is 
advocated  with  persuasive  eloquence.  In  1794 
he  appeared  in  the  political  arena  as  the  cham- 
pion of  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  Hardy,  and 


64  GODWIN 

others,  who  had  been  brought  to  trial  on  a 
charge  of  treason.  In  the  same  year  appeared 
hisTost  remarkable  work,  "  Caleb  Williams," 
a  novel  designed  to  illustrate  some  of  the  pe- 
culiar views  put  forth  in  the  "Inquiry  con- 
cerning PoliticalJustice;"  but  the  interest  of 
the  story  is  so  predominant  that  the  social  ob- 
ject of  the  author  was  entirely  overlooked.  In 
'1796  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mary  Woll- 
stonecraft,  author  of  the  "Vindication  of  the 
(tights  of  Woman,"  and,  in  accordance  with 
the  views  held  by  both  of  them  respecting  mar- 
riage, cohabited  with  her  for  six  months,  when 
for  prudential  reasons  they  were  married.  His 
wife  died  after  giving  birth  to  a  daughter,  who 
became  the  second  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley. 
His  "  Memoirs  of  the  Author  of  the  Vindica- 
tion of  the  Rights  of  Woman  "  (1798)  is  a  feel- 
ing tribute  to  her  memory,  but  describes  the 
details  of  her  life  with  a  minuteness  which 
subjected  him  to  considerable  censure.  In  1 799 
appeared  "  St.  Leon,"  containing  many  incred- 
ible situations,  but  also  many  passages  of  splen- 
did description  and  true  pathos ;  it  purports  to 
be  the  autobiography  of  a  philosopher  who  has 
become  immortal  by  the  discovery  of  the  elixir 
of  life.  On  this  and  " Caleb  Williams"  his 
reputation  chiefly  rests.  His  other  novels  are 
"Fleetwood"  (1805),  "  Mandeville "  (1817), 
44  Cloudesley  "  (1830),  and  "  Deloraine  "  (1833). 
Among  his  other  works  were  the  tragedies 
44  Antonio  "  (1800),  and  4l  Faulkner  "  (1807-'8) ; 
a  44Life  of  Chaucer"  (2  vols.  4to,  1803); 
44  Lives  of  John  and  Edward  Phillips,  Nephews 
of  Milton"  (4to,  1815);  and  a  "History  of  the 
Commonwealth "  (4  vols.  8vo,  1824-'8),  writ- 
ten with  great  impartiality,  and  valuable  as  a 
repository  of  facts.  His  last  important  work, 
44  Thoughts  on  Man,  his  Nature,  Productions, 
and  Discoveries  "  (1881),  was  a  series  of  essays 
in  the  style  of  his  earlier  writings.  A  posthu- 
mous work  by  him,  "  The  Genius  of  Christian- 
ity Unveiled,"  was  published  in  1873.  For 
some  years  he  carried  on  business  as  a  book- 
seller, and  under  the  name  of  Edward  Baldwin 
published  a  number  of  children's  books,  small 
histories,  and  other  compilations,  some  of  which 
were  by  himself.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
be  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  record  office. 

\utobiography,  Memoirs,  and  Correspon- 
dence" wns  pul.li.shcd  in  1874.  II.  Mtry  Woll- 
stonrrraft,  an  English  authoress,  wife  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Beverley,  Yorkshire,  April  27, 
1769,  died  in  London,  Sept.  10,  1797.  Her  fa- 
ther, a  man  of  ungovernable  temper,  embittered 
her  childhood  by  the  cruelty  with  which  he 

•  1  his  family.  A  natural  independence 
<.f  character  induced  her  to  sever  herself  from 
such  a  parent,  and  upon  the  death  of  her  mother 
she  established  a  school  at  Islington,  in  the  di- 
rection of  which  she  was  assisted  by  two  of  her 
sisters.  The  illness  of  a  friend  in  Lisbon  called 
her  thither  f..r  a  while,  and  upon  her  return 

inland  she  found  h.-r  school  ruined  by 
mismanage-in,  nt.  Alter  a  short  experience  as 
a  governess  in  the  family  of  Lord  Kingsborough, 


GODWIT 

she  determined  to  devote  herself  to  a  literary 
life  Having  acquired  considerable  reputation 
by  her  "  Thoughts  on  the  Education  of  Daugh- 
ters "  and  some  works  of  fiction,  as  also  by 
translations  of  Lavater's  "Physiognomy"  and 
Salzmann's  a  Elements  of  Morality,"  she  ven- 
tured in  1791  upon  a  reply  to  Burke's  "  Reflec- 
tions on  the  French  Revolution,"  and  soon 
after  published  her  celebrated  "  Vindication  of 
the  Rights  of  Woman "  (1791),  in  which  the 
claim  of  woman  to  share  with  man  the  func- 
tions he  has  exclusively  exercised  is  argued 
with  boldness  and  ability.  Full  of  enthusiasm 
for  the  new  ideas  which  the  French  revolution 
had  inaugurated,  she  went  to  Paris,  only  to 
find  her  hopes  crushed  by  the  overthrow  of  the 
Girondists.  She  here  also  formed  a  connection 
with  an  American  named  Imlay,  who  deserted 
her.  Giving  birth  to  a  child,  she  endeavored 
to  put  an  end  to  her  existence,  and  afterward 
sought  relief  from  her  troubles  in  writing  her 
"Letters  from  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Den- 
mark" (1796),  which  she  had  visited  while  she 
had  her  home  in  Paris.  In  1797  she  was  mar- 
ried to  William  Godwin,  and  she  died  in  child- 
bed. Her  posthumous  works  were  published 
by  her  husband  (4  vols.  12mo,  1798). 

GODWIT,  a  bird  belonging  to  the  scolopacida, 
or  snipe  family,  and  subfamily  limosinw,  which 
includes  also  the  curlew.     It  forms  the  genus 
limosa  (Briss.),  characterized  by  a  long  slender 
bill,  inclined  a  little  upward  and  slightly  thick- 
ened at  the  tip,  with  sides  compressed  and 
grooved   on  both    mandibles  for   nearly  the 
whole  length ;  the  upper  mandible  a  little  the 
longer,  and  the  gape  moderate;    wings  long 
and  pointed,  the  first  quill  the  longest;  tail 
short  and  even ;  tarsi  slender,  longer  than  the 
middle  toe ;  toes  long,  the  outer  united  to  the 
middle  by  a  membrane  as  far  as  the  first  joint; 
hind  toe  partly  resting  on  the  ground ;  claws 
short  and  obtuse.     The  shape  is  more  slender 
and  the  bill  and  legs  longer  than  those  of  the 
snipes.     They  are  shy  birds,  frequenting  the 
seashore,  living  chiefly  on  worms  which  they 
draw  from  the  mud ;  they  are  found  in  most 
parts  of  the  world,  though  most  abundantly  in 
cold  climates,  and  their  habits  and  manners 
are  like  those  of  the  curlew ;  the  flesh  is  ex- 
cellent eating.     The  marbled  godwit  of  the 
United  States  (L.  fedoa,  Linn.)  is,  in  the  fe- 
male, about  20  in.  long  to  the  end  of  the  tail, 
the  bill  4£,  tarsus  3,  and  wing  9  in. ;  the  malo 
is  somewhat  smaller.    The  general  color  above 
is  brownish  black  variegated  with  pale  reddish, 
the  former  in  bands  and  the  latter  in  spots; 
below  pale  rufous,  with  transverse  brownish 
black  lines  on  the  breast  and  sides ;  primaries 
dark  brown  on  their  outer  webs,  light  rufous 
on  the  inner;  tail  light  rufous,  with  brownish 
black  bars;    bill  dark  at  the  end,  dull  flesh 
color  toward  the  base.     It  is  found  over  the 
temperate  regions  of  North  America,  and  in 
South  America ;    it  is  abundant  in  Florida 
during  the  winter,  going  to  the  north  to  breed 
in  spring,  and  returning  about  the  last  of  Au- 


GODWIT 


gust  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  shore  bird,  rarely  seen  many  miles  inland ; 
when  feeding  it  probes  the  mud  with  its  long 
bill,  plunging  it  in  often  for  its  whole  length,  in 
search  of  marine  worms  and  small  crustaceans, 
flight  is  quick  and  regular,  in  long  and  fre- 


GOETHE 


65 


Marbled  Godwit  (Limosa  fedoa). 


quently  changing  lines. — The  Hudsonian  god- 
wit,  a  smaller  and  much  rarer  American  spe- 
cies (L.  Hudsonica,  Lath.),  is  about  15  hi.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  28  in.,  tail  3,  bill  a 
little  over  3,  and  tarsus  2|  in. ;  weight  about 
9  oz.  In  the  adults,  the  prevailing  color  above 
is  brownish  black,  with  spots  and  transverse 
burs  of  pale  reddish ;  upper  tail  coverts  white ; 
beneath,  yellowish  red,  with  transverse  bars 
of  brownish  black,  and  sometimes  the  feathers 
tipped  with  white  on  the  abdomen;  tail  black, 
white  at  the  base  and  tipped  with  the  same ; 
under  wing  coverts  black;  shafts  of  primaries 
white.  The  young  are  cinereous  above,  with 
irregular  brownish  black  marks,  dull  yellowish 


ITudsonian  Godwit  (Limosa  Hudsdnica). 

white  below,  upper  tail  coverts  white,  tail  as 
in  adult.  It  is  abundant  in  the  northern  parts 
of  this  continent,  but  rare  in  the  United  States, 
and  scarcely  seen  south  of  New  Jersey  except 
in  winter ;  it  breeds  in  the  far  north  ;  the  fe- 
males are  somewhat  larger  than  the  males. — 


The  common  godwit  of  Europe  (L.  Lapponica, 
Linn.),  in  its  winter  plumage,  is  deep  brown- 
ish gray,  the  feathers  edged  with  whitish ;  the 
breast  brown  gray,  whitish  underneath ;  rump 
white,  radiated  with  brown;  in  summer  the 
prevailing  color  is  reddish. 

GOENTOER,  a  volcano  of  Java,  about  100  m. 
S.  E.  of  Batavia,  nearly  7,000  ft.  high.  It  is 
active,  and  produces  considerable  damage  by 
periodical  eruptions,  four  of  which  (1818-'41) 
were  especially  violent,  destroying  a  vast  num- 
ber of  coffee  trees,  and  covering  large  tracts 
with  heaps  of  stones,  ashes,  and  sand. 

GOERTZ.    See  GORTZ. 

GOES,  a  town  of  Holland,  on  the  island  of  S. 
Beveland,  15  m.  W.  of  Bergen-op-Zoom ;  pop. 
in  1867,  6,313.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
and  contains  a  number  of  squares,  of  which 
the  Groote  Markt,  the  largest,  is  planted  with 
trees.  The  public  buildings  are  the  town  hall, 
a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  church,  a 
new  corn  exchange,  and  many  schools  and 
charitable  institutions.  Both  the  old  and  new 
harbors  are  defended  by  forts,  and  there  is  an 
active  commerce. 

GOES,  Hngo  van  der,  a  Flemish  painter,  pupil 
and  successor  of  Van  Eyck,  flourished  in  the 
second  half  of  the  15th  century.  His  paintings 
are  all  of  religious  subjects,  and  their  chief  ex- 
cellence is  the  grace  and  dignity  of  the  coun- 
tenances. His  masterpiece  is  a  "  Crucifixion  " 
in  the  church  of  St.  James  at. Bruges.  This 
picture  was  preserved  from  the  general  destruc- 
tion of  church  ornaments  in  the  16th  century 
by  being  coated  with  dark  clay  on  which  the 
ten  commandments  were  inscribed. 

GOETHE,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Aug.  28, 
1749,  died  in  Weimar,  -March  22,  1832.  His 
father,  Johann  Kaspar  Goethe,  the  son  of  a 
tailor  of  Frankfort,  had  raised  himself  to  the 
dignity  of  an  imperial  councillor,  and  in  1748 
had  married  Katharina  Elisabeth,  daughter  of 
Johann  Wolfgang  Textor,  the  chief  magistrate 
of  the  city.  Their  first  offspring,  the  subject 
of  this  article,  inherited  the  best  qualities  of 
both  parents.  The  father,  a  cold,  stern,  formal, 
and  pedantic  man,  was  a  person  of  vigorous 
mind  and  of  rigid  will ;  and  the  mother  was  a 
simple-hearted,  genial,  vivacious,  and  affection- 
ate woman,  who  loved  poetry  and  the  romantic 
lore  of  the  nursery.  In  one  of  his  poems  Goethe 
afterward  said :  "  From  my  father  I  derive 
my  frame  and  the  steady  guidance  of  my  life, 
and  from  my  dear  little  mother  my  happy  dis- 
position and  love  of  story-telling."  But  he 
derived  a  great  deal  more  from  both ;  for  the 
father,  rigid  disciplinarian  as  he  was,  early 
indoctrinated  him  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
classics  and  modern  languages,  and  in  the  love 
of  fine  art ;  while  the  mother  gave  him,  be- 
sides her  vivacity  and  animal  spirits,  that  large 
and  instinctive  wisdom  which  comes  of  broad 
human  sympathies.  Goethe  was  a  precocious 
child,  handsome,  lively,  and  sensitive.  His 
early  education  was  wholly  domestic,  in  the 


G6 


GOETHE 


company  of  his  only  sister  Cornelia,  to  whom 
he  was  passionately  attached.  Before  he  was 
ten  years  of  age  he  wrote  several  languages, 
meditated  poems,  invented  stories,  and  had  a 
considerable  familiarity  with  works  of  art. 
Frankfort  was  a  mediaeval  city,  full  of  old  as- 
sociations and  the  remains  of  antique  customs, 
but  just  beginning  to  stir  with  the  quick  move- 
ments of  a  more  modern  trade  and  industry. 
None  of  its  influences,  old  or  new,  were  lost 
upon  the  child,  whose  position  in  middle  life, 
while  it  brought  him  in  contact  with  the  most 
cultivated  men  of  society,  did  not  exempt  him 
from  occasional  mixture  with  the  lower  orders, 
or  from  the  ruder  experiences  of  life.  His  first 
love  for  Gretchen,  a  girl  in  the  humblest  ranks, 
began  amid  a  circle  of  forgers  and  delinquents. 
In  October,  1765,  at  the  age  of  16,  he  was  sent 
to  Leipsic  to  begin  his  collegiate  studies.  His 
autobiography  passes  over  this  part  of  his  life 
with  a  few  words,  but  other  evidences  show 
that  it  was  a  time  not  of  hard  and  varied  study 
merely,  but  of  much  wild  and  frolicsome  ad- 
venture. While  he  mastered  with  an  easy 
grace  the  manifold  sciences  and  arts  of  a  Ger- 
man university,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  logic, 
rhetoric,  philosophy,  morals,  drawing,  &c.,  he 
was  no  less  at  home  in  those  wayward  and 
capricious  sports,  in  the  love-makings  and  the 
merry-makings,  which  are  natural  to  this  period 
of  life.  No  criminal  indulgences  are  charged 
upon  him,  but  he  lived  freely  and  buoyantly, 
preferring  often  the  society  of  jovial  compan- 
ions, free  thinkers  and  actors,  to  that  of  the 
more  accepted  respectabilities  of  a  staid  literary 
metropolis.  He  had  already  fallen  into  the 
habit  of  turning  his  inward  feelings  into  verse, 
and  two  dramas,  Die  Laune  dcs  Verliebten 
and  Die  Mitechuldigen,  grew  out  of  his  more 
erratic  impulses.  After  a  brief  interval  passed 
in  sickness  at  home,  during  which  he  read  the 
books  of  the  alchemists,  he  was  transferred  in 
1770  to  the  university  of  Strasburg,  where  he 
renewed  his  studies  of  jurisprudence  and  the 
natural  sciences,  enlarged  the  number  of  his 
acquaintances,  including  Herder  and  Jung- 
Stilling,  and  foil  in  love  with  the  daughter  of 
a  dancing  master.  Herder's  friendship  was  of 
the  greatest  use  to  him,  as  it  introduced  him 

reading  of  Shakespeare,  Goldsmith,  and 
other  English  classics,  and  awakened  within 
him  a  profounder  sense  of  the  grand  poetry  of 
th«-  Hebrew  Scriptures.  He  had  fallen  in  with 
the  family  of  a  clergyman  at  Sesenheira,  where 
there  were  two  daughters,  with  one  of  whom, 

rika,  he  became  enamored,  and  they  were 
finally  betrothed ;  but  in  leaving  the  university 
in  1771,  he  tore  himself  away  from  the  bond 
and  the  attachment.  Impetuous  and  headlong 
as  he  was,  there  was  already  a  tendency  in  him 
to  value  external  objects,  human  and  others, 
as  they  assisted  in  that  deep  and  varied  culture 
whi«-h  he  began  to  make  the  principal  aim  of 
his  existence.  In  1772  he  went  to  Wetzlar  to 
practise  law,  and  in  the  following  year  pub- 
lished a  play  destined  to  attract  public  atten- 


tion toward  him,  and  to  give  the  world  its 
earliest  glimpses  of  his  extraordinary  genius. 
This  was   Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  a  dramatic 
version  of  the  story  of  Gotz  of  the  Iron  Hand, 
an  old  predatory  burgrave  of  the  16th  century, 
who  made  war  upon  his  fellow  barons,  some- 
times to  increase  his  own  store,  and  sometimes 
defence  of  the  poor.     His  lawless  career 
represented  the  sturdy  struggle  of  feudalism 
against  an  advancing  civilization,  and  Goethe 
seized  the  incidents  to  present  them  in  a  clear, 
powerful,   picturesque,   and   dramatic   whole. 
This  work  was  the  outbreak  of  a  genius  as  rude 
and  stalwart  almost  as  Gotz  himself,  asserting 
ts  freedom  against  the  fetters  of  an  artificial 
literary  spirit;   one  of  the  earliest  throes  in 
that  period  of  intellectual  convulsion  in  Ger- 
many which  has  taken  the  name  of  the  Sturm- 
und   Drangperiode,   or    storm    and    pressure 
period.    It  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm  in 
the  literary  world,  and  romantic  dramas  for  a 
time   became   the   fashion.     In  'the    interval 
Goethe   had  passed    the  time  in   wandering 
through  the  Rhine  country.     At  Wetzlar  he 
a^ain  fell  in  love,  but  as  the  object  of  his  love, 
Charlotte  Buff,  was  betrothed  to  one  Kestner, 
to  whom  she  was  soon  after  married,  the  affec- 
tion was  not  returned.    A  young  student  named 
Jerusalem,  with  whom  Goethe  was  intimate, 
having  committed  suicide  because  of  a  similar 
unhappy  passion  for  the  wife  of  one  of  his 
friends,  Goethe  wove  the  incidents  of  the  two 
cases  into  a  novel,  which  he  called  Die  Leiden 
des  jungen  Werther  (1774),  known  in  English 
as  u  The  Sorrows  of  Werther."     The  sensation 
produced  by  it  was  prodigious.     The  most  dis- 
tinguished literary  men  praised  it  as  a  pro- 
foundly philosophic  romance,  while  the  com- 
mon people  were  carried  away  by  its  eloquence 
and  pathos.     Its  chief  success,  however,  arose 
from  the  fact  that  it  expressed  a  certain  sad 
longing  and  discontent  which  was  then  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  age.     The  same  year  he  wrote 
Clavigo,  a  drama  founded  on  Beaumarchais's 
memoir  on  Clavijo,  projected  a  drama  on  Mo- 
hammed, another  on  Prometheus,  only  a  few 
lines  of  either  of  which  wore  written,  and  al- 
ready revolved  in  his  mind  the  drama  of  /</?/*/. 
Two  love  engagements,  one  with  Anna  Sibylla 
Munch,  and  the  other  with  Anna  Elisabeth 
Schonemann,  immortalized  in  his  works  under 
the  name  of  Lili,  diversified  the  experiences  of 
this  period.     The  fame  acquired  by  Werther 
brought  Goethe  under  the  notice  of  Charles 
Augustus,  grand  duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  who  in 
1775  invited  the  poet  to  spend  a  few  weeks  at 
his  court.     Goethe  went  there,  and  the  result 
of  the  friendship   thus  contracted   was  that 
Goethe  thereafter  made  Weimar  Ins  permanent 
residence.     He  was  created  a  Geheimer  Lega- 
tionsrath,  or  privy  councillor  of  legation,  at  a 
salary  of  1,200  thalers  per  annum  ;  but  his  prin- 
cipal public  occupation  seems  to  have  been  to 
superintend  the  artistic  pleasures  of  the  court. 
Weimar  was  a  small  city,  without  trade  or 
manufactures,  but  made  up  for  its  want  of 


GOETHE 


67 


commercial  activity  by  its  varied  literary  cul- 
ture. It  was  filled  with  notabilities,  among 
whom  are  to  be  noticed  particularly  Wieland, 
Herder,  Musaus,  Knebel,  Seckendorf,  Corona 
Schroter,  the  dowager  duchess  Amalia,  Frau 
von  Stein,  and  afterward  Schiller.  In  this 
circle  Goethe  at  once  took  his  place  as  the 
presiding  deity.  "  He  rose  like  a  star  in  the 
heavens,"  says  Knebel ;  "  everybody  worship- 
ped him,  and  especially  the  women."  His  first 
years  there  were  spent  in  wild  and  tumultuous 
enjoyments,  in  which  "  affairs  of  the  heart "  did 
not  always  end  with  the  heart.  But  Goethe's 
nature  was  too  profound,  his  intellectual  ac- 
tivity too  great,  to  be  long  beguiled  by  the 
frivolities  of  masking,  hunting,  drinking,  dan- 
cing, and  dicing,  and  he  resumed  his  more  se- 
rious pursuits.  The  first  fruit  of  his  return 
(1779)  was  IpJiigenie  auf  Tauris,  a  prose  dra- 
ma, which  he  afterward  turned  into  a  beautiful 
drama  in  verse.  After  a  visit  to  Switzerland 
the  same  year,  described  in  his  Briefe  aus  der 
Schweiz,  he  composed  a  little  opera,  called  Jery 
und  Bately,  full  of  Swiss  inspirations.  He  also 
began  to  devote  himself  strenuously  to  the 
study  of  natural  science,  in  which  he  became 
a  proficient.  The  novel  of  Wilhelm  Meister 
was  at  the  same  time  in  progress,  and  many 
of  his  best  small  poems  were  produced  at  this 
period  (l780-'83).  In  1786  he  made  a  journey 
to  Italy,  where  he  passed  nearly  two  years  in 
the  most  laborious  study  of  its  antiquities  and 
arts,  and  in  the  composition  of  Torquato  Tasso, 
a  drama  suggested  by  the  life  of  that  poet  at 
the  court  of  Ferrara.  He  was  so  absorbed  in 
the  past  of  Italy  that  he  paid  little  attention  to 
its  present  condition  or  people.  The  narrative 
of  his  travels,  Die  italianische  Reise,  contains 
the  most  charming  descriptions  of  the  scenes 
through  which  he  passed.  On  his  return  to 
Weimar  in  1788,  he  published  Egmont,  a  ro- 
mantic drama,  full  of  passion  and  interest,  rep- 
resenting a  sombre  and  tragic  episode  in  the 
revolution  of  the  Netherlands,  but  in  which  he 
has  not  confined  himself  at  all  to  the  incidents 
of  actual  history ;  the  character  of  Clarchen 
is  by  many  regarded  as  one  of  his  most  suc- 
cessful female  creations.  A  relation  with  Frau 
von  Stein,  which  Goethe  had  long  maintained, 
was  now  broken  off,  but  he  soon  formed  another 
with  Christiane  Vulpius.  She  was  uneduca- 
ted, and  lived  in  some  domestic  capacity  in  his 
house ;  but  Goethe  afterward  married  her,  to 
legitimate  his  son  (born  Dec.  25,  1788,  died 
Oct.  27,  1830).  In  1792  he  accompanied  the 
army  of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  in  their  campaign  into  France,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  account.  Soon  after  ap- 
peared his  metrical  version  of  Reinecke  Fucks. 
The  results  of  his  scientific  studies  appeared 
in  his  Beitrage  zur  OptiTc  and  his  Farberilehre, 
in  the  latter  of  which  he  had  the  hardihood 
to  question  the  correctness  of  the  Newtonian 
theory  of  colors.  He  wrote  also  on  the  meta- 
morphosis of  plants,  and  on  topics  of  compara- 
tive anatomy.  In  all  these  he  displayed  a  re- 


markable penetration  and  sagacity,  and  his  re- 
marks on  the  morphology  of  plants  are  now 
reckoned  among  the  earlier  enunciations  of  the 
theory  of  evolution.  His  acquaintance  with 
Schiller,  who  divided  with  him  the  suffrages 
of  the  poetic  German  world,  began  at  Jena  in 
1794;  and  though  their  intercourse  was  cold  at 
first,  it  ripened  into  one  of  the  most  enduring 
and  beautiful  friendships  recorded  in  literary 
annals.  Schiller's  influence  upon  him  was 
both  stimulating  and  ennobling,  and  from  this 
time  forth  we  find  him  engaged  in  producing 
his  grandest  works.  The  first  part  of  Wil- 
helm Meister  (the  Lehrjahre)  appeared  in  1795. 
Hermann  und  Dorothea,  a  pastoral  poem  in 
hexameters,  the  most  perfect  of  his  minor  pro- 
ductions, was  written  in  1797;  the  Achilleis 
was  executed  the  same  year;  and  he  engaged 
in  friendly  rivalry  with  Schiller  in  bringing 
forth  a  series  of  ballads,  of  which  Goethe's  part, 
Die  Braut  von  Corinth,  Der  Zaulerlehrling, 
Der  Gott  und  die  Bajadere,  and  Die  Schatz- 
grdber,  are  among  the  masterpieces  of  German 
literature.  Even  these,  however,  were  only 
the  preludes  of  what  he  was  destined  to  do; 
for  the  Faust  was  still  revolving  itself  in  his 
thoughts,  and  the  Wilhelm  Meister  went  stead- 
ily forward.  At  last,  in  1805,  the  great  work 
of  his  life  saw  the  light.  The  legend  of  Faust 
had  been  familiar  to  him  as  a  child,  he  had 
thought  of  it  and  labored  upon  it  during  the 
whole  of  his  youth,  and  now  in  the  ripeness  of 
his  manhood  it  had  taken  its  final  shape.  "It 
appeals  to  all  minds  with  the  irresistible  fas- 
cination of  an  eternal  problem,  and  with  the 
charm  of  endless  variety.  It  has  every  element 
— wit,  pathos,  wisdom,  buffoonery,  mystery, 
melody,  reverence,  doubt,  magic,  and  irony; 
not  a  chord  of  the  lyre  is  unstrung,  not  a  fibre 
of  the  heart  untouched."  This  work  raised 
Goethe  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  fame,  and  he 
was  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  first 
poet  of  his  age.  If  Goethe  had  died  in  1806, 
he  would  have  achieved  a  greater  renown  than 
any  other  modern  man  of  letters ;  but  he  was 
destined  to  live  26  years  longer,  years  of  con- 
tentment, labor,  productiveness,  and  honor. 
The  stormy  and  errant  impulses  of  his  youth 
had  been  subdued;  he  had  mastered  himself 
and  his  circumstances;  the  great  problem  of 
life,  which  had  filled  him  with  strife  and  im- 
patience, lay  clear  before  him  ;  his  circumstan- 
ces were  easy;  and  his  position  at  the  head 
of  German  literature,  which  he  had  himself 
brought  out  of  chaos  or  formalism  into  order- 
ly vigor,  gained  him  the  homage  of  Europe. 
Schiller  and  other  friends  were  dead ;  others 
again,  friends  of  earlier  days,  were  separated 
from  him  in  sympathy  by  the  large  strides 
which  his  intellect  had  made  in  various  paths 
of  thought;  and  a  sombre  hue  fell  upon,  with- 
out clouding,  the  serenity  of  his  later  years. 
Moreover,  the  external  events  of  the  world 
were  full  of  trouble  and  agitation.  It  was  the 
era  of  Napoleon's  conquests.  Germany  pal- 
pitated with  the  rest  of  Europe  in  throbs  of 


C8 


GOETHE 


war ;  and  the  grand  duke  of  Weimar  was  drawn 
into  tlio  very  vortex  of  commotion.     On  Oct. 
H    1806,  the  battle  of  Jena  was  fought,  and 
Goethe  heard  in  his  calm  home  the  reports  of 
the  cannonades.   Soon  that  home  was  invaded  ; 
the  French  troops  entered  his  house,  ransacked 
his  cellars,  penetrated  even  to  his  bedchamber, 
and    though  they  treated  him  with  respect, 
tilled  his  soul  with  indignation  and  wrath. 
Goethe  hud  all  his  life  been  averse  to  the  dis- 
turbing influence  of  politics.     His  impassive- 
ness  under  the  tempestuous  influences  of  the 
time  had  brought  upon  him  the  reproach  of 
want  of  patriotism  and  of  indifference  to  the 
welfare  of  humanity.    But  when  the  French 
approached  Weimar,  and  Napoleon  exhibited 
his  spite  against  Charles  Augustus  for  his  active 
sympathy  with  his  countrymen  and  allies,  the 
long-pent  feeling  of  the  poet  burst  forth.   "  Mis- 
fortune !  "  he  exclaimed  to  Falk ;  "  what  is  mis- 
fortune?   This  is  misfortune,  that  a    prince 
should  be  compelled  to  endure  such  things  from 
foreigners.    And  if  it  came  to  the  same  pass 
with  him  as  with  his  ancestor,  Duke  John,  if 
his  ruin  were  certain  and  irretrievable,  let  not 
this  dismay  us;  we  will  take  our  staff  in  our 
hand  and  accompany  our  master  in  adversity 
as  old  Lucas  Cranach  did ;  we  will  never  for- 
suko  him.     The  women  and  the  children,  when 
they  meet  us  in  the  villages,  will  cast  down  their 
eyes  and  weep,  and  say  to  one  another,  *  That 
is  old  Goethe  and  the  former  duke  of  Weimar, 
whom  the  French  emperor  drove  from  his 
throne  because  he  was  so  true  to  his  friends  in 
misfortune ;  because  he  visited  his  uncle  on  his 
deathbed;   because  he  would  not  let  his  old 
comrades  and  brothers  in  arms  starve.' "     "  At 
this,"  adds  Falk,  "the  tears  rolled  in  streams 
down  his  cheeks.     After  a  pause,  having  re- 
covered himself  a  little,  he  continued :   '  I  will 
sing  for  bread!    I  will  turn  strolling  ballad- 
singer,  and  put  our  misfortunes  into  verse!     I 
will  wander  into  every  village  and  every  school 
wherever  the  name  of  Goethe  is  known ;   I 
will  chant  the  dishonor  of  Germany,  and  the 
children  shall  learn  the  song  of  our  shame  till 
they  are  men;   and  thus  they  shall  sing  my 
master  on  to  his  throne  again,  and  yours  off 
hi- ! '       But  as  the  noise  of  the  French  cannon 
withdrew  from  Weimar,  ho  began  to  pipe  once 
more  in  his  old  peaceful  strain.    All  through 
the  revolutionary  tumult,  in  fact,  he  took  ref- 
uge in  his  studies  and  scientific  experiments. 
On  occasion  of  an  interview  with  Napoleon 
he  scarcely  remembered  the  enthusiasm  with 
which  he  had  spoken  to  Falk.     Napoleon  is 
reported  t.i  h:i\\-  .said,  Vousetes  un  homme,  and 
fell  to  criticising  his  works,  especially  Werthcr, 
which  he  had  read,  he  said,  seven  times.  Goethe 
was  flattered  by  the  appreciative  words  of  the 
empen-r,  was  imited  to  Paris,  and  afterward 
was  decorated  with  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor.     In  1809  Goethe  printed  the  most  ex- 
ceptionable of  his  novels,  the  Wahherwand- 
tchaften  ("  KK-.-tive  Affinities"),  in  which  the 
charms  and  graces  of  his  style  are  employed  in 


the  description  of  the  impulses  which  spring 
from  the  collision  of  passion  and  duty  in  the 
relations  of  marriage.     By  the  title  of  the  book, 
and  in  the  whole  spirit  of  it,  he  would  repre- 
sent that  sexual  affinities  follow  the  same  in- 
evitable law  as  chemical  affinities,  and  that  hu- 
manity struggles  impotently  against  the  die-  • 
tates  of  nature.    Like  all  his  productions,  this 
was  suggested  by  circumstances  in  his  own 
experience.      The    work  shocked  the  moral 
world,  in  spite  of  the  beauty  with  which  it  was 
written,  and  to  this  day  tasks  the  ingenuity  of 
those  of  his  admirers  who  seek  to  defend  it 
from  attack.     His  next  volumes  were  of  a  less 
doubtful  kind :  the  ballads  Der  TodtenTcram, 
Der  getreue  Eckart,  and  Die  wandelnde  Glocke, 
the  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  an  autobiogra- 
phy, and  the  Westostlicher  Divan,  a  collection 
of  oriental  songs  and  poems.     His  studies  of 
science  and  contemporary  literature  were  mean- 
time never  remitted.     In  1816  he  published  an 
art  journal,  Kunst  und  Alterihum,  to  which  he 
contributed  largely ;   and  in  1818  the  second 
part  of  Wilhelm  Neister,  the  Wanderjahre.     In 
1825  the  jubilee  or  50th  year  of  his  residence 
in  Weimar  was  celebrated  in  a  grand  publie 
festival.     In  1831  the  second  part  of  Faust  ap- 
peared, a  continuation  of  the  first  part,  obscure 
and  mystical,  but  full  of  passages  of  rare  splen- 
dor, profound  thought,  grotesque  humor,  and 
bewitching  melody.     He  supposed  himself,  and 
many  critics  supposed,  that  under  the -motley 
garb  of  the  poem  there  is  a  deep  significance, 
although  few  have  succeeded  in  detecting  it, 
while  Goethe's  own  explanations  are  arid  and 
unsatisfactory  to  the  last  degree.    As  a  dramat- 
ic poem  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  was  a  fail- 
ure, even  if  we  admit  that  as  an  enigma,  cov- 
ering some  recondite  philosophy,  it  deserves 
the  closest  study.     The  songs  at  least,  and  the 
lyrical  parts,  are  excellent.     The  old  man  had 
lost  vigor,  but  his  feelings  were  still  exuberant, 
and  the  singer  remained.     "  If  Goethe,1'  said 
an  admirer  of  his,  "  everywhere  great,  is  any- 
where greatest,  it  is  in  his  songs  and  ballads. 
They  are  the  spontaneous  outgushings  of  his 
mind  in  all  its  moods ;  a  melodious  diary  of  his 
daily  and  almost  hourly  fluctuations  of  feeling ; 
the  breathings  of  his  inward  life  ;  the  sparkling 
perennial  jets  of  his  momentary  affections  and 
thoughts.    There  is  the  perpetual  freshness  and 
bloom  about  them  of  new  spring  flowers.   Even 
when  they  seem  most  trivial,  they  ring  through 
us  like  snatches  of  music.     So  perfect  is  the 
correspondence  of  form  and  substance  that  their 
charm  as  a  whole  defies  analysis.     It  is  felt,  but 
cannot  be  detected.     Then,  again,  how  diversi- 
fied they  are !     Some  as  simple  as  the  whimper- 
ings of  a  child  ;  others  wild,  grotesque,  weird, 
and  unearthly  ;  and  others  again  lofty,  proud, 
defiant,  like  the  words  of  a  Titan  heaping  his 
scorn  upon  the  gods."     One  year  after  the 
completion  of  Faust  Goethe  was  taken  ill  of  a 
cold,  which  turned  into  a  fatal  fever.     Tip  to 
the  hour  of  his  death,  however,  ho  prosecuted 
his  intellectual  pursuits.     His  last  writing  was 


GOETHE 


GOG  AND  MAGOG 


69 


an  essay  on  the  dispute  between  Geoffrey 
Saint-Hilaire  and  Cuvier,  on  the  question  of 
unity  of  composition  in  the  animal  kingdom ; 
and  his  last  words  were,  "More  light."  He 
was  then  in  the  83d  year  of  his  age.  A  seal, 
with  an  inscription  from  one  of  his  own  poems, 
Ohne  Hast,  ohne  Rast,  sent  to  him  on  his  birth- 
day in  1831,  by  15  Englishmen,  had  given  him 
great  delight,  for  among  the  Englishmen  who 
participated  in  the  homage  were  Wordsworth, 
Scott,  Southey,  Wilson,  Lockhart-,  and  Carlyle. 
Goethe  was  the  master  spirit,  the  spokesman, 
as  Carlyle  says,  of  his  age,  the  artist  par  excel- 
lence of  the  1 9th  century.— The  letters  of  Goethe 
are  among  the  best  illustrations  of  his  charac- 
ter. They  are,  in  the  chronological  order  of 
the  periods  covered  by  their  dates,  those  to 
friends  in  Leipsic  (published  in  1849),  to  Merck 
(1835-'47),  to  Jacobi  (1846),  to  Lavater  (1833), 
to  Herder  (1858),  to  Knebel  (1851),  to  Klop- 
stock  (1833),  to  the  countess  Augusta  of  Stol- 
berg  (1839),  to  Frau  von  Stein  (1848-'51) ;  his 
correspondence  with  Schiller  (6  vols.,  1828-'9 ; 
2d  ed.,  1856  ;  translated  into  English  by  G.  H. 
Calvert,  Boston,  1845),  with  Zelter  (6  vols., 
1833-'4),  with  A.  W.  von  Schlegel  (1846),  with 
the  baron  von  Stein  (1846),  with  Nikolaus 
Meyer  (1856),  with  Dobereiner  (1856),  with 
Reinhard  (1850),  with  Griiner  (1853),  with  C. 
F.  L.  Schultz  (1836),  and  with  the  councillor 
Schultz  (1853)  ;  Goethe's  Briefe  und  Aufsatse 
aus den  Jahren  l766-'86  (Weimar,  1856) ;  "  Goe- 
the's Correspondence  with  the  Brothers  Hum- 
boldt,  1795  to  1832,"  edited  by  Prof.  Bratanek 
(3  vols.,  Cracow,  1873) ;  and  his  Naturwis- 
senschaftliche  Correspondent  (2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1874).  His  "Correspondence  with  a  Child" 
(Elisabeth  or  Bettina  von  Arnirn)  is  not  genuine. 
(See  Lewes's  "  Life  of  Goethe.")  The  most  im- 
portant notices  by  his  contemporaries  are  those 
of  Eckermann,  Gesprache  mil  Goethe  (Leipsic, 
1836 ;  translated  into  English  by  Margaret  Ful- 
ler, Boston,  1839),  and  Falk,  Goethe  auspersim- 
lichem  Umgang  dargestellt  (Leipsic,  1832).  The 
best  biographies  are  by  Viehoif  (4  vols.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1854;  3d  ed.,  1873),  Schafer  (2  vols.,  Bre- 
men, 1851 ;  2d  ed.,  1858),  and  G.  H.  Lewes  (2 
vols.,  London,  1855;  translated  into  German, 
Berlin,  1857-'8;  new  ed.,  abridged,  1873). 
Among  recent  works  relating  to  Goethe  are : 
"Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,"  by  Karl  Mendels- 
sohn (English  translation,  London,  1872);  Gc&- 
ihe :  ses  ceuvres  expliques  par  sa  vie,  by  A.  Me- 
zieres  (Paris,  1872);  and  Lesmaitr esses  de  Goethe, 
by  Henri  Blase  de  Bury  (Paris,  1873).  Bayard 
Taylor  and  Karl  Goedike  have  lives  of  Goethe  in 
preparation.  The  oldest  complete  edition  of 
his  works  is  that  of  Stuttgart  and  Tubingen  (40 
vols.,  1827-'31,  to  which  his  posthumous  works 
were  added,  15  vols.,  1833-'4).  Subsequent 
editions  are  numerous ;  the  best  are  the  latest, 
published  by  Cotta  (30  vols.  12mo,  and  12  vols. 
8vo,  Stuttgart  and  Ttibingen,  1856-'60).  Many 
of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  differ- 
ent languages.  Among  the  best  into  English 
are  "  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,"  by  Walter  Scott 


(1799);  "Wilhelm  Meister,"  by  Thomas  Car- 
lyle (1824);  "Truth  and  Poetry,"  by  Parke 
Godwin  (1847) ;  and  "  Hermann  and  Doro- 
thea," by  Miss  Ellen  Frothingham  (1870).  Of 
"Faust"  there  have  been  many  translations ; 
the  best  are  those  of  Charles  T.  Brooks  (Bos- 
ton, 1857),  and  Bayard  Taylor  (Boston,  1870- 
'72).  A  monument  to  Goethe,  to  be  executed 
by  Schafer,  and  erected  in  the  Thiergarten, 
Berlin,  was  commenced  in  1873. 

GOFFE,  William,  an  English  regicide,  born 
about  1605,  died  in  Hadley,  Mass.,  in  1679. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  fervent  of  the  Puritans, 
was  a  devoted  adherent  of  Cromwell,  one  of 
the  best  officers  of  the  parliamentary  army,  and 
one  of  the  judges  who  tried  Charles  I.  After 
the  death  of  the  protector  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuarts  he  escaped  to  America,  and 
was  in  1660,  with  his  father-in-law  Edward 
Whalley,  received  with  courtesy  by  Gov.  En- 
dicott  at  Boston.  Warrants  soon  after  arrived 
for  their  arrest,  a  price  was  set  on  their  heads, 
and  Indians  as  well  as  English  were  sent  in 
pursuit  of  them.  They  removed  from  house 
to  house,  living  in  mills,  in  the  clefts  of  rocks 
on  the  seashore,  and  in  caves  in  the  forests. 
They  hid  themselves  for  months  in  a  cavern 
near  New  Haven,  from  which  they  issued  only 
by  night.  This  retreat  was  discovered,  and 
they  fled  successively  to  Milford,  Derby,  and 
Branford.  At  length  they  found  an  asylum 
in  the  house  of  a  clergyman  at  Hadley,  where 
Goffe  passed  the  remaining  15  years  of  his  life. 
In  1675  the  town  of  Hadley  was  surprised  du- 
ring a  religious  service  by  the  Pokanoket  In- 
dians under  their  celebrated  chieftain  Philip. 
The  inhabitants  were  about  to  fall  beneath  the 
tomahawk  when  an  old  man  with  a  long  white 
beard  appeared  in  the  church,  rallied  the  dis- 
heartened colonists,  disposed  them  for  a  charge 
upon  the  Indians  which  he  himself  led,  and  put 
the  savages  to  flight.  This  was  Goffe,  who  in 
the  moment  of  victory  disappeared  again  for 
ever,  leaving  the  colonists  in  the  persuasion 
that  a  heavenly  messenger  had  fought  for  them. 

GOG  AND  MAGOG.  These  names  occur  un- 
connected in  Genesis  and  1  Chronicles  as  the 
names  of  several  persons ;  Magog,  in  the  ethno- 
logical table  of  the  former  book  (ch.  x.),  be- 
ing the  second  son  of  Japheth,  and  brother  of 
Gomer  and  Madai,  who  are  generally  consid- 
ered to  represent  the  Cimmerians  and  Medes 
respectively.  In  Ezekiel  Gog  and  Magog  are 
connectedly  used  to  designate  a  prince  and  a 
people  of  the  north,  apparently  of  the  Scythian 
race.  In  the  book  of  Revelations  the  words 
denote  the  enemies  of  Christianity  who  were 
doomed  to  destruction.  The  two  famous  effi- 
gies in  Guildhall,  London,  known  as  Gog  and 
Magog,  have  been  from  time  immemorial  the 
pride  of  the  city.  There  are  various  legends 
relating  to  them.  According  to  one,  they  rep- 
resent the  last  survivors  of  a  race  of  giants 
who  infested  Britain,  and  were  extirpated  by 
the  Trojans  who  came  there  soon  after  tho 
destruction  of  Troy.  They  were  chained  as 


70 


GOGOL 


porters  before  the  palace   gates,  and  when 
.,-,1  tlu-iri-nVu-s  took  their  place.     An- 
other K-gend  says  that  one  of  the  giants  is  Gog- 
m&soK  and  tlie  other  Corineus,  a  British  giant  , 
who  killed  him.     The  effigies,  originally  of 

and  pasteboard,  were  borne  about  j 
in    public  shows  and  processions  as  early  as 
in.  and  j.robably  long  before.     The  present 
trved  in  wood,  and  hollow,  were  set  up 
8,     They  stand  upon  octagonal  pedes- 
tals, and  are  14  ft.  high. 

GOGOL,  Nikolai,  a  Russian  author,  born  about 
1809,  died  in  Moscow,  March  4,  1852.  He  is 
said  to  have  failed  as  an  actor,  and  afterward 
to  have  attempted  in  vain  to  obtain  a  posi- 
tion under  the  government.  Subsequently  he 
published  "  Evenings  at  a  Farmhouse,"  a  col- 
lection of  tales  and  sketches,  which  met  with 
much  favor.  His  first  drama  was  "The  In- 
spector," in  which  the  corruption  and  venality 
«>f  the  officials  was  severely  satirized.  About 
1834  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in 
the  university  of  St.  Petersburg.  In  1842  he 
published  a  novel,  "  Dead  Souls,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  nnder  the  title  of 
"Home  Life  in  Russia"  (London,  1854).  It 
narrates  the  adventures  of  a  rogue  who  goes 
about  purchasing  the  rights  of  the  proprietors 
to  serfs  recently  dead,  whose  names  have  not 
yet  been  taken  from  the  rolls,  in  order  to  obtain 
advances  from  government.  This  work  attained 
great  popularity.  He  went  abroad  soon  after, 
and  in  his  "  Correspondence "  (published  in 
1847)  he  eulogized  the  abuses  which  he  had 
before  satirized.  By  this  he  lost  the  favor 
which  he  had  won  from  the  liberals.  He  fell 
into  a  state  of  religious  melancholy,  and  de- 
stroyed all  his  unpublished  manuscripts,  some 
of  which  he  said  were  written  under  the  in- 
spiration of  the  devil.  His  complete  works, 
comprising  tales,  dramas,  and  poems,  have  been 
published  in  4  vols.  (Moscow,  1862). 

GOGRA,  or  Goghra  (Hindoo,  Gharghara  ;  the 
Sareyu  of  Hindoo  mythology,  and,  according  to 
Rennell,  the  Agoranis  of  Arrian),  a  river  of  In- 
dia, which  rises  on  the  frontiers  of  Thibet,  in 
the  Himalayas,  at  an  altitude  of  about  18,000 
ft.,  il..u ,  S.  and  then  S.  E.,  and  falls  into  the 
-i  near  Chupra,  115  m.  below  Benares. 
i'n-t  a  vast  torrent,  having  a  descent  of 
15,500  ft  in  75  m. ;  but  after  receiving  several 
affluents,  it  becomes  navigable  for  vessels  of 
considerable  size,  the  descent  diminishing  to  12 
ft.  per  mile.    Its  whole  length  is  about  600  m. 
iun.-tion  with  the  Ganges  it  exceeds  that 
a  depth,  breadth,  and  volume  of  water. 
(.01 1  l<  V/.KS,  an  Indian  tribe  of  Brazil,  long 
masters  of  the  region  lying  between  the  Rio  Ca- 
:ia  or  Itabapuana  and  Cape  Sao  Thome, 
i-  they  repeatedly  repulsed  the  Portu- 
.ipti-il  tn  si'ttK-  in  those  parts. 
"ii  was  the  bow  and  arrow,  in 
"i  wliicli  tlu-v  won-  very  skilful.     They 
•    took  up  their  abode  in  places  sur- 
r«nin.!.  p,  their  dwellings  being  cab- 

i  palm  leaves  suspended  from  tree 


GOITRE 

trunks,  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  sort  of 
ambuscade.  Father  Vasconcellos,  a  writer  of 
the  17th  century,  reports  that  they  were  a  fero- 
cious and  cruel  people,  addicted  to  eating  hu- 
man flesh.  Many  of  these  Indians  had  never- 
theless before  his  time  been  baptized  as  Chris- 
tians, and  lived  in  villages  where  their  descen- 
dants are  still  found,  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  rarely  mingling 
with  the  whites.  Their  numbers  are  consider- 
able, and  they  are  ingenious,  skilful,  sprightly, 
and  frank  when  kindly  treated,  but  vindictive, 
improvident,  and  intemperate, 

GOITRE,  an  elastic  swelling  on  the  front  and 
sides  of  the  neck,  arising  from  a  hypertrophy 
of  the  thyroid  gland ;  it  is  also  called  broncho- 
cele  and  Derbyshire  neck.  It  is  generally  soft 
and  yielding,  and  varies  in  size  from  that  of  a 
nut  to  a  mass  surrounding  the  greater  part  of 
the  neck,  sometimes  descending  far  upon  the 
chest ;  it  is  usually  slow  in  its  growth,  and  may 
increase  in  either  lateral  lobe  or  in  the  median 
isthmus ;  it  is  accompanied  by  neither  tender- 
ness nor  discoloration  of  the  skin,  and  is  gene- 
rally definitely  circumscribed.  When  of  small 
size  it  occasions  no  inconvenience;  but  when 
large  its  weight  and  pressure  upon  the  trachea, 
oesophagus,  vessels,  and  nerves  cause  headache, 
difficulty  of  breathing  and  swallowing,  conges- 
tion of  the  brain,  with  dizziness,  lividity  of  the 
face,  protrusion  of  the  eyes,  alteration  of  the 
voice,  dulness  of  hearing,  obstinate  cough,  end- 
ing in  pulmonary  disease,  and  threatening  even 
apoplexy  and  suffocation.  The  anatomical  char- 
acter of  the  disease  is  the  enlargement  of  the 
cells  of  the  gland,  which  are  filled  with  a  vis- 
cid fluid  or  with  blood ;  in  old  cases  the  tumor 
may  become  hard  and  partly  bony.  All  ages 
are  subject  to  goitre,  but  young  persons  and 
the  female  sex  are  most  liable  to  it;  it  is  also 
hereditary.  Though  occasionally  sporadic,  it  is 
essentially  an  endemic  disease  in  cold  and  damp 
countries,  as  in  the  deep  valleys  of  the  Alps, 
where  the  air  is  moist,  cold,  and  stagnant ;  it 
is  most  common  in  mountain  valleys  of  the 
Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Himalaya  chain  in  Asia, 
the  Cordilleras  in  America,  the  high  regions  of 
Scotland,  and  the  chalky  districts  of  Derby- 
shire and  Nottingham  in  England.  Though 
often  connected  with  cretinism,  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  scrofulous  disease;  neither  is 
it  confined  to  persons  living  in  poverty  and 
uncleanliness,  for  it  is  the  sad  inheritance  of 
many  wealthy  families.  Various  causes  have 
been  assigned  for  goitre,  but  none  of  them  are 
entirely  satisfactory;  the  most  probable  are 
the  insufficient  illumination  by  the  sun,  mois- 
ture, and  stillness  of  deep  valleys ;  deleterious 
emanations  from  clayey  soils ;  the  use  of  snow 
water,  or  that  from  springs,  arising  from  calca- 
reous formations ;  the  dcoxygenation  of  water 
from  great  elevation,  or  its  contact  with  metal- 
lic and  organic  matters  eagerly  absorbing  oxy- 
gen. It  seems  to  be  connected  rather  with  the 
geological  than  with  any  other  character  of  a 
region.  Goitre  may  be  distinguished  from  oth- 


GOLCONDA 


er  tumors  in  the  neck  by  its  shape,  consistence, 
and  general  development  on  both  sides.  The 
prognosis  in  a  person  advanced  in  life  is  unfa- 
vorable, but  in  early  life  it  may  be  cured.  The 
chief  remedy  for  this  disease  is  iodine,  both 
internally  and  externally,  either  alone- or  com- 
bined with  potash  and  iron ;  the  patient  should 
be  removed  from  the  infected  district  to  the 
seashore,  and  a  tonic  regimen  be  pursued. 
When  suffocation  is  imminent  from  the  pres- 
sure of  the  tumor,  relief  may  be  obtained  for 
the  time  by  puncture,  the  seton,  ligatures  of 
the  supplying  arteries,  or  by  extirpation  of  the 
gland  ;  the  last  three  are  dangerous  to  life,  and 
have  proved  fatal,  and  the  first  three  may  fail 
even  if  the  patient  survive  the  operations.  The 
usual  treatment  is  simply  palliative,  iodine  with 
tonics  and  narcotics.  There  is  a  form  of  goitre 
not  uncommon  in  anemic  females  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England,  with  the  symptoms  of 
the  Alpine  disease,  though  milder,  and  relieved 
by  the  tonic  treatment  of  anemia. 
GOLCONDA,  an  ancient  city  and  fortress  of 
lia,  in  the  native  state  of  Hyderabad  or  the 


GOLD 


71 


Nizam's  dominions,  7  m.  N.  W.  of  Hyderabad. 
The  fortress  stands  on  a  rocky  eminence,  and 
is  a  large  and  strong  edifice.  It  is  now  chiefly 
used  as  a  prison,  and  as  a  depository  for  the 
treasures  of  the  Nizam.  The  principal  inhab- 
itants and  bankers  of  Hyderabad  are  also  per- 
mitted to  retain  houses  in  it,  to  which  on  any 
alarm  they  retire  with  their  money  and  other 
valuables.  About  600  yards  from  the  fortress 
are  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Golconda. 
Each  mausoleum  occupies  the  centre  of  a  large 
quadrangular  platform,  which  is  approached  on 
every  side  by  granite  stairs.  They  are  mostly 
constructed  of  gray  stone,  ornamented  with 
stucco  and  Indian  porcelain,  whose  colors  re- 
tain all  their  pristine  brilliancy,  and  on  which 
are  engraved  in  white  characters  various  ex- 
tracts from  the  Koran.  These  mausolea  are 
very  numerous,  and  have  a  striking  and  im- 
pressive appearance  when  viewed  from  a  dis- 
tance. Golconda  was  formerly  renowned  for 
its  diamonds,  but  they  were  merely  cut  and 
polished  here,  being  generally  brought  from 
Parteall  in  the  S.  part  of.  the  Nizam's  domin- 


Tombs  of  the  Kings,  Golconda. 


ions.  It  was  anciently  the  capital  of  a  pow- 
erful kingdom  of  the  same  name,  which  arose 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Bahmani  empire ;  but 
it  was  taken  by  Aurungzebe  and  annexed  to 
that  of  Delhi. 

GOLD,  a  precious  metal,  ranking  the  first  in 
beauty  and  value  among  useful  metals  from 
the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day ;  distin- 
guished for  being  the  only  metal  of  a  yellow 
color,  and  for  possessing  in  the  highest  degree 
the  properties  of  ductility  and  malleability.  In 
chemistry  its  symbol  is  Au,  from  the  Latin  au- 
rum,  gold;  its  equivalent  number  98'5,  or,  in 
the  usage  of  many  chemists,  the  double  of  this, 
197.  Its  density  varies  according  as  the  metal 
is  more  or  less  compressed  ;  it  is  rated  when 
hammered  at  from  19'258  to  19'4.  In  a  finely 


divided  state,  precipitated  from  its  solution  by 
sulphate  of  iron,  it  has  proved  of  specific  grav- 
ity 20-72.  When  pure  the  metal  is  nearly  as 
soft  as  lead,  and  is  then  susceptible  of  its 
greatest  extension  by  beating  or  wire-drawing. 
(See  GOLD  BEATING.)  In  thin  leaf  it  is  trans- 
parent, and  the  transmitted  light  is  of  a  green 
color;  by  heat  the  color  is  changed  to  ruby  red, 
and  this  color  the  metal  finely  divided  imparts 
under  certain  conditions  to  glass.  Its  melting 
point  is  variously  given  as  2016°  F.,  2192°, 
2518°,  and  2590°.  In  the  heat  of  furnaces  it 
is  not  volatilized ;  but  gold  wire  is  dispersed 
in  vapor  by  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun's  rays  concentrated  by  a  pow- 
erful convex  lens,  or  by  the  electric  battery. 
As  the  current  traverses  it,  the  vapors  pro- 


GOLD 


duced  may  be  collected  upon  a  sheet  of  paper 
placed  beneath  the  wire;   the  paper  is  stained 
a  purplish  brown  by  the  deposit  of  finely  divi- 
ded gold,  and  a  sheet  of  silver  may  be  thus 
gilded     When  gold  is  fused  in  large  quantity 
and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  cubical  crystals  are 
sometimes  observed  to  form,  and  crystals  ot 
native  gold  have  been  found  in  the  form  of  the 
regular  octahedron.    Gold  is  not  acted  upon 
by  alkalies  or  simple  acids,  except  selenic,  nor 
by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  even  when  long  ex- 
posed in  a  fused  state.    Neither  does  sulphur 
affect  it ;  but  it  is  dissolved  by  bromine  and 
chlorine,  or  by  any  combination  of  acids  or 
other  substances  in  which  free  chlorine  is  pres- 
ent.   This  element,  as  it  is  generated  in  mix- 
tures, is  a  powerful  solvent  of  gold ;  and  to  it 
is  due  this  property  of  the  compound  called 
aqua  regia,  formed  of  4  parts  of  hydrochloric 
and  1  part  of  nitric  acid.     Gold  forms  alloys 
with  most  of  the  metals.     Silver  or  copper 
increases  its  hardness  and  renders  it  better 
adapted  for  wear  when  ussd  for  coins,  jewelry, 
or  plate.   Such  compounds  are  also  more  fusible 
than  pure  gold.    The  solder  for  gold  trinkets 
is  1  part  of  copper  to  5  of  gold,  or  to  4  of  gold 
and  1  of  silver.    With  mercury  gold  unites  to 
form  an  amalgam.    Mercurial  fumes  even,  com- 
ing in  contact  with  gold,  instantly  combine 
with  and  whiten  it.     The  mercury  may  be 
driven  off  by  heat.    (See  AMALGAM.)    Gold  is 
obtained  from  its  solutions  in  various  forms. 
The  precipitate  by  sulphate  of  iron  is  a  dull 
brown  powder,  which  by  pressure  acquires  the 
metallic  lustre  and  color.    The  precipitate  by 
oxalic  acid  is  yellower  and  more  metallic  in 
appearance.     The  metallic  gold  which  is  left 
on  evaporating  a  solution  of   its  compound 
with  chlorine  and  heating  the  residue  is  of  a 
spongy  character  and  dull  hue ;   by  annealing 
it  becomes  more  dense  and  yellow,  and  by 
percussion  is  readily  welded  together.     (For 
modes  of  preparing  sponge  gold  and  its  uses, 
see  DENTISTRY.) — Gold  is  very  widely  distrib- 
uted in  nature,  and  late  researches  have  shown 
that  it  is  present  in  appreciable  quantities  in 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  where  it  is  associated 
with  silver.     According  to  Sonstadt,  a  ton  of 
sea  water  yields  by  a  simple  chemical  process 
a  grain  of  gold ;   so  that  the  quantity  of  the 
precious  metal  thus  held  in  solution  must  be 
vastly  greater  than  all  the  gold  ever  yet  ex- 
tracted from  the  earth.     Gold  is  very  general- 
ly diffused  throughout  the  solid  rocks,  though 
only  here  and  there  accumulated  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  be  economically  available.    The 
workable  deposits  of  this  metal  are  in  stratifiec 
rocks  of  different  formations,  from  the  oldest 
crystallines  to  the  postpliocene  sands  and  grav- 
els, and  also  in  veins  traversing  rocks  of  various 
geological  periods.    The  most  common  vein- 
stone of  gold  is  quartz,  but  it  is  also  found  in 
bitter  spar  and  disseminated  in  metallic  sul- 
phides, such  as  iron  pyrites,  which  very  often 
contains  sufficient  quantities  of  the  metal  to  be 
extracted  with  profit.     In  this  as  well  as  in  the 


quartzose  gangues  the  gold  is  sometimes  in 
arge  grains  or  crystalline  threads  or  masses,  and 
sometimes  disseminated  in  particles  invisible  to 
the  eye.     The  opinion  is  entertained  by  many 
;hat  in  pyrites  and  in  other  sulphuretted  ores 
the  gold  is  sometimes  chemically  combined 
with  the  other  metals  and  with  sulphur.     It 
has  been  found  that  the  lead  of  commerce, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  is  seldom  or 
never  without  a  tra*ce  of  gold.     Gold  is  not, 
as  has  been  erroneously  supposed,  confined  to 
rocks  of  any  one  geological  period.     The  gold 
of  Colorado  is  found  in  veins  with  metallic  sul- 
phurets  traversing  crystalline  rocks  of  eozoic 
age,  and  the  same  is  the   case  in  Ontario ; 
while  the  gold-bearing  strata  of  the  Appala- 
chians are  in  large  part  if  not  wholly  of  pre- 
palffiozoic  age,  as  are  those  of  the  Alps  and  the 
Ural  mountains.     In  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  gold-bearing  rocks  are  slates  and  sand- 
stones, supposed  to  be  of  lower  Cambrian  age ; 
and  the  auriferous  strata  of  Wales  as  well  as 
those  of  Australia  are  of  that  period.     The 
gold-bearing  veins  extensively  worked  in  Tran- 
sylvania traverse  sandstones  of  eocene  or  ear- 
ly tertiary  age,  and  the  gold-bearing  quartz  of 
California  is  said  to  be  found  in  strata  of  the 
Jurassic  formation.     It  is  probable,  however, 
that  a  part  of  the  auriferous  rocks  of  that 
country  will  be  found  to  be  eozoic,  while  on 
the  other  hand  it  appears  that  the  silicious  de- 
posits now  forming  from  the  thermal  waters  in 
Nevada  contain  not  only  metallic   sulphurets 
but  small  portions  of  gold ;    so  that  the  pro- 
cesses which  in  former  times  gave  rise  to  gold- 
bearing  veins  in  that  region  are  still  in  ope- 
ration.— By  the  disintegration  and  crumbling 
away  of  the  rocks  which  contain  the  auriferous 
veins,  the  contents  of  these  are  swept  down 
to  lower  levels,  and  the  gold  by  its  density  al- 
ways seeks  the  lowest  places  among  the  mov- 
ing materials.     Thus  are  produced  the  aurifer- 
ous gravel  deposits  in  alluvial  formations,  the 
golden  sands  of  the  rivers ;  and  so  have  they 
been  gathering  for  long  ages  past  and  forming 
deposits,  some  of  which  are  now  seen  in  situa- 
tions apparently  out  of  reach  of  such  agencies. 
In  these  deposits,  when  stripped  of  the  clay 
and  sands  which  cover  the  lower  and  richer 
layers,  there  are  found  in  the  irregular-shaped 
cavities  of  the  surface  of  the  rock,  in  pockets 
and  in  piles  against  the  projecting  strata,  the 
accumulated  riches  of  ancient  veins,  it  may  be, 
of  vast  extent.     By  washing  away  the  inter- 
mixed earthy  and  stony  matters,  the  metal  is 
obtained  in  dust,  flattened  scales,  small  lumps, 
and  nuggets  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  the  larger 
pieces  rounded  by  attrition,  or  ragged  from  the 
irregular  forms  they  held  in  their  original  hard 
quartz  matrix.     Their  size  is  commonly  greater 
than  that  of  gold  found  in  the  veins  near  by,  a 
fact  first  explained  by  the  late  Oscar  Lieber  of 
South  Carolina  to  be  due  to  the  solution  of  gold 
and  its  subsequent  aggregation.     Later  obser- 
vations of  Genth  and  Selwyn  go  to  confirm 
this  view.    In  these  deposits  the  largest  lumps 


GOLD 


of  gold  ever  met  with  were  discovered,  as  that 
of  Cabarrus  co.,  N".  C.,  of  28  Ibs.  avoirdupois,  or 
37  Ibs.  troy,  found  in  1810  ;  the  mass  weighing 
96  Ibs.  troy  in  Zlatoust,  a  district  of  the  south- 
ern Ural,  in  1842,  and  now  in  the  imperial 
school  of  mines  at  St.  Petersburg;  a  mass 
from  Victoria  in  Australia,  which  was  exhibit- 
ed in  London,  and  weighed  146  Ibs.  3  dvvts. 
troy,  of  which  6  oz.  only  were  estimated  as 
matrix  ;  and  the  still  larger  mass  found  at  Bal- 
larat  in  that  region,  and  weighing  2,217"  oz. 
16  dwts.,  or  about  185  Ibs.  troy.  According 
to  Phillips,  the  largest  piece  of  gold  ever  found 
was  probably  the  great  Australian  nugget, 
known  as  the  "  Sarah  Sands,"  which  weighed 
233  Ibs.  4  oz.  troy.  Though  in  a  metallic 
state,  gold  is  never  obtained  pure ;  silver  is 
always  alloyed  with  it,  but  in  no  definite  pro- 
portions. The  purest  specimen  is  probably 
one  from  the  Ural,  near  Yekaterinburg,  an- 
alyzed by  Rose,  which  gave,  in  100  parts,  gold 
98-96,  silver  0*16,  copper  0'35;  its  specific 
gravity  was  19-099.  The  product  of  Califor- 
nia is  much  of  it  very  near  the  richness  of  gold 
of  the  American  and  French  gold  coins,  which 
is  900  parts  in  1,000.  Its  average,  however,  is 
stated  to  be  TVA  to  T8oVo»  and  that  of  Austra- 
lia TWo  to  -^nnr-  •"•  specimen  of  California 
gold,  containing  gold  90-70,  silver  8-80,  and 
iron  0-38,  was  of  specific  gravity  only  14-6, 
and  by  fusing  this  was  increased  to  17'48. 
Gold  from  the  Chaudiere,  Canada,  of  specific 
gravity  17'60,  analyzed  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt, 
gave  gold  87'77,  silver  12-23 ;  another  speci- 
men in  fine  scales,  of  specific  gravity  16-57,  pro- 
duced gold  89-24,  silver  10-76.  Copper,  palla- 
dium, and  rhodium  are  also  met  with  as  alloys 
of  gold.  In  Transylvania  veins  are  worked  pro- 
ducing an  alloy  of  tellurium,  gold,  silver,  and 
antimony ;  the  tellurium  commonly  constitutes 
from  55  to  60  per  cent.,  and  the  gold  from  25 
•to  30  per  cent.  The  same  compound  has  been 
recognized  at  Gold  Hill,  N.  0.  Gold  occurs 
in  a  few  other  combinations  also  with  tellu- 
rium.— In  the  oldest  records  of  the  human 
race  mention  is  made  of  gold,  and  like  silver 
it  was  enumerated  as  an  element  of  riches. 
Throughout  the  Old  Testament  there  are  fre- 
quent allusions  to  gold  and  to  fine  gold.  It 
was  beaten  into  thin  plates,  cut  into  wires,  and 
even  woven  with  threads  of  linen  for  the  sacer- 
dotal robe  of  Aaron.  It  was  fashioned  into 
breastplates  with  chains  at  the  ends  of  wreath- 
en  wor"k  of  pure  gold  ;  and  it  was  used  as  the 
setting  of  precious  stones.  By  other  nations  it 
was  made  into  gods  and  idols,  some  of  gigantic 
size.  Aaron  prepared  a  golden  calf  for  the 
children  of  Israel,  which  Moses  burned  with 
fire  and  reduced  to  powder;  an  operation  that 
might  have  been  effected  by  first  melting  and 
beating  it  out  into  plates.  In  building  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem  the  quantities  of  gold  lavish- 
ly employed  by  Solomon  for  its  furniture  and 
decorations  implied  that  it  was  largely  collect- 
ed, and  that  the  ancients  had  access  to  mines 
of  great  extent  and  richness.  Atahuallpa,  the 


captured  inca  of  Peru,  agreed  to  bring  together 
for  his  ransom,  in  the  space  of  two  months, 
articles  of  gold  which  should  fill  a  room  22  ft. 
long  and  17  broad  to  the  height  of*9  ft.  When 
this  was  done  and  the  gold  melted,  it  was 
found  to  amount  to  I,326,539^>es0s  de  oro.  The 
commercial  value  of  the  peso,  according  to 
Prescott,  was  equivalent  to  $11  67,  making  the 
sum  total  $15,480,710.  The  source  whence 
the  Phoenicians  and  Israelites  derived  their  im- 
mense supplies  of  gold  was  the  land  of  Ophir, 
a  region  still  of  uncertain  locality.  Once  in 
three  years  the  fleet  of  Solomon  completed  a 
voyage  to  it  and  back.  Its  other  products  be- 
sides gold  brought  back  to  Palestine  (1  Kings 
x.  11  and  22),  as  ivory,  spices,  precious  stones, 
ebony,  peacocks,  apes,  and  the  almug  or  san- 
dal wood,  indicate  that  it  was  in  the  tropics. 
It  is  generally  presumed  to  have  been  either 
the  East  Indies  or  that  part  of  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  Africa  called  Sofala  by  the  Arabs.  The  au- 
riferous character  of  the  desert  steppes  of  Gobi 
was  known  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  to  the  in- 
habitants about  the  sources  of  the  Indus ;  and 
to  this  day  are  to  be  seen  along  the  southern 
Ural  the  works  of  ancient  mining  operations, 
supposed  to  be  those  of  the  nomadic  Scythians. 
Ethiopia  and  Nubia  also  were  largely  productive 
of  gold  ;  and  the  ancient  mines  discovered  by 
Belzoni  in  the  Zabarah  mountains  are  supposed 
to  have  furnished  to  the  Pharaohs-  of  Egypt 
their  abundant  supplies.  Thus  many  aurifer- 
ous regions  appear  to  have  been  known  at  dif- 
ferent times,  as  productive  as  those  of  the  pres- 
ent period.  "While  the  gold  of  the  deposits  con- 
tinued abundant  they  were  vigorously  wrought, 
and  each  district  furnished  in  its  turn  the  prin- 
cipal share  of  the  production  of  the  world.  In 
the  time  of  the  Romans  the  precious  metals  were 
not  so  abundant,  though  rich  deposits  were 
worked  along  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  in 
some  of  the  provinces  bordering  the  Alps.  Stra- 
bo  (B.  iv.  ch.  6,  sec.  12)  refers  to  the  statement 
of  Polybius  that  in  his  time  the  gold  mines  near 
Apulia  were  so  productive  that  the  value  of 
gold  was  reduced  one  third  in  Rome.  Spain, 
too,  had  its  deposits  worked  in  ancient  times 
along  the  Tagus ;  and  the  Athenians  gather- 
ed their  supplies  of  the  metals  from  Thessaly 
and  the  island  of  Thasos.  In  the  middle  ages 
the  art  of  working  gold  appears  to  have  been 
little  practised.  The  richness  of  the  known 
mines  was  comparatively  exhausted,  and  pre- 
vious to  the  opening  of  the  new  fields  follow- 
ing the  discovery  of  America,  the  attention 
of  metallurgists  was  directed  to  vain  attempts 
to  transmute  the  baser  into  the  precious  met- 
als. It  was  estimated  that  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  America  the  gold  and  silver  in 
the  old  world,  exclusive  of  the  more  or  less 
unknown  regions  of  the  East,  was  reduced 
to  about  £34,000,000,  and  that  the  supply  no 
more  than  met  the  loss  by  wear.  The  enor- 
mous importation  of  gold  and  silver  from  the 
new  world  soon  made  up  the  deficiencies  of 
the  old  mining  regions,  and,  reducing  the  value 


GOLD 


of  the  metals  in  comparison  with  other  prod- 
ucts, caused  mines  which  had  before  been  suc- 
«•  issfuHy  worked  to  be  abandoned  as  unprofit- 

i->om>1492  to  1500  the  annual  amount 
of  gold  brought  into  Europe  from  America  is 

,v  Huinboldt  at  £52,000;  till  1519  gold 
only  was  obtained.  The  same  proportion  may 
-•itV'lv  bo  extended  to  the  year  1521,  when  Mex- 

<  conquered,  and  the  precious  metals,  but 
more  especially  silver,  were  obtained  in  vastly 
larger  quantities.  The  mines  of  Potosi,  discov- 
nvd  in  1546,  gave  a  still  greater  preponderance 
to  the  production  of  silver,  and  no  data  are 
afforded  for  afterward  distinguishing  the  rela- 
tive proportions  of  the  two  metals.  But  in 
the  first  300  years  succeeding  the  discovery, 
the  receipts  of  American  gold  we're  estimated 
nt  3J  times  the  product  of  the  mines  of  the 
old  continent,  and  those  of  silver  at  12  times 
the  product  of  this  metal.  In  the  time  of 
Elizabeth  gold  was  obtained  at  Lead- 
hills  in  the  south  of  Scotland  ;  and  toward  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  in  the  county  of  Wick- 
low  in  Ireland,  about  $50,000  worth  of  gold 
whs  collected  in  two  months.  These  deposits 
soon,  however,  proved  unprofitable.  The  metal 
\\  .1-  in  ancient  times  collected  in  Cornwall,  and 
I-*  known  to  exist  in  Devonshire.  The  largest 
portion  of  British  gold  has  been  the  product  of 
Wales,  the  principal  gold-bearing  district  of 
which  is  confined  to  an  area  of  about  25  sq.  m. 
in  North  Wales.  The  mines  are  still  worked, 
but  there  has  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  pro- 
dud  ion.  Upon  various  rivers  of  Europe,  as 
tin-  Rhine,  the  Rh6ne,  the  Danube,  the  Reuss, 
and  the  Aar  of  Switzerland,  the  sands  were 
known  to  be  auriferous  in  places,  but  too  poor 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  working.  In  Hungary 
veins  containing  gold  disseminated  in  ores  of 
sulphuret  of  silver  are  worked  in  a  partially  de- 
composed feldspar  of  the  trachytic  formation, 
and  also  in  syenite  and  porphyritic  greenstone ; 
and  gold  is  also  extracted  from  auriferous  py- 
rites of  trap  rocks  of  the  most  recent  formation. 
The  mines  of  Nagy-Ag  and  Zalatna  in  S.  W. 
Triiisylvania  produce  the  alloy  of  tellurium 

•Id  before  referred  to.  Besides  gold,  the 
Hungarian  mines,  worked  by  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment, produce  copper,  silver,  mercury,  an- 
timony, lead,  iron,  and  cobalt.  In  the  Austrian 
provinces  of  Salzburg  and  Tyrol,  at  Bockstein 
and  at  Zell,  gold  is  extracted  from  poorer  ores 
than  are  elsewhere  ever  found  profitable  to 
work.  The  quartz  gangue  of  the  veins  and 
tin-  ar-illaccous  slates  of  the  walls  contain  au- 

•is  pyrites,  argentiferous  mispickel,  gray 
argentiferous  copper,  and  sulphuret  of  silver. 
From  these  the  gold  is  profitably  extracted 
when  it  amounts  to  only  from  6  to  15  parts  in 
1,000,000.  At  Zell  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
annual  product  of  50,000  quintals  of  ore  has 
been  only  35  marks  of  gold,  or  4  parts  in 
1,000,000.  The  silver,  though  obtained  in  six 
or  seven  times  the  quantity  of  the  gold,  is  still 
less  than  half  its  value.  The  total  production 
of  the  Austrian  mines  for  several  years  past 


has  averaged  from  5,500  to  5,800  oz.  per  an- 
num. In  Italy  various  localities  were  known 
to  the  ancients  as  producing  gold.  At  present 
the  only  mines  of  consequence  are  in  Pied- 
mont, in  the  valleys  of  Anzasca,  Toppa,  arid 
Antrona,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  those  of  Ala- 
gna,  Sesia,  and  Novara.  In  Lombardy  the 
chief  mines  are  at  Peschiera  and  Minerva  di 
Sotto.  The  ore  is  an  auriferous  pyrites  con- 
taining about  12  dwts.  of  gold  per  ton.  The 
total  yield  of  all  the  mines  does  not  exceed 
$100,000  per  annum.  In  France  a  small 
amount  of  gold  is  produced,  chiefly  from  aurif- 
erous galena ;  and  there  are  deposits  in  Savoy. 
Gold  mines  have  been  worked  in  Spain  from 
very  remote  periods,  but  the  present  annual 
production  does  not  exceed  about  $10,000. 
The  mines  of  the  Asiatic  slopes  of  the  Ural  ex- 
tend along  the  secondary  ridges  of  the  chain  in 
a  N.  and  S.  direction  more  than  400  m.  The 
crystalline  rocks  here  contain  veins,  one  of 
which  is  successfully  worked  at  Berezov,  near 
Yekaterinburg,  by  shafts  and  levels.  The 
gangue  is  pyritiferous  quartz  with  oxide  of  iron 
resulting  from  its  decomposition,  and  the  rock 
is  a  partially  decayed  granite,  the  quartz  re- 
maining in  angular  grains ;  the  adjoining  for- 
mations are  talcose  and  chloritic  slates.  All 
the  other  workings  of  Russia  are  alluvial  mines. 
These  are  not  only  in  the  Ural  district,  where 
they  have  been  worked  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury, but  during  the  reign  of  Nicholas  a  region 
of  southern  and  eastern  Siberia,  estimated  to 
be  as  large  as  all  of  France,  was  found  to  be 
more  rich  in  gold  than  that  of  the  Ural.  From 
the  great  E.  and  W.  chain  of  the  Altai  moun- 
tains, which  lie  between  Siberia  and  Mongolia, 
low  ridges  are  directed  toward  the  north  into 
the  governments  of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk,  and 
these  ridges  of  crystalline  rocks  are  the  reposi- 
tories of  the  precious  metals.  In  1843  this  re- 
gion produced  the  value  of  about  $11,000,000, 
while  the  product  of  the  Ural  districts  for  the 
same  year  was  only  about  $2,500,000.  Until 
the  discovery  of  the  mines  of  California  it  made 
Russia  the  greatest  gold-producing  country  of 
the  world.  The  average  production  of  the 
Russian  mines  amounts  to  about  $15,000,000 
annually ;  and  their  total  production  from  their 
discovery  about  1745  to  1874  may  be  stated  in 
round  numbers  at  $600,000,000.  The  product 
in  1865  was  given  by  Phillips  at  69,500  Ibs. 
troy. — Little  is  known  of  the  other  gold  regions 
of  the  continent  of  Asia.  The  metal  »is  pos- 
sessed, and  its  deposits  are  no  doubt  worked  to 
considerable  extent,  by  all  the  principal  nations ; 
but  except  from  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago little  of  it  falls  into  the  general  circula- 
tion of  the  world.  The  river  Pactolus  of  Asia 
Minor  is  supposed  to  have  furnished  from  its 
golden  sands  the  foundation  of  the  wealth  of 
Croesus.  According  to  Pumpelly,  who  made 
geological  researches  in  China,  Mongolia,  and 
Japan  during  1862-'5,  gold  exists  in  numerous 
localities  in  no  fewer  than  14  of  the  19  prov- 
inces of  China.  The  richest  regions  appear 


GOLD 


75 


to  be  in  the  province  of  Szechuen  and  along 
the  branches  of  the  Kuenlun  mountain  range, 
which,  extending  in  a  general  E.  and  W.  di- 
rection, penetrate  far  into  central  China,  be- 
tween Szechuen  and  the  Wei  river.  There 
are  also  numerous  washings  at  the  base  of 
the  watershed  between  Kweichow  and  Hunan, 
and  through  the  centre  of  Shantung  from  S. 
W.  to  N.  E.  In  these  localities  placer  gold 
is  found,  and  some  of  them  are  mentioned  as 
furnishing  nuggets ;  but  little  is  known  of 
the  production  of  these  washings.  It  is  said 
that  extensive  sources  of  gold  have  long  been 
known  in  China,  but  that  the  working  of  the 
mines  has  been  discontinued  by  the  govern- 
ment in  accordance  with  some  of  their  finan- 
cial theories.  The  gold-bearing  formations 
of  eastern  Siberia  are  believed  to  extend  into 
Chinese  Tartary,  and  to  connect  with  those 
of  central  and  southern  China.  For  several 
centuries  Japan  has  ranked  high  for  its  pro- 
duction of  gold,  which  constituted  a  chief 
article  of  the  commerce  carried  on  by  the 
Portuguese  and  Dutch  traders.  According  to 
a  Japanese  authority,  the  value  of  the  gold 
exported  from  Nagasaki  from  1611  to  1706 
amounted  to  $68,000,000,  and  of  silver  to 
$157,000,000;  while  Hildreth  states  that  the 
value  of  the  precious  metals  exported  from  Ja- 
pan during  the  two  centuries  beginning  with 
1540  could  not  have  been  less  than  $200,000,- 
000.  But  little  is  known  concerning  the  pres- 
ent production  of  gold  in  the  empire,  or  the 
localities  where  it  exists.  The  gold  regions  on 
the  island  of  Yesso  were  surveyed  in  1862  by 
Blake  and  Pumpelly,  while  in  the  service  of 
the  tycoon's  government.  According  to  Blake, 
the  gold  region  extends  along  the  Kunui  and 
Pusibets  rivers  and  in  the  range  of  mountains 
dividing  Volcano  bay  from  the  west  coast. 
Deposits  are  also  supposed  to  exist  in  the 
northern  and  interior  portions  of  the  island. 
No  veins  have  yet  been  found,  the  gold  being 
obtained  from  washings.  It  is  in  fine  scales, 
and  occurs  in  the  gravel  along  the  streams ;  it 
is  also  found  in  high  terrace  deposits  on  the 
hillsides.  The  annual  product  of  the  island 
does  not  probably  exceed  $25,000.  There  are 
also  extensive  mines  upon  a  large  vein  of  mixed 
silver  and  gold  ore  on  the  island  of  Sado,  off 
the  N.  W.  coast,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
furnished  a  large  amount,  but  the  facts  regard- 
ing it  are  jealously  guarded  by  the  Japanese. 
Gold  is  largely  used  in  Japan  for  gilding,  for 
inlaying  and  overlaying  metals,  and  for  alloys 
with  copper  and  silver  of  various  colors  and 
degrees  of  fineness.  Gold  has  long  been  found 
in  abundance  in  Borneo  ;  according  to  Kloos, 
the  metal  occurs  in  varying  quantities  through- 
out the  entire  island.  Placer  gold  is  found  on 
the  river  Kapola,  associated  with  iron  ores, 
sulphuret  of  antimony,  and  diamonds.  The 
production  of  gold  has  also  been  reported  in 
India,  Thibet,  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and 
the  Philippine  islands. — Africa  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  source  of  a  large  proportion  of 


the  gold  possessed  by  the  ancients,  and  is  re- 
ported by  modern  travellers  to  be  still  rich  in  it. 
The  unmanufactured  gold  obtained  from  that 
country  is  in  the  form  of  dust,  evidently  ob- 
tained from  alluvial  washings.  Russegger,  who 
travelled  through  Nubia  in  1838,  reported  the 
mountain  chain  extending  across  the  interior 
of  Africa  from  E.  N.  E.  to  W.  S.  W.,  and  the 
streams  flowing  from  it,  to  be  auriferous.  In 
Sennaar  and  southern  Abyssinia  gold  occurs  in 
placer  deposits  and  in  quartz  veins  traversing 
granite,  gneiss,  and  chloritic  slates.  The  great- 
est portion  of  the  gold  brought  to  the  coast  is 
from  the  fields  of  Bambook,  south  of  the  Sene- 
gal, the  most  important  mines  in  Africa.  There 
is  a  gold  district  in  Kordofan  on  the  upper  Nile, 
between  Darfoor  and  Abyssinia,  and  it  is  ob- 
tained in  small  quantities  opposite  Madagascar. 
A  few  years  ago  the  annual  production  of  Af- 
rica was  estimated  by  Birkmyre  at  4,000  Ibs., 
valued  at  about  $900,000.  In  1866  the  exist- 
ence of  extensive  gold  fields  in  south  Africa, 
between  lat.  17°  and  21°  30'  S.,  was  discovered 
by  Hartley,  an  elephant  hunter,  and  a  German 
scientific  traveller  named  Mauch.  The  gold 
fields  occupy  the  interior  region  between  the 
Zambesi,  W.  of  Tete,  and  the  middle  course 
of  the  Limpopo  river.  The  distance  to  them, 
from  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Sofala  is 
about  350  m.  The  region  containing  the  gold 
is  an  elevated  table  land  about  7,000  ft.  above 
the  sea ;  it  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Matabele 
section  of  the  Caffres,  a  warlike  tribe.  The 
travellers  above  named  found  beds  of  glisten- 
ing white  quartz  rock  extending  over  this 
table  land,  which  were  found  upon  examina- 
tion to  contain  gold.  Particles  of  gold  were 
also  found  along  the  sandy  margins  of  rivulets. 
It  is  supposed  by  some  that  these  mines  were 
known  to  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  the  17th 
century,  and  by  others  that  here  was  the  Ophir 
of  Solomon.  Although  the  discovery  of  the 
south  African  gold  fields  attracted  consider- 
able attention,  the  production  hitherto  seems 
to  have  been  unimportant. — The  first  known 
discovery  of  gold  in  Australia  was  made  by 
Count  Strzelecki  in  1839,  and  by  him  com- 
municated to  Sir  George  Gipps,  then  governor 
of  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales.  In  defer- 
ence to  the  wishes  of  the  latter,  who  was  of 
opinion  that  a  widely  spread  knowledge  of  the 
existence  of  gold  would  prevent  the  mainte- 
nance of  discipline  among  the  45,000  convicts 
there  collected,  the  discovery  was  not  pro- 
claimed to  the  world.  It  was  rediscovered  in 
1841  by  the  Bev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  a  geologist, 
upon  whom  also  silence  seems  to  have  been 
enjoined  by  Governor  Gipps.  Without  knowl- 
edge of  these  discoveries,  it  is  said,  Sir  Rode- 
rick Murchison  in  1844  publicly  asserted  the 
high  probability  of  the  existence  of  gold  in 
Australia.  It  is  also  said  that  gold  was  found 
at  Cluneg,  Victoria,  in  1850.  The  discovery, 
however,  which  led  to  the  extensive  working 
of  the  mines  was  made  in  1851  by  Mr.  E.  H. 
Hargreaves,  who  had  just  returned  from  Cali- 


76 


GOLD 


foraia,  and  at  once  began  prospecting  near 
Kuthurst  on  the  Macquarie  river,  New  South 
Wales,  where  gold  was  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  announcement  of  this  fact 
caused  ranch  excitement  and  a  sudden  immigra- 
tion of  great  magnitude  to  this  region,  (bee 
EMIGRATION).  The  government  at  once  laid 
claim  to  the  land  and  began  to  grant  licenses 
to  dig  for  gold.  The  gold  region  was  soon 
traced  along  the  range  of  hills  N.  and  S.,  and 
new  discoveries  were  made  of  deposits  surpass- 
ing all  the  rest  in  richness  in  the  colony  of 
Victoria,  near  the  southern  coast,  70  m.  N.  W. 
of  Melbourne.  In  October  there  were  7,000 
persons  engaged  in  the  new  diggings  at  Balla- 
rat  near  Mt.  Buninyong,  occupying  less  than  a 
square  mile  in  extent.  The  next  month  many 
of  these  were  drawn  off  to  the  still  richer  de- 
posits about  Mt.  Alexander  in  the  same  region, 
where  it  was  estimated  that  10,000  persons  were 
then  employed.  In  December  63,300  oz.  were 
transported  to  Melbourne  from  this  locality, 
which  was  then  valued  at  £3 1 9«.  Gd.  per  oz.  The 
whole  amount  conveyed  from  the  two  locali- 
ties from  Sept.  30  to  Dec.  31  was  124,835  oz.; 
the  whole  product  of  the  colony  was  345,146 
oz.  The  immigration  the  next  year  of  104,000 
more  than  doubled  the  population  of  Victoria ; 
still  richer  diggings  were  discovered  at  Ben- 
digo,  and  the  total  product  of  the  colony  for 
the  year  1852  was  estimated  at  4,263,042  oz. 
The  estimates  made  in  London  of  the  whole 
amount  of  gold  exported  from  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales  up  to  the  close  of  1852  gave 
for  the  former  a  total  value  of  £16,000,000,  and 
for  the  latter  £3,500,000;  or  for  15  months 
nearly  four  times  what  the  annual  production 
of  the  world  was  supposed  to  be  five  years 
previously.  The  richest  and  most  extensive 
gold  fields  of  Australia  are  in  the  colony  of 
Victoria,  where  the  area  of  the  mining  region 
is  about  725  sq.  m.  This  is  divided  into  the 
mining  districts  of  Ballarat,  Beechworth,  Sand- 
hu/st,  Maryborough,  Castlemaine,  and  Ararat. 
In  Australia,  as  in  California,  gold  is  directly 
obtained  from  three  distinct  sources,  viz. : 
shallow  placers,  deep  diggings,  and  quartz 
The  estimated  number  of  quartz  veins 
in  Victoria  is  about  2,000.  According  to 
Selwyn,  "  these  veins,  traversing  lower  palaeo- 
zoic strata  and  associated  with  granitic  and 
igneous  rocks,  are,  so  far  as  at  present  known, 
tin-  primary  source  of  the  whole  of  the  gold 
raised  in  Victoria.  The  thickest  and  most 
persistent  veins,  or  lines  of  reef,  are  found  on 
the  lower  or  older  portions  of  the  series ;  but 
the  average  yield  of  gold  per  ton  of  stone  has, 
I  believe,  been  greater  from  the  thinner  veins 
of  the  upper  beds.1'  The  thickness  of  these 
veins,  which  are  described  as  "dikes  or  reefs," 
varies  from  that  of  a  thread  to  130  ft.  They 
have  a  general  meridional  direction,  and  are 
itirlinc'l  .it  her  east  or  west  at  angles  varying 
:-'»ri/.imt:il  to  vertical.  Frequently  they 
in  the  planes  of  cleavage,  occasionally 
between  those  of  the  strata,  and  they  often 


intersect  both.  These  veins  have  been  worked 
to  a  depth  exceeding  600  ft.,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  the  yield  does  not  decrease  with 
increase  of  depth.  Mr.  Selwyn  has  reached 
the  conclusion  that  at  least  two  distinct  sets 
of  quartz  veins  exist  in  Australia,  one  of  which 
is  entirely  barren,  and  that  they  have  been 
formed  at  two  different  and  remote  periods, 
the  barren  being  the  older  one.  This  view 
is  corroborated  by  the  fact,  well  known  to 
experienced  quartz  miners  in  Australia,  that 
in  many  districts  barren  and  rich  quartz  ledges 
are  found  in  close  proximity.  As  this  same 
phenomenon  has  been  noticed  in  California 
and  the  Appalachian  gold  field,  it  suggests, 
according  to  Blake,  the  probable  existence 
of  quartz  lodes  of  two  or  more  distinct  pe- 
riods in  America  as  in  Australia.  The  great- 
er portion  of  the  gold  obtained  in  Australia 
is  from  gravel  deposits  or  placers  similar  to 
those  in  California.  They  occur  in  beds  of 
streams,  along  the  banks,  and  in  ancient  chan- 
nels running  transversely  to  the  existing  drain- 
age of  the  country.  Rich  deposits  are  found 
under  heavy  accumulations  of  stratified  tuffs 
and  lavas  overlaid  with  table  mountains  of  ba- 
salt. The  thickness  of  the  placer  deposits  va- 
ries greatly  in  different  places,  ranging  from 
100  to  400  ft.  The  ratio  of  gold  obtained  from 
quartz  mines  to  that  of  placers  is  indicated  by 
the  production  of  the  two  kinds  in  Victoria  in 
1866,  viz.,  521,017  oz.  of  quartz  and  958,177 
oz.  of  placer  gold.  The  most  productive  gold 
fields  of  Victoria  have  been  those  of  Ballarat 
and  Bendigo.  The  general  description  of  the 
gold  fields  of  Victoria  will  apply  to  those  of 
New  South  Wales.  The  alluvial  deposits,  how- 
ever, are  not  so  extensive  as  in  Victoria,  and 
the  production  of  the  colony  has  been  less. 
South  Australia  and  Queensland  are  also  gold- 
producing,  but  the  amount  obtained  is  small. 
The  Australian  gold  has  a  higher  color  and  is 
finer  than  that  from  California.  Its  fineness 
ranges  from  20  to  23 -5  carats,  the  Ballarat  gold 
being  of  the  highest  standard.  The  Ballarat 
nugget  mentioned  above,  found  in  1858,  and 
weighing  2,217  oz.  16  dwts.,  was  exhibited  at 
the  Paris  exposition  of  18C7,  and  valued  at 
nearly  £10,000.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in 
New  Zealand  in  1842  ;  further  discoveries  were 
made  there  in  1851,  and  in  1856  mining  opera- 
tions on  an  extensive  scale  were  begun.  The 
rock  formations  and  alluvial  deposits,  which 
are  deep  and  extensive,  are  similar  to  those  in 
Australia. — In  the  United  States  there  are  two 
extensive  auriferous  regions  or  gold  belts,  one 
on  the  Atlantic  slope,  known  as  the  Appalachian 
gold  field,  and  the  other  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
embracing  California  and  the  neighboring  states 
and  territories.  The  Appalachian  gold  field 
extends  southwesterly  from  Virginia  through 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia, 
and  also  includes  portions  of  Alabama  and 
Tennessee.  The  width  of  the  gold  range  va- 
ries greatly ;  in  some  places  it  exceeds  75  m. 
The  metal  does  not  exist  in  a  continuous  belt 


GOLD 


77 


extending  through  this  region ;  hut  there  are 
numerous  auriferous  tracts,  occurring  at  inter- 
vals and  generally  parallel  with  each  other, 
though  often  many  miles  distant.  In  North 
Carolina,  from  which  the  greatest  amounts  of 
gold  have  been  obtained,  there  are  two  prin- 
cipal belts  extending  across  the  state  in  a  S. 
"W.  and  N.  E.  direction ;  one  through  Mecklen- 
burg, Cabarrus,  Rowan,  Davidson,  Guilford, 
and  Caswell  counties,  and  the  other  through 
Rutherford,  McDowell,  and  Burke  counties. 
The  latter  is  the  more  westerly  of  the  two, 
being  fro'm  10  to  20  m.  distant  from  the  base 
of  the  Blue  Ridge;  it  is  also  more  elevated, 
while  the  placer  deposits  are  richer  and  more 
extensive  than  in  the  E.  belt.  In  Georgia  also 
the  range  appears  to  be  divided  into  two  belts, 
which  are  separated  by  unproductive  rocks. 
Quartz  veins  closely  resembling  those  of  Cali- 
fornia are  found  in  these  regions.  The  gold  is 
either  free  in  coarse  grains,  or  in  fine  particles 
disseminated  in  sulphuret  of  iron  or  copper. 
The  gold  veins  of  Virginia  extend  through  Fau- 
quier,  Culpeper,  Louisa,  Fluvanna,  Bucking- 
ham, and  a  few  other  adjoining  counties.  The 
production  at  times  has  been  very  large,  but 
the  veins  have  been  extremely  fluctuating  in 
their  yield;  and  though  some  of  these  still 
continue  to  be  worked,  their  history  on  the 
whole  is  by  no  means  favorable.  Though  gold 
has  been  found  in  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Vermont,  on  the  range  of  the  Appalachian 
chain,  it  has  proved  insufficient  to  justify  mi- 
ning explorations,  except  over  a  limited  area  in 
Vermont  during  the  year  1859.  The  veins  of 
the  southern  gold  region  are  found  in  various 
rocks  of  a  granitic  character,  and  in  the  horn- 
blendic  rock  called  diorite,  all  of  which  are 
often  in  a  decomposed  condition  to  the  depth 
of  200  ft.  or  more.  They  are  also  met  with  in 
a  variety  of  slates,  as  talcose,  micaceous,  chlo- 
ritic,  and  hornblendic.  In  North  Carolina  a 
belt  of  such  crystalline  slates  several  miles 
wide  is  traced  through  several  counties  on  the 
E.  side  of  another  belt  of  granite  and  "W.  of  one 
of  hornblendic  rock,  in  all  of  which  the  veins 
are  found.  In  South  Carolina  the  geognostical 
relations  of  the  gold  are  very  similar.  Steatitic 
strata  are  met  with  near  the  mines,  and  dikes 
of  intrusive  rocks  are  often  found  cutting  the 
veins  and  sometimes  disturbing  their  regularity. 
The  course  of  the  veins  is  by  no  means  uniform ; 
they  run  in  various  directions,  and  are  often 
tortuous  as  well  as  displaced  by  faults.  Their 
'  most  common  general  bearing  is  N.  E.  and 
S.  W.,  with  a  dip  toward  the  N.  W.  Veins  in 
|  which  the  quartz  gangue  is  highly  crystalline 
commonly  abound  in  iron  pyrites ;  as  they  are 
explored,  pyritous  copper  is  generally  met  with 
at  some  depth.  In  most  instances  the  gold  di- 
minishes with  the  increase  of  copper,  and  the 
I  latter  metal  not  proving  abundant  enough  to 
pay  expenses,  the  mines  are  at  last  abandoned. 
Gold  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  Cabar- 
i  rus  co.  in  1799,  but  until  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  the  gold  region  of  the  southern 


states  attracted  no  attention.  Gold  had  been 
gathered  to  a  small  extent  in  various  places 
along  the  ranges  of  hills  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
Appalachian  chain,  between  the  Potomac  and 
the  Coosa  river  of  Alabama ;  but  there  was  no 
regular  market  for  its  sale,  and  no  account  was 
kept  of  the  quantities  collected.  These  were 
altogether  of  placer  gold.  In  1825  a  gold  vein 
was  discovered  by  Mr.  Barringer  in  Montgomery 
co.,  N.  C.,  and  attention  was  directed  to  this 
source,  which  in  some  instances  proved  highly 
productive ;  but  this  branch  of  mining  was 
afterward  most  successfully  prosecuted  in  Vir- 
ginia, the  coarse  gold  disseminated  through  the 
white  quartz  being  more  conspicuous  than  in 
the  North  Carolina  veins.  In  the  more  broken 
country  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  also  the 
deposits  of  the  streams  were  more  attractive. 
In  1824  native  gold  began  to  appear  in  the  mint 
at  Philadelphia,  and  the  receipts  increased  rap- 
idly, so  that  in  five  or  six  years  it  constituted 
the  chief  portion  of  the  supplies  of  this  metal. 
Up  to  1827  North  Carolina  had  been  the  only 
state  producing  gold  in  notable  quantities,  and 
the  aggregate  amount  from  1804  is  estimated 
at  about  $110,000.  The  first  mint  deposits 
from  South  Carolina  were  $3,500  in  1829,  and 
from  Virginia  $2,500  in  the  same  year.  The 
first  deposits  of  Georgia  gold  were  in  1830  to 
the  amount  of  $212,000.  In  1837  the  produc- 
tion had  become  so  great  that  a  branch  mint 
was  established  by  the  government  at  Char- 
lotte, N.  C.,  and  another  at  Dahlonega,  Lump- 
kin  co.,  Ga.,  both  of  which  commenced  opera- 
tions the  next  year.  They  were  suspended  in 
1861,  but  in  1869  that  at  Charlotte  was  rees- 
tablished as  an  assay  office.  "When  the  dis- 
coveries of  gold  in  California  were  announced, 
the  placer  deposits  and  many  of  the  veins  in 
the  south  were  abandoned.  The  total  amount 
of  southern  gold  deposited  at  the  mints  and 
assay  offices  of  the  United  States,  from  the 
opening  of  the  mines  to  June  30,  1873,  was 
$1,631,612  from  Virginia,  $9,983,585  from 
North  Carolina,  $1,378,180  from  South  Caro- 
lina, $7,267,784  from  Georgia,  $79,018  from 
Tennessee,  and  $211,827  from  Alabama ;  total, 
$20,052,006.  Of  the  deposits  in  1873,  $2,423 
came  from  Virginia,  $120,332  from  North  Caro- 
lina, $160  from  South  Carolina,  $35,437  from 
Georgia,  and  $599  from  Alabama. — The  exist- 
ence of  gold  in  California  had  been  known  from 
the  time  of  the  expedition  of  Drake,  1577-'9, 
being  particularly  noticed  by  Hakluyt  in  his 
account  of  the  region.  The  occurrence  of  gold 
upon  the  placers  was  noticed  in  a  work  upon 
Upper  California  published  in  Spain  in  1690,  by 
Loyola  Cavello,  at  that  time  a  priest  at  the  mis- 
sion of  San  Jose,  bay  of  San  Francisco.  Capt. 
Shelvocke  in  1721  speaks  favorably  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  soil  for  gold,  and  of  the  prob- 
able richness  of  the  country  in  metals.  The 
"  Historico-Geographical  Dictionary"  of  An- 
tonio de  Alcedo,  l786-'9,  positively  affirms  the 
abundance  of  gold,  even  in  lumps  of  5  to  8  Ibs. 
The  favorable  appearance  of  the  country  for 


78 


GOLD 


cold,  and  of  Oregon  also,  was  noticed  by  Prof. 
.!    I».  Dana,  and  recorded  in  his  geok)gical  re; 
port  of  the  country.    In  Hunt's  "Merchants 
Magazine"  for  April,  1847,  is  a  very  decided 
statement  by  Mr.  Sl.wt  respecting  the  richness 
of  the  country  in  gold,  made  from  his  observa- 
tions there  the  two  preceding  years ;  and  he 
confidently  predicts  that  its  mineral  develop- 
ments will  greatly  exceed  in  richness  and  va- 
riety the  most  sanguine  expectations.    In  these 
vears  the  Mormons  connected  with  the  army 
were  known  to  have  gathered  some  gold  upon 
the  banks  of  the  streams,  and  the  Mexicans  and 
Indians  also.    A  party  of  three  Americans,  two 
of  them  Mormons,  were  on  Feb.  9, 1848,  at  but- 
ter's mill  on  the  American  fork  of  the  Sacra- 
mento, near  the  town  of  Coloma  in  El  Dorado 
co.,  engaged  in  repairing  the  race,  which  had 
been  damaged  by  the  spring  freshets,  when  the 
little  daughter  of  the  overseer,  named  Mar- 
shall, picked  up  in  the  race  a  lump  of  gold 
and  showed  it  to  her  father  as  a  pretty  stone. 
The   discovery  did    not   immediately  attract 
much  attention ;  and  the  Mormons  particularly 
sought  to  prevent  the  facts  from  being  made 
public.    The  Rev.  C.  S.  Lyman,  in  a  letter  to 
the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  of  March, 
1848,  says:  "  Gold  has  been  found  recently  on 
the  Sacramento  near  Sutter's  fort.     It  occurs 
in  small  masses  in  the  sands  of  a  new  mill  race, 
and  is  said  to  promise  well."    The  news  spread 
rapidly,  and  caused  an  unparalleled  tide  of 
emigration    to  pour  in  from   Mexico,   South 
America,  the  Atlantic  states,  and  even  from 
Europe  and  China.     (See  CALIFORNIA.)     In 
August  of  that  year  Governor  Mason  reported 
4,000  men  engaged  in  working  gold,  and  a  daily 
product  of  the  value  of  $30,000  to  $50,000. 
The  earlier  diggings  were  mostly  deposits  rest- 
ing upon  the  upturned  edges  of  argillaceous 
slates,  the  gold  being  found  entangled  in  these 
under  the  sand  and  gravel,  and  also  more  or 
less  mixed  through  the  superficial  layers.     A 
large  proportion  was  picked  out  by  hand  at 
many  of  the  diggings,  so  abundant  were  the 
coarse  pieces.    Attention  was  early  directed 
to  the  gold  veins,  and  in  1851  regular  quartz 
minim?  was  commenced   at    Spring    Hill    in 
Ainador  co.    In  1857  numerous  mills,  most 
complete  and  thorough  in  their  construction, 
were  in  operation  over  a  great  part  of  the 
country;  and  mines  were  opened  at  greater 
depths  than  gold   is  often  worked  in  other 
countries.    A  shaft  of  the  Mount  Hope  mining 
company  in  Grass  Valley  was  carried  to  the 
depth  of  241  ft.,  reaching  the  vein  at  350  ft. 
following  its  slope,  and  the  richness  of  the 
veinstone  at  this  depth  gave  full  encourage- 
ment to  the  belief  that  these  repositories  were 
permanent   and    inexhaustible.     Many   other 
mines  were  worked  from  150  to  200  ft.  in  depth. 
In  California,  though  gold  is  found  E.  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  among  the  mountains  of  the 
coast,  and  in  various  other  localities,  the  great 
;rold  ri-irinn  i«  on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Sierra, 
and  extends  from  about  lat.  35°  N.  northerly 


to  Oregon,  a  distance  of  about  500  m.  The 
average  breadth  of  this  gold  belt  is  about  40 
in.  The  principal  mining  operations  have  been 
confined  to  a  central  area  extending  N.  and 
S.  about  220  m.,  between  the  parallels  of  37° 
and  40°,  and  embracing  Mariposa,  Tuolumne, 
Calaveras,  Amador,  El  Dorado,  Placer,  Neva- 
da, Sierra,  Yuba,  Butte,  and  Plumas  coun- 
ties. According  to  William  P.  Blake,  gold- 
bearing  veins  on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Sier- 
ra Nevada  occur  in  or  are  closely  associated 
with  clay  states,  sandstones,  and  conglomer- 
ates of  the  secondary  period;  also  in  hard 
and  compact  granite,  in  greenstone  or  dioritic 
rocks,  and  in  dolomite  and  metamorphic  lime- 
stones. In  the  Coast  mountains  they  are 
found  even  in  the  partially  metamorphosed 
stratified  formations  of  the  cretaceous  period. 
The  largest  and  most  extensive  veins  exist  in 
the  region  of  the  metamorphosed  secondary 
rocks,  varying  in  width  from  a  few  inches  to 
20  or  30  ft.,  and  generally  conforming  to  the 
dip  and  strike  of  the  strata.  "  The  most  ex- 
tensive vein  of  the  state,"  says  Mr.  Blake, 
"  and  perhaps  in  the  world,  is  known  among 
the  miners  as  the  'mother  vein,'  and  extends, 
but  with  some  considerable,  breaks  and  inter- 
ruptions, from  Mariposa  northwestward  for  80 
or  100  m.,  following  a  zone  or  belt  of  Jurassic 
slates  and  sandstones,  and  closely  associated 
with  a  stratum  of  dolomite  or  magnesian  rock, 
often  a  magnesite,  filled  with  reticulations  of 
quartz  veins  and  charged  with  pyrites."  The 
chief  production  of  California  gold  has  been  ob- 
tained from  placers.  The  great  placer  region 
extends  over  the  central  counties  from  Mariposa 
to  Butte.  The  deposits  occur  not  only  in  the 
beds  of  the  streams,  but  also  upon  the  hillsides 
and  tops,  where  ancient  watercourses  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been.  Sometimes  they  are  found 
under  enormous  accumulations  of  sand,  clay, 
gravel,  and  even  of  tufa  and  lava ;  the  smoothly 
worn  stones  are  thoroughly  cemented  together, 
and  form  a  solid  conglomerate  or  "cement;'* 
the  auriferous  deposits  consist  of  gravel  and 
bowlders,  varying  in  size  from  a  grain  of  wheat 
to  masses  weighing  many  tons.  These  hills  on 
the  W.  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  cover  a  tract 
of  country  in  places  50  to  60  m.  in  width,  and 
rise  sometimes  to  the  height  of  4,000  ft.  They 
are  traversed  by  numerous  streams,  whose 
sources  are  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Subject  to 
sudden  and  extreme  freshets  from  the  melting 
of  the  snoAvs  and  from  the  long  continued  rains 
of  the  wet  season,  these  streams  excavate  and 
sweep  down  the  loosely  aggregated  rocks,  and 
wear  deep  cafions  and  gulches,  which  extend 
toward  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin.  Thus  it  was  the  same  agency  which 
impressed  this  peculiar  feature  upon  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  region,  and  spread  the  gold  from 
the  veins  in  the  hills  through  the  ravines  and 
down  into  the  valleys.  Even  upon  the  elevated 
plains  quite  to  the  west  of  the  hills  gold  is 
collected  in  strata  of  sand  and  clayey  deposits, 
which  cover  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  15  to 


GOLD 


79 


0  ft.  or  more.  The  clay  is  often  seen  to  be  but 
>artially  decomposed  slate,  still  retaining  the 
tructure  of  this  rock,  which  was  evidently  the 
matrix  of  the  gold. — The  general  gold  formation 
f  California  is  found  in  the  neighboring  states 
nd  territories,  the  entire  territories  of  theUni- 
ed  States  west  of  the  Eocky  mountains  being 
more  or  less  productive.  In  many  parts  of  this 
egion  valuable  mines  are  already  worked,  and 
here  is  little  doubt  that  some  of  them  may  in 
he  future  contribute  more  than  California  to 
he  general  gold  production  of  the  country. 
n  Nevada  gold  has  been  obtained  from  the 
uartz  and  from  placers,  but  the  product  of  the 
tate  has  been  chiefly  derived  from  the  aurif- 
rous  silver  ores  of  the  great  Comstock  vein, 
iscovered  in  1859,  which  yields  about  one 
hird  gold  and  two  thirds  silver.  Gold  has 
>een  obtained  from  Oregon  since  1850,  and  the 
ecent  production  has  been  roughly  estimated 
,t  about  $2,000,000  annually.  It  was  first 
[iscovered  in  Washington  territory  on  the  E. 
lope  of  the  Cascade  mountains  in  1858.  The 
;old  region  was  traced  along  the  upper  Colum- 
»ia  and  its  tributaries,  and  in  1860  it  was  found 
in  the  W.  slope  of  the  Bitter  Root  mountains, 
tow  in  Idaho.  There  are  gold  washings  in 
Imost  all  parts  of  Idaho;  the  gold  contains 
more  silver  than  that  of  California,  and  aver- 
ages about  '760.  In  Montana  there  are  exten- 
ive  placers  and  quartz  veins,  on  the  E.  slopes 
f  the  Bitter  Root  mountains,  and  on  both  sides 
f  the  Rocky  mountain  chain,  at  the  sources 
)f  the  Missouri  river.  In  Colorado  gold  occurs 
n  lodes  or  fissure  veins,  in  a  belt  about  50  m. 
wide,  extending  over  the  central  portion  of  the 
territory  N.  and  S.  (See  COLORADO.)  Gold  is 
Iso  obtained  from  Utah  and  Arizona,  and  is 
mown  to  exist  in  Dakota.  The  auriferous  belt 
>f  Oregon,  and  of  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Wash- 
ngton  territories,  extends  N.  along  the  slopes 
f  the  Rocky  mountain  chain  into  British  Co- 
timbia.  The  mining  of  gold  in  this  latter  coun- 
ry  dates  from  1858,  though  the  existence  of 
he  metal  had  been  announced  in  1856.  Gold 
las  been  found  on  the  Eraser  river  from  a  point 
ibout  45  m.  from  its  mouth  to  its  source  in  the 
locky  mountains,  a  distance  of  upward  of  700 
Q.  by  the  meanderings  of  the  river.  It  is  also 
"bund  on  many  tributaries  of  the  Eraser  and  on 
Vancouver  island.  The  fields  which  have  been 
nost  extensively  worked  are  in  the  Caribou 
listrict,  which  lies  in  the  N.  bend  of  the  Eraser. 
.  of  this  district  placers  have  been  discovered 
)n  Peace  river,  and  still  further  N".  on  the 
"tickeen,  which  empties  into  the  Pacific  S.  of 
Sitka,  near  lat.  55°.  The  metal  has  also  been 
bund  above  that  point,  but  in  small  quantities. 
The  greater  part  of  the  gold  from  British  Co- 
umbia  is  obtained  from  shallow  placers.  The 
production  is  sent  to  San  Francisco ;  it  amounted 
n  1873  to  $1,250,035.  (See  BRITISH  COLUMBIA.) 
— In  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  gold  has 
)een  found  in  small  irregular  deposits  of  con- 
siderable richness  in  Madoc.  The  gangue  of 
the  gold  was  in  part  a  ferriferous  bitter  spar, 
366  VOL.  vin.— 6 


and  in  part  a  peculiar  hydrocarbon aceous  coaly 
matter,  the  two  being  associated  in  the  same 
veins,  and  alike  penetrated  by  crystalline  gold 
of  great  purity.  The  adjacent  township  of 
Marmora  has  since  been  found  to  contain  gold 
in  quartz  veins  with  mispickel.  Though  not 
rich,  the  ore  is  abundant,  and  the  deposits  there 
are  now  worked  on  a  considerable  scale.  The 
rocks  of  this  region  are  crystalline  schists,  prob- 
ably of  Huronian  age ;  and  rich  gold-bearing 
veins  have  recently  been  discovered  in  rocks  of 
the  same  period  N.  of  Lake  Superior,  on  Lake 
Shebandowan.  For  many  years  the  gold-bear- 
ing alluvions  of  the  Chaudiere  and  the  adja- 
cent region  in  the  province  of  Quebec  have 
attracted  attention,  and  have  yielded  more  or 
less  gold.  It  is  distributed  over  a  large  area, 
but  the  official  returns  in  1869  show  a  produc- 
tion of  only  1,050  oz.  from  the  Chaudiere  val- 
ley, although  small  quantities  are  extracted  in 
various  other  localities  in  the  region.  The 
source  of  the  gold  appears  to  be  in  part  in  the 
adjacent  crystalline  rocks  of  Huronian  age,  and 
in  part  in  some  argillites  and  sandstones  which 
are  perhaps  of  the  lower  Cambrian  period,  but 
may  be  more  recent.  In  both  of  these  for- 
mations, native  gold  accompanied  with  sul- 
phurets  occurs  in  quartz  veins,  which  have  not 
however  as  yet  been  systematically  worked. 
In  Nova  Scotia  the  auriferous  quartz  occurs  in 
uncrystalline  slates  and  sandstones,  for  the  most 
part  in  interbedded  veins.  The  workings  have 
been  on  a  small  scale  and  very  irregular,  but 
the  quartz  is  often  of  great  richness.  The 
official  returns  from  1860  to  1872  show  a  yield 
of  215,871  oz.,  with  a  value  of  £863,484.  The 
produce  in  1867  was  27,314  oz.,  but  in  1872 
only  13,094  oz. — The  gold-producing  districts 
of  South  America  are  in  Brazil,  Chili,  and  all 
those  countries  which  lie  north  of  the  latter  on 
the  line  of  the  Andes.  As  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
it  is  the  N.  and  S.  ranges  of  hills  of  micaceous 
and  talcose  slates,  quartz  rocks,  and  granites, 
which  produce  this  metal.  In  some  instances,  as 
in  Peru  and  Chili,  it  is  obtained  from  veins  com- 
monly worked  for  other  metals  as  well  as  gold  ; 
but  almost  universally  it  is  a  product  of  alluvial 
mines.  The  yield  since  the  early  working  of 
the  mines  has  greatly  fallen  off,  and  especially 
since  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury; and  South  America,  from  having  been 
the  first  of  the  gold-producing  countries  in  the 
world,  has  now  fallen  among  those  of  least  im- 
portance in  this  respect.  Still  it  is  well  known 
that  there  are  districts  of  great  richness  yet 
comparatively  unworked,  and  which  are  likely 
long  to  continue  so  from  their  extreme  un- 
healthiness  and  the  want  of  means  of  comfort- 
able subsistence.  Such  is  the  country  about 
the  head  waters  of  the  Atrato,  the  Magdalen  a, 
and  the  Cauca.  Similar  causes,  as  well  as  the 
political  condition  of  the  countries  of  Central 
America,  have  prevented  the  development  of 
their  resources  in  this  metal,  which  it  is  well 
known  follows  the  Cordilleras  northward.  On 
the  isthmus  of  Panama  discoveries  of  images 


80 


GOLD 


of  gold  in  the  graves  of  the  aborigines  point  to 
the  existence  of  productive  mines  in  Chinqui, 
the  localities  of  which  are  not  now  known. 
The  gold  is  very  generally  alloyed  with  cop- 
per; some  of  it  indeed  is  only  8-carat  gold 
while  in  other  samples  the  proportion  is  23 
carats  The  gold  of  Mexico  has  been  rather  a 
secondary  product  of  its  argentiferous  veins; 
but  in  Oajaca  are  true  gold  veins  m  the  mica- 
ceous slates  and  gneiss.  The  silver  ores  which 
contain  the  gold  are  often  argentiferous  galena, 
the  lead  being  the  prevailing  metal.  A  small 
quantity  of  gold  is  annually  obtained  from 
Central  America,  and  gold  placers  are  known 
to  exist  in  Cuba  and  Santo  Domingo.  Al- 
though gold  has  been  found  in  many  places  in 
Brazil,  the  most  productive  mines  have  been 
worked  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ouro  Preto,  and  in  the  district  of 
Turyassu,  in  the  province  of  Maranhao.  The 
large  production  of  Brazilian  gold  in  the  18th 
century  was  obtained  almost  exclusively  from 
the  alluvial  washings  of  Minas  Geraes;  but 
these  became  exhausted,  and  the  metal  is  now 
obtained  from  the  veins  or  beds  worked  by 
English  capital.  The  gold  found  in  Brazil,  in- 
stead of  being  enclosed  in  regular  veins,  is  dis- 
seminated in  metalliferous  beds.  The  rock 
formations  are  supposed  to  belong  to  the  pa- 
heozoic  period. — The  total  production  of  gold 
in  the  world  has  never  been  determined  with 
more  than  an  approximate  degree  of  accuracy. 
There  are  no  statistics  showing  the  exact  an- 
nual yield  of  the  different  gold-producing  coun- 
tries, and  the  amount  produced  has  been  sub- 
ject to  computations  by  different  authorities, 
whose  results  have  presented  no  little  variance. 
It  is  true  that  in  each  country  an  accurate 
record  is  kept  of  the  amount  coined,  and  of  the 
exports  and  imports,  but  these  results  only  in- 
dicate approximately  the  extent  of  the  produc- 
tion. In  1830  it  was  estimated  that  for  the 
preceding  19  years  the  average  annual  produc- 
tion of  the  precious  metals  had  fallen  off  about 
$31,000,000  from  what  it  had  been  before  that 
time,  the  estimated  product  being  as  follows : 


COUNTRIES. 


Africa 


ToUl. 


Before   1810. 


$4,000,000 
2,»80,000 
LOOO.OOO 

47,000,000 


104080,000 


After  1810. 


$5.000,000 


1,000,000 
15,000,000 


By  the  estimate  of  M.  Chevalier,  in  his  work 
on  money,  the  total  amount  of  gold  and  silver 
existing  in  various  forms  in  1848  appears  to 
have  been  £1,727,000,000,  or  $8,500,000,000, 
of  which  one  third  was  supposed  to  be  gold. 
The  annual  product  of  this  metal  from  1800  to 
1850  had  been  £3,258,000.  By  other  authori- 
ties the  whole  amount  of  gold  coin  and  bullion 
in  KurujK-  in  1847  was  i-stimnted  to  be  about 
£250,000,000,  and  in  the  world  in  1850  £600,- 
000,000.  According  to  Phillips,  the  annual 
production  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  was 


about  53,940  Ibs.  troy,  of  which  New  Granada 
furnished  23  per  cent.,  Brazil  and  southern 
A.sia  18  per  cent,  each,  Chili  13,  Mexico  8,  Aus- 

ria  6,  and  Peru  4  per  cent.  In  1860  the  pro- 
duction had  increased  to  585,370  Ibs.  troy,  of 
which  the  chief  countries  contributed  in  the 
following  ratio  per  cent. :  Australia,  37;  Cali- 

brnia  and  neighboring  states  and  territories, 
31-9 ;  Russia,  11-3.  In  1865  the  yield  amounted 
to  559,587  Ibs.  troy,  of  which  37'5  per  cent, 
was  the  product  of  California  and  the  neigh- 
boring states  and  territories,  27'9  of  Australia, 
and  12-4  of  Russia.  The  following  approxi- 
mate statement  of  the  value  of  the  gold  pro- 
duced in  the  principal  gold-producing  countries 
in  1867  is  given  by  Blake  in  his  "Production 
of  the  Precious  Metals:" 


Nevada  

Oregon  and  Washington 

Idaho 

Montana 

Arizona 

New  Mexico 

Colorado 

Utah,  Appalachians,  and  other  sources 


Total  United  States 

British  Columbia 

Canada  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Mexico 

Brazil 

Chili 

Bolivia 

Peru 

Venezuela,  Colombia,  Central  America, 

Cuba,  and  Santo  Domingo 

Australia 

New  Zealand 

Russia 

Austria 

Spain 

Italy 

France 

Great  Britain 

Africa 

Borneo  and  East.  Indies 

China,  Japan,  Central  Asia,  Roumania, 

and  other  unenumerated  sources . . 


Total 


8.000,000 

5,000,000 

12,000,000 

500,000 

800,000 

2.000,000 

2,700,000 


$56,500.000 

2,000,000 

560.000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

590,000 

800,000 

500,000 

8.000,000 

81,550,000 

6,000,000 

15,500,000 

1,175,000 

8,000 

95,000 


12,000 

900,000 

5,000,000 

5,000,000 


$180,630,000 


Ratio 
per  cent. 


43-23 

-  1-96 

•76 

4-05 

24-14 
11-17 

-  1-74 


100-00 


The  production  of  Australia  above  given  is 
thus  distributed  by  Blake :  Victoria,  $26,510,- 
000 ;  New  South  Wales,  $4,600,000 ;  Queens- 
land, $400,000  ;  South  Australia,  $140,000. 
Since  about  1850,  by  far  the  greater  portion 
of  all  the  gold  obtained  in  the  world  has  been 
the  product  of  the  Australian  mines  and  those 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States.  The 
extent  of  the  Australian  production  is  indicated 
by  the  following  table,  from  the  official  "  Sta- 
tistical Abstract  of  the  several  Colonial  and 
other  Possessions  of  the  United  Kingdom,"  giv- 
ing the  value  of  the  exports  of  bullion  and  coin 
from  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  from  the 
opening  of  the  mines.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  it  docs  not  represent  the  exact 
production  of  each  colony.  The  coin  was  is- 
sued from  the  branch  of  the  royal  mint  at  Syd- 
ney, New  South  Wales.  A  branch  mint  was 
established  at  Melbourne,  Victoria,  in  1872. 


GOLD 


81 


NEW   SOUTH  WALKS. 

VICTOEIA. 

YEARS. 

Exclusive  of 
coin. 

Coin. 

Exclusive  of 
coin. 

Cota. 

£470,836 

£438,777 

1852~ 

2  660'945 

6,135,728 

1853!   '. 

1,781,173 

8,644,529 

1854. 

778,209 

8,255,550 

1855 

209  250 

10,904,150 

1856!   ! 

1857.   . 

188'007 
187,249 

£18^44 
914.199 

11,943,458 
10,987,591 

£951,856 

1858.  . 

98,480 

1,411,251 

30,107,886 

605,678 

1859.   . 

215,941 

1,488,833 

9,122,087 

1,304,992 

1860.   . 

298,668 

1,579,920 

8,624,860 

565,430 

1861.  . 

289,937 

1,720,326 

7,869,758 

1,210,828 

1862.   . 

517,105 

2,467,164 

6,685,192 

918,999 

1863.   . 

587,920 

1,774,184 

6,520,957 

1,169,471 

1864.   . 

304,955 

2,647,516 

6,206,237 

1,029,872 

1865.  . 

441,006 

2,325,844 

6,190,317 

809,269 

1866.   . 

581,983 

2,815,437 

5,909,987 

961,493 

1867.   . 

544,661 

2,041,883 

5,738,993 

671,936 

1868.  . 

382.616 

1,771,005 

7,843,197 

507,662 

1869.  . 

578,260 

2,184,612 

6.804,179 

684,819 

1870.  . 

672,254 

1,200,509 

6,119,782 

577,840 

1871.  . 

601,250 

1,724,088 

6,590,962 

847,513 

1872... 

731,120 

1,656,131 

5,197,340 

Total. 

£13,016,774 

£29,746,556 

£161,841,417 

£12,317,658 

The  exports  from  New  Zealand  began  in  1857, 
and  to  the  beginning  of  1872  had  amounted  to 
£24,492,149.  They  increased  from  £40,084  in 
1857  to  £2,897,412  in  1866,  then  gradually 
decreased  till  1870,  when  they  amounted  to 
£2,163,910,  but  in  1871  increased  again  to 
£2,788,368.  The  accurate  determination  of  the 
amount  of  gold  produced  in  the  United  States 
since  the  discovery  of  this  metal  in  California 
is  not  practicable.  As  J.  Ross  Browne,  W. 
P.  Blake,  R.  W.  Raymond,  and  others  have 
shown,  neither  the  manifests  of  export,  nor  the 
mint  receipts,  nor  the  bullion  shipments  of  the 
express  companies,  nor  any  direct  combination 
of  these  data,  will  give  the  required  amount. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  regard  to 
earlier  years.  The  following  table,  compiled  by 
R.  W.  Raymond,  United  States  commissioner 
of  mining  statistics,  is  offered  as  an  approxi- 
mate estimate,  the  result  of  careful  study  of 
numerous  treatises  and  partial  statistics,  in  the 
light  of  much  personal  observation  of  the  prin- 
cipal producing  districts.  Down  to  1862  it 
follows  the  table  compiled  by  J.  Arthur  Phil- 
lips, and  published  in  his  "  Gold  and  Silver." 
From  1862  to  1866  the  production  of  California 
is  calculated  by  deducting  from  the  express  re- 
ceipts of  uncoined  treasure  at  San  Francisco, 
from  "  the  northern  and  southern  mines,"  the 
receipts  from  Nevada,  and  adding  10  per  cent, 
to  the  remainder,  to  cover  amount  shipped  in 
private  hands.  From  1866  to  1872  inclusive 
the  reports  of  the  United  States  mining  com- 
missioner have  been  followed  as  a  general 
authority ;  but  as  these  do  not  separate  the 
product  of  gold  from  that  of  silver,  the  divi- 
sion has  been  made  by  estimate,  based  on  the 
known  conditions  and  relations  of  the  industry 
of  different  localities.  The  figures  for  1873 
are  based  on  the  express  shipments,  with  arbi- 
trary allowances  for  product  otherwise  trans- 
ported. Under  the  head  of  u  Other  States  and 
Territories"  is  included  the  product  of  gold 


from   Oregon,   "Washington,   Idaho,  Montana, 
Colorado,  &c.,  and  one  third  the  product  of  the 
Comstock  lode  hi  Nevada,  that  being  the  aver- 
age proportion  of  gold  by  value  in  the  Com- 
stock bullion.     The  values  are  given  in  United 
States  gold  coin. 

ESTIMATE    OF    GOLD    PKODTTCT    OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES    SINCE   1847. 

YEARS. 

California. 

Other  states 
and  territories. 

TotaL 

1848  

$10,000,000 
40,000,000 
50,000,000 
55,000,000 
60,000,000 
65,000,000 
60,000,000 
55,000,000 
55,000,000 
55,000,000 
50,000,000 
50,000,000 
45,000,000 
40,000,000 
34.700,000 
80,000,000 
26,600,000 
28,500,000 
25,500,000 
25,000,000 
22,000,000 
22,500,000 
25,000,000 
20,000,000 
19,000,000 
17,000,000 



$10,000,000 
40,000,000 
50,000,000 
55,000,000 
60,000,000 
65,000,000 
60,000,000 
55,000,000 
55,000,000 
55,000,000 
50,000,000 
50,000,000 
46,000,000 
43,000,000 
89,200,000 
40,000,000 
46,100,000 
58,225,000 
53,500,000 
51,725,000 
48,000.000 
49,500,000 
50,000,000 
43,500,000 
36,000,000 
36,000,000 

1849 

I860  

1851  

1852 

1853 

1854  

1855  

1856 

1857 



1858  

1859  

$1,000,666 

8,000,000 
4,500,000 
10,000,000 
19,500,000 
24,725,000 
28,000,000 
26,725,000 
26,000,000 
27,000,000 
25,000,000 
23,500,000 
17,000,000 
19,000,000 

1860 

1861  
1862  

1863 

1864 

1865  
1866  

186T 

1868  . 

1869  
1870  

1671 

1872. 

1878  

Total  

$985,800,000 

$254,950,000 

$1,240,750,000 

Other  authorities  have  made  the  production  of 
California  in  recent  years  somewhat  larger,  as 
will  appear  by  reference  to  the  article  CALI- 
FORNIA.—  It  is  estimated  that  about  three 
fourths  of  the  gold  produced  is  used  for  coin- 
age, and  about  one  fourth  in  the  arts.  Thus, 
estimating  the  entire  product  of  the  world  in 
1873  at  $100,000,000,  it  is  supposed  that  the 
consumption  in  the  arts,  which  has  greatly  in- 
creased in  recent  years,  approximated  $25,- 
000,000.  There  has  also  been  a  recent  increas- 
ing demand  for  gold  for  coinage,  attributed  to 
the  fact  that  several  countries  which  formerly 
used  gold  and  silver  as  the  double  or  alternate 
standard  of  value,  have  reformed  their  mone- 
tary laws,  and  adopted  the  gold  standard,  that 
metal  being  less  variable  than  silver.  Among 
the  countries  which  have  recently  made  this 
change  are  the  United  States,  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Japan.  Great 
Britain  adopted  the  gold  standard  in  1816. 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Greece 
still  adhere  to  the  double  standard.  The  total 
gold  coinage  of  the  world  from  1848  to  1872 
has  been  stated  in  round  numbers  at  £602,116,- 
000.  Of  this  amount  France  coined  £259,801,- 
000,  the  United  States  £185,579,000,  England 
£123,608,000,  and  Australia  £32,128,000.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  report  of  the  director  of 
the  mint,  the  entire  gold  coinage  of  the  United 
States  to  June  30,  1873,  amounted  to  $816,- 
905,878,  in  addition  to  $285,358,663  manufac- 
tured into  bars,  making  the  total  issue  from  the 


GOLD 


ffl       tl  102  964  541      (See  rites,  or  with  all  the  gold  in  any  variety  of  py- 

mints  and  assay  offices  $1,10.    **£*£>    *?*  ..         G  ld  is  cia9Sified  further  as  quartz  gold 

Corns.)    Of  this  amount  coinage  to  the -value  ntes     ttom                ^  ^                      in 

of  $35,249,837  and  bars  valued  at  $20  495  616  (touno ^i            ,        ,           deposits,  &c.).    The 

ssued  durin  mechanical  chemi- 


were  issued  during  y-MdKKwK    Sods^  extraction  are  mechanical,  chemi- 
1873.   The  amount  of  gold  c  tthTvari      cal  or  both,  according  to  circumstances.     Me- 

,  exclusive  of  coins,  dePJsl**dna  ;/\  8t  t  "    chanical  methods  involve  the  agency  of  air  or 
ous  mints  and  assay  offices  of  th%Un rted  fe^tes    c^  separation  is  the  rude  process  of 

from  their  establishment  **^  NJ&JJ™    Rowing,  occasionally  practised  in  localities 
the  sources  of  production,  has  I  ™jjo  ng^  ^  wanting. F  The  dry  pulverized 

material  is  repeatedly  thrown  into  the  air,  al- 
lowing the  wind  to  carry  off  the  lighter  por- 
tions, the  remainder  being  caught  as  it  falls  in 
a  hide  or  blanket,  or  a  shallow  wooden  basin 
called  a  latea.  The  process  is  concluded  by 
blowing  the  last  residuum  with  the  mouth. 
Washing  is  the  almost  universal  method  of  me- 
chanical separation.  In  exploring  for  gold, 
the  earth  or  pulverized  rock  suspected  to  con- 
tain it  is  washed  on  the  blade  of  a  shovel,  or 
in  an  iron  pan,  wooden  latea,  or  horn  scoop. 
The  operation  is  commonly  called  panning.  It 
consists  essentially  in  stirring  and  shaking  un- 
der water  the  contents  of  the  vessels  employed 
The  localities  given  in  this  table  are  merely  jn  8Uch  a  way  as  to  suspend  the  finer  earthy 
those  from  which  the  mint  deposits  were  de-  particles  and  allow  them  to  escape  over  the 
clared  or  inferred  to  come;  hence  they  do  not  e(jge,  while  the  gold,  with  the  larger  stones  or 
represent  correctly  the  actual  origin  of  produc-  lumps  of  clay,  remains  behind.  The  stones 
tion.  A  considerable  amount,  for  example,  is  are  removed  with  the  fingers,  and  the  lumps 
attributed  to  Kansas,  which  really  produces  no  of  c]ay  are  rubbed  between  the  hands  and  re- 


SOURCE.            VALUE. 

SOURCE.             VALUE. 

Virginia 

$1,681,612  78    Washington 
a      9,988,535  M        territory... 
a     1,878,180  77    Idaho  
7,267,784  76    Utah  
79,018  69    Nevada  
211,827  79    Wyoming  .  .  . 

$71,662  41 
18,889,785  84 
198,827  91 
1,140,067  94 
158,646  18 

•MtkOvOtfa 

j;,-,.nr::i... 

tfawMok 

OUttnta  . 

911,171  27    Dakota  
640,080,657  59    Sitka  
27  026  96    Vermont  .... 

5,760  00 
897  64 
8,904  97 

kVn-i- 

955,867  44 

Parted      from 

Montana  .  . 
Oregon.... 
(fclondo  , 

Maryland  .. 
Arizona  

88,982,498  21 
11.950,289  60 
20,574,914  27 
25858 
1,089,074  03 

silver  5,264,224  78 
Contained     in 
silver    .  .              111,736  58 
Refined  gold..     76,285,91280 
Other  sources.      9,874,118  22 

N.  Hampshire.             820  89 

Total....  |S41,529,129  28 

gold.    The  gold  coinage  of  Great  Britain  and 
Australia  for  10  years  has  been  as  follows : 


nuia 

Kn.Un.l. 

Sydney,  Auitralto. 

1868 

£        «.    d. 
6,607,466    5    4 

£         s.  d. 
1,876,962    9  10 

1  -(;i                     

9,585,597  17    6 

2,880,663    4    8 

1866 

2,867614    4    1 

2,859,561  13    9 

1  -»•/, 

5,076,676  14    6 

2,955,732    8    2 

1867 

496,897  17  11 

2,492,858  15    8 

1808                   

1,658,884    8    0 

2,845,728    8    1 

1-iVi 

7872,204  17    9 

1,319,888    2    2 

2.818,384  18  11 

1,248,298    1    9 

.. 
Kl        

9,919,656    1    2 

2,870,418  18    1 

1872 

15,261  441  15  10 

Total  

6(1,608,815    1    0 

20,844,611  16    4 

The  exports  of  domestic  gold  from  the  United 
States  during  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1873, 
amounted  to  $55,178,229  in  coin,  and  $12,754,- 
257  in  bullion.— -GOLD  MINING.  Gold  occurs 
principally  in  metallic  form,  as  threads,  scales, 
spangles,  films,  grains,  monometric  crystals, 
nuggets,  &c.  Such  native  gold  always  contains 
from  1  to 40  percent,  silver,  and  often  also  small 
quantities  of  iron,  copper,  mercury,  palladium, 
platinum,  or  iriditim.  Gold  ores  proper  are 
rare;  the  undoubted  species  are  tellurides. 
More  commonly  gold  occurs  associated  with 
other  minerals,  chiefly  (in  decomposed  ores) 
the  oxides  of  iron,  and  (in  solid  ores)  iron  and 
ropjMT  pyrit-*.  iruK-na,  blende,  mispickel  (all 
of  whinli  may  be  auriferous),  bismuth,  stib- 
nite,  magnetite,  hematite,  various  spars,  and 
quartz.  It  is  l»flk-u-<l  by  many  that  auriferous 
-*  often  contains  its  gold  in  chemical  com- 
bination with  antimony,  arsenic,  or  sulphur; 


but  this  is  probably  not  the  case  with  all  py- 


duced  to  a  slime,  the  process  being  skilfully 
continued  until  nothing  is  left  except  gold  and 
heavy  black  sand,  usually  titaniferous  iron, 
which  accompanies  native  gold  in  most  locali- 
ties and    cannot    be   separated  by  washing. 
When  perfectly  dry,  a  part  of  it  can  be  re- 
moved by  blowing  and  a  part  by  the  magnet. 
It  is  common  to  melt  the  finer  dust  with  fluxes 
and  collect  it  in  buttons.      Quicksilver  may 
also  be  introduced  in  panning,  to  take  up  and 
secure  the  fine  gold.     The  cradle,  or  rocker,  is 
an  apparatus  somewhat  resembling  a  child's 
cradle.    The  box  is  usually  about  40  in.  long 
and  20  wide,  and  from  15  in.  to  2  ft.  high  at 
the  upper  end,  upon  which  is  set  a  hopper  or 
riddle,  a  box  20  in.  square  and  6  in.  deep,  hav- 
ing a  bottom  of  sheet  iron  perforated  with 
half-inch  holes.     Under  the  riddle  is  placed  an 
inclined  apron  of  canvas,  and  across  the  bot- 
tom of  the  main  box  are  nailed  two  bars  or 
riffles,  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  high.    In 
washing,  the  dirt  is  shovelled  into  the  hopper, 
and  the  workman  ladles  water  upon  it  with  one 
hand,  rocking  the  cradle  with  the  other.    The 
sheet-iron  bottom  retains  the  larger  stones; 
the  disintegrated  earth,  passing  through  the 
riddle,  falls  upon  the  apron,  which  carries  it 
to  the  head  of  the  cradle  box,  whence  it  flows 
along  the  bottom  and  escapes  at  the  lower  end, 
leaving  behind  the  riffle  bars  the  gold,  black 
sand,  and  heavier  particles  of  gravel,  which  are 
cleaned  up  two  or  three  times  a  day.     This  ap- 
paratus is  both  slow  and  wasteful  in  operation; 
but  it  is  cheap  and  portable,  and  requires  little 
water,  since  the  same  water  can  be  used  in  it 


over  and  over  again.     The  long  torn  is  a  wood- 


GOLD 


83 


en  trough,  about  12  ft.  long,  20  in.  wide  at  its 
upper  end,  and  30  in.  at  the  other.  It  termi- 
nates below  with  an  inclined  riddle  of  punched 
sheet  iron,  through  which  the  material  is  car- 
ried by  a  stream  of  water  entering  at  the  other 
end,  and  falls  upon  a  riffle  box  below.  A  fresh 
supply  of  dirt  is  continually  shovelled  in  at  the 
head  of  the  trough.  This  arrangement  works 
faster  than  the  rocker,  and  is  not  so  liable  to 
become  packed  with  sand;  but  the  sluice, 
which  has  now  generally  superseded  it,  is  ca- 
pable of  washing  still  greater  quantities  and 
with  less  loss  of  gold.  This  is  generally  a 
long  inclined  wooden  trough,  into  which  the 
dirt  is  shovelled,  and  through  which  a  rapid 
stream  of  water  continually  flows.  The  ordi- 
nary sluice  is  a  series  of  rough  wooden  boxes, 
each  12  ft.  long,  16  by  20  in.  wide,  and  10  in.  to 
a  foot  deep.  The  grade  is  commonly  10  to  18 
in.  on  each  box.  False  bottoms  are  employ- 
ed to  retain  the  gold  and  prevent  the  wearing 
out  of  the  boxes.  Sluices  are  sometimes  paved 
with  stones  or  wooden  blocks,  in  the  crevices 
of  which  the  gold  is  caught  and  retained.  Eif- 
fles  are  also  inserted,  and  quicksilver  is  very 
generally  employed  to  assist  in  catching  the 
gold.  The  dirt  or  gravel  containing  gold  is 
shovelled  into  the  sluices  at  the  head  of  the  se- 
ries. Mercury  is  usually  poured,  an  hour  or 
two  after  the  commencement  of  sluicing,  into 
the  head  of  the  apparatus,  and  smaller  quanti- 
ties are  also  introduced  at  various  places  along 
the  boxes.  When  the  gold  is  exceedingly  fine, 
amalgamated  copper  plates  are  sometimes  set 
in  the  sluices,  and  are  considered  as  effective 
for  saving  fine  gold  as  an  equal  surface  of  pure 
mercury,  while  they  are  both  cheaper  and  more 
easily  managed.  Another  arrangement  for 
obtaining  fine  gold  consists  in  allowing  a  cur- 
rent carrying  suspended  gold,  sand,  &c.,  to 
pass  over  tanned  hides,  laid  with  the  hairs  di- 
rected against  the  course  of  the  stream,  or  over 
rough  baize  or  blanket,  such  as  is  now  manu- 
factured for  the  purpose  in  California.  The 
blankets  are  frequently  removed  and  washed 
in  tanks.  Where  skins  are  used,  as  in  Brazil, 
they  may  be  dried  and  beaten  over  a  cloth, 
placed  to  receive  the  fallen  particles.  Sluice 
washing  is  generally  carried  on  during  the  day 
only ;  but  when  water  is  abundant  and  cheap, 
the  work  may  be  continued  throughout  the 
whole  twenty-four  hours.  The  sluices  are 
cleaned  up  once  a  week,  or  more  seldom,  ac- 
cording to  the  rate  at  which  gold  and  amal- 
gam accumulate.  The  amalgam  and  mercury 
taken  from  the  sluice  are  panned,  to  separate 
them  from  sand,  &c.,  and  then  strained  through 
buckskin  or  canvas  to  remove  the  liquid  quick- 
silver. The  auriferous  amalgam  is  removed 
from  copper  plates  by  first  warming  and  then 
scraping  them.  This,  together  with  the  solid 
amalgam  from  the  strainers,  is  retorted ;  the 
quicksilver  passing  over  from  the  retort  is  con- 
densed in  water  and  thus  recovered ;  while  the 
gold  is  left  in  the  form  of  a  light  yellow  porous 
mass,  called  retort  gold,  and  usually  constitu- 


ting 35  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  amal- 
gam retorted.  The  length  of  the  sluices  em- 
ployed in  this  process  is  limited  only  by  the 
cost  of  their  construction  and  maintenance,  and 
the  control  of  the  necessary  grade.  Ground 
sluices  are  natural  gullies,  answering  the  pur- 
pose of  wooden  sluices  in  localities  where 
water  is  abundant  for  short  periods  only,  and 
the  construction  of  permanent  sluices  would 
not  be  judicious.  In  river  mining,  the  current 
of  a  stream  is  turned  aside,  and  sluices  are 
erected  in  its  bed  for  washing  the  dirt  there 
accumulated.  In  beach  mining,  as  carried  on 
along  the  northern  part  of  the  California  coast 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Oregon  coast,  the 
sands  on  the  seashore  are  explored,  and  cer- 
tain portions  of  them,  which  are  found  to  be 
sufficiently  auriferous,  are  transported  to  some 
neighboring  stream  and  washed.  The  origin 
of  this  gold  is  the  natural  concentration  by 
tides  and  currents  of  a  bluff  of  auriferous  sand, 
which  in  stormy  weather  is  undermined  by  the 
waves.  The  position  of  the  deposits  is  fre- 
quently changed,  and  mining  must  therefore 
be  carried  on  in  a  new  place  every  day. — Hill 
diggings  and  bank  diggings  are  names  which 
explain  themselves.  Many  deposits  of  aurifer- 
ous clay  and  gravel  have  been  subsequently 
overlaid  by  barren  alluvium ;  and  the  ordinary 
operations  of  shovelling  or  blasting  would  be 
too  expensive  for  the  removal  of  such  enor- 
mous masses  of  unprofitable  material.  Tunnels 
and  drifts  are  frequently  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  extracting  the  richer  strata.  They  are 
particularly  necessary  in  those  deep  placers  in 
which  the  drift  materials  are  united  by  sili- 
cious  or  calcareous  matter,  constituting  a  hard, 
solid  cement.  This  material  is  usually  mined 
by  drifting,  and,  if  too  hard  for  sluicing,  is  sub- 
jected to  a  treatment  similar  to  that  employed 
for  quartz  gold.  Water  for  sluicing  operations 
is  frequently  brought  from  great  distances 
through  canals,  ditches,  or  flumes,  the  proprie- 
tors of  which  sell  the  water  to  miners  at  so 
much  the  miners'  inch,  a  miners'  inch  being  in 
most  localities  the  quantity  flowing  in  a  given 
time  through  an  aperture  one  inch  square 
under  a  head  of  six  inches. — The  celebrated 
hydraulic  process,  invented  in  Placer  co.,  Cal., 
in  1852,  consists  in  washing  down  the  whole 
surface  and  underlying  mass  of  auriferous  de- 
posits, preparatory  to  sluicing.  This  is  effected 
by  streams  of  water  under  great  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  first  apparatus  of  the  kind  had 
a  head  of  40  ft.  From  a  barrel  situated  this 
distance  above  the  mining  claim  the  water  was 
drawn  through  a  hose  6  in.  in  diameter,  made 
of  common  cowhide  and  ending  in  a  four-foot 
tin  tube,  the  nozzle  of  which  was  one  inch 
in  diameter.  From  this  simple  beginning  has 
grown  in  20  years  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
mechanical  industries  of  mining.  Hundreds 
of  miles  of  ditches,  canals,  and  flumes  are  now 
employed  in  conducting  water  for  these  opera- 
tions from  the  high  streams  of  the  Sierra; 
canvas  and  iron  hose  have  replaced  the  original 


GOLD 


cowhide ;  blasts  of  from  5  to  50  tons  of  powder 
at  a  time  are  fired,  to  prepare  the  ground  for 
the  action  of  water;  nitro-glycenne  and  the 
diamond  drill  are  used  in  running  preparatory 
tunnels  for  drainage;   chasms  of  1,000  ft.  m 
vertical  depth  are  successfully  crossed  by  huge 
iron  pipes,  to  convey  water  to  isolated  points, 
thus  obviating  the  ancient  high,  costly,  and 
perishable  flumes;  and  from  ingeniously  con- 
trivi-.i  and  regulated  nozzles  streams  as  much 
as  6  in.  in  diameter  are  discharged  under  pres- 
sures sometimes  exceeding  400  ft.  of  hydraulic 
head,  with  a  velocity  of  140  ft.  and  upward 
per  second,  delivering  more  than  1,600  Ibs.  of 
water  in  that  unit  of  time.     The  water  issuing 
from  the  nozzle  seems  to  the  touch  as  rigid  as 
a  bar  of  steel,  and  strikes  the  gravel  bank  in 
the  same  cylindrical,  condensed  shape,  boring 
into  it  with  immense  power.   The  heavy  bowl- 
ders are  thrown  about  like  pebbles;  and  the 
clay,  earth,  and  gravel,  disintegrated  by  the 
torrent,  are  swept  along  into  the  system  of 
sluices.    It  has  been  estimated  that,  taking  the 
miners'  wages  in  California  at  $4  per  day,  the 
cost  of  handling  a  cubic  yard  of  gravel  would 
be  nearly  as  follows:  in  the  pan,  $20;  in  the 
rocker,  $5;   with  the  long  torn,  $1;   by  hy- 
draulic process  and  sluices,  5  cts.    This  method 
has  rendered  valuable  many  California  placers 
that  were  esteemed  worthless  or  exhausted; 
and  its  employment  would  doubtless  revive 
the  importance  of  abandoned  gold  fields  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. — Quartz  gold  (that 
is,  gold  contained  in  veins,  whether  native  in 
the  quartzose  or  other  gangue,  or  associated 
more  or  less  intimately  with  metalliferous  min- 
erals) is  extracted  in  most  cases  by  first  pul- 
verizing the  material,  and  then  washing  and 
amalgamating.    Stamp  mills,  iron  rollers,  re- 
volving plates,  drums  containing  iron  balls, 
Chilian  mills,  arrastras,  and  jaw  crushers  are 
among  the  machines  employed  in  pulverizing 
rock.    The  arrastra  consists  of  a  circular  pave- 
ment of  stone,  about  12  ft.  in  diameter,  sur- 
rounded by  a  rough  curb  and  forming  a  kind 
of  tub  about  2  ft.  in  depth.     An  upright  shaft, 
working  on  a  pivot  in  the  centre  of  this  circle, 
carries  arms  to  which  large  stones  or  mullers 
are  attached  by  chains  or  thongs.    The  arms, 
being  revolved  by  horse  or  mule  power,  drag 
the  mullers  over  the  pavement,  upon  which 
the  ore,  previously  broken  into  pieces  of  about 
•e  of  pigeons'  £ggs,  is  distributed.    Water 
is  added  from  time  to  time,  until  the  quartz  has 
become  reduced  to  a  finely  divided  state,  and 
the  contents  of  the  arrastra  assume  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  cream.     Quicksilver  is  then 
sprinkled  over  the  surface,  and  the  grinding  is 
continued  until  amalgamation  is  complete.    An 
ordinary  twelve-foot  arrastra  will  grind  and 
•;imate  450  Ibs.  of  quartz  in  about  seven 
bt  hours.     The  amalgam  is  obtained  by 
diluting  and  agitating  the  mixture,  and  allow- 
ing the  turbid  liquid  to  run  off.     The  arrastra 
ia  slow  in  operation  and  wasteful  of  power, 
but  an    excellent  amalgamator.      Hence  the 


principle  has  been  very  generally  adopted  in 
amalgamating,  while  the  preliminary  pulveri- 
zation is  effected  by  other  machinery.  The 
Chilian  mill  consists  of  a  stone  or  iron  basin, 
around  which  one  or  two  vertical  wheels  or 
runners,  frequently  of  granite,  are  made  to 
travel.  It  is  generally  considered  less  efficient 
for  amalgamation  and  scarcely  more  so  for 
crushing,  while  it  is  more  expensive  to  con- 
struct than  the  arrastra.  Jaw  crushers,  of 
which  Blake's  well  known  stone  breaker  is 
the  type,  are  widely  employed  for  the  pre- 
liminary reduction  of  rock  to  a  size  suitable 
for  rollers  or  stamp  mills.  Stamping  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  most  economical  and  efficient 
means  of  pulverizing  the  ore.  The  mills  con- 
structed for  this  purpose  are  run  by  steam  or 
water  power,  with  the  exception  of  occasional 
rude  contrivances  in  which  single  stamps  have 
been  operated  by  horse  power,  and  of  the  ex- 
periment now  making,  it  is  believed  for  the 
first  time,  in  the  island  of  Arruba,  where  wind 
is  to  be  employed  as  a  motive  power.  The 
best  stamp  mills  in  the  world  are  believed 
to  be  those  of  California  and  Nevada.  These 
are  made  up  of  batteries  containing  three,  four, 
five,  or  six  stamps  each ;  five  is  the  usual  num- 
ber. Each  battery  works  in  a  cast-iron  box 
or  mortar,  in  the  bottom  of  which  are  laid 
blocks  of  hardened  iron,  called  dies,  to  re- 
ceive the  shock  of  the  falling  stamps.  The 
broken  rock  is  fed  in  suitable  quantities  into 
the  mortar,  and  crushed  between  the  dies 
and  the  stamps.  Each  stamp  consists  of  a 
stem,  a  collar,  a  stamp  head,  and  a  shoe.  The 
stem  was  formerly  made  of  -ash  or  other  hard 
straight-grained  wood,  about  6  in.  square,  to 
the  lower  end  of  which  a  square  iron  stamp 
head  was  fastened.  At  present,  in  Califor- 
nia, stems  of  3  or  3£  inch  round  iron,  some 
12  ft.  in  length,  are  universally  employed. 
The  collar  is  secured  upon  the  upper  part 
of  the  stem,  and  forms  a  projection  3  or  4  in. 
wide,  under  which  the  cam  of  the  horizontal 
driving  shaft  catches  and  lifts,  and  at  the  same 
time  turns,  the  stamp.  The  stem  fits  below  into 
the  stamp  head,  a  cylinder  of  tough  cast  iron, 
furnished  on  its  lower  face  with  a  hard  iron 
shoe,  which  can  be  replaced  when  worn  out. 
The  stamps  are  dropped  6  to  12  in.,  at  the  rate 
of  from  25  to  90  drops  per  minute.  Water 
flows  into  the  mortar  with  the  ore;  and  the 
finely  divided  product  is  splashed  by  the  stamps 
through  screens  of  wire  cloth  or  perforated 
sheet  iron,  set  in  the  walls  of  the  mortar. 
Loose  quicksilver  and  amalgamated  copper 
plates  are  sometimes  used  inside  the  mortar. 
The  mixture  of  crushed  ore  and  water  is  dif- 
ferently treated  in  different  places  for  the  ex- 
traction of  gold.  Sometimes  it  is  run  over 
amalgamated  copper  plates ;  sometimes  it  is 
first  concentrated  by  means  of  blankets ;  some- 
times it  is  introduced  into  pans,  somewhat  on 
the  principle  of  the  arrastra,  or  into  various 
other  ingenious  forms  of  apparatus,  for  the 
purpose  of  amalgamation.  In  the  most  sue- 


GOLD 


85 


cessful  establishments,  the  current  conveying 
the  sediments  is  led  through  a  succession  of 
apparatus,  each  machine,  sluice,  or  other  con- 
trivance being  intended  to  catch  a  portion  of 
the  gold  carried  past  the  preceding  one.  The 
refuse  finally  escaping  is  called  tailings,  and 
usually  contains  :  native  gold,  so  finely  divided 
that  it  has  been  swept  by  the  current  through 
all  the  apparatus  employed  ;  minute  particles 
of  amalgam  and  "floured"  quicksilver,  carried 
off  in  the  same  way ;  coarser  particles  of  gold 
adhering  to  fragments  of  rock;  and,  finally, 
gold  associated  mechanically  or  chemically 
with  iron  or  copper  pyrites,  blende,  galena, 
and  mispickel.  The  tailings  are  usually  run 
into  reservoirs,  allowed  to  settle,  and  then 
stored  in  heaps.  Sometimes  these  heaps  are 
again  amalgamated,  with  or  without  a  prece- 
ding concentration  by  washing.  It  has  been 
found  in  many  instances  that  some  kinds  of 
pyrites  slowly  decompose  by  exposure  and 
thus  set  free  fine  gold.  The  metallic  sulphu- 
rets  are,  however,  in  many  cases,  separated 
from  other  tailings  by  washing  immediately 
after  the  first  amalgamation  of  the  ore,  and  vari- 
ous devices  have  been  employed  for  the  treat- 
ment of  such  concentrated  pyrites,  which  is 
often  the  richest  in  gold  of  all  the  constituents 
of  the  vein  stuff.  Following  the  analogy  of 
natural  decomposition,  it  has  been  repeatedly 
attempted,  by  roasting  the  pyrites  in  reverber- 
atory  furnaces,  to  drive  off  the  sulphur  and 
oxidize  the  metallic  bases,  so  as  to  obtain  a 
product  containing  fine  particles  of  free  gold. 
The  objection  brought  against  this  treatment, 
that  the  vapors  of  roasting  carry  off  mechan- 
ically fine  particles  of  gold,  seems  to  be  ill- 
founded.  More  serious  objections  are  the  cost 
of  the  roasting  process,  and  the  circumstance 
that  the  roasted  product  does  not  contain  the 
gold  in  a  condition  suitable  for  amalgamation. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  particles  when  thus 
artificially  and  rapidly  reduced  become  coated 
with  a  film  of  oxide  of  iron,  preventing  the 
intimate  contact  with  quicksilver  upon  which 
amalgamation  depends.  Very  careful  roast- 
ing in  cylinders,  with  the  addition  of  salt,  is 
said  to  have  obviated  this  difficulty  ;  but  the 
question  of  expense  remains. — The  present 
methods  of  treatment  for  pyritous  gold  ores 
are:  1,  the  extremely  fine  pulverization  of  the 
ore,  liberating,  as  far  as  this  is  mechanically 
possible,  the  particles  of  gold ;  2,  the  amalga- 
mation of  the  pyritous  residues  in  pans,  with 
the  addition  of  chemicals  intended  to  facilitate 
decomposition ;  3,  chlorination ;  4,  smelting. 
The  chlorination  process  was  introduced  by 
Prof.  Plattner  of  Freiberg,  Saxony,  for  the 
treatment  of  auriferous  residues  in  Silesia. 
As  improved  by  Deetken,  it  has  been  employ- 
ed in  this  country  for  about  15  years.  The 
principle  involved  is  the  transformation  of 
metallic  gold  by  means  of  chlorine  gas  into  sol- 
uble chloride  of  gold  (the  aurum  potabile  of 
the  alchemists),  which  can  be  dissolved  in  cold 
water  and  precipitated  in  the  metallic  state  by 


sulphate  of  iron.  This  precipitate  may  then 
be  filtered,  dried,  and  melted  with  suitable 
fluxes,  to  obtain  a  regulus  of  malleable  gold. 
It  is  necessary  that  all  the  gold,  and  if  possi- 
ble nothing  else,  shall  be  obtained  in  the  final 
solution.  If  this  is  secured,  the  precipitation 
and  melting  are  easy.  To  render  the  gold  in 
the  ore  accessible  in  a  metallic  state  to  the 
chlorine  gas,  and  at  the  same  time  to  convert 
the  base  metals  into  oxides  which  will  not 
unite  with  the  chlorine,  the  raw  ore  is  finely 
pulverized  and  (if  sulphurets  or  arseniurets  are 
present)  roasted.  The  cost  of  this  treatment, 
amounting  in  the  Pacific  states  and  territories 
to  from  $12  to  $25  a  ton,  excludes  its  use  for 
low  grade  ores ;  and  hence  it  cannot  supersede 
the  stamp  mill  and  amalgamation  process, 
though  it  is  acknowledged  to  be  metallurgi- 
cally  the  most  complete  method  of  gold  extrac- 
tion on  a  large  scale.  Ores  containing  iron, 
copper,  gold,  and  silver  may  be  roasted  and  de- 
prived of  their  copper  and  iron  by  leaching 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  of  their  silver  by 
boiling  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and 
of  their  gold  by  treating  the  auriferous  resi- 
duum with  aqua  regia.  If  lead  is  present,  the 
whole  residuum  after  the  removal  of  copper 
must  be  melted  with  lead  and  cupelled.  This 
process  is  not  now  used  in  the  United  States, 
though  it  is  recommended  by  high  authority. 
Telluric  ores  are  treated  in  Transylvania  in  a 
somewhat  similar  way.  The  smelting  process- 
es for  the  extraction  of  gold  are  the  same  as 
those  for  silver.  Since  the  two  minerals  always 
occur  in  nature  together,  the  final  result  of 
smelting  is  argentiferous  gold  or  auriferous 
silver.  The  separation  of  the  two  metals  is 
effected  :  1,  by  dissolving  the  silver  in  nitric 
acid  or  boiling  sulphuric  acid,  which  leaves 
behind  a  brown  powder  of  gold ;  2,  by  treating 
the  alloy  with  aqua  regia,  in  which  gold  is  dis- 
solved as  chloride,  while  the  chloride  of  silver 
is  but  slightly  soluble ;  or  3,  by  passing  a  cur- 
rent of  chlorine  gas  through  the  alloy  while 
in  a  melted  state.  For  separation  with  nitric 
acid,  the  alloy  should  contain  2£  parts  of  silver 
to  1  part  of  gold.  For  the  separation  with 
sulphuric  acid,  the  best  results  are  obtained 
with  alloys  containing  not  much  less  than  3  or 
more  than  4  parts  of  gold  in  16  parts,  the  re- 
mainder being  silver  and  copper.  It  is  usually 
necessary  in  treating  native  gold  to  melt  it 
with  at  least  2^  times  its  own  weight  of  silver, 
and  then  to  separate  by  the  action  of  acids  the 
silver  thus  added,  and  also  that  originally  con- 
tained in  the  gold.  It  is  said  that  the  chlorine 
process  effects  a  complete  separation  of  the  sil- 
ver in  one  operation,  at  the  time  the  gold  is 
melted,  and  thus  saves  much  time,  material, 
machinery,  and  interest  on  capital.  Nitric  acid 
and  sulphuric  acid  processes  are  used  in  the 
mints  of  the  United  States,  and  the  chlorine 
process  is  employed  in  some  of  the  British 
colonial  mints. — Among  the  most  recent  au- 
thorities on  this  subject  are :  Phillips,  "  The 
Mining  and  Metallurgy  of  Gold  and  Silver" 


GOLD-BEATING 


(London,  1867);  J.  Ross  Browne,  "Mineral  Re- 
lolJrcesof  the  Pacific  Slope  "  (New  York,  1868) ; 
Blako  "  Production  of  the  Precious  Metals 
(New  York,  1869);  R.  W.  Raymond,  "Silver 
and  Gold  "  (New  York,  1873).  See  also  Sel- 
wyn's  "Notes  on  the  Physical  Geography, 
Geology,  and  Mineralogy  of  Victoria"  (Mel- 
bourne, 1866),  and  the  reports  on  the  geology 
of  California  by  J.  D.  Whitney. 

GOLD-BEATING,  the  process  of  hammering 
gold  into  thin  leaves.  It  is  not  known  what 
were  the  methods  in  use  by  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans  for  obtaining  the  thin 
leaves  they  manufactured ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  did  not  differ  essentially  from  the 
simple  processes  now  practised,  which  were 
brought  to  their  present  perfection  by  contin- 
ued experience  and  the  application  of  a  moder- 
ate degree  of  skill.  The  earliest  recorded  no- 
tice of  the  mode  of  preparing  gold  leaf  is  that 
of  the  German  monk  Theophilus,  in  or  before 
the  12th  century,  from  which  it  appears  that 
parchment  was  used  as  a  covering  to  the  gold 
during  the  hammering,  and  the  leaves  were 
prevented  from  sticking  by  the  application  of 
red  ochre  or  chalk.  When  the  substance  call- 
ed gold-beaters'  skin  (French,  baudruche)  was 
first  used  for  the  production  of  the  finest  qual- 
ities of  gold  leaf  is  not  known.  This  material, 
essential  to  the  manufacture,  is  derived  from 
the  cfficum  of  the  ox,  which,  being  well  clean- 
ed, is  doubled  together,  the  two  mucous  surfaces 
face  to  face,  in  which  state  they  unite  firmly. 
The  membrane  is  then  treated  with  solutions 
of  alum,  isinglass,  white  of  eggs,  &c.,  and  some- 
times with  creosote,  and,  being  beaten  between 
folds  of  paper  to  expel  the  grease,  is  finally 
pressed  and  dried.  The  leaves  thus  obtained, 
each  5£  in.  square,  are  made  up  into  moulds, 
each  composed  of  850  leaves.  The  casca  of  500 
oxen  are  required  for  a  single  mould. — Various 
qualities  of  gold  are  employed  for  gold  leaf. 
The  common  coin  answers  a  very  good  pur- 
pose, and  different  shades  of  color  are  obtained, 
according  to  the  proportions  of  silver  and  cop- 
per in  the  alloy.  Chemically  pure  gold  makes 
leaves  well  adapted  for  gilding  which  is  to  be 
exposed  to  the  weather,  as  they  are  less  liable 
to  tarnish  or  change  color;  these  are  remark- 
able for  their  property  of  adhering  as  they 
touch  each  other.  Deep  red  colors  are  obtained 
by  alloys  of  12  to  16  grains  of  copper  to  the 
ounce  of  gold ;  silver,  if  added  when  too  much 
copper  is  present,  lessens  the  malleability  of 
the  alloy.  Medium  colors,  as  orange,  lemon, 
Ac.,  result  from  the  alloy  of  12  to  20  grains 
of  silver  and  6  to  8  of  copper  to  the  ounce ; 
m.l  pule  colors  from  alloys  of  from  2  to  not 
•!isin  20  pennyweights  of  silver  to  the 
ounce,  without  copper.  The  gold,  being  melt- 
ed in  a  crucible  with  a  little  borax,  is  cast  into 
ingots,  commonly  3  or  4  in.  long,  $  in.  wide, 
and  about  \  in.  deep,  and  weighing  about  1,000 
grains  each.  The  ingots  are  annealed  in  hot 
to  remove  the  grease  d.-riv.-d  from  the 
moulds  and  increase  the  malleability  of  the 


metal.  The  French  then  forge  the  metal  upon 
an  anvil  with  small  hammers,  reducing  its 
thickness  to  one  sixth  of  an  inch,  and  at  the 
same  time  exposing  it  to  frequent  annealings ; 
but  this  is  omitted  by  the  English,  who  submit 
it  at  once  to  the  lamination  process,  or  rolling 
between  two  rollers  of  polished  steel,  which 
are  adjusted  so  as  to  be  brought  successively 
nearer  together.  This  operation,  which  for- 
merly reduced  the  gold  to  a  ribbon  an  inch 
wide  and  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  is  by  improved 
machinery  now  extended  till  the  gold  is  re- 
duced to  a  sheet  a  little  more  than  ^  of  an 
inch  thick,  an  ounce  making  10  ft.  in  length 
by  1$  in.  in  width.  The  gold,  again  annealed, 
is  next  cut  up  into  inch  squares,  the  weight  of 
each  being  about  6  grains.  About  150  of  these 
pieces  are  piled  alternately  with  leaves  of  fine 
calf-skin  vellum  or  of  a  tough  paper  manufac- 
tured in  France  for  this  purpose,  each  piece 
being  placed  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  4  in.  square.  A  number  of  extra 
leaves  are  added  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
pile,  which  when  completed  is  called  a  tool  or 
kutch.  This  is  then  slipped  into  a  parchment 
case,  open  at  two  ends,  and  this  into  a  similar 
case,  so  as  to  enclose  the  pack  on  all  four  sides. 
The  pack  is  now  placed  upon  a  block  of  mar- 
ble, set  for  an  anvil,  with  a  ledge  around  three 
sides  of  it,  and  a  leather  apron  for  the  fourth 
side,  which  is  held  up  by  the  workman,  who 
proceeds  to  beat  the  pack.  He  wields  a  16- 
Ib.  hammer,  shifting  it  from  one  hand  to  the 
other  without  interfering  with  the  regularity 
of  the  stroke,  also  occasionally  turning  the 
pack  with  the  same  dexterity.  The  hammer 
has  a  slightly  convex  face,  which  adds  to  its 
efficiency  in  spreading  the  gold,  and  the  work- 
ing of  it  is  made  much  easier  by  the  elasticity 
of  the  pack  causing  it  to  rebound.  The  pack 
is  from  time  to  time  bent  back  and  forth  to 
overcome  the  adhesion  between  the  gold  and 
the  vellum  or  paper ;  it  is  also  rolled  between 
the  hands  for  the  same  purpose;  and  it  is  oc- 
casionally opened  to  examine  the  condition  of 
the  leaves  and  properly  arrange  them.  In 
about  20  minutes1  beating  the  gold  is  spread  to 
the  size  of  the  leaves,  covering  16  square  inches 
in  place  of  one  inch.  The  pieces  are  then  taken 
out,  and  each  is  cut  into  four  square  pieces, 
the  original  150  pieces  being  thus  increased  to 
600.  These  are  again  packed,  this  time  in 
gold-beaters'  skin,  again  enclosed  in  parchment 
cases,  and  beaten  with  a  smaller  hammer,  till 
they  are  extended  to  the  size  of  the  skins. 
This  operation  requires  about  two  hours.  More 
particular  care  is  given  now  than  before  to 
folding  the  pack  in  order  to  loosen  the  leaves. 
When  all  the  gold  leaves  have  expanded  to  the 
full  size,  they  are  taken  out  and  spread  by  the 
breath  one  by  one  upon  a  cushion,  where  each 
is  cut  into  four  squares  by  two  sharp  edges  of 
cane  fixed  crosswise,  and  used  by  pressure  down- 
ward. To  this  material  the  thin  leaves  do  not 
adhere  as  they  do  to  a  steel  blade.  The  squares 
are  now  2,400  in  number.  These  are  once  more 


GOLDBERG 


GOLD  COAST 


87 


packed,  making  three  parcels,  and  beaten  as  be- 
fore for  four  hours.  This  part  of  the  process 
requires  the  most  skill  and  care  from  the  work- 
man. The  skins  are  the  finest,  about  5  in.  square ; 
the  leaves  are  brought  at  the  end  of  the  opera- 
tion to  3  or  3£  in.  square.  In  this  condition  an 
ounce  of  gold  is  made  to  cover  100  sq.  ft.  It 
begins  to  transmit  the  rays  of  light,  and,  if 
slightly  alloyed,  the  green  rays  particularly, 
but,  if  highly  alloyed  with  silver,  the  pale  vio- 
let rays  also.  The  beating  may  be  continued, 
and  tbe  gold  be  reduced  to  the  thinness  of  the 
specimens  noticed  in  GILDING  ;  but  there  is  no 
advantage  gained  in  passing  the  average  of  the 
commercial  gold  leaf,  which  is  about  -jFff.oWj 
or  that  of  the  French,  which  is  probably  less 
than  ^jqW o-  of  an  m°h  thick.  The  leaves  are 
sorted  after  the  final  beating,  each  one  being  lift- 
ed by  a  delicate  pair  of  whitewood  pincers,  and 
spread  out  by  the  breath  upon  a  leather  cushion. 
It  is  then  trimmed  down  to  about  3J  in.  square 
by  a  square  frame  of  sharp  cane,  and  laid  be- 
tween the  leaves  of  the  book  in  which  it  is 
sold.  Each  book  is  made  to  contain  25  gold 
leaves,  and  these  are  prevented  from  adhering 
to  the  paper  by  an  application  to  this  of  red 
ochre  or  red  chalk. — Silver  and  copper  are 
both  beaten  into  leaves ;  but  their  value  is  not 
so  great  as  to  render  it  an  object  to  reduce 
them  to  anything  like  the  tenuity  of  gold  leaf, 
if  their  malleability  admitted  of  its  being  done. 

GOLDBERG,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Katzbach,  10  m.  S.  W.  of  Liegnitz;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,716.  It  is  quaintly  built,  and  has  a  church 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century. 
Cloth  and  hosiery  are  manufactured,  and  there 
are  dye  works  and  distilleries  of  brandy.  The 
gold  mines  from  which  it  derived  its  name  are 
not  now  worked.  A  battle  was  fought  here, 
May  27,  1813,  between  the  French  under  Mac- 
donald  and  the  Russian  reserve  under  Wittgen- 
stein, and  a  skirmish  (Aug.  23)  between  the 
former  and  Bliicher. 

GOLD  COAST,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Upper 
Guinea,  "W.  Africa,  lying,  according  to  most 
geographers,  between  Cape  Three  Points  and 
the  river  Volta;  but  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Brit- 
ish Gold  Coast  colony,  including  the  territories 
ceded  by  the  Dutch  in  1872,  extends  from  the 
river  Assinie,  Ion.  3°  18'  W.,  to  the  river  Ewue, 
Ion.  1°  10'  E. ;  area,  16,626  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  408,070.  The  shore  line,  about  330  m. 
long,  is  skirted  generally  by  low  hills  with  dense 
woods  in  the  background,  but  is  flat  and  sandy 
at  its  extremities,  with  lagoons  inland.  There 
are  no  harbors,  and  the  surf  is  so  violent  that 
vessels  are  obliged  to  lie  from  2  to  5  m.  off  the 
beach.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Assinie,  Anco- 
ber,  Tenda,  Bossum  Prah  or  Prah,  and  the  Vol- 
ta. The  Gold  Coast  colony  proper  consists  of 
only  the  fortified  stations  and  the  strip  of  coast 
dominated  by  them  ;  but  a  protectorate  is  exer- 
cised by  Great  Britain  over  all  the  tribes  lying 
between  it  and  Ashantee.  The  limits  of  the 
protectorate  are  not  clearly  defined,  but  it  is 
generally  understood  to  extend  inland  about  80 


in.,  the  river  Prah  forming  its  N".  boundary  in 
the  longitude  of  Elmina  and  Cape  Coast  Castle. 
The  principal  native  people  inhabiting  this  ter- 
ritory are  the  Fantees,  but  there  are  a  number 
of  smaller  tribes,  the  Ahantas,  Wassas,  Denki- 
ras,  Akims,  Assins,  Aquapims,  Crepees,  and 
others,  all  under  independent  chiefs.  Little  is 
known  of  the  interior,  but  the  few  who  have 
penetrated  it  speak  of  its  vast  forests  filled  with 
tropical  life,  and  of  green  plains  traversed  by 
sparkling  streams,  and  its  climate  is  said  to  be 
more  healthy  than  that  of  the  coast.  There  are 
no  roads,  the  only  means  of  communicating  be- 
tween the  villages  being  by  narrow  paths,  pass- 
able only  in  single  file.  Beasts  of  burden  are 
unknown  to  the  natives,  who  transport  all  mer- 
chandise and  produce  to  and  from  the  coast  on 
their  heads.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  produ- 
cing all  the  tropical  grains  and  fruits.  Traces 
of  iron  are  found  at  several  places  on  the  coast, 
and  there  are  rich  gold  mines  in  the  interior. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  Dutch 
exported  annually  from  Elmina  about  £250,000 
worth  of  gold  dust,  but  the  hostility  of  the  na- 
tive tribes  has  now  nearly  destroyed  the  trade. 
The  fortified  posts  of  the  Gold  Coast  colony  are 
Axim,  Dixcove,  and  Sekundi,  in  the  Ahanta 
country,  and  Elmina,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Anam- 
boe,  and  Accra,  in  the  country  of  the  Fantees. 
The  French  trading  station  at  Assinie  has  been 
abandoned  since  1870.  Axim,  about  14  m.  W. 
of  Cape  Three  Points,  is  one  of  the  healthiest 
places  on  the  coast,  owing  probably  to  the  pure 
water  which  runs  from  the  neighboring  hills  in 
rivulets.  All  the  tropical  plants  grow  to  per- 
fection in  its  vicinity,  and  many  European  vege- 
tables have  been  successfully  introduced.  It 
is  the  only  place  where  rice  is  raised,  and  the 
influences  so  deadly  to  live  stock  at  other  points 
do  not  extend  to  it.  In  the  country  N.  of  it 
are  rich  gold  mines,  and  gold  dust,  palm  oil, 
and  palm  kernels  were  once  exported  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  The  town  is  commanded  by 
Fort  St.  Anthony,  built  in  its  centre  on  a  pre- 
cipitous rock  70  ft.  high.  Dixcove  (called  Un- 
fuma  by  the  natives),  11  m.  E.  of  Cape  Three 
Points,  is  defended  by  a  fort,  which  the  Dutch 
thoroughly  repaired  in  1867.  The  town  is  dirty 
and  unhealthy,  from  the  exhalations  of  neigh- 
boring swamps,  which  harbor  numerous  croc- 
odiles. Between  Axim  and  Dixcove  are  the 
ruins  of  the  old  forts  Great  Friedrichsburg, 
Brandenburg,  and  Dorothea,  built  originally  by 
the  Prussians.  Bautri  or  Boutry,  3  m.  E.  of 
Dixcove,  a  former  Dutch  settlement  which  was 
defended  by  Fort  Batenstein,  is  now  aban- 
doned. Sekundi,  the  next  station,  20  m.  from 
Dixcove,  is  situated  on  a  point,  with  Fort 
Orange  on  a  steep  promontory  at  its  end.  The 
environs  are  fertile,  and  the  country  back  of 
it  is  covered  with  dense  woods.  The  former 
Dutch  settlement  of  Chama  is  8  m.  further  E., 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Prah.  It  is  commanded 
by  Fort  St.  Sebastian,  originally  built  by  the 
Portuguese,  and  still  in  a  fair  state  of  repair, 
but  abandoned  on  account  of  the  unhealth- 


88 


GOLD  COAST 


-  of  the  locality.  The  Dutch  cultiva- 
•  ,.  ,-ot ton,  Hax,  hemp,  coffee,  tobacco, 
and  ground  nuts,  with  much  success.  From 
Chama  to  Elmina  is  about  20  in.  Between 
.-in-  the  native  towns  of  Kommenda  (pop. 
4000),  with  the  ruins  of  an  old  English  fort; 
Koramanie  (pop.  2,300),  with  the  remains  of 
the  Dutch  fort  Vredenburg ;  and  Ampeni  (pop. 
4,500).  Elmina,  called  by  the  natives  Oddena, 
the  capital  of  the  former  Dutch  colonies,  had 
a  population  of  15,000  in  1867.  (See  ELMINA.) 
CUR-  Coast  Castle,  8  m.  E.,  the  capital  of  the 
Gold  Coast  colony  (pop.  10,000),  derives  its 
name  from  its  fortress  built  on  rocks  near  the 
seashore.  Behind,  on  a  gentle  slope,  is  the 
European  town,  with  picturesque  houses  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  of  tropical  fruits.  Anam- 
boe  or  Anamabu,  10  in.  E.  of  Cape  Coast  Cas- 
tle, and  Accra  or  Akrah,  nearly  70  m.  further, 
are  the  two  most  easterly  fortified  settlements 
on  the  coast,  but  there  are  missionary  stations 
at  several  intervening  points.  The  sh\ve  trade 
is  virtually  abolished,  but  domestic  slavery  ex- 
ists to  a  great  extent  throughout  the  protecto- 
rate. The  principal  exports  are  gold  dust,  palm 
oil  and  kernels,  gum,  ivory,  and  monkey  skins ; 
the  imports  are  cotton  and  silk  goods,  guns, 
gunpowder,  hardware,  tobacco,  and  wines  and 
spirits.  The  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entered 
and  cleared,  exclusive  of  coasting  trade,  in 
1871,  was  251,047.  The  total  value  of  im- 
ports for  1871  was  £250,672,  of  which  £171,- 
978  were  from  Great  Britain ;  total  value  of  ex- 
ports in  1871,  £295,208.  The  chief  trade  pre- 
vious to  1872  was  with  the  Ashantees. — Since 
1850  the  colony,  previously  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Sierra  Leone,  has  had  a  government 
of  its  own,  with  a  governor  and  executive  and 
legislative  councils.  It  has  also  judicial,  mili- 
itary,  ecclesiastical,  and  educational  establish- 
ments. The  gross  amount  of  public  revenue, 
raised  in  part  by  a  tax  of  3  per  cent,  on  im- 
ports, was  in  1871  £28,609  ;  gross  expenditure, 
1871,  £29,094.  An  attempt  was  made  to  im- 
pose a  poll  tax  of  a  shilling  a  head  on  all  the 
protected  natives,  which  in  1852  produced  £7,- 
567;  in  1861  it  had  fallen  to  £1,552,  and  since 
then  it  has  not  been  levied.  The  Dutch  did 
not  levy  any  import  duties. — The  first  Euro- 
pean nation  to  establish  themselves  on  the  Gold 
Coast  were  the  Portuguese,  who  began  the 
fort  at  Elmina  in  1481.  In  1637  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Dutch,  and  three  years  later  all 
tin-  Portuguese  possessions  on  the  coast  were 
ceded  to  tlu-tn.  In  1662  the  "Company  of 
Royal  Adventurers  of  England  trading  to 
i."  and  in  1672  the  "  Royal  African  Com- 
pany of  England,"  built  rival  forts  and  fac- 
m;ir  tin-  Dutch  company's  settlements, 
whirli  resulted  in  constant  disagreements  and 
qimnvk  In  the  war  of  1781  the  English  cap- 
tun-,1  all  tlu-  hutch  forts  except  Elmina.  On 
their  n-tor:ition  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
-•neral  assumed  the  government  of 
lony,  but  the  rivalry  continued  and  fre- 
quently It-il  to  bloodshed  between  the  negro 


tribes  of  the  two  jurisdictions.  Considering 
that  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  was 
duo  principally  to  the  positions  of  the  forts  of 
the  two  nations,  which  alternated  with  each 
other,  an  agreement  was  made  in  1867  that 
the  boundary  line  between  the  colonies  should 
be  the  Sweet  river,  a  small  stream  between 
Elmina  and  Cape  Coast  Castle ;  that  all  the 
settlements  E.  of  this  point  should  belong  to 
England,  and  all  W.  of  it  as  far  as  the  Assinie 
river  to  the  Netherlands.  In  accordance  with 
this  treaty,  the  Dutch  ceded  Mori,  Kormantin, 
Assam,  Bereku,  and  Fort  Crevecceur  at  Accra ; 
the  English,  Apollonia,  Dixcove,  Sekundi,  and 
Kommenda,  and  the  protected  territories  of 
Wassa,  Denkira,  and  Tufel.  The  Dutch  forts 
were  surrendered  to  the  English  without 
trouble,  but  the  natives  resisted  the  transfer 
of  the  English  stations  to  the  Dutch.  Dis- 
turbances ensued,  and  on  Jan.  31,  1867,  the 
Dutch  burned  Kommenda  as  a  punishment. 
In  1868  they  burned  Sekundi  in  retaliation, 
and  in  1869  Dixcove.  The  natives  became 
only  the  more  incensed  at  these  measures,  and 
the  Dutch  government,  despairing  of  peace, 
agreed,  by  a  treaty  ratified  at  the  Hague  Feb. 
17,  1872,  to  transfer  all  its  possessions  to  Eng- 
land, which  was  formally  done  the  following 
April.  The  Danish  settlements  had  previously 
been  ceded  to  Great  Britain  (in  1850),  so  that 
the  latter  power  now  controlled  the  whole 
coast.  The  king  of  Ashantee,  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  draw  his  supplies  of  arms  and 
ammunition  through  the  Dutch  factories  free 
of  duty,  objected  to  the  transfer  of  the  forts, 
which  cut  him  off  from  access  to  the  coast, 
and  declared  that  the  Dutch  had  no  power  to 
transfer  Elmina,  which  he  said  belonged  to 
him,  the  Dutch  having  paid  him  a  tribute  of 
£300  a  year.  In  January,  1873,  the  Ashantees 
crossed  the  Prah  and  invaded  the  protectorate. 
The  protected  tribes  offered  but  a  feeble  re- 
sistance, and  in  June  both  Cape  Coast  Castle 
and  Elmina  were  threatened  by  a  force  esti- 
mated at  50,000  men.  The  native  king  of 
Elmina  aided  the  Ashantees,  and  four  out  of 
the  eight  captains  of  the  quarters  into  which 
the  town  is  divided  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  On  June  30  the  quarter  of  the 
native  king  was  bombarded  by  the  fort  and 
destroyed,  and  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same 
day  the  Ashantees  were  defeated  with  a  loss 
of  500  and  their  general,  and  withdrew  to 
Effutu,  12  m.  distant.  In  August  Takorady 
was  bombarded  by  the  British  fleet,  Dixcove 
repelled  an  attack  of  the  Ashantees,  and  Axim, 
where  the  natives  rose  against  the  garrison, 
was  burned.  In  October  Gen.  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley  was  sent  from  England  to  Cape 
Coast  Castle  with  both  civil  and  military 
powers.  Early  in  January,  1874,  he  set  out 
for  Koomassie  with  about  2,000  white  troops, 
building  a  military  road  as  he  went,  and  the 
Ashantees  fell  back  before  him.  The  Prah 
was  crossed  without  opposition.  At  Amoaful, 
about  22  m.  from  Koomassie,  a  severe  battle 


GOLDEN  FLEECE 


was  fought  on  Jan.  31,  in  which  the  Ashantees 
were  defeated  with  heavy  loss,  including  their 
commander  Amanquatia.  A  second  battle 
took  place  at  Ordahsu,  15  m.  beyond,  on  Feb. 
4,  the  king  commanding  in  person.  After  six 
hours  the  Ashantees  fled,  and  the  British  en- 
tered Koomassie.  On  the  morning  of  Feb.  6 
the  town  was  fired  and  the  troops  began  their 
homeward  march.  A  peace  was  subsequently 
concluded,  the  king  agreeing  to  pay  an  indem- 
nity of  50,000  ounces  of  gold,  to  renounce  the 
protectorate,  to  keep  open  a  road  to  the  coast, 
and  to  prohibit  human  sacrifices. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.     See  ARGONAUTS. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  Order  of  the  (Span,  el  toi- 
son  de  oro  ;  Fr.  ordre  de  la  toison  d'or),  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  important  of  the  orders 
of  chivalry,  founded  at  Bruges  by  Philip  the 
Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  on  occasion  of  his 
marriage  with  the  princess  Isabella  of  Portu- 
gal, Jan.  10,  1430,  and  consecrated  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  and  the  apostle  Andrew.  The  stat- 
utes of  the  order  declare  that  it  takes  its  name 
from  the  golden  fleece  which  the  Argonauts 
went  in  search  of.  It  is  possible  that  it  was 
founded  in  memory  of  Philip's  father,  John  the 
Fearless,  who  was  held  a  prisoner  in  Colchis, 
and  that  it  was  consecrated  to  St.  Andrew  be- 
cause that  apostle  carried  the  gospel  to  the  land 
of  the  golden  fleece.  Some  suppose  that  it  re- 
ceived the  badge  in  consequence  of  the  im- 
portant woollen  manufactures  of  the  country. 
The  decoration  of  the  grand  master  is  a  chain 
composed  of  alternate  flints  and  rays  of  steel, 
with  the  golden  fleece  fastened  in  the  middle. 
The  knights  wear  a  golden  fleece  on  a  red  rib- 
'bon.  ^Its  design  was  to  maintain  the  honor 
of  knighthood  and  protect  the  church,  and  it 
was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  in  1433 
and  by  Leo  X.  in  1516.  An  article  of  the  stat- 
utes (published  at  Lille,  Nov.  30,  1431,  in  the 
French  language)  ordained  that  if  the  house  of 
Burgundy  should  become  extinct  in  the  male 
line,  the  husband  of  the  daughter  and  heiress 
of  the  last  sovereign  should  be  grand  master  of 
the  order.  After  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bold  (1477)  the  husband  of  his  daughter  and 
heiress  Mary,  Maximilian  I.  of  Austria,  there- 
fore inherited  the  grand  mastership.  During 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  Charles  III. 
(afterward  the  emperor  Charles  VI.)  and  Philip 
V.,  the  contestants  for  the  throne  of  Spain, 
both  claimed  this  dignity.  When  the  former 
left  Spain  he  carried  the  archives  of  the  order 
with  him,  and  in  1713  celebrated  its  revival  in 
Vienna.  Spain  protested  against  this  at  the 
congress  of  Cambrai  in  1724,  and  it  was  de- 
cided by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1725  that  the 
regents  of  both  states  should  be  permitted  to 
confer  the  order  with  similar  insignia,  but  that 
the  members  should  be  distinguished  as  knights 
of  the  Spanish  or  Austrian  golden  fleece.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  Maria  Theresa  in 
1741  bestowed  the  office  of  grand  master  upon 
her  husband  Francis  I.,  against  which  Philip 
V.  of  Spain  protested  in  the  electoral  assembly 


GOLDEN  NUMBER  89 

at  Vienna  and  at  Frankfort.  At  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748,  France,  England, 
and  Holland  demanded  that  the  schism  should 
be  composed ;  but  as  Ferdinand  VI.  of  Spain 
declared  that  the  order  was  inseparable  from 
the  Spanish  crown,  the  dispute  has  remained 
unreconciled,  and  the  order  continues  in  two 
branches,  neither  of  which  recognizes  the 
other.  The  original  device  of  the  order  was 
Autre  nauray  ("I  shall  have  no  other");  but 
Charles  the  Bold  changed  it  into  Je  Vay 
empri  ("I  have  accepted  it").  The  statutes 
ordain  that  the  knights  shall  recognize  no 
other  jurisdiction  but  an  assembly  of  their 
order  under  the  presidency  of  the  grand  master 
or  of  a  knight  authorized  by  him,  and  that 
they  shall  have  precedency  of  all  persons  ex- 
cept those  of  royal  blood.  The  number  of 
knights,  originally  24,  was  soon  increased  to 
31,  and  in  1516  to  52.  In  1851  the  order  con- 
sisted in  Austria  of  6  grand  crosses,  20  com- 
manders, and  161  knights. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER,  the  place  of  a  given  year 
in  the  lunar  cycle.  It  is  used  to  determine  on 
what  day  the  paschal  moon  falls,  and  thus  to 
find  Easter  day.  The  mean  length  of  the  lunar 
cycle  agrees  exactly  with  19  Julian  years.  (See 
CALENDAR,  LUNAR  CYCLE,  and  YEAR.)  The 
new  moons  were  indicated  before  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar  by  means  of  the  lunar 
cycle,  which  restores  them  to  the  same  days  of 
the  civil  month,  and  places  them  on  the  same 
days  in  any  two  years  that  occupy  the  same 
rank  in  the  cycle.  Consequently  a  table  of  the 
full  moon's  phases  for  19  years  will  serve  for 
any  year  whatever,  when  we  know  its  number 
in  the  cycle.  The  year  preceding  the  commence- 
ment of  our  era,  when  the  new  moon  fell  on  the 
1st  of  January,  is  supposed  to  be  the  beginning 
of  the  cycle,  which  gives  this  rule  for  finding  the 
golden  number :  Add  1  to  the  date  and  divide 
the  sum  by  19 ;  the  quotient  is  the  number  of 
cycles  elapsed,  and  the  remainder  is  the  golden 
number.  When  the  remainder  is  0,  the  pro- 
posed year  is  the  last  or  19th  of  the  cycle. 
The  new  moons  determined  in  this  manner 
may,  however,  differ  from  the  astronomical 
new  moons  as  much  as  two  days,  because  the 
sum  of  the  solar  and  lunar  inequalities,  com- 
pensated in  the  whole  period,  may  in  certain 
cases  amount  to  10°,  and  thereby  cause  the 
new  moon  to  arrive  on  the  second  day  before 
or  after  the  mean  time.  The  Gregorian  calen- 
dar rejects  the  golden  numbers,  as  they  are 
only  adapted  to  the  Julian  calendar ;  the  sup- 
pression of  the  ten  days  rendered  it  necessary 
to  place  them  ten  lines  lower,  and  the  cente- 
nary intercalation  required  them  to  be  changed 
every  century.  Their  place  is  supplied  by 
another  set  of  numbers  called  epacts.  (See 
EPACT.) —  The  golden  numbers  were  intro- 
duced into  the  calendar  about  the  year  530, 
but  were  disposed  as  they  would  have  been  if 
they  had  been  inserted  at  the  time  of  the 
council  of  Nice.  It  was  usual  to  mark  them 
in  the  calendar  with  red  or  gold. 


GOLDENROD 


GOLDENROD  (tolulago,  Linn.),  the  name  of 
numerous  plants,  whose  showy  heads  of  flow- 
ers, waving  like  golden  wands,  make  bright 
and  gay  the  sides  of  roads,  hills,  and  gravelly 
banks  in  the  autumn.  A  supposed  emcacy  m 
the  plants  suggested  to  the  early  botanists  the 
name  tolidago,  from  Lat.  solidare,  to  make  firm. 
Although  the  general  appearance  of  the  ra- 
cemed  or  else  corymbed  heads,  which  bear  the 
florets,  is  diverse,  yet  the  flowers  themselves 
ditlV-r  only  from  the  asters  in  the  smaller  heads 
of  (except  in  one  species)  yellow  flowers.  The 
genus  is  mostly  North  American,  there  being 
about  80  species,  all  of  which  but  three  or  four 
belong  to  this  country.  The  most  common 
European  species  is  8.  mrgaurea,  with  a  low, 
terete,  pubescent  stem,  which  branches  above ; 
the  lower  leaves  are  elliptical,  somewhat  hairy, 
acutely  serrate,  the  flower  heads  in  thyrsoid 
racemes.  It  grows  in  thickets  and  woods, 
and  formerly  was  much  used  in  medicine.  Its 


Goldenrod  (Solidago  Canadcnsis). 

principle  is  astringent  and  tonic;  the  leaves 
and  flowers,  however,  were  thought  aperient. 
It  occurs  in  the  northern  regions  of  America, 
bat  under  very  dissimilar  forms.  Of  these,  a 
dwarf  kind,  only  a  few  inches  high,  with  obo- 
vate  or  lanceolate,  mostly  entire  leaves,  and  a 
few  large  flowers,  is  the  variety  which  Dr. 
Bigelow  calls  almna ;  it  occurs  in  the  alpine 
regions  >,f  N,  \\  Hampshire,  of  Maine,  and  of 
New  York,  and  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
A  second  <li>tinet  variety  is  hum-ilk,  on  the 
rocky  banks  of  western  Vermont,  Lakes  IIu- 

1  Superior,  and  northward  ;  and  a  sub- 
variety  with  larger  and  broader  leaves,  the 
flower  heads  in  nnipU>,  compound  racemes,  the 
flower  rays  occasionally  white  instead  of  yel- 

t<>  I...  im-t  with  on  gravelly  banks  of 
-tr, -ain-j  at  the  base  of  th.-  \Yhiu-  mountains  in 
New  Hampshire,  A  -imilar  but.  distinct  spe- 
cies is  /,-„  (Meyer),  which  occurs  on 
the  wooded  sides  of  mountains  from  Maine  to 


GOLDFINCH 

New  York  and  northward.  Perhaps  the  most 
interesting  species  is  the  sweet  goldenrod  (S. 
odora,  Ait.),  with  a  slender  stem  2  to  3  ft.  high, 
often  reclined;  the  leaves  linear-lanceolate, 
entire,  shining,  covered  with  pellucid  dots, 
which  secrete  a  delicious  anisate  oil ;  the  flow- 
er heads  in  racemes  spreading  in  a  one-sided 
panicle,  the  flower  rays  rather  large  and  con- 
spicuous. It  may  be  occasionally  found  in  rich 
shady  woods.  An  essence  distilled  from  the 
leaves  has  been  used  to  relieve  spasmodic  pains. 
One  of  the  earliest  indications  of  the  approach 
of  autumn  is  in  the  flowers  of  S.  licolor,  or 
white  goldenrod,  the  only  species  which  has 
white  flowers.  Next  comes  into  yellow  bloom 
the  tall  Canadian  goldenrod  (S.  Canadensis), 
and  following  this,  the  gigantic  goldenrod  (IS 
giganted),  and  the  tall  goldenrod  (S.  altissima), 
names  singularly  misapplied,  as  the  altitude  of 
both  is  not  unusual.  Afterward  may  be  seen 
S.  arguta  and  other  species,  until  the  lingering 
florets  upon  the  downy  goldenrod  (S.  nemora- 
lis)  indicate  the  near  approach  of  the  cold. 
The  goldenrods  generally  affect  dry  and  ster- 
ile soils,  though  some  are  found  in  bogs  and 
moist  places,  and  range  from  alpine  heights  to 
the  very  margin  of  the  sea,  where  may  be  seen 
S.  sempervirens,  with  its  large,  thick,  shining 
green  leaves,  and  bold,  large-rayed,  and  con- 
spicuous yellow  flowers,  and  the  narrow-leaved 
(S.  tenuifolia,  Pursh),  having  very  small,  crowd- 
ed heads  of  inconspicuous  flowers.  Several 
species  are  peculiar  to  the  western  states,  as  S. 
Ohioensis  (Riddel)  and  8.  Riddelii  (Frank.),  in 
moist  meadows  and  grassy  prairies ;  and  others, 
as  S.  Drummondii  (Torr.  and  Gray),  upon  rocks, 
in  common  with  more  ordinary  ones,  indicating 
a  wide  distribution  of  the  genus. 

GOLDEN  SEAL.    See  PUOOOON. 

GOLDFINCH  (fringilla  carduelis,  Linn.),  one 
of  the  handsomest  of  the  European  fringillidce, 
valued  as  a  cage  bird  both  for  its  beauty,  its 
song,  and  its  docility.  It  is  about  5  in.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  9  in. ;  the  forehead 
and  throat  are  crimson ;  the  loral  space,  top 
of  the  head,  and  a  semicircular  band  on  the 
upper  neck  black  ;  the  hind  neck  and  back  are 
umber  brown,  passing  into  ochre  yellow  on 
the  rump  ;  sides  of  breast  and  flanks  paler,  and 
white  below  ;  smaller  wing  coverts  black,  sec- 
ondary rich  yellow ;  most  of  the  quills  black 
with  white  tips,  except  the  basal  half  of  the 
outer  webs,  which  are  yellow ;  tail  black, 
white  tipped.  The  female  is  smaller,  with  less 
crimson,  pure  black,  and  bright  colors  in  the 
plumage.  Like  all  caged  birds,  the  goldfinch 
sometimes  shows  considerable  differences  in 
color.  It  will  pair  and  produce  progeny  with 
the  green  linnet.  Its  food  consists  of  the 
seeds  of  the  thistles,  grasses,  and  herbaceous 
plants,  which  it  seeks  in  small  flocks.  Its 
song,  which  is  sweet  and  varied,  usually  be- 
gins in  Great  Britain  about  the  end  of  March 
and  continues  until  July  ;  its  flight  is  quick  and 
buoyant,  like  that  of  the  linnet.  The  nest  is 
elaborately  made  of  the  usual  materials,  and 


GOLD  FISH 


GOLDONI 


91 


led  with  wool  and  hair ;  the  eggs,  about  five, 
are  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  bluish 
white  color,  with  brown  tinges  and  purplish 
spots.  Jt  remains  in  Scotland  through  the 
winter,  though  great  numbers  perish  in  severe 
is.  The  goldfinch  is  easily  caught  and 


Goldfinch  (Fringilla  carduclls). 


tamed,  and  may  be  taught  the  notes  of  other 
birds  and  many  amusing  tricks ;  it  is  a  great 
favorite  both  in  England  and  America  as  a  cage 
bird. — For  the  American  goldfinches,  of  the 
genus  chrysomitris  (Boie),  see  YELLOW  BIRD. 

GOLD  FISH  or  Golden  Carp  (cyprinus  aura- 
tus,  Linn.),  a  native  of  China,  but  introduced 
into  Europe  early  in  the  17th  century.  In 
China  gold  fish  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
house,  and  are  kept  either  in  porcelain  vessels 
or  in  artificial  ponds;  wherever  known  they 
are  prized  for  their  beauty,  elegant  form,  grace 
of  motion,  and  docility ;  they  are  very  easily 
kept  alive  in  small  vessels,  if  due  attention  be 
paid  to  changing  the  water  daily.  The  usual 
color  is  bright  orange  above,  lighter  on  the 
sides,  and  whitish  beneath  ;  the  scales  are  large 
and  striated ;  the  pupils  are  black,  and  the  iris 
silvery;  the  mouth  is  small  and  toothless;  the 
dorsal  fin  is  single,  with  the  first  two  rays 
spinous.  The  colors  vary  exceedingly  by  do- 
mestication, and  exhibit  almost  every  variety 
of  orange,  purple,  and  silvery ;  the  fins  vary  j 
considerably,  as  regards  the  size  of  the  dorsal 
and  the  number  of  the  anals;  triple  tails  are 
common,  in  which  case  the  dorsal  is  frequently 
absent.  The  silver  fish  is  a  mere  variety,  and 
the  dark  colors  are  the  marks  of  the  young 


Gold  Fish  (Cyprinus  auratus). 

fish.  It  is  found  in  many  ponds  in  New  Eng- 
land, bearing  well  the  severity  of  the  winters, 
and  breeding  in  great  numbers  when  protected 
from  other  fish.  Gold  fish  form  one  of  the 
most  interesting  ornaments  of  private  gardens, 
and  are  seen  everywhere  in  the  basins  of  the 


fountains  of  large  cities  in  the  summer  season. 
Their  food  is  chiefly  infusorial  animalcules, 
with  bread  when  in  confinement;  their  flesh 
is  not  esteemed  as  food.  The  intensity  of  the 
colors  and  several  of  their  external  characters 
are  modified  by  their  food,  and  the  new  char- 
acters are  transmitted  to  the  offspring.  In  ar- 
tificial ponds  they  are  taught  to  come  to  the 
surface  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell.  They  will  live 
in  foul  water,  and  a  long  time  out  of  water  on 
account  of  the  loose  structure  of  their  gills ;  in 
ponds  the  spawn  and  young  fish  are  often 
eaten  by  their  larger  comrades;  their  life  may 
be  prolonged  to  20  or  30  years,  and  they  will 
bear  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  In  com- 
mon with  many  fresh-water  fish,  they  are  at- 
tacked and  sometimes  destroyed  by  a  parasitic 
fungus,  arising  from  any  diseased  surface,  and 
even  from  the  healthy  tissue  of  the  gills. 

GOLD  HILL,  a  town  of  Storey  co.,  Nevada, 
1  m.  S.  of  the  centre  of  Virginia,  and  about  190 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco;  pop.  in  1860,  638 ; 
in  1870,  4,311,  of  whom  2,346  were  foreigners, 
including  210  Chinese;  in  1874,  about  13,000. 
It  is  built  in  a  deep  and  precipitous  cafion  of  the 
Washoe  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains, 
about  6,200  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  presents  a 
very  uninviting  though  unique  appearance.  It 
is  connected  by  daily  lines  of  stages  with  Reno 
on  the  Central  Pacific  railroad,  20  m.  N.  W., 
and  with  Carson  City,  12  m.  S.  W.  It  is  situated 
on  the  line  of  the  great  Comstock  lode  or  ledge, 
the  most  productive  vein  of  silver  and  gold  ever 
known.  Some  of  the  principal  mines  on  the 
lode  are  within  the  limits  of  the  town,  inclu- 
ding the  Alpha,  Imperial,  Gold  Hill  (several 
small  ones),  Yellow  Jacket,  Kentuck,  Crown 
Point,  Belcher,  and  Overman.  The  Belcher 
mine  during  the  22  months  previous  to  Novem- 
ber, 1873,  returned  in  dividends  to  the  stock- 
holders $8,232,800,  and  the  Crown  Point  mine 
about  the  same  amount.  There  are  many 
quartz  mills  and  hoisting  works,  some  of  the 
mines  being  2,000  ft.  deep  and  requiring  heavy 
machinery.  The  Virginia  and  Truckee  rail- 
road, connecting  with  Virginia,  Carson  City, 
and  Reno,  is  used  to  carry  ore  to  the  crushing 
mills,  and  to  supply  the  mines  with  wood,  &c. 
The  water  which  supplies  the  town  is  brought 
from  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  25  m. 
distant,  in  an  iron  pipe  12  inches  in  diameter, 
across  the  Washoe  valley,  1,750  ft.  below  the 
discharging  point  in  the  pipe,  and  thence  to 
Virginia  and  Gold  Hill  in  a  flume.  There  is 
a  fine  hall  occupied  by  the  miners'  union,  and 
another  belonging  to  the  odd  fellows  and  free- 
masons. The  town  has  a  weekly  newspaper, 
three  public  schools  with  an  average  attend- 
ance of  400  pupils,  and  three  churches,  Epis- 
copal, Methodist,  and  Roman  Catholic.  Gold 
Hill  was  founded  in  1859. 

GOLDONI,  Carlo,  an  Italian  dramatist,  born 
in  Venice  in  1707,  died  in  Paris  in  1793.  He 
passed  his  childhood  in  the  midst  of  festivals 
and  theatrical  performances,  with  which  his 
grandfather  amused  his  leisure  at  a  country 


,,._>  GOLDONI 

seat  near  Venice.  At  the  age. of  8  years  he 
wrote  a  sort  of  comic  drama,  and  at  13  played 
female  part*  on  the  stage  at  Perugia.  He 
studied  philosophy  under  the  Dominicans  at 
Rimini  but  deserted  them  to  join  a  troop  of 
comedians.  His  father,  a  physician,  undertook 
to  teach  him  his  own  profession,  but  he  soon 
solicited  an  exchange  from  medicine  to  law. 
At  16  he  was  transferred  from  legal  studies  at 
Venice  to  a  scholarship  in  the  papal  college  at 
Pavia,  with  the  design  of  fitting  him  for  the 
church.  Within  a  year  he  became  accomplished 
in  music,  dancing,  and  fencing,  and  learned  a 
little  of  civil  and  canonical  law.  At  the  close 
of  the  second  year  he  descended  the  Ticino  and 
the  Po  with  a  company  of  wits  and  men  of 
pleasure,  and  arriving  at  Chioggia  was  called 
upon  to  preach.  His  attempt  met  with  brilliant 
success,  and  he  returned  to  Pavia  with  a  repu- 
tation for  eloquence.  In  the  third  year  of  his 
scholarship  he  composed  a  satire  against  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  for  an  insult  that  they 
had  offered  to  the  students,  and  was  expelled 
from  the  college.  He  resumed  his  studies  of 
law,  and  in  1732  was  admitted  into  the  corps 
of  advocates  at  Venice.  He  had  already  com- 
posed two  comedies,  and  been  manager  of  the 
theatre  where  they  were  produced,  playing  the 
principal  parts  himself;  and  while  waiting  for 
clients  he  published  a  medley  of  prose  and 
verse  under  the  title  of  Esperiema  del  passa- 
to,  Vcutrologo  delV  avenire,  &c.  He  soon  after 
went  to  Milan,  where  his  comic  opera  the 
"  Venetian  Gondolier  "  was  produced  and  ap- 
plauded. In  1734  his  tragedy  of  Belisario  was 
played  at  Venice  with  overwhelming  success. 
His  second  tragedy,  Rosamonda,  failed  in  the 
following  year.  After  furnishing  other  pieces 
with  various  success  to  different  strolling  com- 
panies, he  married  in  1730,  and  began  to  write 
for  the  company  of  Sacchi  at  Venice  with  the 
design  of  gradually  reforming  the  Italian  thea- 
tre. His  aims  were  to  substitute  human  vices 
and  follies  for  fantastic  and  frivolous  adven- 
tures, to  have  the  plays  written  in  full  instead 
of  being  only  sketched  by  the  author  and  in 
large  part  improvised  by  the  actors,  and  to 
banish  from  the  stage  the  traditional  masks  and 
costumes  by  which  the  Harlequin,  Birghella, 
Pantalon,  and  other  chief  actors  were  distin- 
guished. In  1739  he  was  appointed  Genoese 
consul  at  Venice,  but  after  two  years  he  again 
resumed  his  wandering  life.  At  Rimini  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  spectacles  and 
amusements;  he  passed  four  months  in  Flor- 
ence, visited  Siena,  and  was  received  with  en- 
thusiasm at  Pisa,  where  he  resumed  for  a  short 
time  the  practice  of  law,  at  the  same  time  send- 
ing to  Venice  some  of  his  most  successful  corn- 
In  1747  he  returned  to  Venice,  deter- 
mined to  devote  himself  to  the  stage ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  first  season  he  had  raised  the 
theatre  to  which  he  was  attached  to  a  superior- 
ity over  its  rivals,  and  during  the  second  year 
pro, hired  18  new  pieces  of  three  acts  each. 
The  excessive  labor  injured  his  health,  and  to 


GOLDSCHMIDT 

indemnify  himself  he  began  to  publish  his  com- 
edies, contesting  the  right  to  do  so  with  the 
manager.  He  had  already  written  120  pieces, 
when  in  1761  he  was  invited  to  Paris,  where 
after  writing  two  years  for  the  Italian  theatre 
he  was  attached  to  the  court  as  instructor  of 
the  daughters  of  the  king  in  the  Italian  lan- 
guage, and  after  three  years  more  was  awarded 
a  pension.  He  continued  to  produce  comedies 
at  intervals,  the  most  successful  of  which  was 
the  Bourru  lienfaisant.  His  last  literary  labor 
was  writing  his  memoirs,  which  appeared  first 
in  French  (Paris,  1787),  and  afterward  in 
Italian  (Venice,  1788) ;  they  are  said  by  Gibbon 
to  be  more  comical  than  his  best  comedies. 
The  most  striking  characteristic  of  Goldoni  as 
an  author  is  his  fertility,  scarcely  surpassed  by 
that  of  Calderon  and  Lope  de  Vega.  The  best 
of  his  pieces  are  in  the  Venetian  dialect,  and 
his  greatest  merits  are  his  theatrical  skill,  and 
the  liveliness,  piquancy,  and  humor  with  which 
he  depicts  the  manners  of  all  classes  of  society 
in  Italy.  Schlegel  criticises  him  as  deficient  in 
depth  of  characterization  and  in  novelty  and 
richness  of  invention.  Critical  biographies  of 
him  have  been  written  by  Giovanni  (Milan, 
1821),  Carrer  (Venice,  1824),  Gavi  (Milan, 
1826),  and  Meneghezzi  (Milan,  1827).  Among 
the  editions  of  Goldoni's  works  may  be  men- 
tioned that  of  Venice  in  44  vols.  8vo,  l788-'95, 
and  that  of  Lucca  in  26  vols.,  1809. 

GOLDSBOROUGH,  Louis  Maleshcrbes,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  in  Washington  in  1805. 
He  was  appointed  midshipman  in  1812,  and 
made  lieutenant  in  1825.  During  the  Seminole 
war  he  commanded  a  company  of  mounted 
volunteers,  and  also  an  armed  steamer.  He 
was  made  commander  in  1841 ;  took  part  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  was  afterward  senior 
naval  officer  of  a  joint  army  and  navy  com- 
mission on  the  Pacific  coast.  He  became  cap- 
tain in  1855,  and  from  1853  to  1857  was  super- 
intendent of  the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis. 
In  1861  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
naval  part  of  Burnside's  expedition  to  North 
Carolina.  He  was  made  rear  admiral  in  1862, 
commanded  the  European  squadron  in  1865-'7, 
and  subsequently  the  Washington  navy  yard. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  Hermann,  a  German  painter 
and  astronomer,  of  Jewish  descent,  born  in 
Frankfort,  June  17,  1802,  died  at  Fontaine- 
bleau,  Sept.  11,  1866.  He  studied  painting  at 
Munich  under  Schnorr  and  Cornelius,  and  in 
1836  established  himself  in  Paris.  Among  his 
paintings  are  the  "Cumsean  Sibyl"  (1844), 
an  "Offering  to  Venus"  (1845),  "Cleopatra" 
and  a  "View  of  Rome"  (1849),  and  the 
"Death  of  Romeo  and  Juliet"  (1857).  He 
began  to  devote  himself  to  astronomy  in  1847, 
and  discovered  14  asteroids  between  1852  and 
1861.  He  also  pointed  out  more  than  10,000 
stars  that  were  wanting  in  the  maps  of  the 
academy  at  Berlin,  and  in  1863  announced  that 
he  had  observed  six  satellites  or  companion 
stars  to  Sirius,  one  of  which  had  been  discov- 
ered in  the  previous  year  by  A  Ivan  Clark  of 


GOLDSMITH 


93 


imbridge,  Mass.  He  made  his  discoveries 
with  an  ordinary  spyglass  from  his  studio  in 
an  attic.  The  academy  of  sciences  bestowed 
on  him  its  grand  astronomical  prize. 

GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  an  English  author,  born 
in  the  hamlet  of  Pallas  or  Pallasmore,  county 
Longford,  Ireland,  Nov.  10,  1728,  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  4,  1774.  His  father  was  a  clergy- 
man of  the  established  church,  and  at  the  birth 
of  his  son  was  very  poor.  Oliver's  childhood 
gave  no  special  indications  of  his  future  great- 
ness. An  attack  of  smallpox  from  which  he 
suffered  while  a  child  left  its  marks  upon  his 
naturally  plain  face,  which,  with  a  generally 
uninviting  exterior,  made  his  personal  appear- 
ance especially  unprepossessing.  His  elder 
brother  Henry  was  a  student  at  the  university, 
and  several  relatives  contributed  to  send  Oli- 
ver there;  and  in  1744  he  entered  Trinity  col- 
lege, Dublin,  as  a  sizar  or  poor  scholar.  At 
that  time  the  position  of  that  class  of  students 
was  highly  disagreeable.  Their  dress  was  pe- 
culiar and  designed  to  indicate  their  poverty, 
and  they  were  required  to  perform  many  of 
the  menial  services  of  the  institution.  It  was 
with  the  utmost  reluctance  that  Goldsmith 
submitted  to  these  humbling  conditions,  and 
while  subject  to  them  he  was  "moody  and  de- 
sponding." He  was  often  reduced  to  great 
straits,  but  by  borrowing,  pawning  his  books, 
and  writing  ballads  he  contrived  to  keep  his 
place.  In  1749  he  was  admitted  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  took  his  final  leave  of  the 
university.  He  now  returned  home,  and  after 
some  months  had  been  spent  in  aimless  loiter- 
ings  was  persuaded  to  prepare  for  the  church. 
The  two  years  of  his  probation  were  spent  at 
Lissoy  and  Ballymahon,  among  the  idlers  at 
the  village  inns  or  in  desultory  reading.  In 
due  time  he  presented  himself,  arrayed  in  a 
fashionable  dress,  part  of  which  consisted  of  a 
pair  of  scarlet  breeches,  to  the  bishop  of  Elphin 
for  ordination,  and  was  rejected.  He  now  ob- 
tained employment  as  tutor  in  a  gentleman's 
family,  where  he  remained  a  few  months,  when 
he  quarrelled  with  the  family,  and  so  found 
himself  once  more  a  free  man  with  more  money 
than  he  had  ever  before  possessed.  He  bought 
a  horse,  and,  with  £30  in  his  pocket,  sallied 
out  upon  the  world.  A  few  weeks  after  he 
returned  home  as  destitute  as  he  had  been  six 
months  before.  A  large  part  of  his  money  had 
been  paid  for  a  passage  to  America,  but  when 
the  ship  sailed  he  was  enjoying  himself  with 
some  friends  in  the  country.  It  was  next  de- 
termined that  he  should  try  the  legal  profes- 
sion, and  an  uncle  affording  him  the  means, 
he  set  out  for  London  with  £50,  which  he  lost 
in  gaming  in  Dublin ;  and  after  remaining  se- 
creted for  some  time,  he  again  returned  to  his 
friends.  He  was  next,  toward  the  end  of  1752, 
sent  to  Edinburgh  to  study  medicine.  Two 
winters  were  devoted  to  hearing  lectures ;  but 
near  the  end  of  his  second  term,  burdened  with 
debts  and  hunted  by  bailiffs,  he  escaped  from 
Edinburgh  and  fled  to  the  continent.  He  passed 


nearly  a  year  at  Leyden,  ostensibly  hearing  lec- 
tures, but  really  devoting  most  of  his  time  to 
pleasure,  and  then,  after  selling  his  books  and 
borrowing  money  from  his  friends,  he  set  out 
for  Paris,  where  he  attended  chemical  lectures. 
After  remaining  there,  but  a  little  while,  he  set 
out  to  make  the  tour  of  the  continent.  Taking 
parts  of  Germany  and  Switzerland  in  his  way, 
he  passed  to  Marseilles,  and  thence  into  Italy. 
How  he  supported  himself  in  these  wanderings 
is  told  by,himself,  though  his  accounts  of  this 
part  of  his  life  must  be  received  with  caution. 
He  says  in  the  story  of  the  "Philosophical 
Vagabond "  in  the  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield " :  "I 
had  some  knowledge  of  music,  with  a  tolerable 
voice,  and  now  turned  what  was  my  amuse- 
ment into  a  present  means  of  subsistence 

Whenever  I  approached  a  peasant's  house  to- 
ward nightfall,  I  played  one  of  my  most  merry 
tunes,  and  that  procured  me  not  only  a  lodg- 
ing, but  subsistence  for  the  next  day."  In  Italy 
his  musical  powers  no  longer  availed  him,  for, 
he  said,  every  peasant  was  a  better  musician 
than  himself;  but  he  had  acquired  a  habit  of 
living  by  expedients,  and  here  a  new  one  pre- 
sented itself.  "In  all  the  foreign  universities 
and  convents,"  he  continues,  "there  are  upon 
certain  days  philosophical  theses  maintained 
against  any  adventitious  disputant,  for  which, 
if  the  champion  maintain  with  any  degree  of 
dexterity,  he  can  claim  a  gratuity  in  money,  a 
dinner,  and  a  bed  for  the  night.  In  this  man- 
ner, therefore,  I  fought  my  way  toward  Eng- 
land, walked  along  from  city  to  city,  examined 
mankind  more  nearly,  and,  if  I  may  so  express 
it,  saw  both  sides  of  the  picture."  At  Padua, 
where  he  remained  some  months,  he  took  his 
medical  degree.  After  two  years  had  been  spent 
in  vagrant  rambles,  early  in  1756  he  landed  at 
Dover,  friendless  and  penniless.  How  he  made 
his  way  thence  to  the  metropolis  is  uncertain ;  it 
is  only  known  that  "in  the  middle  of  February 
he  was  wandering  without  friend  or  acquaint- 
ance, without  the  knowledge  or  comfort  of  one 
kind  face,  in  the  lonely,  terrible  London  streets." 
For  two  or  three  years  after  his  coming  to 
London  his  history  is  very  obscure.  He  was 
for  some  time  an  assistant  to  a  chemist,  and  at 
another  he  practised  medicine  in  South  wark, 
acting  at  the  same  time  as  reader  and  corrector 
of  the  press  for  the  novelist  and  publisher 
Samuel  Eichardson.  He  was  also  for  a  while 
an  usher  in  a  school  at  Peckham,  a  business 
which  he  seems  to  have  especially  hated.  It 
was  while  thus  engaged  that  he  accidentally 
met  with  the  publisher  of  the  "  Monthly  Re- 
view," by  whom  his  services  were  engaged  in 
the  preparation  of  that  publication.  *  His  daily 
employment  was  to  write  for  the  review  under 
the  direction  of  his  employer.  The  pages  of 
the  magazine  very  soon  gave  evidence  of  the 
acquisition  that  had  been  made  to  its  contribu- 
tors, and  even  the  writer  himself  began  to  hope 
that  his  better  days  were  at  hand.  But  his 
path  was  still  a  rough  one.  A  daily  drudgery 
was  required  of  him,  alike  irksome  to  his  indo- 


GOLDSMITH 


lence  and  galling  to  his  pride.  These  unhappy 
ivlati.ms  of  the  parties  could  not  continue  long, 
and  accordingly,  at  the  end  of  five  months,  the 
engagement  was  discontinued  by  mutual  con- 
sent But  this  transaction  was  one  of  great 
importance  to  Goldsmith,  for  it  brought  him 
into  his  appropriate  sphere,  and  discovered  to 
himself  and  others  the  secret  of  his  power. 
He  accordingly  continued  to  write  for  a  va- 
riety of  periodicals,  but  only  for  immediate  re- 
sults. At  this  time  he  was  appointed  physi- 
cian and  surgeon  to  one  of  the  East  India  com- 
pany's factories  on  tho  coast  of  Coromandel, 
but  for  some  unexplained  reason  the  post  was 
afterward  given  to  another.  He  then  applied 
to  the  college  of  surgeons  for  the  post  of  hos- 
pital mate,  but,  failing  to  pass  the  necessary 
examination,  was  rejected.  In  1759  he  issued 
his  first  acknowledged  work,  a  duodecimo  vol- 
ume entitled  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Present 
State  of  Polite  Learning  in  Europe."  This 
brought  him  into  public  notice,  and  gained  him 
acquaintance  with  some  of  the  principal  men 
of  letters  of  the  day.  In  the  same  year  he  en- 
gaged in  a  weekly  periodical  called  "  The  Bee," 
which  met  with  little  encouragement,  and  lived 
only  eight  weeks.  Soon  after  this  he  agreed 
with  the  publisher-  of  the  daily  "  Public  Led- 
ger "  to  contribute  some  articles  to  that  news- 
paper, and  the  famous  "Chinese  Letters,"  re- 
published  a  few  months  after  under  the  title 
of  "  The  Citizen  of  the  World,"  were  the  re- 
sult. These  consist  of  a  series  of  essays  on  so- 
ciety and  manners,  written  in  the  assumed 
character  of  a  Chinese  philosopher  resident  in 
London,  in  a  style  of  great  purity,  and  in  a 
vein  of  good-natured  satire.  The  book  greatly 
improved  both  the  reputation  and  the  finances 
of  the  writer.  lie  emerged  from  his  garret, 
and  took  more  eligible  rooms  in  Fleet  street, 
where  he  made  acquaintances,  among  them 
Percy,  Smollett,  and  Johnson,  with  whom  he 
contracted  a  warm  and  lasting  friendship. 
Burke,  who  had  been  at  college  with  him,  and 
Hogarth  were  also  frequent  visitors  here ;  and 
here  began  an  intimacy  with  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds which  only  ended  with  Goldsmith's  life. 
He  was  admitted  to  membership  in  the  famous 
Literary  club  at  its  institution,  and  lived  to  see 
many  persons  of  distinction  vainly  suing  for 
the  same  privilege.  Goldsmith  now  continued 
his  labors  for  the  booksellers  as  a  means  of 
tt.-iin>orary  subsistence.  The  principal  work 
which  he  produced  during  this  time  was  the 
"  History  of  England,  in  a  Series  of  Letters 
from  a  Nobleman  to  his  Son,"  which,  though 
a  mere  compilation,  was  written  with  a  fluency 
and  grac^  which  won  for  it  the  praise  of  being 
4k  the  most  finished  and  elegant  summary  of 
English  history  in  the  same  compass  that  had 
been  or  was  likely  to  be  written."  The  im- 
pressions received  during  his  tour  on  the  con- 
tinent he  now  gave  to  the  world  in  the  form 
of  a  poem.  "  The  Traveller  "  was  published 
near  the  end  of  1764,  and  worked  its  way  slow- 
ly into  popularity.  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  " 


was  written  simultaneously  with  "  The  Trav- 
eller," though  not  published  till  1766.  The 
manuscript  had  been  sold  18  months  before 
for  £60,  to  save  its  author  from  the  bailiffs. 
He  next  commenced  writing  for  the  stage,  and 
in  1767  produced  "The  Good-Natured  Man," 
which  was  acted  at  Covent  Garden  theatre 
the  next  winter.  Though  its  success  was  only 
partial,  it  added  to  its  author's  reputation,  and 
brought  him  the  substantial  reward  of  £500. 
The  winter  of  1768-'9  was  spent  in  compiling 
a  Roman  history,  which  was  published  the  next 
May,  in  2  vols.  8vo.  The  next  year  he  com- 
menced the  compilation  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Earth  and  Animated  Nature,"  which  was  issued 
in  1774  in  8  vols.  8vo.  In  1770  he  published 
"  The  Deserted  Village."  The  popularity  of 
"The  Traveller"  had  prepared  the  way  for 
this  poem,  and  its  sale  was  immense.  In  1771 
he  brought  out  another  work  on  the  "  History 
of  England,"  which  in  many  parts  was  mere- 
ly a  reproduction  of  the  former.  Goldsmith's 
condition  and  circumstances  had  greatly  im- 
proved with  the  growth  of  his  literary  reputa- 
tion ;  but  his  style  of  living  advanced  even 
more  rapidly  than  his  resources,  and  his  pecu- 
niary embarrassments  were  daily  growing  upon 
him.  The  productions  of  his  pen  were  in  great 
demand,  and  commanded  unusually  large  prices, 
but  were  insufficient  to  meet  his  increased  ex- 
penses. Besides  his  large  compilations  and 
his  anonymous  contributions  to  periodicals,  he 
was  steadily  occupied  with  the  preparation  of 
small  volumes,  and  in  original  poetical  compo- 
sition. His  second  comedy,  "She  Stoops  to 
Conquer,"  was  written  early  in  1772,  but  not 
acted  till  a  year  later.  It  was  coldly  received 
by  Colman,  the  manager  of  Covent  Garden, 
but  strongly  sustained  by  Goldsmith's  literary 
and  convivial  associates,  and  had  a  great  suc- 
cess. A  rich  reward  of  fame  greeted  the  au- 
thor; and,  what  was  more  needed,  its  pecu- 
niary results  were  highly  satisfactory,  though 
still  far  short  of  meeting  his  pressing  necessi- 
ties. In  this  state  of  his  affairs,  associated 
with  the  learned,  the  gay,  and  the  opulent,  on 
terms  altogether  honorable,  he  found  his  want 
of  money  increasing  at  a  rate  which  rendered 
all  hope  of  relief  from  his  labors  entirely  des- 
perate. Near  the  last  of  March,  1774,  he  re- 
turned from  a  brief  visit  to  the  country,  and 
found  himself  slightly  indisposed  by  a  local 
disorder,  which  was  followed  by  a  low  fever, 
under  which  the  overtaxed  powers  of  his  sys- 
tem rapidly  gave  way.  He  was  in  the  46th 
year  of  his  age  when  he  died.  He  was  interred 
in  the  burial  ground  of  the  Temple  church,  but 
no  memorial  was  set  up  to  indicate  the  place 
of  his  burial,  and  it  is  now  found  impossible  to 
identify  it.  His  friends  erected  a  monument 
to  his  memory  in  Westminster  abbey,  for  which 
a  Latin  inscription  was  written  by  Dr.  John- 
son ;  and  in  1837  a  marble  slab  with  an  Eng- 
lish inscription  was  placed  by  the  members  of 
the  Inner  Temple  in  the  Temple  church. — Of 
his  works  not  already  mentioned  we  may  cite 


GOLDSTUCKER 


GOLOVNIN 


95 


the  "Memoirs  of  a  Protestant  condemned  to 
the  Galleys  of  France  for  his  Religion,"  a  trans- 
lation from  the  French,  and  his  first  known 
publication  (2  vols.  12mo,  London,  1758) ;  "  Life 
of  Voltaire,"  written  in  1759  to  accompany 
Purdon's  translation  of  the  Henriade,  but  pub- 
lished separately  in  a  magazine ;  "  Life  of 
Richard  Nash,  Esq.,  of  Bath  "  (Beau  Nash), 
(1762);  "Edwin  and  Angelina"  (or  "The 
Hermit "),  a  poem  (1765) ;  "  A  short  English 
Grammar  "  (1766)  ;  "  Beauties  of  English  Poe- 
try "  (2  vols.  12mo,  1767) ;  "  Poems  for  Young 
Ladies"  (1767);  "Life  of  Lord  Bolingbroke," 
originally  prefixed  to  a  dissertation  on  the  state 
of  parties,  and  reprinted  separately  in  1770 ; 
"  Life  of  Thomas  Parnell,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  poems  (1770) ;  "  The  Haunch  of  Venison, 
a  Poem  "  (1771)  ;  "  The  Grecian  History  "  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1774)  ;  "  Retaliation,  a  Poem  "  (4to, 
1774) ;  a  translation  of  Scarron's  Roman  co- 
mique  (1774) ;  and  "A  Survey  of  Experimental 
Philosophy"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1776).  His  essays 
were  collected  and  reprinted  during  his  life- 
time. The  first  collection  of  his  poems  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1780  (2  vols.  12mo),  and 
editions  have  since  been  issued  by  Newell,  with 
remarks  on  the  actual  scene  of  "The  Deserted 
Village  "  (4to,  1811) ;  Mitford,  in  the  "  Aldine 
Poets"  (12mo,  1831);  Bolton  Corney  (8vo, 
1845) ;  E.  F.  Blanchard,  with  illustrations  by 
Birket  Foster  and  others  (8vo,  1858),  &c.  His 
miscellaneous  works  have  been  edited  by  S. 
Rose,  with  a  memoir  by  Bishop  Percy  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1801);  with  a  memoir  by  Washington  Irving 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1825) ;  by  James  Prior,  with  an 
elaborate  biography  (6  vols.  8vo,  London,  1837) ; 
with  a  life  and  notes  (4  vols.  12mo,  1845) ;  and 
by  Peter  Cunningham  (4  vols.  8vo,  1855).  The 
last  two  editions  are  the  most  complete  and 
accurate  that  have  appeared.  There  are  nu- 
merous reprints  and  translations  of  GoMsmith's 
works  in  France  and  Germany,  and  "  The  Vi- 
car of  Wakefield  "  is  there  as  largely  used  for 
teaching  English  as  Caesar's  "  Commentaries  " 
for  Latin.  Biographies  of  the  poet  have  been 
written  by  Mitford,  Prior,  and  Irving  ;  but  best 
of  all  by  John  Forster,  "  Life  and  Adventures 
of  Oliver  Goldsmith  "  (1848),  enlarged  as  "  Life 
and  Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  "  (2  vols.,  1854), 
and  abridged  (1855).  Sketches  of  his  life  were 
published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  "  Lives 
of  the  Novelists,"  and  Macaulay  in  the  "Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica." 

GOLDSTUCKER,  Tlieodor,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  in  Konigsberg  about  1822,  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  11,  1872.  He  studied  in  Bonn  un- 
der Wilhelm  von  Schlegel  and  Christian  Lassen, 
and  in  Paris  under  Burnouf,  -after  which  he 
became  private  tutor  at  the  university  of  Ber- 
lin, and  a  friend  of  Humboldt,  who  often  refers 
to  him  in  the  "  Cosmos."  In  1849  he  removed 
to  London,  at  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  Wilson, 
whom  he  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  a  San- 
skrit-English dictionary.  He  became  professor 
of  Sanskrit  in  University  college,  London,  pres- 
ident of  the  philological  society,  and  member 
367  VOL.  vm. — 7 


of  the  Asiatic  society ;  and  in  1866  founded  the 
Sanskrit  society.  He  wrote  for  periodicals  and 
cyclopaedias,  and  among  his  works  are  a  Ger- 
man translation  of  a  Hindoo  drama  (1842)  and 
a  number  of  English  translations  of  Hindoo 
poems,  some  of  them  with  the  original  texts. 
He  left  unfinished  a  Sanskrit-English  dictionary 
and  grammar,  and  an  edition  of  the  Mimansa. 

GOLDTHREAD.     See  COPTIS. 

GOLF  (Dutch,  Tcolf,  a  club),  a  Scottish  game 
played  with  ball  and  club.  The  players  num- 
ber one  or  more  on  each  side,  and  each  is  pro- 
vided with  a  separate  ball.  The  most  skilful 
player  is  he  who  can  land  his  ball  in  a  given 
series  of  holes  with  the  fewest  strokes  of  his 
club.  To  place  the  ball  in  a  proper  position 
for  striking  off  is  called  "teeing,"  and  the  plot 
on  which  the  game  is  played  is  termed  the 
"  putting  ground."  The  balls  now  used  are 
generally  made  of  gutta  percha.  The  game  is 
of  very  ancient  date  in  Scotland,  since  there 
exist  statutes  as  early  as  1457  prohibiting  it, 
lest  it  should  interfere  with  archery. 

GOLGOTHA.    See  CALVARY. 

GOLIAD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  San  Antonio  river ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,628,  of  whom  876  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  generally  level,  and  the  soil  deep 
and  rich.  The  bottom  lands  are  particularly 
fertile.  Stock  raising  is  one  of  the  chief  occu- 
pations. The  San  Antonio  and  Mexican  Gulf 
railroad  passes  through  the  N.  E.  part.  Ara- 
nama  college,  a  Presbyterian  institution,  is  at 
the  county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  37,640  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  92 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  794  horses,  917 
milch  cows,  5,657  other  cattle,  4,853  sheep,  and 
1,698  swine.  Capital,  Goliad. 

GOLIUS,  Jacobus,  a  Dutch  orientalist,  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1596,  died  in  Leyden,  Sept.  28, 
1667.  He  was  educated  at  Leyden,  and  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek  at  La  Rochelle 
when  2-1  years  old,  but  soon  returned  to  Ley- 
den. In  1622  he  joined  a  Dutch  embassy  to 
the  emperor  of  Morocco,  in  order  to  perfect 
himself  in  Arabic.  In  1624  he  succeeded  Er- 
penius  as  professor  of  Arabic  at  the  university 
of  Leyden,  from  1625  to  1629  travelled  through 
the  Levant,  and  after  his  return  was  professor 
of  mathematics.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer 
on  oriental  philology ;  his  greatest  work  is  his 
Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum  (fol.,  Leyden,  1653). 

GOLLNOW,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Pomerania,  on  the  Ihna,  14  m.  N.  E.  of  Stet- 
tin ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,273.  It  has  two  churches, 
copper  works,,  and  manufactories  of  ribbon  and 
paper.  It  was  formerly  a  Hanse  town. 

GOLOVNIN,  Vasili,  a  Russian  navigator,  born 
in  the  government  of  Riazan  in  1776,  died  in 
St.  Petersburg  in  1832.  He  entered  the  im- 
perial navy  at  an  early  age,  and  soon  became 
noted  for  skill  and  courage.  In  1807  he  was 
commissioned  by  Alexander  I.  to  make  a  sur- 
vey of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  empire.  He 
sailed  from  Cronstadt  in  command  of  the  sloop 
of  war  Diana,  and  was  occupied  till  1811  in 


96  GOLTZ 

examining  the  coasts  of  Karatchatka  and  Rus- 
sian America.  In  May,  1811,  he  sailed  from 
lVtr..i.-iv!.)vsk  in  Kamtchatka  to  make  a  sur- 
vey of  the  southern  Kurile  islands  and  the  coast 
of  Tartary.  In  1803  a  Russian  ambassador 
named  Resanoff  had  endeavored  to  open  an 
intercourse  with  Japan,  but  had  been  repulsed, 
as  he  thought,  with  insult.  In  retaliation  the 
ship  of  war  which  conveyed  him  to  and  from 
Japan  plundered  and  burned  a  number  of  Jap- 
anese villages  on  the  Kurile  islands.  These, 
outrages  excited  the  indignation  of  the  Japa- 
nese, and  when  Golovnin  with  his  vessel  appear- 
ed in  their  waters,  he  was  fired  at  and  peremp- 
torily ordered  away.  Being  in  want  of  water 
and  provisions,  he  persisted  in  landing,  and 
finally  went  on  shore,  July  11,  with  two  officers, 
four  seamen,  and  a  Kurile  interpreter,  on  the 
island  of  Kunashir.  The  Japanese  received  him 
apparently  in  a  friendly  manner,  but  having 
enticed  him  and  his  companions  into  a  castle 
garrisoned  by  300  or  400  soldiers,  they  seized 
the  Russians  and  hurried  them  over  to  the  large 
island  of  Yesso.  They  were  removed  thence 
to  Hakodadi,  and  in  September  to  Matsmai, 
the  capital  of  Yesso,  where  they  were  kept  in 
cages  in  a  prison  erected  for  them,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  continual  cross-examination  which 
was  very  annoying.  After  several  months 
they  escaped,  wandered  for  a  number  of  days 
in  the  forests,  and  were  recaptured.  Finally, 
after  an  imprisonment  of  26  months  and  26 
days,  Golovnin  and  the  other  Russians  were 
given  up  in  November,  1813.  Golovnin  reach- 
ed St.  Petersburg  July  14,  1814,  after  an  ab- 
sence of  seven  years,  was  promoted,  and  re- 
ceived a  pension.  He  was  afterward  sent  on 
an  exploring  expedition  around  the  world  in 
command  of  the  sloop  of  war  Kamtchatka, 
from  which  he  returned  in  1819,  and  of  which 
he  published  a  narrative  (2  vols.  4to,  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1822).  He  wrote  in  Russian  "  Obser- 
vations upon  the  Empire  of  Japan  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1816),  and  an  account  of  his  adventures  among 
the  Japanese,  both  of  which  works  have  been 
translated  into  English  under  the  title  of  "  Me- 
moirs of  a  Captivity  in  Japan  during  the  years 
1811,  '12,  and  '13,  with  Observations  on  the 
Country  and  the  People"  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1824).  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  vice  admiral  and  general  superintendent 
of  tin-  Russian  navy.  Golovnin  was  an  accu- 
rate observer,  and  his  narrative  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  works  upon  Japan.  He 
wrote  also  a  book  containing  narratives  of  ship- 
wrecks and  disasters  at  sea,  which  appeared 
in  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  published 
by  his  son  (5  vols.,  1864). 

GOLTZ,  Bogumil,  a  (ierman  author,  born  in 
Warsaw,  March  20,  1801,  died  in  Thorn,  Nov. 
1 1.  1  ^7«i.    lie  was  of  German  parentage,  studied 
_'vmii;isiimi  ot'   Konigsberg  and  at  the 
•f  Breslau,  and  engaged  in  scientific 
'tu iv.     This  proving  unsuccessful,  he  de- 
li inisrlf  from  1830  to  literary  pursuits 
settling  at  Thorn  in  1847.     His  works  include 


GONAIVES 

Der  MenscJi  und  die  Leute  (Berlin,  1858) ;  Die 
Deutschen  (3  vols.,  1860) ;  Feigeribldtter  (3  vols., 
1861-'2)  ;  Zur  Charakteri&tik  und  Naturge- 
schichte  der  Frauen  (2d  ed.,  1863) ;  Typen  der 
Geselhchaft  (3d  ed.,  1864) ;  Die  Bildung  und 
die  Gebildeten  (2  vols.,  1864) ;  Vorlemngen 
(2  vols.,  1869) ;  and  Die  WeltklugJieit  und  Le- 
Ibensweisheit  mit  ihren  correspondirenden  Stu- 
dien  (2  vols.,  1869). 

GOMBO.     See  GUMBO. 

GOMER,  the  first  named  and  probably  the 
eldest  of  the  seven  sons  of  Japheth  (Gen.  x.  2, 
3).  In  Ezek.  xxxviii.  6,  Gomer  designates  a 
people  who  are  named  in  connection  with  Gog 
and  Magog,  apparently  belonging  to  the  Scy- 
thian family.  This  people  is  identified  with 
the  ancient  Cimmerii,  and  by  some  also  with 
the  Cimbri  and  the  more  modern  Celts.  The 
latter  view  finds  an  early  support  in  Josephus, 
who  renders  Gomer  by  Galatai,  that  is,  Gauls 
or  Celts.  (See  CIMBRI,  and  CIMMERII.) 

GOMEZ,  Estevan,  a  Portuguese  explorer,  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  died  in 
Toledo  in  October,  1525.  He  accompanied  Ma- 
gellan on  his  celebrated  voyage  in  1519,  as  pilot 
of  the  ship  San  Antonio.  When  the  fleet  entered 
the  strait  which  now  bears  Magellan's  name, 
the  San  Antonio  was  sent  to  explore  a  channel 
further  south.  Gomez,  who  was  dissatisfied 
with  his  position,  induced  the  crew  to  mutiny, 
and  putting  the  captain  in  irons  returned  with 
the  ship  to  Spain,  where  he  arrived  in  March, 
1521.  After  a  short  detention  for  this  act,  he 
was  set  at  liberty,  and  in  1524  sailed  from  Co- 
runna  to  search  for  a  northwest  passage  to  the 
Moluccas.  He  struck  the  American  coast  at 
New  York  bay,  made  out  the  direction  of  the 
Hudson  river,  and  ran  north  as  far  as  the  Pe- 
nobscot.  Contrary  to  the  royal  orders,  he  car- 
ried off  some  of  the  natives  as  slaves,  probably 
from  tb.B  Kennebec,  and  returned  to  Spain, 
where  esclavos  (slaves)  being  mistaken  for  cla- 
ws (cloves),  it  was  reported  to  the  king  that 
Gomezjiad  actually  reached  the  Spice  islands. 

GO  wilt,  a  N.  county  of  Hungary,  bordering 
on  the  counties  of  Lipto,  Zips,  Torna,  Borsod, 
Heves,  N6grad,  and  Zolyom ;  area,  547  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  103,639,  chiefly  Magyars  and 
Slovaks,  the  majority  of  whom  are  Protestants. 
The  surface  is  mostly  mountainous,  branches 
of  the  Carpathians  extending  into  the  county. 
It  is  traversed  in  all  directions  by  navigable 
rivers,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Gran,  the  Rima,  and  the  Sajo.  The  chief  occu- 
pations are  mining  and  cattle  breeding.  Cap- 
ital, Rima-Szombath  ;  largest  town,  Rosenati. 

GOMORRAH,  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the 
plain  or  valley  of  Siddim,  destroyed  on  ac- 
count of  the  wickedness  of  its  inhabitants. 
(See  DEAD  SEA.) 

GONAIVES,  a  seaport  town  of  Hayti,  on  the 
W.  shore  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  67  m.  N. 
by  W.  of  Port-au-Prince ;  pop.  about  4,000. 
The  streets  are  wide,  but  irregular  ;  the  houses 
badly  constructed,  and  destitute  of  shade ;  and 
the  church  and  military  and  naval  hospitals  are 


GONDAR 


GONDS 


97 


the  only  public  buildings  of  note.  The  harbor 
is  commodious,  and  the  view  on  the  bay  de- 
lightful. There  are  mineral  springs  near,  and 
excellent  public  baths  in  the  town.  Coffee  is 
the  chief  export ;  cotton  and  indigo  are  raised, 
but  not  largely  exported,  as  formerly.  Haytian 
independence  was  declared  here  in  1803. 

GONDAR,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  the  seat  of 
the  dbuna,  or  archbishop  of  the  Abyssinian 
church,  and  formerly  the  residence  of  the  negus 
or  king,  about  25  m.  N.  of  Lake  Tzana  or  Dem- 
bea ;  lat.  12°  35'  N.,  Ion.  37°  50'  E. ;  pop.  about 
7,000.  It  is  built  on  a  hill  1,000  ft.  above  the 
lake,  which  is  itself  upward  of  6,000  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  town  consists  of  a  number  of 
scattered  groups  of  houses,  occupying  an  area 
of  about  11  m.  in  circumference.  The  Debra 
Mrkan,  "  hill  of  light,"  is  the  principal  quarter, 
situated  S.  W.  of  the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  the 
former  Abyssinian  kings,  built  in  the  16th 
century  by  the  Portuguese.  On  the  east  of 
the  town  flows  the  Magetzeh,  on  the  west  the 
Gaha,  which  after  uniting  in  one  stream  empty 
into  Lake  Tzana.  The  houses,  of  which  but 
few  are  two  stories  high,  are  built  of  rough 
blocks  of  volcanic  stone.  There  are  44  church- 
es and  1,200  clergy.  The  churches  are  round, 
and  have  conical  thatched  roofs  projecting 
beyond  the  walls,  with  rows  of  wooden  pillars 
for  support,  forming  a  circular  alley  in  which 
the  women  remain  while  the  men  worship 
within.  The  Jews  and  Mohammedans  have 
their  own  temples,  and  are  allowed  considera- 
ble religious  liberty.  There  are  manufactures 
of  cotton  goods,  ornaments,  jewelry,  parch- 
ment, saddles,  parasols,  and  braided  ware.  The 
currency  consists  partly  of  European  gold  and 
silver  coin,  and  partly  of  lumps  of  rock  salt. 
Gondar  was  during  the  ,middle  ages,  and  as 
late  as  the  18th  century,  the  capital  of  the 
Abyssinian  kingdom,  and  contained  more  than 
50,000  inhabitants.  It  became  afterward  the 
capital  of  the  independent  state  of  Amhara, 
which  Theodore  subdued  in  1853,  making 
Gondar  once  more  the  capital  of  Abyssinia, 
which  it  continued  to  be  till  his  death  in  1868. 

GOiYDOKORO,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  the 
Bari  negroes,  on  the  White  Nile,  which  is  here 
called  Yubiri  or  Kidi,  lat.  4°  54'  N.,  Ion.  31° 
46'  E.  It  is  a  station  of  the  ivory  traders,  who 
occupy  it  for  two  months  each  year,  after 
which  it  is  deserted.  It  has  only  a  few  miser- 
able huts;  the  country  around  it  is  a  desert, 
and  the  climate  unhealthy.  A  Catholic  mission 
was  established  there  in  1853  by  Knoblecher, 
but  was  discontinued  in  1858.  In  1873  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  visited  it,  broke  up  the  slave 
trade,  and  proclaimed  its  incorporation  with 
the  dominions  of  the  khedive  of  Egypt. 

GONDOLA,  a  light  and  swift  kind  of  boat, 
used  on  the  canals  of  Venice  and  supplying 
the  place  of  carriages.  They  are  usually  25  or 
30  ft.  long,  5  ft.  wide  in  the  middle,  and  sharp 
at  both  ends,  which  are  curved  upward,  the 
bow  being  ornamented  with  a  high  serrated 
iron  plate  something  like  the  letter  S  in  form. 


Near  the  middle  is  a  small  cabin  for  the  use 
of  passengers.  Formerly  immense  sums  were 
sometimes  expended  by  the  great  nobles  on  the 
decoration  of  these  cabins ;  and  this  extrava- 
gance was  carried  so  far  that  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  pass  a  law  compelling  uniformity  in  style, 
no  distinction  of  ornament  or  color  being  per- 
mitted except  in  the  gondolas  of  foreign  am- 
bassadors and  in  that  of  the  patriarch,  who,  if 


Gondola. 

a  cardinal,  was  allowed  to  use  red  silk  or  wool 
in  the  decoration  of  his  cabin.  Since  that 
time  all  have  been  painted  black  and  their 
cabins  hung  with  black  cloth.  They  are  pro- 
pelled sometimes  by  a  single  gondolier,  stand- 
ing at  the  stern,  and  sometimes  by  two,  one  at 
the  stern  and  one  at  the  bow.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century  there  are  said  to  have 
been  more  than  6,000  gondolas  in  Venice,  and 
the  gondoliers  formed  an  important  body,  no- 
ted for  their  wit  and  humor  as  well  as  for 
their  skill  with  the  oars.  They  were  celebra- 
ted also  for  their  singing  and  their  recitations 
of  passages  from  Tasso  and  Ariosto,  but  their 
songs  are  now  seldom  heard. 

GONDS,  an  aboriginal  tribe  inhabiting  the 
highlands  of  the  Central  Provinces  of  India, 
whence  that  region  derives  the  name  of  Gond- 
wana  or  Gundwana.  The  earliest  authentic 
records  represent  them  as  already  affected  by 
intermarriage  and  association  with  the  Hin- 
doos, and  within  the  historic  period  their 
original  characteristics  have  been  still  further 
modified  by  the  same  influences.  The  true 
Gonds,  however,  appear  to  be  allied  to  the 
Dravidian  races  of  southern  India.  They  are 
a  comparatively  rude  people,  sturdy,  restless, 
hardy,  and  fearless.  The  skin  of  the  Gond  is 
brown,  and  his  hair  is  straight  and  black.  He 
seldom  exceeds  5  ft.  2  in.  in  height.  The  entire 
number  of  Gonds  now  dwelling  in  the  hill 
tracts  of  central  India  is  estimated  at  over 
800,000.  Their  condition  varies  greatly  in 
different  localities.  Near  the  Hindoo  boun- 
daries large  numbers  of  them  are  engaged  as 
agricultural  laborers;  the  inhabitants  of  the 
interior  are  more  secluded,  wild,  and  indepen- 
dent. The  Eaj  Gonds,  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Gondwana,  have  sprung  from  the  intermixture 
of  the  aborigines  and  Rajpoots.  The  Gonds 
possess  no  written  language;  they  are  gene- 
rally somewhat  familiar  with  Hindostanee,  but 


\ 


GONGORA  Y  ARGOTE 


usually  MOTCTM  among  themselves  in  their 
.rigue.  Their  religion  is  a  degraded  sort 
of  pantheism.  While  polygamy  is  not  pro- 
hibited, it  is  practically  of  rare  occurrence,  as 
a  wife  cannot  be  obtained  without  a  payment, 
i-itluT  in  money  or  services,  to  her  family. 
The  women  engage  in  every  sort  of  labor  ex- 
cept that  of  the  chase,  in  which  the  men  are 
t  xm-rnely  expert.  The  chief  hunters  of  the 
villages  now  use  matchlocks  in  place  of  the 
bow  and  arrow,  and  the  men  very  generally 
carry  little  axes,  which  they  throw  with  such 
skill"  and  precision  as  to  kill  birds  and  animals 
at  a  considerable  distance.  These  axes  are  in 
fact  the  principal  agricultural  implement  of 
the  Gonds,  as  their  simple  system  of  cultiva- 
tion consists  merely  in  felling  timber,  burning 
it,  and  planting  grain  in  the  ashes.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  Gonds  in  civilization  appears  to 
be  proportional  to  the  admixture  of  the  Hindoo 
element  with  the  aboriginal  race.  Where  this 
is  small,  as  in  the  interior  of  the  highlands,  the 
scanty  means  of  the  people  for  subsistence,  and 
the  constant  exposure  to  malaria  and  disease, 
operate  most  powerfully  against  any  increase 
of  prosperity.  Their  general  condition  as  a 
people,  however,  seems  to  be  gradually  im- 
proving under  British  rule. 

GONGORA  T  ARGOTE,  Luis  de,  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  Cordova,  Jan.  11,  1561,  died  there, 
May  23,  1627.  He  was  the  son  of  a  distin- 
guished lawyer,  and  was  educated  at  Sala- 
manca for  his  father's  profession,  but  aban- 
doned it  for  poetry.  He  lived  in  his  native 
city  poor  and  obscure  till  the  age  of  43,  when, 
having  entered  holy  orders,  he  was  made  titu- 
lar chaplain  to  Philip  III.;  but  after  11  years 
of  neglect  he  returned  to  Cordova  in  broken 
health.  His  early  poetry,  consisting  of  ballads 
and  odes,  is  remarkable  for  vigor  and  simplicity, 
but  later  in  life  he  adopted  an  affected,  obscure, 
and  highly  metaphorical  style,  which  for  a  time 
became  fashionable  in  Spain,  and  even  in 
France,  and  was  imitated  by  a  large  school  of 
succeeding  poets.  It  is  known  as  the  estilo 
ml  to.  or  cultivated  style,  and  one  of  its  most 
marked  features  was  the  use  of  obsolete  and 
i  words  and  of  new  and  forced  construc- 
tions. So  unintelligible  were  the  poems  of 
Gongora  that  even  in  his  own  lifetime  com- 
mentaries were  written  to  explain  them.  His 
were  published  in  1636-'46,  with  a  com- 
mentary 1,500  pages  long  by  Ooronel,  a  poet  of 
the  saroeschool  (3  vols.  4to,  Madrid). 

MmiUTKS,  a  group  of  fossil  cephalopods, 

•  a  nautilus-like  shell,  but  with  the  siphun- 

•<al  as  in  the  ammonites ;  the  septa,  or 

•>ns  between  the  chambers,  have  one  or 

more  flexures  at  the  margin.    These  flexures 

become  more  and  more  complex,  from  the 

species  of  the  Hamilton   (middle  Devonian) 

period,  when  they  first  appear,  to  those  of  the 

carbon  i  ft- n  MIS    p.-ri...!,    \vlu-n   they  disappear, 

'•••plaivd  in  mesozoic  time  by  the  cera- 

tites  and  ammonites,  to  which  they  are  nearlv 

related.     The  0.  Marcellentis  (Van.),  from  the 


GONSALVO  DE  CORDOVA 

Marcellus  shales  of  New  York,  has  been  found 
a  foot  in  diameter.     Clymenia,  an  allied  genus, 


Goniatites  (G.  retorsus). 

had  the  siphuncle  ventral,  and  the  septa  with- 
out a  distinct  dorsal  lobe  on  the  median  line. 

GONIOMETER  (Gr.  ywvfa,  an  angle,  and  fitrpov, 
a  measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
angles  of  crystals.  Two  kinds  of  goniometers 
are  in  use,  one  designed  to  measure  the  angles 
by  direct  application  of  the  instrument  to  the 
faces  of  the  crystal,  and  the  other  by  the  arc 
through  which  the  crystal  must  be  turned  for 
two  adjoining  faces  to  reflect  in  succession  the 
same  object  to  the  eye.  The  first  and  simplest 
form  is  the  common  or  Haiiy's  goniometer. 
It  is  a  graduated  semicircular  arc  with  a  fixed 
and  a  movable  radius,  between  which  the  crys- 
tal is  placed,  each  radius  being  made  to  coin- 
cide with  the  plane  of  one  of  its  faces.  The 
angle  of  their  opening  may  then  be  read  off  on 
the  arc.  This  instrument  cannot  be  depended 
upon  for  nicety  of  measurement.  The  reflect- 
ing goniometer  was  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston, 
and  several  modified  forms  of  it  have  been  in- 
troduced by  others.  It  requires  for  its  use 
crystals  with  clear  faces,  that  can  distinctly  re- 
flect the  image  of  a  dark  line  across  a  clear  light, 
as  the  bar  of  a  window  sash.  The  instrument 
is  made  with  great  precision,  and  its  graduated 
arc  is  furnished  with  a  vernier,  by  which  the 
degrees  are  divided  into  minutes.  The  French 
goniometer  of  Adelman  combines  the  principles 
of  both  the  common  and  reflecting  instruments, 
and  is  much  less  expensive  than  Wollaston's. 

GONSALVO  DE  CORDOVA,  or  Gonzalo  Hernandez 
de  Cordova,  called  el  Gran  Capitan  (the  Great 
Captain),  a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Montilla, 
near  Cordova,  March  16, 1453,  died  in  Granada, 
Dec.  2,  1515.  His  family  name  was  Aguilar, 
but  his  ancestors  rendered  such  services  at  the 
conquest  of  Cordova  that  St.  Ferdinand  per- 
mitted them  to  assume  the  name  of  that  city. 
At  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  Gon- 
salvo  attracted  attention  by  his  beauty  and 
knightly  skill  and  the  magnificence  of  his  liv- 
ing. He  distinguished  himself  at  Albuera  da- 
ring the  war  with  Portugal  (1479),  but  gained 
the  greatest  renown  in  the  war  with  the  Moors, 
which  began  in  1481  and  ended  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1492.  In  conjunction  with  the  king's 


GONSALVO   DE   CORDOVA 


GONZAGA 


99 


secretary,  he  conducted  the  secret  negotiation 
with  the  Moorish  monarch,  Abdallah  or  Boab- 
dil,  which  resulted  in  the  capitulation  of  Gra- 
nada. In  1495  he  was  sent  with  a  small  squad- 
ron against  the  French  who  had  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  He  landed  at  Messina, 
and  thence  crossed  over  to  the  mainland.  In 
his  first  battle  at  Seminara,  fought  against  his 
advice,  he  was  defeated,  but  his  desperate  valor 
saved  the  army  from  destruction  and  King 
Ferdinand  from  capture.  His  subsequent  oper- 
ations were  so  successful  that  by  the  end  of 
1496  the  French,  who  a  year  before  had  pos- 
sessed the  whole  kingdom,  yielded  up  their  last 
fortress,  and  withdrew  to  their  own  country. 
At  the  request  of  the  pope,  he  then  laid  siege  to 
Ostia,  which  was  held  by  a  formidable  band  of 
freebooters,  and  carried  it  by  storm.  On  his 
return  to  Naples  the  king  gave  him  the  title 
of  duke  of  St.  Angelo,  with  an  estate  contain- 
ing 3,000  vassals.  In  the  beginning  of  1500  he 
was  called  into  the  field  to  suppress  a  sudden 
insurrection  of  the  Moors  of  the  Alpujarras. 
In  May  of  the  same  year  he  sailed  from  Malaga 
in  command  of  an  army  of  4,600  men,  designed 
to  protect  Naples,  which  the  French  were  pre- 
paring to  invade  a  second  time.  In  Septem- 
ber, in  conjunction  with  a  Venetian  fleet,  he 
laid  siege  to  the  almost  impregnable  fortress 
of  St.  George  in  Cephalonia,  and  the  place  was 
carried  by  assault  in  January,  1501.  Gonsalvo 
sailed  thence  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  waited  on 
by  an  embassy  from  the  Venetian  senate  bring- 
ing him  magnificent  presents.  Meanwhile,  by 
a  secret  treaty,  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Fer- 
dinand of  Spain  had  agreed  to  divide  Naples 
between  them.  Gonsalvo  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant general  of  the  Spanish  portion,  which  he 
overran  and  conquered  in  less  than  a  month, 
except  Taranto,  which  capitulated  after  a  long 
siege,  March  1,  1502.  The  French  and  Span- 
iards speedily  quarrelled  about  their  bounda- 
ries in  Naples,  and  in  July  their  dispute  broke 
into  open  hostilities.  Gonsalvo,  whose  force 
was  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  French,  threw 
himself  into  the  fortified  seaport  of  Barletta  on 
the  Adriatic.  Here,  from  July,  1502,  to  April, 
1503,  he  sustained  one  of  the  most  memor- 
able sieges  in  history,  conducted  by  the  duke 
of  Nemours  and  the  chevalier  Bayard.  Hav- 
ing at  length  received  by  sea  a  small  reenforce- 
ment,  the  Great  Captain  on  April  28  broke 
forth  from  Barletta,  gave  battle  to  the  French, 
and  defeated  them,  with  the  slaughter  of  half 
their  army,  the  loss  of  all  their  artillery  and 
baggage,  and  most  of  their  colors.  This  victory 
decided  the  war,  and  in  a  few  weeks  all  the 
fortresses  held  by  the  French  were  taken  or 
surrendered,  with  the  exception  of  Gaeta,  into 
which  the  remnant  of  the  French  army  had 
thrown  themselves.  A  long  siege  ensued, 
which  gave  time  to  Louis  XII.  to  despatch  into 
Italy  one  of  the  finest  armies  that  France  had 
ever  sent  into  the  field.  Gonsalvo  met  the 
French  on  the  Garigliano,  near  Gaeta,  defeated 
them  in  several  encounters,  and  on  Dec.  29, 


1503,  routed  them  totally  with  great  slaughter. 
This  defeat  put  an  end  to  the  French  attempt 
to  conquer  Naples.     Gaeta  surrendered  Jan.  1, 

1504,  and  by  a  treaty,  Feb.  11,  peace  was  re- 
stored between  France  and  Spain,  the  latter 
power  retaining  Naples.     Gonsalvo  remained 
in  Naples,  ruling  the  kingdom  as  viceroy  till 
1507,   when  Ferdinand,   suspecting    that    he 
meant  to  make  himself  independent,  recalled 
him  to  Spain.     Soon  after  his  arrival  there  he 
retired  to  his  estates  near  Loja,  where  he  lived 
in  -great  magnificence.     In  1512  the  French 
again  made  head  in  Italy,  and  Ferdinand  called 
upon  Gonsalvo  to  take  command  of  an  army 
for  the  protection  of  Naples ;  and  when  it  be- 
came known  that  he  was  to  command,  nearly 
all  the  nobles  of  Spain  volunteered.     This  en- 
thusiasm so  augmented  Ferdinand's  distrust 
that  he  countermanded  his  orders,  and  directed 
Gonsalvo  to  disband  his  levies.     Three  years 
later  Gonsalvo  was    attacked  by  a  quartan 
fever,  and  removed  to  his  palace  in  Granada, 
in  hopes  that  the  climate  of  that  city  would 
benefit  his  health ;  but  he  died  shortly  after 
his  arrival  there.     His  remains  were  laid  in  a 
sumptuous  mausoleum  in  a  chapel  of  the  church 
of  St.  Ger6nimo. 

GONZAGA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  15  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Mantua ;  pop.  about 
15,000.  It  was  formerly  fortified,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  its  old  castle,  the  cradle  of  the  Gon- 
zaga  family.  Silk  is  manufactured  here. 

GONZAGi,  an  ancient  Italian  family  which 
ruled  over  Mantua  from  1328  to  1707.  Its 
founder  was  Ludovico  I.  (died  in  1360),  and  his 
successors  branched  off  into  several  lines,  promi- 
nent among  which  were  those  of  the  dukes  of 
Nevers  and  of  Guastalla.  Some  of  the  rulers 
of  Mantua  were  distinguished  patrons  of  letters 
and  art,  and  made  their  court  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  in  Italy.  They  intermarried  with  the 
Medici  and  the  Estes,  and  a  number  of  the 
ladies,  especially  Cecilia  (born  about  1424)  and 
Lucrezia  (died  1576),  were  renowned  for  learn- 
ing. Besides  Ludovico  III.  (1444-'78),  sur- 
named  the  Turk  for  fighting  the  Mussulmans, 
there  were  other  gallant  warriors  in  the  family, 
and  particularly  Francesco  II.  (1484-1519) 
and  Vincenzo  I.  (1587-1611)  ;  and  celebrated 
as  a  cardinal  from  1561  till  his  death  (1566) 
was  Francesco  Gonzaga.  On  the  extinction 
of  the  elder  branch  after  the  death  of  Vincenzo 
II.  (1627),  a  war  for  the  succession  to  the  do- 
minion of  Mantua  and  other  territories  result- 
ed in  favor  of  Charles  I.,  duke  of  Nevers.  His 
daughter  Maria  became  queen  of  Poland,  and 
another  daughter,  Anna,  wife  of  the  count 
palatine  Edward.  The  beauty  and  wit  of  the 
latter  made  her  conspicuous  in  Paris  at  the 
court  of  Anne  of  Austria,  and  her  memoirs 
were  published  in  1686.  Charles  IV.,  the  last 
duke  of  Mantua  (died  in  1708),  was  dispos- 
sessed in  1707  by  Austria  for  having  sided  with 
France  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
Savoy  taking  Montferrat.  A  collateral  branch 
of  the  family  still  exists,  the  head  of  which 


100 


GONZAGA 


(1874)  is  the  marquis  Guerrieri-Gonzaga,  the 
largest  land  owner  in  the  district  of  Gonzaga. 

A  pretender  to  the  dominion  over  Mantua 

appeared  in  1841,  in  a  person  styling  him- 
self Alessandro  di  Gonzaga,  Prince  Castiglione. 
He  was  a  soldier  of  fortune,  born  in  Dresden 
in  1799,  and  is  described  by  some  authorities 
as  a  Pole  of  the  name  of  Murzynowski,  and 
by  others  as  a  son  of  a  Russian  officer  of  Ital- 
ian origin,  and  again  as  a  son  or  brother  of 
a  French  officer  named  Gonzague ;  and  he  was 
successively  engaged  in  the  French,  Russian, 
and  Spanish  armies,  and  in  the  Polish  revo- 
lution of  1830-'31.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  was  arrested  in  Paris  for  selling  decora- 
tions, and  on  being  released  after  two  years 
by  Louis  Napoleon,  he  went  to  London  and 
died  in  1869.  He  published  Odes  patriotiques, 
and  several  pamphlets  and  novels. 

GONZAGA,  Lnlgi  (Sx.  ALOYSIUS),  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  born  in  the  castle  of 
Castiglione,  near  Brescia,  March  9,  1568,  died 
in  Rome,  June  21,  1591.  He  was  educated  at 
the  courts  of  Florence,  Mantua,  and  Spain,  en- 
tered the  society  of  Jesus  in  1585,  renouncing 
the  marquisate  of  Castiglione  in  favor  of  his 
brother,  and  went  in  1591  by  order  of  the  pope 
to  settle  the  rival  claims  of  the  duke  of  Mantua 
and  of  his  own  brother  to  the  lands  of  Solferino. 
Coming  back  to  Rome,  he  found  the  city  de- 
vastated by  the  plague,  devoted  himself  to  the 
sick,  and  was  stricken  down  by  the  epidemic. 
He  was  beatified  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1621,  and 
canonized  in  1726  by  Benedict  XIII.,  who  de- 
clared him  the  patron  saint  of  colleges.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  June  21.  His  life  has 
been  written  in  Italian  by  the  Jesuit  Cepari, 
and  in  French  by  Dorlfians. 

GONZAGA,  Thomas  Antonio  Costa  de,  a  Brazilian 
poet,  called  the  Portuguese  Anacreon,  born  in 
Porto  in  1747,  died  in  Mozambique  in  1793. 
After  studying  in  the  university  of  Coimbra, 
Portugal,  he  returned  in  1768  to  Brazil  to  enter 
on  an  official  career.  In  1788,  when  he  was 
about  to  be  married,  he  became  involved  in  a 
conspiracy,  and  was  condemned  to  perpetual 
exile  in  an  island  on  the  coast  of  eastern  Africa, 
which  was  commuted  to  ten  years'  banishment 
to  Mozambique.  He  was  attacked  by  fever 
soon  after  reaching  Africa,  from  which  he  re- 
covered only  to  fall  into  madness.  The  most 
interesting  of  his  poems  were  composed  du- 
ring his  captivity.  They  are  popular  alike  in 
Hr.i/il  and  Portugal,  and  have  been  often  re- 
printed. In  grace,  tenderness,  purity  of  style, 
and  harmony  of  verse,  he  ranks  among  the 
tir>t  Portuguese  poets. 

GONZALES,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  Guadalupe  river;  area,  1,026  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,951,  of  whom  3,670  were  col- 
ored. It  has  an  undulating  surface,  about  one 
third  of  which  is  covered  with  ash,  oak,  and 
other  timber.  The  soil  is  fertile,  consisting 
•  hi.  lly  of  a  black  loam.  There  are  rich  de- 
pesits  of  coal  and  iron.  Guadalupe  college  is 
at  the  county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in 


GOODALL 

1870  were  203,591  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  28,- 
932  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  2,174  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  8,977  horses,  8,833  milch 
cows,  77,567  other  cattle,  5,790  sheep,  and  22,- 
153  swine.  Capital,  Gonzales. 

GOOCHLAND,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bound- 
ed S.  by  James  river ;  area,  260  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,313  of  whom  6,601  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil,  watered 
by  numerous  creeks,  was  formerly  very  fertile. 
Bituminous  coal  is  found  in  abundance,  and  a 
little  gold  has  been  discovered.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  James  River  canal.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  76,177  bushels  of  wheat, 
101,402  of  Indian  corn,  72,630  of  oats,  and 
405,215  Ibs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  670 
horses,  2,727  cattle,  3,231  swine,  and  16  flour 
mills.  Capital,  Goochland. 

GOOD,  John  Mason,  an  English  physician  and 
author,  born  at  Epping,  Essex,  May  25,  1764, 
died  in  January,  1827.  He  began  his  med- 
ical education  as  apprentice  to  a  surgeon  at 
Gosport,  afterward  studied  at  Guy's  hospital, 
and  in  1784  commenced  practice  as  a  surgeon 
at  Sudbury.  He  removed  to  London  in  1793, 
and  gained  in  time  a  large  professional  con- 
nection. In  1810  he  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  at  the  Surrey  institute,  which  were 
afterward  published  under  the  title  of  "The 
Book  df  Nature."  In  1812  he  edited  the 
"Letters  of  Junius,"  comprising  not  only  the 
acknowledged  productions  of  that  .writer,  but 
also  more  than  100  letters  and  papers  of 
doubtful  authenticity.  He  was  an  accomplish- 
ed linguist,  and  contributed  largely  to  peri- 
odicals. His  principal  works  are  :  "  Maria, 
an  Elegiac  Ode"  (1786);  "Diseases  of  Pris- 
ons and  Poorhouses"  (1795);  "History  of 
Medicine  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the  Profession 
of  an  Apothecary  "  (1795)  ;  "  Parish  Work- 
houses" (1798,  1805);  "Song  of  Songs,  or 
Sacred  Idyls,  translated  from  the  Hebrew, 
with  Notes"  (1803);  "Triumph  of  Britain, 
an  Ode"  (1803);  "Memoirs  of  Alexander 
Geddes"  (1803);  "The  Nature  of  Things," 
a  translation  from  Lucretius,  with  notes  (2 
vols.  4to,  1805-7)  ;  "  Essay  on  Medical  Tech- 
nology "  (1810)  ;  "  The  Book  of  Job,  literally 
translated  from  the  Hebrew,"  with  notes  and 
a  dissertation  (1812);  "Physiological  System 
of  Nosology"  (1817);  "Pantalogia,  or  En- 
cyclopaedia comprising  a  General  Dictionary 
of  Arts,  Sciences,  and  General  Literature," 
in  conjunction  with  Olinthus  Gregory  and 
Newton  Bosworth,  published  periodically,  and 
completed  in  12  vols.  in  1813;  "The  Study 
of  Medicine  "  (4  vols.,  1822) ;  and  "  The  Book 
of  Nature  "  (3  vols.,  1826).  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Dr.  Gregory  (London,  1828). 

GOODALL.  I.  Edward,  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  Leeds  in  September,  1795,  died  April 
11,  1870.  He  is  known  by  his  engravings 
from  Turner's  pictures,  in  which  the  artist's 
characteristics  are  reproduced  with  great  fidel- 
ity. Of  his  smaller  works,  the  illustrations  in 
Rogers's  "  Italy  "  are  best  known.  His  large 


GOOD  FRIDAY 


GOODRICH 


101 


e  engravings  of  Turner's   "Tivoli,"    "Co- 
logne," and  "  Caligula's  Bridge  "  are  splendid 
ecimens  of  the  art.    II.  Frederick,  a  painter, 
>n  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London,  Sept. 
17,  1822.     At  14  years  of  age  he  received  a 
jrize  from  the  society  of  arts  for  a  drawing 
of  Lambeth  palace,  and  at  16  another  for  his 
first  oil  painting.      He  subsequently  became 
a  frequent  exhibitor  at  the  royal  academy,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  associate  in  1852,  and 
member  in  1863.     Several  of  his  works,  such 
"L' Allegro  "and  "The  Soldier's  Dream," 
ve  been  engraved.    His  "  Tired  Soldier  "  and 
"  Village  Festival "  are  in  the  Vernon  gallery. 
GOOD  FRIDAY,  the  anniversary  of  Christ's 
death.     It  is  only  in  England  that  the  term 
"good"  is  applied  to  this  feast.     Its  ancient 
tie  was  Holy  Friday,  or  the  Friday  in  Holy 
eek.     The  Saxons  named  it  "  Long  Friday," 
th  because  of  its  long  religious  services  and 
its  rigorous  and  protracted  fast.      The  Ger- 
s  term  it  sometimes  Stiller  Freitag,  be- 
se  bells  and  organs  are  silent  on  that  day, 
d  sometimes  Char-Freitag,  from  an  old  word 
eaning  penitence.     As  it  commemorates  the 
on  which  Christ,  the  true  paschal  lamb, 
as  slain,  it  was  designated  as  "the  pasch" 
some  of  the  ancient  eastern  churches ;  but 
e  appellation  of  "  pasch  of  the  crucifixion," 
>r  "  the  sorrowful  pasch,"  was  soon  universaliy 
pplied  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  and  it  is  still  so 
lied  in  the  East  and  in  several  countries  of 
western  Europe.     The  early  Christian  writers 
ntion  it  as  a  day  of  rigorous  fasting  and 
liar  solemnity.     The  ritual  observed  both 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  has  special 
reference   to   the    circumstances   of   Christ's 
eath  and  entombment.     Hence  in  all  large 
urches  an  altar  in  a  separate  chapel  is  deco- 
"  with  all  possible  magnificence,  and  called 
the  sepulchre."      Thither   the   consecrated 
ost,  or  "body  of  the  Lord,"  is  borne  in  sol- 
procession  on  Holy  Thursday,  and  con*- 
nues  to  be  visited  throughout  the  day  by 
wds  of  worshippers.   On  Good  Friday  morn- 
g,  after  the  chanting  of  the  prophecies  fore- 
lling  Christ's  death  and  of  the  recital  of  his 
assion  from  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  takes 
lace  the  "adoration"  or  kissing  of  the  cross, 
crucifix  is  placed  on  the  steps  before  the 
igh  altar,  and  while  the  choir  sings  the  im- 
roperia,   or   reproaches   of  the  Messiah   to 
e  people  who  crucified  him,  the  officiating 
slergy  and  their  attendants  approach   bare- 
boted,  each  one  making  three  successive  pros- 
.tions  before  they  kiss  the  feet  of  the  sacred 
age.     It  is  then  presented  by  the  celebrant 
the  sanctuary  railing  to  the  veneration  of 
e  people.     In  England,  before  the  reforma- 
tion, this  ceremony  was  called  the  creeping 
the  cross,  as  appears  from  a  proclamation  of 
Henry  VIII. :  "  On  Good  Friday  it  shall  be  de- 
clared ho  we  creepy  ng  of  the  crosse  signify  eth 
humblynge  of  ourselfe  to  Christe  before  the 
,  and  the  kissynge  of  it  a  memorie  of  our 
.emption  made  upon  the  crosse."     After 


this  ceremony  the  consecrated  host  is  brought 
in  procession  from  "the  sepulchre"  to  the 
high  altar,  where  it  is  incensed,  offered  to  the 
adoration  of  all  present,  and  consumed  by  the 
celebrant.  This  is  called  the  "mass  of  the 
presanctified  "  or  preconsecrated  bread,  as  the 
eucharistic  elements  are  not  consecrated  on 
that  day.  In  honor  of  the  redemption  accom- 
plished on  Good  Friday,  it  was  customary  in 
the  early  church  to  release  public  penitents 
from  their  probation  and  the  excommunicated 
from  their  ban.  The  first  Christian  emperors, 
not  satisfied  with  closing  the  law  courts  during 
Holy  and  Easter  weeks,  honored  the  anni- 
versary of  salvation  by  liberating  from  prison 
and  recalling  from  exile  all  but  the  worst  crimi- 
nals ;  and  also,  to  encourage  the  practice  then 
becoming  general  of  manumitting  slaves  in  re- 
membrance of  Christ's  death,  by  allowing  the 
courts  and  magistrates  to  perfect  the  instru- 
ments necessary  for  this  purpose.  These  cus- 
toms, sanctioned  by  a  decree  of  Valentinian 
I.  in  367,  were  embodied  by  Justinian  in  his 
code.  The  same  spirit  afterward  pervaded 
the  manners  and  legislation  of  western  peo- 
ples. In  England  and  Ireland  Good  Friday 
is  a  legal  holiday  as  well  as  a  fast  day.  The 
practice  of  breakfasting  on  hot  cross  buns  on 
this  day  is  still  kept  up  in  the  English  cities, 
and  is  also  common  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  north  of  England  it  is  customary  to  eat 
herb  puddings  in  which  a  principal  ingredient 
is  the  "passion  dock,"  which  in  fructification 
produces  fancied  representations  of  the  cross, 
nails,  hammer,  &c.  The  English  kings  were 
wont  in  ancient  times  to  hallow  rings  on  Good 
Friday,  to  preserve  the  wearers  from  epilepsy. 
The  Protestant  Episcopal,  Lutheran,  and  Re- 
formed churches,  as  well  as  many  Methodists, 
observe  the  day  by  fasting  and  special  services. 

GOOD  HOPE,  Cape  of.  See  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 

GOODHUE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  bor- 
dering on  the  Mississippi,  separated  from  Wis- 
consin by  Lake  Pepin,  and  watered  by  Cannon 
river ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
22,618.  The  surface  is  moderately  uneven, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
river  division  of  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,815,603  bushels  of  wheat,  209,790  of  Indian 
corn,  825,301  of  oats,  81,878  of  barley,  85,390 
of  potatoes,  470,201  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  31,- 
468  tons  of  hay.  There  were  6,766  horses, 
6,485  milch  cows,  9,021  other  cattle,  6,241 
sheep,  and  6,671  swine;  2  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  5  of  carriages,  4  of 
barrels,  3  of  furniture,  8  of  saddles  and  har- 
ness, 5  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1 
of  woollen  goods,  4  saw  mills,  8  flour  mills, 
and  5  breweries.  Capital,  Red  Wing. 

GOODRICH.  I.  Eliznr,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  Oct.  26, 
1734,  died  in  Norfolk,  Conn.,  Nov.  21,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1752,  and  was 
tutor  there  in  1755.  In  the  busiest  scenes  of 
his  subsequent  ministry  he  rarely  failed  to  cal- 


LOS 


GOODRICH 


oulate  the  eclipses  of  each  successive  year; 
un.1  when  tl.t-  aurora  borealis  of  1780  made  its 
appearance,  he  gave  one  of  the  fullest  and  most 
a'-'  unite  accounts  of  it  ever  published,  with 
exact  drawings  of  the  auroral  arch.     In  1756 
be  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Congregation- 
al riiun-h  in  Durham,  Conn.,  in  which  office 
he  continued  till  his  death.     He  was  an  active 
friend  of  the  revolution,  preaching  the  right 
of  resistance,  and  urging  his  people  to  lay 
down  their  property  and  lives  in  the  conflict. 
He  published  several  sermons,   and  left   be- 
hind him  some  hundreds  of  essays  on  difficult 
passages  of  Scripture.     II.  Channeey  iUen,  an 
American  scholar,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  23,  1790,  died 
there,  Feb.  25,  1860.    He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1810,  and  was  tutor  there  from  1812 
to  1814.     After  a  course  of  theological  study 
he  became  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church 
in  Middletown,  Conn.    In  1817  he  was  elected 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  oratory  in  Yale  col- 
lege, and  continued  in  that  office  till   1839, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  professorship 
of  pastoral  theology.     He  published  in  1814  a 
Greek  grammar,  translated  chiefly  from  Ha- 
ehenherg;   this  he  subsequently  revised  and 
enlarged,  and  published  under  his  own  name. 
In  1832  he  published  "Latin  Lessons"  and 
"Greek  Lessons,"  in  which  the  precepts  of 
grammar  are  throughout  accompanied  by  prac- 
tical exercises.     During  several  years  he  ed- 
ited the  "Quarterly  Christian  Spectator."    In 
1828  Noah  Webster,  his  father-in-law,  intrust- 
ed to  him  the  superintendence  of  the  octavo 
abridgment  of   his  large  dictionary,  and  he 
published  in  1847  greatly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved editions  of  the  4to  and  8vo  dictionaries. 
In  1856  he  published  in  8vo  the  new  universi- 
ty edition  of  Webster's  dictionary,  and  in  1859 
a  new  issue  of  the  unabridged  4to  dictionary. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  in  a 
thorough  revision  of  the  dictionary,  which 
was  published  in  1864.     III.   Samuel  Griswold, 
better  known  under  the  assumed  name  of  Pe- 
ter Parley,  an  American  author,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Ridgefield,  Conn.,  Aug. 
1  '.'.  1  793,  died  in  New  York,  May  9,  1860.     He 
engaged  in  the  publishing  business  in  Hart- 
imd,  after  visiting  Europe  in  1824,  es- 
tah  limbed   himself  as  &  publisher  in  Boston, 
and  edited  from  1828  to  1842  the  "Token,"  an 
illuM  rated  annual,  to  which  he   contributed 
several  tales  and  poems.     His  popular  Peter 
Parley  series  of  juvenile  books  was  begun 
soon  after  his  removal  to  Boston,  and  gradually 
<l  to  more  than  100  volumes,  compri- 
••ographies,  histories,  travels,  stories,  and 
is  illustrations  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
The  success  of  these  works  caused  several 
spurious  books  to  appear  under  his  pseudo- 
nyme.     In   1*41  he  established  "  Merry's  Mu- 
"s  MatTa/ine."1  a  juvenile  pert- 
,  which  h«-  edited  till  1854.     In  1851  he 


was  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Paris, 
and  while  there  published  in  French  Les  fitats 


GOOD  WILL 

Unis,  aperfu  statistigue,  Jiistorique,  geogra- 
phique,  industriel  et  social"  (1852).  He  was 
also  the  author  of  "  The  Outcast,  and  other  Po- 
ems "  (1837 ;  illustrated  ed.,  1851) ;  "  Fireside 
Education"  (1841);  "Sketches  from  a  Stu- 
dent's Window;"  "Recollections  of  a  Life- 
tune  "  (1857) ;  and  "  Illustrated  Natural  History 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom  "  (1859).  IV.  Frank 
Boot,  an  American  author,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Boston,  Dec.  14,  1826.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1845,  and  was  for  seve- 
ral years  the  Paris  correspondent  of  the  "  New 
York  Times,"  writing  under  the  signature  of 
"  Dick  Tinto."  A  volume  made  up  from  his 
letters  was  published  in  1854,  entitled  "  Tri-col- 
ored  Sketches  of  Paris."  He  has  also  pub- 
lished "  The  Court  of  Napoleon  "  (1857),  "Man 
upon  the  Sea  "  (1858),  and  "  Women  pf  Beauty 
and  Heroism  "  (1859). 

.GOOD  WILL,  the  interest  or  advantage  sup- 
posed to  be  attached  to  a  certain  established 
business.     Nothing  can  be  more  uncertain  or 
intangible  than  this ;  and  it  was  for  some  time 
a  question  whether  the  law  would  recognize  it 
as  of  pecuniary  value.     But  it  is  clear  that  it 
may  have,  under  some  circumstances,  a  very 
great  pecuniary  value.     If  a  partnership  be 
established  in  a  certain  place,  and  has  there 
done  business  for  a  long  time,  in  a  way  which 
has  given  general  satisfaction  and  attracted  a 
wide  and  to  all  appearance  a  permanent  patron- 
age or  custom,  whether  this  be  by  the  excel- 
lence and  variety  of  its  stock  of  goods,  its  hon- 
esty and  exactness,  or  its  supposed  wealth,  this 
partnership  has  a  pecuniary  interest  in  this 
good  will,  in  addition  to  the  amount  of  its  mere 
stock  and  capital.     But,  while  as  between  part- 
ners this  good  will  is  generally  considered  to 
have  a  value,  and  will  be  recognized  and  pro- 
vided for  by  courts  of  equity  in  settling  any  dis- 
putes between  them,  and  in  general  passes  by 
survivorship  to  the  remaining  partners  when 
one  or  more  die,  yet  the  rules  of  law  which  en- 
ter into  the  adjustment  of  good  will  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  settled.    In  case  of  insolvency, 
it  is  however  clear  that  a  court  having  juris- 
diction of  the  case  will  recognize  it  as  valuable, 
and  will  take  care  that  no  partner  behave  in 
such  a  way  as  to  dimmish  its  value,  and  will 
make  due  orders  for  reducing  it  by  sale  or 
otherwise  into  the  form  of  available  assets. 
But  when  the  good  will  of  a  business  passes  by 
the  insolvency  of  the  trader  into  the  hands  of 
assignees,  the  trader  is  no  longer  under  any 
obligations  to  continue  his  exertions  to  increase 
or  sustain  its  value,    although  he  must    dp 
nothing  to  injure  it. — The  good  will  of  a  busi- 
ness is  often  bought  and  sold,  and  made  the 
subject  of  arrangement  in  various  ways ;  and  it 
I  would  undoubtedly  be  regarded  as  a  sufficient 
I  consideration  for  a  promise  to  pay  money.     It 
j  has  been  held  that  the  sale  of  a  business,  with 
the  stock  and  "  good  will,"  carried  with  it,  by 
implication,  a  promise  not  to  enter  upon  a  sim- 
ilar business  so  near  to  the  old  stand  as  to  in- 
terfere materially  with  the  purchaser.     This 


GOODWIN  SANDS 


GOOKIN 


103 


JUlg 

s 


ould  seem  to  be  equitable,  and  ought  to  be 

irovided  for  in  any  sale  or  transfer  of  the  good 

will.     We  doubt,  however,  whether  our  courts 

ould  now  infer  such  an  agreement  from  a 
transfer  of  the  good  will,  in  the  absence 
any  express  stipulation  on  the  subject. 

GOODWIN  SANDS,  dangerous  sand  banks  off 
E.  coast  of  Kent,  England,  separated  from 
mainland  by  the.  roadstead  called  the 
Downs,  which  has  an  average  width  of  about 
5£  m.  The  banks,  which  are  loose  and  shift- 
ing, are  divided  by  a  narrow  channel  called 
the  Swash,  navigable  for  small  boats.  The 
northern  portion  is  about  3£  m.  long,  and  the 
southern  about  10  m.,  the  average  width  of 
each  being  2^  m.  At  low  water  many  parts 
are  dry  and  firm,  but  with  the  coming  of  the 
tide  the  sand  becomes  saturated  and  dangerous. 
Lightships  are  stationed  at  their  N.  and  S.  ex- 
mities  and  N.  of  the  Swash,  on  which  bells 
kept  ringing  in  hazy  weather.  Many  fatal 

ipwrecks  have  taken  place  on  these  sands, 
which  are  full  of  danger  to  vessels  passing  into 
the  Thames  or  the  North  sea.  They  are  said 
to  have  once  formed  a  part  of  the  mainland  of 
Kent,  and  to  have  belonged  to  the  Saxon  earl 
.win  shortly  before  the  Norman  conquest. 

ey  were  submerged  about  A.  D.  1200. 

GOODYEAR,  Charles,  an  American  inventor, 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  29,  1800, 
died  in  New  York,  July  1,  1860.  He  received 
only  a  public  school  education.  After  coming 
of  age,  he  joined  his  father  Amasa  Goodyear, 
the  pioneer  in  the  American  manufacture  of 
hardware,  in  the  hardware  business  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  firm  being  overwhelmed  by  the 
commercial  disasters  of  1830,  he  selected  as  a 
new  occupation  the  improvement  of  the  manu- 
facture of  India  rubber.  His  early  experiments 
were  carried  on  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Box- 
bury,  Lynn,  Boston,  and  Woburn,  Mass.,  and 
the  city  of  New  York.  The  first  important  im- 
provement made  by  him  was  in  New  York  in 
1836,  being  a  method  of  depriving  India  rubber 
f  its  adhesiveness  by  dipping  it  into  a  prepa- 
ion  of  nitric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  gas  pro- 
as it  was  called,  was  introduced  into  pub- 
c  use,  and  met  with  great  favor,  especially  in 
the  manufacture  of  shoes,  which  continued  to 
be  made  by  that  process  in  great  numbers  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  until  it  was  superseded  by 
the  superior  method  of  vulcanization.  The 
beneficial  effect  of  the  nitric  acid  process  was 
confined  to  the  surface,  the  interior  body  of  the 
gum  remaining  subject  to  all  the  defects  of 
native  India  rubber.  It  did  not  satisfy  the 
hopes  of  Goodyear,  and  in  1838-'9  he  made  at 
Woburn,  Mass.,  many  experiments  with  com- 
pounds of  India  rubber  and  sulphur.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1839,  he  observed  that  a  piece  of  India 
rubber,  mixed  with  ingredients  among  which 
was  sulphur,  when  accidentally  brought  in  con- 
tact with  a  red-hot  stove,  was  not  melted,  but 
that  in  certain  portions  it  was  charred,  and  in 
other  portions  it  remained  elastic  though  de- 
prived of  adhesiveness.  The  material  was  vul- 


canized; i.  e.,  it  had  undergone  the  change 
produced  by  a  high  degree  of  artificial  heat. 
Thus  were  presented  the  germs  of  the  two 
forms  of  vulcanized  India  rubber,  now  com- 
monly known  as  the  soft  and  the  hard  com- 
pounds. From  this  time  until  his  death  the 
process  of  vulcanization  occupied  his  whole  at- 
tention, but  he  reaped  no  adequate  pecuniary 
reward  for  his  labors.  The  Goodyear  patents, 
now  more  than  60  in  number,  have  been  very 
expensive  in  themselves,  and  still  more  so  from 
the  necessity  of  defending  and  protecting  them 
against  infringers.  The  first  publication  of  the 
process  of  vulcanization  was  Goodyear's  patent 
for  France,  dated  April  16,  1844.  The  French 
laws  require  that  the  patentee  shall  put  and 
keep  his  invention  in  public  use  in  France 
within  two  years  from  its  date.  Goodyear 
endeavored  to  comply  with  this  and  with  all 
other  requirements  of  the  French  laws,  and 
thought  he  had  effectually  done  so ;  but  the 
courts  of  France  decided  that  he  had  not  com- 
plied in  every  particular,  and  that  therefore  his 
patent  had  become  void.  In  England  he  was 
still  more  unfortunate.  Having  sent  specimens 
of  vulcanized  fabrics  to  Charles  Mackintosh 
and  co.  in  1842,  and  having  opened  with  them 
a  negotiation  for  the  sale  of  the  secret  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  one  of  the  partners  of 
that  firm  named  Thomas  Hancock,  availing 
himself  of  the  hints  and  opportunities  thus  pre- 
sented to  him,  rediscovered,  as  he  affirms,  the 
process  of  vulcanization,  and  described  it  in  a 
patent  for  England,  which  was  enrolled  on 
May  21, 1844,  about  five  weeks  after  the  speci- 
fication and  publication  of  the  discovery  to  the 
world  by  Goodyear's  patent  for  vulcanization 
in  France.  The  patent  of  Hancock,  held  good 
according  to  English  law,  thus  superseded 
Goodyear's  English  patent  for  vulcanization, 
which  bore  date  a  few  days  later.  Goodyear, 
however,  obtained  the  great  council  medal  of 
the  exhibition  of  all  nations  at  London  in  1851, 
the  grand  medal  of  honor  of  the  world's  ex- 
hibition at  Paris  in  1855,  and  the  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  presented  by  Napoleon  III. 
(See  CAOUTCHOUC.) 

GOOKIN,  Daniel,  an  American  author  and  sol- 
dier, born  in  Kent,  England,  about  1612,  died 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  19, 1687.  He  came 
with  his  father  to  Virginia  in  1621,  held  with 
35  men  his  plantation,  now  Newport  News, 
against  the  savages  during  the  Indian  massacres 
of  March,  1622,  and  removed  in  1644  to  Massa- 
chusetts, in  consequence  of  his  sympathy  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Puritans.  He  settled  in 
Cambridge,  and  in  1656  became  superintendent 
of  all  the  Indians  who  had  submitted  to  the 
government  of  Massachusetts,  an  office  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  He  protected  the  fugi- 
tive regicides  in  1661,  was  appointed  one  of  the 
two  licensers  of  the  Cambridge  printing  press 
in  the  following  year,  became  unpopular  during 
King  Philip's  war  by  the  protection  which  he 
extended  to  the  Indians,  and  in  1681  was  made 
major  general  of  the  colony.  He  died  so  poor 


GOOLE 


GOOSE 


that  John  Eliot  solicited  from  Robert  Boyle  a 
gift  of  £10  for  his  widow.  His  "Historical 
Collections  of  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts' 
bears  the  date  of  1674,  and  was  first  published 
in  1792.  He  is  said  to  have  written  a  history  of 
New  England,  which  is  lost. 

(,oou:,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on 
the  Ouse,  22  m.  W.  of  Hull ;  pop.  in  1871, 
7,680.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Pontefract 
and  Goole  railway,  and  the  railway  from  Hull 
to  Doncaster  runs  through  it ;  and  it  has  com- 
munication with  Leeds,  Manchester,  and  Liver- 
pool by  means  of  the  Knottingley  and  Goole 
canal.  There  are  here  extensive  docks  and 
warehouses,  and  a  slip  for  repairing  vessels. 
Boat  building,  sail  making,  and  iron  founding 
are  carried  on  to  some  extent.  It  contains  a 
new  church,  with  a  lofty  tower,  places  of  wor- 
ship for  various  dissenting  denominations,  and 
several  literary  and  charitable  institutions. 

GOOMTEE,  or  Goomty  (Hin.  Gomati),  a  river 
of  British  India,  rising  in  the  district  of  Shah- 
jehanpoor,  in  a  small  lake,  19  m.  E.  of  Pilli- 
bheet,  lat.  28°  35'  N.,  Ion.  80°  10'  E.,  and  after 
a  8.  E.  course  of  482  m.,  in  which  it  traverses 
the  territory  of  Oude,  falling  into  the  Ganges, 
on  its  left  side,  in  lat.  25°  29',  Ion.  83°  15'.  The 
principal  town  on  its  banks  is  Lucknow,  308 
m.  from  its  mouth,  to  which  it  is  navigable.  It 
is  wide,  in  the  dry  season  4  ft.  deep,  and  it 
rises  15  ft.  at  Lucknow  in  the  rainy  season. 

GOOSANDER,  an  American  fishing  duck  of  the 
subfamily  mergince  and  genus  mergus  (Linn.) ; 
besides  the  goosander  (M.  Americanus,  Cassin), 
the  subfamily  includes  the  mergansers  and  the 
smew.  The  bird  is  about  27  in.  long,  and  3  ft. 
in  extent  of  wings;  the  bill  about  3  in.,  of  a 


Gooaander  (Mergus  Americanus). 

bright  r.-d  rolor;  weights  Ibs. ;  the  female  is 
eooridermbly  smaller.  Common  names  of  this 
species  are  sawbill,  sheldrake,  and,  for  the  fe- 
male, dun  diver.  The  feathers  of  the  forehead 
KKtcodia  aa  acute  angle  on  the  bill;  the  nos- 
trils are  large,  and  near  the  middle  of  the  bill- 


the  plumage  is  full,  soft,  and  glossy ;  there  is  a 
slight  crest  in  the  male ;  the  wings  and  tail  are 
short,  the  latter  rounded,  with  18  feathers;  the 
iris  is  carmine ;  the  feet  orange  red  in  winter, 
vermilion  in  the  breeding  season ;  the  bill  nar- 
row, compressed,  with  a  conspicuous  black  nail, 
the  edges  with  sharp  recurved  serrations;  tarsi 
two  thirds  the  length  of  the  middle  toe,  much 
compressed.  The  head. and  neck  are  metallic 
green;  lower  neck  and  rest  of  body  beneath 
creamy  white,  becoming  salmon  red ;  fore  part 
of  back  black ;  lower  back,  rump,  and  tail 
feathers  ashy  gray ;  most  of  the  wings  creamy 
white,  except  the  greater  coverts,  which  are 
black  at  the  base,  forming  a  black  bar,  and  the 
tertials  narrowly  edged  with  black;  primaries 
black;  sides  with  slight  transverse  bars.  In 
the  female  the  head  and  neck  are  chestnut; 
above  ashy,  salmon-colored  below;  the  black 
base  of  the  secondaries  is  entirely  concealed, 
and  there  is  less  white  on  the  wings.  In  the 
European  sheldrake  (M.  merganser,  Linn.)  the 
bill  is  relatively  longer  and  narrower;  the  elon- 
gated feathers  forming  the  crest  are  longer  and 
more  erectile,  and  begin  almost  at  the  base  of 
the  bill ;  and  the  bar  of  black  on  the  wings  is 
concealed  by  the  lesser  coverts.  The  American 
bird  was  considered  the  same  as  the  European, 
until  separated  by  Mr.  Cassin  in  1853.  The 
goosander  is  found  throughout  North  America, 
breeding  in  the  temperate  and  northern  re- 
gions, in  the  neighborhood  of  both  salt  and 
fresh  water;  it  is  abundant  in  the  fur  countries. 
It  is  strong  and  active,  a  powerful  swimmer, 
excellent  diver,  and  rapid  flier;  it  swims  very 
deeply,  presenting  a  small  mark  for  the  gun- 
ner, diving  at  the  flash  or  at  the  click  of  the 
lock ;  it  can  run  very  well  on  land.  It  is  very  vo- 
racious, feeding  on  fish,  mollusks,  and  reptiles; 
it  dives  for  its  prey,  rising  to  the  surface  with 
the  fish  or  other  animal  in  its  bill,  and  swallows 
it  head  foremost;  its  flesh  is  tough  and  oily. 
The  nest  is  made  near  the  water,  of  weeds  and 
roots,  and  is  lined  with  its  down ;  it  is  about 
7^  in.  in  diameter  internally,  and  4  in.  deep ; 
the  eggs,  7  or  8,  are  3  in.  long  by  two  broad, 
smooth,  elliptical,  and  of  a  uniform  dull  cream 
color ;  the  young  of  a  few  hours  old  are  ex- 
cellent divers.  The  note  is  a  harsh  croak. 
They  are  easily  caught,  like  the  loon,  on  hooks 
baited  with  fish.  In  their  digestive  organs,  the 
mergansers  are  more  allied  to  the  divers  (colym- 
bidce)  than  to  the  ducks  (anatidai),  and  seem 
to  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  two. 

GOOSE,  a  web-footed  bird,  of  the  order  an- 
seres  and  family  anatidce,  of  which  the  typical 
species  are  in  the  subfamily  anserine.  The 
other  subfamily  consists  of  the  plectropterinw, 
or  spur-winged  geese,  in  which  the  bend  of 
the  wings  is  armed  with  a  spur  or  blunt  tuber- 
cle; it  contains  the  genera  anseranas  (Less.), 
of  Australia ;  plectropterus  (Leach),  of  Africa, 
laving  a  naked  protuberance  at  the  base  of 
the  culmen  and  a  part  of  the  neck  bare ;  sar- 
kidiornis  (Eyton),  of  the  warm  regions  of 
America,  India,  and  Africa,  having  a  large, 


GOOSE 


105 


led,  laterally  compressed  caruncle  on  the 
top  of  the  bill;  and  chenalopex  (Steph.),  of 
Africa  and  tropical  America.  Of  the  last  the 
Egyptian  or  fox  goose  (G.  ^Egyptiacus,  Linn.) 
is  a  species,  bright-colored,  and  revered  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians  on  account  of  its  attach- 
ment to  its  young;  it  has  been  domesticated  in 
that  country. — The  subfamily  anserince,  which 
includes  the  genera  cereopsis  (Lath.),  anser 
(Linn.),  lernicla  (Stephens),  nettapus  (Brandt), 
and  a  few  others,  are  characterized  by  a  mod- 
erately long  neck,  bill  elevated  at  the  base,  as 
long  as  or  shorter  than  the  head,  narrowing  to 
the  tip,  which  is  chiefly  formed  by  a  large  nail, 
and  region  in  front  of  the  eyes  feathered ;  the 
long  tibia  and  tarsus  elevate  the  body  more 
than  in  others  of  the  family,  making  them  good 
walkers  on  the  land,  while  they  are  also  ex- 
cellent swimmers ;  the  plates  on  the  front  of 
the  tarsus  are  small  and  hexagonal,  as  in  the 
swans,  and  are  not  transverse  scutellse  as  in 
the  true  ducks ;  the  colors  are  rarely  brilliant, 
white,  black,  and  gray  predominating,  and  both 
sexes,  as  in  the  swans,  are  colored  alike.  In 
the  genus  cereopsis  (Lath.)  the  bill  is  very  short, 
with  a  large  and  broad  nail ;  it  belongs  to  Aus- 
tralia, where  it  wanders  on  the  land  in  search 
of  grasses,  on  which  it  principally  feeds,  be- 
ing never  seen  on  the  water;  the  only  species 
(0.  Novce  Hollandice,  Lath.)  is  of  a  gray  color, 
of  the  size  of  the  common  goose,  and  is  said 
to  be  easily  domesticated. — The  genus  anser 
(Linn.)  is  characterized  by  a  bill  as  long  as  the 
head,  mostly  red  or  orange  colored;  the  la- 
mellae of  the  upper  mandible  project  below 
the  edge  of  the  bill  as  conical  points ;  the  nos- 
trils open  behind  the  middle  of  the  commis- 
sure; the  tip  of  the  hind  toe  reaches  the  ground. 
The  wild  goose  or  gray-lag  of  Europe  (A.ferus, 
Gesn.),  the  original  of  the  common  domestica- 
ted race,  is  of  a  gray  color,  with  a  brown  man- 
tle undulated  with  gray,  and  an  orange  bill. 
The  bean  goose  (A.  segetum,  Gmel.)  is  by  some 
considered  a  distinct  species,  and  by  others  a 
mere  variety  of  the  wild  goose ;  the  wings  seem 
to  be  longer,  and  the  forehead  is  marked  with 
white  spots;  whether  a  species  or  a  variety, 
the  bean  goose  is  probably  more  or  less  mixed 
with  the  former  in  some  of  the  domesticated 
races.  Wild  geese  seek  high  latitudes  in  the 
breeding  season  and  in  summer,  returning  to 
the  warmer  parts  of  Europe  in  the  winter;  they 
are  found  mostly  in  meadows  and  marshes  in 
the  interior,  where  they  feed  in  the  daytime  on 
aquatic  plants,  grasses,  and  grains ;  they  walk 
well,  and  are  very  light  on  the  water,  on  which 
they  generally  rest  during  the  night ;  they  do 
not  dive,  but  plunge  the' head  under  water 
to  the  extent  of  their  long  neck;  they  are 
rapid  and  powerful  fliers,  migrating  in  two 
lines  meeting  at  an  acute  angle ;  they  are  not 
polygamous,  make  their  nests  on  the  ground, 
and  are  very  fond  of  their  mates ;  the  young 
are  able  to  walk  as  soon  as  born,  and  feed 
of  their  own  accord.  The  flight  of  wild  geese 
is  performed  without  noise,  and  with  an  or- 


der which  indicates  considerable  intelligence; 
each  individual  keeps  its  place  in  the  ranks, 
the  male  bird  at  the  head  of  the  triangle  or 
line,  when  it  becomes  fatigued,  retiring  to  the 
rear,  and  the  next  one  coming  forward  to  take 
the  leading  and  most  fatiguing  position.  Their 
sight  and  hearing  are  acute,  and  while  they 
feed  or  sleep  a  sentinel  is  always  on  the  watch 
to  give  the  alarm  at  the  approach  of  danger. 
The  awkward  gait,  outstretched  neck,  gaping 
mouth,  and  disagreeable  voice  have  obtained 
for  the  goose  the  character  of  stupidity,  while 
in  reality  it  is  remarkably  intelligent.  The  flesh 
is  not  very  wholesome  nor  digestible.  The 
Chinese  tchin-tchu,  or  Guinea  goose  (A.  cyg- 
noides,  Gmel.),  called  from  its  size  the  swan 
goose,  is  more  than  3  ft.  long;  the  bill  is 
orange,  with  a  large  knob  or  excrescence  on 
the  forehead ;  under  the  throat  is  a  pouch,  al- 
most bare  of  feathers ;  the  color  above  is  pale 
grayish  brown,  with  paler  edges ;  a  black  line 
on  the  back  of  the  neck;  anterior  neck  and 
breast  yellowish  brown;  belly  white;  sides 
over  thighs  gray-brown  and  white;  in  some 
varieties  the  bill,  knob,  and  legs  are  black; 
the  throat  may  be  wattled,  and  the  plumage 
mostly  or  entirely  white.  Originally  from 
China,  they  have  spread  extensively  over  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Europe,  and  have  been  import- 
ed into  the  United  States;  they  mix  freely 
with  the  common  goose,  producing  fertile  hy- 
brids ;  they  are  very  noisy  and  easily  alarmed ; 
they  walk  erect,  with  the  neck  much  elevated, 
more  like  a  swan  than  a  goose.  Among  the 
American  species  of  the  genus  is  the  white- 
fronted  or  laughing  goose  (A.  Gambelii,  Hartl.), 
which  has  been  separated  from  the  European 
bird  (A.  albifrons,  Gmel.)  on  account  of  the 
greater  length  of  the  bill.  The  length  is  28 


Laughing  Goose  (Anser  Gambelii). 

in.,  and  the  extent  of  wings  5  ft. ;  weight  about 
5J  Ibs.  The  bill  and  legs  are  red;  forehead 
white,  margined  behind  with  blackish  brown ; 
rest  of  head  and  neck  grayish  brown,  paler 
on  the  throat;  back  and  sides  bluish  gray, 
feathers  anteriorly  tipped  with  brown ;  breast 


106 


GOOSE 


and  belly  grayish  white,  with  brownish  black 
.\hiti-  in  the  anal  region;  tail  brown, 
white  tipped;  secondaries  and  end  of  prima- 
,rk  brown,  rest  of  wing  silvery  ash,  the 
greater  coverts  edged  with  white.  This  species 
is  found  over  the  whole  of  North  America, 
but  is  rare  along  the  Atlantic  coast ;  they  re- 
tire to  the  north  in  March  and  April,  return- 
ing in  October ;  they  are  not  so  shy  as  other 
species,  and  their  flesh  is  considered  a  deli- 
cacy; their  food  consists  principally  of  land 
plants.  The  notes  are  loud,  resembling  a 
laugh;  hence  one  of  their  common  names. 
The  egg  is  2|  by  If  in.,  of  a  dull  yellowish 
green  color,  with  indistinct  darker  patches. 
The  snow  goose  (A.  liyperboreus,  Pallas)  is 
larger,  measuring  30  in.  in  length  and  62  in 
extent  of  wings,  with  a  weight  of  nearly  7  Ibs. 
In  the  adult,  the  bill  and  legs  are  red;  the 
general  color  pure  white,  with  the  primaries 
black  toward  the  end  and  bluish  gray  at  the 
base ;  the  young,  or  blue-winged  geese,  have  a 
more  bluish  and  ashy  tint,  with  patches  of 
dark  brown,  constituting  the  A.  ccsrukscens 
(Linn.),  which  some  regard  as  a  distinct  species. 
It  is  found  all  over  North  America,  breeding 
in  the  far  north ;  when  young,  its  flesh  is  ten- 
der, and  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Canada 
goose ;  those  that  feed  on  the  seashore  have  a 
fishy  taste.  The  egg  is  yellowish  white,  3  by 
2  in.  The  usual  food  consists  of  grasses,  rushes, 
insects,  and  in  the  autumn  berries;  it  mates 
with  the  common  goose,  though  the  eggs  are 
rarely  if  ever  hatched. — The  American  wild 
or  Canada  goose  belongs  to  the  genus  ber- 


CaiudA  Goose  (Bernicla  Canadcnsis). 


-•'•pli.),  which  is  characterized  by  a  bill 
shorter  than  the  head,  and  by  the  black 
color  of  the  I,-,;  the  lamella)  of  the  upper 

•  •ncealed   by  the  margin   of  the  bill- 

3  over  the  middle  of  the  commissure  • 
the  bind  toe  d.-v.-it,.,!  ;m,l  rudimentary,  not 
touching  the  ground.  The  species  or  this  ge- 

L'rate  from  the  high  latitudes  of  Europe, 


Asia,  and  America,  where  they  spend  the 
summer,  to  the  more  southern  parts  in  winter, 
especially  South  America ;  they  feed  chiefly  on 
marine  grasses  and  algae,  though  some  live  far 
from  water,  eating  seeds,  berries,  &c.  The 
Canada  goose  (B.  Canadensis,  Linn.)  is  about 
3  ft.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  65  in., 
and  a  weight  of  7  Ibs.  The  head,  neck,  bill, 
feet,  and  tail  are  black;  a  large,  triangular 
patch  of  white  on  the  cheeks  behind  the  eyes, 
confluent  below ;  upper  parts  grayish  brown, 
with  paler  edges;  lower  lid  white;  below 
grayish  white,  passing  into  pure  white  near  the 
anal  region;  upper  tail  coverts  white;  pri- 
maries and  rump  dark  brown.  It  is  found 
throughout  North  America,  and  accidentally  in 
Europe;  the  spring  migration  northward  be- 
gins with  the  melting  of  the  snow,  from  March 
20  to  April  30,  and  the  return  commences  in 
the  first  half  of  September,  the  birds  passing 
along  the  coast,  but  most  numerous  in  the  in- 
terior; their  flight  is  very  high,  their  "honk" 
often  being  heard  when  the  bird  cannot  be 
seen,  and  very  regular  unless  interrupted  by 
fogs,  storms,  or  unexpected  accidents.  The 
food  consists  of  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  aqua- 
tic plants,  slugs  and  snails,  worms,  insects, 
tender  blades  of  corn,  and  Crustacea,  shell  fish, 
and  marine  plants  on  the  seashore.  They  are 
not  often  found  in  company  with  other  species ; 
the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  are  very  acute, 
and  their  stratagems  for  avoiding  their  enemies 
evince  great  cunning ;  they  rarely  dive,  unless 
when  attempting  to  escape,  at  which  times 
both  old  and  young  quickly  disappear.  The 
males  are  very  pugnacious  during  their  court- 
ship, and  defend  their  mates  against  all  ene- 
mies ;  the  nest  is  built  on  the  ground  in  some 
retired  spot  near  the  water,  of  dried  plants; 
the  eggs  of  the  wild  bird  are  usually  about  six, 
though  the  domesticated  birds  lay  a  few  more ; 
they  average  3£  by  2£  in.,  are  smooth,  thick- 
shelled,  and  of  a  dull  yellowish  green  color; 
the  period  of  incubation  is  28  days,  and  they 
have  only  one  brood  in  a  season ;  the  young 
are  able  to  follow  their  parents  to  the  water  in 
a  day  or  two,  but  many  are  destroyed  in  spite 
of  the  watchfulness  of  the  mother  by  snapping 
turtles,  gar  fish,  pickerel,  and  birds  and  beasts 
of  prey.  They  are  shot  from  ambush  at  their 
feeding  places,  and  may  be  attracted  by  living 
or  artificial  decoys ;  the  flesh  of  such  as  have 
lived  in  the  interior  is  very  agreeable,  but 
rather  strong  and  fishy  in  the  shore-fed  birds. 
Besides  man  and  the  animals  just  mentioned, 
their  worst  enemies  are  alligators,  the  couguar, 
lynx,  and  raccoon,  and  the  white-headed  eagle. 
They  are  readily  domesticated,  and  when  tame 
are  advantageously  crossed  with  the  common 
goose,  the  resulting  brood  being  larger  and 
more  easily  raised  and  fattened  than  the  ori- 
ginals. The  flesh  and  eggs  are  valuable  as  food, 
the  feathers  for  beds,  the  quills  for  writing 
purposes,  and  their  oil  in  domestic  medicine. 
Ilntchins's  goose  (B.  Hutcliimii,  Rich.),  called 
by  the  gunners  winter  or  flight  goose,  is  25  in. 


GOOSE 


107 


ig,.with  an  extent  of  wings  of  50  in.,  and  a 
w  eight  of  about  4£  Ibs. ;  in  its  color  it  is  precisely 
like  the  Canada  goose ;  the  eggs  are  pure  white, 
3  by  2  in. ;  it  is  found  throughout  the  northern 
and  western  parts  of  America ;  its  flesh  is  of 
llent  flavor.  The  B.  leucopareia  (Brandt), 


Brant  Goose  (Behiicla  brenta). 


from  the  west  coast  of  America,  is  about  30  in.  , 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  about  5  ft. ;  it  | 
resembles  the  Canada  goose,  but  is  smaller,  and 
of  a  darker  color,  especially  on  the  under  parts. 
The  brant  goose  (B.  Irenta,  Steph.)  is  about  2 
ft.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  4  ft.  and  a 
weight  of  3J  Ibs.  This  species  may  be  known 
by  the  white  crescent  on  the  middle  of  the  side 
of  its  black  neek  ;  the  general  color  of  the  upper 
parts  is  brownish  gray  with  lighter  margins  to 
the  feathers;  the  wings  and  tail  are  darker, 
and  the  upper  tail  coverts  white ;  lower  parts 
grayish,  passing  into  white  behind.  It  is  a 
salt-water  bird,  breeding  in  the  north,  and 
coming  along  the  Atlantic  coast  on  its  return 
south  in  the  middle  of  autumn ;  its  flesh  is 
considered  a  most  savory  food.  It  is  shy,  a 
good  walker,  an  excellent  swimmer,  and,  when 


Barnacle  Goose  (Bernicla  leucopsis). 

.founded,  a  most  expert  diver  ;  its  food  consists 
of  marine  plants,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans ;  it 
is  easily  tamed,  and  in  captivity  thrives  well  on 
grain,  and  produces  young ;  the  eggs  are  white. 
It  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  Europe.  It  is  replaced  on  the  Pacific 


coast  by  the  black  brant  (B.  nigricans,  Lawr.) ; 
the  anterior  part  of  the  body  of  the  latter  is 
black,  the  rest  dark  plumbeous,  with  white 
patches  on  the  throat,  sides  of  rump,  and  tail 
coverts ;  the  bill  is  wider  than  in  the  common 
brant.  The  barnacle  goose  (B.  leucopsis,  Bechst.) 
is  28  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  4|  ft., 
and  a  weight  of  a  little  over  4  Ibs. ;  the  fore- 
head, cheeks,  and  lower  parts  are  white,  the 
belly  with  a  bluish  tint;  the  crown,  neck, 'an- 
terior back,  rump,  and  tail  black ;  mantle  ash- 
colored.  It  is  common  in  winter  in  northern 
Europe,  especially  on  the  western  shores  of 
Great  Britain,  but  is  doubtful  as  an  inhabitant 
of  the  United  States ;  it  is  a  salt-water  species, 
very  shy,  and  highly  esteemed  as  food;  the 
eggs  are  yellowish  cream-colored,  about  3  by 
2  in.  It  owes  its  name  of  barnacle  goose  to 
the  belief  long  entertained  that  it  was  pro- 
duced by  the  barnacle,  a  cirriped  articulate 
animal  often  found  adhering  to  old  wood ;  an 
opinion  expressed  so  lately  as  1636  by  Gerard, 
in  his  "Herbalist."  It  has  also  been  called 
tree  goose  from  the  belief  that  it  originated 
from  old  and  decayed  trees. — There  are  several 
large  species  of  geese  in  South  America,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  are  the  antarctic 
(B.  antarctica,  Gmel.),  the  males  snowy  white, 
and  the  females  black  with  transverse  lines; 
and  the  Magellanic  (B.  Magellanica,  Gmel.), 
ferruginous  brown  and  black,  with  white  wing 
coverts,  and  bar  on  tail.  The  painted  goose 
(B.  Canagica,  Bon.,  or  picta,  Pall.),  of  large 
size,  of  a  bluish  gray  color,  with  head,  nape, 
and  tail  white,  black  throat  with  white  dots, 
and  quills  with  a  black  stripe  anterior  to  the 
white  tip,  is  common  in  the  Aleutian  islands, 
and  is  doubtless  also  found  on  the  N.  W.  coast 
of  the  United  States. — The  last  genus  of  an- 
serince  is  nettapus  (Brandt),  found  in  the  lakes, 
rivers,  and  estuaries  of  continental  India,  Africa, 
and  Australia.  The  bill  is  small  and  elevated, 
with  short  and  widely  set  lamellae ;  the  nostrils 
basal ;  wings  moderate  and  pointed ;  tail  short 
and  rounded;  the  species  are  of  small  size. 
Mr.  Blyth  says  that  "the  Indian  species  seems 
totally  incapable  of  standing  or  walking  on  the 
ground,  but  invariably  flutters  along  it  in  a 
strange,  scuffling  manner,  like  a  wounded  bird ; 
they  always  descend  into  the  water,  never 
alighting  on  the  ground  of  their  own  accord." 
The  Coromandel  goose  (N.  Coromandelianus, 
Gmel.),  of  the  size  of  a  teal,  has  the  head  and 
neck  white  with  black  spots;  crown  black; 
lower  neck  with  black  lines;  above  brown 
with  a  greenish  and  reddish  gloss;  beneath 
white. — Prof.  Baird  places  the  genus  dendro- 
eygna  (Swains.)  in  the  goose  family,  but  most 
authors  rank  it  with  the  anatince  or  ducks ;  it 
is  allied  to  the  geese  more  than  to  the  ducks 
by  the  elevated  base  and  large  nail  of  the  bill, 
the  long  legs,  and  the  hexagonal  scales  in  front 
of  the  tarsus ;  he  describes  three  species  as  in- 
habiting the  United  States. — The  common  tame 
goose  is  the  European  wild  bird  domesticated, 
from  which  it  varies  considerably  in  color, 


108 


(iOOSK 


I.-HS  than  docks  and  fowls  do  from  theii 
nil.  I  originals;  it  tends  to  a  general  gray  color 
though  ilir  vt-nt  and  upper  tail  coverts  are  al- 
ways white;  the  males  are  sometimes  entirely 
white,  and  the  females  generally  cinereous  and 
gray.     In  England,  Lincolnshire  is  famous  for 
the  raising  of  geese;  on  the  continent,  Ilam- 
..•n,  and  Emden,  and  their  neighbor- 
raise  the  hest  breeds.     The  usual  weight 
of  a  tin«-  Arouse  is  15  or  16  Ibs.,  and  by  cramming 
with  nourishing  food  this  weight  may  be  dou- 
li.v  I-OM lining  the  bird,  to  prevent  mo- 
tion, mid  employing  fattening  diet  and  stupe- 
fying substances,   the  body  becomes  loaded 
with  fat,  and  the  liver  becomes  enlarged  and 
fatty  with  disease,  forming  the  principal  ingre- 
dient in  thepdtes  defoie  gras  so  much  esteemed 
by  epicures.    Geese  are  in  the  best  condition 
for  the  table  about  Christmas  time ;  in  England 
the  feast  of  St.  Michael,  and  on  the  continent 
that  of  St.  Martin,  are  almost  universally  cele- 
brated by  roast  goose.    Before  the  days  of  me- 
tallic pens,  goose  quills  formed  a  considerable 
arficlo  of  trade,  the  living  bird  being  stripped 
once  and  sometimes  twice  a  year  for  this  pur- 
pose; the  value  of  the  feathers  for  beds  and 
pillows  is  well  known,  the  living  birds  being 
plucked  from  three  to  five  times  in  a  year,  at 
which  periods,  if  cold  weather  come  on,  many 
die ;  if  well  fed  and  cared  for,  a  goose  will  yield 
about  a  pound  of  feathers  in  a  season.    They 
i."  IM  rally  breed  only  once  a  year,  laying  every 
other  day,  and  depositing  7  or  8  eggs;  incuba- 
tion is  about  80  days,  and  the  female  will  some- 
times produce  enough  for  three  broods,  if  the 
eggs  are  taken  away  in  succession ;  they  begin 
to  lay  early,  are  close  sitters,  and  careful  of 
th.-ir  young;  they  grow  fast,  are  little  liable  to 
disease,  and  are  fattened  by  grain  in  a  short 
time ;  when  in  a  locality  where  they  can  pick 


Bremen  UOOM. 


"P.  ""'.' •'•  "    tl...jr  food,  they  are  profitable  to 

raise  for  th,,r  h*  and  that  of  the  goslings 

..r  tlu-ir  ,|u,:U,  .Mud  r,|,(-(.ially  for  their  feathers' 

1  ""<"1  Mat,.,  the  common  tame  goose 

"'   ferope,in  whirl,  the  pmders  are  white  and 

females  gray,  is  the  most  numerous,  and 


GOOSEBERRY 

perhaps  as  profitable  as  any.  The  white  Bre- 
men goose  is  of  larger  size,  handsome,  and 
easily  raised,  but  less  prolific  and  hardy.  The 
China  or  tchin-tchu  goose,  with  its  variety  the 
Guinea  or  African  goose,  is  very  large  and 
swan-like,  at  maturity  weighing  50  Ibs.  per 
pair.  A  cross  between  the  last  and  the  Bremen 
bird,  called  sometimes  the  mountain  goose,  is 
highly  prized  for  the  table,  and  attains  a  weight 
of  35  or  40  Ibs.  per  pair ;  it  comes  to  maturity 
early,  and  can  be  reared  in  16  weeks  to  a  weight 
of  14  Ibs.,  dressed.  The  Canada  goose  is  some- 
times tamed,  especially  in  northern  and  thinly 
settled  localities;  it  mixes  with  the  common 
goose,  though  of  a  different  genus,  and  the 
mongrels,  which  are  not  prolific,  are  considered 
a  great  delicacy.  The  goose  is  a  very  long- 
lived  bird,  its  age  having  been  known  to  equal 
100  years.  It  is  probable  that  many  wild 
species,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  might 
by  a  little  care  be  brought  into  a  state  of  do- 
mestication, and  thus  increase  the  number  of 
these  useful  birds. 

GOOSEBERRY  (ribes  grossularia,  Linn.),  the 
name  of  a  familiar  garden  fruit  of  small  size. 
The  original  species  is  indigenous  to  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  and  has 
been  found  in  the  Himalayas,  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges  (Royle).     The  cultivation  of  the 
gooseberry  in  gardens  was  first  successfully  un- 
dertaken by  the  Dutch ;  but  up  to  the  time  of 
Miller  it  had  gained  but  little  reputation  as  a 
table  fruit  in  England.    Some  suppose  that  the 
name  originated  from  the  use  of  the  berry  as  a 
sauce  for  the  goose ;  but  Pryor  states  that  it 
comes  through  the  German  Kreuzbeere  from  the 
Swedish  Krusbar,  meaning  "  frizzle  berry  "  and 
"  cross  berry,"  the  last  having  allusion  to  the 
triple  spine,  which  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
a  cross.    The  gooseberry  is  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  several  species,  of  which  the 
most  common  is  the  wild  gooseberry  (R.  cynos- 
'xiti,  Linn.),  with  large  berries  armed  with  long 
trickles  like  a  bur,  or  rarely  smooth-skinned ; 
t  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains near  the  sources  of  the  Platte  river;  its 
ruit  is  pleasant  to  the  taste.     The  commonest 
smooth  gooseberry  of  New  England  is  the  R. 
hirtellum  (Mx.),  with  small,  smooth,  purple, 
sweet  fruit.    Another  species,  R.  rotundifolium 
MX.),  grows  upon  rocky  places  in  western 
Massachusetts,  and  extends  to  Wisconsin,  and 
southward  along  the  mountains  to  Virginia; 
this  bears  a  smooth-skinned,   pleasant  fruit. 
The  swamp  gooseberry  (R.  laemtr,;  Poire!)  is 
found  in  mountain  swamps  from  Massachusetts 
and  New  York  to  the  arctic  circle,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Douglas,  in  the  mountains  of  Oregon 
and  northern  California;    this  species  differs 
rom  others  in  its  many-flowered  racemes;  its 
ruit  is  dark  purple,  and  is  unpleasant  to  the 
taste.     The  cultivation  of  the   foreign  varie 
.ies  of  the  gooseberry  is  somewhat  ditlieult  in 
>his  country,  in  consequence  ofdrv  weather  in 
he  early  summer  succeeding  the  rains  of  the 
prmg;    and  when  the  atmosphere  is  moist, 


GOOSE  FISH 


109 


.  High  the  soil  is  dry,  the  berries  become 
overgrown  with  an  insidious  mildew  (erysiphe 
mors  uvce,  Schw.),  which  effectually  prevents 
their  perfect  growth.  Repeated  application  of 
a  wash  made  with  flowers  of  sulphur  and  lime 
alone  destroy  this  mildew,  and  save  the 


>p ;  hut  the  trouhle  is  generally  considered 
too  great  for  the  result.  A  variety  or  hybrid, 
with  #ood-sized  berries  of  a  greenish  purple 
color  and  pleasant  flavor,  called  "Houghton's 
seedling,"  originating  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston, 
is  free  from  the  attacks  of  this  fungus ;  this  va- 
riety furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  fruit  sold 
in  our  markets.  The  cluster,  Downing,  and 
mountain  seedling  are  other  American  varieties. 
The  fruit  in  our  markets  is  almost  invariably 
sold  in  the  green  state  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  European  varieties  are  seldom  seen  in  this 
country  except  in  the  gardens  of  amateurs.  In 
some  of  the  manufacturing  towns  of  England 
the  operatives  have  gooseberry  societies  and 
hold  exhibitions,  the  fruit  being  judged  by 
weight.  The  gooseberry  thrives  best  in  a  ra- 
ther cool  and  partially  shaded  aspect ;  and  it 
has  been  observed  that  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  striking  upon  the  bushes  and  fruit,  when 
grown  near  walls  and  fences,  cause  the  berries 
to  scald,  so  that  they  fall,  so  rapid  is  the 
evaporation  from  its  succulent  tissues. 

GOOSE  FISH,  an  acanthopterous  fish  of  the 
lophioid  family,  which  contains  some  of  the 
most  hideous  and  voracious  of  the  class.  It 
belongs  to  the  genus  lophius  (Artedi),  charac- 
terized by  a  head  enormously  large,  broad,  and 
flat ;  the  body  slender,  smooth,  with  two  sep- 
arate dorsal  fins;  the  mouth  very  wide,  the 
lower  jaw  the  longer,  armed  with  numerous 
movable,  sharp,  conical,  recurved  teeth  on  the 
jaws,  palate,  vomer,  and  pharyngeal  bones; 
tongue  smooth  ;  branchial  rays  six,  and  bran- 
chial arches  three.  Numerous  fleshy  appen- 
dages or  cirrhi  are  arranged  along  the  edge 


of  the  lower  jaw,  the  pectoral  fins,  and  to  the 
base  of  the  tail ;  there  are  several  spines  upon 
the  head,  two  just  behind  the  snout,  others 
over  the  eyes  and  at  the  back  part  of  the 
skull ;  the  anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal,  situated 
on  the  head,  are  separated  as  two  slender  ten- 
tacles, the  first  generally  with  a  fleshy  appen- 
dage, joined  to  the  skull  by  bony  rings,  and 
capable  of  free  motion  at  the  will  of  the  ani- 
mal. The  pectorals  are  elongated  into  a  kind 
of  arm,  the  rays  representing  fingers,  by  which 
some  members  of  the  family  are  enabled  to 
move  as  upon  legs;  hence  Cuvier's  name  of 
pectorales  pediculati  ;  these  fins  are  large  and 
digitate  at  the  end,  and  behind  and  beneath 
them  are  the  large  branchial  apertures;  the 
ventrals  are  stout  and  fleshy,  considerably  in 
front  of  the  pectorals ;  the  tail  is  stout  and  digi- 
tate at  the  end.  The  eyes  are  large  and  oval ; 
the  nostrils  are  peculiar  in  being  placed  at  the 
end  of  an  erectile  tube,  the  summit  of  which 
expands  like  the  cup  of  a  flower,  and  which  is 
directed  toward  any  odorous  object.  The  skel- 
eton is  fibrous  rather  than  bony ;  the  stomach 
is  very  large  and  muscular,  and  the  intestine 
short ;  the  spinal  cord  is  as  long  as  in  other 
fishes,  but  is  remarkably  reduced  in  size  below 
its  anterior  third,  while  the  nerves  which  arise 
from  it  form  a  large  bundle  within  the  spinal 
canal,  completely  concealing  the  cord.  There 
are  five  species  described,  of  which  the  L.  Ameri- 
canus  (Cuv.)  and  Z.  piscatorius  (Linn.)  are  the 
best  known.  The  American  goose  fish  grows 
to  a  length  of  4  or  5  ft.,  varying  in  weight  from 
15  to  70  Ibs.  Its  appetite  is  most  voracious, 
and  it  feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  fish ;  entire  sea 
fowl,  such  as  gulls  and  ducks,  have  been  found 
in  its  stomach;  it  is  occasionally  taken  by  the 
hook  and  in  nets,  but  is  good  for  nothing,  not 
even  its  liver  containing  much  oil.  Being  a 
poor  swimmer  from  the  feebleness  of  its  pec- 
toral fins,  it  remains  hidden  in  the  mud  or 
sand,  waving  its  fleshy  appendages,  which 
fishes  mistake  in  the  turbid  water  for  food, 
and  are  thus  drawn  within  the  reach  of  its  ca- 


Goose  Fish  (Lophius  Americanus). 

pacious  gape.  From  this  habit  of  fishing,  it 
has  been  called  angler  and  fishing  frog,  and 
from  its  hideous  appearance  and  immense 
mouth,'  sea  devil,  wide  gab,  and  devil  fish. 
The  color  of  the  L.  Americanusis  dark  brown, 
sometimes  in  blotches,  and  dirty  white  below. 


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HUM 


112 


GORDON 


GORDON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  wa- 
tered by  the  Oostenaula  river  and  several  other 
streams ;  area,  830  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,268, 
,,f  whom  1,536  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly 
surface,  underlying  which  are  heds  of  blue 
limestone.  The  soil  is  fertile.  The  Western 
and  Atlantic  railroad  traverses  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  96,181  bushels  of 
wheat,  233,785  of  Indian  corn,  15,827  of  oats, 
11,214  of  sweet  potatoes,  80,316  Ibs.  of  butter, 
and  354  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  936 
horses,  3,416  cattle,  4,056  sheep,  and  7,958 
swine.  Capital,  Calhoun. 

GORDON,  George,  commonly  called  Lord 
George  Gordon,  an  English  political  agitator, 
born  in  London  in  December,  1750,  died  in 
Newgate  prison,  Nov.  1,  1793.  He  was  the 
third  son  of  Cosmo  George,  third  duke  of 
Gordon,  and  at  a  very  early  age  entered  the 
navy,  from  which  he  retired  in  1772.  He  was 
remarkable  for  his  personal  attractions,  his 
winning  address,  and  happy  facility  of  adapt- 
ing himself  to  the  tastes  of  all  classes.  In 
1774  he  entered  parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Ludgershall.  For  a  year  or  two  he  voted 
with  the  ministry,  but  in  1776  vehemently  op- 
posed them  in  a  speech  in  which  he  alleged 
that  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  bribe  him. 
The  ministry  subsequently  endeavored  to  per- 
suade him  to  resign  his  seat  in  parliament  and 
accept  the  place  of  vice  admiral  of  Scotland ; 
an  offer  which  he  resolutely  declined.  From 
this  time  ho  ceased  to  act  with  either  whigs  or 
tories,  but  spoke  with  so  much  effect  upon  the 
proceedings  of  either  side,  that  it  became  a 
common  remark  that  "  there  were  three  par- 
ties in  parliament,  the  ministry,  the  opposition, 
and  Lord  George  Gordon."  In  1779  the  prop- 
osition to  procure  from  parliament  an  act  for 
the  relief  of  Scottish  Roman  Catholics,  similar 
to  Sir  George  Saville's  act  passed  the  previous 
year  with  reference  to  England  and  Ireland, 
caused  an  extraordinary  excitement;  and  in 
November  a  society  was  organized  in  London 
under  the  name  of  the  "  Protestant  Associa- 
tion," of  which  Gordon  was  elected  president. 
Early  in  1780  he  presented  a  petition  pray- 
ing for  a  repeal  of  Sir  George  Saville's  act; 
but  finding  the  government  indifferent  to  the 
application,  he  convened  a  meeting  of  the  as- 
sociation on  the  evening  of  May  29,  and  en- 
joined them  to  meet  on  the  succeeding  Friday 
(June  2)  in  St.  George's  fields  and  carry  up 
their  petition  to  parliament  for  the  repeal  of 
the  act.  On  the  day  appointed  a  concourse  of 
people,  MtiniAtod  at  nearly  60,000,  assembled  in 
8k  George's  fields,  and  accompanied  him  to  the 
houses  of  parliament,  which  they  completely 
•arroanded.  The  house  having  several  times 
refused  to  take  the  petition  into  immediate  con- 
sideration, Gordon  addressed  the  mob  from 
the  top  of  the  gallery  stairs,  naming  the  mem- 
bers who  had  spoken  against  the  measure,  and 
protesting  that  "there  would  be  no  help  for 
the  Scottish  people  till  all  the  popish  chapels 
-ed."  At  a  late  hour  in  the  even- 


GORE 

ing  they  proceeded  to  the  chapels  of  the  Sar- 
dinian and  Bavarian  legations,  which  they 
sacked.  On  Sunday,  the  4th,  they  renewed 
their  violence,  and  from  the  evening  of  that 
day  until  the  morning  of  Thursday,  the  8th, 
the  city  was  almost  entirely  at  their  mercy. 
The  prisons  were  broken  open,  the  public 
buildings  attacked,  the  houses  of  Lord  Mans- 
field and  of  many  Roman  Catholics  pillaged 
and  burned,  and  at  one  time  on  the  7th  36  fires 
were  raging  within  the  limits  of  London.  On 
the  evening  of  that  day  troops  began  to  pour 
into  the  city  from  all  sides,  and  on  the  next 
afternoon  the  famous  "Gordon"  or  "no  po- 
pery" riots  were  finally  quelled,  after  more 
than  450  people  had  been  killed  and  wounded 
by  the  military,  exclusive  of  a  number  killed 
by  accident.  On  the  9th  Gordon  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  committed  to  the 
tower.  His  trial  came  on  in  February,  1781, 
and  the  prisoner,  owing  to  his  eloquent  and 
skilful  defence  by  Erskine  and  Kenyon,  was 
acquitted  on  the  ground  that  his  intentions  in 
assembling  the  people  were  not  malicious  or 
traitorous.  In  1788  he  was  sentenced  to  sev- 
eral years'  imprisonment,  and  to  pay  heavy 
fines,  for  having  libelled  the  administration  of 
criminal  justice  in  England,  and  the  queen  of 
France.  About  this  time  he  had  become  a 
proselyte  to  Judaism.  He  continued  to  send 
forth  from  his  prison  handbills  and  letters  of 
an  eccentric  character,  and  petitioned  the  na- 
tional assembly  of  France  to  procure  his  re- 
lease, but  without  effect.  He  died  of  a  deliri- 
ous fever,  having  been  in  all  probability  insane 
during  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  of  his  life. 

GORDON,  Sir  John  Watson,  a  Scottish  painter, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1790,  died  in  1864. 
He  received  his  professional  education  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  por- 
trait painting.  Among  his  portraits  are  those 
of  Scott,  De  Quincey,  and  Wilson.  In  1850 
he  became  president  of  the  royal  Scottish 
academy,  and  was  made  painter  limner  to  the 
queen;  and  in  1851,  having  been  knighted,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  London  academy. 

GORDON,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Ilitchin  about  1730,  died  in  Ipswich 
in  October,  1807.  He  removed  to  America 
in  1770,  was  ordained  minister  of  the  third 
church  in  Roxbury  in  1772,  and  became  chap- 
lain to  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachu- 
setts. Returning  to  England  in  1786,  he  pub- 
lished his  "  History  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and 
Establishment  of  the  Independence  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America  "  (4  vols.,  London,  1788). 

GORE,  Catharine  Grace,  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  Nottingham  in  1799,  died  Jan.  29,  1861. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Francis.  In  1822  she 
married  Capt.  Charles  Gore,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  published  her  first  novel,  "Theresa 
Marchmont."  This  was  followed  by  sever.il 
other  novels  and  tales,  up  to  1831.  She  passed 
the  five  succeeding  years  on  the  continent, 
writing  little  ;  but  in  1836  she  fairly  began  her 
career  as  an  author.  She  brought  out  nearly 


GORE 


GORGES 


113 


TO  works  under  her  own  name,  besides  several 
which  were  published  anonymously.  Of  her 
novels  the  best  known  are  "  Mrs.  Armytage," 
"The  Diary  of  a  Desennuyee,"  "Cecil,  or  the 
Adventures  of  a  Coxcomb,"  and  its  sequel, 
"  Ormington,  or  Cecil  a  Peer,"  "The  Banker's 
Wife,"  "Pin  Money,"  "Peers  and  Parvenus," 
"  Preferment,  or  my  Uncle  the  Peer,"  "  Temp- 
tation and  Atonement,"  "Mother  and  Daugh- 
ter," "Opera,  a  Tale  of  the  Beau  Monde," 
"Woman  of  Business,"  and  "Woman  of  the 
World."  Among  her  other  works  are  "Paris, 
Picturesque  and  Romantic,"  "  Sketch  Book 
of  Fashion,"  "  Sketches  of  English  Character," 
several  translations  from  the  French,  among 
which  is  the  "Rose  Fancier's  Manual,"  and  a 
number  of  dramas.  Her  last  work  was  "The 
Two  Aristocracies  "  (1857). 

GORE,  Christopher,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Boston,  Sept.  21,  1758,  died  at  Wal- 
tham,  March  1,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1776,  studied  law,  and  was  soon 
engaged  in  good  practice.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed -the  first  United  States  district  attor- 
ney for  Massachusetts ;  in  1796  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the  claims 
of  the  United  States  upon  Great  Britain  for 
spoliations,  and  remained  in  London,  success- 
fully engaged  in  the  duties  of  this  office,  about 
eight  years;  in  1803  he  acted  as  charge 
d'affaires ;  in  1809  was  chosen  governor  of 
Massachusetts ;  and  in  1814  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate,  where  he  served  about 
three  years.  He  left  the  most  of  his  property 
to  Harvard  college. 

GOREE,  a  small  island  belonging  to  France, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  1^  m.  S.  of  Cape 
Verd,  and  separated  from  the  continent  by  the 
strait  of  Dacar ;  pop.  about  5,000.  It  is  3  m. 
in  circumference,  and  is  nothing  more  than  a 
basaltic  rock,  which  in  some  places  is  several 
hundred  feet  high.  The  fort  occupies  an  ele- 
vated flat  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  and 
the  town  a  sandy  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  rock. 
The  roadstead  is  well  sheltered,  and  affords 
safe  anchorage  for  eight  months  of  the  year. 
The  climate  is  healthy.  In  1869  the  imports 
amounted  to  10,692,000,  and  the  exports  to 
7,270,000  francs;  there  were  578  arrivals  of 
vessels,  and  600  clearances. 

GORGES,  Sir  Ferdinando,  lord  proprietary  of 
the  province  of  Maine,  born  in  Somersetshire, 
England,  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1647.  He 
was  a  partner  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  earl  of 
Essex,  against  whom  he  testified  on  his  trial 
in  1601.  During  the  war  with  Spain  he  served 
in  the  navy,  and  after  the  peace,  in  1604,  was 
appointed  governor  of  Plymouth.  When  Way- 
mouth  returned  in  1605  from  his  voyage  to 
North  America,  and  brought  with  him  five  In- 
dian captives,  Gorges  took  three  of  them  into 
his  house,  caused  them  to  be  instructed  in  the 
English  language,  obtained  information  from 
them  of  their  native  country,  and  determined 
to  become  a  proprietor  of  domains  beyond  the 
Atlantic.  He  persuaded  Sir  John  Popham, 


lord  chief  justice  of  England,  to  share  his  in- 
tentions, while  at  the  same  time  influential  per- 
sons in  London  were  desiring  to  renew  the  at- 
tempts which  had  been  made  by  Raleigh  in 
Virginia.  A  joint  application  was  arranged, 
and  in  1606  the  king  incorporated  two  com- 
panies, the  first  called  the  London  colony,  and 
the  second  the  Plymouth  colony,  between 
which  was  divided  the  territory  extending  50 
miles  inland  from  the  34th  to  the  45th  parallel 
N.  lat.  The  Plymouth  colony  had  the  north- 
ern portion,  which  was  styled  North  Virginia. 
An  exploring  ship  was  sent  out  by  Gorges,  but 
was  captured  by  the  Spaniards.  Three  ships 
with  100  settlers  sailed  from  Plymouth,  May 
31,  1607,  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Kenne- 
bec  in  Maine,  where  they  began  a  settlement, 
which  was  abandoned  the  next  spring.  In 
1614  Gorges  engaged  Capt.  John  Smith,  who 
had  already  visited  North  Virginia  (which  he 
called  New  England),  in  the  service  of  the 
Plymouth  company.  He  set  sail  for  New  Eng- 
land with  two  ships  in  March,  1615,  but  his 
own  was  dismasted  and  returned  to  port,  and 
Capt.  Dermer  in  the  smaller  vessel  made  the 
voyage,  but  soon  returned.  Other  attempts 
of  Smith  were  unsuccessful,  but  in  1616  Gorges 
sent  out  a  party,  which  encamped  on  the  river 
Saco  through  the  winter,  and  in  1619-'20  Capt. 
Dermer  again  made  the  voyage.  In  1620  Gor- 
ges and  his  associates  obtained  a  new  incorpo- 
ration for  "  the  governing  of  New  England  in 
America,"  which  was  empowered  to  hold  ter- 
ritory extending  westward  from  sea  to  sea  be- 
tween the  40th  and  48th  parallels  N.  lat.  Gor- 
ges himself  united  with  John  Mason  in  taking 
grants  of  the  district  called  Laconia,  bounded 
by  the  Merrimack,  the  Kennebec,  the  ocean,  and 
"  the  river  of  Canada,"  and  under  his  auspices 
several  settlements  were  attempted.  His  son, 
Capt.  Robert  Gorges,  was  appointed  in  1623 
by  the  council  for  New  England  "  general  gov- 
ernor of  the  country."  This  council  resigned 
its  charter  to  the  king  in  1635,  surrendering 
the  administration  of  its  domains  to  a  governor 
general  to  be  appointed  by  him,  and  Gorges 
vainly  expected  this  appointment.  He  now 
determined  to  establish  a  miniature  sovereignty 
on  his  own  domain.  To  this  end  he  obtained 
from  the  king  a  charter  constituting  him  lord 
proprietary  of  the  province  of  Maine,  with  ex- 
traordinary governmental  powers,  which  were 
to  be  transmissible  with  the  property  to  his 
heirs  and  assigns.  He  sent  his  son  Thomas 
to  be  deputy  governor,  and  the  officers  took 
an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  lord  proprietary. 
The  province  was  divided  into  two  counties, 
of  which  Agamenticus  (now  York)  and  Saco 
were  respectively  the  principal  settlements ; 
the  former  received  a  city  charter  as  Gorgeana 
in  1642.  When  the  four  New  England  colo- 
nies formed  a  confederacy  in  1 643,  the  settle- 
ments of  Gorges  were  excluded  from  it,  "  be- 
cause," says  Winthrop,  "they  ran  a  different 
course  from  us  both  in  their  ministry  and  their 
civil  administration,"  and  because  the  proprie- 


1U 


GORGEY 


firv  w:n  tlu-n  in  arms  in  England  for  the  king 
Mftfcat  the  cause  of  the  Puritans.  On  Jus 
death  the  people  repeatedly  wrote  to  his  heirs ; 
but  as  no  answer  was  received,  they  at  length 
formed  themselves  into  a  body  politic  for  the 
purposes  of  self-government,  and  submitted  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts.— His  grand- 
son FEBDINANDO,  born  in  1629,  published 
"  America  Painted  to  the  Life  "  (London,  1659), 
sold  to  Massachusetts  in  1677  his  proprietary 
rights  to  the  province  of  Maine  for  £1,250,  and 
died  Jan.  25,  1718. 

GORGEY,  or  Gorgel,  Arthur,  a  Hungarian  gen- 
eral, born  in  the  county  of  Zips,  Feb.  5,  1818. 
He  entered  the  military  school  at  Tuln,  and 
subsequently  the  royal  Hungarian  noble  life 
guards  at  Vienna,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant 
in  the  regiment  of  Palatine  hussars.  He  soon 
left  the  army  to  devote  himself  to  chemical 
studies  at  Prague.  He  spent  the  spring  of  1848 
without  any  participation  in  the  early  events 
of  the  Hungarian  revolution ;  but  when  the 
insurrections  of  the  non-Magyar  tribes  in  the 
south  of  Hungary  had  compelled  the  Hungarian 
ministry  to  declare  the  country  in  danger,  he 
offered  his  services  to  the  national  government. 
In  August  he  received  the  command  of  the  na- 
tional guard  of  the  circle  W.  of  the  Theiss,  and 
was  sent  to  the  island  of  Csepel,  formed  by  the 
Danube,  to  defend  that  line  against  the  Croats 
of  Ban  Jellachich.  The  ban  having  been  de- 
feated at  Pakozd,  and  having  fled  toward  Vien- 
na, Gdrgey  operated  with  Perczel  against  the 
Croatian  corps,  which  finally  surrendered  at 
Ozora  (Oct.  7).  Kossuth  then  sent  him  as 
colonel  to  the  army  of  the  upper  Danube,  which 
was  about  to  cross  the  frontier  for  the  deliv- 
erance of  Vienna;  and  after  the  defeat  at 
Schwechat,  near  Vienna  (Oct.  30),  he  made 
him  general-in-chief  of  the  whole  army  which 
was  charged  with  defending  the  frontier.  Gor- 
gey's  force  was  unfit  to  maintain  a  long  line 
of  defence  against  the  superior  and  victorious 
army  of  Windischgratz,  and  on  the  approach 
of  that  general  he  abandoned  the  frontier  and 
retreated  toward  Buda,  which  was  also  aban- 
doned to  the  enemy  early  in  1849.  Gorgey 
then  crossed  the  Danube  at  Pesth,  and  marched 
toward  the  Waag.  German  in  all  except  name 
and  descent,  he  had  no  sympathy  with  Kossuth 
und  the  other  revolutionary  leaders,  and  on 
reaching  Waitzen  issued  a  manifesto  in  the  form 

declaration  of  the  royal  Hungarian  corps 
d'armee  of  the  upper  Danube,"  which  was  di- 
rected quite  as  much  against  the  republican 
tendencies  of  Kossuth  and  his  associates  as  it 
was  against  the  unconstitutional  reign  of  Fran- 
cia  Joseph,  who  had  just  been  declared  empe- 
ror. This  niaiiifi-.-to,  which  was  followed  by 
acts  of  insubordination  on  his  part,  caused  Gor- 
aey  to  be  suspected  of  treacherous  designs. 
He  waa,  however,  protected  by  the  various 
perplexities  of  the  government,  and  the  sym- 

-  of  his  army.  Hut  his  situation  was  not 
leas  critical  than  that  of  the  government.  His 
army,  consisting  of  about  15,000  men,  was  soon 


hemmed  in,  in  the  midst  of  winter,  among  the 
mountain  towns  of  the  mining  district.  The 
offensive  march  westward  was  given  up,  and  a 
retreat  toward  the  upper  Theiss  commenced. 
After  the  defeat  of  Guyon  at  Windschacht 
(Jan.  21),  and  of  Gorgey  at  Hodrics  (Jan.  22), 
all  the  three  divisions  of  the  army  were  on  tho 
brink  of  destruction,  and  all  escaped  as  by  a 
miracle,  effecting  their  junction  at  Neusohl. 
Separating  again,  they  inarched  toward  tho 
northernmost  Hungarian  region  of  the  Car- 
pathians, and  entered  Zips,  Gorgey's  native 
county,  at  the  beginning  of  February.  Having 
here  been  surprised  at  Iglo  on  the  night  be- 
tween Feb.  2  and  3,  and  suffered  some  incon- 
siderable loss,  Guyon  soon  after  (Feb.  5)  saved 
the  army  by  his  victory  on  Mount  Branyiszko 
over  a  division  of  Schlick's  corps,  which  opened 
a  junction  with  the  Hungarian  corps  under 
Klapka  on  the  upper  Theiss.  Gorgey,  who  had 
neglected  communication  with  the  government 
at  Debrecziu,  and  disbelieved  the  non-official 
reports  of  the  successful  operations  of  Klapka, 
too  late  concerted  with  the  latter  a  common 
plan  of  attack,  and  thus  missed  the  opportunity 
of  crushing  Schlick's  corps  at  Kaschau.  Ar- 
rived in  that  town,  Gdrgey  received  an  order 
placing  him,  like  Perczel  and  Klapka,  under 
the  Polish  general  Dembinski,  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  united  Hungarian  main  army. 
Gorgey  immediately  began  intrigues  against 
the  foreign  generalissimo,  which  much  deranged 
the  offensive  plans  of  the  latter.  Dembinski 
doubted  the  fidelity  of  Gorgey ;  the  latter  had 
no  confidence  in  the  ability  of  his  superior. 
The  unfavorable  issue  of  the  two  days'  battle 
of  Kapolna  (Feb.  26,  27)  was  ascribed  by  the 
one  to  unskilful  dispositions,  by  the  other  to 
treacherous  slowness  in  execution.  The  chief 
officers  of  the  army,  mostly  partisans  of  Gor- 
gey, openly  declared  their  want  of  confidence 
in  Dembinski ;  the  government  was  forced  to 
yield,  and  after  a  few  weeks  of  interregnum 
Gorgey  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the 
united  main  army,  which  was  again  to  take 
the  offensive  against  Windischgratz.  Crossing 
the  upper  Theiss,  he  began  his  march  on  the 
line  of  operation  chosen  by  Dembinski,  but 
with  greater  success.  The  whole  camgaign  was 
an  uninterrupted  series  of  victories,  which  de- 
stroyed the  finest  imperial  troops  in  Hungary, 
freed  Pesth,  and  rescued  the  fortress  of  Comorn. 
The  road  to  Vienna  was  open,  but  Buda  had 
still  to  be  conquered.  Gorgey  undertook  the 
latter  task,  but  when  he  had  executed  it  (May 
21)  the  Russian  armies  were  already  approach- 
ing the  frontiers  of  Hungary,  and  the  opportu- 
nity of  striking  a  decisive  blow  at  Austria  in 
its  capital  was  lost.  Kossuth  now  conferred 
upon  Gorgey  the  title  of  lieutenant  field  mar- 
shal, which  he  refused  to  accept.  He  set  him- 
self in  opposition  to  Kossuth's  republican  plans ; 
and  having  strengthened  his  personal  position 
by  assuming  also  the  duties  of  minister  of  war, 
and  by  the  removal  from  his  army  of  some  of 
the  most  independent  and  ablest  of  his  generals, 


GORGIAS 

he  recommenced  the  offensive  against  the  Aus- 
trians  simultaneously  with  the  invasion  of  the 
Russians.  Political  rather  than  strategical  rea- 
sons led  him  to  choose  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube  as  a  basis  of  operations,  and  he  changed 
his  plan  only  after  a  series  of  bloody  and  fruit- 
less struggles  on  the  Waag  and  Danube  (June 
16,  20,  21).  On  the  right  bank  of  the  latter 
river  his  army  was  forced  to  give  up  Raab  (June 
28),  and  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  into  the  for- 
tified camp  at  Oomorn,  where  he  gained  more 
glory  than  success  in  the  great  battle  of  Szony 
(July  2),  in  which  he  was  wounded.  At  this 
juncture,  when  Russians  and  Austrians  were 
advancing  from  every  quarter,  a  concentration 
of  the  main  armies  on  the  Theiss  was  resolved 
upon  at  Pesth  ;  Meszaros  received  the  nominal, 
and  Dembinski  the  virtual  command  in  chief; 
the  capital  was  again  evacuated,  and  Gorgey 
was  finally  compelled  to  sacrifice  his  plans. 
Leaving  a  part  of  his  army  under  Klapka  at 
Comorn,  he  retreated  toward  Waitzen,  where 
he  fought  (July  15)  against  the  Russian  main 
army  under  Paskevitch ;  but  being  unable  to 
break  through  it,  he  took  his  direction  toward 
the  upper  Theiss,  and  defeated  the  Russians  on 
the  Saj6  (July  25)  and  on  the  Hernad  (July  28). 
The  division  of  Nagy-Sandor  was  soon  after 
surprised  and  defeated  at  Debreczin  (Aug.  2)  ; 
and  when  Gorgey  finally  reached  Arad,  the  last 
appointed  place  of  concentration,  as  well  as  the 
last  seat  of  the  Hungarian  government,  his  army 
alone  was  still  able  to  fight,  all  the  others  which 
had  been  ordered  there  having  been  defeated 
and  dispersed ;  Bern  had  lost  Transylvania. 
But  to  resist  with  success  the  overwhelming 
forces  of  Paskevitch  and  Haynau  was  now  im- 
possible. Having  summoned  Kossuth  to  re- 
sign, and  been  himself  invested  (Aug.  11)  with 
supreme  civil  and  military  powers,  Gorgey  in- 
formed the  Russian  general  Riidiger  of  his 
intention  to  surrender  his  army,  relying  for 
the  fate  of  his  men  on  the  magnanimity  of 
the  czar.  The  surrender  took  place  at  Vila- 
gos,  Aug.  13,  1849,  when  20,000  infantry  and 
2,000  cavalry  laid  down  their  arms.  The  gen- 
erals and  soldiers  were  then  delivered  by  the 
Russians  to  the  Austrians,  the  former  to  be 
executed  at  Arad  (Oct.  6),  the  latter  to  serve 
a  new  term  in  their  army.  Gorgey  was  spared 
at  the  intercession  of  the  czar,  and  carried  as 
captive  to  Klagenfurth,  where  he  resumed  his 
chemical  studies,  and  wrote  Mein  Leben  und 
Wirlcen  in  Ungarn  in  den  Jahren  1848  und 
1849  (Leipsic,  1852  ;  English  translation,  "  My 
Life  and  Acts  in  Hungary,"  London,  1852). 
On  the  restoration  of  the  Hungarian  constitu- 
tion in  1867,  he  returned  to  his  country,  and 
in  1869  published  anonymously  Magyarorszdg 
1849-fow  es  1866  utdn  ("  Hungary  in  1849  and 
after  1866  "),  a  review  of  the  situation  from  a 
politico-strategical  point  of  view. 

GORGIAS,  a  Greek  rhetorician  and  sophist, 
born  in  Leontini,  Sicily,  about  487  B.  C.,  died 
about  380.  Pie  was  a  disciple  of  Empedocles 
and  Prodicus,  and  first  appears  in  history  in 


GORILLA 


115 


427,  when  he  was  sent  to  Athens  to  beseech 
succor  for  the  Leontines  attacked  by  the  Sy- 
racusans.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
chiefly  in  Greece.  He  not  only  captivated 
the  Athenian  populace  by  the  splendor  of  his 
eloquence,  but  gained  Alcibiades,  Alcidamas, 
^Eschines,  and  Antisthenes  for  pupils  or  imi- 
tators. Plato  gave  his  name  to  the  dialogue 
which  he  composed  against  the  sophists.  The 
views  of  Gorgias  were  set  forth  in  a  work  "  On 
Nature,"  which  was  early  lost,  but  of  which 
considerable  extracts  still  exist.  A  full  account 
of  it  is  given  by  Theophrastus.  The  book  was 
divided  into  three  sections.  In  the  first  he 
argued  that  nothing  had  any  real  existence ;  in 
the  second,  that  if  there  were  a  real  existence, 
it  was  not  in  man's  power  to  ascertain  it;  in 
the  third,  that  existence,  even  if  real  and  as- 
certainable,  could  not  be  communicated.  To 
prove  these  points,  he  made  use  of  the  conclu- 
sions of  the  Eleatics,  which  however  he  did 
not  fully  accept.  ,  Sextus  Empiricus  also  gives 
a  clear  description  of  the  work  of  Gorgias. 
The  charm  of  his  oratory  is  said  to  have  con- 
sisted largely  in  a  profusion  of  metaphors  and 
a  poetical  choice  and  arrangement  of  words. 
According  to  Plato,  he  expressly  declared  that 
he  did  not  profess  to  impart  virtue,  but  only 
the  power  of  speaking  eloquently. 

GORGONA,  an  island  in  the  Pacific,  30m.  from 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
to  which  it  belongs;  lat.  2°  51'  N.,  Ion.  78°  4' 
W. ;  length  from  N.  to  S.  6  m.,  breadth  from 
E.  to  W.  2  m.  The  surface  is  varied,  now  low 
and  undulating,  now  swelling  into  mountains, 
one  of  which  is  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
lower  portions  are  covered  with  a  thick  forest 
growth.  The  soil  is  very  fertile.  There  are 
few  inhabitants.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  as 
having  been  visited  by  Pizarro  immediately 
prior  to  the  conquest  of  Peru,  and  having  long 
been  a  favorite  resort  of  buccaneers. 

GORGONS,  in  Greek  mythology,  three  sisters, 
daughters  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto,  who  had  but 
one  eye  in  common,  and  changed  into  stone 
whomsoever  they  looked  upon.  Homer  men- 
tions but  one  gorgon,  which  appears  as  a  hid- 
eous phantom  in  Hades,  and  whose  head,  of 
frightful  aspect,  was  represented  on  the  a?gis 
of  Athena.  Hesiod  mentions  three,  Stheno, 
Euryale,  and  Medusa,  who  had  hissing  ser- 
pents for  hair,  brazen  claws,  short  wings,  and 
a  single  tusk-like  tooth.  They  were  placed  in 
the  garden  of  the  Hesperides  near  the  realm 
of  Night,  where  Medusa  was  slain  by  Perseus. 
Virgil  places  the  gorgons  with  harpies  and 
other  monsters  at  Pluto's  palace  gate. 

GORILLA,  the  largest  of  the  anthropoid  apes, 
a  native  of  the  equatorial  region  of  western 
Africa,  and  first  introduced  to  the  scientific 
world  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Savage  in  1847.  There 
were  vague  reports  by  voyagers  and  travellers 
of  the  existence  in  Africa  of  a  quadrumanous 
animal  larger  than  the  chimpanzee,  and  there 
were  in  museums  portions  of  a  creature  since 
ascertained  to  be  the  gorilla;  but  naturalists 


116 


GORILLA 


had  their  attention  first  called  to  it  by  the 
paper  of  Dr.  Savage  in  vol.  v.  of  the  "  Boston 
Journal  of  Natural  History,"  in  which  he  de- 
:  the  external  characters  and  habits,  and 
Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman  described  four  crania  and 
several  parts  of  the  skeleton.  Dr.  Savage  de- 
scribed it  as  troglodytes  gorilla;  Prof.  Owen 
called  it  T.  Savagei,  retaining  it  in  the  same 
genus  with  the  chimpanzee;  Geoffroy  Saint- 
Hilaire  established  for  it  the  genus  gorilla  in 
1852,  and  in  1853  gave  it  the  name  of  G.  gina, 
which  is  the  best  known,  though  G.  Savagei 
has  a  prior  claim.  The  common  names  of  the 

n'Ma  among  the  natives  of  the  region  where 
found  are  engeena,  geena,  and  engeela. 
There  are  specimens  of  the  animal,  more  or 
less  complete,  in  the  collections  at  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  London,  and  Paris ;  and  Du  Chaillu, 
on  his  return  to  the  United  States  in  August, 
1859,  from  the  country  about  the  Gaboon  river, 
brought  with  him  several  complete  specimens, 


Gorilla. 

male  and  female,  both  skins  and  skeletons,  in 
excellent  preservation,  most  of  which  are  now 
in  the  London  collections.  Du  Chaillu  is  the 
first  white  man  who  killed  a  gorilla  with  his 
own  hand,  or  who  had  an  opportunity  of  study- 
ing its  habits  in  its  native  forests. — The  skull 
male  is  longer  and  wider,  but  less  heavy, 
than  that  of  man,  and  the  capacity  of  the  cavity 
which  contains  the  brain  is  less  than  one  half  of 
that  of  the  most  degraded  human  races.  The 
most  striking  peculiarity  is  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  interparietal  and  occipital  crests 
and  the  ridges  over  the  orbits,  which  give  an 
angular  outline  to  the  skull,  resembling  the 
orangs  in  the  first  and  the  chimpanzee  in  the 
:.ara.-t«-r ;  there  is  a  great  thickness  of 
the  orhital  walls,  with  much  space  between  the 
orbits,  and  a  prominence  on  the  inner  wall  di- 
rected outward  ;  n  noteworthy  character  is  the 
coalescence  of  the  n.-i-al  I  .ones  above,  with  a 
median  suture  on  their  lower  half,  the  upper 


portion  ascending  above  the  nasal  processes  of 
the  superior  maxillary  and  becoming  contracted 
between  them,  slightly  projecting  as  in  man ; 
the  crests  are  much  less  in  the  female.  The 
cranial  crests,  wide  zygomatic  arches,  and  mas- 
sive lower  jaw  give  indication  of  the  power- 
ful muscles.  The  dental  formula  is  the  same 
as  in  man  and  the  higher  quadrumana;  the 
canines  are  enormous,  the  incisors  very  wide, 
the  lateral  ones  being  more  pointed,  and  the 
lower  molars  have  five  tubercles  instead  of 
four.  The  bones  of  the  trunk  and  extremities 
are  remarkable  for  their  size  and  strength; 
the  length  of  the  cervical  spines  is  such  that 
the  nape  is  more  prominent  than  the  back  of 
the  head ;  the  scapula  and  bones  of  the  arm 
indicate  the  attachment  of  muscles  in  com- 
parison with  which  man's  seem  like  those  of 
a  child.  The  expression  of  the  face  is  scowl- 
ing; the  nose  is  very  flat  and  widely  open  ;  the 
ears  are  small ;  the  eyes  are  much  sunk  in  the 
head,  and  the  lashes  are  short  and  thick ;  the 
mouth  is  very  wide,  the  lips  large  and  thin,  the 
lower  one  pendulous  and  very  movable,  the 
chin  short  and  receding,  and  the  whole  muzzle 
prominent;  the  face  is  transversely  wrinkled 
and  black.  The  chest  is  capacious,  the  shoul- 
ders very  wide,  and  the  abdomen  everywhere 
projecting.  The  limbs  are  greatly  developed 
and  of  immense  strength  ;  the  arms  are  longer 
than  in  the  chimpanzee,  reaching  far  down 
the  leg,  but  according  to  Owen,  whose  ob- 
servations are  generally  confirmed  by  the 
specimens  of  Du  Chaillu,  the  arms  do  not 
extend  so  low  as  the  knee;  while  the  arm 
and  forearm  are  longer  than  in  the  chimpan- 
zee, the  hand  is  shorter,  wider,  and  more  hu- 
man in  its  carpal  and  metacarpal  portions  and 
the  lateral  position  of  the  thumb ;  from  the 
length  of  the  palm  the  fingers  appear  short 
and  thick  as  if  swollen;  they  are  also  less 
free,  as  the  posterior  portion  of  the  three  in- 
termediate fingers  is  covered  by  the  undivided 
integument.  There  is  very  little  appearance 
of  wrist,  the  circumference  at  this  part  being 
twice  that  of  a  strong  man's ;  the  fingers  taper 
to  a  point,  are  not  arched,  and  the  nails  are 
flat  and  relatively  small ;  the  fingers  are  about 
twice  the  circumference  of  man's,  and  the  skin 
of  the  middle  joint  is  callous  from  the  habit  of 
the  animal  of  applying  these  surfaces  to  the 
ground  when  it  adopts  a  favorite  way  of  pro- 
gression by  swinging  its  body  forward  sup- 
ported by  and  between  the  hands;  the  thumb 
is  short,  and  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the 
fore  finger.  The  posterior  extremities  are  oc- 
casionally used  alone  in  standing  and  in  pro- 
gression; the  thigh  is  relatively  short,  and  of  a 
nearly  uniform  size,  in  its  middle  portion  not 
surpassing  in  circumference  the  same  part  in 
man ;  the  leg  increases  in  thickness  from  be- 
low the  knee  to  the  ankle ;  the  tendinous  por- 
tion of  the  muscles  is  developed  more  than  the 
fleshy,  with  a  great  gain  in  strength.  Tho 
foot  is  longer  than  the  hand,  and  is  human- 
like also  in  having  the  three  intermediate  toes 


GORILLA 


>out  the  same  length,  and  partly  united  at 
their  base  by  the  integuments;  the  gorilla  is 
essentially  quadrumanous,  and  the  posterior 
thumbs  are  largely  developed,  widely  separated 
from  the  toes,  to  which  they  are  easily  op- 
posed, and  well  calculated  for  prehension.  The 
genus  gorilla  was  established  by  Geoffroy 
Saint-Ililaire  on  the  following  characters  prin- 
cipally :  the  head  rounded  in  the  young,  very 
much"  elongated  and  depressed  in  the  adult, 
with  very  prominent  crapial  crests ;  the  pecu- 
liar conformation  of  the  organs  of  sense,  above 
detailed;  the  gigantic  size;  the  proportions  of 
the  limbs,  and  the  characters  of  the  hands  and 
feet;  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  teeth.  It 
seems  sufficiently  distinct  from  troglodytes  ni- 
ger.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  precise 
position  of  the  gorilla  in  the  quadrumanous 
series ;  in  the  structure  of  the  hand  and  foot 
it  comes  nearer  to  man  than  the  chimpanzee 
does ;  in  the  canines  it  would  seem  to  be  below 
even  the  orangs ;  and  in  the  proportion  of  the 
arm  and  forearm  it  is  below  the  chimpanzee. 
The  very  indefmiteness  of  its  position  is  an- 
other argument  for  its  separation  as  a  genus 
among  the  quadrumana.  The  adult  male  go- 
rilla is  from  5  to  6  ft.  high  in  its  natural  alti- 
tude, though  after  death  it  may  be  stretched 
beyond  this ;  most  specimens  are  under  6  ft., 
on  account  of  the  relative  shortness  and  gene- 
rally flexed  position  of  the  legs;  it  far  sur- 
passes man  in  the  dimensions  of  the  head, 
neck,  body,  and  arms,  and  in  the  width  of  the 
shoulders ;  some  are  said  to  measure  from  7  to 
9  ft.  from  the  end  of  one  outstretched  hand  to 
that  of  the  other ;  one  of  Du  Chaillu's  speci- 
mens measures  8  ft.  11  in.  The  general  color 
of  the  hair,  which  is  coarse  and  about  2  in. 
long  on  the  arms,  an  inch  on  the  belly,  and 
quite  short  on  the  back  and  legs,  is  gray  in- 
clining to  black.  There  is  a  black  stripe  about 
2£  in.  wide  extending  diagonally  down  the 
sides  from  behind  the  shoulder  to  the  belly, 
which  is  entirely  black.  On  the  upper  portion 
of  the  back  the  hair  is  very  thin  ;  old  ones  are 
bare  in  that  part.  On  the  arms  the  hair  is 
black,  and  reversed  from  the  wrist  to  the  el- 
bow ;  the  chest  is  nearly  bare ;  there  are  a  few 
white  hairs  in  the  anal  region;  the  face,  hands, 
and  feet  are  black  ;  the  hands  are  hairy  as  far 
as  the  division  of  the  fingers,  the  palms  naked 
and  callous ;  the  head  has  generally  a  reddish 
tint;  on  the  whole  the  male  would  be  called 
grayish  and  the  female  blackish.  The  young 
differ  greatly  from  the  adults  in  the  shape  of 
the  head,  and  the  females  are  less  ferocious- 
looking  as  well  as  much  smaller  than  the 
males. — The  gorilla  is  found  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Africa,  both  K  and  S.  of  the  equator,  but 
especially  in  the  wooded  districts  of  the  inte- 
rior near  the  head  waters  of  the  Gaboon  river, 
and  along  the  Muni  river  as  far  E.  as  the 
Crystal  mountains.  It  is  principally  an  in- 
habitant^ the  woods,  but  though  the  struc- 
ture of  its  four  hands  seems  well  adapted  to 
climbing  on  trees,  it  is  very  rare  that  a  female 


or  a  young  male  is  seen  on  them — the  old 
males  never ;  its  favorite  mode  of  progression 
is  on  all  fours,  in  a  shuffling  manner  and  rolling 
from  side  to  side,  but  with  its  head  always 
erect  and  its  face  looking  forward ;  on  account 
of  the  greater  length  of  the  arms  it  stoops  less 
than  the  chimpanzee,  and  is  fond  of  thrusting 
these  forward,  with  the  flexed  fingers  on  the 
ground,  and  of  giving  its  body  a  half  jumping, 
half  swinging  motion  forward  between  them ; 
when  it  assumes  the  erect  posture,  it  flexes  the 
arms  upward  or  crosses  them  on  the  nape  in 
order  to  counterbalance  the  tendency  of  the 
trunk  to  fall  forward.  Gorillas  are  generally 
seen  in  troops  of  fiver  four  females  and  one 
male,  but  the  old  males  are  occasionally  met 
wandering  alone ;  though  living  in  the  same 
neighborhood  as  the  chimpanzees,  they  do  not 
associate  with  them.  Their  strength  is  enor- 
mous, not  only  in  the  jawrs,  which  are  able  to 
crush  the  barrel  of  a  musket,  but  in  the  hands 
and  feet,  which  they  use  in  common  with  their 
canines  in  attack  and  defence ;  they  are  able 
to  break  with  ease  trees  three  or  four  inches 
in  diameter.  The  males  are  exceedingly  fero- 
cious, generally  attacking  man  and  animals  in- 
truding upon  their  haunts;  if  wounded,  they 
are  more  terrible  than  the  lion,  and  in  this 
event  the  hunter's  death  is  sure  and  speedy  if 
his  hand  trembles  or  his  gun  misses  fire.  They 
approach  the  enemy  standing,  advancing  a  few 
steps  at  a  time,  pausing  to  beat  their  breasts 
with  both  hands,  and  roaring  terribly.  When 
near  enough,  they  spring  upon  him,  and  de- 
stroy him  with  their  powerful  hands.  One  of 
Du  Chaillu's  men  was  eviscerated  by  a  single 
blow.  The  story  of  their  carrying  clubs  is 
untrue.  They  are  perfectly  untamable,  in  this 
respect  differing  from  the  chimpanzee,  which, 
in  youth  at  least,  appreciates-  kind  treatment. 
"When  living  in  troops  they  are  shy  and  diffi- 
cult to  approach,  but  when  mated  or  alone 
they  almost  invariably  offer  battle,  and  are 
then  the  most  terrible  of  animals.  When  liv- 
ing near  villages,  they  sometimes  come  at  day- 
break to  eat  the  plantains  and  sugar  cane  of 
the  natives ;  besides  these  they  eat  nuts,  ber- 
ries, fruits  of  the  oil  palm  and  banana,  the  acid 
pulp  of  the  amomum,  the  white  portions  of 
the  leaves  of  the  pineapple,  and  roots.  Unlike 
the  chimpanzee,  the  gorilla  makes  no  shelter 
for  itself.  In  intelligence  it  is  considerably 
inferior  to  the  chimpanzee.  It  exhibits  great 
fondness  for  its  young,  of  which  it  has  one  at  a 
time.  The  reports  of  its  visiting  villages  and 
carrying  off  negresses  into  the  woods  are  mere 
fables.  It  is  generally  mute,  but  sometimes 
amuses  itself  by  a  sort  of  roaring,  which,  be- 
ginning low,  increases  till  the  forest  echoes 
with  its  reverberations.  When  about  to  at- 
tack its  enemies  it  gives  a  terrific  yell,  which 
resounds  far  and  wide.  The  negroes  of  the 
interior  are  very  fond  of  eating  the  flesh  of  go- 
rillas as  well  as  of  chimpanzees  and  monkeys. 
Among  the  coast  tribes,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  considered  an  abomination  to  eat  the  flesh 


118 


GORITZ 


of  either  the  gorilla  or  the  chimpanzee,  on  ac- 
count of  their  resemblance  to  man. 

GOKITZ.     See  GOBZ. 

GOR&HIS,  the  dominant  people  of  Nepaul 
in  India.  Little  is  known  of  their  history  un- 
til about  1768,  when,  having  consolidated  or 
conquered  the  petty  independent  tribes  among 
whom  Nepaul  was  parcelled  out,  they  found 
themselves  masters  of  the  whole  of  that  coun- 
try, and  eventually  of  almost  the  entire  alpine 
region,  as  it  is  called,  of  northern  India.  Hav- 
ing invaded  Thibet  in  1790,  they  were  defeated 
by  the  Chinese,  to  whom  the  lamas  had  applied 
for  assistance,  and  during  a  short  period  they 
remained  in  nominal  subjection  to  the  celestial 
empire;  but  in  1792  their  independence  was 
recognized  by  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
East  India  company.  A  few  years  later  they 
were  involved  in  a  war  with  the  British.  (See 
NEPAUL.)  The  Gorkhas  are  of  Mongol  ori- 
gin, but  smaller  and  darker  than  the  Chinese. 
They  are  seldom  over  5  ft.  high,  are  hardy  and 
active,  and  make  good  soldiers.  They  form  a 
valuable  portion  of  the  native  troops  enlisted 
in  the  British  army,  and  won  the  enthusiastic 
praise  of  the  English  officers  by  their  uniform 
fidelity  during  the  sepoy  revolt  of  1857-'8,  and 
their  services  in  the  field,  particularly  during 
the  Delhi  campaign.  They  are  Hindoos  in  re- 
ligion, but  unlike  Hindoos  in  appearance,  cus- 
toms, and  freedom  from  caste  prejudice. 

GORKUM,  or  Gorenm  (Dutch,  Gorinchem),  a 
fortified  town  of  the  Netherlands,  province  of 
South  Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maas, 
22  m.  S.  E.  of  Rotterdam ;  pop.  about  10,000. 
It  has  a  college,  a  scientific  society,  the  ancient 
church  of  St.  Vincent  containing  the  tombs 
of  the  lords  of  Arkel,  and  the  town  hall  adorned 
with  remarkable  paintings.  It  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  corn,  hemp,  butter,  cheese,  sal- 
mon, and  Frisian  horses;  there  are  also  yards 
for  boat  building,  and  extensive  rope  walks. 
A  canal  from  Gorkum  to  Vianen  unites  the  Leek 
with  the  Maas.  Gorkum  acquired  importance 
in  the  14th  century,  was  considered  the  key  of 
Holland  at  the  beginning  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, and  was  ruined  by  an  inundation  in  1809. 
— The  martyrs  of  Gorkum  is  the  name  given 
in  the  Roman  Marty rology  to  19  persons  (17 
priests  regular  and  secular,  and  two  Franciscan 
lay  brothers)  put  to  death  by  William  de  la 
Marck  and  his  gueux  de  la  mer  in  1572.  They 
were  beatified  by  Pope  Clement  X.  Nov.  24, 
1673,  and  their  feast  is  held  on  July  9,  the  an- 
niversary of  their  death. 

GOKLITZ,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  situated 
on  an  eminence  which  overhangs  the  left  bank 
of  the  Neisse,  and  on  the  Dresden  and  Breslau 
railway,  53  m.  E.  of  Dresden;  pop.  in  1871, 
42,224.  It  consists  of  the  inner  town,  which  is 
unrounded  \\ith  \\-alU  having  11  gates,  and  the 
suburbs.  The  Gothic  Protestant  church  of  Sts. 
Peter  an<l  Paul  lias  a  famous  organ.  A  fine 
Gothic  buildini:  was  erected  for  the  gymnasium 
in  1856.  The  t.iwn  H  the  seat  of  several  scien- 
tific and  literary  societies.  The  town  hall  con- 


GORRES 

tains  a  large  library.  The  manufactures  are 
linen  and  woollen  cloth,  tobacco,  starch,  &c. 
Gorlitz  was  a  city  of  great  importance  in  the 
three  centuries  preceding  the  reformation,  and 
the  capital  of  Upper  Lusatia;  it  then  declined, 
but  of  late  the  population  has  rapidly  increased 
in  consequence  of  the  flourishing  industry. 

GOKKES.  I.  Jakob  Joseph  von,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  in  Coblentz,  Jan.  25,  1776,  'died  in 
Munich,  Jan.  29,  1848.  After  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  French  republic  he  gave  up  the 
study  of  medicine  to  devote  himself  to  politics. 
His  ardent  republicanism  showed  itself  in  his 
first  writings,  and  caused  the  suppression  of  a 
periodical  published  by  him.  In  1799  he  went 
to  Paris  at  the  head  of  a  deputation  sent  by  the 
German  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
to  prepare  the  way  for  a  complete  union  with 
France.  Bonaparte,  just  raised  to  power  by 
the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  could  not 
find  time  to  confer  with  the  German  deputa- 
tion, and  Gorres  returned  homfe  with  his  repub- 
lican hopes  much  weakened.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  sciences 
in  the  college  of  Coblentz,  and  he  soon  after- 
ward published  several  philosophical  works, 
all  pervaded  with  the  prevalent  idealism.  In 
1803  he  lectured  in  the  university  of  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  resided  till  1808,  publishing  Die 
deutschen  Volksbucher,  and  editing  the  Einsie- 
dlerzeitung.  Returning  to  Coblentz,  he  pub- 
lished several  works  on  Asiatic  mythology  and 
German  mediaeval  literature.  In  1814,  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  established  Der  Ehei- 
nische  Mercur,  which  advocated  the  restoration 
of  the  German  empire ;  it  was  suppressed  by 
the  Prussian  government  in  1816.  In  1820 
appeared  his  Deutsehland  und  die  Revolution, 
warning  sovereigns  that  a  new  revolution  was 
inevitable  unless  God  and  the  Catholic  church 
were  made  supreme  in  the  restored  political 
state.  In  1827,  after  having  resided  in  France 
and  Switzerland,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  in  the  university  of  Munich.  The  diffi- 
culty which  arose  in  1837  between  the  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  and  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment induced  him  to  write  his  Athanatiut,  in 
which  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  archbishop, 
and  which  had  great  influence  on  the  Catholics 
of  Germany.  This  he  followed  up  by  other 
writings,  and  he  founded  the  periodical  Histo- 
risch-politische  Blatter,  which  took  a  leading 
part  in  Catholic  literature.  In  1844  he  cnce 
more  advocated  the  political  union  of  Germany. 
In  1845  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Mu- 
nich academy  of  science ;  and  he  published 
about  that  time  treatises  on  ethnology  regard- 
ed as  fragments  of  a  comprehensive  universal 
history,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 
His  principal  work  is  Christliche  Mystik  (4 
vols.,  Ratisbon,  1836-'42  ).  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  edited  by  his  daughter,  has 
been  published  (8  vols.,  Munich,  1856-'60).  A 
sketch  of  his  life  was  published  by  his  pupil 
Sepp  in  1848.  II.  Gnldo,  a  German  author, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Coblentz,  May 


GORTCHAKOFF 


119 


28,  1805,  died  July  14,  1852.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  he  edited  the  HistoriscJi-politiscJie 
Blatter,  but  is  chiefly  known  hy  his  poems, 
legendary  writings,  and  juvenile  books.  Among 
these  are :  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans  (1834) ; 
Schon  Roslein  (1838) ;  Testkalender  in  Bildern 
und  Liedern  (3  vols.,  1835-' 9);  Marienlieder 
(1842) ;  Der  Jiurnene  Siegfried  und  sein 
Katnpf  init  dem  Drachen,  illustrated  by  Kaul- 
bach  (1843)  ;  Die  Gottesfahrt  nach  Trier  und 
des  Teufels  Landsturm  (1844);  and  Die  arme 
Pilgerin  zum  heilige  Itocke  (1846). 

GORTCHAKOFF,  a  Russian  princely  family,  de- 
scended from  the  royal  house  of  Rurik,  seve- 
ral members  of  which  have  distinguished  them- 
selves. I.  Petr,  commander  of  Smolensk,  is 
celebrated  for  his  defence  of  that  place  against 
the  army  of  Sigismund  III.,  king  of  Poland, 
from  1609  to  1611,  when  it  was  taken  by  as- 
sault. II.  Dimitri,  born  in  1756,  won  a  place 
among  the  poets  of  Russia  by  his  odes,  satires, 
and  epistles,  and  died  in  1824.  III.  Alexander, 
born  in  1764,  served  under  Suvaroff  against 
the  Turks,  the  Poles  under  Kosciuszko,  and  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  Switzerland,  and 
subsequently  with  great  distinction  under  Ben- 
ningsen  in  the  campaign  of  1807,  when  he  de- 
feated Lannes  at  Heilsberg  and  fought  at  Fried- 
land,  acted  as  chief  of  the  war  ministry  in 
1812,  was  appointed  general  of  infantry,  and 
died  in  1825.  IV.  Andrei  served  as  major  gen- 
eral under  Suvaroff  in  1799,  and  commanded 
a  division  during  the  French  invasion  in  1812, 
when  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of 
Borodino ;  he  left  the  army  in  1828,  and  died 
in  1855.  V.  Alexander,  a  statesman,  born  July 
16,  1798.  He  acquired  experience  in  diploma- 
cy under  Nesselrode  in  various  employments, 
and  in  1824  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
legation  in  London ;  in  1830  charge  d'affaires 
in  Florence;  and  in  1832  councillor  of  the 
embassy  at  Vienna,  where  he  often  acted  as 
ambassador  during  the  illness  or  absence  of 
his  chief.  In  1841  he  was  sent  to  Stuttgart, 
and  having  negotiated  the  marriage  between 
the  crown  prince  (now  king)  of  Wtirtemberg 
and  the  Russian  grand  duchess  Olga,  he  was 
in  1846  made  privy  councillor.  In  ]  850  he  was 
appointed  plenipotentiary  to  the  German  diet 
at  Frankfort,  and  in  1854  he  succeeded  Mey- 
endorff  as  ambassador  in  Vienna.  He  dis- 
played consummate  tact  and  ability  during  the 
Crimean  war,  and  it  was  mainly  through  his 
influence  that  the  treaty  of  Paris  was  signed 
by  Russia  (March,  1856);  after  which  he  suc- 
ceeded Nesselrode  as  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs. In  1857  he  attended  the  emperor  Al- 
exander during  his  interview  with  Napoleon 
III.  in  Stuttgart.  As  the  policy  of  France 
became  hostile  to  Austria  on  the  Italian  ques- 
tion, he  increased  in  friendliness  toward  the 
former.  Ambitious  above  all  to  restore  the 
prestige  of  Russia  after  the  calamities  of  the 
Crimean  war,  he  addressed  in  1860  a  circular 
despatch  to  the  European  powers  appealing  to 
the  same  principle  of  nationalities  in  the  Two 


Sicilies  which  Russia  had  always  upheld  in 
regard  to  the  Christians  of  the  East,  and  re- 
monstrated against  any  foreign  interference  in 
Neapolitan  affairs  ;  at  the  same  time  disclaim- 
ing any  idea  of  revenge  for  past  defeats.  He 
favored  the  French  expedition  of  1861  to  Syria 
for  the  protection  of  the  Christian  population 
against  renewed  massacres ;  but  preserving  en- 
tire independence  in  his  foreign  policy,  he  re- 
fused to  associate  himself  with  France  and 
Great  Britain  in  their  unfriendly  attitude  to- 
ward the  United  States  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war.  During  the  Polish  insurrection 
of  1863  he  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity 
presented  by  the  interference  of  foreign  powers 
in  behalf  of  the  Poles,  to  vindicate  the  aversion 
of  Russia  to  foreign  dictation,  and  her  deter- 
mination to  settle  her  internal  affairs  in  accord- 
ance with  the  interests  and  the  integrity  of  the 
empire,  and  without  regard  to  the  views  of 
other  nations.  This  course  increased  his  pop- 
ularity at  home  and  his  prestige  abroad,  and 
the  emperor,  who  had  assigned  to  him  the  title 
of  vice  chancellor  in  1862,  now  (July,  1863) 
promoted  him  to  the  office  of  chancellor.  In 
1866  he  succeeded  in  securing  the  complete 
separation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of 
Poland  from  the  holy  see.  His  most  brilliant 
achievement  was  begun  in  October,  1870,  when, 
after  an  understanding  with  Bismarck  on  the 
subject,  he  availed  himself  of  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war  to  undo  the  injury  done  to  Russian 
influence  in  the  East  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  by 
securing  at  the  London  conference  of  January, 
1871,  the  revision  of  that  treaty,  and  the  for- 
mation of  another  (March  13)  putting  an  end 
to  the  neutralization  of  the  Black  sea  ;  for  this 
the  emperor  conferred  upon  him  the  dignity 
of  serene  highness.  In  the  central  Asia  ques- 
tion (1873-'4)  he  exhibited  a  desire  to  avoid 
disturbing  the  friendly  relations  with  England, 
without,  however,  receding  from  an  aggressive 
policy.  Though  suffering  from  the  gout,  he 
continues  (1874)  to  preside  over  the  chancery, 
but  generally  spends  the  summer  in  Switzer- 
land or  Germany  for  the  benefit  of  his  health. 
His  eldest  son,  MIKHAIL,  was  appointed  Rus- 
sian minister  at  Bern  in  1872.  VI.  Petr,  a  gen- 
eral, born  in  Moscow  about  1790,  died  there 
in  1868.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age, 
fought  against  Napoleon  in  the  campaigns  of 
1807  and  1812-'14,  served  under  Yermoloff 
in  the  Caucasus,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  Turkey  in  1828  and  1829, 
when  he  signed  the  peace  of  Adrianople.  He 
was  made  governor  general  of  western  Siberia 
in  1839,  and  general  of  infantry  in  1843,  and 
retired  from  service  in  1851 ;  but  reentered  it 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Crimean  war,  and 
commanded  a  wing  of  the  Russian  army  at  the 
Alma  and  at  Inkerman  in  1854.  He  resigned  in 
the  spring  of  1855,  and  was  in  1858  appointed 
member  of  the  imperial  council.  VII.  Mikhail, 
born  in  1795,  died  May  30,  1861.  He  served 
against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1807 
and  1812-'14,  against  the  Swedes  in  1808-'9, 


GORTON 


GORTZ 


and  against  the  Turks  in  1828-'9,  when  he  led 
the  sieges  of  Shumla  and  Silistria,  distinguish- 
c-.l  himself  in  the  war  of  the  Polish  revolution 
(1831)  at  Grochow,  Ostrolenka,  and  the  taking 
<>f  Warsaw,  wa>  made  general  of  artillery,  and 
in  1846  military  governor  of  Warsaw,  where 
he  subsequently  often  acted  as  lieutenant  of 
Prince  Paskevitch,  whom  he  also  accompanied 
on  the  invasion  of  Hungary  in  1849.  In  1853  he 
received  the  command  of  the  army  of  invasion 
sent  to  the  Danubian  principalities,  ceded  it 
soon  after  to  Paskevitch,  but  took  it  again  after 
the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Silistria,  and  led  the 
retreating  army  to  Bessarabia.  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  Crimea 
and  southern  Russia,  and  suffered  defeat  on  the 
Tchernaya,  but  greatly  distinguished  himself 
by  the  gallant  defence  of  Sebastopol,  as  well 
as  by  the  skilful  retreat  to  the  North  fort  after 
the  fall  of  the  fortress.  In  1856,  after  the 
death  of  Paskevitch,  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Poland  by  Alexander  II.,  and  he  was 
carrying  out  that  emperor's  conciliatory  mea- 
sures at  the  time  of  his  death. 

GORTON,  Samuel,  a  New  England  religious'  en- 
thusiast, the  first  settler  of  Warwick,  R.  I.,  born 
in  Gorton,  England,  about  1600,  died  in  Rhode 
Island  in  November  or  December,  1677.  He 
did  business  in  London  as  a  clothier  till  1636, 
when  he  embarked  for  New  England,  and 
settled  at  Boston,  and  afterward  at  Plymouth, 
where  he  began  to  preach  such  peculiar  doc- 
trines that  he  was  banished  from  the  colony 
on  a  charge  of  heresy.  With  a  few  followers 
he  went  to  Rhode  Island,  which  had  recently 
been  settled  by  exiles  from  Massachusetts  Bay ; 
but  falling  again  into  trouble,  he  was  publicly 
whipped  for  calling  the  justices  "just  asses  "  and 
for  other  contemptuous  acts,  and  was  forced 
to  seek  an  asylum  with  Roger  Williams  in 
Providence,  about  1641.  Here  he  made  him- 
self so  obnoxious  that  in  November  of  that  year 
a  petition  was  addressed  to  the  authorities  of 
Massachusetts  praying  that  Gorton  and  his 
company  might  be  "brought  to  satisfaction." 
That  colony  having  acquired  a  nominal  juris- 
diction over  Pawtuxet,  where  Gorton  had  set- 
tled, he  was  summoned  to  Boston  in  September, 
1642 ;  but  he  refused  to  recognize  the  jurisdic- 
tion thus  assumed,  and  about  the  same  time 
removed  to  Shawomet,  on  the  W.  side  of  Nar- 
ragansett  bay,  where  he  purchased  land  from 
the  sachem  Miantonomo.  But  in  Jurue,  1643, 
two  inferior  sachems  contested  his  claims  to 
the  land,  and  applied  to  the  goneral  court  at 
Boston  for  assistance.  A  body  of  40  soldiers 
was  consequently  marched  to  Shawomet,  and 
Gorton  and  ten  of  his  disciples  were  carried 
to  Boston,  where,  the  question  of  the  land 
being  laid  aside,  they  were  put  on  trial  for 
their  lives  as  "damnable  heretics/'  Gorton 
and  six  others  were  found  guilty,  and  sen- 
tenced to  confinement  and  hard  labor  in  irons. 
U  M:uv!i.  IC.H.  tln-y  \v,-re  released,  and  or- 
dered to  leave  the  colony  within  14  days 
Gorton  then  went  to  England  to  obtain  re- 


dress,  and  having  procured  a  letter  of  safe 
conduct  from  the  earl  of  Warwick  to  the 
Massachusetts  magistrates,  and  an  order  that 
his  people  should  be  allowed  peaceable  pos- 
session of  their  lands  at  Shawomet,  he  returned 
in  1648  to  his  colony,  which  he  named  after 
the  earl.  Though  Massachusetts  did  not  re- 
linquish her  claim  over  the  Shawomet  settle- 
ment until  some  years  later,  Gorton's  remain- 
ing years  seem  to  have  passed  quietly.  He 
discharged  many  important  civil  offices,  and 
on  Sundays  used  to  preach  to  the  colonists 
and  Indians.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  what 
were  his  religious  opinions.  He  contemned 
a  clergy  and  all  outward  forms,  and  held  that 
by  union  with  Christ  believers  partook  of  the 
perfection  of  God,  that  Christ  is  both  human 
and  divine,  and  that  heaven  and  hell  have  no 
existence  save  in  the  mind.  He  published 
"  Simplicitie's  Defence  against  seven-headed 
Policy,"  a  vindication  of  his  course  in  New 
England  (4to,  London,  1646  ;  reprinted  in  the 
collections  of  the  Rhode  Island  historical  so- 
ciety); "An  Incorruptible  Key  composed  of 
the  CX.  Psalme  "  (1647)  ;  "  Saltmarsh  returned 
from  the  Dead  "  (1655)  ;  "  An  Antidote  against 
the  common  Plague  of  the  World"  (1657); 
"  Certain  Copies  of  Letters,"  &c.  He  also  left 
in  manuscript  a  commentary  on  a  part  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.—  See  his  life  by  J.  M. 
Mackie  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography." 

GORTYNA,  an  ancient  town  of  Crete,  a  little 
S.  of  the  centre  of  the  island,  on  a  plain 
watered  by  the  Lethaeus.  It  was  90  stadia 
from  the  Libyan  sea,  on  which  it  had  two 
ports,  Lebena  and  Metallum.  It  was  next  in 
importance  and  splendor  to  Cnossus,  in  alliance 
with  which  it  early  reduced  all  the  rest  of  the 
island  to  subjection  ;  but  it  was  afterward  at  war 
Avith  Cnossus,  and  also  with  Cydonia,  against 
which  Philopcemen  commanded  its  forces  for 
several  years.  The  site  of  Gortyna  is  thought 
to  be  near  the  modern  Hagios  Dheka.  The 
caverns  in  the  neighborhood  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Savary  and  Tournefort,  and  Captain 
Spratt  sees  in  them  the  labyrinth  of  Minos. 

GORTZ,  Georg  Heinrich,  baron,  a  Swedish 
statesman,  born  in  Germany,  executed  in 
Stockholm  in  March,  1719.  He  belonged  to 
an  ancient  family,  whose  original  name  was 
Schlitz.  He  became  minister  of  Holstein,  and 
was  sent  in  1706  on  a  mission  to  Charles  XII., 
who  made  him  his  minister  of  finance  and 
afterward  prime  minister.  In  both  positions 
he  evinced  rare  abilities,  as  well  as  great  un- 
concern in  the  choice  of  his  means.  He  was 
endeavoring  to  restore  the  fallen  fortunes  of 
Sweden  by  an  extraordinary  diplomatic  com- 
bination (see  CHARLES  XII.)  when  the  king 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frederikshald  (1718), 
and  he  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  the  block 
by  Ulrica  Eleonora  and  her  husband  Frederick 
of  Hesse,  who  succeeded  to  the  Swedish  throne. 
The  pretext  for  his  execution  was  that  he 
had  mismanaged  the  finances  and  goaded  on 
Charles  to  fatal  enterprises. 


GORUCKPOOR 

GORUCKPOOR.  I.  A  district  of  the  North- 
west Provinces,  British  India,  bounded  N.  by 
Nepaul,  W.  and  S.  W.  by  Oude;  area,  7,346 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,044,281.  The  surface 
is  generally  level,  but  broken  in  the  E.  and  S. 
E.  parts  by  ridges  of  low  steep  hills.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Gogra,  Gunduk,  and 
Raptee,  which  have  a  S.  E.  course.  The  dis- 
trict also  abounds  in  shallow  lakes.  The  soil 
is  rendered  fertile  by  careful  irrigation.  The 
inhabitants  are  poor,  and  agriculture  is  almost 
the  only  branch  of  industry.  The  district  was 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1801  by  the  vizier  of 
Oude,  in  commutation  of  subsidy.  II.  The 
principal  town  of  the  district,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Raptee,  here  crossed  by  a  ferry  600  ft. 
long,  104  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Benares  and  430  m. 
».  W.  of  Calcutta;  pop.  about  40,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  forests  and  plantations,  and 
during  the  rainy  season  is  often  encompassed 
by  water. 

GORZ,  or  Goritz.  I.  A  circle  of  Cisleithan 
Austria  (generally  called  Gorz  and  Gradisca), 
forming  with  Istria  and  Trieste  the  Littoral 
province,  but  having  its  own  diet;  area,  1,143 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000,  of  whom  66  per 
cent,  are  Slovens,  25  per  cent.  Friulians,  7  per 
cent.  Italians,  and  the  remainder  Germans.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  district  belonged  to  the 
counts  of  Tyrol ;  it  was  united  with  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  house  of  Austria  by  Maximilian 
L,  about  1500.  II.  The  capital  of  the  circle, 
on  the  Isonzo,  22  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Trieste ;  pop. 
in  1869,  16,823.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
upper  or  old  town,  and  the  lower  or  new  town. 
The  upper  is  fortified  and  contains  the  castle 
of  the  former  counts  of  Tyrol  and  Gorz.  It 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and  of  a  central 
episcopal  seminary  for  all  the  dioceses  of  the 
Littorale,  and  has  a  deaf  and  dumb  institute 
and  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  industry. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  leather,  sugar, 
and  silk.  Charles  X.,  the  exiled  king  of  France, 
died  here  in  1836,  and  his  son  the  duke  of 
Angouleme  in  1844. 

GOSCHEN,  George  Joachim,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  1831.  His  father,  who 
died  in  1866,  was  a  German  merchant  doing 
business  in  London.  The  son  was  educated 
at  Rugby  and  afterward  at  Oriel  college,  Ox- 
ford, but  did  not  graduate  on  account  of  his 
scruples  against  taking  certain  prescribed  oaths. 
In  1853  he  became  a  partner  in  his  father's 
commercial  house,  and  gave  special  attention 
to  financial  questions.  In  1863  he  published 
"The  Theory  of  Foreign  Exchanges,"  which 
is  regarded  as  a  standard  work.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  the 
city  of  London,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  movement  for  the  abolition  of  religious 
tests  and  for  throwing  the  universities  open  to 
dissenters.  In  July,  1865,  under  the  Palmer- 
ston  ministry,  he  was  made  vice  president  of 
the  board  of  control,  in  November,  under  Rus- 
sell, a  member  of  the  privy  council,  and  in 
January,  1866,  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lan- 


GOSHAWK 


121 


caster.  In  June,  with  the  other  members  of 
the  ministry,  he  retired  from  office.  On  the 
accession  of  the  Gladstone  ministry  in  Decem- 
ber, 1868,  he  entered  the  cabinet  as  president  of 
the  poor-law  board,  and  in  March,  1871,  was 
made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  resigned 
with  the  other  ministers  in  February,  1874. 

GOSHAWK,  a  bird  of  prey  of  the  family  fal- 
conidce,  subfamily  accipitrina,  and  genus  astur 
(Lacep.).  The  bill  is  short,  broad  at  the  base, 
with  the  culmen  elevated  and  arched ;  the  tip 
acute,  with  the  lateral  margins  festooned  in 
the  middle ;  the  nostrils  large  and  in  the  basal 
cere;  wings  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the 
tail,  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills  nearly 
equal  and  longest ;  the  tail  long  and  broad ; 
tarsi  rather  longer  than  middle  toe,  covered 
with  broad  transverse  scales  in  front  and  be- 
hind ;  toes  long,  strong,  and  well  padded  below ; 
claws  strong,  long,  and  curved.  Gray  describes 
13  species,  which  are  found  throughout  the 
world.  The  form  is  rather  long  and  slender, 
the  wings  comparatively  short,  and  the  legs 
and  tail  long ;  they  fly  very  swiftly  and  strong- 
ly, and  always  strike  their  prey  while  on  the 
wing;  they  lurk  about  poultry  yards,  seize  a 
duck  or  a  chicken,  and  are  out  of  shot  before 
the  farmer  is  aware  of  his  loss ;  they  also  prey 
upon  wild  ducks,  grouse,  pigeons,  hares,  rabbits, 
squirrels,  and  other  animals  of  this  size ;  they 
build  their  nests  on  lofty  trees,  and  Jay  from 
two  to  four  eggs.  The  only  species  in  the 
United  States  is  the  American  goshawk  (A. 
atricapillus,  Wils.),  found  all  over  North  Amer- 
ica, but  most  abundant  in  the  north  and  north- 
west. The  adult  female  is  about  2  ft.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  4  ft.  and  a  weight 
of  about  3  Ibs. ;  the  male  is  smaller ;  both  sexes 


American  Goshawk  (Astur  atricapillus). 

are  alike  in  plumage.  In  the  adult  the  general 
color  of  the  upper  parts  is  dark  ash-gray,  the 
shafts  and  sometimes  the  edges  of  the  feath- 
ers black ;  head  above  and  neck  behind  black 
with  a  grayish  tinge;  a  broad  line  of  white 
over  each  eye;  under  parts  grayish  white, 


122 


GOSHEN 


sides  and  abdomen  tinged  with  brown ;  black- 
ish brown  longitudinal  streaks  on  the  fore 
ii. ck,  and  transverse  blackish  gray  lines  on 
the  breast,  sides,  and  belly;  quills  brown,  si<liy 
on  their  inner  webs;  tail  with  four  or  live 
broad  brownish  black  bands,  and  narrowly 
tipped  with  white.  The  young  birds  are  dark 
brown  above,  with  light  markings;  the  tail 
ashy;  the  under  parts  white,  with  yellowish 
red  tinges,  each  feather  with  a  longitudinal 
stripe  ending  in  a  brown  ovate  spot.  This  is 
one  of  the  boldest  and  most  rapid  of  the  genus, 
and  follows  with  untiring  wing  the  flocks  of 
wild  pigeons  and  ducks ;  it  seldom  alights  un- 
less to  devour  its  prey,  and  when  thus  engaged 
stands  very  erect.  The  nest  is  of  large  size, 
flat,  and  made  of  coarse  materials ;  the  eggs 
are  of  a  bluish  white  color,  sometimes  with 
light  brownish  spots. — The  European  goshawk 
resembles  the  American,  but  the  transverse 
bands  on  the  under  surface  are  much  more  reg- 
ular. It  equals  the  gerfalcon  in  size,  but  not 
in  strength  and  courage;  though  an  ignoble 
bird,  and  falling  obliquely  on  its  prey,  it  is  used 
in  falconry  for  the  weaker  and  ground  game, 
such  as  hares  and  rabbits,  or  birds  of  low 
flight  like  grouse  and  ducks. 

GOSHEN,  in  Biblical  geography,  the  district 
of  Egypt  in  which  Jacob  and  his  family  set- 
tled, and  where  his  descendants  remained  till 
their  deliverance  by  Moses.  The  locality  is 
generally  fixed  in  Lower  Egypt,  E.  of  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile. 

(.OSRKV,  a  town  and  village,  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  Orange  co.,  New  York,  on  the 
Erie  railway,  at  the  junction  of  two  branches, 
48  ra.  N.  N.  W.  of  New  York;  pop.  of  the 
town  in  1870,  8,903  ;  of  the  village,  2,205.  It 
is  celebrated  for  its  excellent  butter,  which 
is  made  chiefly  for  the  New  York  market. 
The  village  contains  a  female  seminary,  several 
classical  schools,  two  national  banks,  and  two 
weekly  newspapers. 

GOSLAR,  a  town  of  Hanover,  Prussia,  26  m. 
8.  E.  of  Hildesheim,  on  the  Gose,  at  the  base 
of  the  Rammelsberg;  pop.  in  1871,  8,923.  Its 
most  important  public  edifices  are  the  town 
house,  which  was  erected  in  the  15th  century, 
the  imperial  palace,  now  in  part  a  ruin,  and  the 
Gothic  church,  whose  library  contains  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Luther's  manuscripts.  In 
the  vicinity  are  slate  quarries,  from  which  N. 
Germany  is  supplied  with  that  material.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  mining  and 
quarrying.  It  was  founded  about  920,  was  the 
residence  of  several  German  emperors,  and 
was  a  free  imperial  city  till  1801. 

GOSNOLD,  Bartholomew,  an  English  voyager, 
died  in  Virginia,  Aug.  22,  1607.  He  joined 
Raleigh  in  his  attempt  to  colonize  Virginia, 
and  aftor  th.-  t'.iilure  of  that  enterprise  was 
I'l.i-  o-l  in  command  of  an  expedition  fitted  out 
for  planting  a  settlement  in  New  England.  He 
sailed  from  Falmonth,  March  26,  1602,  with 
one  small  vessel  and  a  company  of  32  persons, 
•Ji »  of  whom  were  colonists.  Instead  of  follow- 


GOSPORT 

ing  the  usual  route  by  the  Canaries  and  West 
Indies,  he  steered  directly  across  the  Atlantic, 
and  in  seven  weeks  reached  Massachusetts  bay, 
first  seeing  land  probably  not  far  N.  of  Nahant. 
Thence  he  turned  S.,  and  landed  on  Cape  Cod, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  it  still  bears.  Sail- 
ing around  the  promontory,  and  stopping  at 
the  island  now  known  as  No  Man's  Land,  but 
which  he  called  Martha's  Vineyard,  Gosnold 
anchored  at  the  mouth  of  Buzzard's  bay,  and 
resolved  to  plant  his  colony  on  an  island  which 
he  called  Elizabeth  (now  known  by  its  Indian 
name  of  Cuttyhunk).  The  adventurers  here 
built  and  fortified  a  house,  but  the  hostility  of 
the  Indians,  scarcity  of  provisions,  and  disputes 
about  a  division  of  the  profits,  disheartened 
them,  and  the  whole  party  returned  to  Eng- 
land, accomplishing  the  voyage  in  five  weeks, 
and  taking  a  cargo  of  sassafras  root,  cedar, 
furs,  and  other  commodities.  The  result  of 
the  expedition  was  such  as  to  encourage  many 
others  to  follow  the  same  short  route  across 
the  ocean,  and  pursue  the  explorations  which 
Gosnold  had  begun.  Gosnold  next  turned  his 
eyes  toward  Virginia,  and  succeeded  in  or- 
ganizing a  company  for  colonization  in  that 
region,  the  heads  of  which  were  Edward  Wing- 
field,  a  merchant,  Robert  Hunt,  a  clergyman, 
and  Capt.  John  Smith.  A  charter  was  granted 
them  by  James  I.,  April  10,  1606,  which  was 
the  first  instrument  of  that  nature  under  which 
the  English  were  planted  in  America ;  and  on 
Dec.  19,  1606,  Gosnold  set  sail  with  three 
small  vessels  and  an  ill-assorted  band  of  105 
adventurers.  After  a  tedious  voyage,  a  storm 
having  driven  them  into  Chesapeake  bay  (April 
26,  1607),  they  sailed  up  James  river,  which 
they  named  after  the  king,  disembarked  about 
50  m.  above  its  mouth,  and  founded  the  settle- 
ment of  Jamestown.  Sickness  and  various 
disasters  destroyed  50  of  their  number  before 
autumn,  among  whom  was  Gosnold. 

GOSPEL  (Sax.  god&pell,  corresponding  to  the 
Gr.  eiayy£Awv,  a  joyful  message),  either  the 
whole  system  of  the  doctrines  of  Christ,  or  one 
of  the  four  histories  of  his  life  and  teachings 
written  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John. 
The  extant  spurious  gospels,  forming  a  part  of 
the  apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament,  are  the 
"  History  of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,"  the  "  Gos- 
pel of  the  Infancy,"  the  "Gospel  of  Thomas 
the  Israelite,"  the  "  Protevangelion  "  of  James, 
the  "  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary,"  and  the 
"Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  or  Acts  of  Pilate." 
Many  others,  not  extant,  are  mentioned  by  the 
church  fathers.  (See  APOCRYPHA.) 

GOSPORT,  a  seaport  town  of  Hampshire, 
England,  opposite  Portsmouth,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  the  latter ;  pop. 
in  1871,  7,366.  It  is  situated  on  level  ground 
and  surrounded  by  fortifications,  which  form 
part  of  those  of  Portsmouth  and  Portsea.  It 
contains  two  churches  and  four  chapels  for 
Protestants  and  one  for  Roman  Catholics.  The 
most  conspicuous  establishment  is  the  royal 
Clarence  victualling  yard  for  supplying  vessels. 


GOSSE 


GOSSE,  Philip  Henry,  an  English  zoologist, 
born  in  Worcester,  April  6,  1810.  He  went  to 
Newfoundland  in  1827  in  a  mercantile  capa- 
city, and  during  a  residence  there  of  eight 
years  occupied  his  leisure  in  collecting  insects 
and  making  colored  drawings  of  them.  He 
removed  to  Lower  Canada,  where  he  pursued 
his  studies  of  zoology,  particularly  entomology, 
for  three  years,  and  af- 
terward travelled  in  the 
United  States,  making 
in  Alabama  numerous 
drawings  of  the  lepidop- 
tera  of  that  region,  and 
wrote  "  Letters  from 
Alabama,  chiefly  rela- 
ting to  Natural  Histo- 
ry." After  his  return 
to  England  in  1839,  he 
published  the  results  of 
his  observations  under 
the  title  of  the  "Cana- 
dian Naturalist"  (Lon- 
don, 1840).  In  1844  he 
visited  Jamaica  to  study 
its  zoology,  and  on  re- 
turning after  18  months 
published  "The  Birds 
of  Jamaica,"  which  was 
followed  by  an  "  Atlas 
of  Illustrations "  and 
"  A  Naturalist's  Sojourn 
in  Jamaica."  During  the  subsequent  years 
he  published  an  "  Introduction  to  Zoology," 
and  prepared  many  works  for  the  society  for 
the  promotion  of  Christian  knowledge.  He 
then  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  mi- 
croscopic study  of  the  British  rotifera,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  formation  of  pub- 
lic and  private  collections  of  marine  animals. 
In  1856  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  royal 
society.  His  remaining  works  include :  "  The 
Aquarium"  (1854);  "Manual  of  Marine  Zool- 
ogy" (1855);  "Tenby,  a  Seaside  Eomance" 
(1856) ;  "  Life  in  its  Lower,  Intermediate,  and 
Higher  Forms"  (185T);  "Omphalos,  an  At- 
tempt to  Untie  the  Gordian  Knot"  (1857); 
"  Evenings  at  the  Microscope  "  (1 859) ;  "  Acti- 
nologia  Britanniea,  a  History  of  the  British  Sea 
Anemones  and  Corals"  (1860) ;  "  The  Komance 
of  Natural  History  "  (1860-'62) ;  "  A  Year  at  the 
Shore"  (1865);  and  "Land  and  Sea"  (1865). 

GOSSELIES,  a  market  town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  Hainaut,  on  the  Brussels  and 
Charleroi  railway,  23  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Brussels ; 
pop.  in  1866,  6,511.  It  has  important  manu- 
factories of  woollens,  hats,  steel  ware,  and 
leather,  and  near  it  are  large  coal  mines.  The 
battle  fought  near  this  place  June  26,  1794,  be- 
tween the  French  and  the  Austrians,  is  known 
as  the  battle  of  Fleurus. 

GOTHA.  I.  Formerly  an  independent  duchy 
(Saxe-Gotha),  but  now  politically  united  with 
Coburg  under  the  name  of  S  axe- Coburg- Goth  a ; 
pop.  of  Gotha  in  1871,  122,630.  (See  SAXE- 
COBUKG-GOTHA.)  II.  The  capital,  and  alter- 


GOTHENBUKG 


123 


nately  with  Coburg  the  residence  of  the  duke; 
pop.  in  1871,  20,591.  It  is  the  principal  station 
of  the  Thuringian  railway,  by  which  the  dis- 
tance to  Halle  is  83  m.  and  to  Weimar  30  m. 
The  palace  of  Friedenstein  adjoins  the  town, 
and  contains  collections  of  fine  arts  and  one 
of  the  richest  collections  of  coins  in  Europe ; 
also  a  library  with  upward  of  200,000  volumes 


The  Ducal  Palace,  Gotha. 


and  more  than  6,000  manuscripts,  among 
which  are  14  folio  volumes  of  St.  Bernard's 
correspondence  and  about  3,000  Arabic  and 
Persian  manuscripts.  Gotha  has  a  famous 
gymnasium,  many  excellent  educational  and 
charitable  institutions,  and  an  observatory  es- 
tablished in  1859  by  Hansen.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  trading  and  manufacturing 
places  of  Thuringia.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  celebra- 
ted fire  and  life  insurance  company,  and  of  the 
geographical  establishment  of  Justus  Perthes, 
the  publisher  of  the  Almanack  de  Gotha. 

GOTHAM,  a  parish  of  Nottinghamshire,  Eng- 
land, the  Boeotian  rusticity  of  whose  inhabi- 
tants gained  them  the  proverbial  appellation 
of  "  the  wise  men  of  Gotham."  The  name  Go- 
tham was  satirically  applied  by  Washington 
Irving  to  the  city  of  New  York. 

GOTHENBURG,  or  Gottenburg  (Swed.  Goteborg). 
I.  A  Isen  or  province  of  Sweden,  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  the  kingdom,  bordering  on  the  Catte- 
gat,  the  Skager  Rack,  and  Norway ;  area,  1,890 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1873,  236,899.  It  forms  a  nar- 
row strip  of  land  between  the  mountains  which 
separate  it  on  the  east  from  the  province  of 
Elfsborg  and  the  rugged  coast,  which  is  indent- 
ed by  numerous  bays  and  bordered  by  many 
small  islands.  The  climate  is  severe  ;  the  soil 
is  sterile,  and  there  are  few  manufactures  ex- 
cept in  the  capital  city.  II.  The  capital  _of  the 
province,  and  the  second  commercial  city  of 
Sweden,  at  the  head  of  a  fiord  on  the  Catte- 
gat  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gotha  river,  240  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  Stockholm  ;  pop.  in  1873,  59,329. 


124 


GOTHIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


It  has  a  good  harbor,  with  17  ft.  of  water, 
enclosed  by  two  long  ridges  of  rock  about  1 J  m. 
apart.  There  is  anchorage  for  vessels  of  large 
size,  but  only  the  smaller  craft  can  come  up  to 
the  shore.  The  city  is  intersected  by  navigable 
canals,  and  as  it  occupies  marshy  ground,  the 
houses  of  the  lower  town  are  generally  built 
on  piles.  The  upper  town  stands  on  adjacent 
rocky  heights.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  stone 
or  stuccoed  brick,  with  terraced  roofs.  The 


principal  public  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  the 
Swedish  church,  the  new  exchange,  the  arsenal, 
the  town  hall,  the  theatre,  and  the  East  India 
house.  The  manufactures  comprise  cottons, 
woollens,  sail  cloth,  tobacco,  snuff,  glass,  paper, 
leather,  refined  sugar,  and  porter.  Most  of  the 
merchants  are  Scotch  and  English.  In  1872 
the  entries  at  the  port  were  2,161  vessels,  of 
598,487  tons;  the  clearances  1,800  vessels,  of 
648,545  tons.  The  city  was  founded  by  Gus- 


Gothenburg. 


tavns  Adolphus  in  1618,  and  was  once  well 
fortified.  It  has  had  frequent  fires. 

GOTHIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.     The 

Gothic  language  became  extinct  with  that  Ger- 
manic race  by  whom  it  was  spoken.  The  exist- 
ing Gothic  manuscripts  are  written  in  charac- 
ters related  in  form  and  order  to  the  Greek 
alphabet,  and,  it  is  said,  invented  by  Bishop 
Ulfilas.  The  order  of  the  alphabet  has  been 
ascertained  from  the  numerical  values  attached 
to  the  letters.  It  is  not  customary  in  modern 
books  to  make  use  of  Ulfilas's  characters.  The 
original  form,  order,  and  numerical  value  of 
the  Gothic  alphabet,  and  the  way  in  which  it 
is  usually  transcribed,  are  as  follows : 

ro**.  Kim.  TAUT*.  TBANBC.      FORM.  ITCH.  VALUE.  TBANSC. 


li 

r 

& 
e 

u 

7, 

h 

•I' 
i  i 

K 
A 

M 
II 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
20 
80 
40 
60 


b 

g 

d 

e 
kv(q) 

z 

h 
th(t>) 

i 

k 

1 

in 


60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

200 

800 

400 

600 

600 

700 

800 


t 
v(w) 

f 

z(ch) 
hv 

6 


900  — 


The  transcription  of  several  letters  is  not  uni- 
form. Some  write,  instead  of  kv,  qu  ;  for  0,  the 
German  w  ;  and  instead  of  the  aspirated  hv,  a 
simple  v  or  w.  Diacritical  points  are  put  over 
i  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  or  after  another 
vowel  with  which  it  does  not  form  a  diphthong. 
Numbers  are  distinguished  in  the  manuscripts 
by  a  dash  over  the  letters,  or  by  being  enclosed 
by  two  dots.  For  punctuation  a  colon  is  some- 
times used,  and  it  serves  to  divide  a  discourse 
into  parts  generally  larger  than  a  proposition. 
No  Gothic  manuscript,  however,  separates  the 
words  of  a  sentence,  or  indicates  whether  a 
vowel  is  long  or  short.  The  Gothic  verb  dis- 
tinguishes two  voices,  active  and  middle ;  two 
tenses,  present  and  past ;  three  moods,  indica- 
tive, optative,  and  imperative ;  three  numbers, 
singular,  dual,  and  plural;  an  infinitive;  and 
a  present  and  a  past  participle.  According  to 
the  formation  of  the  tenses,  there  are  three 
classes  of  verbs:  the  first  forms  the  past  by 
reduplicating  the  verbal  root ;  the  second  dis- 
tinguishes the  tenses  by  a  change  of  vowel ; 
the  third  has  a  special  form  only  for  the  present 
tense,  forming  the  past  by  means  of  formative 
endings.  Grimm  designates  the  first  two  classes 
as  strong,  and  the  third  as  feeble.  Examples : 
1st  class,  blanda,  blend,  baibland,  blended; 
teka,  touch,  taitok,  touched ;  2d  class,  binda, 
band,  bund,  bind,  bound,  bound  ;  giba,  gab,  geb, 
give,  gave,  given ;  3d  class,  Jiaba,  hdbaidm 
habaips,  have,  had,  had  ;  sokja,  sokida,  sokip«, 
seek,  sought,  sought.  The  past  tense  is  formed 
in  the  last  class  by  adding  da,  reduplicated  dad, 
the  auxiliary  do,  did.  The  verb  to  be  is  conju- 
gated as  follows :  Pres.  ind.  singular,  im,  is,  ist; 


GOTHIC  LANGUAGE,  &o. 


dual,  siu  or  siju,  siuts  or  sijuts ;  plural,  sium, 
siup,  sind.  Past  ind.  singular,  •»«*,  vast,  vets; 
dual,  vesu,  vesuts ;  plural,  vesum,  vesup,  vesun, 
«fec.  Nouns  have  three  genders  and  two  num- 
bers. They  have  inflections  for  the  nominative, 
genitive,  dative,  and  accusative  cases,  and  a  few 
have  also  a  vocative  case,  but  only  in  the  sin- 
gular. The  stems  end  either  in  the  vowels  a, 
i,  u,  or  in  the  consonants  n,  r,  nd,  and  these 
terminations  determine  the  modes  of  the  de- 
clensions. The  thematic  vowel  of  the  declen- 
sion in  a  is  distinctly  preserved  only  in  the 
dative  singular  and  the  dative  and  accusative 
plural,  and  is  lengthened  into  6  in  the  femi- 
nines.  The  i  of  the  next  declension  takes  gra- 
dation, and  an  a  is  introduced  before  it.  The 
declension  in  u  retains  the  vowel  of  its  theme 
quite  persistently,  even  before  the  case  sign  s 
of  the  nominative  masculine  and  feminine,  as 
well  as  in  the  nominative  neuter,  where  the 
other  declensions  drop  it.  The  n  of  the  theme 
disappears  in  the  nominative  and  vocative  of 
the  singular.  The  vowel  of  the  primitive  suffix 
dar,  par,  or  tar  (as  in  fadar,  father,  ~bropar, 
brother,  dauh  tar,  daughter,  and  smstar,  sister), 
is  dropped  where  a  case  sign  is  added ;  as  gen. 
Iroprs,  dat.  Iropr.  The  themes  in  nd  comprise 
present  participles  declined  as  substantives. 
Adjectives  are  inflected  differently,  adopting 
in  about  half  of  the  cases  the  demonstrative 
pronoun  ja,  and  assimilating  with  it ;  as  Jiardus, 
hard,  hardjis,  hardjamma,  &c.  The  compara- 
tive degree  is  rendered  by  means  of  the  suffixes 
is  and  6s,  which  retain  their  form  at  the  end 
of  adverbs,  but  are  lengthened  into  izan  and 
ozan  at  the  end  of  adjectives.  The  superlative 
is  formed  by  adding  ta  or  tan  to  the  is  or  6s 
of  the  comparative ;  as  froda,  clever,  comp. 
masc.  and  neut.  frodozan,  fern,  frodozein,  sup. 
masc.  frodista,  fern,  frodisto,  &c.  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  are  :  ik,  I ;  pu,  thou ;  is,  he  ; 
si,  she ;  ita,  it ;  Deis,  we ;  vit,  we  two ;  jus, 
you ;  eis,  they  masc. ;  ijos,  they  fern ;  ija,  they 
neut.  Prepositions  govern  the  genitive,  dative, 
or  accusative,  and  precede  the  words  they  gov- 
ern. Only  three  interjections  have  been  found : 
6,  oh ;  sai,  behold ;  vai,  woe !  The  pronouns 
%a,  so,  pata,  he  who,  she  who,  that  which,  are 
used  as  definite  articles.  There  is  no  indefinite 
article. — The  literary  documents  in  which  the 
Gothic  language  has  been  preserved  consist  of 
a  few  manuscripts.  The  Argenteus  Codex,  now 
in  the  library  of  the  university  of  Upsal,  written 
in  silver  and  partly  gold  letters,  is  a  purple 
parchment,  supposed  to  date  from  about  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  century,  at  the  time  of  the 
rule  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy.  (See  ARGEN- 
TEUS  CODEX.)  It  comprised  originally  330 
sheets,  with  Ulfilas's  translation  of  the  gospels 
of  Matthew,  John,  Luke,  and  Mark,  in  this 
order;  but  only  177  sheets  have  been  pre- 
served. (See  ULFILAS.)  The  Codex  Carolines 
is  a  rescript,  like  all  codices  except  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  owned  by  the  Wolfenbuttel 
library.  It  was  discovered  in  1756,  and  is 
also  supposed  to  be  of  Italian  origin.  It  con- 


GOTHS 


125 


tains  about  42  verses  of  the  llth  to  the  15th 
chapter  of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans.  The  five 
Codices  Ambrosiani  form  part  of  the  Ambro- 
sian  library  in  Milan,  and  contain  fragments 
of  the  Pauline  epistles,  of  the  gospels  of  Mat- 
thew and  John,  of  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  and  a  calendar.  They  were  dis- 
covered in  1817  at  the  convent  of  Bobbio  in 
Italy.  There  is  a  parchment  manuscript  in 
Vienna  dating  from  the  9th  century,  which 
contains  a  Runic  and  several  Gothic  alphabets, 
with  a  few  words  and  numerical  notations. 
Naples  and  Arezzo  have  each  a  Gothic  certifi- 
cate of  sale  written  on  papyrus.  Another 
manuscript  was  discovered  in  1866  by  Franz 
Pfeiffer.  It  has  received  the  appellation  of 
Codex  Turinensis,  and  consists  of  four  sheets 
which  had  been  used  as  the  cover  of  a  book  or 
manuscript,  and  which  contain  fragments  of 
the  epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Galatians. 
Von  der  Gabelentz  published  an  account  of  it 
in  the  Germania  of  1867,  and  pronounced  them 
illegible.  In  the  following  year,  however,  a 
translation  by  Massmann  appeared  in  the  same 
periodical.  A  complete  edition  of  the  literary 
monuments  of  the  Gothic  language  has  been 
published  in  Leipsic  by  Von  der  Gabelentz  and 
Lobe  (1836-'42),  and  another  in  Stuttgart  by 
Massmann  (1856-'7).  Andreas  Uppstrom  has 
caused  an  exact  reprint  to  be  made  of  every 
line  of  Gothic  manuscript  extant.  He  pub- 
lished in  this  manner  in  1854  the  Codex 
Argenteus,  and  in  1861  the  Codex  Carolinus 
and  some  of  the  Ambrosian  fragments.  He 
died  in  1865,  and  his  son  published  in  1868, 
from  his  posthumous  papers,  the  remaining 
documents.  Since  the  texts  could  thus  be  criti- 
cally studied,  the  Gothic  grammars  and  vocabu- 
laries have  been  considerably  changed.  The 
latest  researches  are  embodied  in  the  5th  edi- 
tion of  Stamm's  Uljilas,  oder  die  uns  erhalte- 
nen  Denkmaler  der  gothischen  Sprache  :  Text, 
Worterbuch  und  Grammatik,  which  has  been 
revised  by  Moritz  Heine  (Paderborn,  1872). 

GOTHLAND.     See  GOTTLAND. 

GOTHS  (Lat.  Gothones,  Guttones,  &c.),  an  ex- 
tinct Germanic  race,  first  mentioned  as  dwell- 
ing on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  during  the  4th 
century  B.  C.,  and  disappearing  from  history  in 
the  8th  century  A.  D.  Their  origin  has  not  been 
ascertained.  Pytheas  of  Massilia  is  the  first 
who  makes  mention  of  them ;  he  found  them 
at  the  side  of  the  Teutons  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  Baltic  region.  Pliny,  in  the  1st 
century  A.  D.,  and  Ptolemy,  in  the  2d,  place 
them  in  the  same  territory.  The  name  of  Getse 
given  to  them  by  later  historians  does  not  prop- 
erly belong  to  the  Gothic  race,  though  Grimm's 
hypothesis  connects  the  Getaa  with  the  Goths. 
Cassiodorus,  the  principal  minister  of  Theodoric 
the  Great,  wrote  a  history  of  the  Goths,  which 
chronicles  their  migrations  and  wanderings 
from  regions  beyond  the  Baltic.  Procopins 
speaks  of  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Gepidae  as  one 
people  in  all  respects,  and  describes  them  as  of 
fair  complexion,  with  reddish  yellow  hair  and 


126 


GOTHS 


tall  manly  forms.  Modern  authorities  consider 
the  Vandals.  Hernli,  Rugii,  Gepidro,  Alani,  Sue- 
vi  Longobards,  Burgundians,  and  Franks  as  the 
principal  families  of  the  Gothic  race.— In  the 
latter  half  of  the  2d  century  A.  D.  the  Goths 
appear  on  the  N.  shores  of  the  Black  sea.  In 
the  3d  century  they  were  in  possession  of  the 
region  N.  of  the  lower  Danube.  They  invaded 
the  Roman  territory  in  237,  plundered  Thrace, 
and  defeated  the  emperor  Decius  in  251.  A  few 
years  later  they  were  defeated  by  ^Emilianus; 
but  in  262  they  ravaged  Greece,  and  in  269  in- 
vaded the  Roman  empire  again.  The  emperor 
Claudius  defeated  them  in  that  year  at  Naissus. 
In  272  they  obtained  possession  of  Dacia.  They 
invaded  Moasia  in  332,  but  were  repulsed.  In 
366  they  assisted  in  the  revolt  of  Procopius ; 
but  Valens  defeated  and  drove  them  beyond 
the  Danube.  Meanwhile  they  had  become  di- 
vided into  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths,  or  East- 
ern and  Western  Goths.  The  former  inhabited 
southern  Russia  between  the  Dniester  and  the 
Don ;  the  latter  the  territory  from  the  lower 
Danube  to  the  Carpathian  mountains,  and  from 
Hungary  to  Bessarabia.  Ermanric,  who  ruled 
over  both  bodies,  came  in  collision  with  the 
Huns  in  375,  and  was  defeated  by  them.  The 
Goths  put  themselves  thereupon  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Valens,  who  assigned  them  a  terri- 
tory in  Thrace ;  but  reaching  the  provinces  of 
Moesia  (Bulgaria  and  Servia),  they  took  pos- 
session of  the  country,  defeated  Valens  in  a  bat- 
tle near  Adrianople  in  378,  and  ravaged  Achaia 
and  Pannonia.  The  Visigoths  submitted  to  the 
Romans  in  382 ;  but  the  Ostrogoths  continued 
their  ravages  several  years  longer,  and  finally 
settled  in  Thrace  and  Phrygia.  Several  Gothic 
tribes  had  already  embraced  the  Christian  faith, 
and  about  the  year  360  Ulfilas,  bishop  of  the 
tribes  who  dwelt  in  Moesia  and  Thrace,  had 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  the  Gothic 
language.  Upon  the  death  of  Theodosius,  the 
barbarian  nations  took  advantage  of  the  dis- 
sensions of  his  successors  to  overrun  the  di- 
vided empire.  The  Huns  poured  in  from  one 
direction,  while  an  army  of  Goths  under  Alaric 
invaded  the  region  between  the  Adriatic  and 
Constantinople,  and  subsequently  marched  into 
Italy  and  sacked  Rome.  (See  ALARIC.)  The 
Goths  gradually  intermingled  in  blood  with 
the  inhabitants  of  Italy.  The  Huns  under  At- 
tila,  600,000  barbarians  of  many  tribes,  now 
threatened  Italy  and  entered  Gaul  (A.  D.  451). 
They  were  encountered  by  Romans  and  Goths, 
combined  under  command  of  Aetius,  and  suf- 
terrible  defeat.  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  was  among  the  slain  on  the  side  of 
nans.  Meanwhile  Spain  and  southern 
France  came  under  Gothic  dominion  ;  and 
Odoacer,  a  prince  of  the  Heruli,  penetrating 
into  Italy,  dethroned  Augnstulus,  the  last  of 

•  •-st-Roman  emperors,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  king  of  Italy  (A.  D.  476).  Zeno  was 
emperor  of  the  East,  and,  becoming  embroiled 
with  the  Ostrogoths  under  Theodoric,  con- 

:  to  an  invasion  of  Italy  by  this  prince. 


Theodoric  accordingly  crossed  the  Alps,  de- 
feated Odoacer,  compelled  from  him,  at  Ra- 
venna, the  surrender  of  all  Italy,  and  put  him 
to  death  (493).  Italy  had  begun  to  prosper 
under  Odoacer,  and  the  impulse  was  increased 
by  the  new  king,  who  reigned  33  years.  Profit- 
ing by  the  Gothic  disorders  consequent  upon  the 
death  of  Theodoric  in  526,  Justinian  sent  Beli- 
sarius  to  Italy.  He  took  Rome,  and,  gaining  the 
admiration  of  the  Goths,  was  invited  to  be  their 
king.  This  he  refused,  but  held  the  Goths  in 
subjection  for  his  master.  Totila,  a  noble  Goth, 
rebelled,  and  mastered  southern  Italy.  He  was 
about  to  destroy  Rome,  but,  yielding  to  the 
remonstrance  of  Belisarius  that  it  would  add 
more  to  his  honor  to  spare  it,  contented  him- 
self with  dispersing  the  inhabitants  (546),  and 
repeopling  it  before  the  arrival  of  a  fresh  army 
from  Constantinople  under  Narses.  Totila  fell 
in  battle  (552),  and  his  successor  Teias  suf- 
fered the  same  fate  (553).  Italy  was  recon- 
quered, and  the  Gothic  monarchy  founded  by 
Theodoric  the  Great  was  extinguished.  In 
Spain  and  southern  France  the  Visigoths  main- 
tained a  splendid  monarchy  till  711,  when  Ro- 
deric  was  killed  in  battle  against  the  Moors, 
who,  crossing  from  Africa,  subjugated  the  king- 
dom.— The  Goths  became  a  cultivated  and  en- 
lightened people.  Grotius  gives  them  high 
commendation  for  moral  it}7,  integrity,  love  of 
justice,  and  good  faith.  There  never  had  been 
a  better  administration  in  Italy  than  that  of 
Theodoric.  He  was  an  Arian,  but  the  Catholics 
were  not  only  unmolested  by  him,  but  them- 
selves generally  acknowledged  that  at  no  other 
period  did  their  church  enjoy  greater  prosper- 
ity. The  Gothic  princes  and  tribes  were  gen-, 
erally  tolerant  of  the  faith  of  others.  They 
were  also  distinguished  in  some  degree  as  friends 
of  fine  arts,  science,  and  learning.  Theodoric 
maintained  overseers  of  works  of  art,  whose 
duties  were  to  guard  the  statues  and  to  watch 
over  the  preservation  of  public  buildings. 
These  were  kept  in  repair,  and  others  were 
erected.  The  old  Gothic  style  of  architecture, 
comprising  what  are  called  transition  styles 
with  the  rounded  arch,  Byzantine,  Lombard, 
Norman,  &c.,  was  thus  originated;  a  simple 
massive  character  of  art,  which  must  not  be 
confounded  with  modern  Gothic,  which  dates 
even  later  than  the  Lombards  in  Italy. — The 
laws  of  the  Visigoths  were  digested  into  a  reg- 
ular code  50  years  before  the  Pandects  of  Jus- 
tinian, who  possibly  borrowed  the  idea  of  a 
code  from  the  Visi^othic  princes.  Theodoric 
and  the  Goths  in  Italy  preserved  and  improved 
the  Roman  laws.  (See  CIVIL  LAW,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
623.)  Their  form  of  government  was  absolute 
monarchy  of  a  mixed  elective  and  hereditary 
nature ;  and  it  has  been  said  of  most  of  the 
Gothic  rulers  in  Italy,  that  they  made  good  the 
promise  of  Theodoric,  who  on  ascending  the 
throne  said  that  he  would  strive  so  to  rule  the 
empire  that  the  "only  regret  of  the  people 
should  be  that  the  Goths  had  not  come  at  an 
earlier  period." 


GOTTINGEN 


GOTTSCHALL 


127 


GOTTINGEN,  a  city  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  57  m.  S.  by  E.  of  the  city  of  Han- 
over; pop.  in  1871,  15,841.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  university  (Georgia  Augusta),  which  was 
founded  in  1734  by  King  George  II.  of  England 
and  elector  of  Hanover,  and  inaugurated  Sept. 
17,  1737.  Through  the  eminence  of  several 
of  its  professors,  among  whom  were  Gesner, 
Heyne,  Michaelis,  and  the  two  Eichhorns,  it 
became  toward  the  end  of  the  century  the 
most  famous  university  in  Europe.  Its  for- 
tunes were  not  materially  changed  until  the 
foundation  of  the  university  of  Berlin  (1810), 
which  proved  a  formidable  rival.  The  stu- 
dents, however,  still  numbered  3,000  in  1825, 
but  the  political  disturbances  of  1831  caused  a 
great  diminution  in  the  attendance,  which  in 
1834  was  reduced  to  about  900.  Yet  the  uni- 
versity could  still  boast  of  a  brilliant  array  of 
names  on  its  staff,  among  whom  were  Blumen- 
bach,  Ewald,  Mitscherlich,  Muller,  Gervinus, 
Heeren,  and  the  brothers  Grimm.  The  new 
university  building  was  inaugurated  on  the  day 
of  its  100th  anniversary  in  1837,  but  before 
the  end  of  the  year  the  government  expelled 
seven  of  the  ablest  professors,  who  had  pro- 
tested against  the  abrogation  of  the  Hanoverian 
constitution  by  King  Ernest.  Two  of  the  ex- 
pelled professors,  Ewald  and  Weber,  resumed 
their  functions  in  1848,  but  Gottingen  has  never 
recovered  from  the  shock  which  it  had  re- 
ceived, although  it  numbered  in  1873  101  pro- 
fessors and  925  students.  The  university  library 
comprises  360,000  volumes  and  5,000  manu- 
scripts ;  it  surpasses  almost  all  other  German 
libraries  in  its  copious  collections  of  modern 
works,  and  is  one  of  the  best  arranged  libraries 
in  Europe.  The  academy  of  sciences  comprises 
sections  for  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  and 
history.  The  Gelehrte  Anzeigen,  the  oldest 
learned  periodical  in  Germany,  is  published 
under  its  auspices.  The  museum  of  natural 
history  contains  a  collection  bequeathed  to  it 
by  Blumenbach,  including  human  skulls  of  na- 
tives of  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  a  large  col- 
lection of  coins,  and  some  few  works  of  art. 
Connected  with  the  university  are  seminaries 
for  theology,  philology,  mathematics,  and  nat- 
ural sciences;  hospitals,  cliniques,  and  an  an- 
atomical theatre;  a  botanical  and  economical 
garden,  a  school  for  veterinary  surgeons,  a 
chemical  laboratory,  a  fine  physiological  in- 
stitution, an  observatory,  and  an  agricultural 
school.  Prominent  among  the  other  educa- 
tional establishments  is  the  industrial  school  of 
Wagemann.  There  are  five  Lutheran  churches, 
including  the  university  church,  a  Reformed 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  a  syna- 
gogue. The  charitable  institutions  are  numer- 
ous. The  manufactures  consist  of  cloth,  wool- 
len stuff,  surgical  instruments,  soap,  leather, 
turnery,  gold  and  silver  wares,  &c. 

GOTTLAND,  or  Gothland,  an  island  in  the  Bal- 
tic, belonging  to  Sweden,  between  lat.  56°  55' 
and  57°  57'  N. ;  length  about  80  m.,  greatest 
breadth  33  m. ;  area,  about  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
369  VOL.  viii.— 9 


in  1873,  54,239.  The  island  is  generally  level, 
and  but  here  and  there  slightly  hilly.  The 
climate  is  temperate,  the  mulberry  and  grape 
ripening  in  the  open  air.  The  people  are  chiefly 
employed  in  rearing  cattle  and  fishing  off  the 
coast.  The  island  possesses  several  good  har- 
bors. The  chief  towns  are  Wisby  and  Slite, 
the  latter  protected  by  forts.  A  submarine 
telegraph  connects  the  island  with  the  main- 
land of  Sweden. 

GOTTSCHALK,  Louis  Moreau,  an  American 
pianist  and  composer,  born  in  New  Orleans, 
May  8,  1829,  died  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Dec.  18, 
1869.  His  father  was  an  Englishman  of  Ger- 
man-Jewish descent,  and  his  mother  was  of 
French  extraction.  Louis  was  their  eldest  child, 
and  gave  evidences  of  a  remarkable  musical 
organization  at  three  years  of  age.  At  six  he 
took  lessons  on  the  piano  and  violin,  and  at 
twelve  was  sent  to  Paris,  receiving  there  in- 
struction from  Halle  and  Camille  Stamaty  on 
the  piano  and  from  Maleden  in  harmony.  He 
also  formed  the  friendship  of  Hector  Berlioz, 
from  whom  he  received  valuable  advice.  His 
first  appearance  as  a  pianist  was  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  it  was  not  until  Feb.  11,  1853,  that 
he  was  heard  in  the  United  States,  in  concerts 
in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  The  class  of  mu- 
sic that  he  played  and  his  skill  made  for  him  at 
once  a  widely  extended  reputation,  and  during 
his  whole  career  he  commanded  the  admiration 
of  large  and  enthusiastic  audiences.  Although 
a  composer,  his  published  works  exceeding  50 
in  number,  he  was  preeminently  a  pianist.  His 
compositions  grew  out  of  his  love  for  the  in- 
strument, and  were  almost  all  written  with  a 
view  to  its  capabilities.  He  seemed  to  have 
no  grasp  of  musical  effects  except  such  as 
were  producible  upon  the  piano.  The  pieces 
on  which  his  reputation  principally  rests  were 
illustrative  of  tropical  life,  such  as  Le  bananier, 
La  savane,  Ricordati,  La  marche  de  nuit,  0  ma 
charmante,  Le  mancenillier,  Reponds  moi,  Ojos 
criollos,  and  many  Cuban  dances.  His  arrange- 
ments of  the  compositions  of  others  are  few  in 
number  and  of  no  special  merit ;  nor  had  he  any 
exceptional  skill  as  an  interpreter  of  the  works 
of  other  composers.  He  constantly  played  his 
own  compositions,  and  with  a  sensuous  charm 
that  no  other  pianist  could  approach.  His 
touch  was  one  of  extreme  delicacy  as  well  as 
force,  and  there  were  no  difficulties  of  the  in- 
strument that  he  had  not  mastered.  The  piano 
sang  under  his  hand  with  wonderful  expression. 
He  died  suddenly  while  at  the  height  of  his 
reputation. 

GOTTS€HALL,  Rudolph,  a  German  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Breslau,  Sept.  30, 1823.  He 
studied  law  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  published 
anonymously  in  1842-' 3  Lieder  der  Gegenwart 
and  Censurfluchtlinge.  He  was  afterward  ex- 
pelled from  the  university  of  Breslau  on  ac- 
count of  a  political  demonstration  made  in  his 
favor.  After  some  time  he  was  allowed  to  re- 
sume his  studies  in  that  city,  but  could  not 
obtain  a  license  as  a  professor,  though  he  re- 


128 


GOTTSCIIED 


ceived  a  diploma  as  doctor  of  philosophy  at 
Kdnigsberg,  where  he  became  a  dramatist. 
Subsequently  he  resided  at  Hamburg,  Breslau, 
and  Posen,  and  from  1864  at  Leipsic  as  editor 
*,-re  Zeit,  of  Blatter  fur  literarische  Un- 
terhaltungen,  and  of  Der  neue  Plutarch  (1874 
et  teg  )  His  poetical  works  include  OedicJite 
(1849),  Die  Gottin  (1863),  Carlo  Zeno  (1854), 
Neue  Gedichte  (1858),  Kriegslieder  (1871),  and 
Janus:  Friedens-  und  Kriegsgedichte  (1873). 
The  most  renowned  of  his  plays  are  the  com- 
edy Pitt  und  Fox,  the  drama  Mazeppa,  and  the 
tragedies  Kaiharina  Howard  and  Herzog  Bern- 
hard  von  Weimar.  Among  his  prose  writings 
are  Die  deutsche  Nationalliteratur  im  19.  Jahr- 
hundert  (3  vols.,  1853-'72),  Poetik  (1858),  and 
Portrait  und  Studien  (4  vols.,  1870-71). 

GOTTSCHED,  Jobann  Christoph,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  at  Judithenkirch,  near  Konigsberg, 
Feb.  2,  1700,  died  in  Leipsic,  Dec.  12,  1766. 
He  was  educated  at  Konigsberg,  studied  the- 
ology, but  abandoned  it  for  philosophy  and 
belles-lettres,  and  was  for  32  years  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  at  Leipsic.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  literary  society  of  Leip- 
sic in  1726,  held  for  a  time  a  sort  of  literary 
dictatorship  in  Germany,  placing  purity  of 
language  and  clearness  and  elegance  of  style 
above  all  other  literary  merits,  while  his  op- 
ponents of  the  Zurich  school,  Bodmer  and 
others,  contended  for  originality  and  genius. 
He  was  an  indefatigable  author,  and  left  trage- 
dies, translations,  philosophical  treatises,  and 
various  controversial  and  critical  works.  His 
chief  merit  was  in  contributing  to  make  the 
German  language  the  sole  medium  of  instruc- 
tion, by  publishing  popular  manuals  and  abridg- 
ments of  scientific  and  philosophical  works  in 
the  vernacular  tongue. 

GOUD1,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  South  Holland,  on  both  banks 
of  the  Gouw  at  its  junction  with  the  Neder 
Yssel,  11  m.  N.  E.  of  Rotterdam;  pop.  in 
1868,  15,776.  It  is  entered  by  five  gates,  and 
has  canals  through  the  centre  of  all  its  streets. 
It  has  five  churches,  that  of  St.  John  being 
very  magnificent.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  tobacco  pipes,  cotton  fabrics,  parchment, 
leather,  and  white  lead. 

GOUGH,  Hngh,  viscount,  a  British  general, 
born  at  Woodstown,  Ireland,  Nov.  3,  1779, 
died  March  2,  1869.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1794,  and,  after  serving  against  the  Dutch 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  1809  joined  the  British  forces  in 
Spain,  distinguishing  himself  at  Talavera,  Ba- 
rosa,  Vitoria,  Nivello,  &c.  During  the  war  in 
China  (1841)  he  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  land  forces,  and  for  his  services  was  made 
a  baronet.  Having  been  transferred  to  India 
with  the  supreme  command,  in  December, 
1843,  ho  gained  the  battle  of  Maharajpore 
•gainst  the  Mahrattas  of  Gwalior.  Upon  the 
taMkfoa  out  <.f  tin-  first  Sikh  war  in  1845,  he 
defeated  th-  i-m-my  at  Moodkee,  Dec.  18,  and 
again  ut  Ferozethah  on  the  22d.  He  finished 


GOUJET 

the  campaign,  Feb.  10,  1846,  by  taking  the  in- 
trenched camp  of  the  Sikhs  at  Sobraon,  though 
with  terrible  loss  to  his  own  troops.  For  these 
victories  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Gough.  His  services  in  the  second  Sikh  war 
(1848-'9)  were  characterized  by  bravery  rather 
than  generalship.  At  Mamnuggar  an  inde- 
cisive battle  was  fought.  Another  at  Chillian- 
wallah  (Jan.  13,  1849)  came  near  being  a  de- 
feat; but  after  a  severe  struggle  the  British 
remained  masters  of  the  field,  though  with  the 
loss  of  nearly  2,500  men.  On  Feb.  21  Gough 
completely  routed  the  Sikhs  at  the  town  of 
Guzerat.  News  of  the  dearly  bought  victory  of 
Chillianwallah  having  reached  England,  Gough 
was  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  In- 
dian army  by  Sir  Charles  Napier.  The  vete- 
ran, however,  was  raised  to  the  additional  rank 
of  viscount  in  acknowledgment  of  his  bravery 
and  long  service,  was  thanked  by  parliament, 
and  a  pension  of  £2,000  was  settled  upon  him- 
self and  his  two  next  successors.  He  was 
made  field  marshal  in  1862,  and  at  his  death 
was  commander  of  the  forces. 

GOUGH,  John  B.,  an  American  orator,  born  at 
Sandgate,  England,  Aug.  22,  1817.  He  came 
to  America  in  1829,  and  soon  after  became  a 
bookbinder's  apprentice  in  New  York.  He  be- 
came intemperate,  and  was  accustomed  to  sing 
and  recite  in  grog  shops,  where  his  powers 
of  mimicry  and  action  made  him  a  favorite. 
He  fell  into  great  poverty,  but  about  1840  took 
the  temperance  pledge,  and  soon  began  to  lec- 
ture on  temperance,  both  in  America  and  Eng- 
land. In  time  he  added  other  subjects,  and 
became  a  very  popular  orator.  In  November, 
1873,  he  recited  one  of  his  orations  in  New 
York,  announcing  that  this  would  probably 
be  his  last  public  appearance  in  that  city. 
He  has  published  his  autobiography  (1846), 
and  a  volume  of  orations  (1854).  He  resides 
near  Worcester,  Mass. 

GOUGH,  Richard,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  London,  Oct.  21,  1735~  died  Feb.  20,  1809. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  .and  for 
many  years  director  of  the  society  of  anti- 
quaries, of  which  he  wrote  a  history,  and  to 
whose  Archceologia  he  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor. Among  his  works  are  enumerated  an 
edition  of  Camden's  Britannia,  the  valuable 
additions  to  which  were  the  fruit  of  many 
excursions  through  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales;  "Anecdotes  of  British  Topography" 
(4to,  1768;  enlarged,  2  vols.  4to,  1780);  and 
"  Sepulchral  Monuments  of  Great  Britain  "  (3 
or  5  vols.  fol.,  !786-'96). 

GOUJET,  Claude  Pierre,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris,  Oct.  19,  1C  97,  died  there,  Feb.  1, 
1767.  He  was  educated  at  a  college  of  Jesuits, 
entered  the  order  of  Oratorians,  and  proved 
a  zealous  Jansenist.  His  labors  as  historian, 
compiler,  and  critic  injured  his  health  during 
his  later  years;  he  lost  his  sight,  and  was 
obliged  to  sell  his  library.  Of  his  many  works 
the  ^following  are  the  most  important:  Billi- 
otheque  des  ecrivaim  eccUsiastiques  (3  vols., 


GOUJON 


GOULD 


129 


1736) ;  Dissertations  sur  Vetat  des  sciences  en 
France  depuis  la  mart  de  Charlemagne  jusqu'a 
celle  du  roi  Robert  (1737) ;  Histoire  du  ponti- 
ficat  de  Paul  V. ;  Bibliotheque  francaise,  ou 
Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France  (18  vols.  12mo., 
1740-'59)  ;  Memoire  Jiistorique  et  litteraire 
sur  le  college  royal  de  France  (4to,  1758) ; 
and  Memoires  historiques  et  litteraires  (1767). 
He  edited  Richelet's  Dictionnaire,  and  Moreri's 
Dictionnaire  historique. 

GOUJON,  Jean,  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Pa- 
ris about  1515,  said  to  have  been  killed  there  on 
St.  Bartholomew's  day,  Aug.  24,  1572.  Little 
is  known  of  his  life  until  1541,  when  he  was 
employed  at  Paris  in  producing  the  beautiful 
sculptures  of  the  rood  loft  of  St.  Germain- 
1'Auxerrois,  and  at  Rouen  in  the  cathedral  and 
in  the  church  of  St.  Maclou.  In  1548  Henry 
II.  employed  him  in  decorating  the  chateau  of 
Anet,  which  he  was  building  for  his  mistress, 
Diana  of  Poitiers.  There  he  produced  the 
celebrated  group,  now  belonging  to  the  Louvre, 
of  Diana  and  the  stag.  Another  huntress 
Diana  by  him  is  in  the  chateau  of  Malmaison. 
In  1550  the  fontaine  des  innocents  was  com- 
menced in  the  rue  St.  Denis;  it  was  trans- 
ported in  1788  to  the  square  which  it  now 
adorns.  He  was  also  employed  as  an  architect 
on  the  old  Louvre.  Several  of  his  best  works 
are  still  extant.  See  (Euvres  de  Jean  Goujon, 
with  90  outline  plates  by  Reveil  (Paris,  1844). 

GOULBURN,  a  city  of  New  South  Wales,  Aus- 
ia,  in  Argyle  co.,  near  the  junction  of  the 

Iwarree  ponds  and  Wollondilly  river,  on 
the  Great  Southern  railway,  120  m.  S.  W.  of 
Sydney ;  pop.  about  3,500.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  Anglican  and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 
Prominent  among  the  public  buildings  are 
several  churches,  the  hospital,  the  mechanics' 
institute,  the  court  house,  and  the  jail.  The 
progress  of  the  town  has  thus  far  been  chiefly 
due  to  agriculture ;  but  in  its  vicinity  are  found 
gold,  copper,  and  other  metals,  and  marble. 
Goulburn  was  made  a  city  in  1865.  In  1872  it 
had  three  newspapers. 

GOULBURN,  Edward  Meyrich,  an  English  cler- 

man,  born  in  1818.  He  was  educated  at 
ton,  and  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  became 
fellow  of  Merton  college  in  1841,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  was  a  tutor  in  the  university, 
being  at  the  same  time  incumbent  of  Holywell, 
Oxford.  In  1850  he  was  elected  head  master 
of  Rugby  school,  and  in  1858  became  minister 
of  Quebec  chapel  and  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's, 
London.  He  was  also  appointed  one  of  the 
chaplains  in  ordinary  to  the  queen  and  incum- 
bent of  St.  John's,  Paddington,  and  in  1866 
was  made  dean  of  Norwich.  Dean  Goulburn 
is  a  voluminous  and  popular  writer.  Among 
his  chief  works  are :  "  The  Doctrine  of  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Body  "  (Bampton  lectures, 
1850) ;  "  Principles  of  the  Cathedral  System 
Vindicated;"  "Thoughts  on  Personal  Reli- 
gion," with  a  sequel  on  the  "Pursuit  of  Holi- 
ness;" "Sermons  in  Norwich"  (1870);  and 
"The  Holy  Catholic  Church  "  (1873). 


had 

E 


GOULD,  Angnstns  Addison,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, born  in  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  April  23, 
1805,  died  in  Boston,  Sept.  15,  1866.  His 
father's  family  name  was  Duren,  which  was 
changed  to  that  of  Gould.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1825,  took  his  medical  de- 
gree in  1830,  and  commenced  practice  in  Bos- 
ton. During  his  college  life  he  devoted  his 
spare  moments  to  the  study  of  natural  history; 
in  the  early  part  of  his  professional  career  he 
lectured  frequently  on  scientific  subjects,  and 
for  two  years  gave  instruction  in  botany  and 
zoology  at  Harvard  college.  In  1855  he  deliv- 
ered the  annual  discourse  before  the  Massachu- 
setts medical  society,  and  in  1856  received  the 
appointment  of  visiting  physician  to  the  Mas-, 
sachusetts  general  hospital.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished naturalist,  and  in  the  department  of 
conchology  stood  preeminent  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  His  principal  published  works  are:  a 
translation  of  Lamarck's  "  Genera  of  Shells  " 
(1833) ;  "  System  of  Natural  History  "  (1833) ; 
"  The  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Massachusetts  " 
(1841);  "Principles  of  Zoology,"  with  Prof. 
Agassiz  (1848) ;  "  Mollusca  and  Shells  of  the 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition  under 
Capt.  Wilkes"  (4to,  1852,  with  an  atlas  of 
plates);  the  completion  of  Dr.  A.  Binney's 
"Land  Mollusks  of  the  United  States"  (3  vols. 
4to,  1851-'5) ;  "  The  Mollusca  of  the  North 
Pacific  Expedition  under  Capts.  Ringgold  and 
Rogers"  (1860);  and  "  Otia  Conchologica " 
(1863).  He  was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to 
scientific  and  literary  periodicals. 

GOULD,  Benjamin  Apthorp,  an  American  as- 
tronomer, born  in  Boston,  Sept.  27,  1824.  Af- 
ter graduating  at  Harvard  college  (1844),  he 
went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  pursued  his  math- 
ematical and  astronomical  studies  under  Gauss, 
and  took  his  degree  in  1848.  He  was  for  some 
time  an  assistant  in  the  observatory  at  Altona 
with  Schumacher  and  Petersen.  After  visiting 
many  of  the  chief  observatories  of  Europe  and 
spending  some  time  at  each,  he  returned  to 
America,  and  was  employed  in  the  United 
States  coast  survey,  having  charge  of  the  lon- 
gitude determinations,  the  telegraphic  methods 
of  which  he  very  greatly  improved.  In  1866 
he  made  the  first  determinations  of  transatlan- 
tic longitude  by  telegraph  cable.  In  1856  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Dudley  observa- 
tory at' Albany,  and  superintended  its  building 
and  arrangement  in  1857-18.  His  occupancy 
of  this  post  ended  in  January,  1859,  owing  to 
a  disagreement  with  the  trustees  of  the  insti- 
tution, which  led  to  a  prolonged  and  painful 
conflict,  carried  on  through  pamphlets  and  the 
public  press.  A  committee  of  scientific  men 
subsequently  justified  the  action  of  Prof.  Gould 
in  the  matters  leading  to  this  misunderstand- 
ing. In  1868  he  was  appointed  to  organize 
and  direct  the  national  observatory  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic  at  Cordova.  After  ordering 
the  instruments  in  Europe  and  erecting  the 
building  at  Cordova,  he  began  work  therewith 
four  assistants  in  1870.  Since  that  time  he  has 


130 


GOULD 


completed  a  set  of  maps  of  the  stars  visible 
with  the  naked  eye  from  his  observatory,  with 
their  positions  and  magnitudes,  and  afterward 
undertook  a  series  of  zone  observations  of 
southern  stars.  Up  to  April  15, 1874,  the  great 
number  of  83,000  stars  had  been  observed. 
Prof.  Gould's  principal  works  are:  "Report 
on  the  Discovery  of  the  Planet  Neptune " 
(Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  1850); 
"  Investigation  of  the  Orbit  of  Comet  V." 
(Washington,  1847);  "Discussions  of  Obser- 
vations made  by  the  United  States  Astrono- 
mical Expedition  to  Chili,  to  determine  the 
Solar  Parallax"  (Washington,  1856);  "Dis- 
cussion on  the  Statistics  of  the  United  States 
Sanitary  Commission ;"  and  the  charts  of  stars 
already  named,  with  others  of  scarcely  less  im- 
portance. In  1849  he  founded  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  the  "Astronomical  Journal,"  the  ex- 
penses of  which  were  long  borne  by  himself 
and  a  few  friends.  He  continued  to  conduct 
it  until  its  suspension  in  1861. 

GOULD,  Hannah  Flagg,  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Lancaster,  Mass.,  in  1789,  died  at 
Newburyport,  Sept.  5,  1865.  She  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  periodical  literature,  and 
published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1832,  a  second 
in  1836,  and  a  third  in  1841.  Her  other  books 
are :  "  Gathered  Leaves,"  a  collection  of  prose 
sketches  (1846);  "The  Diosma,"  containing 
original  and  selected  poems  (1850) ;  "  The 
Youth's  Coronal"  (1851);  "The  Mother's 
Dream,  and  other  Poems"  (1853);  and 
"Hymns  and  Poems  for  Children"  (1854). 

GOULD,  John,  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Lyme,  Dorsetshire,  Sept.  14,  1804.  Between 
the  ages  of  14  and  20  he  resided  at  the  royal 
gardens  at  Windsor,  studying  the  habits  of 
birds  and  collecting  specimens.  He  was  after- 
ward engaged  to  prepare  specimens  for  the 
museum  of  the  London  zoological  society,  and 
published  "  A  Century  of  Birds  from  the  Him- 
alayan Mountains,"  with  illustrations  by  his 
wife  (fol.,  London,  1832).  He  next  published 
"The  Birds  of  Europe  "  (1832-7).  In  1838 
he  went  to  Australia,  where  he  resided  two 
years,  collecting  materials  for  his  "Birds  of 
Australia,"  also  illustrated  by  his  wife  (7  vols. 
fol.,  1842-'8),  and  for  the  "  Mammals  of  Aus- 
tralia" (1845-'59).  His  "Monograph  of  the 
Trochilida  "  (fol.,  1850)  was  suggested  by  his 
unrivalled  collection  of  humming  birds,  of 
which  he  had  procured  2,000  specimens,  illus- 
trating 320  species.  Among  his  remaining 


Monograph  of  the  Macropodid®,  or  Family  of 
Kangaroos"  (1841-'2) ;  "Monograph  of  the 
Odontophorinre,  or  Partridges  of  America" 
(1844-'50) ;  a  supplement  to  the  "  Birds  of 
Australia,"  containing  species  recently  discov- 
ered ;  and  a  "  Handbook  to  the  Birds  of  Aus- 
tralia," giving  all  the  information  on  the  sub- 
ject to  the  close  of  1865.  In  1873  he  was  pre- 
paring works  on  Asiatic  and  on  British  birds. 


GOUR 

GOUNOD,  Charles  Francois,  a  French  composer, 
born  in  Paris,  June  17,  1818.  He  studied 
counterpoint  at  the  Paris  conservatory  under 
Hal6vy,  receiving  also  instructions  in  composi- 
tion from  Lesueur  and  Paer.  In  1837  he  re- 
ceived the  second  prize  of  the  institute,  and  in 
1839  *he  obtained  the  first  premium  for  his 
cantata  Fernand.  In  consequence  of  this  suc- 
cess he  became  privileged  to  pursue  his  train- 
ing at  Rome  at  the  government  expense,  and 
there  devoted  himself  to  ecclesiastical  mu- 
sic. In  1843  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  pro- 
cured the  performance,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Paul,  of  a  mass  for  voices  only,  in  the  style  of 
Palestrina.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  was  appoint- 
ed musical  director  at  the  church  of  the  Mis- 
sions Etrangeres.  Here  he  adopted  the  mo- 
nastic garb,  and  remained  in  obscurity  till  1851. 
On  April  16,  1851,  he  produced  unsuccessfully 
his  first  opera,  entitled  Sappho.  In  1852  some 
choruses,  written  for  M.  Ponsard's  classical 
tragedy  Ulysse,  were  performed  at  the  Theatre 
Francais.  In  October,  1854,  La  nonne  san- 
glante,  a  grand  opera,  was  performed  unsuccess- 
fully, as  was  in  1858  an  attempt  at  comic  opera, 
consisting  of  a  musical  setting  of  Moliere's 
Medecin  malgre  lui.  On  March  19,  1859,  was- 
produced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  the  work  on 
which  Gounod's  reputation  chiefly  rests,  Faust. 
This  was  succeeded  by  Philemon  et  Baucis,  a 
three-act  opera ;  La  reine  de  Sala,  a  grand 
opera ;  Mirella,  an  Italian  version  of  the  French 
Mireille  ;  and  Romeo  e  Oiulietta.  In  addition 
to  these  works,  he  has  composed  masses, 
psalms,  and  motets,  for  single  and  double  cho- 
rus. Among  the  most  praiseworthy  of  his 
compositions  of  this  class  are  his  "  St.  Cecilia 
Mass  "  and  a  setting  of  the  psalm  "By.  the 
Waters  of  Babylon."  Of  late  years  he  has 
lived  principally  in  London. 

GOUR,  Ganr,  or  Lneknonti,  a  ruined  city  of 
Bengal,  British  India,  179  m.  N.  of  Calcutta. 
Its  remains  are  spread  over  a  range  of  low 
hills  which  extend  along  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Bhagruttee,  and  cover  a  space  7  m.  long  (15 
m.  including  suburban  villages)  by  2  or  3  m. 
broad.  Many  of  the  buildings  have  been  de- 
molished for  the  sake  of  the  bricks  of  which 
they  were  constructed,  but  several  grand  edi- 
fices are  still  standing.  Of  these  the  most 
remarkable  are  a  mosque,  built  of  brick,  and 
lined  with  a  kind  of  black  porphyry,  a  curious 
building  faced  with  bricks  of  various  colors,  an 
obelisk  100  ft.  high,  numerous  reservoirs,  and 
two  lofty  gates  of  the  citadel.  Several  villages 
have  grown  up  on  part  of  the  site,  and  the  rest 
is  mainly  covered  with  forests  or  is  under  cul- 
tivation.— The  earliest  record  of  Gour  dates 
from  648,  when  it  was  governed  by  indepen- 
dent chieftains.  At  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  it  was  taken  by  an  officer  of  the  vice- 
roy of  Delhi  under  Shahal  ud-Din,  monarch 
of  Ghore  in  Afghanistan;  and  in  1212  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  Bengal,  an  eminence  which 
it  retained,  except  during  an  interval  of  about 
50  years  previous  to  1409,  until  the  British 


GOURD 


GOURGAUD 


131 


gained  possession  of  the  district  in  the  18th 
century.     Its  decline,  however,  began  about 
1574,   when   Monaim    Khan,   commander  of 
\kbar's  troops,  captured  it  and  made  it  the 
3at  of  an  independent  power,  but  in  a  few 
lonths  fell  a  victim,  with  nearly  all  his  troops, 
3  the  deadly  climate.    No  cause  lias  since  con- 
ributed  so  much  to  its  decay  as  the  diversion 
)f  the  Ganges  from  its  former  to  its  present 
lannel,  4  or  5  m.  distant,  in  the  17th  century. 
GOURD  (Fr.  gourde,  a  swelling),  a  name  ap- 
)lied  in  Europe  to  plants  of  the  order  cucurbi- 
aceas  in  general,  but  restricted  in  the  United 
States  to  the  lagenaria,  the  hard  shell  of  which 
put  to  various  domestic  uses.     To  the  gourd 
mily  belong  the  pumpkin,  squash,  watermel- 
i,  cucumber,  muskmelon,  and  several  others 
jultivated  for  ornament  or  known  as  weeds, 
members  of  the  family  are  succulent  ten- 
ril-bearing  herbs  with  a  watery  juice ;  alter- 
,te  and  palmately  ribbed,  lobed,  or  Dangled 
ives,    and  monoecious,   sometimes  dioecious 


Common  Gourd  (Lagenaria  vuigaris). 

>wers;  the  calyx  coherent  with  the  ovary 
ower  superior)  ;  corolla  mostly  monopetalous; 
e  stamens  are  usually  three  and  singularly 
ntorted  and  united ;  the  fruit  generally  fleshy, 
t  sometimes  with  a  hard  shell  when  ripe, 
e  common  gourd,  bottle  or  calabash  gourd, 
jenaria  vulgaris,  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Af- 
ca;  it  climbs  to  a  great  distance,  and  has 
my,  unpleasantly    scented  leaves.      The 
lie  flowers  are  on  long  stalks,  white  with 
enish  veins ;  the  fertile  on  short  stalks,  and 
roducing  a  fruit  that  varies  much  in  shape, 
"le  commonest  form  is  shaped  like  a  water 
ttle  with  a  large  base  and  a  swollen  handle ; 
e  rind  of  this  when  ripe  is  very  hard  and 
oody.     By  making  an  opening  at  the  place 
here  the  stem  joins  the  fruit  and  removing 
ie  contents,  it  makes,  after  soaking  to  re- 
move the  bitterness,  an  excellent  water  bottle. 
With  an  opening  in  the  side  it  is  a  convenient 
er;  and  when  sawed  in  two  across  the 


larger  part,  the  lower  portion  forms  a  dish, 
while  the  upper  serves  as  a  funnel.  A  variety 
is  known  at  the  west  as  sugar-trough  gourd, 
the  large  flattened-spherical  shell  of  which  will 
hold  several  gallons.  Hercules' s  club  or  Cali- 
fornia gourd  produces  a  fruit  sometimes  5  or 
6  ft.  long.  Under  the  name  of  ornamental  or 
fancy  gourds  several,  mostly  species  of  cucur- 
lita,  are  grown  for  their  small,  handsomely 
marked,  and  variously  shaped  fruit.  (See 
PUMPKIN,  and  SQUASH.) 

GOURGAUD,  Gaspard,  baron,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Versailles,  Sept.  14,  1783,  died  July 
26,  1852.  He  studied  at  the  polytechnic 
school,  and  at  that  of  Chalons,  entered  the 
army  in  1802,  and  fought  in  the  campaigns  of 
Germany  (1805-'6),  of  Poland  (1807),  of  Spain 
(1808),  and  again  in  Germany  (1809).  Sent  to 
Dantzic  in  1811  to  examine  the  strength  of  its 
fortifications,  his  reports  gained  the  favor  of 
Napoleon,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Russia  in 
1812.  He  was  wounded  at  Smolensk ;  at  Mos- 
cow he  prevented  an  explosion  of  5,000  cwt. 
of  gunpowder  stored  in  the  Kremlin,  and  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  baron.  On  the  re- 
treat he  proved  his  bravery  at  the  passage  of 
the  Beresina.  He  was  first  officier  Cordon- 
nance  to  Napoleon  during  the  campaign  in 
Saxony  in  1813,  where  after  the  battle  of 
Leipsic  he  saved  the  corps  of  Oudinot  by  de- 
laying the  command  of  Napoleon  to  destroy 
the  bridge  of  Freiberg.  After  the  battle  of 
Brienne  in  the  campaign  of  1814,  he  saved  Na- 
poleon at  Mezieres  from  a  troop  of  Cossacks, 
one  of  whom  was  already  aiming  his  lance  at 
the  emperor.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he 
was  well  treated  by  the  Bourbons,  on  whose 
flight  he  joined  the  emperor  (1815).  Made 
general  after  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  he  was 
among  the  last  on  the  battle  field  of  Waterloo, 
followed  Napoleon  to  Malmaison  and  Roche- 
fort,  and  carried  his  letter  to  the  prince  regent 
of  England.  Chosen  one  of  the  three  who  were 
allowed  to  follow  the  emperor  in  his  exile,  he 
lived  three  years  at  St.  Helena,  but  left  the 
island  in  consequence  of  illness  and  misunder- 
standings, went  to  England,  and  tried  in  vain 
to  interest  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and 
Maria  Louisa  in  favor  of  the  emperor.  In 
1821  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  France, 
where  a  legacy  from  Napoleon  enabled  him 
to  live  independently,  though  deprived  of  his 
titles.  Together  with  Gen.  Montholon  he  pub- 
lished the  Memoires  de  Napoleon  d  Sainte- 
Helene  (8  vols.,  London,  1823).  His  Examen 
critique  (1825)  of  Segur's  "History  of  the 
Grand  Army  "  caused  a  duel  between  the  two 
generals,  and  was  followed  by  a  sharp  contro- 
versy with  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  accused  him 
of  having  compromised  his  master  at  St.  He- 
lena. Under  Louis  Philippe  he  was  made  peer 
of  France,  and  in  1840  accompanied  the  duke 
de  Joinville  on  his  voyage  to  St.  Helena,  to 
bring  the  remains  of  Napoleon  to  Paris.  In 
1849  he  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly, 
where  he  voted  with  the  conservatives. 


132 


GOURGUES 


GOURGrES,  Dominique  de,  a  French  adventurer, 
born  at  Mmit-di-Marsan,  Gascony,  about  1530, 
died  in  Tours  about  1693.  He  served  in  the 
war  with  Spain,  was  taken  prisoner  in  Italy 
and  put  in  chains  in  the  galleys,  was  captured 
with  the  vessel  by  the  Turks,  and  recaptured 
by  the  knights  of  Malta.  He  afterward  made 
voyages  to  Africa,  Brazil,  and  the  East.  In 
1567  he  sailed  from  Bordeaux,  with  three  small 
vessels  equipped  with  100  arquebusiers  and  80 
sailors,  to  avenge  the  massacre  of  the  French 
colonists  in  Florida  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Menendez.  He  landed  at  St.  Mary's  river,  made 
an  alliance  with  an  Indian  chief,  who  joined 
him  with  300  savages,  captured  Fort  San  Mateo 
on  the  St.  John's  river,  and  two  other  forts, 
slaughtered  most  of  the  garrisons,  and  hung 
his  prisoners  on  the  same  trees  on  which  the 
French  had  suffered.  Menendez  had  placed 
over  his  victims  the  inscription,  "  Not  as  to 
Frenchmen,  but  as  to  Lutherans;"  and  Gour- 
gues  retaliated  by  putting  over  the  Spaniards 
whom  he  executed,  "  Not  as  to  Spaniards,  but 
as  to  traitors,  robbers,  and  murderers."  On 
his  return  to  France  his  surrender  was  de- 
manded by  the  Spanish  ambassador,  but  he 
found  asylum  among  his  friends  at  Rouen, 
and  lived  in  obscurity  for  many  years.  When 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  hearing  of  his  mis- 
fortunes, invited  him  to  enter  her  service,  the 
French  king  restored  him  to  favor.  Shortly 
before  his  death  Dom  Antonio  of  Portugal  ap- 
pointed him  commander  of  his  fleet  against 
Philip  II.  An  account  of  his  expedition  to  Flor- 
ida was  published  by  Basanier,  Voyage  du  capi- 
taine  Qourgues  dans  la  Floride  (4to,  1586). 
Parkman's  "Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New 
World"  (1865)  has  a  full  account  of  Gourgues. 

GorsSLT,  Thomas  Marie  Joseph,  a  French  pre- 
late, born  at  Montigny-les-Cherlieux,  Haute- 
8a6ne,  May  1,  1792,  died  in  Rheims,  Dec.  24, 
1866.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  labor- 
ed in  the  field  until  his  17th  year.  In  1817  he 
was  ordained  priest,  and  after  a  brief  interval 
was  appointed  professor  of  moral  theology  in 
the  seminary  of  Besancon,  where  he  remained 
for  17  years.  In  1825  he  published  Exposition 
de  la  doctrine  de  Vfigliae  sur  le  pret  a  interet, 
which  showed  that  he  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  common  opinion  regarding  usury.  Other 
writings  on  the  relations  between  the  civil 
code  and  moral  theology  brought  him  to  the 
notice  of  the  government ;  and  in  1835  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Perigueux,  and  in  1836  arch- 
bishop of  Rheims.  In  1850  he  was  created 
a  cardinal  and  senator  of  France.  Through- 
out his  citreor  ho  never  forgot  his  humble 
origin,  and  delighted  to  have  his  aged  father, 
chid  in  his  homely  peasant's  garb,  placed  con- 
•pkmonily  in  a  seat  of  honor  near  himself  in 
the  services  of  his  cathedral.  His  most  re- 
markable works  are  Theologie  dogmatique  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1844  ;  8th  ed.,  1856),  and  Theoloqie 
morale  (2  vols.  8vo,  1848;  12th  ed.,  1862), 
which  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  priest's 
library  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 


GOUT 

GOUT,  a  painful  disease  affecting  principally 
the  fibrous  tissues  about  the  smaller  joints,  and 
intimately  connected  with  an  excess  of  uric 
acid  and  its  compounds  in  the  blood.  Various 
names  have  been  given  according  to  the  part 
affected,  as  podagra  when  in  the  feet,  chiragra 
when  in  the  hands,  &c. ;  but  all  such,  and 
probably  many  cases  of  neuralgia  accompanied 
by  oxalic  deposits  in  the  urine,  are  mere  forms 
of  one  disease.  A  common  attack  of  acute 
gout  is  generally  preceded  by  uneasiness,  indi- 
gestion, loss  of  appetite,  nausea,  and  vomiting, 
biliary  derangement,  dull  pains  or  numbness  in 
the  parts  to  be  affected,  often  with  feverish 
symptoms ;  but  in  some  cases,  on  the  contra- 
ry, the  disease  comes  on  in  the  midst  of  appa- 
rent health  and  well-being,  and  occasionally  at 
night  during  refreshing  sleep.  In  most  cases  it 
makes  itself  known  by  an  acute  pain  in  the  me- 
tatarso-phalangeal joint  of  the  great  toe;  dif- 
ferent sufferers  compare  this  to  the  sensations 
produced  by  the  contact  of  a  drop  of  cold 
water,  or  of  cold  or  heated  metal,  or  by  twist- 
ing, dislocation,  or  laceration,  as  by  a  nail  or 
wedge  driven  into  the  foot ;  this  is  accompa- 
nied by  feverish  symptoms,  urinary  sediment, 
extreme  tenderness,  restlessness,  involuntary 
muscular  contractions,  sleeplessness,  and  per- 
spiration ;  the  affected  joint  is  swollen,  red, 
and  hot.  This  series  of  symptoms  may  last 
four  or  five  days,  to  be  followed  after  a  day 
or  two  by  three  or  four  others,  continuing  in 
all  from  two  to  three  weeks ;  the  severity 
of  the  attack,  its  persistence,  its  seat,  and  its 
metastases  vary  according  to  circumstances. 
This  first  warning  past,  the  luxurious  epicure 
may  not  receive  another,  even  if  he  persist  in 
his  indulgences,  for  months,  or  perhaps  years ; 
but  the  second  comes,  and  the  third,  and  so  on, 
the  intervals  between  the  attacks  becoming 
less ;  though  the  pain  be  less  severe,  the  joints 
are  more  discolored  and  swollen,  with  O3dema 
and  chalky  deposits  in  their  neighborhood; 
and  by  a  sudden  retrocession  toward  the  inter- 
nal vital  organs,  life  may  be  seriously  threat- 
ened. When  gout  becomes  chronic  the  attacks 
are  more  irregular,  less  severe,  more  frequent 
and  sudden,  leaving  one  joint  for  another  after 
slight  exposure  to  cold  and  moisture,  excess  at 
table,  or  vivid  emotions ;  in  this  form,  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  pain  and  the  fear  of  injuring 
the  gouty  joints  render  its  subjects  cross,  fret- 
ful, and  disagreeable,  though  persons  thus  af- 
fected are  often  able  to  devote  themselves  to 
serious  study  and  important  private  and  pub- 
lic business.  The  pathology  of  gout  reduces 
itself  chiefly  to  the  abnormal  presence  of 
uric  acid  in  the  blood,  and  to  the  deposit 
of  urate  of  soda  in  the  fibrous  tissue  around 
the  joints  and  sheaths  of  tendons.  Gout  is 
rare  before  the  age  of  20,  and  men  of  robust 
constitution  and  of  a  mixed  sanguine  and  bil- 
ious temperament  are  far  more  liable  to  it 
than  females ;  it  may  be  inherited,  and  seems 
independent  of  climate  except  so  far  as  it  in- 
fluences the  diet  of  a  people,  the  northern  races 


GOUT 


GOVERNOR'S  ISLAND 


133 


ing  generally  less  temperate  in  the  use  of 
stimulating  food  and  drinks  than  southern  na- 
tions. A  life  of  indolent  sensuality,  amid  the 
excitements  and  passions  of  civilization  in  cities, 
and  the  use  of  highly  seasoned  animal  food 
with  alcoholic  stimulants,  are  the  predisposing 
causes  to  this  disease.  A  person  may  have 
a  gouty  diathesis,  and  die  from  the  evils  arising 
from  it,  without  having  experienced  what  is 
popularly  understood  as  a  "fit  of  the  gout;" 
the  gout  poison  (uric  acid)  may  be  eliminated 
from  the  blood  in  any  organ  rich  in  fibrous 
tissue,  and  from  recent  researches  it  would 
seem  that  many  cases  of  neuralgia  (sciatica 
and  hemicrania),  lithiasis,  and  oxaluria,  with 
oxalate  of  lime  deposits  in  the  urine,  are  symp- 
toms of  the  same  morbific  action,  and  excess  of 
uric  acid  in  the  blood  either  from  over  pro- 
duction or  accumulation ;  the  habits  and  man- 
ner of  life,  the  tissues  most  affected,  and  the 
peculiar  urinary  deposit,  indicate  the  identity 
of  the  above  forms  of  disease,  and  the  pro- 
priety of  the  same  treatment  in  all.  Organic 
chemistry  teaches  that  in  the  gouty  diathesis, 
with  excess  of  urates  and  oxalates,  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  system ;  hence  the 
uric  acid  may  remain  unchanged,  or  may  be 
oxidized  only  into  oxalic  acid,  the  later  remain- 
ing as  such  instead  of  undergoing  further  oxi- 
dation and  being  converted  into  carbonic  acid 
and  urea,  in  which  forms  it  can  be  removed 
from  the  organism.  We  find  gout  attacking 
the  upper  ranks  of  society,  who  indulge  in  a 
highly  nitrogenous  diet,  which  tends  to  pro- 
duce uric  acid  in  excess,  even  though  the  nor- 
mal quantity  should  be  duly  eliminated,  and 
the  disease  assumes  the  form  of  urate  of  soda 
deposits  in  the  joints ;  in  .the  lower  classes, 
consuming  less  animal  and  stimulating  food,  and 
taking  in  more  oxygen  from  their  daily  exercise, 
the  uric  acid  becomes  the  oxalic,  and  the  gouty 
diathesis  manifests  itself  in  neuralgia  with  ox- 
,te  of  lime  in  abundance  in  the  urine.  By 
any  authors  rheumatism  is  considered  closely 
allied  to  gout;  and  accordingly  cases  of  the 
latter  disease  affecting  especially  fibrous  tissues 
are  sometimes  called  rheumatic  gout,  a  patho- 
logical hybrid  as  absurd  and  impossible  as  scar- 
latinic  measles  would  be,  as  Dr.  Garrod  has 
clearly  shown ;  a  gouty  person  may  have  also 
rheumatism,  but  the  two  diseases  are  distinct 
and  cannot  pass  the  one  into  the  other,  the 
former  having  as  a  prominent  character  an 
excess  of  uric,  and  the  latter  of  lactic  acid. — 
There  are  few  diseases  which  have  more  em- 
pirical remedies  extolled  for  their  cure  than 
gout ;  almost  every  drastic  purgative,  diuretic, 
tonic,  and  narcotic  has  been  pressed  into  the 
service,  either  for  external  or  internal  use.  To 
say  nothing  here  of  soothing  topical  applica- 
tions, colchicum  has  enjoyed,  and  deservedly, 
a  great  reputation  in  the  treatment  of  gout 
and  neuralgia,  between  the  attacks  and  in  their 
chronic  forms ;  it  is  most  efficacious  when  it 
acts  upon  the  skin  and  bowels.  The  acetate 
of  potash  and  other  alkalies  are  in  favor  with 


uia 

?• 


many,  both  for  their  diuretic  property  and  as 
alkalizing  the  acid  in  the  blood  and  urine.  Ni- 
tre-muriatic acid  has  been  found  of  advantage 
for  supplying  the  oxygen  necessary  for  the 
conversion  of  the  uric  into  oxalic  acid,  and 
the  latter  into  carbonic  acid  and  urea.  The 
judicious  use  of  purgatives,  abstinence  from 
highly  nitrogenous  food  and  stimulating  drinks, 
attention  to  hygienic  rules,  and  avoiding  expo- 
sure to  dampness,  cold,  and  fatigue  of  body  or 
mind,  are  absolutely  necessary  as  aids  in  the 
treatment  of  this  disease: 

GOIJVION  SAINT-CYR,  Laurent,  a  French  mar- 
shal, born  in  Toul,  April  13,  1764,  died  at 
Hyeres,  March  17,  1830.  He  studied  the  fine 
arts,  and  in  1792  enlisted  among  the  volunteers 
who  marched  to  the  invaded  frontier.  Being 
elected  captain  by  his  companions,  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  staff  of  Gen.  Custine,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  year  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of 
division.  In  1796  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  army  on  the  Rhine  under  Moreau.  In  1798 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  reestablish  discipline 
in  the  army,  which  had  nearly  revolted  against 
Masse'na,  and  succeeded.  After  the  18th  Bru- 
maire  he  again  served  under  Moreau,  and  de- 
feated Kray  at  Biberach  (May  9,  1800).  In 

1801  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain,  and  in 

1802  commanded  the  French  army  of  observa- 
tion in  southern  Italy.     He  was  too  indepen- 
dent in  his  conduct  and  sentiments  to  please 
Napoleon,  who  assigned  him  to  employment 
which  gave  him  no  opportunity  of  gaining  dis- 
tinction.    In  1808  he  was  sent  to  Catalonia, 
and  relieved  Barcelona  in  spite  of  the  scanty 
resources  placed  at  his  disposal ;  but  dissatisfied 
with  the  treatment  he  received,  he  sent  in  his 
resignation  and  left  his  post  without  waiting  for 
his  successor.     This  being  considered  a  breach 
of  discipline,  he  was  cashiered  and  ordered  to 
his  country  seat,  where  he  remained  for  two 
years  in  a  kind  of  imprisonment.     In  1811  he 
was  called  back  to  service,  in  1812  commanded  a 
corps  in  the  great  army  which  invaded  Russia, 
and  defeated  Prince  "Wittgenstein  at  Polotzk  on 
the  Dtina,  Aug.  17-18 ;  for  this  victory  he  was 
made  a  marshal.    During  1813  he  made  a  heroic 
stand  at  Dresden,  signing  at  last  an  honorable 
capitulation,  which  however  was  not  sanctioned 
by  Prince  Sch  warzenberg,  and  he  and  his  troops 
were  sent  prisoners  to  Austria.  He  consequently 
took  no  part  in  the  events  which  marked  the 
fall  of  the  empire.     He  gave  in  his  adhesion  to 
the  Bourbons,  and  on  the  second  restoration 
became  minister  of  war  under  Talleyrand,  and 
again  in  1817.     He  retired  in  1819,  and  devoted 
his  leisure  to  the  preparation  of  his  Memoires 
(8  vols.,  1829-'31). 

GOVERNOR'S  ISLAND,  a  fortified  post  of  the 
United  States,  lying  in  New  York  harbor,  at 
the  entrance  of  East  river,  about  £  m.  S.  of 
the  Battery,  and  separated  from  Brooklyn  by 
Buttermilk  channel.  It  is  about  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference, and  contains  Castle  William,  Fort 
Columbus,  and  South  battery,  the  last  com- 
manding the  entrance  to  Buttermilk  channel. 


134 


GOWER 


GOWER,  John,  an  English  poet,  born,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  in  Yorkshire,  though  some 
authorities  make  him  a  native  of  Kent  or  of 
.  about  1325,  died  in  1408.  He  was  a 
gentleman  of  considerable  estate,  and  appears 
to  have  studied  law  and  to  have  contracted  a 
friendship  with  Chaucer.  It  has  been  said, 
hut  on  insufficient  proof,  that  he  attained  the 
dignity  of  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  Like  Chaucer  he  was  a  Lancastrian, 
and  like  him  also  a  censurer  of  the  vices  of  the 
clergy.  Chaucer  dedicates  his  "Troilus  and 
Cressida"  to  Gower,  calling  him  "moral 
Gower,"  and  the  latter  in  his  Confessio  Aman- 
tis  introduces  Venus  calling  Chaucer  "my 
disciple  and  my  poete."  Gower's  chief  works 
are  the  Speculum  Meditantis,  a  treatise  on  the 
duties  of  married  life,  in  French  verse,  in  ten 
books;  the  Vox  Clamantis,  a  poem  in  seven 
books,  describing  in  Latin  elegiacs  the  insur- 
rection of  the  commons  under  Richard  II.; 
and  the  Confessio  Amantis,  an  English  poem 
in  eight  books,  said  to  have  been  written  at 
the  suggestion  of  Richard  II.  Of  these  works 
the  first  is  supposed  to  have  perished,  the  sec- 
ond exists  in  manuscript  copies,  and  the  third, 
which  was  finished  about  1393,  was  first  pub- 
lished by  Caxton  in  1483.  A  new  edition,  with 
the  life  of  the  author  and  a  glossary,  by  Dr. 
Reinhold  Pauli,  appeared  in  London  in  1857 
(3  vols.  8vo).  Some  smaller  poems  of  no  great 
merit  are  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  libra- 
ry of  Trinity  college,  Cambridge ;  and  Warton 
discovered  in  the  library  of  the  marquis  of 
Stafford  a  volume  of  lalades  in  French,  which 
was  printed  in  1818  by  Lord  Gower  for  the 
Roxburghe  club.  Gower  is  known  chiefly  by 
his  Confessio  Amantis,  which  was  undoubt- 
edly suggested  by  Chaucer's  English  poems. 
Hallam  says:  "He  is  always  sensible,  pol- 
ished, perspicuous,  and  not  prosaic  in  the 
worst  sense  of  the  word."  In  his  latter  years 
he  was  blind. 

GOYA,  a  city  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  in 
the  province  and  100  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Cor- 
rientes,  on  a  email  river  of  the  same  name, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Parana ;  pop.  in 
1869,  10,907,  of  whom  only  1,839  were  able  to 
read.  It  is  situated  in  a  low,  flat  district, 
which  in  the  rainy  season  is  converted  into  a 
vast  marsh.  The  city  was  founded  in  1807, 
and  considerably  enlarged  in  1850.  Its  indus- 
try is  chiefly  connected  with  cattle  rearing. 

GOYAMA,  a  city  of  Brazil,  in  the  province 
of  Pernambuco,  on  the  river  Goyanna,  here 
crossed  by  two  bridges,  1,200  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro ;  pop.  about  9,000.  There  are  sev- 
eral churches,  a  convent,  a  tannery,  and  public 
stores.  A  cattle  fair  is  held  weekly.  The 
port,  large  and  spacious,  with  sufficient  depth 
•  •f  water  for  coasting  craft,  is  9  m.  from  the 
sea.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile,  and 
in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  The  chief  com- 
merce is  in  cotton,  sugar,  rum,  hides,  timber, 
fancy  woods,  and  castor  oil,  which  are  gene- 
rally sent  to  the  port  of  Recife. 


GOYAZ 

GOYAZ.  I.  A  central  province  of  Brazil,  ly- 
ing between  lat.  6°  and  21°  5'  S.,  and  Ion.  44° 
35'  and  50°  58'  W. ;  area,  284,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  151,000,  besides  about  12,000  indepen- 
dent Indians.  It  comprises  the  basin  of  the 
Tocantins  above  its  junction  with  the  Ara- 
guay,  and  the  E.  portion  of  the  basin  of  the 
latter  river,  together  with  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  N.  side  of  the  basin  of  the  Paranahyba. 
The  surface  is  generally  mountainous.  The 
Cordilheira  Grande  traverses  it  from  the  ex- 
treme north  to  about  lat.  16°  S.,  where  it 
unites  with  the  Montes  Pyrenees,  the  culmi- 
nating point  of  which,  Goyaz,  has  an  elevation 
of  about  9,500  ft.  Several  sierras  extend 
from  S.  to  N.,  forming  for  the  most  part  the 
E.  boundary,  and  with  the  Cordilheira  Grande 
and  the  Pyrenees  encircling  the  basin  of  the 
Tocantins.  The  main  ranges  are  intersected 
by  numerous  subsidiary  ones,  from  which  the 
country  slopes  gradually  down  to  the  sea  level. 
The  geological  structure  is  imperfectly  known. 
It  has  been  appropriately  described  as  "  a  met- 
amorphic  island  in  a  sea  of  sandstone,  the 
sandstones  having  been  swept  away  from  the 
greater  part  of  the  river  basins,  leaving  irregu- 
lar metamorphic  rocks  exposed."  The  great 
plains  and  valleys  lying  between  the  mountains 
are  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  among  which 
is  the  Tocantins ;  this,  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  Maranhao  and  the  Paranatinga,  flows  N". 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Araguay,  in  the  N". 
corner  of  the  province,  receiving  in  its  course 
many  considerable  affluents.  The  Araguay, 
which  belongs  only  in  part  to  the  province,  is 
much  larger  than  the  Tocantins,  and  hence  is 
properly  the  main  stream,  and  is  navigable  for 
steamers,  which  run  to  Pard  (Belem),  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Gold  is  found  in 
many  parts,  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital 
being  especially  auriferous.  Diamonds  and 
other  precious  stones  have  been  discovered  in 
various  places.  The  country  is  generally  open, 
although  there  is  an  extensive  forest  tract  ly- 
ing near  the  capital.  The  lowlands  are  not 
well  fitted  for  cultivation ;  but  the  highlands 
are  fertile,  producing  millet,  mandioca,  rice, 
and  a  small  species  of  beans.  Cotton,  coffee, 
and  tobacco  are  produced ;  the  grape  flourish- 
es, affording  two  vintages  in  the  year.  Mel- 
ons, bananas,  oranges,  &c.,  abound.  The  vanil- 
la bean,  sarsaparilla,  rhubarb,  and  senna  grow 
spontaneously.  Palms  are  numerous,  especial- 
ly the  beautiful  species  known  as  the  ~buriti, 
from  the  fruit  of  which  is  produced  a  bever- 
age resembling  wine.  A  considerable  part  of 
the  province  is  especially  adapted  for  grazing, 
and  there  are  many  cattle,  horses,  and  swine. 
Wild  animals  and  birds,  especially  macaws  and 
parrots,  are  numerous.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  province,  on  the  river  Vermalho,  in  lat.  16° 
20'  S.,  Ion.  50°  W.,  about  600  m.  N.  W.  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro ;  pop.  about  8,500.  It  is  very  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  Brazil,  being  almost  equidis- 
tant from  Para,  Porto  Alegre,  and  the  fron- 
tiers of  Peru  and  Uruguay.  The  site  is  uneven, 


GOZO 


GRAAL 


135 


t  the  streets  are  regularly  laid  out,  although 
ill  paved.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  with 
mud  walls.  The  principal  edifices  are  the  gov- 
ernor's palace,  the  house  of  legislation,  the 
prison,  and  the  municipal  slaughter  house. 
One  of  the  churches  has  a  fine  exterior.  The 
river  is  here  crossed  by  two  handsome  bridges. 
There  is  very  little  trade.  The  climate  is  sa- 
lubrious, but  in  summer  the  heat  is  excessive. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1736,  and  was  then 
called  Santa  Anna.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1739,  when  it  received  its  present  name 

Goyaz,  or,  in  full,  Villa  Boa  de  Goyaz. 

GOZO.     See  MALTA. 

GOZZI,  Carlo,  count,  an  Italian  dramatist, 
born  in  Venice  about  1720,  died  April  4,  1806. 
He  early  published  some  poetry,  but  was 
obliged  to  enlist  in  the  army  owing  to  pecuni- 
ary embarrassment.  After  three  years  he  re- 
turned to  Venice,  and  became  the  most  witty 
member  of  the  Granalleschi  society,  which 
was  devoted  to  learning  and  also  to  convivial 
and  burlesque  purposes.  He  began  to  ridicule 
the  plays  of  the  abbate  Cliiari,  and  ended  by 
attacking  those  of  Goldoni,  against  whom  he 
directed  his  satire  La  tartana  degli  influssi 
per  Tanno  Mssestile  1757,  which  made  him 
famous.  His  dramatic  pieces,  based  on  fairy 
tales,  were  for  a  time  exceedingly  popular,  es- 
pecially Turandote,  which  Schiller  adapted  to 
the  German  stage.  He  afterward  wrote  trage- 
dies. He  published  a  complete  edition  of  his 
plays  in  12  vols.  (Venice,  1791).  Werthes  trans- 
lated his  plays  into  German  (5  vols.,  Bern, 
1795),  and  Streckfuss  prepared  a  German  ver- 
sion of  his  fairy  tales  (Berlin,  1805).  He  face- 
tiously gave  to  his  autobiography  the  title  of 
Memorie  inutili  della  vita  di  Carlo  Gozzi  (3 
vols.,  Venice,  1797). — His  brother  GASPARO 
(1713-'86)  was  a  voluminous  writer  in  prose 
and  verse,  but  is  best  remembered  as  the  author 
of  the  Osservatore  veneto  (published  periodical- 
ly), Sermoni,  and  other  humorously  critical  pro- 
ductions. His  works,  including  his  Difesa  di 
Dante,  were  collected  in  16  vols.  (1818). 

GRAAF,  Regnier  de,  a  Dutch  physician,  born  at 
Schoonhoven  in  1641,  died  in  Delft,  Aug.  17, 
1673.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for  hav- 
ing originated  the  discovery  that  reproduction 
takes  place  in  the  viviparous  as  well  as  in  the 
oviparous  animals  by  means  of  ovarian  eggs, 
and  that  all  animals  are  therefore  essentially 
oviparous.  The  "Graafian  vesicles"  of  the 
mammalian  ovary  were  discovered  and  de- 
scribed by  him,  although  he  mistook  their  ex- 
act nature  and  considered,  them  as  true  eggs, 
while  they  have  since  been  shown  to  be  only 
the  receptacles  within  which  the  microscopic 
egg  is  contained.  He  also  acquired  a  wide 
reputation  by  his  investigations  on  the  pancre- 
atic juice.  His  works  are :  Disputatio  Medica 
de  Natura  et  Usu  Sued  Pancreatid  (Ley den, 
1664);  De  Virorum  Organis  Generationi  in- 
sermentibus,  &c.  (1668);  Epistola  de  nonnullis 
circa  Partes  Genitales  novis  invcntis  (1668) ; 
Tractatus  Anatomico-Medicus  de  Sued  Pancre- 


atid  Natura  et  Usu  (1671) ;  and  De  Mulierum 
Organis  Generationi  insermentibus  (1672). 

GRAAL,  or  Grail,  the  Holy  (in  old  French,  san 
greal;  in  old  English,  sancgreall;  either  from 
Fr.  saint,  holy,  and  the  Celtic  greall,  Provencal 
grazal,  and  mediaeval  Latin  gradalis,  a  vase  or 
cup,  or  from  the  French  sang  real^  the  "real 
blood  "  of  Christ),  one  of  the  leading  themes 
of  mediaeval  romance,  fabled  to  have  been  the 
cup  or  chalice  used  by  Christ  in  the  last  supper, 
and  in  which  he  changed  the  wine  into  his 
blood.  This  chalice,  preserved  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea,  had  also  received  the  blood  which 
flowed  from  the  side  of  Christ  on  the  cross. 
So  says  the  apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus; 
but  no  early  mention  is  made  of  it  by  either 
profane  or  ecclesiastical  writers'.  In  the  12th 
century,  at  the  dawn  of  romantic  literature,  it 
reappeared  as  the  central  subject  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  Merlin,  and  the  object  of  the  adventurous 
quest  of  the  knights  of  the  round  table.  Eo- 
mance  mixed  it  up  with  the  struggles  in  Spain 
between  Moors  and  Christians,  and  with  the 
foundation  of  the  order  of  templars  in  Pales- 
tine. In  the  Arthurian  romances  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  (sometimes  confounded  with  a  bish- 
op named  Joseph  sent  by  St.  Augustine  from 
Africa  to  England),  on  his  arrival  in  Britain, 
consecrated  his  son  first  bishop  of  the  island, 
and  made  his  Christian  relatives  kings  instead 
of  the  British  pagan  kings.  Kept  in  prison  by 
the  Jews  during  the  50  years  which  imme- 
diately followed  the  death  of  Christ,  he  had 
been  preserved  from  the  approaches  of  old  age 
by  the  possession  of  the  holy  graal,  and  was 
released  by  the  Saviour  in  person,  who  taught 
him  the  words  of  the  mass,  and  bade  him  re- 
new daily  the  sacrament  of  the  last  supper. 
The  holy  graal  lay  thus  at  the  foundation  of 
the  Christian  priesthood.  St.  Joseph  of  Ari- 
mathea, in  some  forms  of  the  legend,  was  the 
ever-living  possessor  of  the  precious  relic ;  in 
others  he  died  after  the  lapse  of  several  centu- 
ries, bestowing  his  authority  and  the  holy  graal 
on  his  son,  who  in  his  turn  died  after  conse- 
crating one  of  his  relatives  as  his  successor. 
.The  last  possessor,  a  contemporary  of  King  Ar- 
thur, unmindful  of  his  holy  trust,  sinned,  and 
forthwith  the  holy  vessel  disappeared  and  was 
lost.  The  knights  of  the  round  table  undertook 
the  task  of  recovering  it;  but  it  baffled  the 
seekers,  as  no  one  could  see  it  who  was  not 
a  virgin  in  body.  Lancelot  of  the  lake  had 
arrived  at  the  door  of  the  chamber  where  the 
holy  graal  was ;  warned  to  depart,  he  neverthe- 
less ventured  to  look  in,  "  and  saw  a  table  of 
silver  and  the  holy  vessel  covered  with  red 
samite,  and  many  angels  about  it,  whereof  one 
of  them  held  a  candell  of  wax  burning,  and  the 
other  held  a  crosse  and  the  ornaments  of  the 
alter."  Having  dared  to  enter,  a  blast  of  fire 
smote  him  to  the  ground,  where  he  lay  "  twen- 
ty-four days  and  as  many  nights  as  a  dead 
man."  It  was  reserved  to  Sir  Galahad,  who 
was  possessed  of  perfect  purity,  to  behold  it 
peacefully  before  his  death.  Immediately  after 


13G 


GRACCHUS 


this  event  the  holy  graal  was  taken  up  to  heav- 
en. In  other  romances  Sir  Percival  is  distin- 
u'uished  in  tin-  place  of  Sir  Galahad.  At  a  later 
peril  id  >e\vral  churches  in  France  and  Italy 
claimed  to  possess  the  holy  graal ;  and  in  1101 
the  crusaders  obtained  a  cup  which  was  believ- 
ed for  some  time  to  be  identical  with  it,  and 
which  is  still  preserved  in  the  cathedral  of 
Genoa.— The  Queste  du  Saint  Graal  is  among 
the  longest  of  live  great  romances  composing 
the  Arthurian  cycle.  The  Parcival  and  Titu- 
ral  of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  treat  the  same 
subject.  See  also  Tennyson's  "Idyls  of  the 
King,"  and  "  History  of  the  Holy  Grail,"  edited 
from  MS.  by  F.  J.  Furnivall  (London,  1874). 

GRACCHUS.  I.  Tiberius  Sempronins,  a  Roman 
statesman,  born  about  168  B.  C.,  died  in  133. 
His  father,  Tiberius  Gracchus,  had  been  censor 
and  consul,  and  had  twice  obtained  a  triumph. 
His  mother,  Cornelia,  daughter  of  Scipio  Afri- 
canus,  had  remained  a  widow,  devoting  herself 
to  the  education  of  her  children,  in  which  she 
was  assisted  by  eminent  Greek  teachers.  Tibe- 
rius, the  oldest,  made  his  first  campaign  in  Af- 
rica under  his  uncle  Scipio,  and  next  tilled  the 
office  of  qua3stor  under  the  consul  Mancinus 
in  his  unlucky  campaign  against  the  Numan- 
tines.  The  high  regard  in  which  the  latter 
held  both  his  father  and  his  uncle  induced  them 
to  grant  to  Tiberius,  with  whom  alone  they 
would  treat,  the  favorable  terms  which  saved 
the  Roman  army.  But  the  senate  refused  to 
ratify  the  treaty,  and  had  resolved  to  send  back 
Mancinus  and  all  his  officers,  when  Tiberius  in- 
terfered and  saved  the  officers,  the  consul  alone 
being  given  up.  At  the  close  of  134  he  was  elect- 
ed tribune,  and  commenced  his  career  as  a  polit- 
ical agitator.  The  multitude  of  slaves  brought 
into  Italy  by  the  long  and  frequent  wars  had 
taken  the  place  in  agricultural  occupations  of 
the  original  farmers,  while  the  small  proprie- 
tors, during  the  protracted  terms  of  military 
service,  had  been  bought  out  by  the  rich.  Thus 
all  Italy  was  owned  by  a  few  large  proprietors, 
who  employed  slave  labor  almost  exclusively 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  city  at  the 
same  time  was  crowded  with  veteran  soldiers, 
many  of  whom  had  thus  lost  their  estates  and 
all  of  whom  were  needy.  Prompted  by  his 
own  ambition  and  abetted  by  his  mother  and 
friends,  Tiberius  from  the  commencement  of 
his  tribuneship  talked  openly  of  reviving  the 
Licinian  law,  by  which  no  man  could  hold 
more  than  bWjugera  (about  330  acres)  of  land, 
and  thus  the  surplus  would  become  the  prop- 
erty of  the  poor  citizens.  He  framed  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Licinian  law  (see  AGRARIAN 
LAWS),  which  ho  proposed  to  the  tribes,  and 
which  was  firmly  resisted  by  the  patricians  and 
the  wealthy.  Three  commissioners  were  to  be 
appointed  to  superintend  the  working  of  the 
new  law;  and  crowds  hastened  to  Rome  to 
tak«-  -ides  with  Tiberius  or  the  senate.  Mean- 
while the  latter  had  obtained  the  veto  of  M. 
OetaviiH  derma,  the  other  tribune,  and  thus 
each  time  the  law  was  proposed  the  proceed- 


ings were  quashed.  Tiberius,  incensed  at  this 
mode  of  opposition,  exercised  his  veto  on  other 
questions,  stopping  the  public  supplies,  and  the 
government  came  to  a  standstill.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  one  or  both  of  the  tribunes  must  re- 
tire from  office.  Gracchus  at  length  put  the 
question  to  the  tribes,  and  it  was  voted  to  eject 
Octavius,  who  was  dragged  from  the  tribune's 
chair.  The  agrarian  law  was  passed  imme- 
diately, and  Tiberius,  his  brother  Caius,  and  his 
father-in-law  Appius  Claudius,  were  appointed 
commissioners.  Thereupon  the  senate  refused 
to  vote  Tiberius  more  than  a  denarius  and  a 
half  (about  20  cents)  a  day  for  his  expenses  as 
a  public  officer.  At  this  juncture  Attalus, 
king  of  Pergamus,  died,  bequeathing  his  king- 
dom and  treasures  to  the  Roman  people.  Grac- 
chus forthwith  proposed  to  divide  the  trea- 
sure among  the  recipients  of  land  under  the 
new  law,  and  to  give  the  popular  assembly, 
instead  of -the  senate,  the  management  of  the 
kingdom.  He  was  formally  accused  of  aspi- 
ring to  be  king,  and  made  a  lame  defence  be- 
fore the  people.  Seeing  his  popularity  wa- 
ning, he  sought  to  be  elected  tribune  for  a 
second  term ;  and  this  being  demurred  to  as 
illegal,  a  whole  day's  discussion  ensued.  Next 
morning,  learning  that  the  senate  would  op- 
pose his  election  by  force,  he  armed  his  fol- 
lowers, and  was  proceeding  to  clear  the  capi- 
tol  when  Scipio  Nasica  at  the  head  of  the 
senators  attacked  his  partisans,  and  slew  300 
of  them,  as  well  as  Tiberius  himself.  II.  Cains 
Sempronins,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  159  B.  C.,  died  in  121.  At  the  death 
of  Tiberius  he  was  left  with  Appius  Claudius 
as  commissioner  for  carrying  out  the  agrarian 
law,  but  abstained  from  taking  any  part  in 
politics  for  several  years.  In  124  he  returned 
to  Rome  from  Sardinia,  where  he  had  been 
consul's  quaestor  under  L.  Aurelius  Orestes, 
was  immediately  summoned  before  the  censors 
to  give  an  account  of  his  administration,  de- 
fended himself  successfully,  and  became  a  can- 
didate for  the  tribuneship.  He  was  elected, 
and  commenced  by  having  a  law  passed  aimed 
at  Popilius,  who  had  persecuted  his  brother's 
friends.  Popilius  fled  from  Rome,  and  was 
banished  from  Italy.  Next  came  a  poor-law, 
by  which  a  monthly  distribution  of  grain  was 
to  be  made  to  the  people  at  an  almost  nominal 
price.  After  this  he  transferred  the  judicial 
power  in  a  very  great  measure  to  the  knights. 
These  measures  gained  him  great  popularity. 
During  his  second  tribuneship  (122)  he  pro- 
posed the  extension  of  the  Roman  franchise  to 
all  Italy.  But  this  ultimately  led  to  his  ruin. 
M.  Livius  Drusus,  his  colleague,  was  persuaded 
by  the  senate  to  veto  this  law,  which  he  did 
with  the  applause  of  the  tribes.  Furthermore, 
Drusus  outbid  him  again  in  the  popular  favor 
by  offering  to  establish  at  once  twelve  colonies 
of  3,000  persons  each,  who  were  to  have  their 
allotments  free.  Gracchus  having  seconded  a 
parallel  proposition,  mado  by  the  tribune  Ru- 
brius,  to  colonize  a  spot  near  Carthage,  the 


GRACES 

snate  sent  him  thither  as  commissioner.  When 
he  returned  his  popularity  was  gone.  In  the 
next  election  for  tribunes  his  name  was  omit- 
ted. The  law  founding  the  colony  near  Car- 
thage had  been  unpopular,  and  soon  after  his 
return  it  was  proposed  to  repeal  it.  This  he 
resisted,  uniting  with  Fulvius,  a  commissioner 
of  the  agrarian  law,  and  inciting  the  populace 
to  acts  of  violence.  In  the  tumult  one  of  the 
opposite  party  was  slain  by  a  follower  of  Grac- 
chus, and  the  senate  named  the  consul  Opimius 
dictator.  He  summoned  Gracchus  and  Fulvius 
to  answer  the  charge  of  murder.  Gracchus 
submitted,  but  his  partisans  were  in  arms,  and 
a  conflict  ensued.  He  had  crossed  the  Tiber 
and  taken  refuge  in  a  grove  of  the  Furies, 
where,  hard  pressed  by  his  enemies,  he  com- 
manded his  servant  to  slay  him.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  a  man  of  surpassing  eloquence. 

GRACES,  The  (Lat.  Gratia,  Gr.  Xdpire^  my- 
thological beings,  generally  described  as  daugh- 
ters of  Jupiter,  but  called  by  some  daughters 
of  Apollo,  and  by  others  of  Bacchus;  their 
maternity  is  still  more  undecided.  The  Spar- 
tans and  Athenians  recognized  only  two  Cha- 
rites,  but  Hesiod  enumerates  three,  whom  he 
names  Euphrosyne,  Aglaia,  and  Thalia;  and 
this  number  and  nomenclature  generally  pre- 
vailed. The  Graces  were  the  goddesses  of  social 
festivity,  happiness,  and  mirth,  the  inspirers 
of  those  virtues  and  amenities  which  render 
human  intercourse  delightful,  and  the  patron- 
esses of  whatever  is  graceful  and  beautiful  in  na- 
ture or  in  art.  Great  poets,  painters,  and  sculp- 
tors were  the  peculiar  objects  of  their  favor. 
The  Graces  were  commonly  represented  as  the 
companions  of  other  divinities,  especially  Apol- 
lo, Venus,  and  Cupid ;  and  their  attributes  are 
made  always  to  harmonize  with  those  of  the 
deity  upon  whom  they  attend.  Thus  as  the 
companions  of  Apollo  they  bear  musical  instru- 
ments, while  as  those  of  Venus  they  carry 
myrtle,  roses,  or  dice.  They  are  usually  rep- 
resented as  virgins  in  the  bloom  of  life,  em- 
bracing each  other,  and  sometimes  appear 
clothed,  sometimes  naked. 

GRACIAS,  or  Gracias  a  Dios  ("  Thanks  to  God  "), 
an  inland  city  of  Honduras,  capital  of  a  de- 
partment of  the  same  name,  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile plain,  near  the  foot  of  a  steep  and  craggy 
mountain,  77m.  W.  by  N".  of  Comayagua;  lat. 
14°  30'  N.,  Ion.  88°  50'  W.  Though  now  having 
only  3,000  inhabitants,  Gracias  was  once  a  flour- 
ishing city,  with  a  large  population,  attracted 
thither  by  the  rich  mines  of  the  surrounding 
country,  and  was  the  chief  entrepot  for  mer- 
chandise in  transitu  from  Puerto  Caballos  to 
the  populous  region  of  Guatemala.  It  was 
founded  in  1530  by  Gabriel  de  Rojas,  and  en- 
larged in  1536  by  Gonzalo  (or  more  probably 
Pedro)  de  Alvarado.  Until  1544  it  was  the 
seat  of  government  of  Guatemala  and  Nica- 
ragua ;  but  since  then  it  has  gradually  fallen 
from  its  original  splendor,  the  only  traces  of 
which  are  now  visible  in  the  parish  church 
and  the  convent  of  La  Merced.  Although  mi- 


GRADUATION 


137 


ning  is  still  followed  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  opals  of  the  finest  quality  are  found  in  the 
vicinity,  the  inhabitants  depend  chiefly  on  agri- 
culture for  subsistence.  The  climate  is  very 
salubrious.  Near  the  town  a  mountain  torrent, 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Santiago  or 
Venta,  plunges  by  two  successive  leaps  to  a 
depth  of  1,200  feet. 

GRACIAS  I  DIGS,  Cape,  the  K  E.  point  of 
Central  America,  at  the  mouth  of  the  large 
river  Coco  or  Segovia,  in  lat.  15°  N.,  Ion.  83° 
12'  W.  It  was  so  named  by  Columbus,  when, 
in  his  fourth  voyage,  after  beating  for  many 
days  against  head  winds  and  adverse  currents, 
he  finally  succeeded  in  turning  the  angle  of  the 
continent,  and  taking  his  course  southward. 
There  is  a  harbor  near  the  cape,  with  but  16 
feet  of  water. 

GRACIOSA,  one  of  the  Azores,  so  called  from 
its  beautiful  situation  and  extreme  productive- 
ness, lat.  39°  5'  K,  Ion.  28°  4'  W. ;  area,  32  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  12,000.  Its  chief  exports  are 
corn,  wine,  brandy,  fruit,  hemp,  and  flax.  Chief 
town,  Santa  Cruz. 

GRADUATION,  the  art  of  dividing  astronomi- 
cal, geodetical,  and  other  mathematical  instru- 
ments. It  was  formerly  done  by  hand  with 
ordinary  dividing  instruments,  and  so  few 
makers  possessed  the  requisite  skill  that  it  was 
very  difficult  to  procure  good  instruments  for 
the  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation ;  but  now 
the  operation  is  performed  with  great  exact- 
ness by  machines  called  dividing  engines.  Jesse 
Ramsden,  a  cloth  presser,  who  subsequently 
turned  his  attention  to  engraving,  being  brought 
in  contact  with  mathematical  instrument  ma- 
kers, was  led  to  construct  the  engine  which  for 
many  years  was  called  by  his  name.  At  that 
time  it  was  considered  so  valuable  that  the 
English  commissioners  of  longitude  entered 
into  a  contract  with  him  (1775)  to  instruct  a 
certain  number  of  persons,  not  exceeding  ten, 
in  the  method  of  making  and  using  it,  and  to 
divide  sextants  and  octants  at  certain  prices  as 
long  as  the  engine  remained  in  his  possession, 
they  becoming  the  purchasers  for  the  sum  of 
£315,  and  giving  £300  in  addition  for  the  in- 
vention. Perfect  as  the  instrument  was  then 
considered,  it  has  since  been  greatly  improved, 
so  that  it  is  now  automatic,  the  whole  operation 
of  dividing  a  circle,  after  it  has  been  placed  on 
the  engine,  being  performed  by  a  motion  given 
by  the  descent  of  a  weight,  or  by  a  crank 
turned  by  hand.  The  engine  consists  of  a  large 
wheel  of  bell  metal,  the  circumference  being 
ratched  into  720,  1,080,  1,440,  2,160,  or  4,320 
teeth,  or  any  number  which,  divided  by  2,  3, 
4,  6,  or  12,  will  give  360.  These  teeth  are  cut 
with  great  accuracy,  and  the  wheel  is  turned 
on  its  centre  by  an  endless  screw,  by  which  it 
may  be  moved  any  number  of  degrees  or  parts 
desired.  The  dividing  point  is  fixed  in  a  frame 
which  admits  of  a  free  and  easy  motion  to  and 
from  the  centre.  In  England,  Troughton, 
Simms,  Thomas,  Jones,  Ross,  and  a  few  others, 
have  been  successful  in  making  these  engines, 


138 


GR^VIUS 


while  many  others  have  failed.  On  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  they  were  first  made  auto- 
matic, and  other  improvements  were  also  made 
in  them.  Gambey  of  Paris  has  so  arranged 
his  as  to  divide  an  instrument  without  any  ec- 
centricity, even  when  placed  in  a  slightly  ec- 
centric position  on  the  engine.  Oertling  of 
Berlin  has  an  arrangement  for  correcting  any 
original  errors  in  the  teeth  while  dividing,  and 
other  mechanists  of  celebrity  have  constructed 
them  to  suit  their  own  views,  and  for  their 
own  use.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a  large 
one  belonging  to  the  coast  survey,  made  by 
Simms  of  London,  and  afterward  made  auto- 
matic by  Saxton;  also  one  in  Philadelphia 
made  by  Young,  and  one  in  New  York  by  the 
Messrs.  Blunt,  both  of  which  are  automatic. 
There'is  no  branch  of  the  mechanic  arts  which 
requires  more  skill  in  the  use  of  tools,  more 
geometrical  knowledge,  and  greater  patience, 
than  the  construction  of  a  circular  dividing 
engine.  The  large  astronomical  instruments 
are  divided  in  a  different  manner,  and,  unless 
placed  on  a  large  engine  from  which  the  divi- 
sions may  be  in  a  manner  copied,  are  original 
divisions.  Troughton,  Simms,  and  Jones  of 
London  have  used  movable  microscopes  with 
micrometers;  while  others  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  have  availed  themselves  of  the 
feeling  lever,  a  powerful  instrument  for  that 
purpose  invented  by  the  astronomer  Bessel. 
Straight  line  divisions  for  scales,  &c.,  are  made 
by  means  of  a  screw,  a  milled  roller,  or  a  wedge 
which  is  employed  to  move  a  platform  sliding 
freely  beneath  a  cutting  frame,  and  carrying 
the  scale  to  be  divided.  In  the  use  of  the  screw 
much  depends  on  its  accuracy,  and,  with  re- 
gard to  the  roller  or  wedge,  on  the  working 
or  manner  of  applying  them.  When  great  ac- 
curacy is  required,  the  divisions  are  tested  by 
means  of  two  microscopes,  and  an  error  can  be 
detected  of  j^Vor  °f  an  inch.  The  ruling  ma- 
chines used  by  engravers  in  this  country  are 
well  calculated  for  this  purpose. 

GH  KYII'S,  Johann  Georg  (GRAEFE),  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Naumburg,  Jan.  29,  1632,  died 
in  Utrecht,  Jan.  11,  1703.  He  had  begun  to 
study  law  at  Leipsic,  when,  meeting  with 
Gronpvius  at  Deventer,  he  determined  to  be- 
gin his  education  over  again,  devoting  himself 
to  belles-lettres.  After  remaining  two  years  at 
Deventer,  he  passed  to  Amsterdam,  where  he 
studied  history  under  Morus  and  Blondel,  and 
abjured  Lutheranism  for  Calvinism.  In  1658 
he  succeeded  Gronovius  in  the  athengeum  of 
Deventer,  and  in  1661  obtained  the  chair  of 
eloquence  in  the  academy  of  Utrecht,  to  which 
was  attached  in  1667  that  of  politics  and  his- 
tory. Louis  XIV.  gave  him  a  pension,  and  the 
mmvrsitk-s  of  Bddelbere.  Leyden,  and  Padua 
in  vain  sought  to  attach  him  to  them.  Among 
his  works  are  editions  of  Hesiod,  Cicero,  Ca- 
tullus. Til.iillus,  I'ropi-rtius,  Suetonius,  and  Flo- 
rus,  and  Thesauri  of  Italian  antiquities. 

GRAFE.  I.  Karl  Ferdinand  von,  a  German  sur- 
geon, born  in  Warsaw,  March  8,  1787,  died  in 


GRAFTING 

|  Hanover,  July  4,  1840.  He  graduated  as  a 
doctor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic  in  1807,  and  in 
1811  became  professor  of  surgery  in  Berlin. 
During  the  war  with  Napoleon  he  superin- 
tended the  military  hospitals,  and  after  the 
restoration  of  peace  (1815)  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  medical  staff  of  the  army.  Students 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  attended  his  lec- 
tures, and  on  his  visit  to  England  he  was  the 
guest  of  the  king.  In  Paris  Dupuytren  invited 
him  to  take  his  place  as  a  lecturer.  In  1840 
he  was  summoned  to  Hanover  to  operate  upon 
the  eyes  of  the  crown  prince  (the  present 
ex-king  George),  but  he  suddenly  died  after 
his  arrival  there.  The  revival  of  the  rhino- 
plastic  process  was  due  in  a  great  measure 
to  the  labors  of  Griife,  who  propounded  his 
system  in  his  work  Rhinoplastik  (Berlin,  1818). 
II.  Albreeht  von,  a  German  oculist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Berlin  in  May,  1828,  died 
there,  July  18,  1870.  He  studied  mathematics 
and  the  natural  sciences,  and  afterward  medi- 
cine, at  Berlin,  Prague,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  devo- 
ting himself  particularly  to  ophthalmology,  and 
founded  in  Berlin  a  private  establishment  for 
the  treatment  of  the  eyes.  He  was  also  pro- 
fessor of  ophthalmology  in  the  university.  He 
was  distinguished  for  great  practical  and  scien- 
tific acquirements  in  ophthalmology,  the  lead- 
ing journal  of  this  department  of  medicine  at 
Berlin,  Von  Grafts  Archivfur  OpJithalmologim 
being  conducted  under  his  name  with  the  col- 
laboration of  Profs.  F.  Arlt,  F.  C.  Donders, 
and  Th.  Leber.  Most  of  Von  Grafe's  important 
contributions  were  published  in  this  journal. 
These  were  papers  on  the  "Physiology  and 
Pathology  of  the  Oblique  Muscles  of  the  Eye- 
ball," on  "  Double  Vision  after  Operations  for 
Strabismus,"  on  "Diphtheritic  Conjunctivitis," 
on  the  "  Effect  of  the  most  refrangible  Solar 
Rays  upon  Sensation,"  on  the  "Treatment  of 
Glaucoma  by  Iridectomy,"  on  the  "  Cerebral 
Causes  of  Blindness,"  and  on  a  modified  form  of 
the  operation  for  the  extraction  of  cataract.  He 
was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  medical 
society  of  Berlin  and  to  various  medical  jour- 
nals. III.  Alfred  Karl,  nephew  and  some  time 
assistant  of  the  preceding,  born  Nov.  23, 1830. 
In  1858  he  graduated  at  Halle,  afterward  be- 
came professor  there,  and  founded  an  ophthal- 
mic institute,  which  is  visited  by  several  thou- 
sand patients  annually.  He  was  the  first  to 
obtain  a  recognition  of  the  study  of  diseases  of 
the  eyes  as  a  special  science  in  the  Prussian 
universities.  He  has  published  KliniscJie  Ana- 
lyse der  Motilitdtestdrungen  des  Aiiges  (Berlin, 
1858),  Symptomenlehre  der  Augenmuslfellah- 
mungen  (1867),  and  Ein  Wort  zur  Erinne- 
rung  an  Albrecht  von  Grafe  (1870). 

GRAFEXBERG.     See  PRIESSNITZ. 

GRAFTING,  the  process  in  horticulture  by 
which  a  portion  of  a  plant  is  made  to  unite 
with  another  plant,  whether  of  the  same  kind 
or  of  another  variety  or  species.  The  plant 
upon  which  the  operation  is  performed  is  called 
the  stock ;  the  portion  inserted  in  or  joined 


GRAFTING 


139 


with  it  the  scion  or  graft.  No  attempts  to- 
ward grafting  plants  on  others  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  same  natural  order  have  been 
successful.  Generally  speaking,  varieties  suc- 
ceed best  on  varieties,  species  on  species,  or 
species  and  varieties  on  allied  genera.  All  our 
cultivated  fruits,  for  instance,  are  improved 
varieties  of  some  original  species.  Out  of 
thousands  of  varieties  raised  from  the  seeds  of 
some  previous  excellent  variety,  it  is  not  likely 
that  any  will  be  precisely  like  the  immediate 
parent;  some  few  may  be  equal  or  superior 
to  it,  but  the  great  majority  will  be  inferior. 
When  a  new  and  decidedly  valuable  variety 
occurs,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance  to 
perpetuate  it  in  as  many  individual  plants  as 
possible,  and  this,  with  trees,  is  usually  done 
by  grafting.  The  trifling  effect  that  the  stock 
has  upon  the  scion  enables  the  poorer  varie- 
ties to  be  employed  in  furnishing  the  trunk 
and  root  to  the  smaller  and  younger  scion.  A 
piece  of  well  ripened  wood,  in  the  form  of  a 
twig  of  the  growth  of  the  previous  season  hav- 
ing three  or  four  buds  upon  it,  is  thus  transferred 
to  the  poorer  kind,  and  forms  a  living  extrem- 
ity, which  extends  itself  into  branches  and 
forms  a  new  head  or  top.  Fruit  trees  are 
grafted  on  plants  of  their  own  kind,  called  free 
stocks,  or  they  are  grafted  upon  a  related 
variety  or  species  to  accomplish  some  particu- 
lar end.  Certain  stocks  induce  early  fruiting 
and  a  dwarfed  growth  ;  to  dwarf  the  apple,  it 
is  grafted  upon  the  paradise,  a  distinct  varie- 
ty of  apple  ;  the  pear  is  dwarfed  by  grafting 
upon  the  quince.  A  species  of  cherry  called  the 
mahaleb  (prunus  mahalcb)  is  used  for  dwarf- 
ing the  cherry,  and  the  sloe  and  the  beach 
plum  for  the  plum.  The  peach  upon  its  own 
roots  does  not  grow  well  in  stiff  and  cold  soils, 
and  for  such  situations  it  is  worked  upon  a 
plum  stock.  The  pear  will  grow  when  grafted 
upon  the  apple,  but  the  union  is  short-lived  ; 
it  is  also  sometimes  grafted  upon  the  thorn  and 
mountain  ash,  but  such  unions  are  a  matter  of 
fancy  rather  th  an  utility;  nurserymen  use  only 
the  stocks  we  have  mentioned.  The  raising  of 
stocks  is  an  important  part  of  the  nurseryman's 
business ;  though  a  tree  may  be  grafted  at 
almost  any  age,  in  nurseries  where  hundreds 
of  thousands  are  worked  every  year  the  stocks 
used  are  as  small  as  practicable.  Free  stocks 
for  the  apple  and  pear  are  raised  from  seeds, 
while  the  dwarfing  paradise  and  quince  stocks 
are  grown  from  layers  and  cuttings.  Most  of 
the  grafting  in  nurseries  is  done  indoors  in  the 
winter.  The  stocks,  which  are  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  or  more  in  diameter,  are  taken  up  in  the 
autumn  and  buried  in  an  accessible  place ;  when 
worked,  the  root  is  shortened,  the  top  cut  off, 
and  the  scion  inserted  at  the  "  collar,"  or  where 
root  and  stem  join.  The  grafted  roots  are  set  in 
boxes  of  sand  and  kept  in  a  cellar  until  they 
can  be  planted  in  spring.  The  operation  is 
performed  with  great  rapidity,  and  several  me- 
chanical appliances  have  been  devised  for  facili- 
tating the  work.  Sometimes  pieces  of  the  root 


are  used  as  stocks,  but  there  has  been  much  dis- 
cussion and  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
value  of  the  trees  so  produced.  Stone  fruits 
are  more  difficult  to  graft  than  the  apple  and 
pear,  but  if  it-  be  done  sufficiently  early  in 
spring  the  plum  may  be  so  treated  very  suc- 
cessfully ;  the  peach  is  rarely  grafted  at  the 
north,  but  it  succeeds  at  the  south ;  this  fruit 
is  usually  propagated  by  that  form  of  grafting 
called  budding.  Although  fruit  trees  are  graft- 
ed with  scions  of  ripened  wood,  there  are  some 
trees  which  will  only  succeed  when  green  wood 
is  used  for  both  scion  and  stock;  this  kind 
of  grafting  is  called  herbaceous.  Many  ever- 
greens can  be  grafted  in  the  ordinary  way,  but 
the  pines  only  succeed  with  herbaceous  graft- 
ing, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  some  nut- 
bearing  trees.  Ornamental  trees  of  various 
kinds  are  propagated  by  grafting,  especially 
where  it  is  desired  to  perpetuate  some  indivi- 
dual peculiarity,  such  as  a  pendent  or  weeping 
habit,  or  foliage  of  an  unusual  shape  or  color. 
Some  weeping  trees  which  are  naturally  low, 
as  the  weeping  beech,  ash,  and  poplar,  form 
elegant  specimens  when  grafted  upon  a  stock 
8  or  10  ft.  high.  Among  ornamental  trees 
and  shrubs  grafting  is  resorted  to  as  the 
most  rapid  means  of  propagation:  sometimes 
a  variety  cannot  be  multiplied  readily  from  cut- 
tings, but  can  be  grafted  upon  some  related 
stock  that  will  grow  rapidly.  The  choicer 
species  of  clematis,  now  so  much  prized  as 
ornamental  climbers,  take  root  with  great 
difficulty,  while  some  of  the  older  kinds  strike 
root  freely;  the  florist  grows  these  from  cut- 
tings, and  grafts  the  more  difficult  subjects 
upon  their  roots.  The  fine  double  camellias 
will  not  grow  from  cuttings,  but  are  propaga- 
ted by  grafting  upon  the  single  kinds  which 
readily  do  so.  Epiphyllums  and  other  trail- 
ing cactuses  make  fine  plants  by  grafting  them 
upon  a  stout  stem  of  cereus  triangularis  or 
one  of  the  pereskias.  Successful  grafting  of 
the  apple  upon  the  maple,  the  rose  upon  the 
black  currant,  and  the  like,  is  impossible,  al- 
though instances  of  it  are  often  narrated. — 
The  utility  of  the  operation  of  grafting  de- 
pends upon  the  fact  that  a  bud  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  tree  from  which  it  is  taken; 
it  has  the  possibility  of  unlimited  development ; 
and  as  it  will,  if  allowed  to  extend  into  a 
branch  on  the  tree  where  it  has  formed,  repeat 
all  the  characters  of  the  tree,  so  when  taken 
from  the  tree  which  produced  it  and  planted  as 
it  were  in  the  substance  of  another  tree,  it  will 
develop  a  branch  like  the  parent  tree,  and  not 
like  the  stock  with  which  it  is  united.  Between 
the  wood  and  bark  of  exogenous  trees,  inclu- 
ding all  northern  fruit  trees,  there  is  a  layer 
in  which  the  forces  of  vegetation  are  most 
active ;  here  the  wood  of  the  tree  receives 
each  year  a  layer  of  new  wood,  outside  of  the 
old,  and  the  inner  bark  has  deposited  upon  it 
a  new  layer  upon  the  inside  of  that  of  previous 
years.  This  portion,  which  is  neither  perfect 
wood  nor  bark,  but  the  place  where  both  are 


GRAFTING 


being  formed,  is  called  the  cambium  layer.  It 
is  this  which,  if  a  cut  be  made  in  a  tree,  sends 
out  a  new  growth  to  close  over  and  repair  the 
wound  ;  and  it  is  upon  the  extraordinary  vital- 
ity of  this  rumhium  that  the  success  of  grafting 
depends.  The  mechanical  operations  of  graft- 
ing are  various,  but  they  all  have  for  their  ob- 
ject the  bringing  of  the  newly  forming  wood 
and  bark  of  the  scion  into  the  closest  possible 
contact  with  those  of  the  stock.  As  a  general 
rule,  grafting  is  most  successful  when  the  scions 
are  quite  dormant,  but  the  forces  of  vegetation 
in  the  stock  are  active.  Fruit-tree  scions  are 
cut  at  any  time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf  be- 
fore the  buds  begin  to  swell,  and  kept  in  damp 
sand  or  saw  dust  to  prevent  drying.— Cleft 
grafting  is  in  this  country  the  most  common 
and  likewise  the  most  clumsy  method,  and  yet 
very  often  the  most  successful.  It  is  practised 
upon  stocks  from  an  inch  to  several  inches  in 
diameter.  The  branches  of  old  trees  are  re- 
newed by  this  method,  the  grafts  being  inserted 
in  the  branches.  Sometimes  the  entire  tree  of 
four  or  five  inches  diameter  is  cut  to  a  bare 
stock  and  used  in  the  same  manner.  The  stock, 
whether  trunk  or  branch,  is  cut  over  horizon- 
tally with  a  sharp  saw,  and  the  surface  pared 
smooth  with  a  knife ;  a  cleft  about  two  inches 
deep  is  made  in  the  stock  with  a  grafting  knife 
and  mallet ;  the  scion  to  be  grafted  is  prepared 
by  sloping  its  lower  end  in  the  form  of  a  wedge 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  leaving  it  a  little 
thicker  on  the  outer  edge.  The  cleft  being 
kept  open  with  a  wedge,  the  scion  is  carefully 


1.— Cleft  Gratting. 

I.  The  Deration  with  the  stock  cut  horizontally.    2.  With 
a  sloping  cat. 

<l«.wn  to  the  place  fitting  its  inner  bark 
on  one  si.U-,  so  that  the  inner  edges  of  the  bark 
of  stock  Mini  so'x.n  may  coincide.  The  wedge 
i<  thru  withdrawn,  and  the  scions  are  retained 
in  place  by  the  springing  together  of  the  cleft, 
Warn  the  graft  H  r<>\viv<l  with  a  mixture  of 


loam  and  cow  dung,  or  with  grafting  wax,  to 
exclude  the  air  and  to  facilitate  the  union. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  clay  and  loam  were  ex- 
clusively used,  but  grafting  wax  is  neater  and 
more  effective.  Various  compositions  are  in 
use ;  they  consist  of  resin  and  wax  melted  to- 


FIG.  2.— Whip  Grafting, 
showing  the  tongues 
prepared  and  after- 
ward bound  together. 


FIG.  8. 


-Whip  Grafting  on  the 
Collar. 


gether,  with  lard  or  linseed  oil,  and  should  be 
of  such  consistency  as  to  remain  plastic  in  cool 
weather,  yet  not  run  in  hot  weather.  It  is  best 
applied  by  means  of  strips  of  well  worn  muslin 
or  calico  saturated  with  the  composition.  For 
root  grafts,  well  waxed  cotton  twine,  or  paper 
waxed  on  one  side,  may  be  used.  Where  the 
stock  is  large  two  scions  are  put  in  on  opposite 
sides,  but  with  small  stocks  only  one  is  used, 
and  the  stock  at  the  side  opposite  to  the  scion  is 
cut  in  a  sloping  manner  to  facilitate  healing. — 
Another  process,  called  whip  or  tongue  grafting, 
is  considered  the  most  expeditious.  The  stock 
upon  which  it  is  performed  must  be  slender, 
from  the  size  of  a  goose  quill  to  any  diameter 
which  coincides  with  the  thickness  of  the  graft. 
Some  smooth,  clear  part  of  the  stock  being  se- 
lected, it  is  sloped  on  one  side  with  a  knife  to 
a  very  acute  angle.  A  scion  having  two  or 
more  buds,  and  of  the  size  to  match  the  stock, 
is  cut  with  a  slope  to  correspond  with  that 
upon  the  stock ;  then  upon  each  slope  or  cut 
surface  is  cut  a  tongue ;  the  scion  and  stock 
are  locked  together  by  means  of  these  tongues 
in  a  manner  that  will  be  understood  by  an  ex- 
amination of  the  engraving.  The  barks  of  both 
being  made  to  correspond,  a  piece  of  waxed 
cloth  or  waxed  twine  is  wound  round  them  to 
hold  them  in  place.  After  the  graft  pushes  its 
buds,  the  binding  should  be  loosened  and  finally 
removed,  when  the  adhesion  is  completed.  This 
method  is  used  in  root  grafting,  and  may  be 
practised  also  on  flowering  shrubs. — In  saddle 
grafting,  the  scion  is  cleft  instead  of  the  stock ; 
the  stock  is  pared  away  on  each  side  to  an  acute 
angle,  so  as  to  allow  the  scion  to  sit  or  ride 


GRAFTING 


upon  it,  and  the  union  of  the  edges  of  the  barks 
made  as  complete  as  possible  on  each  side. — 
Crown  grafting  is  by  many  preferred  to  cleft 
grafting,  as  there  is  no  split  made  in  the  stock, 
which  often  leads  to  decay ;  it  is  practised  upon 
large  trees  of  which  the  wood  is  too  hard  and 
stubborn  to  be  cleft,  or  upon  small  stocks.  Sev- 
eral scions  are  pared  away  on  one  side  of  the 
lower  end  for  about  two  inches,  so  as  to  make 
that  side  flat  and  leave  a  shoulder  forming  a 
right  angle  with  it.  The  head  of  the  stock 
being  sawn  off  horizontally,  and  the  cut  portion 
smoothed,  the  bark  is  gently  raised  from  the 
wood  and  thin  wedges  inserted.  The  scions 
are  now  pushed  under  the  bark,  their  shoulders 
resting  on  the  crown  of  the  stock ;  the  wedges 
being  withdrawn,  the  whole  is  covered  with 
wax  or  waxed  cloth.  After  the  grafts  have 
grown,  and  made  long,  tender  shoots,  which 
they  will  be  apt  to  do  with  much  rapidity  and 
vigor,  they  should  be  secured  to  long  stakes 
ited  near  the  stock  and  rising  above  it,  to 


GRAFTON 


141 


ti.— Crown  Grafting,  showing  the  completed  opera- 
tion and  an  enlarged  view  of  the  scion. 
ent  the  wind  from  breaking  off  the  newly 
ed  top  at  the  junction  with  the  stock  ;  or 
where  the  grafts  are  in  the  head  of  a  tree,  their 
vigor  is  controlled  by  pinching. — Sometimes 
it  is  essential  to  replace  limbs  that  have 
been  broken  from  young  trees,  or  from  branches 
of  older  ones,  and  to  restore  the  symmetry 
of  form ;  and  this  is  done  by  side  grafting. 
Here  the  bark  and  a  little  of  the  wood  is 
sloped  off  from  the  side  of  the  trunk  or  of 
the  branch,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  scion 
is  cut  so  as  to  fit  the  part  as  near  as  possible ; 
lit  is  then  fixed  in  the  branch  or  trunk,  first 
tonguing  both  as  in  whip  grafting,  tying  them 
with  bast,  and  claying  or  waxing  over.  Another 
form  of  side  grafting  is  used  on  the  camellia 
and  other  hard-wooded  shrubs  ;  a  long,  nearly 
perpendicular  cut  is  made  in  the  stem,  in  which 
the  scion  is  placed. — Inarching  is  only  a  kind 
of  grafting,  and  is  employed  where  the  cut 
scion  is  not  easily  united  to  the  desired 
stock.  Two  branches,  or  two  stocks  of  the 


two  distinct  plants,  are  brought  close  together, 
and  the  prepared  surfaces  are  matched  and 
tongued,  as  in  whip  grafting ;  after  a  while  a 
perfect  union  will  take  place,  when  the  inarched 
portion  is  to  be  separated  from  its  parent  root, 
and  it  henceforth  becomes  the  branch  or  top  of 
its  new  foster  moth- 
er. The  two  plants 
to  'be  inarched  must 
be  brought  near  to 
one  another,  which  is 
usually  accomplished 
by  having  one  of 
them  in  a  pot.  In 
some  cases  the  same 
object  is  effected  by 
placing  the  lower  end 
of  the  branch  to  be 
inarched  in  a  bottle, 
which  is  kept  sup- 
plied with  water. — 
Budding  is  only  a  va- 
riety of  grafting  in 
which  a  single  bud 
is  used  instead  of  a 
scion  with  several ; 
it  is  also  called  shield 
grafting.  (See  BUD- 
DING.) —  The  prac- 
tice of  grafting  seems 
to  have  been  long 
known;  but  the  pro- 
cesses have  multipli- 
ed with  the  discov- 
eries and  improve-  FIG.  5,-Inarching. 
ments  m  horticul- 
ture, and  others  besides  those  mentioned 
here  are  employed  for  particular  subjects.  A 
full  account  of  all  the  processes  known  will 
be  found  in  L "Art  de  greffer,  by  Baltet.  Du 
Breuil's  "Arboriculture,"  Barry's  "Fruit  Gar- 
den," and  Thomas's  "Fruit  Culturist"  may 
also  be  consulted  for  practical  details. 

GRAFTON,  a  W.  county  of  New  Hampshire, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Connecticut  river ;  area, 
1,463  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  39,103.  It  has  a 
mountainous  surface,  containing  some  of  the 
celebrated  summits  of  the  White  mountains 
and  the  Franconia  range.  Much  of  the  land 
is  devoted  to  pasturage,  but  parts  of  it  are  sus- 
ceptible of  high  cultivation.  The  Northern 
(N.  H.)  and  its  Bristol  branch,  the  White 
Mountain,  and  the  Boston,  Concord,  and  Mon- 
treal railroads  pass  through  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  57,802  bushels 
of  wheat,  198,165  of  Indian  corn,  390,172  of 
oats,  1,078,208  of  potatoes,  1,095,623  Ibs.  of 
butter,  189,602  of  cheese,  446,197  of  wool, 
650,445  of  maple  sugar,  26,377  of  hops,  and 
140,220  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,135  horses, 
12,748  milch  cows,  6,685  working  oxen,  14,562 
other  cattle,  86,681  sheep,  and  4,302  swine. 
The  number  of  manufactories  was  646,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $2,362,735 ;  value  of  pro- 
ducts, $5,012,033.  The  most  important  were 
5  of  agricultural  implements,  15  of  clothing,  1 


11-' 


GRAFTON 


of  elastic  sponge,  7  of  furniture,  14  of  gloves 
and  mittens,  5  of  hosiery,  3  of  iron  castings, 
1 1  of  dressed  skins,  8  of  paper,  4  of  shoe  pegs, 
25  of  starch,  6  of  woollen  goods,  69  saw  mills, 
10  tanneries,  5  currying  establishments,  and  6 
flour  mills.  Capital,  Haverhill. 

GRAFTOX,  a  town  of  Worcester  co.,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  Blackstone  and  Quinsigamond 
:ind  on  the  Blackstone  canal  and  t?he 
Boston  and  Albany  and  Providence  and  Wor- 
cester railroads,  38  m.  S.  W.  of  Boston ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,594.  It  comprises  several  villages, 
and  is  extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing, 
the  canal  and  rivers  furnishing  water  power. 
There  are  8  cotton  mills,  with  30,170  spindles, 
several  currying  establishments,  and  extensive 
boot  and  shoe  factories.  The  town  has  also  mica 
quarries,  two  national  banks,  18  public  schools, 
including  a  high  school,  and  seven  churches. 

GRAGNANO,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Naples,  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Pendolo, 
19  m.  S.  E.  of  Naples;  pop.  about  10,000.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  manufactures 
of  macaroni  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wine. 

GRAHAM.  I.  An  extreme  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  formed  since  the  census  of  1870  from 
Cherokee  co.,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Tennessee 
river,  and  separated  from  Tennessee  by  the 
Iron  mountains ;  area,  about  300  sq.  m.  The 
surface  is  mountainous;  the  soil  of  the  val- 
leys is  fertile.  Capital,  Fort  Montgomery.  II. 
A  N.  W.  unsettled  county  of  Kansas;  area, 
900  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  the  South  fork 
of  Solomon  river,  and  drained  by  Saline  river. 

GRAHAM,  Isabella,  a  Scottish  philanthropist, 
born  in  Lanarkshire,  July  29,  1742,  died  in 
New  York,  July  27,  1814.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Marshall.  In  1765  she  married  Dr.  John 
Graham,  an  army  surgeon,  and  went  with  him 
to  Canada  and  to  Antigua,  where  he  died  in 
1774.  Returning  to  Scotland,  she  taught  school 
in  Paisley  and  in  Edinburgh.  In  1789  she 
came  to  New  York,  and  established  a  seminary 
for  young  ladies.  Before  leaving  Scotland  she 
originated  the  "  Penny  Society,"  now  known  as 
tho  "  Society  for  the  Relief  of  the  Destitute 
Sick ;"  and  through  her  efforts  in  part  or  en- 
tirely, the  "  Society  for  the  Relief  of  Poor 
Widows,"  the  "  Orphan  Asylum  Society,"  the 
"Society  for  Promoting  Industry  among  the 
Poor,"  and  the  first  "  Sunday  School  for  Ig- 
norant Adults,"  were  established  in  New  York. 
She  aided  also  in  organizing  the  first  mission- 
ary society  and  the  first  monthly  missionary 
prayer  meeting  in  the  city ;  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Magdalen  society ;  systematically 
visiu-d  the  inmates  of  the  hospital,  and  the 
sick  IVmale  convicts  in  the  state  prison ;  and 
to  hundreds  of  families  distributed  Bibles,  as 
well  as  tracts  prepared  under  her  own  direc- 
tion. Hi  T  nit  -mi  lira  were  written  by  Dr.  Mason 
(8vo,  1816),  and  her  letters  and  correspondence 
•1  1-y  her  daughter,  Mrs.  Bethune,  were 
published  in  New  York  in  1838. 

GRAHAM,  John,  Viscount  Dundee  and  Lord 
O  rah  am  of  Claverhouse  (by  which  latter  title 


GRAHAM 

he  is  most  generally  known),  a  Scottish  soldier, 
born  near  Dundee  in  1643,  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Killiecrankie,  July  17,  1689.  Educated  at 
the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  he  served  both 
the  French  and  the  Dutch  as  a  soldier  of  for- 
tune from  about  1670  to  1677,  when  he  re- 
turned to  England.  Letters  of  recommenda- 
tion from  the  prince  of  Orange  to  Charles  II. 
caused  him  to  be  appointed  captain  of  one  of 
the  troops  of  dragoons  which  the  king  was 
sending  into  the  western  lowlands  to  force  the 
Covenanters  to  comply  with  the  established 
religion.  His  own  merciless  severity  was  so 
well  seconded  by  his  troopers,  that  his  name 
is  held  in  lasting  execration.  Defeated  at 
Drumclog  by  the  exasperated  Covenanters, 
he  took  a  fearful  revenge  at  Both  well  bridge, 
and  continued  his  atrocities  through  the  west- 
ern shires.  Ennobled  in  November,  1688,  by 
James  II.,  he  ardently  espoused  the  king's 
cause  against  the  prince  of  Orange,  attended 
the  parliament  convened  in  Edinburgh  to  ar- 
range the  succession  to  the  crown,  and,  be- 
coming alarmed  for  his  personal  safety,  fled 
from  the  city  with  a  squadron  of  horse.  Sev- 
eral disaffected  clans  and  a  body  of  Irish  joined 
him.  At  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie  he  routed 
the  troops  of  William  III.,  and  fell  by  a  chance 
shot  in  the  moment  of  victory.  His  qualities 
as  a  soldier  and  a  politician,  which  were  con- 
spicuously displayed  during  the  last  few  months 
of  his  life,  have  diverted  attention  somewhat 
from  his  crimes;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in 
his  "  Old  Mortality,"  has  presented  a  vigorous 
though  highly  colored  picture  of  him.  One 
of  the  latest  attempts  to  relieve  his  character 
from  the  odium  which  attaches  to  it  was  made 
by  Prof.  Aytoun  in  the  appendix  to  his  "  Lays 
of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers."  See  also  ''  Me- 
morials and  Letters  illustrative  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  Vis- 
count Dundee,  by  Mark  Napier  "  (3  vols.,  Ed- 
inburgh, 1859-'62). 

GRAHAM,  Sylvester,  an  American  reformer, 
born  in  Suffield,  Conn.,  in  1794,  died  in  North- 
ampton, Mass.,  Sept.  11,  1851.  Almost  from 
childhood  he  was  dyspeptic  and  rheumatic,  and 
having  tried  successively  farm  labor,  paper 
making,  travelling  with  a  horse  dealer,  shop- 
keeping,  and  teaching,  was  driven  from  them 
all  by  feeble  health  and  symptoms  of  con- 
sumption. In  1823  he  entered  Amherst  col- 
lege to  prepare  for  the  ministry.  There  the 
fervor  of  his  elocution  was  ridiculed  as  the- 
atrical, and  this  almost  determined  him  to 
seek  some  other  profession;  but  in  1826  he 
married,  and  soon  after  became  a  Presbyte- 
rian preacher.  In  1830  the  Pennsylvania  tem- 
perance society  engaged  him  as  a  lecturer, 
and  he  took  up  the  study  of  physiology  and 
anatomy,  from  which  he  was  convinced  that 
the  only  permanent  cure  for  intemperance 
was  to  be  found  in  correct  habits  of  living 
and  judicious  diet.  This  idea,  which  he  ex- 
tended to  the  cure  of  diseases  generally,  was 
set  forth  in  his  "Essay  on  Cholera"  (1832), 


GRAHAM 


and  in  a  course  of  lectures  which  he  delivered 
at  various  places  and  published  under  the  title 
"  Graham  Lectures  of  the  Science  of  Human 
Life"  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1839).  He  also  pub- 
lished a  "Lecture  to  Young  Men  on  Chastity," 
which  made  a  great  sensation,  and  a  treatise 
on  "  Bread  and  Bread  Making."  Bread  made 
from  unbolted  flour  still  bears  his  name.  A 
few  years  before  his  death  he  began  a  "  Phi- 
losophy of  Sacred  History,"  intended  to  show 
the  harmony  between  Scriptural  teachings  and 
his  views  on  dietetics ;  he  finished  only  one  vol- 
ume of  it,  which  was  published  posthumously. 

GRAHAM,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  chemist,  born  in 
Glasgow,  Dec.  20,  1805,  died  in  London,  Sept. 
15,  1869.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  after  graduating 
opened  a  laboratory  in  Glasgow  and  lectured 
on  chemistry  at  the  mechanics'  institute.  He 
was  professor  at  the  Andersonian  university 
in  Glasgow  from  1830  to  1837,  and  at  the  uni- 
versity college  in  London  from  1837  to  1855. 
Having,  as  a  non-resident  assayer,  submitted 
all  the  specie  in  the  mint  to  a  uniform  scien- 
tific standard,  he  became,  in  February,  1855,  Sir 
John  Herschel's  successor  as  master  of  the 
mint,  and  held  this  office  till  his  death.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  president 
of  the  chemical  society  of  London,  for  many 
years  president  of  the  Cavendish  society,  and  a 
fellow  and  twice  vice  president  of  the  royal 
society,  which  gave  him  many  medals.  He 
conducted  many  physical  and  chemical  inves- 
tigations for  the  government,  including  one  of 
especial  interest  on  the  effect  of  hail  storms 
in  the  Newcastle  coal  mines,  reporting  on  the 
ventilation  of  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  in 
1851,  with  Professors  Miller  and  Hoffmann,  on 
ithe  quality  of  the  metropolitan  water  supply. 
He  discovered  the  law  of  diffusion  of  gases  and 
the  polybasic  character  of  phosphoric  acid ; 
demonstrated  the  existence  of  a  diffusive  pow- 
er in  liquids  resembling  that  in  gases,  to  which 
he  applied  the  name  of  omosis,  and  determined 
its  relation  to  endosmosis  and  exosmosis ;  ex- 
pounded new  theories  on  the  composition  of 
salts,  and  extended  his  researches  to  the  tran- 
spirability  of  gases.  His  discoveries  and  oth- 
er labors  are  embraced  in  his  u  Elements 
of  Chemistry"  (London,  1842),  edited  with 
notes  and  additions  by  Dr.  Robert  Bridges 
(Philadelphia,  1852;  new  eds.,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1856-'8,  and  1865 ;  German  translation 
by  Otto,  3d  ed.,  Brunswick,  1857).  He  con- 
tributed important  papers  to  the  "  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions,"  and  the  annals  of  the  chem- 
ical and  other  scientific  societies.  His  genius 
is  highly  appreciated  in  Germany,  and  A.  "W. 
Hoffmann  published  in  Berlin  (1870)  his  Oe- 
ddchtnissrede  auf  Thomas  Graham.  A  bronze 
statue  of  Graham  was  placed  in  George  square, 
|  Glasgow,  in  1872. 

GRAHAM,    William    Alexander,    an    American 

statesman,  born  in  Lincoln  co.,  K  C.,  Sept. 

6,  1804.     He  was  educated  to  the  law,  and 

in  1833  entered  public  life  as  a  member  of 

370  VOL.  vin.— 10 


GRAHAM   ISLAND 


143 


the  lower  branch  of  the  state  legislature,  of 
which  he  was  several  times  elected  speaker. 
He  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  United 
States  senate  between  1841  and  1843,  and  was 
governor  of  the  state  from  January,  1845,  to  Jan- 
uary, 1849.  On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Fillmore 
to  the  presidency  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  navy,  an  office  which  he  filled  until  June, 
1852,  when,  receiving  from  the  whig  national 
convention  the  nomination  for  vice  president, 
he  resigned  the  secretaryship.  During  the  last 
year  of  the  civil  war  he  was  a  senator  in  the 
confederate  congress,  and  in  1866  he  was  a  del- 
egate to  the  union  convention  in  Philadelphia. 
GRAHAM  ISLAJVD,  or  Isle  of  Julia,  a  volcanic 
island,  which  appeared  in  the  Mediterranean 
in  July,  1831,  and  disappeared  toward  the 
close  of  October.  The  locality  was  about 
midway  between  Sciacca  in  Sicily  and  the 
island  of  Pantellaria,  lat.  37°  8'  K,  Ion.  12° 
42'  E.  The  depth  of  water  had  been  found, 
a  few  years  before,  to  exceed  100  fathoms. 
An  earthquake  shock  was  felt  over  the  spot 
three  weeks  before  the  appearance  of  the 
island ;  and  on  July  10,  a  few  days  be- 
fore land  was  observed,  a  waterspout  was 
seen  by  a  Sicilian  navigator,  which  was  suc- 
ceeded by  an  immense  column  of  steam  rising 
to  the  estimated  height  of  1,800  feet.  Fire 
was  seen  on  the  17th  by  the  master  of  the 
brig  Adelaide  of  London.  On  the  18th  the 
Sicilian  captain,  repassing  the  spot,  found  a 
small  island,  12  ft.  out  of  water,  with  a  crater 
in  its  centre,  ejecting  volcanic  matter  and  im- 
mense columns  of  vapor.  About  the  same 
time  Commander  Swinburne,  R.  N.,  reported 
it  to  be  70  or  80  yards  in  external  diameter, 
and  its  lip  as  thin  as  it  could  be  consistent  with 
its  height,  which  might  be  20  ft.  above  the  sea 
at  the  highest  point.  On  July  23,  as  reported 
and  sketched  by  Mr.  Russell  of  H.  M.  ship  St. 
Vincent,  the  circumference  of  the  island  was 
three  fourths  of  a  mile,  and  its  highest  point 
80  ft.  above  the  water.  At  that  time  columns 
of  water  were  ejected  to  the  height  of  800  to 
1,000  ft.,  and  scorise  were  thrown,  it  was  sup- 
posed, twice  as  high.  The  first  landing  was 
effected  on  Aug.  3,  by  Capt.  Senhouse  of  the 
St.  Vincent,  who  hoisted  the  British  flag,  and 
called  the  island  by  the  name  which  was  after- 
ward adopted  by  the  royal  and  geographical 
societies.  The  island  was  then  from  1J  to  1£ 
m.  in  circumference,  and  its  highest  point  was 
about  180  ft.  above  the  surface.  A  deep  cir- 
cular crater  lay  between  two  longitudinal  hills, 
by  which  it  was  entirely  shut  in  except  for 
about  250  yards  on  its  S.  E.  side,  where 
a  bank  only  3  ft.  high  separated  it  from  the 
sea.  The  crater  was  filled  with  boiling  salt 
water  of  a  dingy  red  color,  from  which  rose 
a  nauseous  and  oppressive  vapor.  The  only 
gas  evolved  in  large  quantity  was  carbonic 
acid.  Some  authorities  have  made  it  about  this 
time  to  be  3  m.  in  circumference,  with  a 
maximum  height  exceeding  200  ft.  On  Aug. 
25  it  was  reduced  to  2  m.,  and  on  Sept.  3  to 


144 


GRAHAME 


only  f  m.,  with  a  maximum  height  of  107 
ft.  The  crater  was  then  780  yards  in  cir- 
ruiMlVrence.  The  materials  which  composed 
tin-  island  were  scoriae,  pumice,  and  lapilli, 
arranged  in  regular  strata  which  sloped  steeply 
away  from  the  crater.  The  only  substances 
found  not  of  volcanic  nature  were  fragments  of 
dolomitic  limestone.  No  lava  was  ever  seen 
to  flow,  and  no  solid  beds  were  formed  which 
could  resist  the  action  of  the  waves.  By  these 
all  the  loose  materials  were  washed  away,  so 
that  at  the  close  of  October  it  may  be  said  to 
have  entirely  disappeared.  Two  years  after- 
ward Capt.  Swinburne  found  a  dangerous  reef 
at  the  spot,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  black 
rock  of  the  diameter  of  26  fathoms,  from  9  to 
11  ft.  under  water.  Around  it,  extending  60 
fathoms  to  deep  water,  were  banks  of  black 
volcanic  stones  and  loose  sand.  The  black 
rock  in  the  centre  was  supposed  by  Lyell  to  be 
solid  lava  which  rose  in  the  crater  and  became 
solidified  and  formed  a  dike.  Another  shoal 
460  ft.  S.  W.  of  the  great  reef  marked  the  spot 
where  another  outbreak  of  boiling  water  and 
steam  had  been  observed  in  the  month  of 
August,  1881.  In  July,  1863,  the  island  reap- 
peared, and  in  a  few  weeks  rose  to  the  height 
of  200  or  260  ft. ;  but  it  was  soon  demolished 
by  the  wash  of  the  waves.  The  volcano  had 
appeared  once  or  twice  previous  to  1831.  It 
is  said  that  a  smoking  island  existed  in  this 
spot  about  the  year  1801,  and  the  shoal  is 
marked  in  old  charts.  This  island  has  been 
called  by  seven  names,  and  is  sometimes  still 
known  as  Ferdinandea. 

GRAHAME,  James,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in 
Glasgow,  April  22,  1765,  died  near  that  city, 
Nov.  30,  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  went  to  Edinburgh,  and 
became  a  writer  to  the  signet  in  1791,  and  a 
member  of  the  faculty  of  advocates  in  1795. 
But  the  legal  profession  had  always  been  dis- 
tasteful to  him,  and  in  the  spring  of  1809  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  was  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  established  church,  and  became 
curate  of  Shipton,  Gloucestershire,  and  after- 
ward of  Sedgetield,  in  Durham.  His  principal 
Ccal  works  are  "The  Sabbath,"  "Mary, 
m  of  Scots,"  "British  Georgics"  and 
44  The  Birds  of  Scotland." 

GRAHAME,  James,  a  Scottish  historian,  born 
in  Glasgow,  Dec.  21, 1790,  died  in  London,  July 
8,  1842.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  college, 
Cambridge,  but  soon  terminated  his  connection 
with  that  institution,  and  after  preparatory 
studies  was  admitted  an  advocate  at  the  Scot- 
tish bar  in  1812.  For  nearly  14  years  he 
practised  his  profession,  until  he  was  obliged 
through  ill  health  to  seek  a  more  genial  cli- 
mate. Settling  in  the  south  of  England  in  the 
spring  of  1826,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  prep- 
aration of  a  history  of  the  United  States.  His 
early  education,  his  religious  views,  which 
were  those  professed  by  the  Scotch  Covenant- 
ers and  Puritans,  and  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of 
civil  liberty,  combined  to  render  the  subject 


GRAIN 

attractive  to  him.  In  1827  the  first  two  vol- 
umes were  published,  and  in  1836  a  new  edi- 
tion appeared  in  4  vols.  8vo,  bringing  the  his- 
tory down  to  the  year  1776.  The  thoroughly 
American  spirit  in  which  the  work  was  writ- 
ten interfered  with  its  success  in  England,  and 
for  several  years  it  attracted  little  notice  in  the 
United  States;  but  in  1839  the  author  received 
from  Harvard  college  the  degree  of  LL.  D.,  and 
in  1841  an  article  on  his  history  by  Prescott 
appeared  in  the  "North  American  Review." 
Four  years  later  an  edition  of  his  work  was 
published  at  Philadelphia  in  4  vols.  8vo,  suc- 
ceeded in  1846  and  1848  by  editions  in  2  vols. 
each,  that  of  1846  containing  a  memoir  of  the 
author  by  Josiah  Quincy.  Mr.  Quincy  also 
published  a  work  entitled  "The  Memory  of  the 
late  Jarnes  Grahame,  the  Historian  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  vindicated  from  the  Charges  of  Mr. 
Bancroft"  (8vo,  Boston,  1846).  In  1837  Mr. 
Grahame,  who  for  some  years  previous  had  re- 
sided at  Nantes,  France,  began  to  collect  ma- 
terials for  continuing  his  history,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  ill  health  toward  the  close  of  the  year 
to  abstain  from  literary  labor  of  all  kinds.  His 
last  work  was  a  pamphlet  entitled,  "  Who  is  to 
Blame?  or  Cursory  Review  of  the  American 
Apology  for  American  Accession  to  Negro  Sla- 
very "  (London,  1842).  The  subject  had  excited 
his  attention  for  many  years,  and  he  had  testi- 
fied his  sincerity  by  joining  with  his  children 
in  liberating  a  number  of  slaves  they  had  joint- 
ly inherited  from  his  wife.  He  wrote  pam- 
phlets on  various  social  and  religious  questions, 
including  a  "  Defence  of  the  Scottish  Presbyte- 
rians and  Covenanters  against  the  Author  of 
the  4  Tales  of  my  Landlord  ;'  "  but  the  absorb- 
ing study  of  the  best  years  of  his  life  was 
American  history.  He  delighted  to  call  him- 
self an  American  by  adoption,  and  declared 
that  his  daughter  was  "  hardly  dearer  to  him 
than  America  and  American  renown."  His 
"History  of  the  United  States"  is  written,  ac- 
cording to  Chancellor  Kent, ''  with  great  grav- 
ity and  dignity,  moderation  and  justice." 

GRAHAM'S  TOWN,  a  town  of  Cape  Colony, 
capital  of  the  district  of  Albany,  22  m.  N.  N. 
W.  of  Bathurst,  and  465  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Cape 
Town ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence  surrounded  by  high  grassy 
hills.  The  streets  are  wide ;  the  dwellings  pro- 
vided with  gardens  well  watered  and  stocked 
with  fruit  trees.  There  are  several  handsome 
churches,  a  public  library,  two  banks,  and  a 
flourishing  grammar  school.  It  is  the  see  of 
an  Anglican  and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 

GRAIL,  Holy.     See  GEAAL. 

GRAIN  (Lat.  granum,  a  seed),  the  smallest 
measure  of  weight  in  use,  about  equal  to  that 
of  a  kernel  of  wheat.  A  statute  passed  in  Eng- 
land in  1266  ordained  that  32  grains  of  wheat, 
taken  from  the  middle  of  the  ear  and  well 
dried,  should  make  a  pennyweight,  20  of  which 
should  make  an  ounce,  12  of  which  should  make 
a  pound.  The  pound,  therefore,  consisted  then 
of  7,680  grains,  but  afterward  of  only  5,760,  in 


GRAIN   COAST 

mence  of  the  division  of  the  pennyweight 
into  24  grains.  The  present  troy  pound  is  5,760 
grains,  and  the  avoirdupois  pound  7,000. 

GRAIN  COAST,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  upper 
Guinea,  W.  Africa,  between  Capes  Mesurado 
and  Palmas,  comprising  a  large  part  of  the 
coast  of  Liberia.  It  receives  its  name  from  the 
cardamom,  or  grain  of  paradise,  called  other- 
wise Guinea  grains  and  Malagueta  pepper, 
which  is  exported.  (See  LIBERIA.) 

GRAINGER,  a  K  E.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Clinch  river  and  S.  E.  by 
Holston  river,  here  navigable  by  steamboats ; 
area,  about  330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,421, 
of  whom  1,030  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  hilly,  Clinch  mountain  crossing  the  county 
from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  The  river  bottoms  are 
fertile,  and  the  highlands  are  rich  in  iron  and 
other  ores.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  78,146  bushels  of  wheat,  363,260  of  In- 
dian corn,  86,005  of  oats,  12,285  of  Irish  and 
8,045  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  709  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,233  horses,  2,248  milch  cows, 
4,670  other  cattle,  9,797  sheep,  and  17,723 
swine.  Capital,  Rutledge. 

GRARLE.  I.  A  conirostral  bird  of  the  East 
Indian  genus  gracula  (Linn.),  constituting  in 
itself  the  subfamily  guaculince  of  the  family 
sturnidcs  or  starlings.  The  species,  especially 
the  mina  bird  (G.  religiosa),  are  celebrated  for 
their  powers  of  song  and  speech.  (See  MINO 
BIRD.)  II*  In  the  United  States,  the  name 
of  birds  of  the  subfamily  quiscalina  or  boat- 
tails,  which  includes  the  genera  scolecophagus 
(Swains.),  quiscalus  (Vieill.),  and  scaphidurus 
(Swains.).  The  genus  scolecophagus  has  the 
bill  shorter  than  the  head,  nearly  straight, 
slender,  with  the  edges  inflexed;  the  wings 
moderate  and  pointed,  the  first  quill  shorter 
than  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  which  are 
longest ;  the  tail  shorter  than  the  wings,  flat 
and  nearly  even ;  tarsi  as  long  as  the  middle 
toe,  with  broad  scutellae ;  toes  long  and  slen- 
der, the  hind  toe  long,  and  the  slender  claws 
sharp  and  slightly  curved.  The  rusty  grakle 
(S.  ferrugineus,  Swains.)  is  about  9  in.  long, 
extent  of  wings  14  in.,  bill  1  in.,  tarsus  1£ ; 
the  plumage  is  soft  and  glossy,  of  a  deep  black 
color,  with  greenish  and  bluish  reflections; 
the  female  is  smaller,  of  a  general  brownish  or 
rusty  black,  the  feathers  beneath  margined 
with  brownish  ;  the  young  resemble  the  female, 
with  the  head,  neck,  and  lower  parts  light- 
3r  brown,  and  the  rump  tinged  with  gray; 
n  the  autumn  and  winter  even  the  males  be- 
come rather  rusty.  They  are  found  from  the 
\tlantic  coast  to  the  Missouri,  migrating  to 
he  far  north  in  the  spring  to  breed  ;  in  the 
lutumn  they  return  to  the  south  in  small  flocks 
vith  the  cow-bunting  and  red-winged  black- 
)ird,  with  which  they  associate  until  spring 
eturns.  The  flight  is  quick  and  undulating, 
nd  the  walk  is  graceful,  the  tail  being  jerked 
ip  and  down  at  every  step.  They  frequent 
he  corn  fields  and  rice  plantations,  where  they 
o  little  mischief;  they  are  fond  of  the  com- 


GRAKLE 


145 


pany  of  cattle,  picking  out  the  grain  from  their 
droppings ;  in  the  winter  they  resort  to  marsh- 
es and  watercourses,  feeding  on  aquatic  insects 
and  small  mollusks.  Their  note  is  a  kind  of 
chuck,  but  during  the  breeding  season  they  are 
noisy  and  have  a  lively  and  agreeable  song. 
They  are  not  very  shy.  The  nest  is  built  on 
low  bushes  in  moist  places,  of  coarse  materials, 
and  the  eggs,  four  or  five,  are  light  blue,  streaked 
and  dashed  with  lines  of  brown  and  deep  black. 
The  Mexican  grakle  (S.  cyanocephalus,  Cab.) 
is  a  somewhat  larger  bird,  with  a  stouter  bill, 
and  a  purplish  gloss  confined  to  the  head  and 
neck ;  it  is  found  from  Minnesota  to  the  Pacific, 
and  as  far  south  as  Mexico. — The  other  grakles 
belong  principally  to  the  genus  quiscalus,  char- 
acterized by  a  bill  as  long  as  the  head,  broad, 
with  the  edges  inflexed,  and  the  tip  of  the 
upper  mandible  overhanging  the  under ;  the 
wings  moderate,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
quills  the  longest ;  the  tail  longer  than  the 
wings,  graduated  and  the  sides  turned  upward ; 
the  tarsi  as  long  as  the  middle  toe,  strong,  and 
greatly  scutellated ;  the  toes  strong,  and  the  hind 
one  long,  all  scutellated;  claws  short,  robust, 
and  slightly  curved.  More  than  12  species  are 
described,  which  migrate  according  to  the  sea- 
sons ;  in  winter  their  immense  flocks  are  very 
destructive  on  plantations,  while  in  spring  they 
devour  from  the  fields  and  ploughed  lands  great 
numbers  of  worms,  grubs,  and  caterpillars,  in- 
jurious to  vegetation ;  they  pull  the  young  corn 
soon  after  it  has  sprouted,  and  also  attack  it 
when  in  the  milky  state.  The  species  found  in 
the  United  States  are  best  distinguished  by  the 
size  and  form  of  the  tail.  The  largest  is  the 
great-tailed  grakle  (Q.  macrourus,  Swains.),  18 
in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wing  of  about  27, 
and  the  tail  9£ ;  the  color  is  shining  black,  with 
purple  and  green  reflections,  and  the  feathers 
of  the  head  soft  and  velvety  ;  it  is  found  from 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas  south- 
ward. The  boat-tailed  grakle,  great  crow- 
blackbird,  or  jackdaw  as  it  is  sometimes  called 
(Q.  major,  Vieill.),  is  about  16  in.  long,  with  an 
extent  of  wings  of  2  ft. ;  the  color  is  shining 
black,  the  purple  gloss  being  confined  to  the 
head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  breast,  else- 
where with  green  reflections ;  the  crown  feath- 
ers are  coarse  and  stiff.  Their  habits  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  other  grakles ;  they  seek 
their  food  among  the  salt  marshes  and  along 
the  muddy  shores,  eating  fiddler  crabs,  insects, 
worms,  shrimps,  and  other  aquatic  animals; 
they  are  fond  of  the  eggs  of  other  birds,  and 
commit  depredations  in  the  corn  and  rice  fields. 
They  are  very  shy,  and  fly  at  a  considerable 
elevation  and  for  long  distances ;  the  notes 
are  harsh  and  shrill,  though  rather  pleasing  in 
the  love  season.  The  nest  is  large,  of  coarse 
materials,  placed  on  tall  reeds  growing  in  the 
water,  on  smilax  bushes,  and  on  live  oaks, 
where  they  breed  in  communities  ;  they  begin 
to  lay  about  the  1st  of  April,  sometimes  earlier ; 
the  eggs,  four  or  five,  are  dull  white  with 
irregular  streaks  of  brown  and  black  ;  only  one 


I! 


L46 


GRAMMAR 


brood  is  raised  in  a  season.  This  species  is 
found  in  the  southern  Atlantic  and  gulf  states, 
near  the  coast,  and  in  Texas.  During  the 
breeding  season,  the  sides  of  the  tail  are  turned 
upward,  whence  its  common  name  has  been 


Purple  Grakl*  (Qulscaluu  veruicolor).    1.  Female.    2.  Male. 

derived.  The  purple  grakle,  or  common  crow- 
blackbird  (Q.  versicolor,  Vieill.),  is  13  in.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  19  ;  the  head  and 
neck  are  steel-blue,  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
with  varied  reflections  of  bronze,  golden,  green, 
violet,  and  copper ;  the  female  is  smaller,  with 
a  less  brilliant  and  more  brownish  plumage. 
The  habits  are  the  same  as  in  the  others  of 
the  genus ;  the  friends  of  the  farmer  in  spring 
by  devouring  grubs,  in  summer  and  early  au- 
tumn they  dispute  the  possession  of  the  corn 
fields  with  the  planters,  who  seek  to  frighten 
or  destroy  them ;  their  mischief  is  so  great  that 
the  corn  is  sometimes  steeped  in  saline  and 
bitter  solutions  to  prevent  it  from  being  pulled 
up;  in  cold  weather  they  feed  upon  beech 
nuts,  acorns,  and  the  refuse  of  the  cattle  pens. 
In  the  southern  states  the  nest  is  generally  in 
a  hole  in  a  decayed  tree ;  the  eggs,  four  to  six, 
are  bluish,  with  brown  and  black  streaks  and 
blotches ;  in  the  north,  pine  trees  are  favorite 
places  for  their  nests.  They  are  found  in  the 
Atlantic  states,  from  New  England  to  Florida, 
and  on  the  high  central  plains  of  the  continent. 
The  flesh  is  eatable. — The  genus  seaphidurus 
has  a  long  bill,  with  the  culmen  advancing  on 
the  forehead,  and  sloping  to  an  acute  and  curved 
tip ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first 
quill  the  longest ;  the  tail  lengthened,  gradu- 
ated, with  the  sides  turned  upward.  They  are 
found  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  South  America. 

<<KAMMAR.    See  LANGUAGE. 

MMM.lIK.  tin-  French  unit  of  weight,  equal 
to  15- l  :',i>r>  «rrain8  troy,  or  very  nearly  ££  of  a 
dram  avoirdupois.  It  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
MOtimetre  of  distilled  water  at  the  temper- 
ature of  maximum  density,  4°  0.,  or  39-2°  F. 


GRAMONT 

The  gramme  is  divided,  according  to  the  French 
system,  into  10  decigrammes,  100  centigrammes, 
or  1,000  milligrammes.  Its  multiples  by  10  are 
successively  deca-,  hecto-,  kilo-,  and  myria- 
grammes.  The  weight  of  the  kilogramme,  or 
1,000  grammes,  is  equal  to  2 -6793  Ibs.  troy,  or 
2-2046  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  In  rough  estimates  50 
kilogrammes  are  often  conveniently  taken  as 
equivalent  to  1  cwt.,  being  only  If  Ib.  short 
of  this,  and  1,000  kilogrammes  as  1  ton,  the 
deficiency  being  only  35*4  Ibs. 

GRAMONT,  an  ancient  French  family,  which 
traces  its  origin  to  the  14th  century,  takes  its 
name  from  the  seigneurial  estate  of  Gramont  in 
Lower  Navarre,  and  has  produced  several  dis- 
tinguished men.  I.  Antoine  111.,  duke  de,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  campaigns  during 
the  reigns  of  Louis  XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.,  be- 
came marshal  of  France  in  1641,  was  commis- 
sioned in  1660  to  bring  from  Spain  the  infanta 
Maria  Theresa  as  bride  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
died  in  1678.  He  left  personal  Memoires^ 
which  were  published  by  one  of  his  sons.  II. 
Philibert,  count  de,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1621,  died  Jan.  10,  1707.  His  innu- 
merable love  affairs,  gambling  adventures,  and 
intrigues  have  been  handed  down  to  posterity 
in  the  sprightly  narrative  by  his  brother-in- 
law,  Anthony  Hamilton.  This  hero  of  fashion- 
able licentiousness,  after  figuring  indifferent- 
ly in  several  campaigns,  was  ordered  to  leave 
France  in  1662,  because  he  had  been  pre- 
sumptuous enough  to  pay  his  homage  to  Mile. 
Lamothe  Houdancourt,  upon  whom  Louis 
XIV.  had  fixed  his  affections.  He  then  re- 
paired to  the  court  of  Charles  II.  of  England, 
where  he  became  the  favorite  of  many  ladies 
of  rank  and  beauty.  He  was  stopped  at  last 
in  his  career  of  debauchery  by  an  enforced 
marriage  with  Eliza  Hamilton.  He  returned  to 
France  with  his  wife,  who  was  appointed  lady 
in  the  household  of  Queen  Maria  Theresa.  He 
was  80  years  old  when,  to  divert  him,  his 
brother-in-law  undertook  the  Memoires  which 
were  to  perpetuate  his  name.  III.  Antoine 
Agenor  Alfred,  duke  de,  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  Paris,  Aug.  14,  1819.  He  commenced 
his  diplomatic  career  in  1852,  and  represented 
France  successively  at  Oassel,  Stuttgart,  Turin, 
and  Rome.  He  was  sent  to  Vienna  in  1861, 
and  held  the  post  of  ambassador  there  until  in 
May,  1870,  he  entered  the  Ollivier  cabinet  as 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  When  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Hohenzollern  spontaneously  renounced 
his  candidacy  for  the  Spanish  crown,  Gramont 
further  insisted  that  the  king  of  Prussia  should 
give  a  solemn  promise  that  no  prince  of  his 
house  should  in  future  be  a  candidate  for  the 
throne  of  Spain.  On  July  15  Gramont  offi- 
cially announced  to  the  French  chambers  that 
war  existed  between  France  and  Prussia. 
When  the  Ollivier  ministry  were  compelled  to 
resign,  Aug.  9,  1870,  Gramont  retired  to  pri- 
vate life.  During  and  since  the  war  he  has 
been  the  object  of  vehement  attacks  in  the 
French  journals.  In  January,  1872,  he  was 


GRAMPIANS 


GRANADA 


147 


150 


summoned,  with  Marshal  Leboeuf,  to  appear 
before  a  committee  of  inquiry  into  the  causes 
of  the  revolution  of  Sept.  4,  1870. 
GRAMPIANS,  a  range  of  mountains  traversing 
tland  diagonally  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  for 
m.,  and  forming  the  natural  boundary  be- 
tween the  highlands  and  the  lowlands.     Be- 
inning  in  Argyleshire,  on  the  W.  coast,  near 
S.  W.  extremity  of  Loch  Awe,  they  pass 
g  the  W.  and  N.  boundaries  of  Perthshire, 
eluding  the  Ben  Lomond  hills  in  Stirling- 
ire  to  the  south,  and  at  Cairn  Ealer  divide 
to  two  branches,  which  pass  to  the  sea  re- 
vely  on  the  N.  and  S.  sides  of  the  river 
The  term  is  not  strictly  limited  in  its 
lication,  but  in  its  widest  usage  it  includes 
the  highest  mountains  of  Scotland.     Seve- 
of  its  summits,  as  Ben  Nevis,  Ben  Macdhui, 
irntoul,  and  Cairngorm,  rise  to  a  height  of 
ut  4,000  ft. 

GRAMPUS,  a  porpoise-like  cetacean,  belong- 
to  the  genus  phocwna  (Cuvier);  English 
iters,  however,  make  a  generic  name  of  the 
grampus,  calling  the  animal  G.  orca 
abr.).  The  name  seems  to  be  a  corruption 
the  French  grand  polsson  (large  fish),  to 
hich  its  size  well  entitles  it.  Other  names 
finner  and  black-fish  whale,  from  its  dorsal 
and  prevailing  color;  killer  or  thrasher, 
its  alleged  habit  of  attacking  and  killing 
e  whale.  It  attains  a  length  of  25  to  30  ft., 
th  a  circumference  of  10  or  12 ;  the  snout  is 
and  rounded,  the  lower  jaw  broader  and 
orter  than  the  upper;  the  teeth  are  about 
22  above  and  22  below,  large,  strong,  coni- 
and  somewhat  hooked  ;  the  so-called  dor- 
fin,  near  the  middle  of  the  back,  is  4  ft. 
,  and  the  pectorals  are  large  and  oval ;  the 
is  lunate,  thick,  and  powerful.  The  color 
black  above,  suddenly  changing  to  white  on 
sides  and  beneath;  a  large  white  patch 
ind  and  above  the  eyes.  It  is  occasionally 


Grampus  (Grampus  orca). 


seen  on  our  coast,  and  not  unfrequently  on  the 
shores  of  Europe  and  in  the  middle  Atlantic ; 
its  favorite  haunts  are  the  northern  regions,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen. 
They  are  often  met  in  small  herds  of  six  or 
eight,  chasing  each  other  as  if  in  sport ;  they 
are  swift  and  strong,  which  renders  their 
capture  difficult,  and  they  yield  comparatively 
little  oil.  The  grampus  is  exceedingly  vora- 


cious and  entirely  carnivorous,  devouring  large 
fish,  such  as  cod,  halibut,  skates,  turbots,  &c., 
smaller  cetaceans,  and  even  seals.  American 
whalemen  call  it  killer  and  thrasher,  and  af- 
firm that  a  herd  of  them  will  surround  a  large 
whale,  bite  and  tear  away  its  flesh  with  their 
powerful  teeth,  and  finally  weary  and  destroy 
it;  the  accounts  of  such  cetacean  combats 
are  probably  exaggerated,  but  from  the  size, 
strength,  and  voracious  habits  of  the  grampus, 
no  doubt  even  whales  sometimes  fall  victims  to 
their  hungry  herds.  The  oil,  though  small  in 
quantity,  is  of  excellent  quality.  Gray,  in  the 
Spicilegia  Zoologica,  vol.  ii.,  describes  other 
species,  as  G.  intermedius,  Heavisidii,  and  ob- 
scurus,  the  last  two  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  all  the  species  are  frequently  called 
dolphins,  though  they  have  not  the  prolonged 
beak  of  the  latter. 

GRAN  (Hung.  JSsztergom).  I.  A  N.  W.  coun- 
ty of  Hungary,  traversed  from  W.  to  E.  by  the 
Danube ;  area,  424  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  65,- 
306,  mostly  Magyars.  The  surface  toward  the 
centre  is  flat,  in  the  north  generally  level,  and 
mountainous  in  the  south.  The  river  Gran 
(Hung.  Garam),  which  rises  in  the  Carpathians, 
traverses  the  N.  E.  portion  of  the  county.  The 
soil,  which  is  generally  fertile,  produces  corn, 
fruits,  and  wine,  of  which  the  Neszmelyi  is 
favorably  known  in  commerce.  Coal,  lime- 
stone, and  gray,  red,  and  variegated  marble  are 
found.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  county,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  crossed  here  by 
a  bridge,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Gran,  24 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Pesth ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,780.  It 
is  a  royal  free  city,  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
primate  of  Hungary,  who  was  made  cardinal 
in  1874,  and  contains  many  remarkable  build- 
ings, the  most  conspicuous  of  which  are  the 
palace  of  the  primate,  the  houses  of  the  chap- 
ter, and  the  cathedral,  in  the  Italian  style,  one 
of  the  finest  churches  of  Europe,  built  on  a 
precipitous  height  overlooking  the  Danube.  It 
has  also  a  gymnasium  and  a  theological  semi- 
j  nary.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed 
I  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth.  Gran  is 
j  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Romans.  It 
continued  to  flourish  until  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Tartars,  on  their. invasion  of  Hungary, 
1241-'3.  At  a  later  period  it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks,  and  reconquered  in  1683  by  John 
Sobieski. 

GRANADA.  I.  A  W.  department  of  Nicara- 
gua, between  Lake  Nicaragua  and  Lake  Ma- 
nagua, and  bordering  on  the  Pacific ;  area, 
2,943  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  56,000.  The  gen- 
eral aspect  of  this  department  is  that  of  an 
extensive  table  land,  with  a  gentle  descent  to- 
ward the  lakes  and  steep  acclivities  on  the  side 
of  the  Pacific.  A  low  central  chain  of  moun- 
tains divides  the  country  into  almost  equal  por- 
tions, the  northern  and  western  being  essen- 
tially volcanic,  though  cultivated  in  every  di- 
rection and  densely  populated,  in  spite  of  the 
great  scarcity  of  water.  Among  the  numerous 
volcanoes  are  Mombacho,  Masaya,  Madera,  and 


143 


GRANADA 


Ometepe,  on  the  beautiful  island  of  Zapatera, 
in  Lake  Nicaragua.  A  few  of  the  volcanoes 
are  still  active,  but  the  most  recent  serious 
eruption  was  that  of  Masaya  in  1858.  Be- 
sides the  two  large  lakes,  there  are  several 
small  ones  having  no  visible  outlet.  There 
are  no  navigable  rivers.  The  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  abundant,  and  many  mineral 
springs  exist.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment, on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 
27  m.  S.  E.  of  Managua;  pop.  about  10,000. 
The  streets  are  irregular  and  unpaved.  There 
are  three  ancient  churches.  On  the  lake  side 
stand  the  remains  of  the  old  fortifications  of 
the  city.  A  company  was  formed  in  1872  for 
raising  the  water  of  the  lake  to  the  city  by 
machinery,  the  elevation  being  58  ft.  The 
hospital  is  in  a  dilapidated  condition,  and  one 
wing  is  used  as  a  prison  for  females.  The 
university  courses  are  held  in  the  halls  of 
the  ancient  cloister  of  San  Francisco.  The 
situation  of  Granada  is  unequalled  in  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view  by  any  other  inland 
town  in  Central  America,  but  its  trade  is  at  a 
low  ebb,  although  the  products  of  several  de- 
partments concentrate  here  for  shipment  by 
the  lake  steamers,  which  leave  twice  or  thrice 
a  month,  and  reach  the  Atlantic  through  the 
Rio  San  Juan.  The  town  was  founded  in  1523, 
and  was  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century 
repeatedly  plundered  and  partially  destroyed 
by  buccaneers.  The  usurper  Chamorro  having 
taken  refuge  here,  the  democrats  besieged  the 
city  from  May,  1854,  to  February,  1855.  After 
the  death  of  Chamorro,  in  1855,  the  filibuster 
William  Walker  took  the  city  by  surprise, 
burned  it,  and  established  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment which  lasted  till  1857,  when  Granada 
was  retaken  by  the  united  arms  of  San  Salva- 
dor and  Guatemala.  A  large  portion  of  the 
city  has  been  rebuilt  since  that  time ;  but  whole 
squares  still  lie  in  ruin,  covered  with  vegetation. 
GRANADA.  I*  An  ancient  kingdom  of  Spain, 
in  Andalusia,  now  comprising  the  three  mod- 
ern provinces  of  Malaga,  Granada,  and  Alme- 
ria,  bounded  S.  and  E.  by  the  Mediterranean ; 
greatest  length  about  200  m.,  greatest  breadth 
about  80  m. ;  area,  11,063  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  diversified,  with  lofty  mountains,  beautiful 
valleys,  and  extensive  plains.  The  Sierra  Ne- 
vada mountains  traverse  the  territory  from  E. 
to  W. ;  their  summits  are  crowned  with  per- 
petual snow,  and  one  of  them,  the  Cerro  de 
Mulhacen,  attains  an  elevation  of  11,654  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  is  the  highest  mountain  in 
Spain.  The  only  railway  of  the  province  con- 
nects the  city  of  Granada  with  Antequera  and 
the  railway  from  Malaga  to  Cordova.  The 
principal  riven  are  the  Jenil,  the  Almanzora, 
and  the  Guadalorze.  The  climate  of  the 

:in  districts  is  cold,  that  of  the  plains 
temperate,  and  that  of  the  valleys  sultry  and 

:iiy,  ivsp.'rially  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  wind  called  solano,  which  blows  periodi- 
cally from  the  Mediterranean.  The  soil  is 
barren  or  fertile  in  proportion  to  the  possibil- 


ity of  irrigating  it  from  the  mountain  streams. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  The  princi- 
pal manufacture  is  silk.  The  wine  is  generally 
inferior,  but  the  tierno,  muscatel,  and  Malaga 
are  exceptions,  and  have  a  high  reputation. 
The  sugar  cane  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Velez  Malaga  is  deemed  fully  equal  to  that  of 
the  West  Indies  for  size  and  juiciness.  The 
foreign  trade  is  not  important,  and  is  chiefly 
carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Alrneria  and 
Malaga.  This  province  formed  an  opulent, 
civilized,  and  powerful  kingdom  under  a  Moor- 
ish dynasty  founded  in  1238,  which  was  over- 
thrown by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  in  1492. 
II.  A  modern  province,  bounded  N.  by  Cor- 
dova, Jaen,  and  Albacete,  E.  and  S.  by  Al- 
meria  and  the  Mediterranean,  S.  W.  by  Malaga, 
and  N.  W.  by  Cordova ;  area,  4,937  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870  estimated  at  485,000.  It  is  al- 
most entirely  mountainous,  the  only  large  tract 
of  level  country  within  its  boundaries  being 
the  Vega  or  plain  of  Granada,  on  the  Jenil, 
between  the  capital  and  Loja.  HI.  A  city,  the 
capital  of  the  province  and  kingdom,  on  two 
declivities  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  on  the 
plain  between  them,  34  m.  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  224  m.  S.  of  Madrid ;  lat.  37°  13' 
N.,  Ion.  3°  40'  W. ;  pop.  about  68,000.  The 
river  Darro  flows  through  it,  and  falls  into  the 
Jenil  just  outside  the  walls.  The  site  of  the 
city  is  about  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  its 
appearance  from  a  distance  is  singularly  pictu- 
resque and  beautiful.  It  is  divided  into  the  city 
proper,  the  Alhambra  suburb,  the  Albaycin 
suburb,  and  the  Antequeruela  suburb.  The 
first  three  are  partially  fortified,  but  the  fourth 
is  entirely  open,  and  here  the  working  classes 
generally  reside.  The  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked,  but  the  houses  are  well  built  in  an- 
tique oriental  style.  There  are  several  hand- 
some squares  and  numerous  public  fountains. 
But  the  public  edifices  and  the  monuments  of 
its  former  splendor  are  the  great  attractions 
of  Granada,  and  first  among  these  must  be 
ranked  the  Alhambra,  or  ancient  palace  of  the 
Moorish  kings.  (See  ALHAMBRA.)  The  Gothic 
cathedral  is  profusely  ornamented  with  jasper 
and  colored  marble,  and  surmounted  with  a 
dome  resting  on  12  arches,  beneath  which 
stands  the  gorgeously  decorated  altar.  The 
church  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  las  Angustias  is 
remarkable  for  its  altar  and  towers ;  the  church 
of  San  Jos6,  a  modern  structure,  for  its  ele- 
gance. The  monastery  of  San  Ger6nimo  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  its  founder,  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova ;  but  his  bones  were  dug  up  and  cast 
out  by  a  mob  who  plundered  the  convent  in 
1836.  Granada  contains  the  unfinished  palace 
of  Charles  V.,  the  Generalife,  a  Moorish  palace 
surrounded  with  gardens  and  fountains,  an 
episcopal  palace,  a  university,  and  a  general 
hospital,  as  well  as  many  conventual  establish- 
ments for  both  sexes.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  silk,  woollen  stuffs,  hats,  paper,  saltpetre, 
and  gunpowder.  The  trade  is  insignificant, 
and  the  roads  leading  to  the  city  are  so  wretch- 


GRANADA 


GRANDEE 


149 


ed  that  in  the  rainy  season  they  are  almost  im- 
passable. Granada  was  founded  by  the  Moors 
in  the  10th  century,  and  from  1238  was  the 


version  in  1492,  when  it  was  taken  by  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  after  a  protracted  siege. 
It  prospered  for  another  century,  but  when 


capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Granada  till  its  sub-    the  Moors,  who  composed  the  greater  part  of 


Granada. 


population,  were  finally  expelled  from  Spain 
1609,  it  received  a  blow  from  which  it  has 
7er  recovered.  At  the  height  of  its  splen- 
dor it  is  said  to  have  contained  as  many  as 
500,000  inhabitants. 

GRANADA,  New.     See  COLOMBIA. 
GRANADILLA  (Span.,  diminutive  of  granada, 
pomegranate),  the  Spanish-American  name 
)r  the  edible  fruit  of  several  species  of  passi- 
ra,  especially  that  of  P.   quadrangularis. 
le  genus  passiflora,  which  will  be  described 
ler  PASSION  FLOWER,  is  well  known  for  the 
beauty  of  the  flowers  of  many  species 
rb.ich  are  common  greenhouse  climbers.     Oth- 
^  edible-fruited  species  are  P.  edulis,  P.  lau- 
•ifolia  (the  water  lemon),  P.  maliformis  (the 
jweet  calabash),  and  P.  incarnata,  the  may- 
)p  of  the  southern  states.     P.  quadrangu- 
iris  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  where  its 
rait  is  esteemed  for  the  dessert.     In  French 
rorks  upon  horticulture  it  is  placed  among 
'ie  exotic  fruits  to  be  grown  under  glass,  and 
aadillas  thus  produced  are  sometimes  seen 
the  markets  of  Paris  and  London.     In  our 
mouses  the  plant  is  often  seen  in  flower, 
>ut  rarely  in  fruit,  as  gardeners  do  not  seem  to 
be  aware  that  the  flowers  require  to  be  arti- 
^cially  fertilized  with  their  own  pollen  or  that 
"  some  other  species,  else  the  fruit  will  not 
3t.     The  fruit  is  6  or  8  in.  in  diameter,  of  a 
mulberry  color,  and  with  an  odor   something 
like  the  pineapple  or  strawberry.     The  purple 
pulp,  which  encloses  numerous  seeds,  is  sub- 
acid,  and  is  usually  eaten  with  wine  and  sugar. 
In  contrast  with  the  fruit,  the  root  of  this  spe- 
cies is  powerfully  narcotic  and  emetic. 


GRANBY,  John  Manners,  commonly  called  mar- 
quis of,  an  English  general,  born  Jan.  2,  1721, 
died  in  Scarborough,  Oct.  19,  1770.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  third  duke  of  Rutland,  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and  during 
the  rebellion  of  1745  raised  a  regiment  of  foot 
at  his  own  expense.  In  1759  he  was  sent  to 
Germany  as  second  in  command,  under  Lord 
George  Sackville,  of  the  troops  destined  to  co- 
operate with  Prussia.  Lord  George  having  re- 
signed, Granby  succeeded  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  British,  and  served  with  distinction 
during  the  remainder  of  the  seven  years'  war. 
In  1760,  while  still  in  the  field,  he  was  appoint- 
ed a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In  1763  he 
became  master  general  of  the  ordnance,  and 
in  1766  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces.  He 
also  served  several  terms  in  parliament.  He 
was  exceedingly  popular,  but  his  military  quali- 
ties appear  to  have  been  greatly  overrated. 

GRAND,  the  N.  W.  county  of  Colorado.  See 
SUMMIT. 

GRANDEE  (Span,  grande  de  Etpafta),  the 
highest  rank  of  Spanish  nobility.  The  gran- 
dees of  Spain  were  the  great  nobles  descended 
from  the  ancient  chief  feudatories  of  the  crown, 
and  from  members  of  the  royal  family.  They 
had  the  right  to  levy  soldiers  under  their  own 
banner,  were  free  from  taxes,  and  could  not  be 
subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  any  civil  or 
criminal  court  without  the  express  command 
of  the  king.  They  also  claimed  the  right  to 
make  war  upon  the  king  without  incurring  the 
guilt  of  treason.  As  the  power  of  the  mon- 
arch increased,  the  privileges  of  the  grandees 
were  restricted,  till  little  was  left  but  the  right 


150 


GRAND  FORKS 


of  wearing  their  hats  in  the  royal  presence, 
and  of  being  saluted  by  the  guards  at  the  royal 
palace.  The  Spanish  grandees  considered  them- 
selves superior  in  rank  to  all  the  other  nobil- 
ity of  Europe,  and  second  only  to  princes  of 
royal  blood.  On  public  occasions  the  order  of 
precedence  placed  them  next  to  the  high  pre- 
lates. Many  of  the  grandees  had  no  title; 
others  had  the  titles  of  count,  marquis,  and 
duke,  and  some  possessed  enormous  estates. 
Among  the  richest  were  the  dukes  of  Medina 
Celi,  Alva,  Ossuna,  Altamira,  Infantado,  and 
Arcos.  The  duke  of  Arcos,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century,  maintained  3,000  servants. 
The  grandees  have  no  privileges  now. 

GRAND  FORKS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Dakota 
territory,  recently  formed,  and  not  included  in 
the  census  of  1870;  area,  about  4,000  sq.  m. 
It  is  separated  on  the  east  from  Minnesota  by 
the  Red  river,  and  is  drained  by  several  afflu- 
ents of  that  stream. 

GRAM)  HAVEN,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Ottawa  co.,  Michigan,  at  the  mouth 
of  Grand  river,  on  the  E.  shore  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, opposite  Milwaukee,  and  90  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Lansing ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,147.  It  is  bounded 
on  two  sides  by  hills,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
are  extensive  peach  orchards.  Springs  possess- 
ing medicinai  properties  have  lately  been  dis- 
covered. The  city  contains  one  of  the  finest 
hotels  in  the  state,  a  cemetery  of  40  acres,  and 
three  school  houses.  It  is  the  W.  terminus 
of  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee  railroad,  and  is 
intersected  by  the  Michigan  Lake  Shore  line. 
Steamers  run  throughout  the  year  to  Milwau- 
kee, and  in  summer  a  daily  line  plies  to  Grand 
Rapids.  The  principal  manufactories  are  sev- 
en saw  mills,  a  shingle  mill,  a  machine  shop, 
two  ship  yards,  and  one  manufactory  each  of 
agricultural  implements  and  furniture,  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  of  spinning  wheels,  and  of 
curtain  rollers.  There  are  a  dry  dock,  a  na- 
tional bank,  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  high 
school,  and  11  churches.  Grand  Haven  was 
laid  out  in  1836,  though  a  trading  post  had 
been  established  on  its  site  by  the  northwest- 
ern fur  company  in  1825.  It  received  a  city 
charter  in  1867. 

GRAND  ISLE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Vermont, 
consisting  of  a  number  of  islands  in  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  S.  part  of  a  peninsula  jut- 
ting into  the  lake  from  Canada  between  Riche- 
lieu or  St.  John's  river  and  Missisquoi  bay ; 
area,  about  77  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,082. 
The  chief  islands  are  North  Hero,  South  Hero, 
and  Isle  La  Motte.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  The  county  is  famous  for 
its  orchards,  which  yield  the  finest  apples  in 
the  state.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
21,073  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  105,431  of  oats, 
26,876  of  buckwheat,  26,295  of  peas  and  beans 
51,599  of  potatoes,  160,653  Ibs.  of  butter,  83,- 
838  of  wool,  12,271  tons  of  hay,  and  15,982  Ibs. 
of  hops.  There  were  1,285  horses,  2,827  cat- 
tle, and  16,087  sheep.  The  lake  is  here  navi- 
gable by  vessels  of  90  tons.  The  Vermont 


GRAND  RAPIDS 

Central  railroad  crosses  the  N.  part  of  the 
county.  Capital,  North  Hero. 

GRAND  MANAN,  or  Menan,  an  island  off  the  E. 
coast  of  Maine,  at  the  entrance  to  the  bay  of 
Fundy,  belonging  to  Charlotte  co.,  New  Bruns- 
wick ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,867.  Its  length  is  near- 
ly 20  m.,  and  its  average  breadth  about  5  m. 
It  abounds  with  excellent  timber,  and  has  sev- 
eral fishing  stations.  The  coast  is  deeply  in- 
dented, and  affords  numerous  good  harbors. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  island,  lat.  44°  45' 
52"  N.,  Ion.  66°  44'  4"  W. 

GRANDPRE,  Louis  Marie  Joseph  Ohier,  count  de, 
a  French  navigator  and  traveller,  born  in  St. 
Malo,  May  7,  1761,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  7,  1846. 
After  a  long  experience  on  the  sea  as  a  trader, 
he  entered  the  navy,  and  at  the  end  of  15 
years'  service  was  admitted  to  the  hotel  de* 
invalides,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  published  Voyage  d  la  cote  occidental* 
d>Afrique,fait  dans  les  annees  1786  et  1787  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1801),  in  which  he  gives  an  interest- 
ing account  from  his  own  observation  of  the 
Congo  slave  trade  before  the  French  revolution ; 
Voyage  dans  Vlnde  et  au  Bengalefait  dans  les 
annees  1789  et  1790  (1801),  followed  by  Voyage 
dans  la  mer  Rouge.  He  also  published  a  Dic- 
tionnaire  universel  de  geographic  maritime  (2 
vols.  4to,  1803),  an  Abrege  elementaire  de  geo- 
graphic physique  (8vo,  1825),  a  Repertoire  po- 
ly glotte  de  la  marine  (2  vols.  8vo,  1829),  and 
many  essays,  among  them  a  Memoire  sur  I 'em- 
placement que  VUe  Atlantide  peut  avoir  occupe 
entre  Pancien  et  le  nouveau  monde. 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
"Kent  co.,  Michigan,  situated  at  the  rapids  of 
Grand  river,  here  spanned  by  five  bridges,  30 
m.  E.  of  Lake  Michigan  and  60  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Lansing;  pop.  in  1850,  2,686;  in  1860, 
8,085 ;  in  1870,  16,507,  of  whom  5,725  were 
foreigners.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  which  here,  deviating  from  its  general 
W.  direction,  runs  nearly  S.  -  between  high 
bluffs  about  a  mile  apart,  which  gradually  di- 
verge and  nearly  disappear  above  and  below 
the  city.  The  central  school  building,  erected 
in  1868  at  a  cost  of  $50,000,  is  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  bluffs  E.  of  the  river,  and  com- 
mands a  fine  view.  The  county  jail,  built  in 
1872,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  architecture.  There 
are  many  handsome  residences,  a  number  of 
gravelled  streets,  and  several  miles  of  street 
railroad.  The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point 
for  steamers  of  considerable  size.  Six  railroads 
intersect  here:  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee, 
the  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana,  the  Grand 
River  Valley  division  of  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  Kalamazoo  division  of  the  Michigan  South- 
ern, the  Chicago  and  Michigan  Lake  Shore, 
and  the  Grand  Rapids,  Newaygo,  and  Lake 
Shore.  The  rapids  furnish  extensive  water 
power,  which  is  utilized  by  means  of  two 
canals.  The  one  on  the  E.  side  of  the  river  is 
2,600  ft.  long,  140  ft.  wide  at  the  upper  and  30 
ft.  at  the  lower  end ;  the  W.  side  canal  is  3,300 
ft.  long,  100  ft.  wide  at  the  upper  and  50  ft.  at 


GRAND  RIVER 


GRANICUS 


151 


lower  end.     Only  a  portion  of  the  available 
power  is  in  actual  use.     The  principal  manu- 
factures are  of  wood  work,  embracing  furni- 
ire,  barrels,  and  rim  and  bent  work,  tubs, 
Is,  sashes  and  blinds,  carriages  and  wagons, 
There  are  also  manufactories  of  agricul- 
iral  implements  and  brushes,  several  founde- 
3s  and  machine  shops,  chemical  works,  tan- 
3ries,  breweries,  &c.     The  pine  lumber  pro- 
iced   in   1872    exceeded  60,000,000  ft.      A 
rge  establishment  for  preserving  fruit  has  re- 
itly  been  erected.    Four  firms,  with  an  ag- 
sgate  capital  of  $400,000,  are  engaged  in 
tarrying  and  manufacturing  gypsum,  which 
abundant  in  the  vicinity,  the  annual  produc- 
m  being  about  100,000  tons.    Cream-colored 
ricks,  known  as  Milwaukee  bricks,  are  also 
lufactured  here.     There  are  two  national 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $700,000, 
id  a  savings  bank.     The  city  is  divided  into 
wards,  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  has  an 
icient  police  force  and  a  paid  fire  department, 
le  assessed  value  of  property  in  1873  was 
,949,282.     The  United  States   circuit  and 
ict  courts  for  the  W.  district  of  Michigan 
held  here.     The  school  buildings  are  nine 
number,  including  a  high  school.     There  is 
public  library  with  more  than  7,000  volumes, 
free  reading  room,  and  a  scientific  institute 
rhich  has  a  fine  museum.      There  are  three 
ly  and  five  weekly  (one  Dutch  and  one  Ger- 
i)  newspapers,  two  monthly  periodicals,  and 
churches.     Grand  Rapids  was  first  settled 
1833,  and  incorporated  in  1850. 
GRAND   RIVER  (Ind.  name,  Washtenong),  a^ 
rer  of  Michigan,  and  the  largest  which  lies* 
rholly  in  that  state.     It  rises  in  the  S.  E.  part 
the  lower  peninsula,  in  two  branches  which 
ite  near  Jackson,  and  after  a  K  W.  and  W. 
>urse  of  about  270  m.,  including  its  numerous 
indings,  it  discharges  into  Lake  Michigan  at 
md  Haven.     It  is  about  950  ft.  wide  at  its 
ith,  and  deep  enough  for  vessels  of  less  than 
ft.  draught.     Steamboats  ascend  40  m.  to 
le  rapids,  where  the  river  has  a  fall  of  18  ft. 
a  mile;  and  small  boats  ply  between  the 
of  the  rapids  and  Lyons,  about  50  m. 
ler.    The  principal  affluents  are  the  Rogue, 
,  Maple,  Looking-glass,  and  Red  Cedar  from 
le  north,  and  the  Thornapple  from  the  south, 
lackson,  Lansing,  Grand  Rapids,  and  Grand 
Haven  are  the  chief  towns  on  its  banks. 

GRAND  RIVER,  one  of  the  constituents  of  the 
Colorado  of  the  "West,  rises  in  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains in  Colorado  territory,  5  or  6  m.  W.  of  Long's 
peak,  in  about  lat.  40°  17'  K,  Ion.  105°  43'  W. 
It  pursues  a  general  S.  W.  course  of  about  350 
m.,  and  joins  the  Green  in  Utah  territory.  It 
Is  S.  just  before  entering  Utah,  and  then 
as  it  crosses  the  boundary,  resuming  its 
ineral  direction.  The  only  important  tributary 
the  north  is  Milk  creek,  which  joins  the 
lin  stream  near  its  source.  From  the  south 
it  receives  the  Blue  river  (which,  rising  near  the 
base  of  Mt.  Lincoln,  has  by  some  been  regarded 
as  the  true  source  of  the  Grand),  Piney  creek, 


Roaring  fork,  the  Gunnison  or  South  fork  (the 
largest  tributary),  and  the  San  Miguel  and  Do- 
lores rivers,  which  unite  and  empty  into  the 
Grand  just  beyond  the  Utah  border.  It  flows 
through  a  mountainous  region,  forming  deep 
and  precipitous  cafions. 

GRAND  TRAVERSE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  the  S. 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  bounded  N.  E.  by 
Grand  Traverse  bay ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,443.  It  is  drained  by  Grand 
Traverse  river,  which  enters  the  bay  of  the 
same  name.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
dotted  over  with  a  great  number  of  small  lakes. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,157 
bushels  of  wheat,  26,708  of  Indian  corn,  15,218 
of  oats,  94,174  of  potatoes,  and  3,544  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  2  flour  and  9  saw  mills.  Cap- 
ital, Grand  Traverse  City. 

GRANDVILLE,  Jean  Ignace  Isidore,  whose  real 
name  was  GERARD,  a  French  caricaturist,  born 
in  Nancy  in  September,  1803,  died  at  Vanves, 
near  Paris,  in  March,  1847.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  miniature  painter,  and  attracted  attention  in 
1828  by  his  Metamorphoses  dujour,  illustrating 
prevailing  follies  and  vices  by  representing  well 
known  personages  with  the  faces  of  animals. 
His  political  caricatures  and  his  pictures  of  ani- 
mals increased  his  reputation,  and  he  furnished 
many  designs  for  illustrated  and  humorous 
journals,  for  Lafontaine's  fables,  and  for  many 
other  works.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
took  up  fantastic  and  ghostly  subjects,  and  he 
died  in  a  lunatic  asylum. — See  Grandmlle,  by 
Charles  Blanc  (Paris,  1855). 

GRANE,  Gran,  or  Quade  (Arabic,  El-Kueit\  a 
seaport  town  of  Arabia,  in  the  district  of  El- 
Hasa  or  Ahsa,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
at  the  N.  W.  corner  of  the  Persian  gulf,  90  m. 
S.  of  Bassorah ;  lat.  29°  23'  K,  Ion.  47°  51'  E. ; 
pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  on  a  peninsula  jutting 
into  the  bay,  which  is  60  m.  in  circuit,  affords 
excellent  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels,  and 
is  well  protected  by  the  small  island  of  Felej 
or  Felitche.  In  the  town  there  is  a  scar- 
city of  water.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of 
clay,  but  many  wealthy  merchants  reside  here. 
Trade  is  carried  on  with  the  Red  sea  and  India. 

GRANGE,  National.  See  HUSBANDRY,  PA- 
TRONS OF. 

GRANGER,  Gideon,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Suffield,  Conn.,  July  19,  1767,  died  at 
Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  31,  1822.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  college  in  1787,  and  rose  to  emi- 
nence at  the  bar.  In  1801  President  Jefferson 
appointed  him  postmaster  general.  He  was 
reappointed  by  President  Madison,  but  was 
displaced  in  1814  for  opposing  Madison's  policy. 
He  then  removed  to  Canandaigua,  N".  Y.  He 
gave  1,000  acres  of  land  to  further  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie  canal. — His  son  FRAN- 
CIS, born  Dec.  1,  1792,  was  also  a  prominent 
lawyer  and  member  of  congress,  and  post- 
master general  from  March  to  July,  1841.  He 
died  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  28,  1868. 

GRAN1CUS  (now  Khodja  Tckai),  in  ancient 
geography,  a  small  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising 


L52 


GRANIER 


N.  W.  of  Mt.  Ida,  and  emptying  into  the  Pro- 
pontis  after  a  N.  E.  course  of  50  or  60  m.  It 
is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  first  decisive 
victory  of  Alexander  the  Great  over  the  Per- 
sians, 334  B.  0. 

GRAM  KB,  Adolphe  Bernard,  commonly  called 
A.  GRANIER  DE  OASBAGNAC,  a  French  journal- 
ist, born  in  the  department  of  Gers  about  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Toulouse, 
and  began  his  career  at  Paris  in  1832,  by  wri- 
ting literary  criticisms  for  the  Journal  des  De- 
bats  and  the  Revue  de  Paris.  The  asperity  of 
his  articles  displeased  Bertin,  editor  of  the  De- 
bats,  and  Granier  joined  the  Presse,  then  just 
founded  by  Girardin.  In  this  journal  he  de- 
fended Victor  Hugo  and  the  romantic  school, 
and  wrote  severe  criticisms  upon  Racine.  A 
collection  of  these  articles  was  published  in 
1852  under  the  title  of  Portraits  litteraires.  In 
1837  he  published  Histoire  des  classes  ounrieres 
et  des  classes  bourgeoises,  and  in  1840  Histoire 
des  classes  nobles  et  des  classes  anoblies.  He 
also  wrote  pamphlets  in  defence  of  slavery,  by 
which  he  recommended  himself  to  the  planters 
of  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe ;  and  in  1840  he 
made  a  visit  to  the  "West  Indies,  of  which  an  ac- 
count was  given  in  his  Voyage  aux  Antilles  (2 
vols.,  1842-'4).  While  there  he  married  Mile. 
Beauvallon,  a  Creole.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
he  became  editor  of  the  Globe.  His  conduct 
of  this  journal  involved  him  in  various  contro- 
versies and  duels.  In  1845  his  brother-in-law 
Beauvallon,  who  was  employed  upon  the  same 
paper,  killed  Dujarrier,  the  manager  of  the 
Presse,  in  a  duel,  and  was  prosecuted  for  having 
nsed  unfair  means.  He  was  acquitted,  but  was 
afterward  convicted  of  having  procured  his  ac- 
quittal with  false  witnesses.  Granier  de  Cas- 
sagnac  testified  on  these  trials  in  behalf  of  his 
brother-in-law,  and  his  character  was  compro- 
mised by  their  result.  The  Globe  having  been 
discontinued  in  1846,  he  founded  an  ultra-con- 
servative journal  called  ISfipoque,  which  exist- 
ed for  two  years.  He  was  then  sent  by  Guizot 
to  found  a  journal  at  Rome  for  the  promotion 
of  French  interests.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  returned  to  France, 
but  did  not  go  to  Paris  till  1850.  He  was  a  de- 
clared opponent  of  the  republic  and  a  devoted 
adherent  of  Louis  Napoleon.  He  became  in 
1850  the  principal  editor  of  the  Pouvoir,  then 
a  regular  contributor  to  the  Constitutionnel, 
mul  in  1857  founded  the  Reveil.  This  survived 
but  a  year,  and  he  then  assumed  the  direction 
of  the  Pays.  The  next  paper  which  he  edited 
was  UKcho,  which  in  1863  was  merged  in  the 
Nation.  In  1866  he  resumed  the  direction  of 
the  Pays.  He  was  four  times  elected  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  as  a  government  candi- 
d.it,-.  lH52-'69.  In  the  chamber  he  was  a  vio- 
lent partisan  of  the  government.  In  1868  he 
\<>fr<l  with  six  of  his  colleagues  against  a  law 
which  was  favorable  to  the  press,  and  replied 
to  ar-L-nMirnts  advanced  by  Picard  and  Ollivier 
in  relation  to  it  with  a  challenge  to  fight. 
Both  he  and  his  son,  Paul  de  Oassagnac,  be- 


GRANITE 

came  notorious  for  the  great  number  of  con- 
troversies, duels,  and  broils  in  which  they  were 
engaged.  After  the  French  reverses  in  the 
war  of  1870-'71  he  resided  partly  at  Wilhelms- 
hohe  and  partly  at  Brussels.  After  the  res- 
toration of  peace  he  returned  to  Paris  and 
wrote  occasionally  for  the  Pays.  In  1873  he 
published  Histoire  des  origines  de  la  langue 
francaise,  in  which  he  contended,  as  he  had 
done  in  the  Presse  in  1836  and  in  his  Antiquite 
des  patois :  anteriorite  de  la  langue  francaise 
sur  le  latin  (1859),  that  the  French  was  spoken 
in  Gaul  before  Latin  was  introduced.  He  has 
also  published  Histoire  des  causes  de  la  revolu- 
tion francaise  (1850 ;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1856);  His- 
toire du  directoire  (3  vols.,  1851-'6)  ;  Histoire 
de  la  chute  du  roi  Louis  Philippe,  de  la  repu- 
blique  de  1848  et  du  retablissement  de  V empire 
(2  vols.,  1857);  Histoire  des  Girondins  et  des 
massacres  de  septembre  (2  vols.,  1860)  ;  and 
UEmpereur  et  la  democratic  moderne  (1861). 

GRANITE,  a  hard  firm  rock,  made  up  essen- 
tially of  crystalline  grains  of  feldspar  and 
quartz,  deriving  its  name  from  its  granular 
structure.  The  typical  granites  are  generally 
described  as  composed  of  a  potash  feldspar 
(orthoclase),  quartz,  and  mica ;  but  there  are 
similar  rocks  which  entirely  lack  the  mica,  and 
others  in  which  it  is  replaced  by  hornblende. 
To  this  latter  combination  some  writers  give 
the  name  of  syenite,  but  this  term  appears  to 
have  been  originally  employed  to  designate 
a  rock  composed  of  hornblende  with  a  soda 
feldspar  (albite,  oligoclase,  or  labradorite),  and 
^without  quartz,  being  identical  with  what  by 
other  authors  is  called  diorite.  It  seems  bet- 
ter therefore  to  follow  the  example  of  certain 
German  lithologists,  who  define  granite  as  a 
binary  aggregate  of  orthoclase  feldspar  and 
quartz,  in  which  mica  and  hornblende  may  be 
present  as  accidental  minerals,  giving  rise  to 
micaceous  and  hornblendic  granite,  while  the 
variety  from  which  they  are  both  absent  is 
termed  normal  or  binary  granite.  In  some 
cases  a  chloritic  mineral,  often  confounded  with 
talc,  takes  the  place  of  mica,  and  gives  rise  to 
what  has  been  called  protogine  or  talcose  gran- 
ite. The  color  of  the  feldspar  of  granite  is 
generally  white,  gray,  or  reddish,  while  the 
quartz  is  either  colorless  or  somewhat  smoky, 
the  hornblende  greenish  black,  and  the  mica 
varies  in  color  from  nearly  white  to  brownish 
or  blackish.  Associated  with  the  orthoclase, 
some  granites  contain  portions  of  a  soda  feld- 
spar, which  may  be  either  albite  or  oligoclase, 
distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  whitp 
or  greenish-white  color,  which  often  contrasts 
with  the  reddish  tint  of  the  orthoclase.  There 
are  various  degrees  of  fineness  in  the  texture  of 
granites,  and  some  of  them,  which  have  large 
crystals  of  orthoclase  imbedded  in  a  finely 
granular  mixture  of  the  constituent  minerals, 
are  called  porphyritic  granites.  Geologically 
granite  is  described  as  an  unstratified  rock, 
from  the  fact  that  it  wants  the  banded  or  strat- 
ified structure  which  characterizes  gneiss,  ft 


GRANITE 


153 


granular  rock  made  up  of  the  same  mineral 
species  arranged  in  layers,  which  are  generally 
supposed  to   represent  planes  of   deposition. 
Moreover,  granite  appears  in  irregular  masses, 
breaking  through  gneiss  and  various  crystalline 
stratified  rocks,  and  often  sending  out  veins  or 
dikes  into  the  midst  of  these.     All  the  rela- 
tions of  the  true  granites  to  the  stratified  rocks 
are  in  fact  such  as  to  suggest  the  notion  that 
the  former  have  been  extruded  in  a  more  or 
pasty   condition  from  below  the  latter, 
a  the  microscopic  study  of  the  minute  cav- 
ities often  found  in  the   quartz  of  granites, 
rhich  are  filled  with  water  or  saline  solutions, 
>rby  has  concluded  that  this  rock  must  have 
jonsolidated  at  a  temperature  in  some  cases 
ipproaching  a  red  heat,  and  under  a  degree 
)f  pressure  which  implies  that  it  was  at  that 
time  buried  beneath  a  very  great  weight  of 
>ck.     There  is  a  popular  notion  that  granite 
the  oldest  of  all  rocks,  and  is  in  fact  the  sub- 
ratum  which  underlies  all  others;  but  this 
lea  rests  upon  certain  misconceptions,  and  is 
jbably  incorrect.     It  is  true  that  it  is  found 
making  up  through    the   newer  crystalline 
ratified  rocks,  the  primitive  slate  formations 
'  some  geologists  ;  but  these  are  seen  to  rest 
i  an  older  formation  composed  in  great 
of  highly  crystalline  gneiss,  which,  though 
ra  granite-like  in  its  aspect,  is  clearly  strat- 
ied,  and  includes  beds  of  quartzite,  limestone, 
ad  iron  ores.     This  oldest  known  series,  to 
rhich  the  name  of  Laurentian  is  given,  was  by 
>me  of  the  earlier  geologists  mistaken  for  the 
•anite  which  was  supposed  to  underlie  the 
)wer  series,  and  it  has  been  suggested  witn 
mch  probability  that  it  is  the  gneisses  of  this 
Id  series,  which  in  a  softened  condition  have 
een  forced  upward  among  the  overlying  for- 
lations,  where  they  take  the  form  of  unstrati- 
ied  granites.     The  primitive  rock,   which  is 
ipposed  to  have  been  before  all  stratified  de- 
sits,  is  everywhere  concealed  by  these,  and 
m  chemical  analogies  may  be  supposed  to 
lave  been  very  unlike  granite.     The  so-called 
lites  of  the  Alps  are  now  shown  to  be  strat- 
[  rocks  of  eozoic  age,  which,  by  great  and 
>rofound  folds  have  been  brought  up  and  made 
n  some  cases  to  overlie  the  newer  strata. 
(See  ALPS.) — The  dikes  of  a  fine-grained  gran- 
ite, which  appear  as  offshoots  from  the  great 
eruptive  masses,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  granite  veinstones,  which  appear  to  have 
been  formed  by  a  process  of  gradual  deposition 
from  aqueous  solution  in  fissures  or  cavities  in 
~ie  rocks.     Such  veins,  although  often  made 
in  great  part  of  feldspar  and  quartz  with 
lica,  are  closely  related  to  the  veinstones  of 
quartz  and  calc  spar,   which  are  so  often  the 
gangue  of  metallic  ores.     They  frequently  pre- 
sent a  banded  structure  parallel  with  the  walls 
of  the  enclosing  rock,  and  are  remarkable  for 
containing  in  many  cases  large  and  beautiful 
crystals,  not  only  of  the  constituent  minerals 
of  granite,  but  of  rarer  species.     Among  the 
most  common  of  these  are  garnet,  tourmaline, 


beryl,  topaz,  columbite,  and  cassiterite.  The 
gneisses  and  mica  schists  of  what  has  been 
called  the  Montalban  or  White  mountain  series 
of  the  Appalachians  are  noted  for  the  abun- 
dance of  these  veins,  and  for  the  fine  minerals 
which  these  contain.  Some  of  these  granite 
veins  are  mined  for  the  mica  which  they  afford, 
and  others  for  the  pure  and  abundant  white 
orthoclase  which  is  sought  for  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain.  These  veins  are  of  very  various 
sizes,  sometimes  100  feet  or  more  in  breadth, 
and  often  traverse  the  enclosing  rocks  at  right 
angles.  A  peculiar  aggregate  is  sometimes 
found  in  these  veins,  in  which  plates  and  im- 
perfect skeleton  crystals  of  quartz  are  so  scat- 
tered through  the  masses  of  cleavable  ortho- 
clase, that  a  section  across  the  ends  of  these 
plates  presents  the  appearance  of  written 
characters  or  hieroglyphics  on  a  ground  of 
feldspar  ;  hence  the  name  of  graphic  granite. — 
Granite  is  very  strong  and  durable,  and  resists 
the  atmospheric  influences ;  but  in  the  south- 
ern and  western  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
in  South  America,  as  also  in  central  France,  it 
is  found  to  be  softened  and  decayed  to  consid- 
erable depths.  This  softening,  which.  Dolo- 
mieu  called  the  maladie  du  granit,  and  as- 
cribed to  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  from 
the  interior  of  the  earth,  depends  upon  a  chem- 
ical decomposition  of  the  feldspar,  which  loses 
its  alkali  and  a  part  of  the  silica  in  a  soluble 
form,  leaving  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina, 
which  in  its  purest  form  constitutes  kaolin 
or  porcelain  clay.  The  feldspars  and  horn- 
blendes of  the  gneisses  undergo  a  similar  change. 
According  to  Sterry  Hunt,  this  decomposition 
is  not  recent,  and  is  not  connected  with  an  evo- 
lution of  carbonic  acid  from  below,  but  was 
effected  in  remote  periods,  when  the  whole  at- 
mosphere was  highly  charged  with  this  gas,  and 
has  ceased  in  modern  times ;  although  it  is  not 
impossible  that  some  such  changes  may  now  be 
going  on  in  localities  where  an  abundance  of 
carbonic  acid  is  given  off  from  the  earth.  The 
red  granites  from  Peterhead,  near  Aberdeen  in 
Scotland,  are  especially  esteemed  for  their  beau- 
ty of  color.  Similar  red  granites  are  found  on 
the  coasts  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick ;  and 
the  hornblendic  granites  of  Rockport  and  Quin- 
cy  in  Massachusetts  are  quarried  in  very  large 
quantities  and  shipped  to  distant  points. — 
True  granite  is  found  in  masses  of  great  solid- 
ity, unbroken  by  seams  and  of  remarkably  uni- 
form structure.  It  is  seen  upon  the  sides  of 
mountains  covering  acres,  with  hardly  a  crack 
or  seam.  But,  however  massive  and  unbro- 
ken it  appears,  it  exhibits  when  quarried  a  ten- 
dency to  divide  more  easily  in  some  directions 
than  in  others,  and  is  found  to  be  realiy  trav- 
ersed by  parallel  seams,  which  separate  it  into 
blocks  more  or  less  symmetrical.  Having  great 
durability,  and  being  so  hard  and  compact  that 
the  finer  varieties  are  susceptible  of  a  good 
polish,  and  when  carved  retain  better  than  any 
other  rock  used  for  architectural  purposes  the 
sharp  edges  of  mouldings,  granite  has  always 


154 


GRANSON 


occupied  the  first  rank  among  building  stones. 
Its  great  strength  to  resist  pressure  is  exhib- 
ited in  the  trial  of  the  Aberdeen  granite  used 
in  the  construction  of  the  piers  in  the  vaults 
of  the  London  custom  house.  A  half-inch  cube 
of  the  best  stone  required  to  crush  it  the  pres- 
sure of  24,556  Ibs.  It  is  easily  split  in  large 
blocks  by  a  very  simple  process.  With  a  hand 
drill  and  hammer  a  workman  bores  a  succes- 
sion of  holes  from  3£  to  6  in.  in  depth,  and  2  to 
6  in.  apart,  along  the  line  where  he  wishes  to 
open  the  stone.  The  depth  and  number  of  the 
holes  are  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  block. 
Into  each  of  the  round  holes  thus  made  he  in- 
troduces two  slips  of  iron  called  half-rounds, 
buckings,  or  feathers,  being  of  wedge  form, 
but  round  on  one  side,  and  running  to  a  point. 
He  then  inserts  a  small  steel  wedge  between 
the  flat  faces  of  the  two  half-rounds  and  gently 
tightens  it  with  the  hammer.  This  being  done, 
he  moves  along  the  line  tapping  each  wedge  in 
order,  and  repeating  the  process  till  the  strain 
causes  a  crack,  which  gradually  opens,  sepa- 
rating the  block.  Good  granite  of  close  grain 
and  uniform  texture  should  in  this  way  make 
a  clean  separation,  the  crack  going  straight 
through  twice  or  three  times  the  depth  of  the 
holes.  It  may  even  be  quarried  out  of  the  solid 
ledge  in  the  same  manner,  provided  there  are 
natural  seams;  and  where  practicable  the  pro- 
cess is  much  to  be  preferred  to  blasting,  which 
wastes  the  stone,  breaking  it  into  irregular  frag- 
ments. But  the  latter  is  necessary  in  quarrying, 
to  expose  suitable  faces  for  splitting,  and  to 
open  seams.  Blocks  of  great  size  may  be  ob- 
tained from  good  quarries,  much  larger  indeed 
than  there  is  any  demand  for.  They  are  often 
split  out  from  40  to  80  ft.  in  length,  and  are 
afterward  reduced  to  smaller  sizes.  They  are 
sold  in  the  rough  blocks  commonly  by  the  ton 
of  14  cubic  feet,  or  if  dressed,  by  the  superficial 
foot  of  hammered  surface.  In  many  parts  of 
the  country  gneisses  of  great  homogeneousness 
and  with  little  evidence  of  stratification  are 
quarried  under  the  name  of  granite,  for  which 
they  furnish  an  excellent  substitute.  Such  is 
the  case  with  some  of  the  gneisses  of  the  Lau- 
rentian  in  New  York,  and  still  more  with  the 
fine-grained  gray  gneisses  of  the  Montalban 
series  in  New  England  and  further  southward 
in  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  so-called  granites  of 
Hallowell  and  Augusta  in  Maine,  and  of  Con- 
conl  in  New  Hampshire,  are  examples  of  these 
granite-like  gneisses.  They  are  somewhat  more 
U-M.I.T  than  the  true  granites,  but  are  more 
easily  wrought,  and  from  their  beauty  of  color 
ami  t.-xture  are  greatly  esteemed  for  architec- 
tural purposes.  A  very  fine  variety  of  so-called 
granite  is  largely  quarried  on  the  James  river 
near  Richmond.  Virginia,  but  it  is  not  certain 
whether  it  is  a  true  granite  or  one  of  the  gneisses 
above  described. 

<;U\\so\.  or  Grandson,  a  town  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  on  the  lake  of  ' 
Nrnt'rlmtel,  near  its  S.  W.   extremity;    pop. 
about  1,600.     It  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the 


GRANT 

victory  achieved  near  it,  March  3,  1476,  by  the 
Swiss  over  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy. 
(See  CHARLES  THE  BOLD.) 

GRANT,  a  word  constantly  used  in  deeds  of 
conveyance,  and  which  once  had  a  specific 
meaning,  that  now  is  almost  lost.  By  the  rules 
of  the  early  common  law  all  estates  of  land  of 
which  actual  delivery  could  be  made,  could  be 
transferred  only  "  by  livery  (delivery)  of  seisin 
(possession) ; "  that  is,  by  open  and  actual  or 
symbolic  (a  key  for  a  house,  a  sward  for  a 
field,  &c.)  transfer  of  possession  from  the  one 
party  to  the  other.  But  there  were  valuable 
interests  which  could  not  be  transferred  in  this 
way,  as  rents,  estates  in  expectancy,  reversions 
and  remainders,  and  generally  all  mere  rights 
and  all  incorporeal  hereditaments.  These  could 
be  transferred  only  by  deeds  containing  the 
proper  words  of  transfer.  Of  these,  one  of  the 
principal  was  concedo,  translated  by  "grant;" 
and  all  things  which  could  be  transferred  only 
in  this  way  were  said  "to  lie  in  grant,"  while 
all  of  the  first  named  class  of  interests  and  es- 
tates were  said  "  to  lie  in  livery."  With  con- 
cedo  (grant),  do  (give)  was  always  used;  and 
these  two  words,  "  give  and  grant,"  were  said 
to  be  the  appropriate  and  peculiar  words  of 
a  grant.  This  distinction  between  livery  and 
grant  was  once  very  important ;  but  it  is  now 
little  more  than  a  part  of  the  obsolete  learning 
of  the  law.  In  all  deeds  of  land,  or  of  any  in- 
terest in  land,  corporeal  or  incorporeal,  it  is 
customary  to  say  "  give  and  grant."  In  several 
of  the  United  States  the  peculiar  meaning  and 
force  of  the  word  may  be  regarded  as  abrogated 
by  statute ;  for  all  deeds  of  bargain  and  sale,  of 
lease  and  release,  and  all  conveyances  of  the 
freehold,  are  declared  to  be  grants.  The  same 
broad  construction  is  given  to  the  word  by  the 
practice  of  conveyancers  and  of  courts  in  other 
states,  and  it  would  probably  be  found  to  pre- 
vail generally  for  all  practical  purposes. 

GRANT,  the  name  of  11  counties  in  the  United 
States.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
bordering  N.  W.  on  Maryland,  crossed  by  the 
Alleghany  mountains,  and  watered  by  the  N. 
and  S.  branches  of  the  Potomac  ;  area,  500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 4,467,  of  whom  331  were  col- 
ored. The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile.  Iron 
ore  is  found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  31,631  bushels  of  wheat,  52,350  of  Indian 
corn,  10,593  of  oats,  67,587  Ibs.  of  butter,  20,- 
689  of  wool,  and  4,787  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,435  horses,  1,739  milch  cows,  4,730 
other  cattle,  7,551  sheep,  and  3,116  swine. 
Capital,  Grant  Court  House.  II.  A  N.  central 
parish  of  Louisiana,  bounded  E.  by  Little  river 
and  S.  W.  by  Red  river ;  area,  about  500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,517,  of  whom  2,414  were 
colored.  It  is  well  watered.  The  surface  is 
level,  and  the  soil  productive.  Pine  timber 
abounds.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
58,786  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,948  of  sweet 
potatoes,  2,119  of  peas  and  beans,  and  4,377 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  651  horses, 
1,097  milch  cows,  1,771  other  cattle,  and  4,791 


GRANT 


155 


nne.     Capital,    Colfax.      III.  A  S.   central 
)unty  of  Arkansas,  watered  by  the  Saline 
iver ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870, 
,943,  of  whom  339  were  colored.     The  sur- 
je  is  generally  level,  and  the  soil  fertile.     The 
lief  productions  in  1870  were  105,664  bushels 
Indian  corn,  22,147  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
,145  bales  of  cotton.     There  were  748  horses, 
,367  milch   cows,  3,303   other  cattle,   2,022 
leep,  and  8,770  swine.     Capital,  Sheridan. 
V.  A  N.   county  of  Kentucky,   drained  by 
jle  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Kentucky ;  area, 
rat  200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,529,  of  whom 
were  colored.     It  occupies  a  part  of  the  Dry 
lidge,  which  separates  the  waters  of  the  Lick- 
from  those  of  the  Kentucky.     The  Louis- 
le  and  Cincinnati  short  line  railroad  passes 
the  N.  border.    The  surface  is  undulating 
id  well  timbered,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.     The 
lief  productions  in  1870  were  41,974  bushels 
wheat,  20,384  of  rye,  611,568  of  Indian 
i,  31,059  of  oats,  17,668  of  potatoes,  137,- 
Ibs.   of  butter,  164,295   of  tobacco,  and 
,541  tons  of  hay.    There  were  3,790  horses, 
J64  milch  cows,  3,960   other  cattle,  7,233 
ep,  and  19,563  swine;  4  flour  mills,  5  saw 
Is,  and  2  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing 
iblishments.    Capital,  Williamstown.    V.  A 
itral  county  of  Indiana,  drained  by  Missis- 
lewa  river ;  area,  420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1.8,487.     It  is  intersected  by  the  Pittsburgh, 
mati,  and  St.  Louis  railroad.     It  has  a 
jvel  surface  and  an  excellent  soil,  adapted  to 
in,  grass,  and  fruit.     The  chief  productions 
1870  were  374,574  bushels  of  wheat,  540,- 
53  of  Indian  corn,  68,349  of  oats,  41,657  of 
rtatoes,  375,244  Ibs.  of  butter,  84,824  of  wool, 
,068  bushels  of  flax  seed,  and  9,448  tons  of 
ly.    There  were   6,942  horses,  5,052  milch 
>ws,  6,636  other  cattle,  25,290  sheep,  and  27,- 
swine.     The  principal  manufactories  were 
of  carriages,  2  of  clothing,  2  of  woollen 
flour,  3  planing,  and  32   saw  mills, 
ipital,  Marion.     VI.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Wis- 
sin,  separated  from  Iowa  on  the  W.  and  S. 
L  by  the  Mississippi  river,  bounded  N.  and 
r.  W.  by  the  Wisconsin  and  S.  by  Illinois ;  area, 
1.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  37,979.     The  sur- 
is  diversified  by  valleys,  ridges,  prairies, 
id  woodlands;  the  soil,  watered  by  Platte, 
int,  Blue,  and  other  rivers,  is  fertile.     Lead 
id  zinc  are  abundant,  and  the  former  metal 
found  throughout  the  S.  part  of  the  county, 
rb.ich  is  said  to  produce  more  than  6,000,000 
a  year.     There  were  5  mines  in  operation 
1870.     The  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  (Prai- 
du  Chien  division)  railroad  crosses  the  N. 
,  and  the  Mineral  Point  railroad  terminates 
Platteville  in  this  county.     The  chief  pro- 
luctions  in  1870  were  914,455  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,744,398  of  Indian   corn,   1,433,020  of  oats, 
44,316   of   barley,    288,017  of   potatoes,    17,- 
971  of  flax  seed,  861,028  Ibs.  of  butter,  75,821 
of  wool,  44,585  of  hops,  and  39,244  tons  of 
hay.     There  were  13,901  horses,  13,312  milch 
cows,  23,301  other  cattle,  24,936  sheep,  and 


51,254  swine ;  18  manufactories  of  carriages, 
9  of  barrels  and  casks,  3  of  bricks,  1  of  gun- 
powder, 6  of  pig  lead,  9  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  5  of  woollen  goods,  5  saw  mills,  4 
breweries,  and  13  flour  mills.  Capital,  Lan- 
caster. VII.  A  central  W.  county  of  Minneso- 
ta; area,  about  625  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  340. 
There  are  a  number  of  small  lakes  and  streams. 
The  surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad  crosses  the  S.  W. 
part.  Capital,  Grant  Court  House.  VIII.  A 
S.  W.  county  of  Nebraska,  bordering  on  Kan- 
sas, and  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Platte 
river;  area,  about  3,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
484.  Since  then  it  has  been  absorbed  by 
other  counties.  IX.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Oregon, 
bordering  on  Nevada ;  area,  21,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,251,  of  whom  940  were  Chi- 
nese. The  N.  W.  portion  is  watered  by  John 
Day's  river,  a  branch  of  the  Columbia,  the  E. 
part  by  Malheur  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Snake, 
and  in  the  south  are  a  number  of  lakes.  The 
Blue  mountains  cross  the  N.  part.  Along 
the  streams  is  some  fertile  land,  the  grazing 
lands  are  more  extensive,  and  forests  are  com- 
mon, but  much  of  the  county  consists  of  barren 
sage  plains  and  rocky  hills.  Gold  was  dis- 
covered in  this  county  in  1861,  since  which 
time  it  is  estimated  that  $10,000,000  have  been 
produced.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
17,459  bushels  of  wheat,  23,426  of  oats,  22,172 
of  barley,  13,225  of  potatoes,  and  1,193  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  507  horses,  1,384  milch 
cows,  2,112  other  cattle,  1,154  sheep,  and  1,248 
swine.  Capital,  Canyon  City.  X.  An  E.  coun- 
ty of  Dakota  territory,  bordering  on  Minne- 
sota, recently  formed,  and  not  included  in  the 
census  of  1870 ;  area,  about  700  sq.  m«  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  Big  Stone  laie,  and 
is  drained  by  affluents  of  the  Minnesota  river. 
XI.  The  S.  W.  county  of  New  Mexico,  bounded 
S.  by  Mexico  and  W.  by  Arizona ;  area,  about 
10,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,143.  The  Gila 
river  and  its  tributaries  drain  the  N.  and  W. 
portions,  while  the  Rio  de  los  Mimbres  flows 
through  the  E.  part.  The  Sierra  Madre  range 
occupies  a  portion  of  the  county.  The  soil  in 
parts  is  fertile.  Copper  and  gold  are  found, 
and  there  are  three  quartz  mills  and  a  saw 
mill.  Capital,  Pinos  Altos. 

GRANT,  Anne,  better  known  as  Mrs.  Grant 
of  Laggan,  a  Scottish  authoress,  born  in  Glas- 
gow, Feb.  21,  1755,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Nov. 
7,  1838.  Her  father,  Duncan  McVicar,  an 
officer  in  the  British  army,  was  ordered  to 
America  while  she  was  a  child.  He  received 
a  grant  of  land  in  Vermont,  and  added  to  it 
by  purchase.  Ill  health  obliged  him  to  return 
to  Scotland  in  1768,  and  his  lands  were  confis- 
cated on  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolutionary 
war.  In  1779  Anne  married  the  Rev.  James 
Grant  of  Laggan,  Inverness-shire,  and  had  a 
large  number  of  children.  On  his  death  in 
1801  she  was  left  in  straitened  circumstances, 
and  in  1803  published  a  volume  of  poetry, 
which  met  with  immediate  favor.  She  next 


156 


GRANT 


published  "Letters  from  the  Mountains"  (3 
vols.,  London,  1806-7),  which  contains  descrip- 
tions of  highland  scenery,  character,  and  le- 
gends. Her  "  Memoirs  of  an  American  Lady  " 
(2  vols.,  1808)  gives  a  pleasant  picture  of  her 
own  childhood  and  of  colonial  life  in  America. 
Other  works  are,  "Essays  on  the  Superstitions 
of  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland"  (2  vols., 
1811),  and  "Eighteen  Hundred  and  Thirteen,  a 
Poem  "  (1814).  After  1810  she  resided  in  Ed- 
inburgh, and  toward  the  close  of  her  life  she 
received  a  pension  of  £100.  In  1844  appear- 
ed the  "  Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Mrs. 
Grant  of  Laggan  "  (3  vols.),  the  memoir  being 
an  autobiography,  continued  by  her  son,  John 
Peter  Grant,  who  died  in  Edinburgh  in  1871. 

GRANT,  Sir  Francis,  a  Scottish  artist,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1803.  His  precocious  talent  for 
painting  was  encouraged  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  his  earliest  work  was  exhibited  in  1834. 
In  1837  he  executed  for  the  earl  of  Chester- 
field "The  Meet  of  his  Majesty's  Staghounds," 
with  more  than  40  portraits  of  noted  sports- 
men. Subsequently  he  produced  "  Melton 
Hunt,"  which  was  purchased  by  the  duke  of 
Wellington.  Afterward  he  became  distinguish- 
ed as  a  portrait  painter,  and  executed  nume- 
rous pictures  of  beautiful  women  and  celebra- 
ted men.  In  1866  he  succeeded  Eastlake  as 
president  of  the  royal  academy. 

GRANT,  James,  a  British  journalist,  born  in 
Elgin,  Scotland,  in  1806.  He  started  the  "  Elgin 
Courier"  in  1827,  and  removed  to  London  in 
1834,  where  he  soon  formed  a  connection  with 
the  "  Morning  Advertiser,"  and  became  its 
editor  in  1850.  He  has  published  "  Random 
Recollections  of  the  House  of  Commons  "  (Lon- 
don, 1836),  "The  Bench  and  the  Bar"  (2  vols., 
1837),  "The  Metropolitan  Pulpit"  (2  vols., 
1839),  "Travels  in  London,"  "Portraits  of 
Public  Characters,"  and  "Paris  and  its  Peo- 
ple." His  "  God  is  Love  "  and  "  Our  Heaven- 
ly Home  "  have  passed  through  many  editions. 
In  1871  he  published  in  two  volumes  "The 
Newspaper  Press,  its  Origin,  Progress,  and 
Present  Position." 

GRANT,  James,  a  Scottish  novelist,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  1,  1822.  His  father  was  an 
officer  in  the  British  army,  and  his  own  educa- 
tion was  mostly  received  in  barracks  in  Brit- 
ish North  America.  After  serving  for  a  short 
time  in  the  62d  regiment  as  ensign,  he  resigned 
his  fMinmission  in  1840,  and  devoted  himself 
to  litiT.-itnrv.  He  has  been  a  voluminous  wri- 
ter of  military  and  historical  romances,  some 
of  which  have  had  a  very  extensive  circulation 
in  a  cheap  form.  His  chief  publications  are : 
'Hi--  Romance  of  War"  (4  vols.,  1846-7); 
"Adventures  of  an  Aide-de-Camp "  (1848)- 
"Memoirs  of  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange"  (1849); 
•r  Fenton,  or  the  Scottish  Cavalier" 
(1850);  "Bothwell,  or  the  Days  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  "  (1851) ;  "Jane  Seton  "  (1853) ; 
"Harry  Ogilvie "  (1856);  "Dick  Rodney" 
(1862);  "Second  to  None"  (1864);  "The 
White  Cockade "(1867);  and  "Under  the  Red 


Dragon  "  (1872).  Most  of  his  works  have  been 
reprinted  in  the  United  States;  some  have 
been  translated  into  French,  and  all  into  Da- 
nish and  German.  Mr.  Grant  is  a  frequent 
contributor  to  periodicals. 

GRANT,  James  Augustus,  a  British  traveller, 
born  in  Nairn,  Scotland,  in  1827.  He  was 
educated  at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen.  In 
1845  he  received  an  appointment  in  the  Indian 
army,  took  part  in  both  sieges  of  Mooltan  and 
in  the  battle  of  Guzerat,  and  was  with  Have- 
lock  at  Lucknow.  In  1861  he  accompanied 
Capt.  Speke  on  his  second  expedition  to  the 
lake  region  of  central  Africa.  After  traver- 
sing a  district  never  before  visited  by  white 
men,  they  reached  Gondokoro  in  March,  1863, 
whence  they  soon  after  returned  to  England. 
Capt.  Grant  furnished  the  designs  of  the  maps 
and  engravings  in  Speke's  "  Journal  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Source  of  the  Nile,"  and  in  1864 
published  "  A  Walk  across  Africa,  or  Domestic 
Scenes  from  my  Nile  Journal."  In  1866  he 
was  made  a  commander  of  the  bath.  In  1868 
he  accompanied  Lord  Napier  in  the  Abyssinian 
expedition  as  head  of  the  intelligence  depart- 
ment, and  was  nominated  a  commander  of  the 
order  of  the  star  of  India  for  his  services.  He 
is  now  (1874)  a  major  in  the  Bengal  army. 

GRANT,  Sir  James  Hope,  a  British  soldier,  bro- 
ther of  Sir  Francis  Grant,  born  at  Kilgraston, 
Perthshire,  July  22, 1808.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1826,  and  was  brigade  major  under  Lord  Sal- 
toun  in  the  first  English  war  against  China.  He 
served  through  the  campaign  in  the  Punjaub 
in  1848-'9,  continued  in  the  Indian  service, 
and  was  made  brevet  colonel  in  1854,  and 
major  general  and  knight  commander  of  the 
bath  in  1858.  The  last  distinction  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  especially  in  recognition  of 
distinguished  service  at  the  siege  of  Delhi,  the 
relief  of  Lucknow,  and  the  operations  at  Cawn- 
pore.  He  was  put  in  command  of  the  British 
forces  in  China  in  1859,  and  conducted  the 
campaign  there  to  its  successful  termination  in 
the  capture  of  Peking  in  1860.  For  this  he 
was  formally  thanked  by  parliament,  and  made 
a  knight  grand  cross  of  the  bath.  In  1861  he 
was  made  lieutenant  general  and  commander- 
in-chief  at  Madras,  in  1867  quartermaster  gen- 
eral at  headquarters,  and  in  1871  commander 
of  the  division  at  Aldershott.  In  January, 
1874,  a  compilation  from  his  private  journals 
during  his  Indian  campaigns  was  published  in 
London,  under  the  title  of  "  Incidents  in  the 
Sepoy  War,  1857-'8." 

GRANT,  Ulysses  S.,  eighteenth  president  of 
the  United  States,  born  at  Point  Pleasant,  0., 
April  27,  1822.  His  ancestors  were  Scotch. 
In  1823  his  parents  removed  to  the  village  of 
Georgetown,  O.,  where  his  boyhood  was  passed. 
He  entered  West  Point  military  academy  in 
1839,  appointed  by  the  Hon.  Thomas  L.  Hamer, 
member  of  congress.  His  name  originally  was 
Hiram  Ulysses  ;  but  the  appointment  was  blun- 
deringly made  out  for  Ulysses  S.,  and  so  it  had 
to  remain.  The  study  in  which  he  showed 


GRANT 


157 


lost  proficiency  during  his  course  at  the  acad- 
emy was  mathematics.  He  graduated  in  1843, 
ranking  21st  in  a  class  of  39,  and  was  made  a 
brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infantry  and  at- 
tached as  a  supernumerary  lieutenant  to  the  4th 
regiment,  which  was  stationed  on  the  Missouri 
frontier.  In  the  summer  of  1845  the  regiment 
was  ordered  to  Texas,  to  join  the  army  of 
Gen.  Taylor.  On  Sept.  30  Grant  was  commis- 
sioned as  a  full  lieutenant.  He  first  saw  blood 
shed  at  Palo  Alto,  May  8,  1846,  and  took  part 
also  in  the  battles  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and 
Monterey,  and  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  In 
April,  1847,  he  was  made  quartermaster  of  his 
regiment,  but  still  participated  in  all  active 
operations ;  and  after  the  battle  of  Molino  del 
Rey,  Sept.  8,  1847,  he  was  appointed  on  the 
field  a  first  lieutenant  for  his  gallantry.  In  his 
report  of  the  battle  of  Ohapultepec  (Sept.  13, 
1847)  Col.  Garland,  commanding  the  first  bri- 
gade, said  :  "  The  rear  of  the  enemy  had  made 
a  stand  behind  a  breastwork,  from  which  they 
were  driven  by  detachments  of  the  2d  artillery 
under  Capt.  Brooks  and  the  4th  infantry  under 
Lieut.  Grant,  supported  by  other  regiments  of 
the  division,  after  a  short  but  sharp  conflict." 
"I  must  not  omit  to  call  attention  to  Lieut. 
Grant,  4th  infantry,  who  acquitted  himself  most 
nobly,  upon  several  occasions,  under  my  own 
observation."  Grant  was  brevetted  captain  for 
his  conduct  at  Chapultepec,  to  date  from  the 
battle.  After  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico 
he  returned  with  his  regiment,  and  was  sta- 
tioned first  at  Detroit,  and  then  at  Sackett's 
Harbor.  In  1848  he  married  Miss  Julia  T.  Dent 
of  St.  Louis,  sister  of  one  of  his  classmates.  In 
1852  he  accompanied  his  regiment  to  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon,  and  while  at  Fort  Vancouver, 
Aug.  5,  1853,  was  commissioned  full  captain. 
On  July  31,  1854,  he  resigned,  and  removed  to 
St.  Louis,  cultivating  a  farm  near  that  city  and 
engaging  in  business  as  a  real  estate  agent. 
In  1859  he  was  employed  by  his  father  in  the 
leather  trade  at  Galena,  111. — When  the  civil 
war  broke  out,  he  was  chosen  to  command  a 
company  of  volunteers,  with  which  he  marched 
to  Springfield.  There  he  was  retained  as  an 
aid  to  Gov.  Yates,  and  acted  as  mustering  officer 
of  Illinois  volunteers  until  he  became  colonel 
of  the  21st  regiment,  his  commission  dating 
from  June  17,  1861.  He  joined  his  regiment 
at  Mattoon,  organized  and  drilled  it  at  Casey  - 
yille,  and  then  crossed  into  Missouri,  where 
it  formed  part  of  the  guard  of  the  Hannibal 
and  Hudson  railroad.  On  July  31  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  troops  at  Mexico, 
forming  a  part  of  Gen.  Pope's  force.  On  Aug. 

3  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier  general  of 
volunteers,  the  commission  being  dated  back 
to  May  17,  and  assumed  command  of  the  troops 
at  Cairo,  which  were  soon  increased  by  the 
addition  of  Gen.  McClernand's  brigade.  He 
seized  Paducah,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee, 
on  Sept.  6,  and  Smithland,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cumberland,  on  the  25th.  In  a  proclamation 
to  the  citizens  of  Paducah  he  said  :  "  I  have 


nothing  to  do  with  opinions,  and  shall  deal 
only  with  armed  rebellion  and  its  aiders  and 
abettors."  On  Oct.  16  he  sent  out  a  detach- 
ment under  Col.  Plummer  to  check  the  advance 
of  the  confederate  forces  under  Gen.  Jeff 
Thompson,  which  was  accomplished  by  a  bat- 
tle at  Fredericktown,  Mo.,  on  the  21st.  On 
Nov.  7,  with  two  brigades,  Grant  fought  the 
battle  of  Belmont,  where  he  commanded  in 
person  and  had  a  horse  shot  under  him.  Gen. 
Halleck,  on  assuming  command  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri,  gave  Gen.  Grant  the  com- 
mand of  the  district  of  Cairo  (Dec.  21),  which 
was  so  extended  as  to  form  one  of  the  largest 
military  divisions  in  the  country,  including  the 
southern  part  of  Illinois,  that  portion  of  Ken- 
tucky west  of  the  Cumberland  river,  and  the 
southern  counties  of  Missouri.  After  a  re- 
connoissance  in  force  toward  Columbus  in  Jan- 
uary, 1862,  Grant  started  on  Feb.  3  from  Pa- 
ducah, with  a  force  of  15,000  men,  aided  by 
Commodore  Foote  with  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  for 
the  capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  the 
former  of  which  commanded  the  Tennessee 
river,  and  the  latter  the  Cumberland,  near  the 
dividing  line  between  Kentucky  and  Tennes- 
see. Fort  Henry,  commanded  by  the  confeder- 
ate Gen.  Tilghman,  surrendered  on  Feb.  6,  and 
Fort  Donelson,  commanded  by  Gen.  Buckner, 
on  the  16th.  The  reduction  of  Fort  Henry 
was  mainly  the  work  of  the  gunboats ;  Fort 
Donelson  was  only  captured  after  a  severe 
battle  (Feb.  15),  in  which  the  federal  forces, 
which  had  been  increased  to  30,000  or  more, 
sustained  a  loss  of  2,300.  In  answer  to  Buck- 
ner's  proposal  that  commissioners  be  appoint- 
ed to  arrange  the  terms  of  capitulation,  Grant 
wrote  :  "  No  terms  other  than  an  uncondition- 
al and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted. 
I  propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your 
works."  The  capture  of  Fort  Donelson  with 
all  its  defenders  except  Gen.  Floyd's  brigade 
was  the  first  brilliant  and  substantial  victory 
that  had  crowned  the  federal  arms.  To  the 
gratification  at  so  great  a  military  success  was 
added  a  popular  admiration  of  the  terse  and 
soldierly  declaration  in  which  the  surrender 
had  been  demanded  ;  and  the  hero  of  the  affair 
sprang  at  once  into  national  celebrity.  He  was 
immediately  commissioned  major  general  of  vol- 
unteers, to  date  from  Feb.  16.  Gen.  C.  F.  Smith 
had  been  directed  by  Gen.  Halleck  to  make 
an  expedition  up  the  Tennessee  with  about 
40,000  men ;  but  he  died  soon  after  it  started, 
and  the  command  devolved  upon  Gen.  Grant. 
A  large  portion  of  the  force,  after  lying  three 
weeks  at  Pittsburgh  Landing,  in  preparation 
for  an  attack  on  Corinth,  was  surprised  at  day- 
break of  April  6  by  an  overwhelming  confed- 
erate force  under  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston,  driven 
from  its  camp,  and  routed  with  heavy  loss. 
Gen.  Grant  arrived  on  the  field  of  battle  at 
8  A.  M.,  and  reformed  the  lines.  Heavy  re- 
enforcements,  under  Gen.  Buell,  having  ar- 
rived in  the  night,  the  battle  was  renewed  on 
the  7th,  and  the  enemy,  defeated,  withdrew 


158 


GRANT 


to  Corinth.  The  loss  on  each  side  was  about 
12,000.  Gen.  Grant  was  slightly  wounded. 
Gen.  Halleck,  arriving  at  the  front  two  or 
three  days  afterward,  began  siege  operations 
against  Corinth  ;  but  the  confederates  evacua- 
ted the  place  on  the  last  days  of  May.  Hal- 
leck  was  called  to  Washington  on  July  11,  and 
Grant  became  commander  of  the  department 
of  West  Tennessee,  with  headquarters  at  Cor- 
inth. The  most  serious  problem  that  demand- 
ed his  immediate  attention  was  the  disposal  of 
guerillas,  spies,  and  traders,  who  were  crossing 
the  lines  on  all'  sorts  of  pretexts,  carrying  in- 
formation and  stores  to  the  enemy.  He  issued 
several  severe  orders  against  them,  took  pos- 
session of  all  unoccupied  buildings  in  Memphis 
and  rented  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  United 
States  government,  and  gave  the  Memphis 
"Avalanche"  the  alternative  of  suspending 
publication  or  dismissing  an  editor  who  had 
written  an  "  incendiary  and  treasonable  "  ar- 
ticle. On  Sept.  17  Grant  ordered  an  advance 
from  Corinth,  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  con- 
federate Gen.  Price,  who  had  a  large  force 
concentrated  at  luka.  A  battle  was  fought  at 
this  place,  Sept.  19,  and  a  complete  victory 
gained.  As  Gen.  Bragg's  force  was  pushing 
toward  the  Ohio  river,  Grant  now  removed  his 
headquarters  to  Jackson,  Tenn.  The  confed- 
erates under  Price  and  Van  Dorn,  40,000  strong, 
attacked  his  position  at  Corinth,  which  was 
heW  by  Rosecrans  with  about  20,000  (Oct.  3 
and  4).  After  a  desperate  fight,  the  assailants 
were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  and  pursued 
beyond  the  Hatchie  river.  Buell  moved  out 
to  intercept  Bragg,  and  defeated  him  at  Perry- 
ville,  Oct.  8,  whereupon  he  retreated  to  East 
Tennessee.  On  the  16th  Gen.  Grant's  depart- 
ment was  extended  by  the  addition  of  a  por- 
tion of  Mississippi,  as  far  as  Vicksburg,  and 
designated  as  the  department  of  the  Tennessee ; 
the  forces  under  his  command  were  constituted 
the  13th  army  corps.  The  most  stringent  mea- 
sures were  taken  to  prevent  plundering  and 
illegal  trading,  as  necessary  to  military  disci- 
pline under  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  an 
army  so  placed  in  a  mingled  community  of 
friends  and  foes.  After  unsuccessful  move- 
ments against  Vicksburg,  "  the  Gibraltar  of  the 
Mississippi,"  from  the  north,  and  the  loss  of  an 
immense  quantity  of  stores  which  the  confed- 
erates (Dec.  20)  seized  and  destroyed  at  Holly 
Springs,  Grant  moved  his  army  down  the  west 
bank  of  the  river,  crossed  to  the  east  side  at  a 
point  below  the  city  on  the  last  day  of  April, 
1863,  defeated  the  enemy  in  the  actions  of 
Raymond,  Jackson,  Champion's  Hill,  and  Big 
mark,  preventing  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  from 
joining  Pemberton  at  Vicksburg,  and  laid 
siege  to  that  place,  May  18.  The  city  was  sur- 
rendered, with  about  27,000  prisoners,  on  July 
4,  1868.  Thereupon  Grant  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  major  general  in  the  regular  array. 
In  October  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  compri- 
sing the  departments  commanded  by  Sherman, 


Thomas,  Burnside,  and  Hooker.  Immediately 
after  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  he  had  sent 
heavy  reenforcements  to  Gen.  Sherman  on 
the  Big  Black  river,  who  was  thereby  enabled 
to  drive  the  confederate  force  under  Johnston 
out  of  Jackson.  Grant  concentrated  his  forces 
for  the  defence  of  Chattanooga,  which  was 
threatened  by  Bragg,  and  the  latter's  positions 
on  Missionary  ridge  and  Lookout  mountain 
were  carried  by  assault  on  Nov.  24  and  25. 
Bragg's  forces  retreated  to  Dalton,  Ga.,  being 
followed  as  far  as  Ringgold.  The  pursuing 
columns  were  then  sent  to  the  relief  of  Knox- 
ville,  which,  held  by  Burnside,  was  closely  in- 
vested by  Longstreet.  Gen.  Halleck,  in  his 
annual  report,  said :  "  Considering  the  strength 
of  the  rebel  position  and  the  difficulty  of  storm- 
ing his  intrenchments,  the  battle  of  Chatta- 
nooga must  be  considered  the  most  remarkable 
in  history.  Not  only  did  the  officers  and  men 
exhibit  great  skill  and  daring  in  their  operations 
on  the  field,  but  the  highest  praise  is  due  to 
the  commanding  general  for  his  admirable  dis- 
positions for  dislodging  the  enemy  from  a  po- 
sition apparently  impregnable.  Moreover,  by 
turning  his  right  flank  and  throwing  him  back 
upon  Ringgold  and  Dalton,  Sherman's  forces 
were  interposed  between  Bragg  and  Long- 
street,  so  as  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  their 
forming  a  junction."  The  first  measure  passed 
in  the  congressional  session  of  1863-'4  was 
a  resolution  providing  that  a  gold  medal  be 
struck  for  Gen.  Grant,  and  returning  thanks 
to  him  and  his  army.  Resolutions  of  thanks 
were  also  passed  by  the  legislatures  of  New 
York  and  Ohio.  A  bill  reviving  the  grade  of 
lieutenant  general  in  the  army  was  passed  by 
congress,  and  on  March  1,  1864,  received  the 
signature  of  President  Lincoln,  who  at  once 
nominated  Gen.  Grant  for  the  position.  The 
senate  confirmed  the  nomination  on  the  follow- 
ing day.  On  the  eve  of  starting  for  Washing- 
ton to  receive  the  commission,  Grant  wrote 
a  letter  to  Gen.  Sherman,  in  which  he  said: 
"  Whilst  I  have  been  eminently  successful  in 
this  war,  in  at  least  gaining  the  confidence  of 
the  public,  no  one  feels  more  than  I  how  much 
of  this  success  is  due  to  the  energy,  skill,  and 
the  harmonious  putting  forth  of  that  energy 
and  skill,  of  those  whom  it  has  been  my  good 
fortune  to  have  occupying  subordinate  posi- 
tions under  me.  There  are  many  officers  to 
whom  these  remarks  are  applicable  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  proportionate  to  their  ability  as 
soldiers;  but  what  I  want  is,  to  express  my 
thanks  to  you  and  McPherson,  as  the  men  to 
whom,  above  all  others,  I  feel  indebted  for 
whatever  I  have  had  of  success."  Grant  ar- 
rived in  Washington  on  March  9,  received  his 
commission  at  the  hands  of  the  president,  and 
on  the  17th  issued  his  first  general  order,  dated 
at  Nashville,  assuming  command  of  the  armies 
of  the  United  States,  and  announcing  that 
headquarters  would  be  in  the  field,  and  until 
further  orders  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac. 
Not  before  during  the  civil  war  had  any  one 


GRANT 


159 


leral  in  the  field  commanded  all  the  national 
armies.  Grant,  with  nearly  700,000  men  in 
the  field,  at  once  planned  two  campaigns,  to  be 
directed  simultaneously  against  vital  points  of 
the  confederacy  by  the  two  chief  armies  under 
his  command  :  the  one,  under  Gen.  Meade,  to 
operate  against  Richmond,  defended  by  Lee; 
the  other,  under  Gen.  Sherman,  against  At- 
lanta, defended  by  Johnston.  At  midnight 
on  May  3  Grant  began  the  movement  against 
Richmond,  crossing  the  Rapidan  with  the 
army  of  the  Potomac,  which  was  joined  two 
days  later  by  the  9th  corps  under  Burnside, 
and,  with  an  aggregate  force  of  140,000  men, 
pushing  through  the  Wilderness  by  the  right 
of  Lee's  position,  in  the  endeavor  to  place  him- 
self between  the  confederate  army  and  the 
confederate  capital.  Lee  was  apprised  of  the 
movement  on  the  morning  of  the  4th,  and 
boldly  took  the  offensive,  pushing  eastward  to 
strike  the  federal  columns  on  the  march.  The 
immediate  result  was  the  bloody  battle  of  the 
Wilderness,  which  foiled  Grant's  first  attempt 
to  interpose  his  army  between  Lee's  and  Rich- 
mond. Making  another  advance  by  the  left 
flank,  he  was  again  confronted  by  Lee  at 
Spottsylvania ;  and  after  partial  success  and 
a  bloody  repulse,  he  repeated  the  movement 
again,  only  to  find  Lee  in  a  strong  position  on 
the  North  Anna  river ;  and  still  a  fourth  ad- 
vance brought  the  army  of  the  Potomac  before 
the  absolutely  impregnable  rifle  pits  of  Cold 
Harbor.  After  a  costly  assault  on  these,  Grant 
once  more  moved  his  army  by  the  left  flank 
and  crossed  the  James.  The  day  after  the 
success  of  Spottsylvania  he  had  sent  a  des- 
patch to  the  government,  which  closed  with 
these  words :  "I  propose  to  fight  it  out  on 
this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer."  His  losses 
in  the  campaign  from  the  Rapidan  to  the 
James  (May  3  to  June  15)  were  54,551,  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing.  Lee's  losses  were 
about  32,000.  Sherman  opened  his  campaign 
toward  Atlanta  as  soon  as  Grant  telegraphed 
to  him  that  the  army  of  the  Potomac  had 
crossed  the  Rapidan.  At  the  same  time  Grant 
had  directed  Sigel  to  advance  from  Winchester 
up  the  Shenandoah  toward  Staunton,  and  Crook 
to  advance  from  Charleston  up  the  Kanawha 
toward  Lynchburg.  But  Sigel  was  defeated 
at  Newmarket  by  Breckinridge,  and  Crook, 
after  considerable  fighting,  was  compelled  to 
retreat.  Meanwhile  Gen.  Butler,  with  the 
army  of  the  James,  had  been  directed  to  cap- 
ture and  hold  Petersburg,  and  if  possible  to  in- 
vest Richmond  closely  from  the  south  side,  but 
had  totally  failed  to  do  so.  All  these  flanking 
movements  being  foiled,  and  Lee  being  neither 
defeated  in  the  open  field  nor  cut  off  from  Rich- 
mond, the  great  problem  of  the  war  instantly 
narrowed  itself  down  to  a  siege  of  Petersburg, 
which  Grant  now  began.  Lee's  attempt  to 
create  a  diversion  by  an  invasion  of  Maryland 
and  an  attack  on  Washington  failed,  Sheridan 
ultimately  driving  back  the  invaders  up  the 
valley  of  the  Shenandoah ;  while,  in  Georgia, 
371  VOL.  viii.— 11 


Johnston  was  unable  to  check  the  advance  of 
Sherman,  and  his  successor  in  command,  Hood, 
was  forced  to  evacuate  Atlanta,  and  lost  his 
army  before  Nashville.  The  siege  of  Peters- 
burg ended,  after  the  victory  at  Five  Forks,  in. 
the  beginning  of  April,  1865,  when  Richmond 
was  evacuated  and  Lee  retreated  westward  to- 
ward Danville,  followed  closely  by  Grant,  who 
finally  forced  the  surrender  of  his  remaining 
force,  which  took  place  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  April  9. — After  the  war  Grant  fixed 
his  headquarters  at  Washington ;  and  on  July 
25,  1866,  he  was  commissioned  general  of  the 
United  States  army,  the  rank  having  been  cre- 
ated for  him.  On  Aug.  12,  1867,  when  Pres- 
ident Johnson  suspended  Secretary  Stanton 
from  office,  Gen.  Grant  was  made  secretary  of 
war  ad  interim,  and  held  the  position  until 
Jan.  14, 1868,  when  he  returned  it  to  Mr.  Stan- 
ton,  whose  removal  the  senate  had  refused  to 
sanction.  The  president  wished  Grant  to  re- 
tain the  office  notwithstanding  the  action  of 
congress,  and  Grant,  in  a  letter  to  him  dated 
Feb.  3,  closing  a  somewhat  tangled  corre- 
spondence, said :  "I  can  but  regard  this  whole 
matter,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  as  an  at- 
tempt to  involve  me  in  the  resistance  of  law  for 
which  you  hesitated  to  assume  the  responsibili- 
ty in  orders,  and  thus  to  destroy  my  character 
before  the  country.  I  am,  in  a  measure,  con- 
firmed in  this  conclusion  by  your  recent  orders 
directing  me  to  disobey  orders  from  the  secre- 
tary of  war,  my  superior  and  your  subordinate, 
without  having  countermanded  his  authority  to 
issue  the  orders  I  am  to  disobey."  At  the  re- 
publican national  convention  held  in  Chicago 
May  21,  1868,  Gen.  Grant  on  the  first  ballot 
was  unanimously  nominated  for  president,  with 
Schuyler  Colfax  for  vice  president.  Their 
democratic  competitors  were  Horatio  Seymour 
and  Francis  P.  Blair.  Grant  and  Colfax  car- 
ried 26  states,  and  received  214  electoral  votes, 
against  80  for  Seymour  and  Blair.  Grant  was 
inaugurated  president  on  March  4,  1869,  and 
on  the  next  day  sent  in  to  the  senate  the  fol- 
lowing nominations  for  cabinet  officers  :  Elihu 
B.  Washburne  of  Illinois,  secretary  of  state ; 
Alexander  T.  Stewart  of  New  York,  secretary 
of  the  treasury ;  Jacob  D.  Cox  of  Ohio,  secre- 
tary of  the  interior ;  Adolph  E.  Borie  of  Penn- 
sylvania, secretary  of  the  navy ;  John  M.  Scho- 
field  of  Illinois,  secretary  of  war ;  John  A. 
J.  Creswell  of  Maryland,  postmaster  general ; 
E.  Rockwood  Hoar  of  Massachusetts,  attorney 
general.  These  nominations  were  at  once  con- 
firmed, but  it  was  discovered  that  Mr.  Stewart 
was  disqualified  by  an  act  of  1789,  which  pro- 
vided that  no  person  should  hold  the  office  of 
secretary  of  the  treasury  who  was  "  directly 
or  indirectly  concerned  or  interested  in  carry- 
ing on  the  business  of  trade  or  commerce." 
The  president,  in  a  brief  message,  thereupon 
suggested  to  congress  that  Mr.  Stewart  be  ex- 
empted by  joint  resolution  from  the  action  of 
the  law.  This  was  objected  to,  and  Mr.  Stew- 
art declined,  and  George  S.  Boutwell  of  Massa- 


160 


GRANT 


chusetts  was  appointed  in  his  stead.  Soon 
afterward  Mr.  Washburne  gave  up  the  office 
of  secretary  of  state,  being  appointed  minister 
to  France,  and  was  succeeded  by  Hamilton 
Fish  of  New  York ;  while  Secretary  Schofield 
retired  from  the  war  department,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  John  A.  Rawlins  of  Illinois,  who 
.Th.l  in  September,  when  the  vacancy  was 
tilled  by  the  appointment  of  William  W.  Bel- 
knap  of  Iowa.  Mr.  Borie  resigned  in  June,  and 
was  succeeded  by  George  M.  Robeson  of  New 
Jersey.  Mr.  Hoar  resigned  in  July,  1870,  and 
was  succeeded  by  A.  T.  Akerman  of  Georgia, 
who  resigned  in  December,  1871,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  George  H.  Williams  of  Oregon.  Mr. 
Cox  resigned  in  November,  1870,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Columbus  Delano  of  Ohio.  As 
President  Grant  was  in  political  harmony  with 
the  majority  in  congress,  the  reconstruction 
of  the  lately  rebellious  states,  which  had  been 
delayed  by  the  lack  of  such  harmony  during 
the  previous  administration,  now  went  on.  A 
proclamation  by  President  Grant,  dated  May 
19,  directed  that  there  should  be  no  reduction 
of  the  wages  paid  to  government  employees  in 
consequence  of  the  reduction  in  the  hours  of 
labor  which  congress  had  enacted.  In  1871 
President  Grant  urged  the  annexation  of  Santo 
Domingo  as  a  territory  of  the  United  States. 
A  treaty  to  effect  this,  and  also  one  by  which 
the  peninsula  and  bay  of  Samana  were  ceded 
to  the  United  States  for  50  years  at  an  annual 
rental  of  $150,000  in  gold,  had  been  signed 
Nov.  29,  1869,  on  behalf  of  President  Grant 
and  President  Baez.  Early  in  1870  these 
treaties  were  confirmed  by  a  popular  vote  in 
Santo  Domingo ;  but  it  was  believed  that  a  free 
election  had  not  been  held,  and  it  was  said 
that,  in  anticipation  of  annexation,  the  Domin- 
ican government  had  granted  to  private  indi- 
viduals every  valuable  franchise  or  piece  of 
property  in  its  possession.  In  conformity  with 
a  resolution  of  congress,  President  Grant  ap- 
pointed B.  F.  Wade  of  Ohio,  A.  D.  White  of 
New  York,  and  S.  G.  Howe  of  Massachusetts, 
as  commissioners  to  visit  Santo  Domingo,  ac- 
companied by  several  scientific  men,  and  re- 
port upon  the  condition  of  the  country,  the 
government,  and  the  people.  Their  report, 
submitted  in  April,  1871,  was  favorable  to  an- 
nexation; but  the  senate  withheld  its  appro- 
val of  the  treaties.  A  "joint  high  commission  " 
of  five  British  and  five  American  members 
met  at  Washington,  Feb.  27,  1871,  and  on 
May  8  signed  a  treaty  on  the  subject  of  the 
coast  fisheries,  river  navigation,  and  the  "Ala- 
bama claims."  The  last  named  question  was 
submitted  to  a  court  of  arbitration  to  meet 
at  ^Geneva,  Switzerland,  which  on  Sept.  14, 
1872,  awarded  the  gross  sum  of  $15,500,000, 
to  be  paid  by  the  British  government  to  the 
United  States  for  damages  to  American  com- 
merce by  confederate  cruisers  fitted  out  in 
British  ports.  The  act  to  enforce  the  provi-  I 
sions  of  the  14th  amendment  of  the  constitu- 
tion, popularly  known  as  the  Ku-Klux  bill,  I 


GRANVELLE 

was  followed  by  a  presidential  proclamation 
exhorting  obedience  to  it;  and  on  Oct.  17, 
1871,  the  president  suspended  the  privilege 
of  habeas  corpus  in  the  northern  counties  of 
South  Carolina.  Under  the  provisions  of  an 
act  of  congress  of  March  3,  1871,  President 
Grant  appointed  a  board  of  seven  commission- 
ers to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  civil 
service  and  devise  a  plan  for  rendering  it  more 
efficient.  The  chairman  of  the  board,  George 
William  Curtis,  resigned  in  March,  1873,  be- 
cause of  essential  differences  between  his  views 
and  the  president's  on  the  enforcement  of  the 
rules.  At  the  national  republican  convention 
held  in  Philadelphia,  June  5,  1872,  President 
Grant  was  renominated  by  acclamation,  and 
Henry  Wilson  of  Massachusetts  received  the 
nomination  for  vice  president;  while  Horace 
Greeley  and  B.  Gratz  Brown  were  the  candi- 
dates of  both  the  liberal  republicans  and  the 
democrats.  Grant  and  Wilson  received  286 
votes  in  the  electoral  college,  against  80  for 
other  candidates.  Grant's  popular  majority 
over  Greeley  was  762,991.  During  the  last 
session  of  the  42d  congress  the  salary  of  the 
president  was  doubled,  and  those  of  the  vice 
president,  speaker  of  the  house,  justices  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  heads  of  departments  in- 
creased 25  per  cent.  William  M.  Richardson 
of  Massachusetts  became  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury March  4,  1873,  and  was  succeeded  on 
June  2,  1874,  by  Benjamin  H.  Bristow  of  Ken- 
tucky. On  the  death  of  Chief  Justice  Chase 
in  1873,  the  president  nominated  successively 
George  H.  Williams,  Caleb  Gushing,  and  Mor- 
rison R.  Waite  of  Ohio ;  the  last  named  was 
confirmed.  On  April  22,  1874,  he  vetoed  a 
bill  to  increase  the  currency. — Accounts  of  the 
battles  fought  by  Gen.  Grant  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  titles.  See  "  Military 
History  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant,"  by  Adam  Badeau 
(vol.  i.,  New  York,  1868) ;  "  Life  of  Ulysses 
S.  Grant,"  by  0.  A.  Dana  and  J.  H.  Wilson 
(Springfield,  1868);  and  "Report  of  the  Oper- 
ations of  the  Union  Army  from  March,  1862,  to 
the  Close  of  the  Rebellion  "  (New  York,  1866). 
GRANVELLE,  intoine  Pemnot,  cardinal  de,  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Besancon,  Aug. 
20,  1517,  died  in  Madrid,  Sept.  21,  1586.  He 
was  the  son  of  Nicolas  Perrenot,  the  chancellor 
and  minister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  He 
was  educated  at  Dole,  Padua,  and  Louvain, 
and  mastered  seven  languages.  At  the  age 
of  23  he  was  appointed  canon  of  Liege  ca- 
thedral and  bishop  of  Arras.  At  the  council 
of  Trent,  in  1545,  he  defended  the  emperor's 
war  policy  against  France,  and  obtained  an 
appointment  as  councillor  of  state.  After  the 
battle  of  Miihlberg  (1547)  he  drew  up  the 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  emperor  and  the 
German  Protestants,  and  contrived  to  retain 
the  landgrave  of  Hesse  a  prisoner,  contrary  to 
the  promise  made  to  him.  In  1550  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  chancellor.  He  accompa- 
nied the  emperor  on  his  flight  from  Innsprnck 
in  1552,  and  displayed  great  ability  in  negotia- 


GRANVELLE 

g  the  treaty  of  Passau,  which  followed  it. 
The  first  service  of  importance  which  he  ren- 
dered Philip,  the  emperor's  son,  was  in  arrang- 
ing (1553)  his  marriage  with  Mary  of  England. 
On  the  accession  of  Philip  II.  in  1555,  Gran- 
velle  became  his  minister,  and  delivered  on  his 
behalf  an  eloquent  address  to  the  Flemish  peo- 
ple. While  Philip  remained  in  the  Netherlands 
he  was  guided  by  the  counsels  of  his  minister. 
The  regulations  in  reference  to  Protestantism, 
adopted  in  1550,  were  reenacted  in  1556.  The 
Spaniards  having  gained  the  victory  of  St. 
Quentin  over  the  French,  Granvelle  was  in- 
strumental in  negotiating  the  treaty  of  Ca- 
teau-Cambr6sis,  which  was  signed  in  1559. 
Soon  afterward  Philip  II.  returned  to  Spain, 
and  left  Margaret  of  Parma  regent  of  the  Neth- 
erlands ;  but  with  her  was  associated  a  council, 
advisory  power  in  doubtful  and  important  cases 
being  reserved  to  a  consulta  consisting  of  three 
members  of  the  council.  Granvelle  was  one 
of  this  select  body,  and  had  the  other  two  com- 
pletely under  his  control ;  and  it  was  soon 
obvious  that  he  wielded  all  the  power  of  Spain 
in  the  Netherlands.  His  administration  became 
odious,  and  his  appointment  was  considered  a 
violation  of  the  law,  because  he  was  a  foreigner. 
His  paramount  object  was  the  restoration  of 
the  supremacy  of  the  Catholic  church.  Spanish 
troops  were  retained  in  the  country ;  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  states  was  not  called  to- 
gether ;  and  13  new  bishoprics  were  created. 
In  1560  Granvelle  was  made  archbishop  of 
Mechlin,  and  primate.  But  what  incensed  the 
people  most  was  the  preparations  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Spanish  inquisition.  Granvelle 
alone  was  held  responsible  for  these  abuses, 
and  the  wrath  of  the  nobles  and  the  people  was 
concentrated  upon  him.  In  1561  he  was  crea- 
ted a  cardinal.  In  1563  William  of  Orange, 
Egmont,  and  Horn  united  in  a  formal  remon- 
strance to  the  king  against  his  proceedings,  but 
without  avail.  At  last  even  Margaret  of  Parma 
yielded  to  the  pressure  and  joined  in  the  request 
for  his  recall.  But  it  was  not  until  Granvelle 
himself  had  signified  his  acquiescence  that 
Philip  II.  commanded  him  "  to  leave  the  Low 
Countries  for  a  few  days,  and  go  to  Burgundy 
to  see  his  mother."  He  obeyed  the  command 
in  1564,  and  never  returned.  He  retired  to 
Besangon,  and  occupied  himself  with  litera- 
ture and  the  physical  sciences.  In  1565  he 
went  to  Rome  by  the  king's  order,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  election  of  Pope  Pius  V.  In 
1570  he  was  employed  to  negotiate  the  alliance 
between  Spain,  Rome,  and  Venice  against  the 
Turks.  He  next  became  viceroy  of  Naples,  and 
in  1575  was  recalled  to  Madrid,  where  Philip 
made  him  president  of  the  supreme  council  of 
Italy  and  Castile.  He  negotiated  the  terms  of 
union  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  when 
Philip  went  to  take  possession  of  his  new  king- 
dom, Granvelle  acted  as  regent  during  his  ab- 
sence. The  marriage  contract  between  the 
infanta  Catharine  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  was 
effected  by  his  management.  In  1584  he  re- 


GRANVILLE 


161 


signed  the  archbishopric  of  Mechlin,  to  accept 
the  less  opulent  see  of  Besancon.  He  was  a 
patron  of  letters,  enriched  the  college  of  Be- 
sancon, founded  by  his  father,  and  contributed 
largely  to  support  the  printing  establishment 
of  Plantin  at  Antwerp.  He  left  a  large  num- 
ber of  his  own  letters,  of  those  of  foreign  min- 
isters, of  Charles  V.,  and  of  Philip,  and  of  state 
papers  and  documents.  Eighty  years  after- 
ward they  were  assorted  by  the  abbe  Boissot, 
forming  a  collection  of  82  volumes.  A  selec- 
tion from  them  has  been  published  by  the 
French  government  (9  vols.  4to,  1841-'61). 

GKANYILLE,  a  N.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  Virginia,  intersected  by  Tar  river 
and  watered  by  the  Neuse  river ;  area,  about 
750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  24,831,  of  whom 
13,355  were  colored.  The  surface  is  slightly 
hilly,  and  the  soil  generally  good.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  110,209  bushels  of 
wheat,  306,113  of  Indian  corn,  115,593  of  oats, 
16,484  of  Irish  and  34,298  of  sweet  potatoes, 
129,595  Ibs.  of  butter,  2,134,228  of  tobacco,  and 
277  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,722  horses, 
4,073  milch  cows,  4,828  other  cattle,  881  sheep, 
and  18,986  swine ;  2  iron  founderies,  and  39 
manufactories  of  tobacco.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Raleigh  and  Gaston  and  the  Roa- 
noke  Valley  railroads.  Capital,  Oxford. 

GRANYILLE,  a  village  of  Licking  co.,  Ohio, 
pleasantly  situated  on  an  affluent  of  Licking 
river,  3  m.  from  the  Central  Ohio  division  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  and  25  m.  E. 
N.  E.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870,  1,109.  The 
town  is  neatly  built.  Denison  university  (Bap- 
tist) was  organized  in  1831,  and  in  1872  had 
10  professors  and  instructors,  191  students  (71 
collegiate),  and  a  library  of  11,000  volumes. 
The  scientific  department,  organized  in  1854, 
had  21  students.  The  Granville  female  col- 
lege had  8  instructors  and  111  students;  and 
the  young  ladies'  institute  (Baptist)  had  8  in- 
structors and  115  students. 

GRANVILLE,  a  seaport  town  of  Normandy, 
France,  in  the  department  of  La  Manche,  on 
the  English  channel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bosq, 
29  m.  S.  W.  of  St.  L6 ;  pop.  in  1866,  15,622. 
It  has  a  small  harbor  with  a  fine  granite  pier 
capable  of  mounting  cannon,  is  built  in  terraces 
formed  on  the  side  of  a  promontory,  is  sur- 
rounded with  walls,  and  has  a  fort  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  promontory.  The  town  has  a  school 
of  navigation,  and  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  oyster  fishery. 

GRANVILLE,  George,  Baron  Lansdowne,  an 
English  author  and  statesman,  born  in  1667, 
died  Jan.  30,  1735.  He  entered  Trinity  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  10,  and  three 
years  later  received  the  degree  of  M.  A.  About 
the  same  time  he  began  to  write  poetry,  and 
on  the  accession  of  James  II.  addressed  sev- 
eral pieces  of  verse  to  him.  During  the  reign 
of  William  and  Mary  he  lived  in  retirement 
and  wrote  several  plays,  one  of  which,  "  He- 
roic Love,"  is  highly  praised  in  a  passage  of 
Dryden.  His 


162 


GRANVILLE 


formed  40  times.  Becoming  by  the  death  of 
his  father  and  elder  brother  the  head  of  the 
influential  family  of  Granville,  he  entered  par- 
liament in  1710,  and  in  the  same  year  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  war  in  place  of  Walpole. 
In  January,  1712,  he  was  created  Baron  Lans- 
downe  of  Biddeford.  Upon  the  queen's  death 
he  lost  his  offices,  and,  on  account  of  his 
avowed  sympathy  for  the  pretender  and  his 
participation  in  the  scheme  for  raising  an  in- 
surrection in  the  west  of  England,  was  com- 
mitted to  the  tower  in  September,  1715,  where 
he  was  confined  till  Feb.  8,  1717.  Being  sus- 
pected again  in  1722  of  some  connection  with 
the  Atterbury  plot,  he  retired  to  France,  and 
returning  to  England  in  1732  published  his 
works  in  prose  and  poetry  in  2  vols.  4to. 

GRANVILLE,  Granville  George  Leveson  Cower, 
second  earl,  a  British  statesman,  born  in  Lon- 
don, May  11,  1815.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford,  and  entered  public  life  in  1835  as 
attach6  to  the  British  embassy  at  Paris,  of 
which  his  father,  the  first  Earl  Granville,  a  well 
known  diplomatist,  was  the  head.  In  1836  he 
was  returned  to  parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Morpeth,  subsequently  became  under  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  sat  for  Lichfield 
from  September,  1841,  to  January,  1846,  when 
he  succeeded  to  his  title.  He  held  the  seals  of 
the  foreign  office  in  the  Russell  cabinet  from 
December,  1851,  to  February,  1852,  and  was 
lord  president  of  the  council  from  December, 
1852,  to  June,  1854,  from  February,  1855,  to 
February,  1858,  and  from  June,  1859,  to  June, 
1866.  In  1868  he  again  became  a  member  of 
the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies. 
In  the  house  of  lords  he  was  a  leader  in  de- 
bate, and  ably  sustained  liberal  views  in  regard 
to  the  Irish  church  bill,  1869,  and  the  land 
bill,  1870.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Clarendon  in 
1 870  he  became  secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  He 
resigned  with  the  other  members  of  the  Glad- 
stone cabinet  in  February,  1874. 

GRANVILLE,  John  Carteret,  earl,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Bedfordshire,  April  22, 1690, 
died  Jan.  2,  1763.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  at  Oxford,  and  as  Baron 
Carteret  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  lords 
in  1711.  His  zeal  in  support  of  the  Protestant 
succession  caused  George  I.  to  promote  him  in 

1715  to  be  bailiff  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  and  in 

1716  to  be  lord  lieutenant  of  Devonshire.     In 
1718  he  was  ambassador  to  Sweden ;   in  1720 
ambassador  extraordinary  at  the  congress  of 
Cambrai;    from  May,    1721,  to  April,  1724, 
secretary  of  state ;    and  from  that  time  till 
1730,  with  a  brief  intermission,  he  was  lord 
lieutenant    of   Ireland.     Afterward    he  was 
prominent  in  the  debates  in  the  house  of  lords 
till  February,  1742,  when  he  was  again  made 
secretary  of  state,  and  in  September  following 
was  sent  to  the  states  general  to  assist  in  de- 
vising measures  to  maintain  the  liberties  of 
the  United  Provinces.     The  succeeding  year 
he  passed  with  the  king  in  Hanover.    In  1744, 
by  the  death  of  his  mother,  he  succeeded  to 


GRAPE 

the  title  of  Earl  Granville,  and  shortly  after 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  his  office.  Du- 
ring his  parliamentary  career  he  was  conspicu- 
ous for  his  speeches  on  questions  arising  from 
the  Edinburgh  riots,  and  he  was  the  mover  for 
the  settlement  of  £100,000  a  year  from  the 
civil  list  on  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Macaulay 
says :  "No  public  man  of  that  age  had  great- 
er courage,  greater  ambition,  greater  activity, 
greater  talents  for  debate  or  for  declamation, 
No  public  man  had  such  profound  and  exten- 
sive learning.  His  knowledge  of  modern  lan- 
guages was  prodigious.  He  spoke  and  wrote 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  German, 
even  Swedish."  He  alone  of  the  ministers  of 
George  I.  could  converse  with  the  monarch  in 
his  native  tongue.  His  ministry  was  popularly 
termed  the  "drunken  administration,"  an  ex- 
pression not  altogether  figurative,  for  Gran- 
ville's  habits  were  extremely  convivial,  and 
champagne  lent  its  aid  to  keep  him  in  that 
state  of  joyous  excitement  in  which  his  life 
was  passed.  No  misfortune  could  depress  him. 
His  spirits  were  constantly  high.  When  driven 
from  office,  says  Macaulay,  "he  retired  laugh- 
ing to  his  books  and  his  bottle."  Ill  as  he  had 
been  used,  he  did  not  seem,  says  Horace  Wal- 
pole, "  to  have  any  resentment,  or  indeed  any 
feeling  except  thirst." 

GRAPE,  the  fruit  of  woody  vines  of  the  genus 
vitis  (the  ancient  Latin  name),  the  type  of  the 
order  vitacece,  which  includes  shrubs  climb- 
ing by  tendrils.  At  each  node  or  joint  of  the 
grape-vine  is  borne  a  leaf,  with  a  tendril  or 
flower  cluster  upon  the  opposite  side ;  the 
leaves  are  long-petioled,  palmately  veined,  va- 
riously lobed  and  smooth  or  downy  in  different 
species;  in  the  axil  of  each  leaf  are  produced 
two  buds,  one  of  which  develops  the  same 
season,  producing  what  the  vineyardist  calls 
"laterals,"  while  the  other  remains  dormant 
as  a  provision  for  the  growth  of  the  following 
year.  The  tendrils  are  branched ;  the  branches 
have  hooks  at  the  ends,  and  when  these  catch 
hold  of  some  supporting  object  the  tendril 
coils  spirally,  rapidly  becomes  woody,  and  holds 
the  vine  with  great  firmness.  The  tendril 
may  be  considered  as  a  modified  branch,  which 
in  some  cases  bears  flowers  and  fruit ;  nothing 
is  more  common  than  to  find  in  our  native 
vines  clusters  in  which  one  of  their  branches 
retains  its  tendril  character  and  helps  to  hold 
up  the  fruit.  The  flowers  of  the  wild  grape 
are  sometimes  dioecious,  but  in  cultivated  ones 
perfect ;  they  are  very  small ;  the  calyx  short 
and  lined  with  a  disk,  which  bears  the  petals 
and  stamens ;  petals  five,  cohering  at  the  apexT 
and  forming  a  little  cap  which  in  flowering 
falls  off  entire ;  stamens  five,  with  a  gland  or 
lobe  of  the  disk  between  each  pair ;  a  single 
pistil,  with  a  two-lobed  stigma,  has  a  two- 
celled  ovary  with  two  ovules  in  each  cell ;  this 
in  ripening  becomes  a  one-  to  four-seeded  berry. 
The  flowers  of  the  grape  are  delightfully  fra- 
grant, recalling  the  odor  of  mignonette.  Grapes 
are  found  in  the  temperate  climates  of  both 


GRAPE 


163 


___:iispheres.  There  is  at  present  some  con- 
fusion about  the  species,  but  in  a  horticultural 
view  they  are  divided  into  European  and 
American  grapes.  The  European  grape,  mtis 
mnifera,  is  the  species  that  in  some  of  its  nu- 
3rous  varieties  is  cultivated  in  most  European 


European  Grape  (Vitis  vinifera). 

Asiatic  countries.  Regel,  the  distinguished 
1st  and  director  of  the  imperial  gardens 
St.  Petersburg,  has  recently  given  the  some- 
hat  startling  opinion  that  F.  vinifera  is  not 
a  true  species,  but  a  hybrid  between  F.  la- 
brusca  and  F.  milpina,  both  of  which  are  na- 
tives of  North  America,  Japan,  Mantchooria, 
and  the  Himalaya.  He  bases  his  opinion  upon 
the  facts  that  the  European  vine  is  not  found 
in  a  truly  wild  state,  but  only  as  an  escape 
from  cultivation,  and  that  the  two  species  sug- 
gested as  its  parents  are  found  wild  in  that 
portion  of  Asia  in  which  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  originated.  Whatever  may  have  been  its 
origin,  it  will  continue  to  be  known  by  our 
cultivators  as  the  European  or  foreign  grape. 
Very  early  in  the  history  of  America  attempts 
ere  made  to  cultivate  the  foreign  grape  in 
e  open  air,  and  these  have  been  repeated 
m  time  to  time  up  to  the  present  day ;  but 
in  no  instance  have  they  met  with  success  east 
of  the  Rocky  mountains.  In  exceptionally  fa- 
vorable localities,  as  in  city  yards,  the  foreign 
vine  has  here  and  there  succeeded  for  a  few 
years ;  but  in  order  to  grow  it  with  certainty 
it  must  have  the  protection  of  glass.  Upon 
Ahe  Pacific  coast  the  case  is  different;  the 
"esuit  missionaries  early  discovered  that  the 
il  and  climate  were  adapted  to  the  foreign 
ipe,  and  after  California  was  settled  by 
mericans  grape  culture,  confined  almost  ex- 
lusively  to  foreign  varieties,  became  one  of 
the  important  industries  of  the  state.  (See 
AMERICAN  "WINES.)  The  foreign  vine  is  dis- 
tinguished from  American  species  principally 
by  the  character  of  the  fruit ;  in  the  latter  the 


we 
fro 


more  or  less  firm  pulp,  which  slips  from  the 
skin,  while  a  foreign  grape  may  be  broken  open 
with  the  pulp  still  adhering  to  the  skin,  and 
the  seeds  so  free  from  it  that  they  will  fall 
out  or  may  be  readily  separated.  The  culti- 
vation of  the  foreign  grape  under  glass  is  fol- 
lowed to  a  considerable  extent  both  as  a  mat- 
ter of  luxury  and  of  profit.  Two  modes  of 
culture  are  practised:  in  the  cold  grapery, 
which  is  a  glass  house  without  artificial  heat, 
and  in  the  forcing  grapery,  which  is  heated 
and  the  vines  brought  into  growth  and  fruiting 
at  such  times  as  are  desired.  For  details  ref- 
erence may  be  had  to  special  treatises. — Of 
American  species  of  the  genus  mtis  producing 
edible  fruit,  botanists  recognize  four:  F.  la- 
~brusca,  the  northern  fox  grape;  F.  cestivalis, 
the  summer  grape;  F.  cordifolia,  the  frost 
grape;  and  F.  vulpina,  the  muscadine  or 
southern  fox  grape.  Several  grapes  from  west 
of  the  Mississippi  have  been  described  as  dis- 
tinct species  by  some  botanists,  but  others  re- 
gard them  as  only  forms  of  the  above.  The 
American  grapes  differ  so  much  in  the  wild 
state,  in  form  of  leaf  and  size,  shape,  and  color 
of  the  fruit,  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  decide 
to  which  species  a  specimen  should  be  referred ; 
and  when  they  are  subjected  to  cultivation  the 
variation  is  still  more  strongly  marked.  In  no 
branch  of  fruit  culture  has  there  been  greater 
progress  than  in  the  cultivation  of  American 
grapes.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  Catawba 
and  Isabella  were  the  only  kinds  grown  to  any 
considerable  extent,  while  at  the  present  time 
the  varieties  are  numbered  by  hundreds,  and 
additions  are  yearly  made  to  the  list.  In  the 
article  AMEKICAN  WINES  the  leading  varieties 
are  named,  and  the  species  from  which  they 
are  supposed  to  have  originated  indicated.  In 
the  vineyards  of  the  eastern  states  the  growing 
of  the  fruit  for  market  is  quite  as  important  as 
raising  it  for  wine,  and  in  the  wine  districts 
the  fruit  is  packed  and  shipped  as  table  fruit 
so  long  as  it  will  bring  a  price  above  that  at 
which  it  can  be  profitably  crushed  for  wine. 
By  keeping  them  at  a  low  temperature  some 
varieties  may  be  preserved  in  good  condition 


Flower  of  the  Grape,  magnified. 

1 .  Young  flower.     2.  Vertical  section  of  flower.     8.  Flower 
without  corolla. 

for  several  months  after  they  are  gathered. 
Aside  from  the  commercial  value  of  the  grape, 
it  is  of  great  importance  as  one  of  the  few 
fruits  that  can  be  conveniently  produced  in 
cities  and  towns.  While  judicious  treatment 


seeds  are  enveloped  and  held  together  by  a    is  essential  to  the  best  results,  it  will  grow 


164 


GRAPE 


and  bear  fruit  under  the  most  adverse  cir- 
cumstances, and  it  is  cultivated  for  its  abun- 
dant shade  as  well  as  for  its  fruit.  Within 
a  few  years  a  new  class  of  grapes  has  sprung 
up,  produced  by  hybridizing  native  varieties 
with  the  foreign.  Mr.  Rogers  of  Salem,  Mass., 
was  the  first  to  attempt  this  upon  an  exten- 
sive scale,  but  the  varieties  he  produced  are 
not  very  strongly  marked  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  foreign  vine.  Dr.  Wylie  of 
Chester,  S.  0.,  Mr.  Underbill  of  Croton  Point, 
N.  Y.,  and  others,  have  produced  varieties 
which  in  the  fruit  make  a  near  approach  to 
the  exotic  grape,  while  the  foliage  is  more  like 
that  of  its  native  parent.— The  vine  is  propa- 
gated with  the  greatest  ease  by  layers  and  from 
cuttings;  in  commercial  nurseries  the  propa- 
gation is  from  cuttings,  except  with  a  few  va- 
rieties that  take  root  with  difficulty,  and  these 
are  grown  from  layers.  Cuttings  of  the  last 
season's  growth  of  wood  removed  in  the  au- 
tumn pruning,  with  two  or  three  buds  upon 
each,  are  buried  in  a  dry  place  until  spring,  and 
then  set  out  in  rows  with  one  bud  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  the  others  below ;  with 
some  varieties  a  large  percentage  of  such  cut- 
tings will  form  roots  and  make  salable  vines 
by  autumn;  other  kinds  are  very  uncertain 
when  treated  in  this  way,  and  these  are  started 
under  glass,  from  what  are  called  single  eyes, 
which  consist  of  one  bud  with  a  short  piece  of 
the  wood  attached ;  these  eyes  are  planted  in  a 
bed  of  sand,  and  by  a  proper  management  of 
heat  and  moisture  roots  and  leaves  are  soon 
formed,  when  the  young  plants  are  transferred 
to  a  rich  soil.  Vines  are  sometimes  propagated, 
especially  in  the  case  of  rare  kinds,  from  cut- 
tings of  green  shoots,  but  planters  do  not  ap- 
prove of  vines  thus  produced.  In  the  matter 
of  pruning  and  training  there  is  a  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  and  practice  among  vine- 
yardists,  but  they  all  agree  in  controlling  the 
growth  of  the  vine  within  certain  bounds. 
Whatever  the  system  of  pruning,  its  successful 
practice  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  man- 
ner of  growth  of  the  vine.  The  fruit  of  a  vine 
is  produced  upon  shoots  which  in  spring  push 
from  buds  upon  branches  or  canes  which  grew 
the  season  before.  If  a  young  vine  consisting 
of  a  single  stem  having  20  buds  is  left  unprun- 
ed,  the  majority  of  these  buds  will  develop  as 
shoots ;  the  few  uppermost  will  start  first  and 
be  the  most  vigorous,  while  those  below  will  be 
weak ;  at  the  end  of  the  season  such  a  vine  will 
have  two  or  three  strong  canes  above  and  a 
few  slender  ones  below ;  the  next  year,  if  still 
unpruned,  the  stronger  canes  will  follow  the 
same  course  as  did  the  single  one,  and  the  most 
vigorous  growth  and  the  fruit-bearing  buds  will 
be  still  further  from  the  root;  and  if  the  vine 
be  allowed  to  grow  entirely  wild  for  several 
years,  fruit  will  be  found  only  upon  the  extreme 
branches.  One  great  object  in  pruning  is  to 
keep  the  fruit-bearing  portion  of  the  vine  near 
the  ground ;  another  is  to  keep  up  a  constant 
supply  of  fruit-bearing  wood,  and  another  to 


GRAPE  SHOT 

so  regulate  the  amount  of  fruit  borne  by  each 
vine  that  it  shall  attain  the  greatest  possible 
development  and  excellence.  The  methods  of 
pruning  are  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  recent 
treatises  upon  grape  culture. — The  vine  grower 
has  many  enemies  to  contend  with,  one  of  the 
most  destructive  of  which  is  mildew,  which 
consists  of  two  or  more  forms  or  species  of 
parasitic  fungi.  The  most  common  mildew  up- 
on native  grapes,  peronoapora,  appears  as  small 
grayish  patches  of  down  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves,  and  on  the  young  shoots  and  fruit 
stalks ;  if  not  arrested,  it  soon  destroys  the  foli- 
age of  the  vine  and  checks  the  development  of 
the  fruit.  Flowers  of  sulphur,  frequently  and 
persistently  applied  by  means  of  a  bellows  in- 
vented for  the  purpose,  will  prevent  the  further 
spread  of  this  destructive  parasite.  Another 
form  of  mildew,  oidium  or  erysiphe,  makes  its 
appearance  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  and 
on  the  fruit,  especially  upon  exotic  vines  under 
glass,  though  in  certain  situations  and  in  very 
dry  seasons  it  attacks  vineyards  of  the  native 
grape;  one  form  of  "rot"  upon  the  fruit  is 
due  to  this.  Insects  of  various  kinds,  from  the 
time  the'  leaf  begins  to  expand  until  the  fruit  is 
gathered,  demand  the  constant  vigilance  of  the 
cultivator.  Of  late  years  a  minute  aphis-like 
insect  has  been  discovered,  though  its  ravages 
were  noticed  long  before  the  cause  was  ascer- 
tained, the  phylloxera  vastatrix;  this  attacks 
both  the  roots  and  the  leaves,  but  not  always 
to  the  same  degree  in  all  varieties ;  those  that 
have  descended  from  the  summer  grape  (V. 
(Estwalis)  seem  to  be  more  exempt  from  its 
attacks  than  others.  In  Europe  the  devasta- 
tions of  this  insect  have  been  so  great  as  to 
completely  destroy  the  grape  industry  in  parts 
of  France  as  well  as  in  other  vine-growing 
countries.  It  is  believed  in  France  that  the  in- 
sect was  introduced  from  this  country,  and  in 
1873  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  sent  M. 
Planchon  to  investigate  the  habits  of  phyllox- 
era in  what  they  regard  as  its  native  locali- 
ties. The  best  history  of  this  insect  will  be 
found  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  reports  of 
C.  V.  Riley,  state  entomologist  of  Missouri, 
which  are  comprised  in  the  reports  of  the 
Missouri  state  board  of  agriculture  for  1870,  '71, 
and  '72.  No  satisfactory  remedy  has  been 
discovered. — The  principal  varieties  of  foreign 
and  native  grapes  are  described  in  Downing's 
"Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America"  (revised 
ed.,  1869)  and  other  general  works  upon  fruits. 
Special  treatises  upon  the  grape  are  numerous; 
the  most  important  to  the  American  cultivator 
are  "American  Grape  Grower's  Guide,"  by 
William  Chorlton,  and  "Grape  Culture  and 
Wine  Making,"  by  A.  Haraszthy,  both  mainly 
devoted  to  the  foreign  grape;  "The  Grapo 
Culturist,"  by  A.  S.  Fuller;  "  Grapes  and  Wine," 
by  George  Hussmann ;  and  "  Culture  of  the 
Grape,"  by  W.  C.  Strong. 

GRAPE  SHOT,  formerly  small  shot  put  into  a 
canvas  bag,  which  was  corded  into  cylindrical 
form  to  fit  the  piece  of  ordnance  from  which 


GRAPHITE 


it  was  to  be  fired.  This  was  superseded  by 
canister  shot,  in  which  the  balls  are  confined  in 
a  canister  of  iron  plate.  The  term  grape  shot  is 
now  applied  to  an  assemblage  of  iron  shot  fast- 
ened around  a  metallic  spindle,  giving  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  bunch  of  grapes.  The  shots  fly 
asunder  as  they  leave  the  gun,  and  are  very 
destructive  at  short  distances. 

GRAPHITE  (Gr.  ypafaiv,  to  write),  a  mineral 
commonly  called  black  lead  or  plumbago,  but 
which  titles  are  incorrect,  as  it  contains  no 
lead.     Its  composition  is  similar  to  that  of  an- 
thracite coal,  containing  usually  from  90  to 
95  per  cent,  of  carbon,  with  from  4  to  10  per 
cent,  of  iron,  and  traces  of  silica,  alumina,  lime, 
and  magnesia.     Specimens  have  been  found  in 
Ceylon  said  to  contain  98*55  per  cent,  of  car- 
'  Dn.    It  occurs  in  beds  and  imbedded  masses 
id  laminae,  in  granite,  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and 
illine  limestone,  and  sometimes  in  green- 
le.    It  is  sometimes  the  result  of  alteration 
heat  of  the  coal  formation,  and  is  an  ordi- 
iry  artificial  product  of  the  destructive  dis- 
lation  of  coal  in  the  retorts  of  gas  works.     It 
found  in  nature  in  both  a  crystalline  and 
)rphous  condition,  opaque,  of  a  metallic, 
si-gray  color  and  lustre,  and  giving  a  pecu- 
r,  shining,  greasy  streak  on  paper.     Its  spe- 
ic  gravity  is  2 '09,  rising  somewhat  above 
lis  as  impurities  increase.     Its  hardness  ranges 
fcween  1  and  2.     Crystallized  graphite  occurs 
six-sided  tables,  belonging  to  the  hexagonal 
stem,  cleaving  perfectly  in  the  direction  of 
base,  and  having  the  basal  planes  striated 
llel  to  the  alternate  sides ;  but  the  mineral 
more  commonly  found  in  foliated  or  granular 
It  is  found  associated  with  olivene  and 
ihene  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  and  in  beds  of 
leiss  at  Sturbridge,  Mass.,  usually  in  a  scaly 
id  granular,  but  sometimes  approaching  a 
illine  form.      It  is  also  found  at  North 
)kfield,  Brimfield,  and  Hinsdale,  Mass.,  at 
andon,  Yt.,  and  at  Grenville,  Canada,  where 
;  is  associated  with  sphene  and  tabular  spar.   It 
jcurs  near  Amity,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  white 
nestone,  associated  with  spinel,  chondrodite, 
id  hornblende ;  at  Eossie,4  St.  Lawrence  co., 
nth  iron  ore,  and  in  gneiss;   in  Bucks  co., 
.,  near  Attleboro,  associated  with  tabular 
>ar,  pyroxene,  and  scapolite,  and  also  in  sye- 
ite  at  ManselPs  black-lead    mine  near   the 
le  locality.     There  is  a  large  deposit  at  St. 
John,   N.   B.     The  mine    at    Borrowdale  in 
imberland,  England,  has  long  been  celebra- 
"  for  yielding  graphite  of  a  superior  quality 
>r  making  black-lead  pencils,  one  of  its  prin- 
uses.    The  mine  has  been  known  since 
le  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  probably 
irnished  the  first  lead  pencils  ever  made,  as 
leir  invention  cannot  be  traced  back  as  far 
the  discovery  of  the  mine.     It  is  in  a  moun- 
lin,  8  m.  S.  of  Keswick,  2,000  ft.  high.     The 
ineral  occurs  in  small  nests  in  trap.     The 
are  about  the  size  of  the  fist.     The  mine 
le  so  valuable  as  to  be  an  object  of  plun- 
,  being  reached  underground  from  neigh- 


GRASSE 


165 


boring  mines,  and  being  once  forcibly  taken 
possession  of  at  the  surface.  The  graphite  was 
of  so  pure  a  quality  that  it  required  but  little 
preparation  for  the  market;  and  much  of  it 
was  sawed  up  in  its  natural  state  for  pencils. 
The  mine  is  now  nearly  exhausted,  and  has 
not  been  worked  for  many  years.  Graphite 
has  been  found  in  Germany,  France,  Austria, 
and  South  America,  and  in  enormous  masses 
in  N.  E.  Siberia.  Besides  furnishing  a  material 
for  writing  pencils,  it  is  used  for  making  cru- 
cibles, and  linings  for  small  furnaces;  as  an 
ingredient  in  lubricating  compounds  for  ma- 
chinery ;  for  giving  a  smooth  surface  to  the 
moulds  of  metal  castings,  and  for  polishing 
stoves  and  iron  castings  generally ;  and  also  for 
a  coating  to  wax  or  other  impressions  of  ob- 
jects designed  to  be  electrotyped,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  good  conducting  surface  for 
the  galvanic  current.  It  has  also  been  em- 
ployed by  Graham  as  a  diaphragm  in  his  dif- 
fusiometer  or  instrument  for  observing  the 
comparative  rate  of  diffusion  of  gases.  (See 
CETJOIBLE,  and  PENCIL.) 

GRAPTOLITES  (Gr.  -yp&fetv,  to  write,  and  Woe, 
stone),  a  genus  of  fossil  acalephs,  of  as  many 
as  20  species,  found  only  in  the  Silurian  rocks, 
abounding  particularly  in  the  slates  of  the  Hud- 
son river  group.  So  numerous  are  these  early 
forms  of  zoophytes  in  the  Llandeilo  rocks  of 
Europe,  that  it  has  even  been  thought  prob- 
able that  the  carbonaceous  character  of  the 
slates  was  owing  to  the  abundance  of  their  re- 
mains. As  found  in  the  black  slates,  their  sil- 


1.  Graptolithus  Logani,  showing  the  centre  of  a  branching 
group.  2.  Portion  of  a  branchlet.  3.  Same,  much  en- 
larged. 4,  5.  Forms  of  Phyllograptus  typus.  6.  Graptoli- 
thus pristis.  1.  Young  of  a  graptolite. 

very  forms  are  obscurely  retained,  and  the  fos- 
sils may  easily  be  mistaken  for  impressions  of 
plants.  They  are  long  and  slender,  resembling 
some  algse,  as  well  as  the  feather  part  of  a 
quill,  whence  their  name.  When  found  in  cal- 
careous strata  their  forms  are  more  distinct. 
Their  nearest  living  analogues  are  the  sea  firs 
or  sertularians,  of  which  the  species  inhabit 
muddy  sediment,  such  as  the  black  slates  must 
once  have  been. 

GRASS  CLOTH.     See  RAMIE. 

GRASSE,  La,  a  town  of  8.  E.  France,  in  the 
department  -of  Alpes-Maritimes,  18  m.  W.  of 
Nice;  pop.  in  1866,  12,241.  It  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
college,  a  public  library,  and  large  manufacto- 
ries of  essences  and  perfumes,  soap,  and  silk 
goods.  In  the  vicinity  are  quarries  of  marble 
and  alabaster,  and  extensive  olive  groves. 


166 


GRASSES 


GRASSES,  plants  of  the  natural  order  grami- 
nea,  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  number  of 
species  and  individuals,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  its  relation  to  man.  The  stem  (culm) 
is  jointed,  sometimes  solid,  but  usually  hollow, 
and  closed  at  the  joints  (nodes) ;  from  each 
joint  rises  a  leaf  stalk  which  is  broad  and  en- 
velops the  stem,  called  the  sheath  (vagina), 
which  with  few  exceptions  is  split  upon  one 
side  for  its  whole  length ;  at  the  apex  of  the 
sheaths  are  borne  the  leaves,  which  are  alter- 
nate, the  blade  (lami- 
na) usually  narrow, 
and  with  parallel  veins; 
where  the  blade  and 
sheath  join  is  a  small 
membranous  appen- 
dage, the  ligule,  which 
is  sometimes  represent- 
ed by  a  fringe  of  hairs. 
The  flowers  are  ar- 
ranged at  the  summit 
of  the  stem  in  strict 
spikes,  racemes,  or 
loose  panicles,  and  are 
in  spikelets,  which  con- 

F,o.  i.-Phienm,  .pikelet     ««*  of  one  or  numerous 
flowers  (florets).     The 

parts  of  the  flowers  are  chaffy,  usually  green 
when  young  and  becoming  straw-colored 
at  maturity,  and  are  described  collectively  as 
glumaceous  (Lat.  gluma,  a  husk),  a  term  also 
applied  to  the  flowers  of  some  allied  families. 
In  structure  the  flowers  present  some  very 
complex  forms,  while  that  in  the  more  com- 
mon species  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  may  be 
readily  understood  by  an  examination  of  the 
common  red-top,  a  species  of  agro&tis,  or  timo- 
thy (pTileum\  to  be  found  almost  everywhere. 
A  single  spikelet  of  either  of  these  will  be 
found,  as  in  the  engraving  of  phleum,  to  con- 
sist of  two  concave  scales  called  glumes,  one 
placed  slightly  above  and  within  the  other; 
within  these  are  the  floret,  consisting  also  of 
two  scales,  and  the  palets,  the  upper  and  inner 
of  which  is  more  or  less  covered  by  the  outer, 
and  usually  smaller  and  of  more  delicate  tex- 
ture ;  the  essential 
parts  of  the  flower 
are  within  and  pro- 
tected by  the  palets ; 
the  stamens,  one  to 
six  (usually  three), 
have  slender  filaments 
with  anthers  attached 
l.y  the  middle  (versa- 
tile); pistil  one,  with 
a  one-celled,  one-ovul- 

ed  ovary  crowned  by        Fiu.  2..^     ikelet 
two     (rarely     three) 

the  stigmas  of  which  are  feathery  or 
biury;  the  ovary  in  ripening  becomes  a  grain 
(caryopsis),  which  consists  of  the  usually  adhe- 
rent pericarp  (the  hull),  within  which  is  the  seed 
proper,  consisting  of  a  small  embryo  situated  at 
the  base  and  on  the  outside  of  a  floury  albumen ; 


at  the  base  of  the  pistil  are  situated  one  or  two 
minute  scales  (lodiculas),  which  are  usually  so 
small  as  to  escape  the  notice  of  a  careless  ob- 
server, but  in  some  genera  are  as  long  as  the 
ovary.  This  is  the  general  structure  of  one- 
flowered  grasses,  but  it  is  varied  in  different 
genera  by  the  suppression  of  the  upper  palet, 
or  even  by  the  absence  of  both  glumes,  and 
the  prolongation  of  the  apex  of  one  or  both 
glumes  or  the  lower  palet  into  a  bristle-like 
appendage,  the  awn.  In  the  many-flowered 
grasses,  of  which  hair  grass  (aira)  will  serve  as 
a  familiar  illustration,  there  are  two  glumes,  and 
within  these  two  to  several  florets  placed  one 
above  another  upon  a  short  axis  (rachis),  all 
of  which  except  the  upper  one  contain  stamens 
and  a  pistil ;  the  uppermost  floret  in  the  oat 
and  in  many  other  many-flowered  grasses  is 
neutral  or  imperfect ;  the  lower  palet  in  the 
oat  is  strongly  many-nerved,  and  bears  below 
its  apex  a  strong  and  twisted  awn.  The  nu- 


FIG.  8.— Poa,  spikelet. 


FIG.  4. — Anthoxanthuin, 
spikelet. 


merous  species  of  poa,  including  the  meadow- 
grasses,  June  grass,  blue  grass,  &c.,  afford  ex- 
amples of  many-flowered  grasses  in  which  the 
spikelets  are  compressed,  the  palets  without 
awns,  and  more  or  less  clothed  with  cottony 
hairs.  The  suborders  of  the  family  and  the 
genera  are  founded  upon  various  modifications 
of  a  very  simple  structure,  some  of  which  have 
been  here  indicated.  In  the  sweet-scented  ver- 
nal grass  we  have  another  modification ;  this 
grass  appears  to  be  one-flowered,  but  it  is  real- 
ly three-flowered,  with  the  upper  and  lower 
florets  abortive  and  appearing  one  on  each  side 
of  the  perfect  one  as  an  awned  empty  palet. 
In  barley  (hordeum)  and  wheat  (triticum)  the 
spikelets  are  sessile  in  the  excavations  of  a  zig- 
zag stem  or  rachis;  in  the  barley  the  spikelets 
are  one-flowered,  only  the  central  one  some^ 
times  being  fertile,  as  in  two-rowed  barley, 
and  at  others  all  three  being  fertile,  when 
the  spike  or  head  becomes  six-rowed,  and  the 
glumes  are  placed  upon  the  side  of  the  spike- 
lets  opposite  the  stem  and  form  a  bristle-like 
involucre.  Grasses  are  annuals  or  perennials, 
and  in  some  of  the  perennial  species  the  root 
stock  runs  for  a  long  distance  underground,  as  in 
the  couch  grass,  or  "quack"  (triticum  repens), 
which  often  becomes  a  serious  pest  to  the  cul- 


GRASSES 


16T 


tivator.  The  root  stocks,  improperly  called 
roots,  possess  great  vitality,  and  if  broken  in 
the  processes  of  cultivation,  each  joint  is  capa- 
ble of  producing  a  new  plant. — The  genera  and 
species  of  grasses  are  numerous,  and  are  esti- 
mated to  form  ^2  part  of  all  known  flowering 


FIG.  5.  —  Sweet-scented 
Vernal  Grass  (Antho- 
xanthum  odoratum). 


FIG.  6.— Eed-top 
(Agrostis  vulgaris). 


ts;  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
In  temperate  regions  they  are  usually 
low  growth  and  carpet  the  surface  of  the 
th,  but  toward  the  tropics  they  are  taller 
more  tree-like  in  habit.  The  extremes  in 
,ture  are  striking  when  we  contrast  the 
mute  Phippsia  of  the  arctic  regions,  only 
inch  in  height,  with  the  tropical  bamboo, 
hich  elevates  its  stem,  strong  enough  to  serve 
mast,  to  the  height  of  60  ft.  The  grasses 
by  far  the  most  useful  of  all  plants,  the  or- 
r  including  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  maize, 
ce,  millet,  guinea  corn,  and  sugar  cane,  be- 
des  numerous  less  known  grains  which  fur- 
ish  breadstuifs  to  aboriginal  people  in  various 
arts  of  the  world,  and  many  species  used  for 
animal  food  in  the  form  of  hay.  In  enumera- 
ting the  useful  qualities  and  harmless  character 
'f  grasses,  an  exception  has  been  made  in  the 
ise  of  darnel  (lolium  temulentum),  which  has 
ng  had  the  reputation  of  producing  a  poison- 
s  grain ;  but,  as  will  be  seen  under  DARNEL, 
is  is  doubted.  Aside  from  furnishing  food, 
e  economical  uses  of  the  grasses  are  many ; 
e  of  the  most  important  of  these  are  given 
nder  BAMBOO  ;  other  grasses  furnish  materials 
r  mats,  cordage,  the  plaiting  of  hats,  &c.  One 
'  the  sources  of  paper  stock  has  within  a  few 
ears-  been  found  in  the  esparto  grasses,  ly- 
geum  sparteum  and  stipa  tenacissima,  of  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Some  species, 
as  the  sand  reed  of  our  coasts,  and  especially 
the  tussock  grass  (dactylis  ccespitosa)  of  the 
Falkland  islands,  are  of  essential  service  in  re- 
taining the  blowing  sands.  Different  genera 


FIG.  7. — June  or   Blue 
Grass  (Poa  pratensis). 


have  species  which  are  highly  fragrant;  the 
sweet-scented  vernal  grass  (anthoxanthum  odo- 
ratum) has  a  grateful  vanilla-like  odor,  and  to 
its  presence  is  due  the  fact  that  the  new-mown 
hay  of  the  older  states  is  so  much  more  fra- 
grant than  that  in  more  recently  settled  locali- 
ties, where  this  grass 
has  not  yet  become  nat- 
uralized. Seneca  grass 
or  holy  grass  (hierochloa 
fiorealis),  a  native  spe- 
cies, has  a  still  more 
marked  odor.  Two  or 
more  species  of  andro- 
pogon  furnish  the  oil- 
of-lemon  grass  or  citro- 
nelle,  used  in  perfume- 
ry ;  and  the  vetiver  of 
the  French  comes  from 
another  species  of  the 
same  genus.  —  Perma- 
nent Meadow  and  Pas- 
ture Grasses.  The  num- 
ber of  grasses  sown  by 
American  farmers  is 
limited  ;  the  common 
practice  being  to  sow 
one  or  two  sorts  toge- 
ther with  clover,  mow 
it  for  hay  for  one  or  two 
years,  and  then  use  the  field  for  pasturing  un- 
til the  land  is  required  for  cultivation.  They 
rarely  sow  grass  expressly  for  making  a  per- 
manent pasture ;  and  as  the  grasses  best  for  hay 
are  not  those  most  suited  to  grazing,  our  pas- 
tures are  of  an  inferior  character  compared  with 
,  those  of  England. 

Timothy  (phleum 
pratense)  stands 
at  the  head  of  the 
hay-making  grass- 
es. (See  TIMOTHY.) 
Next  in  order  is 
red-top  (agrostis 
vulgaris),  also  call- 
ed in  different  lo- 
calities fine  -  top, 
Rhode  Island  bent, 
Borden's  grass, 
and  in  Pennsylva- 
nia and  southward 
herd's  grass,  a 
name  which  in 
New  York  and 
New  England  is 
exclusively  applied 
to  phleum  or  tim- 
othy ;  it  was  for- 
merly called  Eng- 
lish grass.  It 
grows  from  1  to  2  ft.  high,  according  to  sit- 
uation, and  has  a  slender  open  panicle  of 
small  one-flowered  spikelets,  the  reddish  color 
of  which  suggested  its  best  known  common 
name.  It  varies  greatly  with  the  character  of 
the  soil,  but  in  no  case  yields  as  largely  as  tim- 


FIG.  8.— Orchard  Grass  (Dacty- 
lis glomerata). 


168 


GRASSES 


othy,  and  its  great  value  is  in  its  permanence 
as  a  pasture  grass.  White-top  (agrostis  alba) 
often  appears  spontaneously  in  pastures,  and 
is  readily  distinguished  from  red-top  by  its 
greenish  white  flowers ;  agriculturists  are  not 
agreed  as  to  its  value.  Orchard  grass  (dactylis 
glomerata)  is  next  in  importance,  as  it  is  val- 
uable for  hay,  and  especially  so  for  pasturage, 
and  it  will  grow  better  than  most  other  grasses 
in  the  shade  of  trees.  It  is  a  rather  coarse  spe- 
cies, grows  3  and  even  6  ft.  high,  and  bears  a 
dense  branching  panicle,  on  which  its  several- 
flowered  spikeletsare  arranged  in  crowded,  one- 
sided clusters ;  it  has  a  tendency  to  form  tus- 
socks, which  unfits  it  for  lawns ;  and  for  hay 
or  pasturage  the  seed  should  be  sown  very 
thickly  in  order  to  produce  a  fine  herbage. 
June  grass  (poa  pratensis)  is  the  most  valuable 
of  the  poas ;  it  is  also  known  as  smooth-stalked 
meadow  grass,  green  grass,  and  Kentucky  blue 
grass.  By  reason  of  its  creeping  root  stocks  it 
rapidly  forms  a  dense  turf,  and  is  more  valued 
for  the  pasture  than  the  meadow;  but  it  is 
used  for  hay,  its  after-math  or  second  cutting 
being  heavier  than  the  first.  It  adapts  itself 
to  a  wide  range  of  country,  and  endures  ex- 
treme cold  without  injury;  it  forms  a  large 
portion  of  the  best  pastures  of  Europe  as  well 
as  of  this  country.  Varying  greatly  in  different 
soils  and  climates,  it  has  received  a  number  of 
local  names  besides  those  already  given.  It 
attains  its  greatest  luxuriance  in  the  limestone 
regions  of  Kentucky,  where  it  spontaneously 
takes  possession  of  the  land,  or  "comes  in,"  as 
the  farmers  say.  The  blue-grass  pastures  of 
Kentucky  have  long  been  celebrated,  and  at 
one  time  it  was  supposed  that  the  grass  was  a 
peculiar  one;  but  it  is  now  well  ascertained 
that  it  is  only  the  common  June  grass  grow- 
ing in  a  peculiarly  genial  soil  and  climate.  So 
variable  is  this  species  that  the  English  wri- 
ters on  grasses  recognize  a  half  dozen  or  more 
named  varieties.  Other  species  of  poa  are 
found  in  our  fields  and  pastures,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  fowl  meadow  grass  or  false  red- 
top  (P.  serotina),  and  the  roughish  meadow 
grass  (P.  trivialis),  which  resembles  June 
grass,  but  blooms  in  moist  meadows  nearly  a 
month  later.  The  tall  fescue  (festuca  elatior), 
though  rarely  sown,  often  appears  in  meadows 
and  pastures ;  the  sheep's  fescue  (F.  ovina)  and 
the  hard  fescue  (var.  duriuscula)  grow  upon 
sandy  hard  soils,  and  in  some  localities  form  the 
bulk  of  the  sheep  pasturage.  The  tall  meadow- 
oat  grass  (avena  elatior)  was  some  years  ago 
overpraised  as  "  the  grass  of  the  Andes,"  and 
fell  into  disrepute ;  but  it  has  latterly  been  re- 
garded with  more  favor,  and  is  valued  by  those 
who  have  cultivated  it.  Meadow  foxtail  (alope- 
curus  pratensis)  is  highly  prized  as  a  pasture 
grass  in  England,  and  is  sparingly  introduced 
into  this  country;  it  has  a  resemblance  to 
timothy,  but  the  structure  of  the  flowers  is 
dUbrent,  and  it  is  much  more  soft  to  the  touch. 
Sweet-scented  vernal  grass,  the  odor  of  which 
baa  been  already  mentioned,  is  common  in 


meadows,  though  it  is  rarely  sown;  while  it 
adds  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  haying  season,  it 
is  of  no  agricultural  value.  Under  the  name 
of  rescue  grass,  a  plant  was  much  lauded  in 
Europe  a  few  years  ago  as  something  that 
would  rescue  fields  from  sterility  and  farmers 


FIG. 


.—Buffalo  Grass  (Buchloo  dactyloides). 
1.  Male.    2.  Female. 


from  ruin ;  the  seed  was  sold  as  ~bromus  ScJira- 
deri,  but  it  is  probably  a  form  of  bromus  unio- 
loides,  and  of  little  value.  Italian  rye  grass  is 
a  form  of  the  variable  lolium  perenne,  other 
varieties  of  which  are  known  as  Russell's, 
Pacey's,  and  Stickney's  rye  grasses ;  it  is  val- 
uable for  hay,  pasturage,  or  soiling,  especially 
on  irrigated  meadows.  —  Annual  Grasses. 
Among  those  of  this  class  grown  for  hay  are 
Hungarian  grass  (panicum  [setaria]  Germani- 
cum)  and  Italian  millet  (P.  miliaceum),  which 
are  often  useful  in  supplementing  a  short  hay 
crop.  The  foliage  of  some  of  the  cereal  grains 
is  used  for  forage,  it  being  cut  before  the  grain 
ripens  and  cured  like  hay ;  oat,  rye,  and  maize 
are  those  principally  grown. — Grasses  of  Spon- 
taneous Growth.  Bermuda  grass  (cynodon 
dactylon)  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Af- 
rica, and  is  abundantly  naturalized  south  of 
Pennsylvania.  It  is  a  low,  much-branched 
perennial,  creeping  extensively  by  root  stocks, 
and  soon  forms  a  dense  mat  that  completely 
excludes  all  other  vegetation.  In  most  locali- 
ties it  is  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed,  but 
it  is  of  great  value  where  other  grasses  will 
not  grow  for  pasturage,  and  even  for  hay ;  in 
this  country,  at  least,  it  is  not  known  to  per- 
fect seed.  Buffalo  grass  (buchloe  dactyloides), 
in  the  prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi,  extends 
from  the  British  possessions  to  Mexico,  and  is 
the  support  not  only  of  buffalo  and  deer,  but 
the  animals  of  the  recent  settler ;  it  is  one  of 
the  few  examples  of  a  dioecious  grass,  and  the 
male  and  female  plants  are  so  unlike  in  their 
flowering  parts  that  until  within  a  few  years 
they  were  regarded  as  belonging  to  distinct 


GRASSES 


genera;    the  pistillate  or  female  flowers  are 
enclosed  by  a  bur-like  woody  involucre;    it 
runs  extensively  by  stolons,  and  forms  a  dense 
turf,  the  foliage  of  which  is  but  a  few  inches 
high.     Mezquite  grass  is  often  mentioned  by 
travellers  in  the  far  southwest;  like  other  local 
names  in  new  countries,  this  is  applied  to  quite 
different  plants;  it  seems  to  be  given  to  what- 
7QT  grasses  grow  in  the  region  of  the  mezquite 
ee,  and  species  of  aristida,  bouteloua,  and 
ren  the  buffalo  grass,  have  this  name  given  to 
lem  by  different  persons.      Grama  grass  is 
Iso  praised  by  those  who  visit  Spanish  Amer- 
m  countries,  and  comprises  a  number  of  spe- 
js  of  bouteloua.     Another  indefinite  name 
>f  travellers  is  "  bunch  grass,"  given  to  any 
id  that  forms   clumps  or  tufts;    festucas, 
utelouas,  triticums,  and  eriocoma  all  bear 
lis  name. —  Grasses  regarded  as  Weeds.     One 
of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  of  the  farmer 
and  gardener  is  couch  grass  (triticum  repens), 
already  mentioned.     Chess  or  cheat  (bromus 
secalinus)  is  a  pest  of  the  grain  fields,  often  so 
abundant  from  unclean  seed  as  to  induce  igno- 
rant farmers  to  believe  that  wheat  really  turns 
into  chess.     Dogs-tail  or  wire  grass  (eleusine 
Indica)  is  a  common  weed  in  the  streets  of 
)wns  and  villages,  and  encroaches  upon  the 
near  them.     Barnyard  grass  (panicum 
alii)  is  common  in  waste  places,    and 
rb.ere  the  soil  is  rich  grows  with  great  luxu- 
iance,  but  being  an  annual  is  easily  subdued. 
The  crab  or  finger  grass  (panicum  sanguinale) 
late  in  summer  one  of  the  most  annoying  of 
le  gardener's  pests,  as  it  roots  at  every  joint, 
id  unless    eradicated  when  very  young  is 
iblesome. — Marsh  Grasses.    Along  the  mar- 
of  rivers,  especially  where  salt  and  fresh 
3r  meet,  there  are  often  wide  tracts  cover- 
with  verdure  and  known  as  meadows  or 
les.     When  the  growth  is  sufficiently  fine 
lese  meadows  are  mowed,  and  the  product, 
lown  as  marsh  hay  or  salt  hay,  is  largely 
sed  for  bedding  animals  and  for  mulching. 
)ften  a  large  share  of  this  hay  consists  of 
rasses,  but  frequently  it  is  made  up  of  rushes 
"  sedges ;  a  small  rush  (juncus  Gerardi  and 
perhaps  others),  called  "black  grass,"  often 
covers  large  tracts.     Among  the  grasses  prop- 
found    in    such  localities    are  species  of 
irtina,   glyceria,  and  phragmites.  —  Orna- 
mtal  Grasses.     Several  tropical  grasses  are 
>wn  as  greenhouse  plants,  and  in  late  years 
>  taste  for  cultivating  the  hardier  kinds  in 
le  open  border  has  greatly  increased.     Some 
"  these,  like  erianthus  Ravenna  and  the  pam- 
s  grass  (gynerium  argenteum),   are  grown 
>r  their    stately    appearance;    their   flower 
;alks    grow   to    the  height   of    12  ft.,    and 
leir  long  leaves  form  large  clumps  of  graceful 
itline.     Other  species  are  cultivated  for  the 
jauty  of  their  flowers,  which  are  dried  for 
laking  ornamental  bouquets.     In  some  of  the 
lorticultural  establishments  of  Germany  bou- 
lets  of  dried  grasses  are  an  article  of  export. 
-Very  many  kinds  of  grass  not  here  enumer- 


GRASSHOPPER 


169 


ated  are  more  or  less  well  known,  the  more 
important  of  which  are  treated  in  separate  ar- 
ticles, as  CANARY  GRASS,  FEATHER  GRASS,  MIL- 
LET, REED,  &c.  Many  plants  commonly  called 
grasses  do  not  belong  to  the  grass  family.  In 
some  agricultural  works,  clover,  lucerne,  sain- 
foin, and  other  forage  plants  are  incorrectly 
classed  as  grasses ;  these  will  be  found  under 
their  proper  titles. — The  most  complete  general 
scientific  treatises  upon  grasses  are  Kunth's 
Enumeratio  Plantarum  (5  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1833-'50)  and  Steudel's  Synopsis  Graminea- 
rum  (Stuttgart,  1855).  The  species  east  of 
the  Mississippi  are  described  in  Gray's  "Man- 
ual of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United 
States"  (New  York,  1867)  and  Chapman's 
"Flora  of  the  Southern  United  States  "  (New 
York,  1860) ;  those  of  the  far  western  portions 
of  our  territory  are  scattered  through  various 
reports  and  memoirs.  Flint's  "Grasses  and 
Forage  Plants  "  (Boston,  1867)  is  the  principal 
American  work  upon  the  agricultural  grasses. 
GRASSHOPPER,  a  name  properly  applied  to 
orthopterous  insects  of  the  family  locustadce. 
Some  European  entomologists  assign  the  gene- 
ric name  locusta  to  the  grasshopper  ;  the  sau- 
terelles  of  the  French  include  both  locusts  and 
grasshoppers;  great  inconvenience  has  arisen 
from  this  confusion  of  names,  which  will  be 
avoided  by  calling  the  grasshoppers  locustadce, 
and  the  locusts  acrydii.  The  locustadw  are 
characterized  by  having  long  antennae,  four 
joints  to  all  their  feet,  wing  covers  sloping 
downward  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the 
end  of  the  abdomen  in  the  females  provided 
with  a  projecting  sword-shaped  piercer;  the 
jaws  are  formed  for  mastication;  the  upper 
wings  are  thick  and  opaque,  overlapping  a  lit- 
tle on  the  back,  this  portion  forming  a  long 
triangle,  traversed  in  the  males  by  strong  pro- 
jecting veins,  between  which  are  thin,  transpa- 
rent, membranous  spaces ;  the  under  wings 
are  thin  and  folded  in  plaits  like  a  fan ;  they 
undergo  a  partial  transformation  the  larvas 
and  pupse  being  active,  voracious,  and  wing- 
less; they  are  injurious  to  vegetation  in  all 
their  forms.  The  males  emit  a  shrill  sound 
produced  by  the  friction  of  the  overlapping 
portions  of  the  wings,  intensified  by  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  air  contained  in  the  internal  air 
sacs,  and  its  action  upon  a  complicated  series  of 
valves  and  membranous  plates  about  the  ori- 
gins of  the  wings  and  legs.  Most  grasshop- 
pers are  of  a  green  color,  more  or  less  resem- 
bling the  leaves  upon  which  they  feed ;  they 
are  more  active  by  night  than  by  day ;  when 
taken,  they  emit  from  the  mouth  a  dark-col- 
ored fluid,  known  by  every  school  boy  as 
"molasses;"  they  do  not  associate  together, 
nor  migrate  from  place  to  place  in  large  num- 
bers, as  do  the  locusts  proper.  Some  live  upon 
grass  and  herbaceous  plants,  and  the  females 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground  in  holes  made  by 
their  nearly  straight  piercers;  the  eggs  are 
elongated,  ellipsoidal,  very  numerous,  from 
one  fourth  to  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  and 


170 


GRASSHOPPER 


covered  with  a  thin  varnish-like  film.  Others 
live  upon  trees  and  shrubs,  like  the  katydid ; 
their  wings  and  covers  are  broader,  and  they 
deposit  tlu-ireggs  on  the  branches  of  trees  in 
regular  rows,  having  shaved  off  the  bark  with 
tlu-ir  short  and  curved  piercer.  The  legs  are 


Oblong  Leaf-winged  Grasshopper  (Phylloptera  oblongifolia). 

three  pairs,  the  posterior  being  much  the  long- 
est and  capable  of  performing  the  jumps 
whence  these  insects  derive  their  name ;  they 
nil  end  in  elastic  hooks.  The  flight  of  the 
grasshopper  is  short,  unsteady,  and  noiseless, 
compared  with  that  of  the  locust.  The  Amer- 
ican katydid  (platypJiyllum  concavum,  Harris) 
will  be  described  under  that  title.  Other  na- 
tive grasshoppers  are :  1.  The  spotted  wingless 
grasshopper  (phalangopsis  maculata,  Harris), 
pale  yellowish  brown,  with  small  light  spots 
on  the  darker  back,  smooth  and  shining,  with 
arched  back,  from  half  an  inch  to  about  an 
inch  long;  it  is  common,  under  stones  and 
sticks  in  the  woods,  has  the  short  thick  body 
and  stout  hind  thighs  of  a  cricket,  and  is  en- 
tirely destitute  of  wings.  2.  The  oblong  leaf- 
winged  grasshopper  (phylloptera  ollongifolia, 
De  Geer)  is  of  a  brilliant  green,  with  very  deli- 
cate wings,  the  under  extending  far  beyond 
the  upper;  the  body  is  only  about  an  inch 
long,  but  to  the  end  of  the  wings  it  often  mea- 
sures three  inches;  in  its  perfect  state  it  is 
found  upon  trees  in  September  and  October; 


Narrow-leayed  Grasshopper  (Phancroptera  angustifolia). 


•1'iriii-  flight  it  makes  a  whizzing  noise.  3 
The  curved-tailed  grasshopper  (P.  curvicauda, 
B  Geer),  of  the  middle  and  southern  states,  is 
a  larger  species,  with  wing  covers  broadest  in 
the  middle.  4.  The  narrow-leaved  grasshopper 
(phaneroptera  angustifolia,  Harris)  is  green 


with  wing  covers  rounded  at  the  tips  and 
shorter  than  the  wings,  a  short  bent  piercer, 
and  in  the  male  a  long  tapering  projection  from 
the  under  side  of  the  body ;  it  measures  in  the 
body  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  and  to  the  end 
of  the  wings  about  an  inch  and  three  quarters; 
it  comes  to  maturity  early  in  September.  6. 
The  common  meadow  grasshopper  (orchelimum 
mtlgare,  Harris),  so  numerous  near  the  end  of 
summer  at  different  ages,  is  of  a  general  green, 
with  a  brown  stripe  on  the  top  of  the  head  and 
thorax;  it  measures  at  maturity  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  to  the  end  of  the  body,  and 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  more  to  the  end  of  the 
semi-transparent  wing  covers ;  the  shrilling  or- 
gans consist  of  a  transparent  glassy  spot  in  the 
overlapping  portion  of  each  wing  cover,  which 
is  larger  and  stronger  than  in  other  grasshop- 
pers; the  hindmost  thighs  are  smooth,  there 
are  two  spines  on  the  middle  of  the  breast,  and 
the  antenna?  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  hind 
legs.  6.  The  sword-bearer  grasshopper  (cono- 
cepkalus  ensiger,  Harris)  has  the  head  conical, 
extending  to  a  blunt  point  between  the  eyes, 
and  along,  straight,  sword-shaped  piercer;  it 
measures  an  inch  to  the  end  of  the  body,  and 


Common  Meadow  Grasshopper  (Orchelimum  vulgare). 

an  inch  more  to  the  end  of  the  wing  covers ; 
it  is  pale  green,  with  whitish  head,  and  pale 
brownish  green  legs  and  abdomen. — The  young 
grasshopper  comes  from  the  egg  without  wings ; 
passing  through  several  moultings,  the  body 
increases  and  little  stump-like  wings  appear; 
the  wings  gradually  become  longer  with  each 
change  of  skin,  the  insect  hopping  about  by 
means  of  its  muscular  hind  thighs ;  after  ceas- 
ing to  grow,  the  wings  are  perfect  organs 
of  flight,  and  the  grasshopper  enters  upon  its 
short  life ;  the  song  by  degrees  becomes  less, 
the  body  shrivels,  the  legs  wither,  the  appetite 
ceases,  and  in  three  or  four  weeks  the  whole 
number  are  dead.  The  larvae  remain  in  the 
earth  or  wherever  the  eggs  are  deposited  all 
winter,  and  are  hatched  in  the  spring ;  they 
are  voracious  as  larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  in- 
sect, and  in  all  these  stages  are  eagerly  de- 
voured by  fowls,  especially  turkeys. — The 
Cjen  grasshopper  of  Europe  (L.  viridissima, 
tr.)  is  two  inches  long,  of  a  fine  green  with- 
out spots.  The  L.  verrucivora  (Fabr.)  is  green, 
with  the  wing  covers  spotted  with  brown  and 
black ;  it  bites  severely,  and  the  Swedes  sub- 
mit their  warts  to  its  mandibles,  asserting 
that  after  its  bite  the  warts  quickly  disappear. 


GRASSMANtf 


There  are  many  other  species  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  but  none  merit  attention  for 
their  destructiveness  in  comparison  with  the 
locusts;  war  is  rarely  waged  against  grass- 
hoppers, as  their  natural  enemies,  birds,  do- 
mestic fowls,  and  sand  wasps,  keep  them  down 
in  proper  limits. 

GRASSMAM,  Hermann  Giinther,  a  German 
mathematician,  born  in  Stettin,  Prussia,  April 
15,  1809.  His  father  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  gymnasium  of  Stettin  and  the 
author  of  several  mathematical  text  books. 
Hermann  studied  theology  and  mathematics, 
and  from  1834  to  1852  was  a  teacher  in  the 
Otto-Schule  in  Stettin,  when  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  gym- 
nasium. In  1844  he  published  the  first  part 
of  Die  Wissenschaft  der  extensiven  Grosse,  eine 
neue  mathematische  Disciplin.  This  part  also 
bore  the  special  title  Die  lineale  Ausdehnungs- 
lehre,  ein  neuer  Zweig  der  Maihematik,  darge- 
stellt  und  durch  Anwendungen  avf  die  ubrigen 
Zweige  der  MathematiTe,  wie  auch  auf  die 
Statik,  Mechanifc,  die  LeJire  vom  Magnetismus 
und  die  Krystallonomie  erlautert.  In  the 
preface  to  this  work  he  gave  a  short  account 
of  his  discovery,  and  declared  his  intention  to 
make  its  development  and  application  the  chief 
object  of  his  life.  He  further  developed  his 
theory  in  Geometrische  Analyse  (1847),  which 
obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Prince  Jablo- 
novvski  scientific  society  of  Leipsic,  and  in  arti- 
cles in  Oelle's  mathematical  journal  treating 
the  higher  classes  of  curves.  In  1853  Cauchy 
published  in  the  Comptes  rendus  of  the  French 
academy  a  method  of  resolving  algebraical  equa- 
tions and  other  problems  by  means  of  certain 
symbolical  quantities,  which  he  called  clefs  alge- 
bralques.  The  method  was  identical  with  that 
employed  by  Grassmann,  and  the  latter  imme- 
diately addressed  a  "  claim  of  priority  "  to  the 
academy.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  ex- 
amine the  question,  but  it  never  made  any  re- 
port, and  Cauchy  abruptly  broke  off  the  publi- 
cation of  his  articles.  In  1862  Grassmann 
completed  the  development  of  his  theory  by 
publishing  Die  Ausdehnungslehre  volhtandig 
und  in  strenger  Form  "bearbeitet.  This  work 
is  in  strict  mathematical  form,  after  the  model 
of  Euclid's  Elements,  consisting  almost  entire- 
ly of  propositions  and  demonstrations.  In  it 
he  develops  the  connection  of  his  theory  with 
every  branch  of  mathematics,  from  arithmetic 
to  the  integral  calculus,  and  discusses  its  appli- 
cation to  geometry.  The  profoundly  meta- 
physical character  of  his  first  work  and  the  ex- 
ceedingly abstract  form  of  the  last,  together 
with  the  total  absence  of  all  geometrical  fig- 
ures and  all  simple  illustrations,  have  very 
much  retarded  the  progress  of  his  doctrine 
among  professed  mathematicians,  and  have  pre- 
vented its  comprehension  by  any  others.  It 
has  many  striking  analogies  to  the  quaternions 
of  Sir  William  Rowan  Hamilton.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  theory  of  Grassmann, 
or  one  essentially  the  same,  and  only  differing 


GRATIAtf 


171 


somewhat  in  form,  will  in  time  supersede  the 
whole  system  of  analytical  geometry  as  founded 
by  Descartes  and  so  greatly  developed  by  the 
labors  of  subsequent  mathematicians.  Grass- 
mann has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
leading  scientific  journals  of  Germany,  and  has 
published  text  books  on  various  branches  of 
science.  He  has  an  extensive  knowledge  of 
languages,  published  in  1870  a  work  on  the 
German  names  of  plants,  and  is  now  (1874)  en- 
gaged in  publishing  a  Sanskrit-German  diction- 
ary to  the  Rig  Veda. 

GRASS  TREE,  one  of  the  English  names  given 
to  plants  of  the  genus  xanthorrhcea,  which  are 
also  called  grass-gum  trees  and  black-boys. 
They  belong  to  the  order  liliacece,  and  are  es- 
pecially distinguished  by  their  crowns  of  long, 
pendulous,  grass-like  leaves,  from  the  centre  of 
which  arises  a  long  stem  bearing  at  its  summit 
a  dense  flower  spike  looking  somewhat  like  a 
large  cat-tail  (typha).  Some  species  have  very 
short  stems,  while  others  have  trunks  6  to  18 
ft.  high,  which,  with  their  singular  tufts  of 
leaves,  form  a  striking  feature  in  the  Australian 
landscape.  X.  arlorea,  X.  australis,  both  ar- 
borescent, and  X.  hastilis.  nearly  stemless,  are 
the  best  known  species,  as  they  are  the  prin- 
cipal ones  in  cultivation  as  ornamental  green- 
house plants.  Two  resins  obtained  from  these 
plants  have  been  known  for  some  time ;  one  is 
yellow  and  called  Botany  Bay  resin  and  gum 
acaroides,  and  the  other  red,  resembling  drag- 
on's blood,  and  known  as  black-boy  gum. 
They  are  aromatic,  contain  cinnamic  and  ben- 
zoic  acids,  and  have  the  general  properties  of 
the  balsams  proper.  No  important  use  seems 
to  have  been  found  for  these  products. 

GRATIAN  (AUGUSTUS  GKATIANUS),  emperor 
of  Rome,  born  in  Pannonia  in  359,  slain  at 
Lugdunum  (Lyons)  in  383.  His  father,  Valen- 
tinian  I.,  bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  Au- 
gustus in  his  childhood,  but  when  he  died  in 
375  the  officers  of  the  army  compelled  Gratian 
to  give  his  half  brother  Valentinian  II.,  then  a 
young  child,  a  share  in  the  western  empire,  the 
East  being  in  the  hands  of  his  uncle  Valens. 
Gratian  received  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  and 
reigned  over  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Africa  as 
guardian  of  his  brother.  Great  severity  marked 
the  beginning  of  his  reign.  When  the  East 
was  attacked  by  the  Goths,  Gratian  was  de- 
layed in  aiding  his  uncle  by  another  incursion 
of  barbarians  from  the  north;  and  when  he 
finally  marched  to  his  rescue,  he  received  the 
news  of  his  defeat  and  death  (378),  which 
made  him  the  ruler  of  both  parts  of  the  empire. 
In  the  next  year  he  ceded  the  East  to  the 
younger  Theodosius,  Several  wars  with  bar- 
barous tribes  on  the  Rhine  and  Danube  were 
successfully  terminated,  and  Gratian,  who  is 
praised  by  both  Christian  and  pagan  historians 
as  just,  moderate,  and  virtuous,  now  enjoyed  a 
few  years  of  repose  at  his  residence  in  Milan, 
where  he  became  the  friend  of  St.  Ambrose. 
By  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  the 
temples  and  the  abolition  of  the  privileges  of 


172 


GRATIOT 


the  priests,  ho  greatly  contributed  to  the  down- 
fall of  paganism.  A  military  rebellion,  which 
broke  out  in  Britain  under  Maximus,  and  spread 
to  Gaul,  deprived  him  of  his  throne  and  life. 

GRATIOT,  a  central  county  of  the  S.  penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  drained  by  Pine  and  Maple 
rivers;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,810. 
It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  productive 
soil,  partially  covered  with  pine  timber.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  127,111  bushels 
of  wheat,  81,655  of  Indian  corn,  64,923  of  oats, 
95,354  of  potatoes,  306,436  Ibs.  of  butter,  44,- 
903  of  wool,  and  13,297  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,072  horses,  3,288  milch  cows,  4,748 
other  cattle,  11,536  sheep,  and  4,890  swine;  4 
flour  mills,  and  13  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ithaca. 

GRATRY,  Angnste  Joseph  Alphons*,  abbe,  a 
French  theologian,  born  in  Lille,  March  30, 
1805,  died  at  Montreux,  Switzerland,  Feb.  6, 
1872.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  college  of  Ste.  Barbe,  Paris,  and  in  1846 
chaplain  of  the  superior  normal  school.  In  1851 
a  controversy  with  his  colleague,  M.  Vacherot, 
led  to  their  resigning  their  positions.  Gratry 
now  founded,  in  conjunction  with  the  abb6 
Petetot,  a  society  of  priests  called  "Oratory 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,"  and  devoted 
himself  in  an  especial  manner  to  the  conver- 
sion and  instruction  of  the  Parisian  youth.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  by  Bishop  Dupanloup 
vicar  general  of  Orleans,  and  in  1863  became 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  the  Sorbonne. 
On  the  publication  of  his  Cours  de  philosophic 
(1855-'7)  he  was  hailed  as  a  valuable  auxiliary 
by  the  ontologists.  In  1864  he  vehemently 
attacked  Renan  and  the  whole  rationalistic 
school ;  and  in  1867  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  academy,  chiefly,  it  is  thought, 
in  consideration  of  his  three  works,  Paix,  medi- 
tations historiques  et  religieuses  (1862),  Sources, 
conseih  pour  la  conduite  de  T  esprit  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1861-'2),  and  Commentaires  sur  Vevangile  de 
Saint  Matthieu  (1863).  In  1869  his  connection 
with  Pere  Hyacinthe  and  the  "International 
League  of  Peace"  drew  on  him  the  censure  of 
the  superior  of  the  Oratory,  from  which  body 
he  thereupon  withdrew.  In  1870  he  published 
two  letters  on  the  position  of  parties  in  the 
council  of  the  Vatican,  which  he  retracted  in 
December,  1872,  in  a  letter  to  the  new  arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  Guibert.  His  principal  works, 
besides  those  above  mentioned,  are:  Philoso- 
vhie  du  Credo  (1861);  Jems-Christ,  lettres  a 
M.  Renan  (1864);  Lea  sophittes  et  la  critique 
(1864) ;  II,  N  /•/  I'crreyce  (1866) ;  and  La  morale 
etlaloide  Wiutoire  (2  vols.  8vo,  1868). 

GRATTAN,  Henry,  an  Irish  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  Dublin,  July  3,  1746,  died  in 
London,  May  14,  1820.  His  father,  a  barrister 
and  a  Protestant,  was  for  many  years  record- 
'  Dublin  and  also  a  member  of  the  Irish 
partUment  Il.-nry  entered  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  in  1765,  and  graduated  with  distinction 
in  17<:7,  after  which  he  removed  to  London 
and  became  a  student  in  the  Middle  Temple 
Hi»  admiration  for  the  eloquence  of  Lord  Chat- 


GRATTAN 

ham  determined  him  to  become  an  orator. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772,  and 
in  1775  entered  the  Irish  parliament  as  repre- 
sentative of  Charlemont.  He  at  once  joined 
the  opposition,  and  united  with  Flood  and  the 
leading  patriots  of  the  day  in  endeavoring  to 
obtain  free  trade  for  Ireland.  On  April  19, 
1780,  he  introduced  and  supported  with  great 
eloquence  the  famous  declaration  of  right, 
denying  the  power  of  the  British  parliament 
to  legislate  for  Ireland.  His  motion  was  lost, 
but  he  became  the  idol  of  the  Irish  people. 
He  fired  their  national  spirit,  and  through  his 
influence  the  volunteer  bands  assembling  from 
all  parts  of  Ireland  were  swelled  to  the  num- 
ber of  80,000.  These  volunteers  held  a  meet- 
ing at  Dungannon  in  February,  1782,  and  passed 
unanimously  the  resolution  drawn  up  by  Mr. 
Grattan,  that  "  a  claim  of  any  body  of  men, 
other  than  the  king,  lords,  and  commons  of 
Ireland,  to  make  laws  to  bind  this  kingdom,  is 
unconstitutional,  illegal,  and  a  grievance."  On 
April  16,  1782,  he  repeated  in  the  house  of 
commons  his  motion  for  a  declaration  of  Irish 
right.  The  resolutions  were  carried  by  an 
overwhelming  majority.  Mr.  Fox  decided  in- 
stantly to  yield,  and  brought  in  a  Trill  for  re- 
pealing the  act  (6  George  I.)  by  which  the 
British  parliament  claimed  the  right  to  bind 
Ireland  by  British  laws.  Grattan  was  now  the 
most  popular  man  in  Ireland,  and  parliament 
proposed  to  vote  him  £100,000  "  as  a  testimony 
of  the  national  gratitude  for  great  national  ser- 
vices." It  was  only  at  the  earnest  request  of 
his  friends  that  he  agreed  to  accept  half  the 
amount.  During  the  following  sessions  of 
parliament  he  found  a  bitter  and  sarcastic  op- 
ponent in  Flood,  who  encouraged  the  story 
which  had  been  set  on  foot,  that  Grattan  hav- 
ing received  his  pay  had  ceased  to  be  a  patriot. 
In  1785,  by  his  opposition  to  the  propositions 
regarding  the  trade  between  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  known  as  Ord's  propositions,  he  re- 
gained his  popularity.  In  1790  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  by  the  city  of  Dublin.  On  the 
arrival  in  1795  of  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  he  asso- 
ciated himself  with  that  nobleman  in  origi- 
nating plans  for  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  his 
native  country.  After  the  earl's  recall  dissen- 
sions arose,  and  the  society  of  United  Irish- 
men proposed  to  form  a  republic,  and  opened 
intercourse  with  France  to  gain  help.  Grat- 
tan, after  advising  conciliatory  measures  in 
vain,  withdrew  from  parliament.  When  Mr. 
Pitt  proposed  measures  for  uniting  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  he  again  obtained  a  seat  in 
parliament  as  member  for  Wicklo\v,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  opposing  this  measure ;  but 
when  the  union  had  been  effected  he  entered 
the  imperial  parliament  as  representative  of  the 
borough  of  Malton  in  1805,  and  of  Dublin  in 
1806.  In  opposition  to  the  corporation  of  his 
native  city,  he  advocated  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  undertook  a  journey  to  London,  while 
in  feeble  health,  to  present  a  petition  from  the 
Catholics  to  the  house  of  commons.  When 


GRATTAN 

his  friends  remonstrated,  he  replied  that  he 
would  be  happy  to  die  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duty,  and  he  did  in  fact  sink  under  the  exer- 
tion soon  after  his  arrival.  Grattan  was  be- 
low medium  stature  and  exceedingly  unpre- 
possessing in  appearance.  His  oratory  was 
impassioned,  and  he  was  often  entirely  over- 
come by  his  subject.  His  private  character 
was  without  a  blemish.  His  speeches  were 
edited  by  his  son  Henry  Grattan  (4  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1822),  and  a  selection  from  them  by  D.  O. 
Maddyn  (Dublin,  1845).  A  volume  of  his 
miscellaneous  works  appeared  in  1822,  and  his 
"Life  and  Times"  by  his  son  in  1839-'46  (5 
vols.,  London). 

GRATTAN,  Thomas  Coltey,  an  Irish  novelist, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1796,  died  in  London,  July 
4, 1864.  He  studied  law,  and  procured  a  com- 
mission in  the  army,  but  renounced  both  pro- 
fessions on  his  marriage,  and  afterward  resi- 
ded in  France.  At  the  age  of  25  he  published 
"Philibert,"  a  metrical  romance,  which  was 
a  complete  failure.  He  next  became  a  contrib- 
utor to  various  magazines  and  reviews,  and 
in  1823  published  in  two  volumes  the  first  se- 
ries of  "  Highways  and  Byways."  A  second 
series  appeared  in  1824,  and  a  third  in  1827, 
each  in  three  volumes.  Establishing  himself 
in  Brussels,  he  wrote  a  number  of  works,  of 
which  "Traits  of  Travel"  (3  vols.,  1829), 
"The  Heiress  of  Bruges"  (4  vols.,  1830;  new 
ed.,  3  vols.,  1834-'49),  "  History  of  the  Nether- 
lands "  (1830),  "  Jacqueline  of  Holland  "  (1842), 
and  "  Legends  of  the  Rhine  "  (3  vols.,  1849), 
are  the  best  known.  Having  actively  sup- 
ported the  candidacy  of  King  Leopold  in  the 
Belgian  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  at  the  re- 
quest of  that  sovereign  appointed  in  1839  Brit- 
ish consul  to  Boston,  which  office  he  resigned 
in  1852,  to  accept  one  in  the  queen's  household. 
His  "Civilized  America"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1859)  is  a  spiteful  record  of  his  experiences  in 
North  America.  His  last  work  was  "Beaten 
Paths"  (2  vols.,  1862). 

JRATTONI,  SeYerino,  an  Italian  engineer,  born 
Voghera,  Dec.  7,  1816.  After  extensive 

idies,  he  was  from  1845  to  1851  director  of 
an  observatory  under  Plana,  and  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Cavour,  who  consulted  him  on 
public  works,  especially  on  the  project  of  pierc- 
ing Mont  Cenis.  Grattoni,  being  elected  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  supported  Cavour's 
policy,  and  was  soon  called  upon,  together  with 
Sommeiller  and  Grandis,  to  devote  himself  to 
the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  scheme.  While  Som- 
meiller supplied  the  chief  inventive  power,  and 
Grandis  a  sound  judgment  on  theoretical  ques- 
tions, Grattoni,  by  his  skill,  energy,  and  perse- 
verance, became  the  organizing  genius  of  the 
work,  which  was  completed  in  September,  1871. 

GRATZ,  or  Gratz,  a  town  of  Austria,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Styria,  on  the  Mur,  90  m. 
3.  S.  W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1870,  80,732.  It 
consists  of  the  town  proper,  which  is  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  and  is  fortified,  and  of 
four  suburbs  connected  with  the  town  and 


GRAVEL 


173 


with  each  other  by  bridges.  The  chief  public 
buildings  are  a  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral 
erected  by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  in  1456 ; 
St.  Catharine's  chapel,  built  as  a  mausoleum  by 
Ferdinand  II.,  whose  remains  repose  here ;  the 
Landhaus,  where  the  diet  of  Styria  holds  its  ses- 
sions ;  the  old  palace  of  the  Styrian  dukes ;  the 
university,  founded  in  1586,  subsequently  abol- 
ished, restored  in  1827,  and  having  in  1873-'4 
70  professors  and  975  students,  with  a  library 
of  about  70,000  volumes  and  7,500  MSS. ;  the 
Johanneum,  an  institution  established  in  1811 
by  Archduke  John  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  arts,  sciences,  and  manufactures  of  Styria; 
and  the  refectory  or  convicte,  the  largest  build- 
ing in  Gratz,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits, 
but  now  a  collegiate  school.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  who  bears  the  title 
of  bishop  of  Seckau.  There  are  22  Catholic 
churches,  a  Protestant  church,  and  10  con- 
vents. The  principal  manufactures  are  cot- 
ton, woollen,  silk,  hardware,  leather,  and  paper. 

GRAUBUNDEff,  or  Graubiindten.    See  GEISONS. 

GRAIDENZ,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  West  Prussia,  on  the  Vistula, 
60  m.  S.  of  Dantzic;  pop.  in  1871,  15,559.  It 
has  a  Protestant  and  five  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  a  convent,  a  gymnasium,  a  normal 
school,  and  two  hospitals.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  cloth,  tobacco,  and  carriages,  sev- 
eral breweries  and  distilleries,  a  considerable 
trade  in  cloth  and  corn,  some  shipping,  and 
four  annual  fairs.  The  fortress  was  built  by 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  became  famous  in 
1807  for  its  brave  defence  by  Courbiere. 

GRAUN,  Karl  Heinrich,  a  German  composer, 
born  in  Wahrenbruck,  Saxony,  in  1701,  died  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  8,  1759.  He  studied  music  in 
Dresden,  subsequently  became  tenor  and  com- 
poser to  the  opera  house  in  Brunswick,  and  in 
1740  was  appointed  by  Frederick  the  Great 
his  chapelmaster,  a  position  which  he  occupied 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was  the 
author  of  30  operas,  and  an  immense  number 
of  cantatas  and  miscellaneous  pieces.  His 
best  works  are  the  oratorio  Der  Tod  Jesii, 
and  his  Te  Deum. 

GRAVE  CREEK.    See  MOUNDSVILLE. 

GRAVEL,  small  stones,  commonly  intermixed 
with  sand,  and  sometimes  with  clayey  or  cal- 
careous earth.  Such  a  mixture  constitutes  the 
principal  portion  of  the  drift  formation ;  and 
where  this  prevails,  the  surface  of  the  coun- 
try is  often  covered  to  unknown  depths  with 
deposits  of  sand  and  gravel.  It  forms  hills 
throughout  New  England,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  Long  Island  is  covered  with  it.  (See 
DILUVIUM.)  It  is  of  more  recent  formation 
wherever  rocks,  especially  the  granitic,  are 
comminuted  by  joint  action  of  atmospheric 
and  fluviatile  agents,  and  their  materials  are 
gathered  in  the  bed  and  banks  of  swift  running 
streams.  On  the  beaches  of  seas  and  lakes, 
the  gravel,  piled  up  in  beds  of  coarse  pebbles 
and  washed  clean  of  sand  and  all  earthy  mat- 
ters, is  called  shingle. 


174 


GRAVEL 


GRAVEL,  substances  consolidated  and  pre- 
cipitated from  the  urine  within  the  body,  in 
certain  diseased  conditions  of  the  system,  dif- 
fering from  calculi  by  their  small  size,  and 
generally  voided  without  surgical  interference. 
(See  CALCULI.)  The  appearance  of  gravel  is 
important  as  evidence  of  a  disposition  to  cal- 
culous  deposits,  and  as  indicating  the  proper 
treatment.  When  the  disposition  exists,  any- 
thing which  obstructs  the  passage  of  urine  fa- 
vors the  precipitation  of  gravel.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  gravel,  as  there  are  three  princi- 
pal forms  of  calculi,  viz. :  the  lithic,  the  ox- 
alic, and  the  phosphatic.  Lithic  or  uric  acid,  a 
highly  nitrogenous  compound,  exists  normally 
in  the  urine  in  combination  with  soda ;  if  the 
urine  be  abormally  acid,  the  lithic  acid  will  be 
precipitated  in  a  crystalline  form,  constituting 
the  lithic  or  red  gravel ;  lithic  acid  when  pure 
is  white,  but  in  human  urine  it  assumes  the 
tint  of  its  coloring  matter,  which  causes  it  to 
look  like  Cayenne  pepper.  The  urine  con- 
taining this  gravel  is  generally  acid,  high-col- 
ored, scanty,  but  clear ;  in  what  is  called  a  "  fit 
of  the  gravel,"  this  acid  is  precipitated  in  large 
quantity,  accompanied  by  fever,  pains  shooting 
from  the  loins  to  the  bladder,  frequent  and 
scalding  micturition,  &c.  The  causes  which 
predispose  to  the  excessive  formation  of  lithic 
acid  have  been  detailed  in  the  article  GOUT, 
with  which  disease  gravel  is  intimately  con- 
nected ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  here  that  the 
use  of  highly  nitrogenous  food  and  stimulating 
drinks,  and  sedentary  or  slothful  habits,  are 
very  likely  to  induce  both  gout  and  lithic  acid 
gravel.  Though  not  unfrequently  occurring 
in  children,  gravel  is  most  common  between 
the  ages  of  40  and  65  ;  it  is  comparatively  rare 
in  warm  climates,  or  in  persons  living  chiefly 
on  vegetable  food.  On  the  principles  of  Lie- 
big,  the  great  indication  for  the  treatment  of 
the  red  gravel  is  to  promote  the  action  of  oxy- 
gen on  lithic  acid  so  as  to  cause  its  conversion 
into  urea  and  carbonic  acid,  and  its  consequent 
escape  from  the  system  through  the  urine  and 
the  perspiration ;  in  other  words,  to  take  in 
an  increased  supply  of  oxygen  by  exercise  in 
the  open  air,  by  preparations  of  iron,  and  by 
the  nitro-muriatic  acid ;  to  moderate  the  quan- 
tity of  highly  nitrogenous  food,  avoiding  that 
containing  much  starch  and  sugar,  as  well  as 
malt  and  fermented  liquors;  to  secure  a  healthy 
action  of  the  skin  by  suitable  clothing  and  at- 
tention to  cleanliness ;  to  remove  all  intestinal 
obstructions,  and  to  neutralize  acidity,  if  neces- 
sary, by  the  administration  of  alkalies.— The 
lithic  acid  gravel  may  be  regarded  as  the  sign 
of  an  inflammatory  or  congestive  habit,  but  the 
next  form,  or  the  oxalic  acid  gravel,  belongs 
to  an  irritable  or  nervous  constitution,  and  is 
usually  accompanied  by  a  dry  skin,  dyspepsia, 
boils,  carbuncles  in  advanced  life,  and  nervous 
exhaustion  or  despondency ;  the  urine  is  trans- 
parent, pale  greenish  yellow,  of  moderate  speci- 
fic gravity,  and  free  from  sediments,  but  con- 
taining minute  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime.  The 


GRAVELOTTE 

causes  of  this  diathesis  are  such  as  produce 
dyspepsia,  nervous  debility,  and  hypochondriac 
diseases :  residence  in  malarious  districts,  and 
unwholesome  vegetable  food.  The  treatment 
is  very  similar  to  that  for  lithic  acid  gravel,  it 
being  remembered  that  in  this  case  the  sys- 
tem craves  less  oxygen ;  distilled  water  is  ad- 
vised in  order  that  lime  may  not  in  this  way 
be  introduced  into  the  system  and  endanger 
the  formation  of  mulberry  calculi;  alkalies, 
with  ammonia,  tonics,  and  the  mineral  acids, 
are  required  according  to  circumstances.  Oxa- 
late  of  lime  deposits,  however,  are  usually 
much  less  abundant  and  less  irritating  than 
those  of  uric  acid,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  are 
less  important  indications  of  an  unhealthy 
state  of  the  system.  The  white  gravel  may 
be  either  the  ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate 
or  the  phosphate  of  lime,  or  the  mixture  of 
the  two.  The  earthy  phosphates  are  naturally 
held  in  solution  by  the  acid  reaction  of  the 
urine ;  and  when  this  is  neutralized  or  replaced 
by  an  alkaline  reaction,  these  phosphates  are 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  amorphous 
powder.  If  the  urine  become  ammoniacal,  a 
new  compound  is  formed,  namely,  the  triple 
phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia.  This 
substance  has  the  form  of  three-sided  pris- 
matic crystals,  sometimes  large  enough  to  be 
distinguished  by  the  naked  eye.  The  phos- 
phatic diathesis  is  generally  seen  in  pale  and 
weak  persons,  complaining  of  nervous  exhaus- 
tion, as  Dr.  Prout  maintains,  on  account  of 
the  great  consumption  of  phosphorus  in  ner- 
vous diseases  ;  it  may  be  produced  by  exces- 
sive fatigue  of  body  or  mind,  intense  study, 
unwholesome  food,  weakening  medicines,  and 
chronic  urinary  affections.  The  treatment 
should  consist  of  tonics. 

GRAVELINES  (Flem.  G-ravelinglie  ;  Ger.  Gra- 
velingeri),  a  fortified  seaport  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Le  Nord,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Aa,  10  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Dunkirk  ;  pop.  in 
1866,  6,510.  It  contains  a  handsome  market 
place,  a  church  built  in  the  16th  century,  and 
a  modern  town  hall,  and  has  an  extensive  coast- 
ing trade  and  active  fisheries.  Cheese,  butter, 
and  eggs  are  exported ;  sail  cloth  and  linens 
are  manufactured,  and  there  is  some  ship  build- 
ing. The  town  was  founded  in  1160  by  Count 
Thierry  of  Alsace  and  Flanders.  A  famous 
victory  was  achieved  here  by  the  Spaniards 
under  Egmont  over  the  French  under  the 
marshal  de  Thermes,  July  13,  155,8.  It  was 
annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyre- 
nees (1659).  Louis  XIV.  had  new  fortifica- 
tions constructed,  designed  by  Vauban. 

GRAVELOTTE,  a  village  of  Germany,  in  Al- 
sace-Lorraine, on  the  Moselle,  8  m.  W.  of  Metz ; 
pop.  700.  Here  on  Aug.  18,  1870,  the  first  and 
second  German  armies,  commanded  by  Gen. 
Steinmetz  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  under 
King  William  in  person,  obtained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  French  under  Marshal  Bazaine. 
The  battle  of  Gravelotte  decided  the  fate  of 
Metz.  It  was  probably  the  bloodiest  and  the 


GRAVES 


GRAVITY 


175 


on 
G 


3t  hotly  contested  of  the  war,  the  loss  of 
le  Germans  being  about  20,000  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  that  of  the  French,  who  occu- 
pied superior  positions  and  acted  on  the  defen- 
sive, about  13,000. 

GRAVES,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  bor- 
dering on  Tennessee,  and  drained  by  Mayfield 
creek  and  Obion  river ;  area,  515  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  19,398,  of  whom  2,329  were  colored. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Paducah  and  Memphis 
railroad.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  gen- 
erally productive.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  96,453  bushels  of  wheat,  842,445  of 
Indian  corn,  24,424  of  oats,  14,952  of  Irish  and 
24,259  of  sweet  potatoes,  158,380  Ibs.  of  butter, 
4,774,195  of  tobacco,  and  187  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  3,935  horses,  2,311  mules  and  asses, 
3,681  milch  cows,  4,404  other  cattle,  13,876 
sheep,  and  31,570  swine ;  1  woollen  factory, 
and  2  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  estab- 
lishments.' Capital,  Mayfield. 

GRAVES,  Robert,  an  English  engraver,  born 
May  7,  1798,  died  in  London,  Feb.  28,  1873. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  Graves,  a  noted 
connoisseur  of  rare  prints,  and  the  grandson 
of  a  printseller.  Among  his  latest  productions 
were  a  series  of  portraits  from  the  works  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  Gainsborough,  and 
"  is  last  work  was  the  portrait  of  Charles  Dick- 
after  Frith. 

GRAVESANDE,  Willem  Jakob  ran  >s,  a  Dutch 
philosopher,  born  in  Bois-le-Duc,  Sept.  27, 1688, 
died  in  Leyden,  Feb.  28,  1742.  He  published 
at  the  age  of  18  an  essay  on  perspective,  and  a 
philosophical  thesis  on  suicide.  After  comple- 
ting his  studies  in  the  university  of  Leipsic  in 
1707,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  Hague, 
where  he  wrote  for  the  Journal  Litteraire 
an  examination  of  Fontenelle's  "  Geometry  of 
the  Infinite,"  a  dissertation  on  the  construc- 
tion of  the  air  pump,  one  concerning  the  force 
of  bodies,  in  which  he  embraced  the  opinion 
of  Leibnitz  against  that  of  Newton,  and  dis- 
sertations upon  the  motion  of  the  earth,  &c. 
In  1717  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  in  the  university  of 
Leyden,  and  exchanged  his  chair  in  1734  for 
that  of  philosophy,  which  he  held  till  his  death. 
His  philosophical  writings  are  eclectic  in  char- 
acter, combining  portions  of  the  doctrines  of 
Locke,  Descartes,  and  Leibnitz.  His  principal 
works  are:  Phy  sices  Elementa  Mathematica 
(2  vols.  4to,  the  Hague,  1720-'23) ;  Matheseos 
Universalis  Elementa  (8vo,  Leyden,  1727) ; 
and  Introductio  ad  Philosophiam,  Metaphysi- 
cam  et  Logicam  (Leyden,  1736-'7). 

GRAVESEND,  a  municipal  borough,  town,  and 
river  port  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thames,  21  m.  E.  by  S.  of  London ;  pop. 
in  1871,  21,183.  The  principal  public  edifices 
are  the  town  hall,  parochial  church  (where 
Pocahontas  is  buried),  literary  institution,  and 
theatre.  Ship  building  is  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  but  the  chief  trade  arises  from 
supplying  outward-bound  ships  with  stores  and 
clothing.  Gravesend  is  the  limit  of  the  port 
372  VOL.  viii.—12 


of  London ;  inward-bound  vessels  stop  here 
for  examination  by  the  customs  officers. 

GRAVIER,  Jacques,  a  French  missionary  in 
America,  died  in  1708.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
in  Canada,  in  1684,  he  was  sent  to  the  Illinois 
region,  where  he  followed  up  the  labors  of  Mar- 
quette  and  Allouez  among  the  Kaskaskias  and 
other  bands  of  the  Illinois,  and  became  the  real 
founder  of  the  mission,  which  he  directed  for 
many  years,  meeting  much  opposition  from  the 
medicine  men,  and  receiving  at  their  hands  a 
wound  which  ultimately  caused  his  death.  He 
compiled  a  grammar  of  the  Illinois,  which  was 
highly  esteemed  and  formed  the  basis  of  all 
subsequent  works  of  the  kind.  "When  Iberville 
began  the  settlement  of  Louisiana,  the  Illinois 
prepared  to  go  down  the  Mississippi ;  but  the 
Kaskaskias,  the  first  to  move,  were  induced  by 
Gravier  to  halt  at  the  place  which  now  bears 
their  name.  He  went  down  to  confer  with 
Iberville,  and  has  left  a  journal  of  his  canoe 
voyage.  He  descended  again  in  1706,  and  went 
to  Europe.  He  returned  in  February,  1708, 
but  must  have  reembarked,  as  he  died  at  sea 
in  April.  Of  his  writings  the  following  have 
been  printed :  Relation  de  ce  qui  tfest  passe 
dans  la  mission  de  Vlmmaculee  Conception  au 
pays  des  Illinois  1693-'4  (8vo,  New  York, 
1857) ;  Relation  ou  Journal  du  voyage  en  1700 
depuis  le  pays  des  Illinois  jusqu'd  V embouchure 
du  Mississipi  (1859) ;  Lettre  sur  les  affaires  de 
la  Louisiane,  fev.  23,  1708  (1865). 

GRAY  INA,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  36  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Bari,  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  an  affluent  of  the  Bradano ; 
pop.  about  14,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  five  churches  and  a  gymnasium.  It  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Saracens  in  975, 

GRAVINA,  GiOTanni  Vincenzo,  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  at  Roggiano,  Jan.  20, 1664,  died  in  Rome, 
Jan.  6,  1718.  Devoting  himself  to  civil  and 
canon  law,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1689,  published 
several  brief  works  on  morals  and  literature, 
and  in  1695,  having  collected  15  of  his  friends 
in  his  garden,  formed  the  academy  of  the  Ar- 
cadians. In  1699  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  civil  law  in  the  college  of  La  Sapienza,  and 
in  1703  of  canon  law.  He  soon  after  published 
his  works  on  the  "  Origin  of  the  Civil  Law  " 
and  on  the  "  Roman  Empire."  A  schism  took 
place  in  1711  in  the  academy  of  the  Arcadians, 
and  Gravina  and  his  friends  withdrew  and 
founded  the  Quirina  academy.  He  was  the 
adoptive  father  of  Metastasio. 

GRAVITY,  or  Gravitation  (Lat.  granites, 
weight),  in  physics,  the  tendency  of  bodies  to- 
ward each  other  or  toward  a  centre  of  attrac- 
tion. In  the  article  ASTRONOMY  we  have  con- 
sidered the  history  of  the  discovery  of  the  great 
law  of  gravitation,  and  have  sketched  the  ap- 
plication of  the  law  to  elucidate  a  variety  of 
problems  of  interest  connected  with  the  mo- 
tions of  the  celestial  bodies;  in  the  article 
EARTH  we  have  considered  the  application  of 
this  law  to  determine  the  mass  and  figure  of 
the  earth ;  and  in  dealing  with  the  lunar  mo- 


176 


GRAVITY 


tions,  we  shall  have  to  consider  more  in  detail 
the  perturbative  action  of  gravity.  In  the 
present  place,  therefore,  we  limit  ourselves  to 
the  consideration  of  terrestrial  gravity  in  its 
effects  on  bodies  upon  or  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  There  are  two  ways  in  which 
the  action  of  gravity  at  any  station  can  bo 
measured.  We  can  examine  its  effect  in  caus- 
ing bodies  to  have  weight ;  this  is  the  statical 
action  of  gravity.  Or  we  can  consider  its 
effect  upon  bodies  let  fall  to  the  earth  ;  the  ve- 
locity acquired  in  a  given  time  affords  the  means 
of  estimating  this,  the  dynamical  action  of 
gravity.  For  many  reasons  the  latter  is  the 
more  convenient  method  of  measuring  it.  The 
balance,  the  readiest  and  most  trustworthy 
method  of  weighing  bodies,  obviously  fails  us 
when  the  measurement  of  the  effect  of  gravity 
is  in  question,  since  the  weight  and  the  body 
weighed  are  equally  under  its  influence.  Nor 
can  the  spring  balance  be  trusted  for  compar- 
ing the  action  of  gravity  at  different  stations, 
even  though  the  utmost  precaution  has  been 
exercised  in  freeing  the  instrument  from  the 
disturbing  influences  of  differences  or  changes 
of  temperature.  No  difficulties  of  this  sort 
attend  the  dynamical  method  of  measuring 
gravity;  because  bodies  of  different  specific 
gravity,  or  the  same  body  in  different  condi- 
tions of  temperature,  will  fall  (invacuo)  through 
the  same  space  in  the  same  time  under  the  in- 
fluence of  gravity.  The  resistance  of  the  air 
may  indeed  be  neglected  where  the  difference 
of  specific  gravity  is  very  small,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  same  mass  of  metal  at  different  tempera- 
tures. The  method  of  measurement  here  in- 
dicated is  however  comparatively  rough.  It 
was  that  used  by  Galileo  to  determine  the 
time  of  fall  of  bodies  under  the  influence  of 
gravity,  and  by  means  of  the  mechanical  ar- 
rangement called  Atwood's  machine  it  can  be 
applied  to  obtain  a  fair  approximation  to  the 
velocity  acquired  in  a  given  time.  But  for  all 
delicate  researches  the  pendulum  is  employed. 
It  is  known  that  when  a  pendulum  swings  in 
a  short  arc  its  rate  of  swing  is  appreciably 
constant  (though  the  small  arc  should  vary), 
and  depends  on  the  length  and  figure  of  the 
pendulum  and  the  action  of  gravity.  Contri- 
vances have  been  invented  by  which  the  true 
rate  of  swing  at  any  place,  for  a  pendulum  of 
known  figure,  can  be  most  accurately  ascer- 
tained. This  being  effected,  it  becomes  possi- 
ble to  compare  the  action  of  gravity  at  differ- 
ent terrestrial  stations. — Gravity  varies  on  the 
earth's  surface  owing  to  two  principal  causes. 
In  the  first  place,  the  earth  is  rotating,  and  every 
point  on  its  surface  therefore  has  a  tendency 
(constantly  overcome  by  gravity)  to  move  in 
a  straight  line  tangent  to  the  earth's  surface. 
This  tendency  is  commonly  called  the  centrif- 
ugal force  due  to  the  earth's  rotation ;  an  ob- 
jectionable mode  of  expression,  because  no 
force  properly  so  called  is  in  question.  The 
tendency  is  mere  inertia.  If  the  tendency 
were  the  same  at  all  stations,  gravity  would 


be  uniformly  affected,  and  no  difference  would 
accrue;  but  the  tendency  is  greatest  at  the 
equator,  where  the  motion  is  most  rapid,  and 
diminishes  thence  to  the  poles,  where  it  is  zero. 
The  action  of  gravity  in  producing  weight  or 
in  causing  the  fall  of  a  body  is  obviously  di- 
minished by  this  tendency;  and  being  most 
diminished  at  the  equator,  gravity  is  there  least 
on  this  account,  and  gradually  increases  to- 
ward the  poles.  It  is  estimated  that,  so  far  as 
this  cause  alone  is  concerned,  gravity  at  the 
equator  should  be  less  than  at  the  poles  by 
^  part.  But  secondly,  owing  to  the  same 
cause  (the  rotation  of  the  earth),  the  terrestrial 
globe  is  not  a  perfect  sphere,  but  is  compressed 
at  the  poles.  Hence  a  body  placed  at  a  pole 
of  the  earth  is  nearer  to  the  centre  of  gravity 
than  a  body  placed  at  the  equator ;  and  though 
this  cause  alone  would  not  suffice  to  render  the 
action  of  gravity  greater  on  the  body  at  the 
pole,  since  at  the  bottom  of  a  mine  gravity 
may  be  and  usually  is  less  than  at  the  mouth 
(see  EAETH),  yet  under  the  actual  circum- 
stances a  body  at  the  pole  is  on  the  whole 
brought  under  the  more  effective  action  of 
gravity.  A  complete  mathematical  comparison 
of  the  attractions  under  the  two  conditions 
shows  that  gravity  at  the  equator,  so  far  as  the 
cause  we  are  now  considering  is  concerned,  is 
less  than  gravity  at  the  poles  by  about  -^fa. 
Combining  the  two  effects,  we  obtain  for  the 
total  decrease  of  gravity  at  the  equator: 
y^+^zs-j^y.  In  other  words,  if  gravity  at 
the  poles  be  represented  by  195,  gravity  at  the 
equator  will  be  represented  by  194.  Minor 
causes  exist,  which  however  need  not  here  be 
taken  into  consideration.  We  may  simply 
mention  that  they  arise  from  the  non-homo- 
geneity of  the  earth's  substance  (near  the 
place  of  observation),  as  the  existence  of  can- 
ties,  of  great  masses  of  unusual  density,  and  so 
on.  The  following  table  shows  the  results  ob- 
tained by  Capt.  Kater  in  different  parts  of  the 
British  isles : 


PLACE  OF 
OBSERVATION. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Vibrations 
in  a  mean 
golar  day. 

Leu-thofthe 
pendulum 
vibrating 
lecondg. 

TJnst 

60°  45' 

28-01" 

86096-90 

89-17146 

Portsoy  
Leith  Fort  
Clifton  
Arbury  Hill  .  .  . 
London  
Shanklin  Farm  . 

57    40 
55    53 
58    27 
52    12 
51    81 
50    87 

58-65 
40-80 
43-12 
55-32 
8-40 
23-94 

86,086-05 
86,079-40 
86,068-90 
86,065-05 
86,061-52 
86,058-07 

39-16159 
89-15554 
89-14600 
89-14250 
89-13929 
89-18614 

Deducing  from  these  values  the  velocity  ac- 
quired by  a  body  in  falling,  Capt.  Kater  found 
that  a  body  falling  at  Leith  Fort  would  acquire 
in  one  second  a  velocity  of  32-207  feet  per 
second ;  and  that  the  variation  in  this  velocity 
for  one  degree  of  difference  of  latitude  is  at 
Leith  only  -0000832  of  its  own  amount.  The 
following  table  gives  the  length  of  the  seconds 
pendulum  at  different  places,  and  the  value  of 
the  accelerating  force  of  gravity  according  to 
Sir  George  Airy : 


GRAVITY   (SPECIFIC) 


177 


OBSERVER. 

' 

Place. 

Latitude. 

Length  of  pendulum 
vibrating  seconds, 
in  inches. 

Velocity  in  feet  ac- 
quired in  one  second 
by  a  body  falling 
from  rest. 

Sabine                                        

Spitzbergen  

N.  79°  50' 

39-21469 

82-2528 

Sabine 

70    40 

39  •  19475 

82  "23  68 

Stockholm  '.  ... 

69    21 

89-16541 

82*2122 

Bessel                              

Konigsberg  

64    42 

39-15072 

82-2002 

Sabine 

51    29 

89-13983 

82*1912 

Borda  Biot  and  Sabine 

Paris     

48    60 

89-12851 

82*1819 

Biot        ...                      

Bordeaux  

44    50 

89-11296 

82*1691 

New  York 

40    48 

89-10120 

82  "1594 

Sandwich  islands  

20    52 

89-04690 

32'1148 

gabine         

Trinidad  

10    89 

89  •  01888 

82-0918 

Kawak 

8.    0      2 

89  •  01433 

82*0880 

Ascension      

7    55 

89  •  02863 

82  •  0956 

Freycinet  and  Duperrey    .   .           

Mauritius  

20    10 

89-04684 

82*1151 

Brisbane  and  Rumker  

Paramatta  

83    49 

89-07452 

82-1875 

Frevcinet  and  Dunerrev.  .  . 

Falkland  islands... 

51    85 

89-13781 

82*1895 

these  values  the  following  very  simple 
and  convenient  formula  has  been  deduced :  If 
L  denote  the  length  of  a  seconds  pendulum 
at  any  latitude  A,  and  39-017  inches  be  the 
igth  of  a  seconds  pendulum  at  the  equator, 


YITY,  Specific,  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of 
one  body  to  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  an- 
other, adopted  as  a  standard  of  reference.  For 
solids  and  liquids  the  standard  is  pure  water, 
at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.,  the  barometer  being 
at  30  inches.  Air  is  the  standard  for  aeriform 
bodies.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighing  1,000 
oz.,  if  the  same  bulk  of  another  substance,  as 
for  instance  cast  iron,  is  found  to  weigh  7,200 
pz.,  its  proportional  weight  or  specific  gravity 
is  7'2.  It  is  convenient  to  know  the  figures 
representing  this  proportion  for  every  sub- 
stance in  common  use,  that  the  weight  of  any 
given  bulk  may  be  readily  determined ;  and 
for  all  substances  the  specific  gravity  is  used 
among  other  tests  for  the  purpose  of  distin- 
guishing bodies  from  each  other,  the  same 
substance  being  found,  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, to  retain  its  peculiar  proportional 
weight  or  density.  Hence  tables  of  specific 
gravity  are  prepared  for  reference,  and  in 
every  scientific  description  of  substances  the 
specific  gravity  is  mentioned.  In  practical  use, 
the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  is  obtained  from  the 
figures  representing  the  density  by  moving  the 
decimal  point  three  figures  to  the  right,  which 
obviously  from  the  example  above  gives  the 
ounces,  and  these  divided  by  16  the  pounds 
avoirdupois,  in  the  cubic  foot.  Different  meth- 
ods may  be  employed  to  ascertain  the  specific 
gravity  of  solids.  That  by  measuring  the  bulk 
and  weighing  is  rarely  practicable,  nor  is  it 
desirable.  As  a  body  immersed  in  water  must 
displace  its  own  bulk  of  the  fluid,  the  specific 
gravity  may  be  ascertained  by  introducing  a 
body,  after  weighing  it,  into  a  suitable  vessel 
exactly  filled  with  water,  and  then  weighing 
the  fluid  which  is  expelled.  The  proportional 
weight  is  then  at  once  obtained.  Wax  will 
cause  its  own  weight  of  water  to  overflow;  its 
specific  gravity  is  then  1.  Platinum,  according 
to  the  condition  it  is  in,  will  cause  only  from 
A- to  FT?  of  its  weight  of  water  to  escape, 


showing  its  specific  gravity  to  be  from  21  to 
21*5.  But  a  more  exact  method  than  this  is 
commonly  employed.  The  difference  of  weight 
of  the  same  substance,  weighed  in  air  and  when 
immersed  in  water,  is  exactly  that  of  the  water 
it  displaces,  and  may  consequently  be  taken  as 
the  weight  of  its  own  bulk  of  water.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  then  is  obtained  by  weighing  the 
body  first  in  air,  and  then,  suspended  by  a  fibre 
of  silk  or  a  hair,  in  water,  and  dividing  the 
weight  in  air  by  the  difference.  If  the  body  is 
lighter  than  water,  it  is  to  be  attached  to  one 
heavier,  to  make  it  sink;  then  find  the  loss 
of  the  two  by  immersion,  and  also  the  loss  of 
the  heavier  body ;  the  difference  will  express 
the  weight  of  water  displaced  by  the  lighter 
body,  whose  weight  divided  by  this  difference 
will  give  its  specific  gravity.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  say  that  the  substance  examined  must 
be  free  from  mixture  of  foreign  matters,  and 
especially  from  cavities  that  may  contain  air. 
Minerals,  if  suspected  to  contain  such,  should 
be  coarsely  pulverized,  and  then  the  second 
method  above  may  be  conveniently  applied  to 
determine  their  density.  The  specific  gravity 
of  fine  powders  may  be  determined  by  one  of 
the  methods  employed  for  ascertaining  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  fluids,  viz. :  by  comparing  the 
weight  of  a  measured  quantity  with  that  of  the 
same  quantity  of  water.  A  glass  vessel  called  a 
specific  gravity  bottle  is  commonly  employed, 
which  is  furnished  with  a  slender  neck,  upon 
which  is  a  mark  indicating  the  height  readied 
by  1,000  grains  of  water.  The  substance  to  be 
examined  is  introduced  till  it  reaches  the  same 
mark,  and,  the  weight  of  the  empty  bottle  be- 
ing known,  only  one  weighing  is  required  to 
obtain  the  result. — A  common  method  for  find- 
ing the  specific  gravity  of  fluids  is  by  the  in- 
strument called  a  hydrometer  or  areometer,  of 
which  several  kinds  are  in  use,  all  dependent 
on  the  principle  that  the  weights  required  to  im- 
merse a  light  body,  as  a  bulb  of  glass,  in  different 
fluids,  are  proportional  to  the  densities  of  these 
fluids.  Such  instruments  are  used  for  ascer- 
taining the  specific  gravity  of  liquors,  as  an  in- 
dication of  their  strength.  (See  HYDROMETER.) 
Gaseous  bodies  are  weighed  in  a  thin  glass 
flask  or  other  vessel  made  for  the  purpose,  and 


178 


GRAVITY  (SPECIFIC) 


GRAY 


provided  with  a  stopcock.  The  vessel  is  ex- 
hausted of  air  before  the  introduction  of  the 
gas.  The  experiment  requires  particular  care, 
as  the  result  will  be  found  to  vary  under  differ- 
ent conditions  of  pressure,  temperature,  and 
the  hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  should  be  60°  and  baro- 
metric pressure  30  inches.  The  specific  gravi- 
ties may  also  be  calculated  from  the  atomic 
weights  of  the  gases :  when  the  atomic  volume 
is  equal  to  that  of  hydrogen,  it  is  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  specific  gravity  of  hydrogen  by 
the  atomic  weight  of  the  gas ;  when  the  atomic 
volume  is  half  that  of  hydrogen,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  gas  is  equal  to  the  specific  gravi- 
ty of  hydrogen  multiplied  by  twice  the  atomic 
weight  of  the  gas ;  and  when  the  atomic  vol- 
ume is  twice  that  of  hydrogen,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  gas  is  equal  to  the  specific  gravi- 
ty of  hydrogen  multiplied  by  half  the  atomic 
weight  of  the  gas. — The  proportions  of  two  in- 
gredients in  a  compound,  as  in  an  alloy  of  gold 
and  silver,  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the 
specific  gravity  of  each  ingredient  by  the  dif- 
ference between  it  and  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  compound.  As  the  sum  of  the  products  is 
to  the  respective  products,  so  is  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  body  to  the  proportions  of  the 
ingredients ;  then  as  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
compound  is  to  the  weight  of  the  compound, 
so  are  each  of  the  proportions  to  the  weight  of 
its  material. — The  following  table  presents  the 
specific  gravities  of  substances  most  likely  to 
be  referred  to,  collected  from  various  sources. 
The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  in  ounces  avoirdu- 
pois is  seen  by  moving  the  decimal  point  three 
figures  to  the  right. 

TABLE    OF   SPECIFIC   GRAVITIES. 


Acid,  acetic 1-062 


.•irs.-nir 


3-891 


boracic,  crystallized    1-479 

boracic,  fused 

citric 

hydrochloric 


1-084 
1-200 


nitric 1-271  to  1-588 

aquiaregia 1-284 

phosphoric,  liquid  .    1-658 
phosphoric,  solid  . .    2-800 

sulphuric 1-841 

Alabaster 1-874 

Alcohol,  absolute 1  792 

of  commerce 0-885 

Ale  or  beer 1-085 

Alum 1-724 

Aluminum....  2-560  to  2-670 

Amber 1-064  to  MOO 

Ambergris  ....  0'780  to  0^26 
Amethyst,  common. . .    2-750 
oriental,   or    violet 

sapphire.  8-809  to  4-1 60 

Ammonia 0-876 

Anthracite  . 
Antimony  . 
Asphaltum 


0-876 
1-860  to  1-850 

6-702 

0-905  to  1-650 

4-000 


Cadmium 8-600 

Caoutchouc 0-938 

Chalk 2-784 

Cinnabar 8-998 

Clay 1-980 

Coal,bituminous  1-020  to  1-350 

Cobalt,  cast 7-812 

Copal 1-045 

Copper,  native 8-940 

cast 8-788 

wire 8-878 

coin 8-915 

Coral 2-540  to  2-850 

Diamond 8'521  to8'550 

Dolomite 2-540  to  2 -830 

Earth,    mean   of    the 


globe 


5-210 


sulphate  of  (heavy 

•par)....  4 800  to  4-720 
2-864, 

0-956  to  0-964 

Bismuth 9-82-2 

Brandy 0-887 

Brass 7-824  to  8-896 

wire 8-644 


Emerald 2-678  to  2-775 

Ether.sulphuric  0  632  to  0'775 

Fat  of  beef 0-928 

Feldspar 2-400  to  2  "620 

Freestone 2-148 

Garnet 8-150  to  4-800 

Glass,  bottle 2-783 

crown 2-520 

preen 2-642 

flint 2-760  to  8'829 

plate 2-760 

plate  of  St.  Oobain.    2-488 
Gold,  native.  15-600  to  19-500 


pure,  cast 

hammered 

coin 

22  carats  fine. 
20  carats  fine . , 


Brick 1-900  to  2-000  !  Granite,  Quincy 

Bronze,  gun  metal....    8-700         Staten  island! ,w 

Jiutu'r 0  942  ,  Graphite 1-9S7  to  2'400 


19-258 
19-362 
17-647 
17-4^6 
15-709 
2-652 
2-780 


Grindstone  ...........    2-143 

Gunpowder,  loose,  -j  to  [JS 
close  shaken  0-937  to  I'OOO 
solid  .......  1-550  to  1-800 

Gum  arable  ...........     1-452 

Gypsum,  compact.  -j  to  J'Hl 
Heliotrope    or    blood- 

stone ......  2-630  to  2-700 

Hematite  iron  ore. 


Honey  ...............     1-456 

Hyacinth  ......  4-000  to  4-750 

Ice  ..................    0-930 

Iodine  ................    4-948 

Iridium,  hammered...  28-000 

Iron,  malleable.  7'645to7'S17 

cast  ...............     7-207 

ore,  magnetic  4-900  to  5'200 
Ivory  .........  1-822  to  1-917 

Lard  ................     0-947 

Lead,  cast.  .  .  .  11-850  to  11-445 

white  .............     7-235 

ore,  galena..  7-250  to  7-780 
Lime,  quick  ..........    0-804 

Limestone,      com-  j      2-886 
pact  ..........  1  to8-000 

crystallized  .......     2-722 

Magnesia,  carb.  2-222  to  2-612 
Malachite  .....  8-700  to  4-000 

Manganese  ore  (psilo- 

melane).  .  .  3'700  to  4-330 
Marble,  Carrara  ......    2-716 

Parian  ............     2-837 

Egyptian  .........    2-668 

Mercury,  common  —  13-568 
pure  ...............  14-000 

Mica  ..........  2-750  to  3-100 

Milk  ..........     1-082 

Myrrh  ...............     1-360 

Naphtha  ......  0-700  to  0-847 

Nickel,  cast  ..........    8-279 

Nitre  (saltpetre)  ......     1-900 

Oil,  castor  ...........     0-970 

linseed  ............     0940 

olive  .............    0-915 

turpentine  ........     0-870 

whale  .............    0-923 

Opal  .................    2-114 

Opium  ...............    1837 

Palladium  ...........  11-800 

Pearl,  oriental.  .  2-510  to  2-750 


Peruvian  bark  .......  0-784 

Pewter  ..............  7-471 

Phosphorus  ..........  1-770 

Platinum,  native. 


refined  ............  19-500 

hammered  ........  20-836 

wire  ..............  21-041 

laminated  .........  22-069 

Porcelain,  China  ......    2-385 

Sevres  ............     2-145 

Porphyry  .....  2-458  to  2-972 

Potassium  ...........    0-865 

Proof  spirit  ..........     0-923 

Quartz  ........   2-500  to  2'800 

Rhodium  ............  11-000 

Rosin  ................    1-100 

Ruby  ................    4-283 

Salt,  common  ........    2'130 

Sand  .........  1-500  to  1-800 

Sapphire,  oriental  ____     8'994 

Serpentine  ____  2  '507  to  2'59l 

Silver,  pure,  cast  .....  10-474 

hammered  ........  10-510 

coin  ..............  10-534 

Slate  .........  2-110  to  2'672 

Soapstone  .....  2-650  to  2-800 

Sodium  ..............     0-972 

Spermaceti  ..........     0-943 

Steel,  hard  .....  7-816  to  7-340 

soft  ...............    7-S33 

Sugar  ................     1-606 

Sulphur,  native  ......     2-033 

fused  .............    1-990 

Tallow  ...............    0-941 

Tar  .................     1-015 

Tellurium  .....  5-700  to  6-115 

Tin,  cast  .............     7291 

hardened  .....     7-299 

Topaz  .........  3-400  to  3-650 

Tourmaline.  .  .  .  2-940  to  8-300 

Tungsten  ............  17-400 

Turquoise  .....  2-600  to  2  '830 

Ultramarine  ..........     2-362 

Vinegar  .......  1-013  to  1  080 

Water,  distilled  ......     1-000 

sea  ...............     1-023 

Dead  sea  ..........     1-240 

Wine,  Burgundy  .....     0-991 

white  champagne  .  .     0-99T 
Wood    (see   tables  in 

article  FUEL). 
Zinc,  cast  ............     7'190 


GRAY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Haute-Sa6ne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Saone,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Vesoul ;  pop.  in  1866, 
6,764.  It  is  on  a  hill,  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, and  the  streets  are  narrow,  but  the 
town  is  pretty  well  built.  The  river  is  spanned 
by  a  suspension  bridge  and  one  of  stone.  There 
are  a  college,  a  public  library,  and  a  theatre. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  hair  cloth,  wool- 
len goods,  leather,  and  starch.  In  the  environs 
are  several  iron  works.  Gray  is  a  very  an- 
cient town,  and  was  the  last  place  in  Franche- 
Comte  which  submitted  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1668. 

GRAY,  Asa,  an  American  botanist,  born  in 
Paris,  Oneida  co.,  K  Y.,  Nov.  18,  1810.  He 
graduated  at  the  Fairfield  medical  college  in 
1831,  but  abandoned  the  practice  of  medicine, 
and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  botany.  In 
1834  he  was  appointed  botanist  to  the  United 
States  exploring  expedition ;  but  as  some  time 
elapsed  before  it  was  ready  to  sail,  he  resigned 
that  situation.  In  1842  he  was  elected  Fisher 
professor  of  natural  history  in  Harvard  college. 
In  his  numerous  writings  he  has  shown  equal 
ability  in  communicating  elementary  knowl- 
edge and  in  elucidating  recondite  theory.  His 
elementary  works,  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  pub- 


GRAY 


179 


ished  in  1836,  and  especially  his  later  series, 
"How  Plants  Grow,"  "How  Plants  Behave," 
"Lessons  in   Botany,"   and  "Structural  and 
Systematic  Botany  "  (1858),  are  unsurpassed  in 
the  language  for  precision,  simplicity,  perspi- 
lity,  and  comprehensiveness.     His  labors  are 
jcorded  in  numerous  papers  contributed  to 
principal  scientific  journals  and  academical 
lemoirs  of  the  day,  and  in  several    special 
rorks.     He  came  forward  at  a  time  when  the 
Id  artificial  systems  of  botany  were  giving 
ray  before  the  natural  system.     Dr.  Gray, 
dth  Dr.  John  Torrey,  was  among  the  first 
rho  arranged  the  heterogeneous  assemblage 
species  upon  the  natural  basis  of  affinity, 
bile  actively  engaged  in  describing  the  new 
is  which  were  pouring  in  upon  them  from 
inmerous  explorations  in  our  hitherto  almost 
iknown  territory,  they  were  elaborating  the 
cumulated  knowledge  of  their  predecessors 
rhich  remained  in  a  crude  form.     In  1838  Dr. 
irray  commenced,   in    conjunction  with  Dr. 
Torrey,  the  publication  of  a  "Flora  of  North 
lerica,"  intended  to  give  a  thorough  and 
iprehensive   history  of  the  botany  of  the 
mtry  upon  the  basis  of  the  then  little  known 
itural  system.     This  was  continued  as  far  as 
le  end  of  the  order  composites  ;  but  as  the  ex- 
plorations of  several  collectors  were  accumu- 
ing  masses  of  new  material  from  our  west- 
borders,  the  "  Flora  '*  was  suspended  until 
lis  wealth  of  matter  could  be  aggregated  un- 
one  head.     The  government  expeditions  to 
le  Pacific  coast  also  returned  laden  with  bo- 
lical  treasures,  which  were  described  by  Dr. 
rray  and  Dr.  Torrey  in  the  government  re- 
>rts.     In  1848  Dr.  Gray  began  his  "  Genera 
the  Plants  of  the  United  States,  illustrated 
>y  Isaac  Sprague,"  and  in  the  same  year  the 
'  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United 
tates,"  several  editions  of  which,  enlarged 
id  amended,  have  since  appeared.     In  1854 
>peared  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Botany  of 
United  States  Pacific  Exploring  Expedition 
ler  Capt.  Wilkes,"  a  work  in  which  the  au- 
thor has  shown  himself  able  to  treat  of  the 
)otany  of  remote  regions  with  the  same  criti- 
power  that  he  has  applied  to  the  North 
imerican  flora.     In  1861   he  published  "A 
Examination  of  Darwin's  Treatise  on  the 
)rigin  of  Species,  and  of  its  American  Review- 
"s."    He  is  an  associate  editor  of  the  "  Amer- 
in  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts."     In  1873 
10  retired  from  active  service  in  teaching,  to 
"  jvote  himself  to  the  charge  of  the  herbarium 
)f  Harvard  college,  and  to  scientific  work.     In 
1874  he  was  appointed  a  regent  of  the  Smith- 
lian  institution  in  place  of  Prof.  Agassiz. 
GRAY,  David,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Dunti- 
le,  near  Glasgow,  Jan.  29, 1838,  died  atMerk- 
id,  Dec.  3,  1861.    His  father  was  a  hand- 
weaver  with  a  large  family.    David,  the 
Idest,  was  intended  for  the  ministry.     "When 
was  still  very  young  the  family  removed 
Merkland,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Luggie, 
with  which  stream  much  of  his  poetry  is  as- 


sociated. He  finished  his  education  with  a 
partial  course  at  Glasgow  university,  becoming 
proficient  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  French.  After 
spending  some  time  there  as  a  private  tutor, 
he  wrote  to  Mr.  Milnes  (now  Lord  Houghton), 
enclosing  manuscript  poems  and  asking  for 
advice.  Milnes  recognized  his  genius,  but  dis- 
couraged his  plan  of  going  to  London  as  a  liter- 
ary adventurer.  Nevertheless  he  went,  arri- 
ving there  early  in  May,  1860,  with  but  a  sov- 
ereign in  his  pocket.  He  spent  the  first  night 
in  Hyde  Park,  contracting  the  pulmonary  dis- 
ease of  which  he  died.  Meanwhile  he  had 
sent  his  poem  "The  Luggie"  in  manuscript 
to  several  literary  men  of  celebrity,  but  none 
of  them  found  time  to  read  it.  He  called  on 
Milnes,  who  befriended  him  and  sent  the 
poem  to  Thackeray,  recommending  it  for  the 
"Cornhill  Magazine;"  but  Thackeray  reject- 
ed it.  It  soon  became  evident  that  Gray  was 
seriously  ill,  and  Milnes  sent  him  home  to 
Scotland.  At  last,  through  the  agency  of 
Sydney  Dobell,  a  publisher  was  found  for  his 
poems,  and  a  specimen  page  of  proof  reached 
the  author  the  day  before  he  died.  "  The  Lug- 
gie and  other  Poems  "  appeared  in  London  in 
1862,  and  in  Boston  in  1864  (enlarged  ed.,  1874). 

GRAY,  Henry  Peters,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  New  York,  June  23, 1819.  He  entered 
the  studio  of  Daniel  Huntington  in  1838,  and 
in  1839  went  to  Europe,  where  he  painted  his 
pictures  of  "Thou  art  Gone,"  the  "Roman 
Girl,"  the  "Billet  Doux,"  &c.  Returning  to 
New  York  in  1843,  he  executed  a  number  of 
small  pictures  of  genre  and  history ;  and  after 
another  absence  abroad  in  1845-'6,  during 
which  he  produced  his  "  Teaching  a  Child  to 
Pray,"  "Proserpine  and  Bacchus,"  Cupid  beg- 
ging his  Arrows,"  &c.,  he  settled  in  New  York. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are 
the  "  Wages  of  War,"  the  "  Apple  of  Discord," 
"Hagar  and  the  Angel,"  "Portia  and  Bas- 
sanio,"  "Charity,"  "Genevieve,"  "Cleopatra," 
"St.  Christopher,"  "I  Fiore  di  Fiesole,"  and 
the  "  Origin  of  the  American  Flag."  He  has 
also  painted  several  hundred  portraits.  From 
1869  to  1871  he  was  president  of  the  national 
academy  of  design.  In  1871  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope, and  still  continues  to  reside  there  (1874). 

GRAY.  I.  John  Edward,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Walsall  in  1800.  For  nearly  50  years 
he  has  been  connected  with  the  British  mu- 
seum, over  the  natural  history  department  of 
which  he  now  presides  (1874).  In  addition  to 
his  labors  in  arranging  the  collections  of  the 
museum,  he  has  been  a  voluminous  contributor 
to  natural  history,  particularly  in  the  depart- 
ment of  zoology ;  and  profiting  by  the  advan- 
tages which  his  position  has  afforded  him,  he 
has  probably  described  and  classified  a  larger 
number  of  animal  forms  than  any  other  natu- 
ralist. The  most  valuable  of  his  numerous 
works  are  the  catalogues  of  the  museum,  inclu- 
ding those  on  mollusca,  mammalia,  and  reptiles, 
in  which,  besides  the  lists  of  animals,  he  gives 
much  information  on  the  habits,  character,  and 


180 


GRAY 


uses  of  the  different  species.  His  writings  are 
comprised  under  the  following  heads :  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  natural  history,  the  mammalia, 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  articulate  animals,  the 
mollusca,  and  the  radiata.  His  papers  on  the 
mammalia  and  the  mollusca  in  1852  amounted 
to  considerably  over  100  in  each  department, 
those  on  the  latter  subject  being  particularly 
valuable  on  account  of  their  extensive  and 
exact  information.  The  most  important  of 
them  is  the  "  Systematic  Arrangement  of  Mol- 
luscous Animals,  with  Characters  of  Families." 
In  his  conchological  studies  he  has  received 
much  assistance  from  his  wife,  an  accomplished 
naturalist,  and  the  author  of  "Figures  of  Mol- 
luscous Animals  for  the  Use  of  Students,"  de- 
scriptions of  which  have  been  given  by  Mr. 
Gray.  A  larger  share  of  his  attention  has 
however  been  devoted  to  herpetology  than  to 
any  other  branch  of  natural  science,  and  more 
than  70  papers  describing  the  structure  and 
habits  of  species  from  many  parts  of  the  world 
are  included  among  his  writings.  Dr.  Gray 
has  been  prominent  in  the  work  of  reforming 
prison  discipline  and  in  sanitary  measures, 
founded  the  Greenwich  society  of  useful  knowl- 
edge, and  claims  to  have  originated  the  plan 
of  cheap  postage  prepaid  by  stamps.  II.  George 
Robert,  an  English  naturalist,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Little  Chelsea,  July  8, 1808. 
He  early  began  the  study  of  zoology  at  the 
British  museum,  was  employed  in  the  zoolo- 
gical department  from  1831,  and  in  1869  be- 
came assistant  keeper  of  the  zoological  collec- 
tions. He  is  the  author  of  several  works  and 
papers  on  entomology  and  ornithology,  and  in 
1832  contributed  the  entomological  portion  to 
the  English  edition  of  Cuvier's  "  Animal  King- 
dom." He  published  a  "List  of  the  Genera 
of  Birds,"  reedited  in  1841  and  in  1855.  His 
large  work,  "Genera  of  Birds  "  (3  vols.,  1837- 
'49),  is  universally  valued  by  naturalists.  In 
1870  he  published  his  "  Hand  List  of  the  Gen- 
era and  Species  of  Birds,"  embracing  2,915 
genera  and  subgenera,  and  11,162  species. 

GRAY,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Oornhill,  London,  Dec.  26,  1716,  died  July  30, 
1771.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, where  his  expenses  were  borne  by  his 
mother,  his  father  refusing  to  maintain  him. 
At  Eton  Gray  formed  an  intimacy  with  Richard 
West,  a  son  of  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland, 
and  also  with  Horace  Walpole,  with  whom  in 
1739-'41  he  travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  He 
spent  11  months  at  Florence,  and  there  began 
his  Latin  poem  De  Principiis  Cogitandi.  He 
returned  in  1741,  and  became  bachelor  of  the 
civil  law  at  Cambridge,  though  he  never  of- 
fered to  practise,  but  continued  to  live  at  his 
university.  He  corresponded  frequently  with 
West,  and  communicated  to  him  a  portion  of  a 
tragedy  called  "Agrippina,"  in  which  Nero 
and  Jiis  mother  and  Seneca  were  to  be  promi- 
nent characters,  but  which  West  induced  him 
to  abandon.  He  was  easily  affected  by  discour- 
aging criticism,  and  had  nearly  laid  aside  his 


"  Progress  of  Poesy  "  because  Mason  said  he  did 
not  think  it  would  take  with  the  public.  Hav- 
ing become  estranged  from  Walpole,  and  West 
having  died  in  1742,  Gray  was  much  depressed. 
At  this  time  he  wrote  his  "  Ode  to  Adversity  " 
and  the  ode  "  On  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton 
College."  About  the  same  time  he  was  en- 
gaged on  his  Latin  poem  De  Principiis,  in 
which  he  designed  to  teach  Locke's  meta- 
physics in  hexameters.  From  1742  he  remain- 
ed at  Cambridge,  always  dissatisfied  with  the 
place,  and  never  professing  contentment.  In 
1748  he  began  a  poem,  which  he  never  com- 
pleted, "On  Government  and  Education."  If 
has  some  fine  lines,  in  spite  of  the  unpoetical 
subject.  Gray,  although  of  refined  tastes  and 
manners,  shrank  from  society,  living  chiefly 
among  scholars.  He  encouraged  Mason,  then 
a  young  poet,  revised  his  verses,  and  helped 
him  to  an  election  as  fellow  of  Pembroke  hall. 
Mason  became  his  constant  associate,  and  was 
afterward  his  biographer.  In  1749  Gray  fin- 
ished the  "  Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard," said  to  have  been  begun  seven  years 
before,  in  the  churchyard  of  Stoke-Pogis, 
Buckinghamshire,  in  which  town  his  mother 
was  living.  It  originally  appeared  in  1752, 
and  achieved  an  immediate  popularity,  four 
editions  being  called  for  within  a  year.  Seve- 
ral of  his  pieces  were  printed  in  1753  with  de- 
signs by  Mr.  Bentley,  and,  being  too  few  to 
make  a  book  of  the  usual  size,  were  printed 
only  on  one  side  of  the  leaf.  The  poems  and 
the  plates  together  sold  well.  In  1756  he  re- 
moved to  Pembroke  hall.  His  odes,  "The 
Progress  of  Poesy  "  and  "  The  Bard,"  appeared 
in  1757,  and  were  received  with  much  ridicule. 
Few  professed  to  understand  them,  but  the 
public  finally  learned  to  admire.  His  poems 
were  parodied  in  two  odes  which  not  long  after 
appeared  on  "Obscurity"  and  "Oblivion." 
Between  the  years  1759  and  1762  he  occupied 
lodgings  in  Southampton  row,  near  the  British 
museum,  then  just  opened,  and  made  extracts 
from  the  Harleian  and  other  collections  which 
filled  a  considerable  folio  volume.  On  the  death 
of  Cibber  the  laureateship  was  offered  to  him, 
which  he  declined.  He  was  appointed  in  1768 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge. 
His  health  now  rapidly  declined.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1770  he  was  able  to  travel  in  Wales; 
he  saw  Westmoreland  and  Cumberland,  and 
wrote  in  correspondence  a  delightful  narrative 
of  his  travels.  He  died  of  gout  in  the  stomach, 
and  was  buried  at  Stoke-Pogis.  Gray  was 
small,  delicate,  of  handsome  features,  and  stu- 
diously refined.  His  manners  were  nice  to  ef- 
feminacy, his  dress  carefully  adjusted  to  the 
fashions  of  the  day.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  a 
person  of  great  pride  and  reserve ;  but  he  was 
capable  of  strong  and  tender  emotion.  He 
could  often  be  satirical,  and  among  his  inti- 
mate friends  his  conversation  was  singularly 
entertaining  and  instructive,  but  he  spoke  little 
in  company.  To  his  great  attainments  all  his 
friends  bear  testimony,  but  he  left  no  public 


GRAYDON 


GRAYSON 


181 


E 


f  of  them.     He  was  a  botanist,  a  zoologist, 
an  architect,  and  an  antiquary.     He  had  read 
all  the  Greek  classics,  and  planned  an  edition 
of  Strabo.     He  was  familiar  with  history,  was 
learned  in  art,  had  studied  the  schools  of  phi- 
"   sophy,  and  wrote  better  Latin  verse  than 
y  of  his  contemporaries.     His  "Elegy "is 
e  culmination  of  his  genius,  almost  every  line 
ving  fixed  itself  upon  the  popular   mind, 
mong  the  best  of  the  numerous  editions  of 
•ay's  poems  are  those  by  W.  Mason,  with  his 
irs  and  a  memoir  (4  vols.  8vo,  York,  1778) ; 
by  the  Rev.  John  Mitford,  with  notes  and 
memoir  (London,  1814),  several  times  repub- 
"  ed.     An  edition  of  his  complete  works, 
ith  Mason's  memoir,  was  issued  by  T.  J. 
athias  (2  vols.  4to,  London,  1814).     Mr.  Mit- 
d  also  published  in  1853  Gray's  correspon- 
nce  with  Mason,  showing  that  the  poet's  let- 
were  mutilated  by  Mason  in  his  edition. 
GRAYDON,   Alexander,  an   American   author, 
rn  in  Bristol,  Pa.,  April  10,  1752,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  May  2, 1818.    He  was  educated  in 
"hiladelphia,  and  in  1775  joined  the  colonial 
as  captain.     After  carrying  a  supply  of 
.ey  to  the  troops  under  the  command  of  Gen. 
uyler  at  Lake  George,  he  joined  the  army  at 
ew  York,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  ac- 
n  on  Harlem  heights.  He  was  confined  in  New 
York  and  at  Flatbush,  was  afterward  liberated 
parole,  and  exchanged  in  1778.     He  resided 
Harrisburg  from  1785  to  1799,  when  he  re- 
oved  to  a  farm  near  that  city,  from  which  he 
returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1816.     He  pub- 
lished in  1811  his  "Memoirs  of  a  Life,  chiefly 
d  in  Pennsylvania,  within  the  last  Sixty 
ears,"  illustrative  of  revolutionary  manners 
d  history.    It  was  republished  in  Edinburgh 
822)  and  in  Philadelphia  (1846). 
GRAYLING,  a  soft-rayed  fish,  of  the  salmon 
ily,  and  genus  thymallus  (Cuv.),  found  in 
rivers  of  northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  Amer- 
The  English  grayling  has  the  head  and 
y  elongated,  the  former  pointed  and  flat- 
.eil  on  the  top ;  two  dorsals,  the  first  much 
ger  than  it  is  high  and  with  numerous  rays, 
second  small,  adipose,  and  rayless;    the 
uth    small;    the  teeth  numerous,   conical, 
all,  in  a  single  series  on  the  jaws  and  ante- 
r  part  of  the  vomer,  none  on  the  tongue; 
scales  rather  large,  and  the  lateral  line  not 
conspicuous ;  the  air  bladder  is  capacious, 
d  communicates  with  the  gullet  by  a  very 
.1  tube;  the  caudal  is  forked;  branchios- 
_,  1  rays  seven  or  eight.    It  is  very  handsome 
d  lively,  though  less  active  than  the  trout ; 
:e  general   color  is  light  yellowish  brown, 
with  reflections  of  golden,  copper,  green,  and 
blue,  and  some  dark  spots;  the  head  brown, 
and  the  tins  darker  than  the  body ;  the  dorsal 
fin  is  varied  with  square  dusky  spots ;  the  col- 
ors grow  darker  by  age,  and  in  dark  waters ; 
the  iris  is  golden  yellow,  and  the  pupil  blue. 
This  is  probably  the  T.  vulgaris  (Nilss.),  found 
in  a  few  of  the  rivers  of  England,  in  restricted 
localities,  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Lapland, 


but  probably  not  in  Ireland  or  Scotland.  It 
prefers  rivers  with  rocky  and  gravelly  bottom, 
with  alternate  stream  and  pool;  it  swims 
deeper  than  the  trout,  and  feeds  on  flies  and 
aquatic  larvae,  especially  on  those  which  con- 
struct cases  (like  the  May  flies),  and  on  small 
shells  and  crustaceans.  It  is  excellent  for  the 
table,  is  in  the  finest  condition  in  October  and 
November,  and  should  be  dressed  soon  after 
being  taken ;  it  rises  to  the  fly,  but  less  readily 
than  the  trout.  From  the  size  of  its  dorsal  it 
cannot  stem  rapid  currents  nor  leap  falls.  The 
generic  name  was  given  from  an  alleged  re- 
semblance of  the  odor  of  its  flesh  to  that  of 
thyme ;  from  its  color  and  odor  St.  Ambrose 
is  said  to  have  called  it  the  "flower  of  fishes." 
Unlike  other  salmoriidm,  it  spawns  in  April  or 
May;  the  average  length  is  10  or  12  in.,  with 
a  weight  of  about  1£  lb.,  but  they  have  been 
taken  weighing  4$  Ibs.  For  a  full  and  inter- 
esting account  of  the  habits  and  history  of  this 
fish,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  seventh 
"  Conversation  "  in  "  Salmonia,"  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy.  Other  species  are  the  T.  vexilli- 
fer  (Ag.),  from  the  rivers  of  France  and  the 
Swiss  lakes  and  streams;  and  the  naked- 
throated  grayling  (T.  gymnothorax,  Val.),  in 


Back's  Grayling  (Thymallus  signifer). 


which  the  parts  beneath  the  throat  are  desti- 
tute of  scales,  found  in  Prussia  and  Russia. 
The  grayling  is  called  ombre  in  French  and 
Aesche  in  German,  probably  from  its  prevailing 
ashy  gray  color  in  the  water.  In  America, 
this  fish  has  been  found  in  the  cold  clear 
waters  of  Great  Bear  and  Winter  lakes,  and 
in  streams  emptying  into  Mackenzie  river. 
Back's  grayling  (T.  signifer,  Rich.)  has  not 
been  discovered  south  of  lat.  62°  N. ;  this  is  a 
large  species,  about  17  in.  long,  and  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Esquimaux  and  the  wyageurs. 
GRAYSON.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  by  North  Carolina  and  N.  W.  by 
the  Iron  mountain ;  area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,587,  of  whom  754  were  colored.  It  is 
intersected  by  Kanawha  or  New  river.  The 
county  is  well  adapted  for  grazing.  Iron  ore 
is  abundant.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  30,060  bushels  of  wheat,  42,704  of  rye, 
109,938  of  Indian  corn,  63,695  of  oats,  12,313 
of  potatoes,  91,543  Ibs.  of  butter,  25,326  of 
wool,  and  4,016  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,056 
horses,  2,947  milch  cows,  4,057  other  cattle, 
11,811  sheep,  7,778  swine,  and  4  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Independence.  II.  A  N.  county  of 
Texas,  separated  by  Red  river  from  the  In- 


I 


182 


GRAZIANI 


dian  territory;  area,  950  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,387,  of  whom  2,145  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  undulating  and  partly  covered  with  for- 
ests of  oak,  ash,  and  elm.  The  soil  is  a  dark 
fertile  loam,  suitable  for  various  kinds  of  fruit, 
grain,  cotton,  and  pasturage.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  39,768  bushels  of  wheat, 
577, 540  of  Indian  corn,  113,241  of  oats,  39,411  of 
sweet  potatoes,  111,840  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  2,885 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  7, 324  horses,  4, 840 
milch  cows,  26,167  other  cattle,  5,911  sheep, 
18,535  swine,  4  saw  mills,  and  4  wool-carding 
establishments.  Capital,  Sherman.  III.  A  cen- 
tral county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  N.  by  Rough 
creek  and  drained  by  several  affluents  of  Green 
river;  area,  about  700  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 11,- 
580,  of  whom  407  were  colored.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Elizabethtown  and  Paducah  railroad. 
The  surface  is  level  or  undulating  and  the  soil 
moderately  fertile.  Anthracite  and  carbonifer- 
ous limestone  are  found  in  abundance,  and 
there  are  several  white  sulphur  springs.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  25,448  bushels 
of  wheat,  377,005  of  Indian  corn,  80,953  of 
oats,  20,722  of  potatoes,  149,001  Ibs.  of  butter, 
859,760  of  tobacco,  and  1,398  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  3,172  horses,  2,816  milch  cows, 
4,158  other  cattle,  14,543  sheep,  and  17,934 
swine ;  3  flour  and  4  saw  mills,  and  3  wool-card- 
ing and  cloth-dressing  establishments.  Capi- 
tal, Litchfield. 

GRAZIANI,  Franeeseo,  an  Italian  vocalist,  born 
at  Fermo,  April  26,  1829.  He  became  famous 
in  Paris  in  1851  as  Aston  in  Lucia  di  Lammer- 
moor,  and  sustained  his  reputation  as  one  of  the 
best  baritones  of  the  day  by  his  subsequent  per- 
formances in  Florence,  New  York,  London,  and 
St.  Petersburg. — His  brother  LUDOVIOO,  born 
in  August,  1823,  excels  as  a  tenor ;  the  part  of 
Germon  in  La  traviata  was  written  for  him. 

GREAT  HARRINGTON,  a  town  of  Berkshire 
co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the  Housatonic  river  and 
railroad,  40  m.  W.  of  Springfield;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,320.  It  is  pleasantly  situated,  watered  by  a 
number  of  good  mill  streams,  and  surrounded 
by  beautiful  hills.  It  contains  beds  of  iron  ore 
and  quarries  of  fine  variegated  marble.  The 
manufactures  embrace  cotton  goods,  paper, 
woollens,  pig  iron,  bricks,  and  saw-mill  pro- 
ducts. It  has  a  national  bank,  a  savings  bank, 
a  weekly  newspaper,  18  public  schools,  inclu- 
ding a  high  school,  and  7  churches.  It  com- 
prises three  villages,  viz.:  Great  Harrington, 
Housatonic,  and  Van  Deusenville.  Great  Har- 
rington was  the  county  seat  till  1787 

GREAT  BASIN,  or  Fremont's  Basin,  the  region 
lying  between  the  Wahsatch  mountains  on  the 
east  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  west  em- 
bracing Nevada,  the  W.  portion  of  Utah,  and 
the  S.  E.  part  of  California.  In  shape  it  re- 
sembles an  ancient  shield,  the  broad  end  toward 
the  north,  and  the  S.  extremity  rounded  to  a 
point.  Its  waters  have  no  outlet  to  the  ocean, 
and  it  evidently  formed  at  a  remote  period  an 
inland  sea.  The  greatest  depressions  are  near 
the  borders,  especially  along  the  E.  and  W. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

sides,  while  the  central  portion  reaches  a  much 
greater  elevation,  and  is  broken  into  a  series 
of  detached  ridges.  Along  the  line  of  the 
Central  Pacific  railroad  the  elevations  are  as 
follows:  at  Brigham,  on  the  border  of  Great 
Salt  lake,  4,220  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea; 
at  Pequop,  a  short  distance  W.  of  the  Nevada 
boundary,  6,184  ft. ;  and  at  Desert,  in  the  W. 
part  of  Nevada,  4,017  ft.  The  height  at  the 
points  of  greatest  depression  in  the  S.  E.  and 
S.  W.  parts  has  not  been  accurately  determined, 
but  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sevier  lake  it  is  not 
more  than  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  high- 
est ranges  in  the  basin  probably  attain  an  ele- 
vation of  from  7,500  to  8,000  ft.  The  Wah- 
satch range,  which,  running  almost  directly  N. 
and  S.  near  the  112th  meridian,  forms  the  E. 
rim,  rises  abruptly  from  the  narrow  plains,  sel- 
dom sending  out  foot  hills  or  slopes.  The  moun- 
tain ridges  in  the  interior,  separated  by  valleys 
of  various  width,  run  parallel  to  each  other  in 
a  N.  and  S.  direction,  determining  tho  course 
of  the  minor  streams,  though  the  few  principal 
rivers  break  through  them.  The  elevation  which 
forms  the  N.  rim,  separating  the  basin  from  the 
valley  of  the  Columbia,  also  consists  of  parallel 
ridges  running  N.  and  S.  The  principal  body 
of  water  is  Great  Salt  lake  in  the  N.  E.  part, 
the  region  draining  into  it  being  known  as  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  basin.  Other  lakes  are  Utah 
and  Sevier,  in  Utah;  Walker's  lake,  Carson 
lake,  Pyramid  lake,  and  Mud  lake,  in  Nevada ; 
and  Mono  and  Owen's  lakes,  in  California. 
Bear  river  empties  into  Great  Salt  lake;  the 
Provo  or  Timpanogas  into  Utah  lake;  while 
the  Jordan  discharges  the  waters  of  Utah  lake 
into  Great  Salt  lake.  Sevier,  Walker's,  Car- 
son, and  Owen's  lakes  receive  rivers  of  the 
same  names ;  the  Truckee  empties  into  Pyramid 
lake.  Humboldt  river  rises  in  the  N.  E.  part 
of  Nevada,  and  after  a  course  a  little  S.  of  W. 
of  about  300  m.  disappears  in  the  "  Humboldt 
sink."  Reese  river  flows  N.  toward  the  Hum- 
boldt, but  generally  sinks  before  reaching  it. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  basin  is  an  arid 
and  sterile  waste,  covered  with  alkaline  depos- 
its, and  producing  only  a  growth  of  sage  brush. 
Considerable  tracts,  however,  may  be  rendered 
productive  by  irrigation,  and  larger  portions 
are  adapted  to  grazing.  Except  upon  the 
mountains  in  the  N.  part  forests  scarcely  exist. 
The  climate  is  dry,  rain  rarely  falling  from 
April  to  October.  The  basin  is  rich  in  the 
precious  metals,  particularly  silver. 

GREAT  BEAR  LAKE.    See  BEAR  LAKE. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  in  a  geographical  sense,  the 
largest  and  most  important  island  of  Europe, 
and  in  a  political  sense,  as  popularly  used,  the 
British  empire,  or  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Britain  (Britannia) 
was  the  ancient  name  of  the  island,  by  which 
it  was  known  to  the  Romans.  The  western 
peninsular  projection  of  France,  called  by  the 
Romans  Armorica,  was  occupied  by  the  same 
race  that  constituted  the  aboriginal  population 
of  Britain.  As  early  as  the  6th  century  of  our 


GREAT  FALLS 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


183 


the  French  applied  the  term  Bretagne 

Jritain)  to  Armorica,  and  to  distinguish  the 
itinental  from  the  insular  Britain,  called  the 
ler  "Little  Britain"  and  the  latter  "Great 

itain."  The  term  Great  Britain  was  little 
by  the  islanders  themselves  until  the  ac- 
sion  of  James  I.  to  the  crown  of  England  in 
1603  united  the  whole  of  the  island  under  one 

>vereign.    By  the  legislative  union  between 

igland  and  Scotland  in  1707  Great  Britain 

same  the  legal  name  of  the  kingdom.     The 

land  comprises  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland. 

jotland  is  frequently  termed  North  Britain. 

le  official  style  of  the  empire  is  "  The  United 
[ingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  but 
in  current  language  the  term  Great  Britain  in- 
ludes  politically  the  British  and  Irish  king- 
is,  and  is  the  common  designation  of  the 
Thole  imperial  power.  (See  BRITISH  EMPIRE, 
"  D,  SCOTLAND,  and  WALES.) 

GREAT  FALLS.    See  SOMEKSWORTH. 

GREAT  GRIMSBY,  a  parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal borough  and  seaport  of  Lincolnshire, 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Humber,  30 
m.  N.  E.  of  Lincoln ;  pop.  in  1871,  20,238.  The 
town  consists  of  two  portions :  the  older  is  at 
the  head  of  the  harbor,  and  the  newer,  called 
the  Marsh,  extends  along  the  east  side  of 
the  harbor.  It  has  free  grammar  schools,  a 
national  school,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and  a 
new  town  hall.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  fish, 
timber,  coal,  and  salt. 

GREAT  KANAWHA  RIVER,  a  large  stream  of 
North  Carolina  and  the  Virginias,  called  in 
the  upper  part  of  its  course  New  river.  It 
rises  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  former  state, 
between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Iron  mountain, 
and  flows  N.  E.  to  the  N.  part  of  Grayson  co., 
Va.,  where  it  passes  through  a  defile  in  the 
Iron  mountain,  and,  bending  toward  the  N.  W., 
breaks  through  Walker's,  Peter's,  and  Green- 
brier  ridges  of  the  Alleghanies.  After  re- 
ceiving Gauley  river  in  Fayette  co.,  W.  Va.,  it 
takes  the  name  of  Great  Kanawha,  passes 
through  the  coal  and  salt  region,  and  joins  the 
Ohio  at  Point  Pleasant,  Mason  co.,  W.  Va. 
Its  length  is  about  400  in. ;  its  width  66  m. 
above  its  mouth  is  450  ft.,  and  at  the  junction 
of  Gauley  river,  100  m.  above  its  mouth,  1,500 
ft.  It  is  navigable  at  all  seasons  to  a  point 
about  2  m.  below  the  Gauley,  where  the  river 
has  a  picturesque  perpendicular  fall  of  50  ft. 
Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Greenbrier, 
Gauley,  and  Elk  on  the  north,  and  Coal  river 
on  the  south.  The  principal  towns  on  its 
banks  are  Pearisburg,  Va.,  and  Fayetteville, 
Charleston,  and  Point  Pleasant,  W.  Va. 

GREAT  MAULOW,  a  town  of  Buckingham- 
shire, England,  on  the  Thames,  11  m.  N.  E.  of 
Reading;  pop.  in  1871,  6,619.  It  has  a  fine 
church,  manufactories  of  paper  and  lace,  and 
a  considerable  trade  in  lumber,  coal,  and  corn. 

GREATOREX,  Eliza,  an  American  artist,  born 
at  Manor  Hamilton,  Connaught,  Ireland,  Dec. 
25,  1820.  She  is  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  J. 
C.  Pratt,  a  Wesleyan  minister.  When  19  years 


old  she  came  to  the  United  States,  and  married 
Henry  W.  Greatorex,  the  son  of  the  organist 
of  Westminster  abbey.  From  1854  to  1856  she 
studied  landscape  painting  with  W.  W.  Wither- 
spoon  of  New  York,  and  then  visited  England 
and  Ireland,  making  drawings  of  lake  scenery. 
In  1862  she  studied  under  Edouard  Lambinet  in 
Paris,  and  afterward  sketched  along  the  Rhine. 
She  went  again  to  Europe  in  1866,  and  made 
pen-and-ink  drawings  in  England,  Holland, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  Paris.  In  1868-'9  she 
made  pen-and-ink  drawings  of  the  old  build- 
ings in  and  around  New  York.  In  1870  she 
returned  to  Europe  and  studied  landscape  and 
architectural  drawing  in  Munich,  where  she 
published  in  1872  "  The  Homes  of  Oberammer- 
gau"  (New  York,  1873),  a  series  of  20  etchings 
from  pen-and-ink  sketches,  with  notes  from  her 
diary.  In  1873  she  published  "  Summer  Etch- 
ings in  Colorado,"  with  21  illustrations,  and  an 
album  of  "  Etchings  in  Nuremberg."  Her  best 
known  oil  paintings  are  a  "  View  on  the 
Housatonic"  (1863),  "The  Forge"  (1864),  and 
"  Somerindyke  House  "  (1869). 

GREATRAKES,  Valentine,  an  Irish  quack,  born 
at  Affane,  county  Waterford,  Feb.  14,  1628, 
died  in  Dublin,  probably  about  1700.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion  went  to  England, 
where  he  devoted  some  time  to  the  study  of 
the  classics  and  divinity.  He  served  in  the 
parliamentary  army  from  1649  to  1656,  when 
he  returned  to  Ireland  and  was  made  a  justice 
of  the  peace  in  county  Cork,  and  held  other 
offices  which  were  taken  from  him  at  the  resto- 
ration. Soon  afterward  he  claimed  the  power 
to  cure  the  king's  evil  and  all  other  diseases 
by  the  touch  ;  and  in  1665  he  went  to  London, 
where  the  king  invited  him  to  Whitehall,  and 
where  he  is  alleged  to  have  performed  many 
cures,  which  were  attested  by  Robert  Boyle, 
Sir  John  Godolphin,  and  many  other  eminent 
persons.  Dr.  Henry  Stubbe  published  a  pam- 
phlet in  praise  of  Greatrakes' s  skill,  under  the 
title  "The  Miraculist  Conformist"  (Oxford, 
1666).  Greatrakes  having  failed  in  one  in- 
stance to  effect  a  cure,  David  Lloyd  published 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Wonders  no  Miracles  " 
(London,  1666),  in  which  he  denounced  him 
as  a  cheat.  To  this  Greatrakes  replied  in  a 
letter  addressed  to  Boyle,  entitled  "Account 
of  Val.  Greatrakes  and  divers  of  his  strange 
Cures."  In  1667  he  returned  to  Ireland. 

GREAT  SALT  LAKE,  an  extensive  sheet  of 
water  in  Utah,  lying  in  the  Great  Basin,  be- 
tween lat.  40°  40'  and  41°  45' N.,  and  Ion.  111° 
50'  and  113°  10'  W.  Its  outline  is  somewhat 
irregular.  There  are  several  islands,  of  which 
the  principal  are  Church  or  Antelope  island 
in  the  southeast,  and  Stansbury  island  in  the 
southwest.  The  lake  is  75  m.  long  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.  and  about  30  m.  broad.  Its  surface 
is  4,200  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has 
no  outlet.  The  water  is  shallow,  the  depth 
in  many  extensive  parts  being  not  more  than 
2  or  3  ft.  Utah  lake,  a  body  of  fresh  water 


184          GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE 

85  m.  long  and  100  ft.  above  the  level  of  Great 
Salt  lake  is  26  m.  S.  E.  of  the  latter,  and  flows 
into  it  through  a  river  called  the  Jordan.  Utah 
lake  ahounds  with  fish.  Bear  river  flows  into 
the  Great  Salt  lake  from  the  north,  and  several 
smaller  rivers  from  the  east.  The  floods  of 
spring  spread  the  lake  over  large  tracts,  from 
which  it  recedes  as  summer  advances.  It  was 
evidently  once  vastly  more  extensive  than  at 
present.  The  country  around  it  is  mostly  des- 
olate and  barren,  though  there  are  portions 
which  irrigation  would  render  very  fertile. 
The  water  is  transparent,  but  excessively  salt ; 
it  contains  about  22  per  cent,  of  chloride  of 
sodium  (common  salt),  slightly  mixed  with 
other  salts,  forming  one  of  the  purest  and  most 
concentrated  brines  in  the  world.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  1-17.  There  are  no  fish  in  the  lake, 
but  several  species  of  insects  and  a  species  of 
crustacean  (artemia  fertility  have  been  found 
(see  "  United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Territories"  for  1872,  pp.  744-'5);  and  im- 
mense flocks  of  gulls,  wild  ducks,  geese,  and 
swans  frequent  its  snores  and  islands.  The 
water  is  so  buoyant  that  a  man  may  float  in  it 
at  full  length  upon  his  back,  having  his  head 
and  neck,  his  legs  to  the  knee,  and  both  arms 
to  the  elbow,  entirely  out  of  water.  If  he  as- 
sumes a  sitting  position,  with  the  arms  extend- 
ed, his  shoulders  will  rise  above  the  water. 
Swimming,  however,  is  difficult  from  the  ten- 
dency of  the  lower  extremities  to  rise  above  the 
surface ;  and  the  brine  is  so  strong  that  it  can- 
not be  swallowed  without  danger  of  strangula- 
tion, while  a  particle  of  it  in  the  eye  causes  in- 
tense pain.  A  bath  in  this  water  is  refreshing 
and  invigorating,  though  the  body  requires  to  be 
washed  afterward  in  fresh  water. — The  first 
mention  of  the  Great  Salt  lake  was  by  Baron  La 
Hontan  in  1689,  who  gathered  from  the  Indians 
west  of  the  Mississippi  some  vague  notions  of 
its  existence.  It  was  explored  and  described 
in  1843  by  Fremont,  who  was  the  first  to  navi- 
gate its  waters.  A  thorough  survey  was  made 
in  1849-'50  by  Capt.  Howard  Stansbury  of 
the  United  States  army,  whose  report  of  "  An 
Expedition  to  the  Valley  of  the  Great  Salt 
Lake"  was  printed  at  Washington  by  order 
of  congress  in  1852.  Another  edition  was 
published  at  Philadelphia  in  1855. — "The  City 
of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,"  commonly  called  Salt 
Lake  City,  is  situated  on  the  Jordan  river, 
which  connects  Lake  Utah  with  the  Great 
Salt  lake,  about  7  m.  S.  of  the  latter.  (See 
SALT  LAKE  CITY.) 

GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE  (Fr.  Lac  de  FEsclave), 
a  large  irregular  sheet  of  water  in  a  district  of 
the  same  name  in  the  northwest  territories  of 
Canada,  between  lat.  60°  40'  and  63°  N.,  and 
Ion.  109°  30'  and  117°  30'  W. ;  length  from  E. 
to  W.,  300  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  50  m.  Its  N. 
-h«*r.  9  are  steep  and  rough,  and  from  them  it 
receives  the  outlets  of  Aylmer  and  Artillery 
lakes.  On  the  south  it  presents  a  less  rugged 
bank,  and  is  entered  by  a  river  of  its  own  name, 
flowing  N.  for  about  300  m.  from  the  W.  end 


GREBE 

of  Lake  Athabasca.  It  contains  a  number  of 
islands,  some  of  which  are  well  wooded.  For 
half  the  year  it  is  frozen  over.  Mackenzie 
river  connects  it  with  the  Arctic  ocean. 

GREAVES,  John,  an  English  mathematician 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1602, 
died  in  London,  Oct.  8,  1652.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  and  in  1630  was  chosen  geo- 
metrical lecturer  in  Gresham  college,  London. 
After  visiting  Holland,  France,  and  Italy,  he 
embarked  in  1637  for  Constantinople,  whence 
he  went  to  Egypt  to  examine  the  pyramids, 
of  which  no  satisfactory  account  had  then  been 
given,  and  in  1640  returned  to  England,  bring- 
ing with  him  several  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Greek  manuscripts,  and  a  large  collection  of 
gems,  coins,  &c.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was 
appointed  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Oxford.  In  1648,  having  been  ejected  from 
Oxford  for  royalism,  he  settled  in  London.  He 
published  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Roman  Foot 
and  Denarius"  (1647),  wrote  a  Persian  gram- 
mar, and  partly  compiled  a  Persian  lexicon. 
A  collection  of  his  minor  papers  was  published 
in  two  volumes  in  1737. 

GREBE,  a  lobe-footed  bird  of  the  family  co* 
lymbidce,  and  subfamily  podicipinw,  compri- 
sing the  genera  podiceps  (Lath.)  and  podilym- 
bus  (Lesson).  The  genus  podiceps  has  a  long, 
straight,  and  slender  bill,  the  culm  en  slightly 
curved  at  the  tip,  which  is  sharp  and  entire, 
the  sides  compressed,  and  the  nostrils  longitu- 
dinal and  in  a  short  groove ;  the  wings  short 
and  pointed,  the  first  and  second  quills  the 
longest  and  slightly  emarginated  near  the  tips; 
tail  short,  a  mere  tuft  of  loose  feathers ;  tarsi 
shorter  than  the  middle  toe,  much  compressed, 
covered  with  scales  serrated  posteriorly ;  toes 
long,  lobed  on  the  sides,  and  united  by  webs  at 
the  base;  hind  toe  short  and  broadly  lobed; 
nails  short,  broad,  flat,  and  obtuse.  More 
than  20  species  are  -described,  in  all  parts  of 
the  world;  they  are  usually  seen  in  small 
flocks  on  the  shores  of  fresh-water  lakes  and 
rivers  and  near  the  seacoast,  and  rarely  on 
land,  as  the  posterior  position  of  the  legs  ren- 
ders it  very  difficult  for  them  to  walk ;  they  are 
excellent  swimmers  and  expert  divers,  flying 
under  water  to  a  considerable  depth  in  pursuit 
of  fish ;  they  are  generally  short  and  rapid 
flyers,  but  during  their  migrations  the  flight  is 
elevated  and  long  sustained ;  when  alarmed, 
they  hide  among  the  reeds,  or  sink  under  wa- 
ter, leaving  only  the  bill  out,  till  the  danger  is 
over.  The  food  consists  of  fish  and  aquatic 
animals  and  plants ;  the  nest  is  made  of  grasses, 
lined  with  down,  attached  to  the  reeds  or  float- 
ing ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four  in  number. 
The  American  species  vary  much  in  size ;  one 
of  the  largest  is  the  crested  grebe  (P.  cristatus. 
Lath.),  24  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  or 
33 ;  the  adult  male  has  a  blackish  brown  bill, 
about  2£  in.  long ;  upper  part  of  head  and 
crest,  nape  and  upper  plumage,  blackish  brown ; 
the  ruff,  which  birds  of  this  genus  have  in  the 
breeding  season,  is  reddish  brown  ending  in 


GKEBE 


GEEECE 


185 


lack ;  cheeks,  throat,  band  before  eye,  hume- 
ral feathers,  and  secondaries  white ;  fore  part 
and  sides  of  neck  reddish  brown;  rest  of 
under  parts  silvery  white;  primaries  dark 
brown ;  iris  bright  carmine ;  in  the  females 
young  the  crest  is  very  slight,  and  the  up- 


Crested  Grebe  (Podiceps  cristatus). 


per  parts  are  tinged  with  gray.  It  is  found 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  fur  countries, 
where  it  breeds,  southward,  and  as  far  as  Tex- 
as in  the  winter,  and  also  on  the  Pacific  shore. 
All  the  species  have  the  head  rather  small,  the 
eyes  near  the  bill,  the  neck  long  and  slender, 
and  the  body  flattened ;  the  plumage  is  thick 
and  soft,  and  silky  on  the  under  surface.  The 
red-necked  grebe  (P.  griseigena,  Gray),  18  in. 
long,  is  found  from  the  fur  countries  as  far 
south  as  Pennsylvania  in  the  winter;  it  is  a 
stouter  bird,  with  shorter  neck  and  smaller 
crest  and  ruff,  than  the  preceding  species.  The 
largest  known  species  is  the  western  grebe 
(P.  occidentalis^  Lawrence),  29  in.  long,  with 
an  extent  of  wings  of  3  ft. ;  it  inhabits  the  Pa- 
cific coast  from  Washington  territory  to  Cali- 
fornia. The  horned  grebe  (P.  comutus,  Lath.) 
is  about  14  in.  long ;  the  sides  of  the  head  are 
tufted,  and  of  a  yellowish  red  color ;  the  feath- 
ers of  the  upper  parts  are  margined  with  gray ; 
throat  glossy  black;  fore  neck  and  upper 
breast  chestnut  red ;  lower  parts  shining  white. 
It  is  very  generally  distributed  over  North 
America ;  it  is  known  to  gunners  as  the  "  hell 
diver,"  from  its  activity  in  diving ;  like  that  of 
all  the  grebes,  the  flesh  has  a  strong  fishy  fla- 
vor, and  is  rarely  eaten  except  by  the  north- 
west Indians,  who  also  make  under  garments 
of  the  soft  plumage  of  the  lower  parts. — In 
the  genus  podilymbus  the  bill  is  shorter  than 
the  head,  strong,  with  the  culmen  much  arched 
to  the  tip,  which  is  hooked  over  the  lower  man- 
dible; there  are  no  ornamental  ruffs.  Only 
two  species  are  described,  one  in  North  and 
the  other  in  South  America,  generally  distrib- 
uted over  the  temperate  regions,  preferring 


fresh  water.  The  pied-bill  grebe,  or  dobchick 
(P.  podicepSj  Lawr. ;  P.  Carolinensis,  Lath.),  is 
14  in.  long,  with  a  pale  blue  bill  crossed  by  a 
black  band ;  the  upper  plumage  very  dark 
brown;  chin  and  throat  with  a  black  patch; 
cheeks,  sides  of  neck,  and  abdomen  grayish 
white;  upper  breast  and  sides  rusty  brown; 
the  female  has  not  the  black  patches. 

GREECE,  a  country  of  southeastern  Europe, 
occupying  the  central  and  southern  portions 
of  the  large  and  irregular  peninsula  which 
extends  into  the  Mediterranean  between  the 
Ionian  and  the  ./Egean  seas.  By  its  own  in- 
habitants, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
the  country  has  been  called  Hellas;  but  the 
early  population  of  Italy,  gaining  their  first 
knowledge  of  the  region  from  the  Grseci  (Tpai- 
/cot),  one  of  its  northern  tribes,  formed  from 
this  tribal  designation  a  name  for  the  entire 
country  (Gratia).  From  this  have  been  de- 
rived the  names  given  to  it  in  most  of  the 
European  languages  (Fr.  la  Grece,  Ger.  Grie- 
chenland,  Ital.  Grecia,  &c.).  In  treating  of  the 
political  and  physical  geography  of  Greece,  we 
shall  devote  the  first  portion  of  this  article  to 
the  description  of  the  ancient  country,  reserv- 
ing for  a  subsequent  division  an  account  of 
the  modern  kingdom. — Many  difficulties  attend 
the  definition  of  the  northern  limits  of  ancient 
Greece,  the  amount  of  territory  included  in 
the  possessions  of  the  country  varying  greatly 
at  different  periods.  Considering  Greece  prop- 
er as  excluding  Macedonia,  Illyria,  and  Thrace, 
but  including  Thessaly  and  the  greater  part 
of  Epirus,  it  began  about  lat.  40°  IT.,  where  a 
natural  boundary  was  formed  by  a  chain  of 
mountains  extending  from  the  Thermaic  gulf 
on  the  east,  and  terminating  in  the^Lcroce- 
raunian  promontory,  on  the  Adriatic,  on  the 
west.  From  this  boundary  the  peninsula  of 
Greece  extends  southward  to  lat.  36°  23'.  Its 
greatest  length,  exclusive  of  the  Acroceraunian 
projection,  from  Mt.  Olympus  in  the  northeast 
to  Cape  Taenarum  at  the  southern  extremity, 
is  about  250  m. ;  its  greatest  width,  from  the 
"W.  coast  of  ancient  Acarnania  to  Marathon, 
K  E.  of  Athens,  is  about  165  m.  The  area 
of  the  ancient  country,  excluding  Epirus,  but 
including  the  island  of  Eubcsa,  was  about  21,- 
000  sq.  m.  The  mainland  of  Greece,  deeply 
indented  at  several  points  by  gulfs  and  almost 
landlocked  bays,  and  crossed  by  mountain 
ranges,  is  naturally  divided  into  three  princi- 
pal regions,  northern  and  central  Greece  and 
the  Peloponnesus.  Northern  Greece,  extend- 
ing from  the  K  boundary  to  the  point  where 
the  peninsula  is  narrowed  by  the  opposite  Am- 
bracian  and  Maliac  gulfs,  included  Epirus  and 
Thessaly,  regions  nearly  equal  in  size.  Cen- 
tral Greece,  that  part  extending  from  this  point 
to  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Corinth,  comprised 
the  divisions  of  Acarnania  (at  the  western  ex- 
tremity), ^Etolia  (the  next  division  toward  the 
east),  Ozolian  Locris,  Phocis,  and  Boeotia,  these 
three  bordering  on  the  gulf  of  Corinth  ;  Epic- 
nemidian  and  Opuntian  Locris  and  Doris  to 


186 


GREECE 


the  north  of  these ;  Attica,  forming  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  whole  peninsula ;  and  Megaris, 
on  the  narrow  land  N.  E.  of  the  isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth, and  between  the  Corinthian  and  Saronic 
gulfs.  The  Peloponnesus,  including  all  of  Greece 
S.  and  W.  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  comprised 
Achaia  and  Sicyonia,  on  the  Corinthian  gulf; 
Corinthia,  on  the  isthmus  and  the  Corinthian 
and  Saronic  gulfs ;  Argolis,  Laconia,  Messenia, 
and  Elis,  all  coast  countries ;  and  in  the  centre, 
completely  surrounded  by  these,  Arcadia.  The 
exact  boundaries  of  all  the  Greek  states  were 
frequently  varied  by  war  and  political  changes, 
but  the  divisions  named  above  retained  their 
identity  throughout  the  period  of  the  country's 
ancient  history.  The  islands  which  lie  in  the 
Ionian  and  ^Egean  seas,  and  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, within  a  short  distance  of  the  coasts  of 
the  peninsula,  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
ancient  Greek  possessions.  Of  these  islands, 
the  largest  is  Euboea,  about  100  m.  long  and 
6  to  30  m.  wide,  lying  E.  of  central  Greece. 
S.  E.  of  this  lie  the  Cyclades,  the  large  group 
which  surrounded  the  famous  holy  island  of 
Delos.  E.  of  the  Cyclades,  and  along  the  Asia- 
tic coast,  extend  the  Sporades.  The  islands  of 
Crete  and  Rhodes  lie  further  S.  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  Between  Attica  and  Argolis,  in  the 
Saronic  gulf,  are  Salamis  and  j^Egina.  Along 
the  W.  coast  of  Greece,  in  the  Ionian  sea,  ex- 
tend Corcyra,  Paxos,  Leucas,  Cephallenia,  Ith- 
aca, and  Zacynthus,  which  with  Cythera,  at  the 
S.  extremity  of  Laconia,  are  now  known  as  the 
Ionian  islands. — The  surface  of  Greece  is  moun- 
tainous through  almost  its  whole  extent.  The 
continuous  range  already  mentioned  as  form- 
ing the  N.  boundary  of  the  ancient  country, 
including  Mt.  Olympus  and  the  Cambunian  and 
Ceraunian  mountains,  is  crossed  at  its  centre  by 
the  great  chain  of  Pindus,  which,  running  near- 
ly N.  and  S.  through  the  middle  of  northern 
Greece,  formed  a  natural  boundary  between 
ancient  Ej>irus  and  Thessaly.  Near  its  S.  end 
it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  stretching  S. 
E.  through  central  Greece,  bearing  the  names 
of  (Eta,  Parnassus,  Helicon,  Cithseron,  and  Hy- 
mettus,  and  finally  terminating  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  Attica ;  the  other  extending  S.  W.  under 
the  names  of  Corax  and  the  Ozolian  moun- 
tains, and  terminating  near  the  W.  end  of  the 
Corinthian  gulf.  The  mountains  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, also  very  numerous  and  closely  con- 
nected, nevertheless  belong  to  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent system  from  that  of  the  Pindus;  in- 
stead of  stretching  in  long  ranges  through 
the  peninsula,  they  are  clustered  in  knots  and 
groups  around  a  lofty  central  mass,  which  rises 
in  northern  Arcadia  to  the  height  of  nearly 
8,00'  ft.  The  principal  peaks  of  the  whole 
country  are  as  follows :  in  northern  Greece 
lite.  Olympus  (9,754  ft.),  Ossa  (6,407),  and  Pe- 
hon  (5,000) ;  in  central  Greece,  Mts.  Parnas- 
sus (highest  summit,  8,068),  (Eta  (7,071),  Heli- 
con (about  5,000),  Cithseron  (4,620),  and  Par- 
ses OM93);  in  the  Peloponnesus,  Cyllene 
(7,788),  Erymanthus  (7,297),  Taygetus  (highest 


peak,  7,904),  Artemisius  (5,814),  and  Lycseus 
(4,659).  The  mountain  system,  the  chief  ranges 
of  which  have  been  thus  described,  had  a  very 
important  effect  upon  the  political  as  well  as 
the  physical  divisions  of  ancient  Greece.  By 
dividing  with  natural  walls  the  habitable  and 
arable  plains  and  less  rugged  portions  of  the 
country  one  from  another,  it  prescribed  the 
boundaries  of  states  almost  as  definitely  as 
could  have  been  done  by  the  most  exact  trea- 
ties.— The  rivers  of  Greece  are  generally  un- 
important, save  on  account  of  their  historic 
associations.  Many  of  the  streams  are  entirely 
dry  during  the  summer  months ;  none  are  navi- 
gable at  any  season.  In  northern  Greece  the 
principal  rivers  are  the  Achelous,  rising  in  the 
Pindus  in  N.  E.  Epirus,  and  flowing  S.  through 
Epirus  and  central  Greece  into  the  Ionian  sea, 
and  the  Peneus,  also  rising  in  the  Pindus,  and 
flowing  E.  through  northern  Thessaly  into  the 
Thermaic  gulf.  In  central  Greece  are  the  Ce- 
phissus  in  Phocis  and  Boeotia,  and  the  Asopus 
in  Boaotia.  In  the  Peloponnesus  are  the  Al- 
pheus  in  Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  the  Eurotas  in 
Laconia.  Small  lakes  are  numerous,  and  there 
are  several  of  noteworthy  size :  Nessonis  and 
Boebeis  in  Thessaly,  Trichonis  in  ^Etolia,  Copais 
in  Boeotia,  and  Stymphalus  and  several  others  in 
Arcadia. — The  climate  of  Greece,  which  is  gen- 
erally temperate  and  pleasant,  would  appear 
to  have  been  more  generally  healthy  in  ancient 
times  than  of  recent  years.  Such  of  the  clas- 
sic authors  as  allude  to  it,  speak  of  it  as  pecu- 
liarly bracing  and  invigorating,  and  do  not 
notice  the  malarial  tendencies  which  now  ren- 
der the  summer  months  unhealthy  except  in 
the  higher  regions.  The  denser  population  and 
the  universal  cultivation  of  the  land  in  ancient 
times  probably  in  part  prevented  this  evil.  The 
mineral  and  vegetable  productions  of  the  coun- 
try will  be  noticed  in  treating  of  the  modern 
kingdom.  Of  the  fauna  of  the  peninsula  it  is 
also  unnecessary  to  speak  here,  as  the  races 
of  domesticated  animals  are  the  same  in  modern 
times  as  among  the  ancient  peoples ;  while  the 
few  kinds  of  wild  animals  (wolves,  wild  boars, 
and  bears)  did  not  differ  from  those  common 
to  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  Traditions 
seem  to  indicate  that  lions  may  have  been 
found  in  the  country  at  a  very  early  period.— 
The  questions  of  the  origin  and  race  charac- 
teristics of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece 
are  inextricably  connected  with  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  country  ;  they  are  treated  to  some 
extent  in  the  articles  on  the  different  divisions, 
and  will  be  further  noticed  in  the  historical  por- 
tion of  this  article.  Trustworthy  estimates  of 
the  numbers  of  the  population,  even  at  the  best 
known  periods  of  Grecian  history,  are  alto- 
gether wanting. — The  early  history  of  Greece 
is  involved  in  obscurity,  and  confused  by  tra- 
dition and  fable.  Whether  the  first  emigrants 
from  Asia  found  in  Greece  aboriginal  tribes 
whom  they  subdued  or  with  whom  they  united, 
or  whether  they  found  the  land  unoccupied, 
there  are  no  means  at  present  of  deciding. 


22  -Longitude  East      83     from  G 


AHOIflHT 

WITH  Tin: 
ISLANDS  and  COASTS  of  the  EGEAN 


Caucasa  Pr, 

Phanee  Pi-.*'  jf  coryciiuu 


r— %-J««E 


ARE 

Vpreoesinth 


'    R    T     O     U      M 


GREECE 


187 


The  earliest  authentic  traditions  represent  the 
new  comers  as  arriving  among  autochthonous 
populations,  and  bringing  with  them  religion 
and  the  arts  from  their  primeval  home.  The 
Greeks  were  fond  of  tracing  their  origin  back 
to  a  common  ancestor,  Hellen,  the  son  of  Deu- 
calion and  Pyrrha,  the  survivors  of  the  deluge ; 
and  the  great  divisions  of  the  race,  the  Dori- 
ans, ^Eolians,  lonians,  and  Achseans,  claimed  to 
be  descended  from  Dorus  and  JEolus,  sons  of 
Hellen,  and  Ion  and  Achseus,  sons  of  Xuthus, 
the  third  son  of  Hellen.  According  to  the 
popular  belief,  ^olus  succeeded  Hellen  as  king 
of  Phthia  in  Thessaly,  and  his  descendants 
spread  over  central  Greece  as  far  as  the  isth- 
mus of  Corinth,  and  occupied  the  W.  coast  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  The  Dorians,  from  which 
race  the  Spartans  of  the  historic  time  were 
descended,  were  confined  to  Doris,  between 
Thessaly  and  Phocis ;  the  lonians,  the  progeni- 
tors of  the  Athenians  of  the  historic  period, 
occupied  Attica  and  the  north  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  the  Achaeans  in  the  heroic  age  occupied 
Mycenae,  Argos,  and  Sparta,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  the  original  abode  of  the  Hellenes 
in  Thessaly.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Greece 
were  called  Pelasgians  by  the  Greeks  them- 
selves, and  were  considered  by  them  as  a  dif- 
ferent race  from  the  Hellenes,  with  a  different 
language.  Whether  the  Pelasgians  themselves 
came  in  from  Asia,  at  a  period  beyond  the 
reach  of  tradition,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  de- 
termined. The  most  consistent  hypothesis  is 
that  which  considers  the  Pelasgic  populations 
as  representing  the  body  of  the  primitive  in- 
habitants of  Greece,  and  as  having  formed  the 
basis  of  the  subsequent  nationalities.  We  may 
consider  the  Hellenic  as  representing  the  later 
and  more  civilized  accessions,  which,  blending 
with  the  Pelasgic,  developed  that  peculiar  type 
of  intellectual  character  which  distinguished 
the  Greek  from  every  other  ancient  race.  It 
was  believed  that  Egyptian  and  Phoenician 
immigrants,  arriving  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  bringing  with  them  arts,  culture,  and  re- 
ligious rites,  from  countries  of  a  much  more 
ancient  civilization,  contributed  largely  to  this 
result.  Thus  Cecrops,  according  to  the  tra- 
ditions, brought  civilization  from  Sais  in  Egypt 
to  Athens ;  and  the  name  of  Cecropia,  borne 
by  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  commemorated 
this.  Argos  was  founded  by  Danaus,  who  fled 
from  Egypt  with  his  fifty  daughters,  to  escape 
the  persecutions  of  the  fifty  sons  of  ^Egyptus. 
Pelops  led  a  colony  from  Asia  Minor,  and  gave 
the  name  of  Peloponnesus  to  the  S.  peninsula, 
Cadmus  came  from  Phoenicia  to  Thebes,  and 
introduced  the  Phoenician  art  of  writing.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  all  these  legends  may 
have  their  origin  in  historical  facts.  It  is  cer- 
tain^ that  there  was  a  frequent  intercourse  by 
sea  in  the  earlier  periods  between  the  Greeks 
and  Phoenicians;  and  the  Greek  alphabet, 
at  whatever  time  it  was  introduced,  is  appa- 
rently of  Phoenician  origin.  E.  Curtius,  a  high 
authority,  has  recently  elaborated  the  theory 


of  the  early  lonians.  (See  IONIANS.)  The  he- 
roic age  of  Greece  is  the  legendary  period  in 
which  flourished  a  race  of  men  represented  as 
being  descended  from  the  gods,  and  who  are 
called  heroes,  a  term  implying  the  possession 
of  a  nature  superior  to  that  of  common  mor- 
tals, as  Hercules,  Theseus,  and  Minos.  In 
this  period  were  placed  by  the  poets  a  series 
of  expeditions  and  exploits,  famous  in  the  lit- 
erature of  Greece,  as  the  voyage  of  the  Argo- 
nauts in  search  of  the  golden  fleece,  the  war 
of  the  seven  chiefs  against  Thebes,  the  war  of 
the  Epigoni,  and,  last  and  most  famous  of  all, 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Troy,  and  the  return 
of  the  heroes,  which  form  the  conclusion  of 
the  heroic  age.  Here,  too,  we  may  reason- 
ably suppose  that  historical  facts  furnished  the 
germ  of  the  legends ;  but  as  the  whole  treat- 
ment of  them  is  poetical,  it  is  impossible  to 
separate  fact  from  fiction  with  any  certainty 
or  even  probability.  The  poems  of  Homer 
contain  all  that  we  know  of  the  manners  and 
society  of  the  heroic  age ;  and  the  general  de- 
lineations of  heroic  society,  as  given  in  them, 
may  be  received  as  representing  substantial- 
ly what  was  believed  by  the  Greeks  them- 
selves in  the  subsequent  period.  Among  the 
later  legends  are  those  of  the  migrations  of 
the  Boeotians  from  Thessaly  into  the  country 
called  from  them  Bceotia,  said  to  have  taken 
place  60  years  after  the  fall  of  Troy ;  and 
the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dori- 
ans, placed  20  years  later.  They  were  said  to 
have  been  led  by  the  descendants  of  Hercules, 
who  claimed  the  possession  of  the  country  as 
an  ancestral  right.  This  enterprise  gave  rise 
to  the  Dorian  states  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
is  known  in  history  as  the  return  of  the  Hera- 
clidse.  The  establishment  of  Greek  colonies 
in  Asia  Minor  belongs  to  the  period  following 
the  Trojan  war.  The  migrations  appear  to 
have  continued  through  several  ages,  and 
were,  partly  at  least,  owing  to  movements  and 
disturbances  among  the  populations  of  Greece. 
In  the  course  of  time  Greek  colonies  were 
spread  over  the  whole  W.  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  numerous  cities  were  founded.  The  N. 
portion  of  the  coast,  with  the  islands  of  Tene- 
dos  and  Lesbos,  was  occupied  by  the  ^Eolians; 
the  lonians  took  the  central  part,  with  the 
islands  of  Chios,  Samos,  and  the  Cyclades ; 
while  the  S.  W.  corner,  with  the  islands  of 
Ehodes  and  Cos,  was  settled  by  the  Dorians. 
The  jEolian  migration  was  the  earliest,  but  the 
Ionian  was  the  most  important.  There  were 
eleven  ^Eolian  cities  in  historical  times.  The 
lonians  formed  twelve  states  united  by  the 
worship  of  Poseidon  at  the  Pan-Ionic  festival. 
The  Dorians  had  six  colonies,  which  formed 
the  confederation  of  the  Doric  Hexapolis.  We 
have  no  trustworthy  chronology  for  whatever 
of  historical  events  may  form  the  basis  of  these 
traditions ;  but  there  can  be  no  question  of  the 
facts  of  such  migrations  having  taken  place, 
and  we  may  assume  the  date  of  about  1000 
B.  C.  as  closing  the  period  within  which  these 


188 


GREECE 


movements  occurred.— The  authentic  history 
and  chronology  of  Greece  commence  with  the 
beginning  of  the  Olympiads,  776  B.  0.  At 
this  period  we  find  Greece  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  small  states,  under  separate  govern- 
ments, united  into  confederacies  for  permanent 
or  occasional  objects,  but  with  no  central  gov- 
ernment to  control  the  whole.  The  Grecian 
world  was,  however,  bound  together  by  lan- 
guage, blood,  common  religious  rites  and  fes- 
tivals, social  institutions  and  laws,  which  dis- 
tinguished it  from  the  barbarian  nations  and 
races  about  it.  The  language  was  divided  into 
dialects,  but  with  sufficient  resemblance  to 
each  other  to  be  easily  understood  by  all.  In 
the  religious  systems,  particular  deities  were 
specially  worshipped  by  particular  tribes  and 
at  particular  places,  but  the  general  principles 
were  everywhere  the  same.  Religious  rites 
were  periodically  celebrated,  at  festivals  in 
which  associations  of  neighboring  states  par- 
ticipated, under  the  general  name  of  amphic- 
tyonies,  or  at  the  great  national  games.  The 
amphictyonic  council,  held  alternately  at  Del- 
phi and  at  Thermopylae,  was  partly  political 
and  partly  religious.  The  Olympic,  Pythian, 
Nemean,  and  Isthmian  festivals  tended  strongly 
to  keep  alive  the  sentiment  of  Hellenic  unity. 
The  establishment  of  oracles,  enjoying  authority 
over  the  Hellenic  world,  was  another  bond  of 
union.  Notwithstanding  these  national  ties,  the 
several  states  of  Greece  could  never  be  brought 
into  a  voluntary  political  union  under  a  govern- 
ment having  the  right  and  power  to  interfere 
with  the  cherished  autonomy  of  each  individual 
state.  Excepting  in  great  crises  of  their  his- 
tory, such  as,  in  the  legendary  times,  the  Trojan 
war,  and  in  historical  times  the  Persian  inva- 
sion, their  patriotism  was  local,  and  they  never 
acted  for  a  common  object.  Indeed,  they  had  no 
common  designation,  as  Thucydides  truly  re- 
marks, until  gradually  the  name  of  the  Hellenes 
supplanted  the  rest. — In  the  early  historical 
times  the  Dorians  had  become  masters  of  the  E. 
and  8.  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  invasion  and 
conquest  from  the  north.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Olympiads,  Sparta,  afterward  the  leading 
Doric  state,  was  of  inconsiderable  importance, 
and  her  territory  hardly  more  than  the  valley 
of  the  Eurotas ;  but  her  military  and  civil  in- 
stitutions, as  established  by  the  constitution 
of  Lycurgus,  gradually  raised  the  state  to  a 
foremost  place  among  the  commonwealths  of 
Greece.  The  date  of  the  Spartan  lawgiver  is 
doubtful,  but  it  is  generally  placed  within  the 
century  preceding  the  era  of  the  Olympiads. 
His  ordinances,  called  rhetrce,  wrought  great 
changes  in  the  constitution  of  society,  and 
produced  results  that  acted  powerfully  on  the 
course  of  Greek  history.  (See  LYOUEOUS,  and 
SPABTA.)  Sparta  became  the  mistress  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  subduing 
the  Messenians,  Arcadians,  and  Argives.  The 
two  wars  against  the  Messenians  were  the 
most  important  and  obstinate ;  they  have  also 
a  special  literary  interest,  on  account  of  the 


poems  of  TyrtaBus.  The  first  Messenian  war 
grew  out  of  private  quarrels.  It  occurred 
about  743  B.  C.,  and,  having  lasted  about  20 
years,  ended  with  the  complete  subjection  of 
the  Messenians,  who  were  compelled  to  abandon 
their  country,  and  were  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  helots  or  slaves.  About  38  years  later 
(685),  the  Messenians,  under  the  lead  of  the 
heroic  Aristomenes,  took  up  arms,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Argives,  Arcadians,  Sicyonians, 
and  Pisatans ;  while  the  Corinthians  lent  aid 
to  Sparta.  At  first  the  fortunes  of  war  were 
adverse  to  the  Spartans ;  but  though  they  suf- 
fered several  bloody  defeats  from  Aristomenes, 
they  persevered  until  the  Messenians  became 
a  second  time  the  serfs  of  the  Spartans  (668). 
In  the  course  of  the  following  century  the 
Spartans  extended  their  conquests  over  the 
greater  part  of  Arcadia,  and  annexed  the  large 
Argive  territory  of  Cynuria.  In  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  B.  C.  Sparta  had  become  the 
most  powerful  of  the  states  of  Greece.  She 
was  distinguished  politically  from  the  others  by 
retaining  the  form  of  a  royal  government,  roy- 
alty having  become  extinct  everywhere  else  at 
an  early  period  of  the  Olympic  era.  In  some  of 
the  states  the  king  became  an  archon  for  life ; 
in  others  the  royal  house  was  set  aside,  and 
one  of  the  nobles  selected,  under  the  title  of 
prytanis,  or  president,  and  holding  office  for  a 
limited  time.  This  was  substantially  a  change 
from  monarchy  to  oligarchy,  since  the  powers 
of  government  were  limited  to  the  members  of 
the  old  nobility,  who  possessed  the  greater 
part  of  the  land.  These  oligarchies  were  over- 
thrown in  many  of  the  Greek  states  by  the  rise 
to  power  of  able  and  ambitious  men,  called  by 
the  Greeks  tyrants.  The  early  significance  of 
this  word  was  limited  to  the  irregular  methods 
by  which  power  was  attained,  and  not  extend- 
ed to  the  severity  with  which  it  was  adminis- 
tered. Though  the  actual  government  of  the 
tyrants  was  oppressive  for  the  most  part,  yet 
some  of  them  were  among  the  wisest  men  and 
the  best  rulers  of  the  Greeks.  The  period  of 
the  tyrannies  was  about  150  years,  from  650  to 
500.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  rulers  were 
the  tyrants  of  Sicyon,  whose  rule  lasted  100 
years,  ending  with  Clisthenes  (560) ;  those  of 
Corinth,  beginning  with  Cypselus,  including 
the  great  Periander,  and  ending  with  Psam- 
metichus,  about  581 ;  and  Theagenes,  tyrant  of 
Megara.  A  similar  political  condition  prevailed 
in  most  of  the  other  Grecian  states  in  the  7th 
and  6th  centuries.  In  Athens,  in  the  legendary 
period,  the  kingly  power  terminated  with  Co- 
drus,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  office  of  archon, 
at  first  limited  to  the  royal  family  and  held  for 
life,  then  held  for  ten  years,  and  finally  thrown 
open  to  the  whole  body  of  the  nobles,  the 
number  of  archons  increased  to  nine,  and  the 
period  of  office  reduced  to  one  year.  With 
this  last  change  the  authentic  history  of  Athens 
commences,  about  683  B.  C.  (See  ATHENS.) 
The  legislation  of  Draco  dates  about  624,  and 
the  archonship  and  legislation  of  Solon  594. 


GREECE 


189 


The  adoption  of  his  constitution,  and  the  sub- 
sequent modification  of  it  by  Clisthenes,  react- 
ing upon  the  original  tendencies  of  the  Ionian 
race  to  a  free  intellectual  and  political  develop- 
ment, produced  the  results  in  letters,  art,  philos- 
ophy, political  science,  and  popular  eloquence, 
which  so  brilliantly  distinguish  the  history  of 
the  Athenian  commonwealth.  But  even  in 
Athens  a  tyranny  arose.  Pisistratus  was  twice 
expelled,  but  he  and  his  family  ruled  Athens 
with  moderation,  and  administered  the  govern- 
ment through  the  Solonian  institutions,  until 
the  assassination  of  Hipparchus  converted  his 
surviving  brother  Hippias  into  a  despotic  op- 
pressor. The  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratidse  lasted 
about  50  years.  The  expulsion  of  Hippias  was 
followed  immediately  by  the  popular  changes 
in  the  constitution  introduced  by  Clisthenes. 
The  progress  of  Athens  under  the  impulse  of 
such  wise  and  equal  institutions  excited  the 
jealousy  of  Sparta,  who  made  several  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  overthrow  the  democracy. 
Besides  the  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  already 
mentioned,  the  Greeks  extended  their  colonial 
system  to  Italy,  Sicily,  Gaul,  Spain,  Africa,  and, 
in  the  north,  to  Epirus,  Macedonia,  Thrace,  and 
the  coasts  of  the  Euxine.  The  Asiatic  colonies 
were  the  oldest,  and  among  them  literature 
and  the  arts  first  developed  themselves.  The 
settlements  in  Italy  and  Sicily  began  about  735 
B.  C.  The  settlements  in  Egypt  and  Cyrene 
were  commenced  about  a  century  later.  About 
700  the  island  of  Corcyra  was  settled  by  Co- 
rinthian colonists,  and  other  settlements  were 
soon  afterward  made  on  the  neighboring  islands 
and  the  opposite  coast ;  so  that  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  6th  century  the  Hellenic  race,  in 
extent  of  territory  and  resources,  was  far  the 
most  powerful  in  the  European  world. — "We 
have  now  reached  the  period  when  the  Hellenic 
and  barbaric  races  were  preparing  for  an  or- 
ganized conflict.  The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor 
had  been  subjected  by  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
and  were  afterward  ruled  by  Cyrus,  the  foun- 
der of  the  Persian  empire.  Darius,  son  of 
Hystaspes,  ascended  the  Persian  throne  in  521 
B.  C.  The  revolt  of  the  Ionian  colonies  from 
the  Persian  rule  commenced  effectively  about 
501,  and  the  mother  country  was  appealed  to 
for  aid.  The  Athenians  voted  to  send  a  squad- 
ron of  20  ships,  which,  Herodotus  says,  "  were 
the  beginners  of  evil  both  to  Greeks  and  bar- 
barians." In  the  following  year  Sardis  was 
captured  and  burned  by  the  Greeks  under 
Aristagoras,  and  the  revolt  extended  far  and 
wide.  Measures  were  speedily  taken  to  sup- 
press it.  The  capture  of  Miletus  and  the  de- 
feat of  the  Ionian  fleet  at  Lade  completed  the 
subjection  of  Ionia  (494).  This  event  put  an 
end  to  the  ancient  prosperity  of  Ionia.  Darius 
made  preparations  to  follow  up  its  reduction 
by  the  conquest  of  Greece  itself.  Placing  a 
large  armament  under  the  command  of  Mar- 
donius,  his  son-in-law,  he  sent  him  across  the 
Hellespont ;  but  the  destruction  of  the  accom- 
panying fleet,  while  attempting  to  double  the 


promontory  of  Athos,  by  a  hurricane,  and  the 
slaughter  of  a  large  portion  of  the  land  force 
by  the  Brygians,  a  Tbracian  tribe,  forced  him 
to  return  to  Persia.  This  was  the  first  Persian 
expedition  to  Greece  (492).  The  Persian  mon- 
arch, stimulated  by  Hippias,  the  exiled  despot 
of  Athens,  made  preparations  on  a  large  scale, 
and  in  490  assembled  a  mighty  army  in  Cilicia, 
and  a  fleet  of  600  galleys,  with  horse  trans- 
ports. The  command  was  given  to  Datis  and 
Artaphernes.  Embarking  with  their  forces, 
they  sailed  directly  across  the  ^Egean,  reduced 
the  Cyclades,  took  Eretria  in  Euboea  after  a 
siege  of  six  days,  razed  the  city,  and  put  the 
inhabitants  in  chains.  In  a  few  days  they 
crossed  to  Attica,  and  landed  on  the  plain  of 
Marathon.  The  Athenians,  warned  of  their 
approach,  made  preparations  to  receive  them, 
and  though  opposed  by  a  force  more  than  five 
times  as  great  as  their  own,  and  aided  only  by 
1,000  Platseans,  they  attacked  the  Persian  army 
in  the  open  field,  Miltiades  commanding,  and 
won  over  it  one  of  the  most  famous  victories 
in  history.  (See  MARATHON.)  The  Persians 
fled  to  their  ships,  which  were  stationed 
in  lines  near  the  shore.  They  lost  6,400  men, 
the  Athenians  192.  The  resentment  of  Da- 
rius, when  he  received  the  news  of  the  de- 
feat at  Marathon,  knew  no  bounds.  He  re- 
solved to  collect  the  forces  of  his  empire,  and 
to  lead  them  himself  against  Athens.  Three 
years  were  occupied  in  making  preparations 
on  a  gigantic  scale;  but  his  death  postponed 
the  threatened  invasion.  Xerxes,  his  son  and 
successor,  influenced  by  Mardonius,  who  was 
eager  to  retrieve  his  reputation,  resolved  to 
prosecute  the  plan  of  conquest,  and  to  collect 
forces  on  a  still  more  magnificent  scale.  Four 
years  more  were  occupied  with  preparations. 
Troops  from  46  different  nations  were  assem- 
bled ;  a  large  fleet  furnished  by  the  subject 
maritime  nations  was  collected ;  immense  stores 
of  provisions  were  deposited  at  stations  along 
the  intended  line  of  march  ;  a  bridge  was  con- 
structed across  the  Hellespont,  and  a  canal  cut 
through  the  narrow  neck  that  joins  the  penin- 
sula of  Athos  to  the  mainland.  The  bridge 
having  been  swept  away  by  a  storm,  Xerxes 
caused  two  to  be  built  in  its  place,  one  for 
the  army  and  one  for  the  baggage  and  beasts 
of  burden.  The  preparations  were  completed 
in  481,  and  in  the  spring  of  480  the  march 
began,  from  Sardis  to  the  Hellespont,  where 
the  army  crossed  the  bridge,  and  approached 
Greece  along  the  coast  of  Thrace.  According 
to  Herodotus,  the  military  and  naval  forces 
amounted  to  2,317,610,  besides  the  accessories 
from  the  native  tribes ;  so  that  when  Xerxes 
reached  Thermopylae  his  army  consisted  of 
more  than  2,500,000  fighting  men,  or  inclu- 
ding attendants,  if  Herodotus  is  to  be  believ- 
ed, of  more  than  5,000,000.  Though  these 
statements  are  incredible,  the  extensive  prepa- 
rations made  for  years  give  us  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  army  of  Xerxes  was  one  of  the 
largest  ever  assembled.  To  make  arrange- 


190 


GREECE 


ments  to  resist  this  mighty  invasion,  a  congress 
of  deputies  from  the  Greek  states  was  summon- 
ed to  meet  at  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The 
Athenians  and  Spartans  attempted  to  unite 
them  for  the  common  defence ;  but  the  terror 
inspired  by  the  Persian  hosts  was  so  great  that 
many  submitted  at  once,  and  others  refused 
to  take  part  in  the  congress.  The  only  people 
K.  and  E.  of  the  isthmus  who  dared  to  defend 
the  country  were  the  Athenians,  Phocians, 
Platoeans,  and  Thespians.  The  Athenians  gave 
the  command  of  the  forces  by  sea  and  land 
to  the  Spartans,  although  they  furnished  two 
thirds  of  the  fleet.  It  was  at  first  decided  to 
make  stand  against  the  invaders  at  Tempe, 
the  celebrated  and  beautiful  valley  between 
Mts.  Olympus  and  Ossa,  through  which  the 
Peneus  flows ;  but  this  was  found  impractica- 
ble. The  pass  of  Thermopylae,  a  narrow  defile 
between  the  mountains  of  (Eta  and  the  Maliac 
gulf,  was  finally  occupied  by  Leonidas,  the  Spar- 
tan king,  with  a  detachment  of  300  Spartan 
citizens  and  several  thousand  other  Peloponne- 
sians.  These,  with  the  troops  of  the  Thespians, 
Thebans,  and  Phocians,  in  all  about  5,000  men, 
prepared  to  hold  the  pass  against  the  innumer- 
able host  of  the  Persians.  The  heroic  strug- 
gle which  followed  is  one  of  the  best  known 
incidents  of  Grecian  history  (see  THERMOPY- 
LJS)  ;  but  it  was  unsuccessful,  and  nothing  now 
intervened  to  prevent  the  march  of  the  Per- 
sians upon  Athens.  The  naval  battle  of  Ar- 
temisiura,  at  the  N.  extremity  of  Euboea,  took 
place  about  the  same  time  as  that  of  Thermo- 
pylae. The  Greek  fleet  on  the  following  day 
received  a  reenforcement  of  53  Athenian  ships. 
Another  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Per- 
sians lost  the  greater  number  of  ships  and 
men;  but  the  Greeks,  unable  to  renew  the 
combat,  and  learning  that  Xerxes  was  in  pos- 
session of  Thermopylae,  sailed  down  the  Eu- 
boean  straits,  rounded  the  headland  of  Sunium, 
and  anchored  in  the  straits  of  Salamis.  The 
Athenians,  dismayed  at  the  prospect  of  the 
march  of  Xerxes  upon  the  city,  decided  to  re- 
move with  the  help  of  the  fleet  to  the  neighbor- 
ing island  of  Salamis.  A  few  only  remained 
in  possession  of  the  Acropolis,  awaiting  the 
Persians.  On  their  arrival  the  Persians  took 
post  on  the  hill  of  Mars,  and  with  some  dif- 
ficulty succeeded  in  taking  the  Acropolis  and 
dislodging  its  defenders.  The  city  was  given 
a  prey  to  the  flames.  The  fleet  at  the  same 
time  made  its  appearance  in  the  bay  of  Pha- 
lerum.  The  dissensions  among  the  Grecian 
commanders  came  near  producing  fatal  re- 
sults, but  Themistocles,  partly  by  his  personal 
influence,  and  partly  by  stratagem,  prevent- 
ed the  separation  of  the  fleet.  The  ban- 
ished Aristides  joined  the  fleet  and  communi- 
cated the  information  that  the  Persians  were 
in  possession  of  the  N.  W.  entrance  into  the 
bay  of  Eleusis,  thus  completely  surrounding 
the  fleet  of  the  Greeks,  still  lying  in  the  bay 
of  Salamis.  Nothing  was  left  but  to  fight. 
Early  in  the  morning  the  Greeks  advanced 


from  the  shore  of  Salamis  to  attack  the  Per- 
sian line,  stretching  along  the  opposite  coast 
of  Attica  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  The 
result  of  the  battle  was  a  great  victory.  The 
Greeks  lost  40  ships,  and  the  Persians  200,  be- 
sides those  which  were  taken  with  their  crews. 
Xerxes,  who  surveyed  the  battle  from  a  throne 
erected  on  the  W.  slope  of  Mt.  ^Egaleus,  imme- 
diately consulted  his  personal  safety  by  flight, 
through  Bceotia  and  Thessaly,  to  the  Hellespont, 
and  crossing  over  to  Asia  by  the  aid  of  his  fleet 
(his  bridge  of  boats  had  been  washed  away),  he 
returned  to  his  capital.  Mardonius  was  left  in 
command  of  the  army,  but  thought  it  prudent 
to  postpone  further  operations  until  spring. 
On  the  same  day  with  the  battle  of  Salamis 
(according  to  Herodotus),  the  Sicilian  Greeks, 
commanded  by  Gelon,  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  Carthaginians,  under  the  command 
of  Hamilcar,  at  Himera.  Before  opening  a 
fresh  campaign  in  the  spring,  Mardonius  made 
an  attempt  to  detach  the  Athenians  from  the 
cause  of  Greece.  Failing  in  this,  he  marched 
upon  Athens,  and  occupied  it  a  second  time 
(479),  compelling  the  citizens  to  move  again 
to  Salamis.  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  Sparta, 
and  after  some  delay  a  considerable  force  was 
sent  into  the  field  by  the  Lacedaemonians  and 
the  Peloponnesian  states.  Upon  learning  these 
measures  Mardonius  withdrew  into  Boeotia,  and 
took  up  a  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aso- 
pus  near  the  town  of  Plataea.  The  Greek  army, 
now  amounting  to  110,000  men,  moved  from 
Eleusis,  and  after  several  days  of  manoeuvring, 
with  skirmishes  of  cavalry  bet  ween  the  outposts, 
fought  the  battle  of  Platsea,  defeated  the  Per- 
sians, stormed  their  camp,  and  took  an  immense 
amount  of  booty.  Mardonius  was  slain.  At 
the  same  time  the  Persian  fleet  was  utterly  de- 
feated at  Mycale,  a  promontory  near  Miletus, 
by  the  Spartan  Leotychides  and  the  Athenian 
Xanthippus,  who  had  crossed  the  ^Egean  sea 
in  pursuit.  These  decisive  events  put  an  end 
to  the  Persian  invasions  of  Greece.  In  the 
following  year  a  fleet  was  sent,  under  the 
command  of  the  Spartan  regent  Pausanias,  to 
expel  the  Persians  from  Cyprus  and  the  ports 
in  Thrace,  including  Byzantium,  which  they 
still  held.  The  expedition  was  successful, 
thaugh  it  gave  rise  to  the  treacherous  ac- 
tion of  Pausanias,  which,  if  it  had  not  been 
promptly  discovered  and  punished,  might  have 
cost  the  Greeks  much  that  they  had  gained. 
The  noble  conduct  of  Athens  during  the  Per- 
sian wars  gave  her  at  their  close  a  command- 
ing position  in  the  aifairs  of  Greece.  A  league 
was  formed,  entitled  the  confederacy  of  De- 
los,  because  the  deputies  were  to  meet  in 
synod  there,  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  and  Ar- 
temis, the  general  object  being  to  secure  the 
common  defence  against  Persian  aggression  by 
the  maritime  power  of  Athens.  The  members 
of  the  league  were  to  pay  an  annual  amount, 
the  assessment  of  which  was  intrusted  to  Aris- 
tides, whose  integrity  of  character  had  given 
him  the  surname  of  the  Just.  The  officers 


GREECE 


191 


charged  with  the  administration  of  the  com- 
mon fund  were  appointed  by  the  Athenians, 
and  bore  the  name  of  Hellenotamise.  The  city 
was  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale  than  before,  and 
rapidly  became  the  leading  maritime  and  com- 
mercial power  of  Greece.  It  was  strongly  for- 
tified, and  the  harbors  of  Piraeus  and  Munychia 
were  protected  by  a  wall  along  their  shores, 
and  chains  supported  by  towers  at  their  en- 
trance, and  the  fleet  was  annually  increased  by 
the  addition  of  20  triremes,  under  the  advice 
of  Themistocles ;  the  constitution  was  also 
made  still  more  popular.  The  rising  prosperity 
of  the  Athenian  state,  even  at  this  early  pe- 
riod, began  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Sparta, 
which  attempted  to  interfere,  but  was  checked 
by  the  superior  craft  of  Themistocles.  In  465, 
however,  an  expedition  against  Thasos  pre- 
sented the  opportunity  for  a  hostile  manifesta- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  Spartans.  The  Thasians 
applied  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  who  agreed  to 
make  a  diversion  in  their  favor  by  invading 
Attica ;  a  promise  they  were  only  prevented 
from  keeping  by  an  earthquake  in  464,  which 
laid  their  capital  in  ruins,  destroyed  more  than 
20,000  citizens,  and  encouraged  the  helots  to 
revolt.  The  Messenians,  taking  advantage  of 
these  calamities  which  had  befallen  their  an- 
cient oppressors,  fortified  themselves  on  Mt. 
Ithome,  and  held  out  more  than  two  years, 
when  the  Lacedaemonians  finally  dislodged 
them  with  the  assistance  of  their  allies.  Athens 
continued  to  increase  in  power,  while  Sparta 
was  declining.  The  foreign  policy  of  Pericles, 
now  chief  of  the  Athenian  state,  carried  out 
the  political  principles  of  Themistocles,  and 
aimed  to  render  this  the  leading  power  of 
Greece.  In  458-457  he  began  the  long  walls, 
which  connected  Piraaus  and  Phalerum  with 
Athens,  thus  enclosing  the  city  and  the  ports 
in  one  uninterrupted  series  of  fortifications. 
The  Spartans,  whose  jealousy  of  Athens  was 
still  further  increased,  endeavored  to  check  her 
power  by  marching  into  Bceotia  and  increasing 
the  power  of  Thebes ;  and  in  consequence  of 
intrigues  of  the  oligarchical  party  in  Athens, 
they  sent  an  army  to  Tanagra,  on  the  borders 
of  Attica.  A  battle  followed,  in  which  the 
Lacedaemonians  had  the  advantage,  but  were 
not  decisively  victorious.  In  456  the  battle 
of  (Enophyta  was  fought,  and  Thebes  and  oth- 
er Boeotian  towns  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
Athens.  Phocis  and  Locris  came  next.  In 
155  the  long  walls  were  completed,  and  JEgina 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  tributary  ally. 
In  452  the  Lacedasmonians  concluded  a  five 
rears'  truce  with  Athens,  which  was  soon  after 
oollowed  by  the  pacification  known  as  the 
'peace  of  Cimon."  (See  CIMON.)  The  cus- 
tody of  the  common  fund  at  Delos  was  now 
-ransferred  to  Athens,  which  had  rapidly  be- 
some  the  imperial  head  instead  of  an  equal 
nember  of  the  league.  The  height  of  her 
)ower  may  be  dated  about  448.  In  the  fol- 
,owing  year  she  lost  her  ascendancy  in  Bceotia, 
Dhocis,  and  Locris,  and  a  revolt  broke  out  in 
373  VOL.  viii.— 13 


Euboea  and  Megara.  Eubcea,  however,  was 
soon  reduced  by  Pericles;  but  Athens  never 
recovered  her  other  possessions,  while  a  for- 
midable confederacy  was  organizing  against 
her  in  the  Peloponnesus.  In  445  the  Athenians 
concluded  a  truce  with  Sparta  and  her  allies 
for  30  years.  Pericles  still  pursued  his  policy 
of  aggrandizing  and  embellishing  Athens ;  but. 
for  a  time  he  had  a  powerful  opponent  in 
Thucydides,  the  leader  of  the  conservative 
party,  whose  banishment  soon  afterward  left 
Pericles  almost  the  undisputed  master  of  the 
state.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  city  was 
adorned  with  the  grand  works  of  statuary, 
architecture,  and  painting,  which  made  her 
not  only  the  glory  of  Greece  but  the  school 
of  the  world.  Pericles  enlarged  the  empire  of 
Athens  by  colonization,  from  the  shores  of  the 
Euxine  to  Italy.  He  increased  the  sum  of  the 
contributions  to  more  than  double  the  original 
amount.  The  Athenians  now  considered  them- 
selves the  sovereign  head  of  the  league.  All 
the  important  questions,  all  public  suits,  and 
all  private  suits  in  which  an  Athenian  was  one 
of  the  parties,  were  decided  at  Athens;  and 
the  city  began  to  be  called  "  the  despot."  The 
Peloponnesian  war  had  its  remote  origin  in  the 
jealousies  that  had  long  been  growing  between 
Sparta  and  Athens,  which  were  strengthened 
by  the  antagonism  between  the  Ionian  and 
Dorian  institutions,  the  former  represented  by 
Athens  and  the  latter  by  Sparta ;  but  the  im- 
mediate occasion  of  the  commencement  of  this 
ruinous  conflict  was  a  quarrel  between  Corinth 
and  her  former  colony  Corcyra,  in  relation  to 
Epidamnus,  a  colony  established  by  the  latter 
on  the  coast  of  Illyria.  The  Corcyrasan  fleet 
defeated  the  Corinthians  in  a  battle  near  Ac- 
tium,  in  435.  The  Corinthians  spent  two 
years  in  preparing  to  avenge  this  disgrace; 
and  the  Corcyraeans  applied  to  Athens  for  aid. 
Under  the  counsels  of  Pericles,  who  foresaw 
that  war  was  inevitable  in  the  end,  a  defensive 
alliance  was  concluded  with  Corcyra,  and  a 
fleet  of  10  triremes  was  despatched  for  the  sup- 
port of  that  island  in  case  of  its  territory  being 
invaded.  A  naval  battle  took  place  off  the 
coast  of  Epirus  in  432,  in  which  the  Corinthi- 
ans were  victorious.  At  first  the  victors  re- 
solved to  renew  the  attack  and  effect  a  landing 
at  Corcyra ;  but  the  appearance  of  20  Athenian 
sail  in  the  distance  caused  them  to  change  their 
purpose,  and  they  returned  to  Corinth  with 
about  1,050  prisoners,  800  of  whom  were  sold 
as  slaves,  and  the  remainder,  who  belonged  to 
the  first  families  of  Corcyra,  were  kept  as  hos- 
tages. The  Corinthians,  offended  with  the  part 
taken  by  the  Athenians  in  these  affairs,  assisted 
the  Potidaeans,  their  colonists,  now  tributary 
to  Athens,  who  had  been  stirred  up  by  Perdic- 
cas,  king  of  Macedon,  to  revolt  against  the  im- 
perial city.  A  general  meeting  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian confederacy  was  called  at  Sparta,  and 
deputies  from  the  several  states  appeared  (432). 
Their  charges  against  Athens  were  answered 
by  an  ambassador  who  happened  to  be  resident 


192 


GREECE 


there  at  the  time  on  other  business ;  but  a  large 
majority  of  the  assembly  voted  for  war.  Be- 
fore carrying  the  vote  into  execution,  the  Spar- 
tans made  several  demands  upon  the  Athenians : 
1,  the  banishment  of  the  Alcmasonidae,  among 
whom  Pericles  himself  was  included;  2,  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Athenian  troops  from  Poti- 
dwa,  the  restoration  of  independence  to  vEgina, 
and  the  repeal  of  a  decree  against  Megara ;  3, 
a  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  other 
Grecian  states.  Pericles  in  a  powerful  speech 
argued  that  no  concessions  could  avert  the  war, 
and  an  answer  in  accordance  with  his  views 
was  returned.  Hostilities  were  commenced 
the  next  year  by  an  attack  of  the  Thebans  upon 
Plataa.  The  war,  being  thus  openly  begun, 
soon  drew  into  its  vortex  nearly  all  the  states 
of  Greece.  On  the  side  of  Sparta  were  ranged 
the  whole  Peloponnesus  (except  Argos  and 
Achaia),  the  Megarians,  Boeotians,  Phocians, 
Opuntian  Locrians,  Ambraciotes,  Leucadians, 
and  Anactorians.  The  Dorian  cities  of  Italy 
and  Sicily  were  expected  to  furnish  a  fleet,  and 
it  was  even  contemplated  to  invite  the  Persian 
king  to  send  a  Phoenician  squadron  against 
Athens.  The  allies  of  the  Athenians  were  the 
Chians,  Lesbians,  Corey  raeans,  Zacynthians,  and 
afterward  the  Cephallenians ;  the  tributary 
cities  on  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  islands  N.  of  Crete,  except  Melos  and 
Thera.  Archidamus,  the  Spartan  king,  leading 
a  force  of  from  60,000  to  100,000  men,  marched 
from  the  isthmus,  where  they  had  assembled 
immediately  after  the  attack  upon  Plataea, 
crossed  the  Attic  border,  and  entered  the  Thri- 
asian  plain  early  in  the  summer  of  431.  Peri- 
cles collected  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  within 
the  walls  of  the  city,  and  abandoned  the  coun- 
try to  the  ravages  of  the  invaders,  while  he  sent 
a  fleet  to  lay  waste  the  coasts  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. It  was  not  before  the  end  of  the  summer 
that  Archidamus  retired  from  Attica  and  dis- 
banded his  army.  The  second  invasion  of  At- 
tica by  the  Lacedaemonians  took  place  the  next 
year.  The  sufferings  of  the  people  were  terribly 
increased  by  the  plague  of  Athens,  of  which 
Thucydides,  one  of  the  few  of  those  attacked 
who  survived,  gives  an  accurate  and  powerful 
description.  The  demoralizing  effects  of  the  de- 
spair produced  by  this  mysterious  disease  were 
worse  than  the  physical  sufferings.  It  was  es- 
timated that  not  less  than  a  fourth  of  the  popu- 
lation was  carried  off.  In  this  extraordinary 
and  calamitous  state  of  affairs  an  outcry  was 
raised  against  Pericles,  as  the  author  of  the 
public  misfortunes.  On  his  return  from  a  naval 
expedition  against  the  Peloponnesus,  he  was 
accused  by  Cleon,  a  rising  demagogue,  of  pecu- 
lation, brought  to  trial,  and  condemned  to  pay 
a  fine.  But  the  popular  feeling  veering  about, 
he  regained  his  influence,  and  was  reflected  gen- 
eral. Soon  after,  however,  he  was  attacked  by 
the  disease,  which  had  already  carried  off  his 
sister  and  his  two  sons  Xanthippus  and  Paralus, 
and  died  of  a  lingering  fever,  which  superven- 
ed upon  the  plague,  and,  in  the  weakened  state 


of  his  constitution,  proved  fatal.  The  death 
of  Pericles  struck  a  deadly  blow  to  the  Athe- 
nian cause.  The  men  who  seized  the  control 
of  the  state  were  greatly  his  inferiors  in  moral 
character  and  all  statesmanlike  qualities.  In 
the  second  year  of  the  war  the  Lacedaemonians 
made  some  attempts  and  did  some  harm  to  the 
Athenian  possessions  by  sea.  In  the  following 
winter  Potidaea  capitulated,  having  been  insti- 
gated to  revolt  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  the 
territory  was  occupied  by  colonists  from  Athens. 
Two  invasions  were  made  in  429  ;  and  the  mem- 
orable siege  of  Plataea,  which  ended  two  years 
later,  commenced.  After  the  surrender  the 
Lacedaemonians  cruelly  put  to  death  every  man 
who  fell  into  their  hands,  and  utterly  destroyed 
the  city.  In  the  same  year  Phormio  gained 
several  naval  victories  for  Athens  in  the  Corin- 
thian gulf.  In  428  Attica  was  again  invaded. 
Mitylene,  the  capital  of  Lesbos,  revolted,  and 
a  fleet  was  despatched  against  it.  The  aid  of 
the  Lacedaemonians  was  invoked,  and  succors 
were  promised ;  but  delays  occurring  in  sending 
them,  the  party  of  the  Mityleneans  favorable  to 
Athenian  supremacy  opened  negotiations  with 
Paches,  the  Athenian  commander,  and  a  capit- 
ulation was  agreed  upon.  The  leaders  of  the 
revolt  were  sent  to  Athens,  where  a  remark- 
able debate  was  held  on  the  question  of  putting 
the  whole  body  of  the  Mityleneans  to  death. 
Cleon's  savage  proposal  of  a  general  massacre 
was  at  first  carried  by  a  small  majority,  and  a 
trireme  was  despatched  with  orders  to  Paches 
to  put  it  immediately  into  execution.  But  the 
cooler  second  thoughts  of  the  people  in  the 
assembly  of  the  following  day  led  to  a  reversal 
of  the  decree ;  a  second  trireme,  rowed  by 
oarsmen  stimulated  by  the  promise  of  large 
rewards,  being  sent  with  counter  orders,  hap- 
pily arrived  in  season  to  arrest  the  execution 
of  the  decree.  To  this  period  belong  the  bloody 
feuds  at  Corcyra,  of  which  Thucydides  has 
drawn  a  masterly  picture.  The  year  426  was 
marked  by  calamities  of  another  kind — by 
floods,  earthquakes,  and  the  reappearance  of 
the  plague  at  Athens.  In  425  the  Athenians 
established  a  garrison  at  Pylos,  the  modern 
Navarino ;  an  act  which  recalled  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  fleet  from  Corcyra,  and  the  army  from 
Attica,  where  they  had  been  only  15  days.  An 
assault  was  made,  led  by  Brasidas,  with  the 
intent  to  expel  the  Athenians,  but  it  was  not 
successful ;  and  while  the  Lacedaemonians  were 
preparing  to  renew  it,  the  Athenian  fleet  en- 
tered the  port,  and  in  the  battle  that  ensued 
gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  Athenians  now 
blockaded  the  Lacedaemonians,  shut  up  on  the 
little  island  of  Sphacteria.  The  besieged  were 
reduced  to  such  straits  that  an  armistice  was 
solicited  to  enable  the  Lacedaemonians  to  send 
to  Athens  and  sue  for  peace.  The  Athenian 
assembly,  under  the  influence  of  Cleon,  insisting 
on  extravagant  terms,  the  war  was  resumed. 
Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  general,  not  suc- 
ceeding as  quickly  as  was  hoped  in  reducing 
the  garrison,  sent  to  Athens  for  further  assis- 


GREECE 


193 


36,  communicating  at  the  same  time  intelli- 
gence of  the  actual  state  of  the  siege.  Cleon 
vehemently  attacked  the  conductors  of  the  war, 
and  boastfully  declared  that  if  he  were  general 
the  island  would  be  captured  without  delay. 
Unexpectedly  to  him,  the  people  took  him  at 
his  word.  Unable  to  decline  the  honor  thrust 
upon  him,  Cleon  departed  to  the  scene  of  his 
command ;  and,  by  availing  himself  of  the  prep- 
arations Demosthenes  had  already  made,  he 
was  able  to  keep  his  promise,  and  arrived  at 
Athens  with  the  Spartan  prisoners  in  20  days 
after  his  departure.  The  Athenian  fleet,  after 
.the  victory,  proceeded  to  Corcyra,  and  wit- 
nessed another  series  of  political  massacres, 
without  attempting  to  prevent  them.  In  424 
the  Athenians  were  defeated  at  Delium,  and 
met  with  severe  losses  in  Thrace,  while  Ni- 
cias  was  reducing  Cythera  and  garrisoning 
its  principal  towns.  The  Lacedaemonians  add- 
ed to  the  customary  atrocities  of  war  the 
murder  of  2,000  helots  whom  they  pretended 
to  emancipate.  The  Athenians  sent  expedi- 
tions against  Megara  and  Boeotia,  the  former 
of  which  was  only  partially  successful,  and 
the  latter  a  disastrous  failure — the  defeat  of 
Delium,  already  mentioned.  These  reverses, 
especially  the  defeats  in  Thrace,  disheartened 
the  Athenians.  In  423  a  truce  was  concluded 
for  a  year,  with  a  view  to  a  permanent  peace. 
But  the  negotiations  were  interrupted  by  the 
revolt  of  Scione  to  Brasidas,  and  hostilities  in 
that  quarter  were  renewed.  In  422  Cleon  was 
despatched  to  the  north,  with  a  fleet  and  army ; 
but  he  showed  his  incompetency  to  encounter 
Brasidas,  and  fell  in  a  disgraceful  retreat  before 
that  general  from  Amphipolis,  where  Brasidas 
himself  also  fell.  In  421  the  peace  of  Nicias  was 
concluded,  followed  by  an  alliance  offensive  and 
defensive  between  Athens  and  Sparta.  An  at- 
tempt was  soon  made  to  form  a  new  confeder- 
acy under  the  leadership  of  Argos,  excluding 
Athens  and  Sparta.  Difficulties  sprang  up  be- 
tween these  two  states,  which  were  fomented 
by  Alcibiades,  who  had  now  risen  to  influence 
in  Athens,  and  bore  a  private  grudge  against 
Sparta ;  he  advocated  a  league  with  Argos,  and 
resorted  to  tricks  and  intrigues  to  carry  his 
point.  Accordingly  in  420  a  treaty  for  100 
years  was  made  with  Argos,  Elis,  and  Hantinea. 
In  418,  in  consequence  of  these  events,  and  the 
insolence  of  Alcibiades,  the  Lacedaemonians 
sent  an  army  into  the  territory  of  Argos,  and 
the  battle  of  Mantinea  crowned  the  Spartan 
arms  with  victory  over  the  Athenian  and  Ar- 
give  forces.  Civil  discords  and  revolutions  and 
counter  revolutions  followed  at  Argos.  In 
this  same  year  the  Athenians  conquered  the 
island  of  Melos,  and,  on  the  proposal  of  Alci- 
biades, put  the  men  to  death,  sold  the  women 
and  children  into  slavery,  and  established  an 
Athenian  colony  on  the  island.— The  feuds 
that  distracted  Greece  broke  out  with  baneful 
effect  in  the  Sicilian  and  Italian  colonies.  This 
led  to  the  intervention  of  Athens.  In  427 
Gorgias  of  Leontini  was  sent  to  Athens  to  ask 


succor  for  his  countrymen.  A  squadron  of  20 
ships  was  immediately  sent,  and  in  425  another 
of  40 ;  but  the  Sicilians  were  alarmed,  and  the 
expeditions  were  without  effect.  Another  ap- 
plication was  made  in  422,  but  unsuccessfully. 
In  416  Segesta,  having  a  quarrel  with  Selinus, 
sent  an  embassy  for  aid,  the  Syracusans  hav- 
ing taken  sides  with  the  Selinuntines.  Alci- 
biades supported  the  demands  of  the  Seges- 
tans,  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  Nicias  and 
his  party.  It  was  decided  to  send  a  fleet  of  60 
triremes,  under  the  command  of  Nicias,  Alci- 
b.iades,  and  Lamachus,  in  the  expectation  not 
only  of  assisting  Segesta  and  Leontini,  but  of 
extending  the  power  of  Athens  over  all  Sicily. 
Three  months  were  spent  in  making  prepara- 
tions on  a  grand  scale,  and  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm prevailed.  Just  as  the  armament  was 
on  the  point  of  sailing,  the  superstitious  terrors 
of  the  Athenians  were  roused  by  the  mutila- 
tion of  the  Hermse,  or  square  pillars  surmount- 
ed with  the  head  of  Hermes,  standing  in  the 
streets  and  public  squares,  and  the  public  sus- 
picion fell  upon  Alcibiades  as  the  author  of  the 
sacrilege.  This  crime,  together  with  the  prof- 
anation of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  by  a  pri- 
vate representation,  was  charged  upon  him  by 
Pythonicus,  in  the  public  assembly.  But  in- 
stead of  an  immediate  investigation,  his  politi- 
cal enemies  caused  it  to  be  postponed  till  his 
return ;  and  the  fleet  departed  from  the  Pirasus 
(415).  The  rendezvous  was  appointed  to  be  held 
at  Corcyra,  whence  the  combined  fleet  of  the 
Athenians  and  their  allies  sailed  for  the  Ja- 
pygian  promontory,  and  thence  to  Ehegium, 
where  they  awaited  the  return  of  the  fast-sail- 
ing triremes  which  had  preceded  the  main 
body  to  Segesta.  The  reports  brought  back 
were  not  very  encouraging,  and  there  was  a 
difference  of  opinion  among  the  generals.  Al- 
cibiades was  met  at  Catana  by  a  summons  to 
return  to  Athens,  and  take  his  trial  on  the 
charge  of  profaning  the  Eleusinian  mysteries. 
The  state  ship  Salaminia  brought  the  order; 
but  on  the  way  home  Alcibiades  escaped.  The 
trial  went  on  according  to  Athenian  usage,  and 
though  absent,  he  was  condemned  to  death. 
After  some  months'  delay  Nicias  commenced 
operations  against  Syracuse,  and  having  gained 
a  victory  retired  to  Catana,  and  afterward  to 
Naxos,  into  winter  quarters.  The  Syracusans 
occupied  the  winter  in  preparations  for  defence. 
In  the  following  spring  (414)  the  siege  of  Syra- 
cuse was  commenced.  Just  as  the  Syracusans 
were  on  the  point  of  surrendering,  Gylippus  the 
Spartan  arrived  in  Sicily  with  a  small  force, 
and  landing  at  Himera,  on  the  N.  coast,  levied 
an  army,  and  marched  upon  the  city.  This 
changed  the  face  of  affairs,  and  put  to  flight 
all  thoughts  of  surrender.  Two  naval  battles 
were  fought  in  the  great  harbor.  In  the  first 
the  Athenians  gained  the  advantage,  but  they 
were  defeated  in  the  second.  Meantime,  the 
Lacedaemonians  at  home  had  ravaged  the  Ar- 
give  territory,  and  the  Athenians  had  sent  a 
fleet  against  Epidaurus.  In  413  the  Laced®- 


194 


GREECE 


monians  invaded  Attica  and  established  thera- 
s-lv.-s  in  Decelea,  acting  under  the  advice  of 
Al.  il.iades,  who  had  passed  over  from  Italy  to 
the  Peloponnesus.  Yet  the  Athenians  resolved 
not  only  to  ravage  the  coast  of  Laconia,  but  to 
send  reenforcements  to  Sicily.  They  accord- 
ingly despatched  75  triremes,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Demosthenes,  with  5,000  heavy-armed 
and  a  large  body  of  light-armed  troops.  After 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  upon  the  outer 
positions,  and  when  sickness  broke  out  among 
the  troops,  it  was  found  necessary  to  withdraw 
from  the  great  harbor ;  but  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon,  occurring  on  the  appointed  night,  pre- 
vented their  departure.  This  fatal  delay  gave 
the  Syracusans  an  opportunity  of  attacking 
them  by  land  and  sea.  Gylippus  suffered  a 
repulse  by  land;  but  the  Athenian  fleet  was 
defeated,  and  Eurymedon  the  commander  slain. 
The  entrance  to  the  harbor  was  blocked  up.  A 
terrible  battle  was  immediately  fought,  the 
Athenian  fleet  driven  ashore,  their  crews  leap- 
ing out,  and  flying  to  the  camp  for  refuge. 
Escape  by  sea  was  now  cut  off;  the  ships  were 
all  abandoned  to  the  enemy ;  and  in  attempt- 
ing to  retreat  by  land,  the  divisions  of  the 
army,  greatly  reduced  by  their  sufferings,  were 
successively  surrounded  and  made  prisoners. 
The  captives  were  set  to  work  in  the  stone 
quarries  of  Achradina  and  Epipolae,  and  Nicias 
and  Demosthenes  were  doomed  to  death.  The 
calamitous  close  of  this  expedition  overwhelmed 
the  Athenians  with  sorrow  and  despair,  and 
the  popular  fury  vented  itself  on  those  who 
had  proposed  or  encouraged  the  enterprise. 
The  occupation  of  Decelea  by  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians still  harassed  the  city,  keeping  it  almost 
in  a  state  of  siege.  The  consequences  soon  be- 
gan to  be  felt  in  the  defection  of  the  allies  and 
subjects,  who  were  encouraged  and  aided  by 
Sparta  in  throwing  off  the  yoke.  Alcibiades 
was  actively  engaged  in  stirring  up  the  spirit 
of  revolt.  But  the  Athenians  were  not  long 
in  taking  measures  to  remedy  as  well  as  they 
could  these  terrible  disasters.  They  appointed 
a  committee  of  public  safety,  under  the  name 
of  probuli,  commenced  a  new  fleet,  and  forti- 
fied Sunium.  Acting  under  the  advice  of  Al- 
cibiades, the  Lacedemonians  sent  a  fleet  in  aid 
of  the  Chians.  The  movement  was  successful, 
and  other  cities  and  islands  on  the  Asiatic  coast 
followed  the  example  of  revolt.  The  Atheni- 
ans now  appropriated  the  fund  of  1,000  talents 
reserved  by  Pericles  to  fitting  out  a  fleet  against 
the  Chians ;  but  the  revolt  continued  to  extend, 
embracing  Teos,  Lesbos,  and  Miletus.  The  Sa- 
mians  remained  faithful,  and  Samos  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  Sev- 
eral victories  soon  crowned  the  changing  for- 
tunes of  Athens.  By  this  time  Alcibiades, 
whose  manners  also  were  offensive  to  the 
Spartans,  excited  their  distrust  by  his  intrigues 
with  the  Persians.  At  length  he  brought  mat- 
ters to  such  a  pass  that  the  Athenians,  pressed 
by  the  necessities  of  their  condition,  agreed  to 
restore  him,  and  to  change  the  constitution  to 


|  an  oligarchy,  on  condition  of  aid  from  Persia. 
!  A  revolution  was  effected,  and  the  government 
I  of  the  400  established,  with  the  power  of  con- 
j  vening  a  select  body  of  5,000  citizens  whenever 
1  they  saw  fit ;  but  the  expected  aid  from  Persia 
I  was  not  received.  The  400  opened  negotiations 
I  with  Agis,  the  Spartan  king.  But  dissensions 
broke  out,  a  counter  revolution  was  partially 
successful,  and  the  democratic  constitution  was 
maintained  in  Samos.  The  Lacedaemonians 
failed  to  seize  the  opportunity  of  striking  a  blow 
by  taking  the  Piraeus,  but  the  Athenian  fleet 
was  defeated  at  Eretria  in  Eubcea.  The  old 
constitution  was  finally  restored,  and  several 
leaders  of  the  oligarchical  party,  among  whom 
was  Antiphon  the  orator,  were  put  to  death. 
From  this  period,  although  the  Lacedaemonians 
still  held  possession  of  Decelea,  the  war  was 
mainly  carried  on  by  sea.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  Mindarus,  the  Lacedaemonian  com- 
mander, to  effect  a  revolt  of  the  Athenian  de- 
pendencies in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Helles- 
pont. Thrasyllus  the  Athenian  followed  him, 
and  the  battle  of  Cynossema,  in  which  the  Athe- 
nians were  victorious,  was  fought  (411);  the 
shattered  remains  of  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet 
were  wrecked  off  Mt.  Athos.  Another  battle 
was  soon  after  fought  near  Abydos,  which  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  Athenians  by  the  arri- 
val of  Alcibiades  from  Samos.  A  third  battle 
was  fought  near  Cyzicus  the  next  year,  and, 
the  Spartan  running  his  ships  ashore,  Mindarus 
was  slain,  the  fleet  taken,  and  the  Athenians 
became  again  masters  of  the  Propontis.  The 
Lacedaemonians  now  offered  peace;  but  the 
Athenians,  elated  by  their  recent  victories, 
and  influenced  by  the  harangues  of  Cleophon, 
an  influential  demagogue,  rejected  the  terms. 
In  the  two  following  years  the  Athenians  re- 
covered Selymbria  and  Byzantium,  chiefly 
through  the  active  services  of  Alcibiades ;  and 
in  407,  after  an  exile  of  eight  years,  he  was 
fully  restored,  the  sentence  against  him  was 
annulled,  and  he  was  placed  with  unlimited 
powers  at  the  head  of  all  the  forces  of  the  re- 
public, by  land  and  sea.  In  the  mean  time 
Cyrus;  the  younger  son  of  Darius  II.,  was  sent 
down  as  satrap  to  the  provinces  of  Lydia, 
Phrygia,  and  Cappadocia,  and  the  able  Lysan- 
der  was  sent  from  Sparta  to  take  command 
of  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet.  They  resolved  to 
act  in  concert.  Alcibiades  sailed  from  Athens 
to  Andros,  where  he  left  a  part  of  the  fleet 
under  Conon  to  prosecute  the  siege,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Samos.  He  attempted  to  raise  money 
by  force;  and  while  absent  from  Samos  on 
this  business  his  pilot  Antiochus,  contrary  to 
his  orders,  hazarded  a  battle,  and  sustained  a 
defeat.  These  events,  and  the  profligate  con- 
duct of  Alcibiades,  lost  him  the  confidence  of 
the  Athenians,  and  he  was  deprived  of  his 
command.  Ten  new  generals,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  Conon,  were  appointed  to  super- 
sede him.  A  battle  was  fought  between  Co- 
non and  Callicratidas,  the  successor  of  Lysan- 
der,  in  the  harbor  of  Mitylene,  in  which  Co- 


GKEECE 


195 


lost  30  ships ;  but  the  Athenians,  learning 
this  disaster,  despatched  with  incredible  speed 
110  triremes,  and  a  great  battle  followed  near 
the  little  islands  called  Arginusse,  in  which  the 
Lacedaemonians  lost  77  vessels  (406).  The 
generals  were  brought  to  trial  at  Athens  on  a 
charge  of  not  collecting  the  bodies  of  the  dead 
for  burial,  and  six  of  them  were  executed  in 
a  moment  of  popular  frenzy.  Socrates,  who 
happened  to  be  one  of  the  presiding  officers  at 
the  public  assembly,  protested  against  the  pro- 
ceeding and  refused  to  put  the  vote ;  but  the 
next  day  a  more  pliant  officer  went  through 
the  form,  and  the  great  crime  was  consumma- 
ted. Callicratidas  having  perished  in  the  bat- 
tle,' Lysander  was  reinstated  in  the  command 
in  405 ;  and  proceeding  to  the  Hellespont,  he 
took  up  his  station  at  Abydos.  The  Atheni- 
ans, hearing  of  this  movement,  also  sailed  to 
JEgospotami  near  Lampsacus,  which  Lysander 
was  besieging.  After  five  days  of  manoeuvring, 
the  momentous  battle  was  fought  which  put  an 
end  to  the  war  by  the  ruin  of  Athens.  Conon 
escaped  with  only  8  or  10  ships,  out  of  180; 
3,000  or  4,000  Athenian  prisoners  were  put  to 
death,  with  the  generals.  It  was  in  Septem- 
ber, 405,  that  Lysander  received  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Athenian  cities,  and  established  in 
them  oligarchies  of  ten  (decarchies).  He 
reached  Athens  in  November,  and  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  army  marched  into  Attica,  encamp- 
ing near  the  city,  on  the  grounds  of  the  acad- 
emy. After  three  months  of  dreadful  suffer- 
ings by  famine,  the  Athenians  surrendered ;  and 
in  March,  404,  Lysander  took  formal  possession 
of  the  city.  The  conditions  of  the  surrender 
were  executed ;  the  walls  and  fortifications 
were  dismantled  to  the  music  of  the  flute ;  the 
arsenals  were  destroyed,  the  ships  on  the  stocks 
burned,  and  all  the  fleet  except  12  triremes  car- 
ried off  by  Lysander.  The  government  of  the 
thirty,  called  the  thirty  tyrants,  was  establish- 
ed, and  Lysander,  sailing  to  Samos,  soon  reduced 
that  island,  and  then  returned  to  Sparta  loaded 
with  honors.  The  government  of  the  thirty 
soon  made  themselves  feared  and  hated,  estab- 
lishing by  their  tyrannical  and  bloody  acts  a 
reign  of  terror.  It  is  said  that  1,500  persons 
were  executed  without  trial.  Alcibiades  was 
included  in  the  list  of  exiles ;  but  he  was  put 
to  death  by  Pharnabazus,  the  Persian  satrap, 
in  compliance  with  orders  transmitted  from 
Sparta  to  Lysander.  The  state  of  feeling  in 
Greece  soon  began  to  turn  against  the  Lacedae- 
monians. They  had  shown  a  grasping  dispo- 
sition, and  Lysander,  puffed  up  by  his  military 
successes,  was  haughty  and  tyrannical.  Thra- 
sybulus  and  other  Athenian  exiles  ventured  to 
seize  the  fortress  at  the  pass  of  Phyle,  on  Mt. 
Parnes,  and  the  thirty  were  repulsed  in  an  at- 
tempt to  dislodge  them.  The  thirty,  feeling  their 
position  insecure,  resorted  to  still  more  atro- 
cious and  bloody  means  of  perpetuating  their 
power ;  whereupon  Thrasybulus  marched  down 
to  Piraeus  and  occupied  the  hill  of  Munychia. 
The  thirty,  with  the  whole  force  at  their  com- 


mand, attacked  them;  but  Thrasybulus  fell 
upon  and  defeated  them,  and  slew  70,  with 
Critias  their  leader.  A  new  government  of 
ten  was  established  at  Athens,  and  the  aid  of 
the  Lacedaemonians  was  invoked.  Pausanias, 
having  superseded  Lysander,  led  an  army  into 
Attica,  and  after  several  unimportant  combats 
terms  were  agreed  upon  (403) ;  the  exiles 
were  restored ;  the  democracy  was  reestab- 
lished, with  all  the  old  administrative  bodies ; 
the  acts  of  the  thirty  were  annulled,  and  the 
old  laws  revised,  and  inscribed  on  the  walls  of 
the  Pcecile  Stoa,  in  the  full  Ionic  alphabet  of 
24  letters,  then  for  the  first  time  introduced 
into  the  public  records.  In  401  occurred  the 
episode  of  the  Anabasis,  or  expedition  of  Cyrus 
the  Younger,  which  is  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  Greece  by  the  circumstance  that  his 
army  consisted  in  part  of  Greek  mercenaries, 
and  that  Xenophon  the  historian  served  as 
volunteer,  and  conducted  the  Greek  troops 
back  to  the  sea,  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa. — 
The  period  following  the  downfall  of  Athens  is 
that  of  the  Spartan  supremacy,  which  lasted 
34  years,  from  405  till  the  battle  of  Leuctra, 
371,  although  her  maritime  power  was  greatly 
diminished  by  the  battle  of  Cnidus,  in  394.  The 
conquest  of  Elis  in  402  extended  her  power  in 
the  Peloponnesus ;  but  she  soon  entered  upon  a 
course  of  degeneracy  and  decay.  The  intrigues 
of  Lysander,  and  the  large  sums  of  gold  and 
silver  introduced  into  the  country,  tended  to 
change  and  corrupt  the  ancient  character  of  the 
Lacedemonians,  and  to  produce  great  inequali- 
ties in  the  condition  of  the  citizens.  Troubles 
soon  broke  out  in  Asia  Minor,  and  a  Lacedae- 
monian force  under  Thimbron  was  despatched 
to  protect  the  Ionian  cities  against  Tissaphernes, 
the  Persian  viceroy  of  Asia  Minor.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Dercyllidas.  In  397,  after  sev- 
eral encounters,  an  armistice  was  agreed  upon ; 
but  Pharnabazus,  the  rival  of  Tissaphernes, 
seized  the  opportunity  to  organize  a  fleet, 
which  was  placed  under  the  command  of  Co- 
non, who  since  the  defeat  at  ^Egospotami  had 
lived  under  the  protection  of  Evagoras,  prince 
of  Salamis  in  Cyprus.  Agesilaus  invaded  Asia 
with  a  powerful  army  in  396,  and  in  395 
marched  upon  Sardis.  Tissaphernes  was  put 
to  death,  through  the  influence  of  the  queen 
mother  Parysatis,  and  his  successor  Tithraustes 
made  an  armistice  of  six  months  with  Agesi- 
laus, who  in  the  mean  time  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet  in  ad- 
dition to  that  of  the  army.  A  new  fleet  of  120 
triremes,  under  the  command  of  Pisander,  was 
sent  out  by  the  Lacedaemonians  the  following 
year.  In  August,  394,  the  great  battle  of  Cni- 
dus was  fought,  in  which  more  than  half  of 
the  Lacedaemonian  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  Pi- 
sander fell.  In  the  mean  while  discontents  in 
Greece  itself  with  the  Spartan  power  were  ea- 
gerly fomented  by  Persian  agents,  and  hostili- 
ties breaking  out  between  Sparta  and  Thebes, 
Athens  was  called  in  by  the  latter.  Lysander 
was  slain  in  an  action  at  Haliartus  (395),  and 


196 


GREECE 


Pausanias  was  obliged  to  retreat.  An  alliance 
was  formed  against  Sparta  between  Athens, 
Corinth,  Argos,  and  Thebes,  and  many  other 
states  soon  joined  it.  A  meeting  was  held  in 
894  at  Corinth,  and  in  this  alarming  state  of 
affairs  Agesilaus  was  recalled  from  Asia.  The 
battle  of  Corinth,  in  which  the  Lacedaemonians 
gained  tho  victory,  was  fought  in  July,  394, 
nearly  at  the  same  time  with  the  battle  of  Cni- 
dus.  Agesilaus  received  the  news  at  Amphi- 
polis,  on  his  way  from  Asia;  and  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Phocis  and  Bceotia  he  heard  of  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Pisander  at  Cnidus.  Pressing 
forward,  he  met  the  confederate  army  at  Coro- 
nea,  where  a  terrible  conflict  took  place,  end- 
ing in  a  victory,  though  not  a  decisive  one,  for 
Agesilaus.  The  defeat  of  Cnidus  cost  the  Spar- 
tans the  maritime  supremacy  they  had  acquired 
at  ^Egospotami.  The  Spartan  harmosts  (gov- 
ernors) were  expelled  from  the  islands.  In  393 
the  coast  of  Laconia  was  ravaged  by  Conon 
and  Pharnabazus ;  the  long  walls  of  Athens  and 
the  fortifications  of  Piraeus  were  rebuilt,  and 
Athens  had  regained  something  of  her  former 
power,  by  laying  again  the  foundations  of  mari- 
time supremacy.  The  war  continued  during 
the  following  year,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Corinth,  the  Spartans  making  their  headquar- 
ters at  Sicyon,  and  ravaging  the  Corinthian 
plain,  besides  gaining  the  advantage  in  several 
skirmishes.  The  triumphant  career  of  the  Spar- 
tans was  interrupted  by  the  victories  of  Iphi- 
orates,  an  Athenian  commander  of  a  body  of 
mercenaries.  Agesilaus  returned  stealthily  to 
Sparta,  and  many  places  in  the  Corinthian  ter- 
ritory were  retaken  by  his  aid.  The  Lacedae- 
monians  sent  Antalcidas  to  negotiate  with  the 
Persians,  in  the  hope  of  regaining  their  good 
will ;  and  Tiribazus  secretly  furnished  the  Spar- 
tans with  money,  and  treacherously  seized 
Conon,  who  now  disappears  from  history.  In 
389  a  fleet  of  40  triremes  was  despatched  from 
Athens  to  Asia  Minor,  under  Thrasybulus ;  but 
after  reestablishing  the  Athenian  supremacy  in 
several  places  on  the  Hellespont,  he  was  sur- 
prised and  slain  at  Aspendus.  Anaxibius  was 
sent  from  Sparta  to  succeed  Dercyllidas  as 
governor  of  Abydos,  and  Iphicrates  was  de- 
spatched from  Athens.  He  attacked  Anaxibius 
among  the  passes  of  Ida,  defeated  his  army,  and 
slew  him  with  12  other  harmosts,  thus  giving 
the  Athenians  again  the  mastery  of  the  Helles- 
pont. But  the  ^Eginetans  began  to  infest  the 
trade  of  Athens,  and  the  Lacedaemonians,  under 
Teleutias,  took  Piraeus  by  surprise,  and  car- 
ried off  a  considerable  amount  of  booty.  In 
387  the  treaty  of  Antalcidas  was  concluded,  on 
terms  that  were  denounced  by  the  Athenian 
writers  a  few  years  later  as  most  disgraceful, 
but  the  deputies  from  the  states  felt  obliged  to 
yield  their  assent.  In  substance  it  provided 
that  the  cities  of  Asia  and  the  islands  of  Clazo- 
mena>  and  Cyprus  should  belong  to  Persia,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scy- 
rps,  which  were  to  remain  to  Athens,  all  the 
cities  should  be  independent.  Sparta  now  com- 


menced a  series  of  aggressions  in  Boeotia.  Pla- 
taa  was  rebuilt  for  a  Spartan  outpost.  Manti- 
nea,  against  which  Sparta  owed  a  grudge,  was 
reduced,  dismantled,  and  placed  under  an  oli- 
garchy. In  383  the  affairs  of  Olynthus,  the  cen- 
tre of  a  powerful  confederacy  at  the  head  of 
the  Toronaic  gulf,  attracted  the  attention  of 
Sparta ;  and  Eudamidas  was  despatched  to  the 
defence  of  Acanthus  and  Apollonia,  but  his 
army  was  not  sufficiently  strong  to  take  the 
field  at  once  against  the  Olynthians.  Another 
force  was  collected  by  Phcebidas,  the  brother 
of  Eudamidas,  and  marched  to  Thebes,  where 
they  treacherously  got  possession  of  the  Cad- 
mea  or  citadel.  The  indignation  which  this  act 
excited  induced  the  Lacedaemonians  to  disa- 
vow it,  and  to  dismiss  Phcebidas;  but  they  con- 
tinued to  occupy  the  citadel  with  a  garrison, 
and  Thebes  was  enrolled  as  a  member  of  the 
Lacedaemonian  confederacy.  The  war  with 
Olynthus  was  closed  in  379,  with  the  capitula- 
tion of  the  city,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  league 
of  which  she  was  the  head ;  a  great  misfortune, 
as  the  event  proved,  to  Greece.  In  379  a  rev- 
olution was  brought  about  at  Thebes,  chiefly 
by  the  young  Pelopidas,  who  was  living  in  ex- 
ile at  Athens,  and  who  arranged  a  conspiracy 
with  some  of  the  leaders  of  the  patriotic  party 
at  Thebes,  which  was  carried  into  successful 
execution.  The  garrison  capitulated,  the  exiles 
returned,  and  the  revolution  shook  the  influence 
of  Sparta  throughout  Greece.  Athens  set  vig- 
orously to  work  to  organize  a  new  confederacy, 
and  Thebes  enrolled  herself  as  one  of  the  earliest 
members.  A  congress  was  held  in  Athens,  and 
a  large  army  and  fleet  voted.  The  war  with 
Sparta  was  zealously  prepared  for.  At  Thebes 
the  famous  "sacred  band"  was  formed,  and 
Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas  were  actively  en- 
gaged in  organizing  the  war.  Agesilaus  march- 
ed from  Sparta  into  the  Bcootian  territory,  and 
laid  waste  the  country,  to  the  gates  of  Thebes; 
in  the  following  year  he  conducted  a  second 
expedition,  in  which  he  received  an  injury  that 
withdrew  him  from  active  service.  The  next 
expedition  was  accordingly  conducted  by  Cle- 
ombrotus ;  he  was  forced  to  retreat  by  the 
Thebans,  who  had  seized  the  passes  of  Cithaaron. 
In  376  a  Lacedaemonian  fleet  under  Pollio  was 
defeated  by  Chabrias  the  Athenian  near  Nax- 
os ;  and  Timotheus,  another  Athenian,  son  of 
Conon,  sailed  to  the  west  of  Greece,  and  gained 
over  to  Athens  Cephallenia,  Corcyra,  and  many 
of  the  Epirotes  and  Acarnanians.  Dissatisfac- 
tion and  jealousy  sprung  up  among  the  con- 
federates of  Athens.  Thebes  was  extending 
her  dominion  over  the  neighboring  states,  and 
in  375  Pelopidas  gained  a  victory  over  the  Lace- 
daemonians at  Tegyra.  In  374  the  Thebans  had 
completely  expelled  the  Lacedaemonians  from 
Bceotia,  and  menaced  Phocis.  The  Athenians 
made  with  Sparta  a  peace  which  was  imme- 
diately broken,  and  the  successes  of  the  Athe- 
nian army  on  the  western  coast  of  Greece  so 
alarmed  the  Spartans  that  in  372  Antalcidas 
was  again  despatched  to  solicit  the  aid  of  Per- 


GREECE 


197 


sia.  Fresh  negotiations  were  opened,  a  con- 
gress was  held  in  Sparta  in  371,  and  the  peace 
known  as  the  peace  of  Callias  was  ratified  by 
all  except  Epaminondas,  the  representative  of 
Thebes.  Hostilities  between  the  Thebans  and 
Lacedaemonians  commenced  almost  immediate- 
ly, and  the  great  battle  of  Leuctra  established 
the  ascendancy  of  Thebes,  while  striking  a  de- 
structive blow  at  the  power  of  Sparta.  Jason, 
the  despot  of  Pherse,  joined  the  Thebans;  but, 
instead  of  renewing  the  attack,  he  used  his  in- 
fluence in  eifecting  a  truce  by  which  the  Lace- 
daemonians were  allowed  to  withdraw  from 
Bceotia.  The  Athenians,  dreading  the  power 
of  Thebes,  now  formed  a  new  coalition,  inclu- 
ding most  of  the  Peloponnesian  states.  In  370 
Epaminondas  entered  the  Peloponnesus,  laid 
waste  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  built  Megalo- 
polis, which  he  peopled  with  Arcadians,  and 
the  town  of  Messene,  on  Mt.  Ithome,  recalling 
the  exiled  Messenians.  Sparta  applied  to  Ath- 
ens for  help,  and  an  alliance  was  formed  to  pre- 
vent the  Thebans  from  invading  the  Peloponne- 
sus. But  Epaminondas  forced  his  way  through 
the  Onean  mountains,  and  joined  his  allies, 
though  nothing  of  importance  was  accomplish- 
ed, when  both  armies  dispersed  and  returned 
home.  In  368  Pelopidas  led  an  expedition  to 
Thessaly  against  Alexander,  the  despot  of  Phe- 
rse; thence  he  marched  into  Macedonia,  and 
made  an  alliance  with  Ptolemy,  the  regent,  who 
gave  hostages  for  the  observance  of  the  treaty, 
among  whom  was  Philip,  afterward  the  king 
of  Macedon.  Soon  after  this  the  Arcadians 
were  defeated  by  the  Lacedaemonians.  Epam- 
inondas entered  the  Peloponnesus  again,  in 
order  to  bring  the  Achosans,  hitherto  confed- 
erates of  Sparta,  into  the  Theban  alliance.  He 
succeeded;  but  a  counter  revolution  was  soon 
after  effected,  and  the  Achaean  cities  went  back 
to  Sparta.  In  367-'6,  accompanied  by  deputies 
from  their  allies,  Pelopidas  proceeded  to  Susa 
on  an  embassy  to  the  Persian  court,  and  Thebes 
was  declared  to  be  the  head  of  Greece,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  Athenians  and  Arca- 
dians; but  the  Persian  rescript  was  not  receiv- 
ed with  favor  even  by  the  allies  of  Thebes. 
Pelopidas  having  been  seized  by  Alexander  of 
Pherae,  in  a  mission  to  Thessaly,  an  army  was 
despatched  for  his  rescue;  and  the  troops,  be- 
ing in  danger  from  the  pursuit  of  the  Thessa- 
lians  and  Athenians,  called  Epaminondas,  who 
was  serving  in  the  ranks,  to  the  command,  and 
under  him  were  safely  brought  back  to  Thebes. 
Epaminondas  was  restored  to  the  command  of 
the  army  by  the  people,  and  immediately  under- 
took another  expedition  for  the  release  of  Pe- 
lopidas, which  was  entirely  successful.  The 
Athenians  meantime  sent  a  fleet  into  the  ^Egean 
sea  under  command  of  Timotheus,  and  took 
Samos,  Potidsea,  Pydna,  Methone,  and  perhaps 
Olynthus.  Thebes,  jealous  of  the  growing  pow- 
er of  Athens,  resolved  to  try  her  fortunes  on 
the  sea.  Epaminondas  told  his  countrymen 
that  they  must  not  be  content  until  they  had 
transferred  the  Propylaea  of  the  Acropolis,  to  the 


Theban  Cadmea.  He  appeared  in  363  with  a 
fleet  of  100  triremes  in  the  Hellespont;  but  he 
accomplished  little,  and  this  was  the  only  mar- 
itime expedition  undertaken  by  the  Thebans. 
About  the  same  time  Pelopidas,  leading  an 
army  against  Alexander  of  Phersa,  defeated 
him  at  Cynoscephalffi,  but  was  himself  slain  in 
the  moment  of  victory.  Alexander  was  com- 
pelled to  limit  himself  to  Pheraa,  and  to  become 
a  subject  of  Thebes.  A  war  in  the  mean  time 
was  waged  between  Elis  and  Arcadia,  and  the 
presidency  of  the  Olympic  games  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Eleans  to  the  Pisatans  (364). 
The  Eleans  asserting  their  rights  by  force,  the 
temple  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  was  converted 
into  a  fortress.  The  Eleans  were  repulsed,  but 
they  afterward  struck  the  104th  Olympiad 
out  of  the  catalogue.  In  362  Epaminondas  un- 
dertook his  last  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
in  consequence  of  the  acts  of  the  Arcadians. 
He  attempted  to  surprise  Sparta ;  but  though 
he  entered  the  city,  finding  that  his  movements 
were  anticipated,  he  retired.  The  hostile 
forces  now  concentrated  in  the  plain  between 
Tegea  and  Mantinea.  A  battle  was  fought,  in 
which  the  Theban  commander  gained  a  great 
victory  over  the  Mantineans  and  Lacedaemo- 
nians, but,  while  fighting  in  the  foremost  ranks, 
lost  his  own  life.  Peace  was  immediately  af- 
terward made,  in  accordance  with  his  dying 
advice. — "We  now  come  to  the  Macedonian  pe- 
riod, which  closes  the  brilliant  independent 
existence  of  the  Grecian  commonwealths.  The 
wars  of  which  we  have  given  a  rapid  sketch 
exhausted  the  resources  and  demoralized  the 
character  of  the  Greeks,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  any  powerful  neighbor  to  build  up  an 
empire  on  the  ruins  of  Hellenic  independence. 
For  many  years  the  princes  of  Macedon,  claim- 
ing to  be  of  Hellenic  lineage,  had  been  growing 
in  power,  though  in  the  midst  of  barbarism. 
Philip,  son  of  Amyntas  II.,  was  sent  in  his 
youth  as  a  hostage  to  Thebes,  and  there  ac- 
quired a  taste  for  Greek  literature,  and  learned 
the  art  of  war  as  improved  by  Epaminondas. 
At  the  age  of  23  (359)  he  became  king  of  Ma- 
cedon. In  358  he  took  Amphipolis  after  a 
siege,  and  thus  came  into  collision  with  Ath- 
ens, to  which  Amphipolis  formerly  belonged. 
He  secured  the  good  will  of  the  Olynthians  by 
taking  Potidasa  and  bestowing  it  upon  them. 
In  the  same  year  (356)  Philip  gained  the  prize 
in  the  chariot  race  at  Olympia,  and  a  victory 
over  the  Illyrians.  Athens  was  occupied  in 
the  mean  time  with  the  social  war — a  war  with 
her  former  allies,  which  commenced  in  358, 
and  ended  in  355.  The  sacred  war  broke  out 
near  the  same  time  between  Phocis  and  Thebes, 
in  the  midst  of  which  Philip  began  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  central  Greece,  assuming  the 
character  of  defender  of  the  god  at  Delphi. 
The  Thessalian  army  was  defeated  near  the 
gulf  of  Pagasae  in  352  ;  but  his  march  against 
Phocis  was  arrested  at  Thermopylae  by  an 
Athenian  force  posted  there.  He  then  turned 
his  arms  northward  to  Thrace  and  the  Cher- 


198 


GREECE 


sonesus.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Demosthe- 
nes, penetrating  the  ambitious  designs  of  Phil- 
ip, came  forward  as  his  opponent;  but  little 
was  done  to  check  a  danger  which  seemed  so 
distant  and  uncertain,  notwithstanding  the 
orator's  vehement  appeals.  In  350  Olynthus, 
alarmed  at  the  encroachments  of  Philip,  sent 
envoys  to  Athens  to  demand  assistance;  and 
their  demand  was  supported  by  Demosthenes, 
in  the  three  Olynthiac  orations ;  but  a  strong 
party  headed  by  Phocion  opposed  him.  Philip 
prosecuted  his  schemes  almost  uninterruptedly 
until  Olynthus  fell  into  his  power  (347),  be- 
trayed by  two  of  the  leading  citizens,  Lasthe- 
nes  and  Euthycrates,  and  the  Chalcidian  pen- 
insula became  subject  to  Macedon.  Demosthe- 
nes now  put  forth  strenuous  efforts  to  organize 
a  confederacy  of  the  Grecian  states,  but  with- 
out success.  Overtures  were  then  made  for  rec- 
onciliation with  Thebes,  to  which  the  sacred 
war  had  become  burdensome  and  exhausting ; 
and  Philip,  observing  this  tendency  of  things, 
and  unwilling  that  such  a  combination  of  pow- 
erful states  should  take  place,  made  advances 
to  Athens.  Ambassadors  were  despatched  to 
Philip,  among  whom  were  Philocrates,  the  au- 
thor of  the  measure,  Demosthenes  and  ^Eschi- 
nes,  the  orators,  and  Aristodemus,  the  actor. 
Some  of  the  ambassadors  were  gained  over  to 
Philip's  interest  by  bribery,  as  was  charged  by 
Demosthenes;  and  Philip  immediately  sent 
envoys  to  Athens,  who  arranged  a  treaty.  A 
second  embassy  was  sent  from  Athens  to  re- 
ceive from  Philip  the  oath  of  ratification, 
with  instructions  to  proceed  at  once  to  him 
wherever  he  might  be.  Instead  of  this,  they 
went  to  Pella,  and  remained  there  until  his  re- 
turn from  Thrace,  where  he  was  engaged  in 
an  expedition  against  Kersobleptes,  an  ally  of 
the  Athenians.  The  treaty  was  finally  ratified 
at  Pherre,  after  nearly  three  months'  delay; 
but  the  Phocians  were  excluded,  and  Philip 
immediately  passed  the  defile  of  Thermopylae, 
and  all  the  towns  of  Phocis  at  once  surren- 
dered. Philip  then  proceeded  to  Delphi,  and 
called  an  assembly  of  amphictyonic  deputies, 
who  decreed  that  all  the  Phocian  cities  except 
Aba  should  be  destroyed,  and  that  they  should 
repay  by  yearly  instalments  the  treasures  they 
had  plundered  from  the  temple,  estimated  at 
10,000  talents,  or  about  $10,000,000.  The  two 
votes  formerly  held  by  the  Phocians  in  the 
amphictyonic  council  were  transferred  to  the 
king  of  Macedon;  Sparta  was  deprived  of  her 
rights  there;  and  Philip  was  to  share  with 
the  Thebans  and  Thessalians  the%  right  of  pre- 
siding at  the  Pythian  games.  These  events 
occurred  in  846.  Macedon  was  now  the  lead- 
ing power  in  Greece.  Philip  commenced  a  se- 
ries of  intrigues  in  the  Peloponnesus,  which 
Demosthenes  endeavored  to  counteract  by  his 
personal  presence,  but  with  no  result.  Philip 
now  began  his  preparations  for  an  attack  on 
the  Persian  empire,  which  he  had  probably 
long  meditated,  by  inarching  against  Thrace 
;uid  menacing  the  Athenian  possessions 


in  the  Chersonesus,  which  brought  his  forces 
into  conflict  with  Diopithes,  who,  not  limiting 
himself  to  the  defensive,  invaded  the  places  in 
Thrace  which  had  submitted  to  Philip.  The 
Macedonian  king  complained  of  these  proceed- 
ings, but  Diopithes  was  defended  by  Demosthe- 
nes, and  retained  in  the  command.  In  341 
Philip  continued  his  movements,  captured  So- 
lymbria,  and  attacked  Perinthus,  but  not  suc- 
ceeding in  taking  it  immediately,  left  a  part  of 
his  army  to  continue  the  siege,  and  marched 
upon  Byzantium.  He  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  Athenians,  charging  them  with  violating 
the  peace.  Demosthenes  persuaded  them  to 
equip  a  fleet,  which  was  unfortunately  placed 
under  the  command  of  Chares,  and  the  expe- 
dition was  a  failure.  Phocion  was  then  ap- 
pointed in  his  place,  and,  sailing  with  12  tri- 
remes, forced  Philip  to  raise  the  siege  of  Byzan- 
tium and  Perinthus,  and  to  withdraw  from  the 
Chersonesus.  In  339  the  amphictyonic  coun- 
cil declared  war  against  the  Amphissian  Lo- 
crians,  for  encroachments  on  the  sacred  lands 
of  the  temple  at  Delphi.  Cottyphus  was  first 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  amphicty- 
onic forces ;  but  failing^n  the  object  of  the  ap- 
pointment, the  amphictyons  gave  the  command 
to  Philip.  Early  in  338  he  commenced  his 
march ;  but  instead  of  proceeding  directly  to 
Amphissa,  he  seized  Elatea,  a  town  in  Phocis, 
which  commanded  one  of  the  principal  ap- 
proaches to  Boeotia  and  Attica.  This  move- 
ment, when  known  in  Athens,  produced  great 
excitement  and  alarm.  An  assembly  was 
summoned  the  next  morning.  Acting  under 
the  advice  of  Demosthenes,  an  embassy  was 
despatched  to  Thebes,  of  which  Demosthenes 
himself  was  the  leading  member ;  they  met 
ambassadors  from  Philip,  who  was  anxious  to 
prevent  a  union  between  the  two  cities.  The 
earnest  and  eloquent  representations  of  Demos- 
thenes carried  the  day,  and  an  alliance  was 
made.  The  united  armies  of  Thebes  and  Ath- 
ens took  the  field,  and,  after  gaining  the  advan- 
tage in  two  skirmishes,  fought  a  decisive  battle 
on  the  plain  of  Chaeronea.  The  fortunes  of  the 
day  were  decided  by  a  charge  made  by  the 
young  Alexander  upon  the  Theban  sacred 
band,  which  was  cut  to  pieces.  The  allied 
army  was  utterly  defeated — an  event  fatal  to 
the  independence  of  Greece.  At  Athens  the 
greatest  consternation  prevailed,  but  vigorous 
measures  were  taken  to  put  the  city  in  a  state 
of  defence,  and  Demosthenes  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  fortifications.  Philip 
showed  great  moderation  toward  the  Athe- 
nians, offering  them  favorable  terms  of  peace, 
and  dismissing  their  prisoners  without  ran- 
som. The  Thebans  were  more  severely  dealt 
with ;  the  exiles  were  restored,  the  govern- 
ment was  transferred  to  them,  and  a  Mace- 
donian garrison  was  placed  in  the  Cadmea. 
Philip  called  a  congress  of  the  states  at  Cor- 
inth, at  which  war  was  declared  against  Per- 
sia, and  he  was  made  commander-in-chief.  In 
the  autumn  he  returned  to  Macedonia  to 


GREECE 


199 


ike  preparations  for  his  eastern  campaign; 
it  his  departure  was  delayed  by  domestic 
rents,  and  in  the  spring  of  336  he  was  assassi- 
ated,  after  sending  forward  a  body  of  troops. 
Jexander,   then  20  years  old,   immediately 
acceeded  to  the  throne,  and  announced  his 
intention  to  follow  in  his  father's  footsteps ; 
but  the  occasion  of  Philip's  death  was  seized 
the  Greeks  for  an  attempt  to  throw  off 
:  Macedonian  supremacy.    Alexander's  vigor 
id  rapidity  of  action  disconcerted  the  move- 
ent.    He  advanced  rapidly  toward  Thebes, 
id  the  Athenians  despatched  envoys  to  de- 
bate his  anger.     A  general  congress  was 
smbled  at  Corinth,  and  Alexander  was  ap- 
inted  to  his  father's  place  as  commander-in- 
lief  of  the  expedition  against  Persia.     Re- 
irning  to  Macedonia,  with  the  intention  of 
tnmencing  his  march  to  the  East,  he  was 
jvented  from  carrying  his  plans  into  imme- 
ite  execution  by  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
racians  and  Triballians.    He  marched  against 
sm,  and  quickly  reduced  them  to  obedience ;  t 
it  his  absence  in    the    north  tempted  the 
eeks,  especially  the  Athenians  and  the  The- 
is,  into  another   insurrection.     Alexander 
Ldenly  appeared  in    the  neighborhood  of 
lebes,  defeated  the  insurgents,  took  the  city, 
" ".  the  inhabitants  into  slavery,  and  levelled 
houses,  except  that  of  Pindar,  preserving 
ily  the  Cadmea  for  a  Macedonian  garrison, 
te  demanded  that  the  ten  leading  orators  of 
ithens  should  be  surrendered  to  him,  and  was 
ly  induced  to  desist  from  this  requirement 
the  intercession  of  Phocion.     Having  set- 
1  the  affairs  of  Greece,  and  leaving  Antipater 
regent,  in  the  spring  of  334  he  set  out  on  his 
arch  for  the  Hellespont.     (See  ALEXANDER 
IE  GREAT.)   In  the  distribution  of  Alexander's 
;  dominions  among  his  generals  on  his  death 
}),  Antipater  and  Craterus  were  to  share  the 
rernment  of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  in  the 
ne  of  his  half-brother  Philip  Arrhidseus  and 
the  child  of  Roxana,  should  that  be  a  son,  as 
iociated  kings,  while  Perdiccas  and  Leonna- 
i  were  to  act  as  regents  in  the  East ;  arrange- 
lents  which  were  of  short  duration,  and  were 
llowed  by  numerous  other  partitions  of  pow- 
and  provinces.    During  Alexander's  absence 
m  Greece  attempts  had  been  made  to  throw 
the  Macedonian  yoke.     The  Spartans  took 
arms,  but  were  defeated  near  Megalopolis 
Antipater  (331).     In  325  Harpalus  arrived 
Athens  with  treasures  he  had  stolen  from 
ilexander ;  but  though  he  attempted  to  bribe 
tie  leading  politicians,  he  did  not  secure  the 
protection  of  the  state  as  he  had  expected. 
The  news  of  Alexander's  death  made  a  great 
change,  and  the  party  opposed  to  Macedon  in 
Athens  immediately  rose  to  the  supremacy. 
An  extensive  confederacy  was  formed,  an  army 
ras  assembled  near  Thermopylae  under  the 
imand  of  Leosthenes,  and  Antipater,  who 
thrown  himself  into  Lamia  near  the  Ma- 
gulf,  was  closely  besieged.     He  was  re- 
iced  to  such  straits  that  he  sent  an  embassy 


to  Athens  to  sue  for  peace ;  but  the  Athenians 
refused  to  listen  to  any  terms  short  of  uncon- 
ditional surrender.  Leonnatus  had  come  from 
Hellespontine  Phrygia  with  an  army  of  20,000 
foot  and  2,500  horse.  Antiphilus,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  allied  army 
after  the  death  of  Leosthenes  at  Lamia,  met 
him  in  Thessaly,  defeated  his  army,  and  slew 
the  leader.  Antipater  soon  after  joined  the 
defeated  army,  and,  being  reenforced  by  Cra- 
terus with  a  considerable  force  from  Asia,  de- 
feated the  allied  army  near  Crannon  (322). 
The  allies  now  sued  for  peace  ;  but  Antipater 
would  only  treat  with  the  separate  states,  and 
all  except  Athens  speedily  laid  down  their 
arms.  As  Antipater  marched  upon  Athens, 
Phocion  was  sent  in  the  hope  of  securing  favor- 
able terms.  Antipater  required  that  a  certain 
number  of  the  orators,  including  Demosthenes 
and  Hyperides,  should  be  surrendered,  that  a 
property  qualification  should  be  required  for 
the  franchise,  and  that  a  Macedonian  garrison 
should  be  received  into  Munychia.  On  the 
motion  of  Demades,  the  Athenians  condemned 
the  orators  to  death ;  but  they  escaped  from 
Athens  before  the  arrival  of  the  Macedoni- 
ans. They  were  torn  from  the  sanctuaries  in 
which  they  had  taken  refuge  by  Archias,  an 
officer  of  Antipater.  Demosthenes  put  an 
end  to  his  life  by  taking  poison  in  the  temple 
of  Neptune,  on  the  island  of  Calaurea;  Hy- 
perides was  barbarously  put  to  death  at  Ath- 
ens. In  the  East,  quarrels  broke  out  be- 
tween Perdiccas,  who  had  become  the  princi- 
pal regent,  and  the  other  generals  of  Alexan- 
der, who  assailed  him  on  all  sides.  In  321  he 
marched  against  Egypt,  and  was  there  assas- 
sinated by  some  of  his  own  officers.  Antipater 
was  now  declared  regent,  with  the  govern- 
ment of  Macedonia  and  Greece.  He  died  in 
319,  and  was  succeeded  by  Polysperchon  as 
regent,  who  proclaimed  the  independence  of 
the  Grecian  states,  and  despatched  his  son 
Alexander  with  orders  to  compel  the  Macedo- 
nian garrison  to  evacuate  Munychia.  Phocion 
took  refuge  with  him,  but  was  sent  back,  in 
chains  to  Athens,  where  in  317  he  was  put  to 
death  with  every  circumstance  of  outrage  and 
indignity.  Polysperchon  being  unsuccessful  in 
an  expedition  in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Athe- 
nians joined  the  alliance  of  Cassander,  Antip- 
ater's  son,  who  established  an  oligarchy  ^  at 
Athens  under  the  government  of  Demetrius 
Phalereus.  He  became  master  of  Macedonia, 
and  in  315  restored  Thebes,  which  had  been 
in  ruins  since  its  destruction  by  Alexander. 
In  the  same  year  a  war  broke  out  in  the  East, 
but  in  311  a  peace  was  concluded,  which  was 
violated  the  next  year  by  Ptolemy,  governor 
of  Egypt.  In  301?  Antigonus,  who  then  held 
almost  all  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  sent  his  son 
Demetrius,  afterward  called  Poliorcetes  (bej 
sieger  of  cities),  to  Athens  with  a  powerful  fleet. 
Demetrius  Phalereus  was  forced  to  surrender, 
and  returned  to  Thebes.  The  ancient  constitu- 
tion was  restored,  and  Demetrius  and  his  father 


200 


GREECE 


were  honored  by  the  addition  of  two  new 
tribes,  the  Demetrias  and  Antigonias.  In  306 
Demetrius,  being  called  away. from  Athens, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  Ptolemy  at  Salamis 
En  Cyprus.  Antigonus  in  Asia  Minor,  Seleucus 
in  Babylonia,  Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  and  Lysim- 
achus  in  Thrace  now  assumed  the  title  of  king. 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  again  returned  to  Greece, 
while  Cassander  was  besieging  Athens.  Cassan- 
der retired,  and  Demetrius  was  again  received 
with  honors.  The  struggle  between  Antigonus 
and  his  rivals  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  (301),  in  which  An- 
tigonus was  defeated  and  slain ;  after  this  the 
Athenians  refused  to  receive  Demetrius.  Cas- 
sander became  master  of  Greece ;  Seleucus  and 
Lysimachus  divided  the  kingdom  of  Antigo- 
nus, the  former  receiving  the  lion's  share,  part 
of  Asia  Minor  and  the  whole  of  Syria.  In 
800  Demetrius  ravaged  the  Thracian  Cherso- 
nesus,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Seleucus, 
marrying  his  daughter,  and  then  made  another 
attack  upon  Athens,  driving  out  the  tyrant 
Lachares.  Soon  afterward  Demetrius  con- 
quered Macedonia,  distracted  by  the  rival  pre- 
tensions of  the  sons  of  Cassander.  He  at- 
tempted to  recover  the  Asiatic  provinces  of 
his  father;  but  Macedonia  was  invaded  by 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  Lysimachus,  and 
Demetrius  was  obliged  to  fly.  He  died  in  Syria 
in  283.  The  further  wars  between  the  succes- 
sors of  Alexander  hardly  belong  to  the  history 
of  Greece. — In  the  midst  of  the  Macedonian 
domination  an  important  movement  took  place 
in  Achaia,  a  narrow  strip  of  country  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus.  A  league, 
chiefly  for  religious  purposes,  had  existed  from 
ancient  times  among  the  cities  of  this  region, 
and  though  it  had  been  suppressed  by  the 
Macedonians,  Aratus  of  Sicyon  revived  it  in 
251,  with  a  political  organization  under  a  chief 
entitled  the  strategus,  or  general,  a  secretary, 
and  a  council  of  ten  demiurgi,  the  sovereign- 
ty residing  in  a  general  assembly  composed 
of  citizens  who  had  reached  the  age  of  30, 
which  met  twice  a  year  at  JEgium.  The  con- 
federacy rapidly  increased  in  extent  and  power, 
but  in  227  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Sparta. 
Aratus  was  then  strategus.  He  invited  assis- 
tance from  Macedon,  then  ruled  by  Antigonus 
Doson.  In  223  he  compelled  the  Spartan  king 
Cleoraenes  to  withdraw  to  Laconia.  In  221  Cle- 
omenes  was  defeated  by  Antigonus  in  the  battle 
of  Sellasia.  The  ^Etolians,  who  had  long  been 
unit*  (1  in  a  league  of  tribes,  made  incursions  into 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  coming  into  collision 
with  the  Achcoans  under  Aratus,  near  Caphyae, 
the  latter  were  defeated.  This  led  to  an  alliance 
between  the  Achceans  and  Philip,  the  young 
king  of  Macedon,  in  220.  After  gaining  several 
victories,  he  made  a  peace  with  the  ^Etolians 
in  217.  The  war  between  Rome  and  Carthage 
now  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Macedonian 
king,  who  in  216  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Hannibal,  and  went  so  far  as  to  meditate  an 
invasion  of  Italy.  While  laying  siege  to  Apol- 


lonia  he  was  attacked  by  the  Roman  consul, 
M.  Valerius  Laevinus,  and  compelled  to  retire. 
Having  differences  with  Aratus  with  respect  to 
some  of  his  proceedings  in  Greece,  he  caused 
him  to  be  taken  off  by  poison  in  213.  In  211 
the  Romans  made  an  alliance  with  the  JEtolians, 
and  declared  war  against  Philip.  They  took 
several  islands,  which  they  surrendered  to  the 
^Etolians  in  the  course  of  the  year.  In  209 
the  Achaeans  again  solicited  the  aid  of  Philip. 
They  were  at  this  time  led  by  Philopcemen, 
the  "last  of  the  Greeks,"  and  in  208  he  was 
elected  strategus  of  the  league.  In  207  he  de- 
feated the  Lacedaemonians  at  Mantinea;  and 
as  the  Romans,  having  made  peace  with  Philip 
in  205,  retired  from  Greece,  the  country  was 
left  in  a  state  of  tranquillity  for  several  years. 
In  200  they  declared  war  against  him,  and  a 
Roman  fleet  relieved  Athens,  which  he  was 
besieging ;  but  in  retiring  he  committed  great 
ravages  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  In  198 
the  Achaean  league  joined  the  Roman  alliance, 
under  the  influence  of  the  consul  T.  Quintius 
Flamininus.  In  197  Philip  was  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Cynoscephalae,  and  peace  was 
made  in  the  following  year,  the  Macedonians 
being  compelled  to  renounce  their  supremacy, 
and  to  pay  1,000  talents  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war.  The  Greeks  assembled  at  the  Isthmian 
games  received  the  announcement  of  their 
new  liberty  with  shouts  of  joy ;  but  their  dis- 
sensions continued,  and  soon  broke  out  in  fresh 
conflicts.  The  JStolians  having  persuaded  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  of  Syria  to  come  with  an  army 
into  Greece,  he  was  defeated  at  Thermopylae  in 
191,  and  the  ^Etolians  were  obliged  to  ask  for 
peace,  and  to  submit  to  the  most  humiliating 
conditions.  Philopoemen  in  the  mean  time  had 
joined  Sparta  to  the  Achsean  league ;  but  that 
city  proving  intractable,  he  marched  upon  it, 
razed  the  walls,  and  compelled  the  citizens  to 
adopt  a  democratic  constitution.  In  183  Philo- 
poamen  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Messenians, 
who  had  revolted  from  the  league,  and  put  to 
death.  In  179  Philip  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Perseus,  who  found  large  preparations  made 
for  a  renewal  of  the  war  with  the  Romans.  In 
171  the  Romans  declared  war  against  him,  and 
the  consul  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus  was  sent  to 
Macedonia  in  168.  The  war  was  ended  by  the 
battle  of  Pydna  and  the  surrender  of  Perseus, 
who  was  carried  to  Rome  to  adorn  the  triumph 
of  his  captor.  Commissioners  were  sent  from 
Rome  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  Macedonia ;  but 
it  was  a  quarrel  between  Athens  and  Oropus 
which  finally  gave  the  Romans  an  opportunity 
to  bring  all  Greece  into  subjection,  by  destroy- 
ing the  Achaean  league.  The  Oropians  com- 
plained to  the  Roman  senate ;  the  Romans  ap- 
pointed the  Sicyonians  arbitrators,  and  they 
having  condemned  the  Athenians  to  pay  a  fine 
of  500  talents,  the  latter  sent  an  embassy  of 
three  philosophers,  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  Crito- 
laus  the  Peripatetic,  and  Carncades  the  Aca- 
demic, who  succeeded  in  reducing  the  fine  to 
100  talents.  Still  fresh  aggressions  occurring, 


GREECE 


201 


Oropians  appealed  to  the  Achaean  league, 
hich,  at  first  declining  to  interfere,  was  finally 
involved  by  the  intrigues  of  several  leading 
men,  among  whom  was  Diseus  the  strategus,  in 
a  quarrel  with  Sparta.  The  latter  appealed  to 
Rome,  and  in  147  two  commissioners  were 
sent  to  Greece,  who  decided  that  Sparta,  Cor- 
inth, and  the  other  cities  except  those  of  Acbaia, 
should  be  independent.  This  decision  led  to 
acts  of  violence ;  and  finally  Metellus,  march- 
ing into  Greece,  defeated  Critolaus  the  strate- 
gus in  Locris.  Diseus  succeeded  him ;  but 
other  Roman  force  under  Mummius  landed 
the  isthmus  of  Corinth  and  defeated  him  in 
battle  fought  near  the  city.  Corinth  was 
:en  in  146 ;  the  city  was  burned ;  the  works 
art  with  which  it  was  filled  were  transported 
Rome;  ten  commissioners  were  despatched 
settle  the  condition  of  Greece,  and  the 
hole  country  became  a  Roman  province  un- 
the  name  of  Achaia. — The  Romans  at  first 
their  power  with  such  moderation  as  to 
cite  the  admiration  of  Polybius,  who  was 
e  of  the  1,000  Achasans  sent  to  Italy.  The 
ligion  and  the  municipal  institutions  of  the 
Greeks  were  treated  with  respect.  Their  emi- 
nence in  literature  and  the  arts  qualified  them 
to  be  the  teachers  of  the  Romans,  who  sent 
their  youth  to  Athens  to  complete  their  educa- 
tion under  the  instruction  of  the  scholars  and 
philosophers  of  this  city,  which  long  retained 
its  preeminence.  It  was  not  until  the  Mithri- 
datic  war  that  the  Greeks  made  an  attempt  to 
throw  off  the  Roman  power.  The  losses  sus- 
tained by  Greece  in  this  unhappy  period  were 
never  repaired.  The  Cilician  pirates  soon  after 
ravaged  Greece ;  they  were  destroyed  by  Pom- 
pey.  The  civil  wars  that  overturned  the  Ro- 
man republic  desolated  Greece ;  but  the  empire 
at  length  established  peace  throughout  the 
vilized  world.  Greece  continued  to  be  the 
ool  of  letters  and  art.  She  was  still  crowded 
th  temples  and  statues,  the  products  of  the 
3t  ages.  Her  schools  of.philosophy  and  rhet- 
c  flourished ;  the  forms  of  public  life  were 
intained,  and  but  little  change  was  made  in 
municipal  administrations.  But  the  dignity 
influence  of  official  position  gradually  sunk 
the  public  estimation  under  a  foreign  suprem- 
:y.  Augustus  established  military  colonies. 
His  successors  generally  treated  Greece  with 
respect,  and  some  of  them  distinguished  her 
by  splendid  imperial  favors.  Trajan  even  great- 
ly improved  her  condition  by  his  wise  and  liberal 
administration.  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines 
venerated  her  for  her  past  achievements,  and 
showed  their  good  will  by  the  care  they  ex- 
tended to  her  works  of  art,  and  their  patron- 
age of  the  schools.  About  the  middle  of  the 
8d  century  A.  D.  hordes  of  Goths  appeared  on 
the  frontiers,  and  soon  after  covered  the  Helles- 
pont and  the  ^Egean.  Athens  was  gallantly 
defended  by  Dexippus  the  historian.  Among 
the  influences  that  essentially  modified  the 
condition,  intellectual  and  moral,  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Greece,  was  that  of  Christianity,  which 


was  introduced  by  the  apostles  themselves, 
and,  from  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  discourse  on 
the  Areopagus,  had  been  gaining  upon  the 
ancient  paganism.  The  ecclesia  became  the 
church,  and  the  liturgia  passed  over  from  the 
public  political  offices  of  the  Athenian  state  to 
the  Christian  service.  In  330  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  empire  was  removed  to  Constantinople, 
an  event  which  brought  Greece  into  closer 
relations  with  the  Roman  administration, 
though  the  local  governments  were  still  al- 
lowed to  exist.  The  emperor  Julian  attempted 
to  check  the  growth  of  Christianity,  and  to 
restore  the  ancient  rites,  but  with  little  success. 
In  395  the  separation  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern empires  took  place;  and  as  the  Greeks 
naturally  belonged  to  the  eastern,  they  now 
exercised  a  more  powerful  influence  on  the 
government.  About  this  time  the  name  Hel- 
lenes began  to  be  limited  to  the  adherents  of 
the  ancient  religion.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian 
(527-565)  the  philosophical  schools  of  the 
Greeks  in  which  doctrines  adverse  to  Chris- 
tianity were  taught  were  closed ;  but  much  was 
done  for  the  protection  of  Greece  from  foreign 
invasion.  The  western  empire  fell  in  476 ;  but 
the  eastern  Roman  empire  continued,  becom- 
ing more  and  more  properly  Byzantine.  (See 
BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.)  During  this  period  the 
events  which  exercised  the  most  important  in- 
fluence upon  the  condition  of  Greece  were  the 
immigrations  of  the  Slavs  and  other  races, 
commencing  early  in  the  6th  century.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  8th  century  they  occupied 
a  large  part  of  the  country,  and  held  posses- 
sion of  the  coasts,  displacing  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  Greek  population.  But  in  the  course 
of  time  they  retreated,  and  the  country  was 
mainly  restored  to  the  descendants  of  its  an- 
cient inhabitants.  Yet  to  this  day  the  effects 
of  these  Slavic  settlements  are  witnessed  in 
the  physical  character  of  the  people  in  some 
districts,  especially  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Nu- 
merous traces  of  them  are  detected  in  Slavic 
names  of  persons  and  places,  and  in  Slavic 
words  still  found  in  the  language  of  the  com- 
mon people.  But  the  theory  advanced  by  the 
German  Fallmerayer,  that  the  Greek  people 
wholly  disappeared  from  Greece,  and  that  the 
present  inhabitants  are  Slavs,  will  not  stand 
investigation.  No  important  change  occurred 
from  this  time  until  the  conquests  by  the  Nor- 
mans. Robert  Guiscard  landed  in  Corfu  in 
1081.  Bohemond  invaded  Illyria  soon  after. 
In  1146  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  mastered  Corfu, 
and,  marching  through  the  mainland,  plundered 
Corinth,  Thebes,  and  Athens.  In  the  fourth 
crusade,  commencing  in  1203,  Constantinople 
was  taken  by  the  Latin  princes,  who  also  di- 
vided Greece  among  them.  The  marquis  of 
Montferrat  became  sovereign  of  Salonica  (Thes- 
salonica) ;  Achaia  and  the  Morea  (Pelopon- 
nesus) became  a  principality  under  Guillaume  de 
Champlitte  and  Geoffroi  Yillehardouin ;  a  duke- 
dom was  established  in  the  archipelago  with 
Naxos  as  its  seat ;  but  the  most  remarkable  of 


202 


GREECE 


these  Frankish  establishments  was  the  duke- 
dom of  Athens,  existing  from  1205  to  1456.  All 
these  Frankish  governments  were  swept  away 
by  the  Turks,  who,  having  captured  Constanti- 
nople in  1453,  in  a  few  years  thereafter  extended 
their  conquests  over  Greece,  and  incorporated 
it  into  the  Turkish  empire.  It  was  organized 
into  pashalics,  mussemlics,  agalics,  and  vaivo- 
dalics,  all  subject  to  a  supreme  magistrate 
called  Rumeli  valesi,  or  grand  judge  of  Rou- 
melia.  Some  of  the  more  mountainous  regions 
were  never  thoroughly  subject  to  the  Turks, 
but  maintained  a  rude  independence.  Under 
the  Turkish  system  of  administration  the  coun- 
try sunk  gradually  to  a  most  miserable  condi- 
tion. The  Greek  islands,  being  left  more  to 
themselves,  suffered  less  from  the  rapacity  and 
barbarism  of  their  masters.  But  there  were 
several  causes  which  tended  to  preserve  the 
Greek  nationality  even  under  this  foreign  and 
most  oppressive  domination.  The  domestic 
institutions  and  the  religion  of  the  Turks  were 
objects  of  such  abhorrence  to  the  Christian 
Greeks  that  no  amalgamation  of  the  two  races 
could  take  place.  The  Greeks  cherished  an 
inextinguishable  devotion  to  their  church,  the 
foundation  of  which  they  traced  directly  to  the 
times  of  the  apostles,  while  the  hymns  and 
liturgies  were  the  work  of  the  most  eminent 
Christian  fathers.  In  this  state  of  mutual  re- 
pulsion, and  of  barbarous  oppression  of  the  su- 
perior by  the  inferior  race,  nearly  four  centu- 
ries passed  away,  with  only  a  few  spasmodic 
efforts  to  break  the  yoke  of  the  tyrant.  But 
the  Turkish  sultans,  almost  from  the  begin- 
ning of  their  establishment  at  Constantinople, 
were  obliged  to  employ  Greeks,  chiefly  Fanari- 
otes,  in  several  important  branches  of  the  pub- 
lic service.  (See  FANARIOTKS.)  Greek  mer- 
cantile houses  were  established  not  only  in 
the  Levant,  but  in  the  principal  cities  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  eminent  abilities  of  the  race 
were  shown  by  their  great  success  in  every 
department  of  commerce.  In  western  Eu- 
rope, a  revival  of  the  taste  for  Greek  litera- 
ture was  brought  about  by  the  presence  of 
learned  Greeks  who  fled  from  Constantinople 
at  the  time  of  its  capture.  In  the  last  half  of 
the  18th  century  the  spirit  of  nationality  and 
the  desire  of  independence  received  a  strong 
impulse  throughout  the  Hellenic  race.  Educa- 
tion was  everywhere  promoted ;  a  secret  socie- 
ty was  formed,  called  the  Hetceria,  the  object 
of  which  was  the  emancipation  of  the  country. 
Eminent  writers — Rhigas,  and  later  Coray — 
appealed  to  the  glorious  recollections  of  Greece, 
and  excited  a  universal  enthusiasm  for  freedom. 
These  preparations  continued  in  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  19th  century;  and  the  insurrection, 
long  looked  for,  broke  out  in  1821.  The  at- 
tempt of  the  Hetaerists  under  Alexander  Ypsi- 
lanti  in  the  Danubian  principalities  met  with  a 
speedy  and  disastrous  end  (June) ;  the  Suliotes 
of  Epirus,  encouraged  by  AH  Pasha  of  Janina, 
rose  in  vain  ;  and  the  attempted  risings  in 
Candia  (1821)  and  Scio  (1822)  were  stifled  in 


the  blood  of  the  inhabitants.  But  the  revolt 
which  broke  out  in  the  Peloponnesus  early  in 
the  first  year  was  more  successful ;  Patras, 
Tripolitza,  and  other  places  were  taken  ;  cen- 
tral Greece  joined  the  movement ;  Hydra,  Ip- 
sara,  Spezzia,  and  other  islands  of  the  archi- 
pelago furnished  daring  mariners;  and  the 
struggling  people  found  heroic  chiefs  in  Bozza- 
ris,  the  Mainote  bey  Mavromichalis  and  his 
sons,  Canaris,  Miaulis,  Colocotronis,  Odysseus, 
and  others,  and  statesmen  in  Mavrocordatos, 
Colettis,  Negris.  In  1822  a  provisional  consti- 
tution was  framed  by  a  national  assembly  held 
at  Epidaurus,  and  a  proclamation  of  indepen- 
dence solemnly  published  to  the  world.  The 
contest  was  carried  on  in  the  most  barbarous 
manner  by  the  Turks.  The  bloodshed  at  Con- 
stantinople, the  execution  of  the  patriarch,  the 
massacres  of  Scio,  excited  for  the  Greeks  the 
deepest  sympathies,  procuring  for  them  the 
aid  of  enthusiastic  Philhellenes,  Byron  among 
others.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greeks  here 
and  there  imitated  the  atrocities  of  their  op- 
pressors. At  Missolonghi  (1822-' 6)  and  nu- 
merous other  places  they  showed  themselves 
worthy  of  their  Hellenic  ancestors.  The  battle 
of  Navarino,  Oct.  20,  1827,  in  which  the  com- 
bined squadrons  of  England,  France,  and  Rus- 
sia annihilated  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet,  was 
the  decisive  event ;  in  the  following  year  Ibra- 
him Pasha  was  forced  by  Marshal  Maison  to 
evacuate  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Russia  began 
its  Turkish  war  under  the  command  of  Die- 
bitsch.  The  sultan  was  compelled  to  come 
to  terms.  Count  Capo  d'Istria,  a  distinguished 
Greek  statesman,  then  in  the  service  of  Rus- 
sia, had  been  chosen  president,  arriving  in 
Greece  in  the  beginning  of  1828.  Hostilities 
virtually  ceased  the  following  year.  The  great 
powers  now  occupied  themselves  with  the  set- 
tlement of  Greece.  They  selected  Prince  Leo- 
pold, afterward  king  of  Belgium,  as  sovereign 
of  the  emancipated  state  ;  he  at  first  accepted 
the  offer,  but,  owing  to  a  difference  on  the  ques- 
tion of  boundaries,  renounced  the  unoccupied 
throne  a  few  months  afterward.  In  October, 
1831,  President  Capo  d'Istria  was  assassinated 
at  Nauplia,  and  six  months  of  anarchy  follow- 
ed. The  great  powers  then  fixed  upon  Otho, 
the  second  son  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  a  prince 
then  (1832)  only  17  years  old.  He  assumed  the 
government,  under  the  direction  of  a  regency, 
and  arrived  at  ISTauplia  in  1833.  The  bounda- 
ries of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  were  determined 
by  a  treaty  between  the  great  powers  and  the 
Porte  in  1832.  The  seat  of  government  was 
first  established  at  Nauplia  ;  but  in  1835  it  was 
transferred  to  Athens,  where  the  king,  after 
his  marriage  with  the  princess  Amalia  of  Ol- 
denburg, established  his  court.  After  attaining 
his  majority  in  1835  he  governed  in  his  own 
name,  by  ministers  responsible  to  himself,  aided 
by  a  council  of  state.  The  treaty  said  nothing 
about  a  constitution,  though  the  Greeks  ex- 
pected one,  and  were  disappointed  not  to  re- 
ceive it  immediately.  The  government  of  the 


GREECE 


203 


ing  was  despotic  in  principle,  but  mild  and 
juitable  so  far  as  depended  on  himself.     Ten 
after  Otho's  accession  the  popular  dis- 
tisfaction  reached  its  height,  and  the  pal- 
was  surrounded  on  the  night  of  Sept.  14, 
by  the  army  and  the  people,  demanding 
constitution.     After  some  hesitation  the  king 
ilded,  and  a  political  revolution  was  effected 
without  violence.     A  national  assembly  was 
mvoked,  and  a  constitution,  the  result  of  its 
)ors,  was  laid  before  the  king  on  March  4, 
It  received  his  sanction  on  the  16th. 
iring  the  ten  years  following  its  adoption, 
3ek  politics  were  in  a  state  of  almost  con- 
it  confusion,  in  which  partisan  contests  were 
fed  by  foreign  intrigues.     The  history  of 
first  decade  of  constitutional  government 
Greece  is  a  record  of  little  more  than  party 
aggies  for  supremacy,  turbulent  elections, 
linisterial  changes,  and  insurrections,  which  in 
le  or  two  instances  attained  formidable  pro- 
ions.    The  chief  feature  of  this  period  of 
litical  disturbance  was  the  constant  struggle 
power  between  the  national  party  and  the 
rious  foreign  elements,  which  in  the  peculiar 
ition  of  Greece  were  able  to  control  its  gov- 
lent  in  a  very  great  degree.     There  were 
raent  changes  of  ministry,  and  the  material 
jrests  of  the  country  suffered.     In  1847  a 
>matic  difficulty,  arising  from  an  alleged 
jourtesy  of  the  Turkish  ambassador  at  Ath- 
threatened  to  involve  the  government  in  a 
ir  with  Turkey.     In  the  next  year  a  series  of 
ive  differences  with  England,  arising  out  of 
demands  made  by  her  upon  Greece  for  damages 
istained  by  British  subjects  under  various  cir- 
istances,  threatened  a  far  more  disastrous 
It.    The  complications  arising  from  these 
as,  and  especially  from  the  claim  of  a  cer- 
Pacifico,  a  Jew  who  was  a  British  sub- 
continued  for  several  years  to  disturb  the 
bions  between  the  two  countries.     In  Jan- 
1850,  they  had  assumed  so  threatening 
aspect  that  a  British  fleet  appeared  off  the 
3us,  and,  the  demands  of  the  English  ain- 
ador  not  being  complied  with,  proceeded 
blockade  Athens  and  to  make  many  arbi- 
seizures  of  Greek  shipping.    The  medi- 
of^the  French  was  sought,  but  England 
3ed  it ;  and  Greece  was  compelled  to  yield 
r  demands  in  order  to  avoid  an  actual 
In  1852  the  failure  of  the  grape  crop  pro- 
el  much  suffering  among  the  people.     In 
a  severe  earthquake  caused  serious  loss  of 
and  property  in  many  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
iditti  infested  the  Peloponnesus  and  central 
and  several  popular  disturbances  took 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war 
rreece  took  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  Rus- 
but  the  threats  of  England  and  France 
jpelled  the  government  to  pledge  itself  to 
neutrality,  and  Piraeus  was  guarded  by  English 
and  French  fleets,  which  were  not  removed 
till  1857,  after  many  protests  of  the  Greek 
government.     In  1859-'61  the  question  of  the 
mexation  of  the  Ionian  islands,  which  had 


long  been  under  the  protectorate  of  Great 
Britain,  was  the  most  important  and  exciting 
feature  of  Greek  politics.  The  opposition  mani- 
fested by  the  people  of  the  islands  to  English 
rule  had  for  several  years  been  manifested  by 
popular  demonstrations  and  even  insurrections; 
and,  in  the  already  excited  state  of  public  feel- 
ing against  England,  these  received  the  encour- 
agement and  sympathy  of  the  Greeks.  But 
the  powerlessness  of  Greece  was  too  manifest  to 
permit  her  undertaking  a  war ;  and  the  matter 
ended,  after  long  diplomatic  negotiation,  in  the 
continuance  of  the  former  relations.  In  the 
mean  time  the  general  hostility  felt  toward 
the  German  king  and  the  royal  family  had  in- 
creased to  such  a  degree  that  open  demon- 
strations were  made  against  them  when  they 
appeared  in  public.  Dossios,  a  student  who 
attempted  to  assassinate  the  queen  in  Septem- 
ber, 1861,  was  openly  defended  by  many  of 
the  people  ;  and  threats  were  everywhere  ut- 
tered against  King  Otho.  An  attempt  at  con- 
ciliation made  by  him  in  January,  1862,  when 
he  promised  the  adoption  of  a  series  of  liberal 
measures,  failed  through  his  unwillingness  to 
go  as  far  as  the  popular  voice  demanded.  After 
several  minor  insurrections  elsewhere,  a  revo- 
lution broke  out  in  Athens  on  Oct.  22,  1862. 
It  was  speedily  successful  through  the  apathy 
of  the  army  in  the  royal  cause ;  and  on  the 
23d  a  provisional  government  was  established 
by  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  They  im- 
mediately decreed  the  deposition  of  King  Otho, 
and  the  calling  of  a  national  assembly.  The 
king,  who  was  absent  on  a  voyage  to  the  ports 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  received  the  news  of 
what  had  occurred  as  he  reached  the  Pirasus 
on  his  return.  "Without  landing,  he  held  a 
council  with  the  diplomatic  representatives  in 
Athens  on  board  his  ship,  and  in  accordance 
with  their  advice  he  issued  a  proclamation  on 
the  24th  taking  leave  of  Greece,  but  without 
making  a  formal  abdication;  and  shortly  after 
he  returned  in  an  English  frigate  to  Germany. 
On  Dec.  1  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  pro- 
visional committee  ordering  the  election  of  a 
new  king  by  universal  suffrage.  Several  can- 
didates for  the  throne  had  been  brought  for- 
ward by  the  great  powers,  Prince  Alfred  of 
England  and  the  duke  of  Leuchtenberg  being 
among  the  chief.  At  the  first  ballot  Prince 
Alfred  was  elected  by  an  immense  majority, 
but  he  was  afterward  withdrawn  by  England 
on  account  of  an  existing  agreement  that  no 
prince  of  either  of  the  three  special  protecting 
powers  of  Greece  (France,  England,  and  Rus- 
sia) should  accept  the  throne.  At  the  same 
time  England  expressed,  in  effect,  its  willing- 
ness, provided  a  king  should  be  elected  to 
whom  the  English  government  could  not  ob- 
ject, to  abandon  its  protectorate  over  the  Ionian 
islands,  and  to  give  them  up  to  Greece.  The 
national  assembly  called  by  the  provisional 
government  met  at  Athens  on  Dec.  22,  and 
confirmed  the  deposition  of  the  Bavarian  dy- 
nasty (Feb.  16,  1863).  On  March  30  Prince 


204 


GREECE 


George  of  Denmark  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  assembly,  and  the  election  was  con- 
firmed by  the  great  powers  on  July  13.  Con- 
siderable disturbance  had  meanwhile  existed 
throughout  the  country ;  but  when  King 
George  landed  at  the  Piraeus  in  October  he 
found  the  kingdom  in  a  condition  of  at  least 
outward  quiet.  On  Oct.  31  he  took  the  oath 
to  support  the  constitution  ;  and  soon  after- 
ward the  Ionian  islands  were  formally  annexed 
to  his  dominions  (treaty  of  Nov.  14,  1863). 
Greek  politics  continued  to  be  marked  by  dis- 
sension and  partisan  intrigue,  involving  con- 
stant ministerial  changes  and  detriment  to  the 
general  welfare.  In  1866  the  Cretan  revo- 
lution threatened  to  involve  Greece  in  a  con- 
flict with  Turkey  on  account  of  the  assist- 
ance furnished  to  the  Cretans  by  blockade 
runners  and  of  the  asylum  given  to  fugitives, 
more  than  30,000  of  whom,  chiefly  women 
and  children,  took  refuge  in  Greece.  (See 
CANDIA.)  The  danger  was  finally  averted,  but 
the  finances  of  Greece,  owing  to  the  defensive 
measures  during  the  threatening  period,  were 
left  in  an  embarrassed  condition,  and  financial 
schemes  have  since  formed  the  chief  feature 
of  Greek  politics.  Outside  of  partisan  strug- 
gles, only  one  event  has  in  the  last  five  years 
excited  attention  in  other  countries.  This 
was  the  massacre  by  brigands  of  four  members 
of  a  party  of  English  travellers,  who  in  1870 
were  captured  near  the  plain  of  Marathon  and 
carried  into  the  mountains,  while  a  messenger 
was  sent  to  Athens  to  offer,  on  the  part  of  the 
banditti,  the  alternative  of  a  large  ransom  and 
amnesty  for  themselves,  or  the  death  of  all  the 
prisoners  in  their  hands.  The  Greek  govern- 
ment would  not  consent  to  treat  with  the  rob- 
bers, as  even  the  king  himself  does  not  pos- 
sess that  power  under  the  constitution;  and 
though  every  effort  was  made  to  rescue  the 
Englishmen,  they  were  put  to  death.  The 
affair  was  mismanaged  through  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  British  ambassador,  who  had  at- 
tempted to  treat  directly  with  the  brigands, 
offering  them  money  and  a  frigate  to  take 
them  to  Malta;  but  they  rejected  these  of- 
fers and  insisted  upon  amnesty.  England  held 
the  Greek  government  responsible  for  the 
massacre,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  bound 
to  suppress  organized  brigandage  in  its  ter- 
ritory, and  the  matter  threatened  to  lead  to 
hostilities.  But  the  danger  was  averted  by 
negotiation  and  the  payment  of  £10,000  by 
the  Greek  government  to  the  family  of  Lloyd, 
pne  of  the  murdered  travellers,  and  the  sub- 
ject was  gradually  suffered  to  drop. — The 
lu-w  kingdom  on  its  establishment  embraced, 
of  the  country  constituting  ancient  Greece, 
the  southernmost  districts  of  Thessaly,  cen- 
tral Greece,  and  the  Peloponnesus.  Of  the 
islands,  the  Cyclades  (with  the  exception  of 
one),  Euboaa,  and  a  few  of  the  Sporades  (in  the 
wider  signification)  were  embodied  in  the  new 
kingdom ;  the  Ionian  islands  remained  under 
the  protectorate  of  Great  Britain  till  1863, 


NOMARCHIES,  AC. 

Square 
miles. 

Population 
in  1870. 

Attica  and  Bceotia  

2,481 

186,804 

Eubcea    

1,574 

82,541 

Phthiotis  and  Phocis 

2,053 

108  421 

8,025 

121  693 

Achaia  and  Elis.          

1,908 

149,561 

Arcadia  

•  2,028 

131,740 

Laconia  

1,678 

105,851 

Messenia  

1,226 

130,417 

Argolis  and  Corinthia 

1448 

127,820 

Cyclades 

926 

123  299 

Corcyra  (Corfu)  

427 

96,940 

Cephallenia  (Cephalonia)  

802 

77,882 

Zacvnthus  (fcanle)  '  

277 

44.557 

Soldiers  of  army  and  navy 

13  735 

Bailors,  not  present  in  the  country  

7,133 

Total  

19,853 

1,457,894 

when  they  were  ceded  by  treaty  to  Greece ; 
all  the  other  islands  remained  with  Turkey, 
and  the  repeated  insurrections,  particularly  in 
Candia,  were  without  result.  After  the  incor- 
poration of  the  Ionian  islands,  the  area  of  the 
kingdom  of  Greece  amounted  to  19,353  sq.  m. 
It  is  now  divided  into  13  nom  archies,  as  fol- 
lows, the  former  Ionian  islands  being  embraced 
in  the  three  last  named,  with  the  exception  of 
Cerigo  and  the  adjacent  islets,  which  have 
been  united  with  the  nomarchy  of  Argolis  and 
Corinth : 


— In  the  mountains  but  little  vegetation  besides 
alpine  plants  grows  at  a  height  greater  than 
5,500  ft. ;  but  below  this  line  the  hillsides  are 
clothed  with  luxuriant  forests,  principally  of 
pine  and  oak.  Lower  down  the  walnut  and 
chestnut  abound ;  and  below  a  height  of  1,500 
ft.  is  found  as  great  a  variety  of  valuable  trees, 
shrubs,  and  plants  as  is  afforded  by  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  All  the  fruits  belonging  to 
the  latitude  grow  vigorously  and  produce  abun- 
dantly, and  if  cultivated  with  proper  skill  and 
care  would  afford  a  valuable  surplus  for  export. 
Although  the  soil  of  Greece  is  good,  agricul- 
ture has  been  greatly  neglected.  More  than 
half  the  area  is  productive  soil,  of  which  20 
per  cent,  is  arable  land,  1  per  cent,  garden  land, 
4  per  cent,  vine  land,  41  per  cent,  meadow  and 
pasture,  and  34  per  cent,  wood  land.  The  most 
important  products  are  olives  and  currants ;  the 
latter  are  chiefly  cultivated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Peloponnesus  and  on  the  islands  of  Corfu, 
Zante,  and  Cephalonia,  which  from  1866  to 
1870  yielded  an  annual  average  product  of  170,- 
000,000  Ibs.,  the  larger  portion  of  which  was 
exported  to  England.  Wine  culture  yields  an- 
nually about  18,000,000  gallons.  Among  the 
other  products  are  tobacco,  cotton,  figs,  lem- 
ons, and  valonia.  Breeding  of  sheep,  goats,  and 
silkworms  is  also  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
extent ;  several  places  on  the  coast  have  exten- 
sive fisheries.  The  culture  of  forests  is  greatly 
neglected,  although  the  country  has  a  peculiar 
kind  of  oak  which  is  important  for  commerce. 
The  number  of  horses  is  estimated  at  100,000 ; 
of  mules  and  asses  likewise  at  100,000  ;  and  in 
1867  there  were  109,904  cattle,  2,539,538 
sheep,  2,415,143  goats,  and  55,776  swine.  The 


GREECE 


205 


most  important  mineral  products  are  the  mar- 
ble of  Paros  and  the  emery  of  Naxos,  the  lat- 
ter a  government  monopoly.  The  famous 
Laurian  lead  mines  in  Attica,  recently  re- 
opened by  a  Franco-Italian  company,  prom- 
ised so  large  a  yield  as  to  lead  to  a  conflict 
between  the  government  and  the  company, 
but  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  the  purchase 
of  the  foreign  interest  by  a  Greek  company. 
The  sea-salt  works  yield  annually  about  253,- 
000  cwt.  of  salt. — The  commerce  of  Greece  is 
considerable,  owing  to  the  favorable  situation 
)f  the  country.  The  imports  and  exports  from 
569  to  1871  were  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1669 

$18  215  000 

$12  073  000 

1870               

18,725  000 

10  211  000 

18T1  

20,947,000 

14,643,000 

The  most  important  articles  of  import  were : 
breadstuff's,  $4,940,000 ;  manufactures,  $3,570,- 
•000;  skins,  $1,669,000;  sugar,  $1,961,000; 
lumber,  $808,000;  animals,  $530,000;  cotton 
yarn,  $453,000;  coffee,  $351,000;  rice,  $324,- 
000.  The  most  important  exports  were :  cur- 
rants, $5,851,000;  skins,  $526,000;  olive  oil, 
$2,063,000;  raw  cotton,  $221,000;  figs,  $700,- 
000;  oranges,  $106,150;  tobacco,  $137,030; 
wine,  $152,000  ;  silk  cocoons  and  raw  silk, 
$252,000;  soap,  $89,000;  lead,  $689,000. 
The  merchant  navy  at  the  end  of  1871  num- 
bered 6,135  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  419,- 
350  tons ;  among  which  were  more  than  4,000 
coasting  vessels,  and  12  steamers,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  about  5,360  tons.  The  movement 
of  shipping  in  1870  and  1871  is  shown  by  the 
following  table : 


ENTRANCES  AND  CLEAR- 
ANCES. 

Years. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

1870 

16757 

2564964 

94991 

2'985?520 

Sea-going  vessels  

1871 

21  758 

3  205  619 

Coasting  vessels  

105,612 

3,960,790 

The  manufactures  are  few  and  unimportant. 
The  prominent  branches  of  industry  are  ship 
building,  the  manufacture  of  leather  (chiefly  on 
the  island  of  Syra),  silk  and  linen  goods,  sails 
and  cordage,  soap,  liquors,  and  gold  and  silver 
embroideries.  The  first  railway  of  Greece, 
connecting  Athens  with  Piraus  and  Phalerum, 
and  having  a  length  of  7|  m.,  was  opened  in 
January,  1869.  A  road  connecting  the  port 
of  Pirasus  with  Lamia,  which  will  be  138  m. 
long,  was  begun  in  December,  1872;  and  a 
charter  had  been  given  for  building  a  road 
from  Athens  to  Kalamata,  to  be  170  m.  long. 
In  1870  there  were  992  m.  of  electro-magnetic 
telegraph,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  wires 
of  1,116  m.  Submarine  cables  are  in  operation 
between  Athens,  Syra,  Scio,  Constantinople, 
and  Candia.  The  number  of  post  offices  in 
1870  was  135.  The  monetary  unit  is  the 
new  drachma,  which  is  equal  to  19'3  cents; 


it  is  divided  into  100  leptas.  The  standard 
of  weight  is  a  cantar,  equal  to  124'13  Ibs. 
avoirdupois;  it  is  divided  into  44  oke,  and 
subdivided  into  400  old  or  1,280  royal  drams. 
The  unit  of  long  measure  is  the  royal  pit,  equal 
to  1  metre  or  3*2808  feet.  Land  is  measured 
by  the  stadion,  which  is  equal  to  0-62  of  an 
English  mile. — The  constitution  under  which 
Greece  is  now  governed  bears  date  Nov.  17, 
old  style  (Nov.  29,  new  style),  1864.  The 
throne  is  hereditary.  The  king  attains  his  ma- 
jority when  18  years  old.  Before  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  he  must  take  the  oath  to 
the  constitution,  and  within  two  months  after 
the  accession  he  must  convoke  the  legislature. 
The  successors  to  the  present  king,  who  is  a 
Lutheran,  must  belong  to  the  Orthodox  church. 
The  legislative  power  is  shared  by  the  king 
with  a  single  chamber  of  representatives,  called 
the  boule,  which  is  elected  every  fourth  year ; 
in  the  session  of  1871-'2  it  consisted  of  188 
members.  It  meets  annually  on  Nov.  1  (old 
style),  and  remains  in  session  not  less  than  three 
and  not  more  than  six  months.  It  elects  its 
own  president  and  vice  presidents.  State  offi- 
cers, mayors,  and  military  officers  in  active  ser- 
vice, are  not  eligible  ;  clergymen  can  neither  be 
elected  nor  vote.  The  elections  are  by  ballot 
with  the  use  of  balls,  and  each  candidate  must 
be  put  in  nomination  by  the  requisition  of  at 
least  one  thirtieth  of  the  voters  of  an  electoral 
district.  The  right  of  voting  belongs  to  all 
citizens  who  are  21  years  of  age  and  have  a 
property,  a  trade,  or  any  fixed  occupation.  To 
be  eligible  as  deputy,  it  is  necessary  to  be  30 
years  of  age  and  to  own  real  estate.  All  citi- 
zens have  equal  rights  and  duties ;  nobility 
has  been  abolished.  The  executive  power  is 
exercised  by  the  king  through  responsible  min- 
isters, of  whom  there  are  seven :  of  the  interior, 
of  finance,  of  justice,  of  education  and  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  of  war,  of  marine,  and  of  foreign 
affairs.  For  administrative  purposes,  the  13 
nomarchies  are  subdivided  into  59  eparchies 
and  351  demoi  (communes).  At  the  head  of 
these  divisions  are  nomarchs,  eparchs,  and 
demarchs ;  the  latter  are,  like  the  communal 
councils,  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
There  is  a  court  of  cassation  (the  areopagus) 
at  Athens,  four  courts  of  appeal  (at  Athens, 
Nauplia,  Patras,  and  Corfu),  16  courts  of 
primary  jurisdiction,  the  court  of  assizes,  175 
tribunals  of  justices  of  the  peace,  and  a  number 
of  military  and  marine  courts.  The  finances 
of  the  kingdom  are  in  a  very  unfavorable  con- 
dition. In  the  budget  estimates  the  revenue 
generally  shows  a  small  surplus  over  the  ex- 
penditures; thus  in  the  estimates  for  1873 
the  revenue  was  estimated  at  $6,928,000,  and 
the  expenditures  at  only  $6,832,000;  but  in 
reality  the  expenditures  since  1866  have  ex- 
ceeded the  revenue  by  about  $2,700,000  annu- 
ally. Official  returns  giving  the  real  income 
and  expenses  of  the  government  have  not 
been  published  since  1859.  The  funded  debt 
amounted  in  July,  1870,  to  $65,000,000  (in- 


206 


GREECE 


eluding  the  interest  on  the  loans  contracted  in 
1824  and  1825,  which  has  not  been  paid,  the 
former  since  July,  1826,  the  latter  since  Janu- 
ary, 1827).  The  floating  debt,  according  to 
semi-official  returns,  amounted  in  January, 
1870,  to  $6,900,000,  but  there  is  also  an  un- 
recognized debt  of  several  millions.  By  the 
new  law  of  recruitment  of  1867,  the  liability 
to  military  service  is  universal.  The  armed 
forces  consist  of  the  army  and  the  national 
guard.  The  duty  of  serving  in  the  army  be- 
gins with  the  20th  year,  and  lasts  12  years 
(three  years  in  the  line,  three  in  the  first,  and 
six  in  the  second  reserve).  If  necessary,  all 
Greeks  capable  of  bearing  arms,  up  to  the  age 
of  40,  can  be  enlisted  in  the  army.  In  the  na- 
tional guard,  which  is  to  be  employed  for  the 
defence  of  the  country  in  time  of  war,  all  citi- 
zens must  serve  from  the  18th  to  the  50th 
year  of  age.  The  strength  of  the  army  in  1871 


Modern  Greek  Costume. 

was  12,400  men  on  a  peace  footing,  and  about 
48,000  men  in  time  of  war,  including  the  vol- 
unteers; the  national  guard  numbers  about 
90,000  men;  and  the  total  strength  of  the 
army  on  a  war  footing  would  therefore  be 
about  138,000  men.  The  navy  at  the  close  of 
1871  consisted  of  2  iron  frigates,  8  screw 
steamers,  and  11  sailing  vessels,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  200  guns  and  2,500  men.  The  navy 
is  manned  by  conscription  from  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  seacoast;  but  volunteering  is 
greatly  encouraged  by  the  government.— In 
the  population  of  Greece  but  a  small  foreign 
element  is  mingled.  The  number  of  those  not 
speaking  the  Greek  as  their  native  tongue 
amounted  in  1870  to  only  67,941,  of  whom 
37,598  were  Albanese  (Arnauts),  1,217  Ma- 
cedo-Wallachs,  and  29,126  others.  The  im- 
mense majority  of  the  population  are  connected 


with  the  Orthodox  (Greek)  church  ;  the  num- 
ber of  other  Christians,  chiefly  Roman  Cath- 
olics, in  1870,  was  12,585  ;  of  Jews,  2,582  ;  of 
all  others,  917.  The  affairs  of  the  Orthodox 
church  are  under  the  direction  of  a  permanent 
holy  synod  at  Athens,  consisting  of  five  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  king  from  the  arch- 
bishops and  bishops,  and  presided  over  by 
the  metropolitan  of  Athens.  All  their  resolu- 
tions must  be  confirmed  by  the  king.  The 
Orthodox  church  has  15  archbishops,  the  first 
of  whom  is  the  archbishop  of  Athens,  who  has 
the  title  of  metropolitan,  and  16  bishops.  The 
archbishops  and  bishops  are  presented  for  their 
office  by  the  synod,  and  confirmed  and  ap- 
pointed by  the  king.  Exclusive  of  the  Ionian 
islands,  the  church  has  about  3,200  secular 
priests,  1,600  monks,  and  1,500  nuns.  For- 
merly the  number  of  convents  was  much  great- 
er, but  in  1829  about  300  were  closed  and  their 
estates  appropriated  for  churches  and  schools. 
The  Roman  Catholic  church  has  two  arch- 
bishops (Naxos  and  Corfu)  and  four  bishops. 
All  religions  are  tolerated  and  have  freedom 
of  public  worship.  Instruction  in  Greece  is 
compulsory  for  all  children  from  5  to  12  years; 
but  the  attendance  at  the  primary  schools  is 
unsatisfactory,  for  in  1869  the  1,141  public  and 
private  primary  schools  numbered  only  60,634 
pupils,  being  4'3  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. The  secondary  instruction  in  1870  em- 
braced 15  gymnasia  and  114  Hellenic  schools 
(corresponding  to  the  German  Realschuleri), 
with  an  aggregate  attendance  of  7,780  pupils ; 
and  23  private  institutions,  with  1,589  pupils. 
The  national  university  at  Athens  has  four 
faculties,  the  theological,  law,  medical,  and 
philosophical,  and  in  1869  was  attended  by 
1,205  students.  Of  special  schools,  there  are 
a  polytechnic  school  at  Athens,  four  theo- 
logical schools  of  the  Orthodox  church,  six 
nautical  schools,  one  agricultural  school,  and 
one  military  academy  at  the  Piraeus. — For 
an  account  of  Greek  art,  see  ARCHITECTURE, 
PAINTING,  and  SCULPTURE.  On  the  geography 
of  Greece,  see  William  Smith,  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Geography  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London  and  Boston,  1854-'7),  and  the  works 
of  Mannert,  Leake,  Rangabe,  E.  Curtius,  Hett- 
ner,  Blouet,  W.  G.  Clark,  Linton,  Bayard  Tay- 
lor, Wordsworth,  Perigot,  Joanne,  and  Manso- 
las.  On  ancient  history  and  archaaology,  see 
Grote,  "A  History  of  Greece"  (12  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1846-'56 ;  12  vols.  12mo,  New  York) ; 
E.  Curtius,  Griechische  GescMchte  (1857-'67 ; 
English  translation,  London,  1868-'73);  Cox, 
"History  of  Greece"  (London,  1874);  and 
besides  the  classical  writers,  the  works  of 
Goldsmith,  Gillies,  Thirlwall,  Pococke,  Glad- 
stone, Heeren,  Bockh,  Manso,  Droysen,  Dunck- 
er,  O.  Miiller,  Hermann,  Schomann,  Wachs- 
muth,  Kortiim,  Mitford,  Clinton,  Mure,  and 
Felton.  On  mediaeval  and  modern  Greece,  see 
BrUnet  de  Presle,  La  Gr&ce  romaine,  Byzan- 
tine, turgue  et  regeneree  (Paris,  1860) ;  Tucker- 
man,  "  The  Greeks  of  To-day  "  (New  York, 


GREECE   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


207 


1873) ;  and  the  works  of  Fallmerayer,  Prokesch- 
Osten,  Villemain,  Pouqueville,  Finlay,  Keight- 
ley,  Emerson  Tennent,  Rizos-Nerulos,  Sutsos, 
Gervinus,  Tricupis,  and  Zinkeisen. 

GREECE,  Language  and  Literature  of.  The 
Greek  language  is  a  branch  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean family,  and  was  spoken,  probably  as  early 
as  15  centuries  before  our  era,  by  the  Greeks 
in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  and  subsequently  in 
lower  Italy,  Sicily,  and  numerous  colonies  es- 
tablished on  the  coasts  .of  the  Mediterranean 
and  Black  seas.  It  became  afterward  the 
reigning  language  of  the  Macedonian,  Syrian, 
Egyptian,  and  Byzantine  empires.  Besides 
the  dialects  of  modern  Greece,  remnants  of  it 
are  found  in  lower  Italy,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Calabria.  The  origin  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  degree  of  its  relationship  to 
other  forms  of  Aryan  speech  have  not  been 
definitely  established.  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  speak  of  a  Pelasgic  race  as  the  com- 
mon stock  of  both  nations,  but  without  fur- 
nishing sufficient  information  to  place  it  within 
the  reach  of  history.  The  conjectures  of  an- 
cient and  modern  writers  have  linked  it  to 
nearly  every  great  nation  of  antiquity,  but 
without  a  satisfactory  result.  Alstedius  in 
the  17th  century  derives  the  Greek  from  the 
Hebrew,  and  the  people  from  Javan,  the  son 
of  Japheth ;  Webb  from  the  Chinese ;  Mon- 
boddo  from  Egypt,  believing  that  the  Pelasgi 
were  Goths.  Martin  and  Buffier  assert  that 
the  Phoenician  Cadmus  altered  the  language 
in  the  north,  and  the  Phrygian  Pelops  in 
the  south.  Rudbeck  and  Ihre  derive  it  from 
the  Gothic,  while  Jamieson  holds  to  the  re- 
verse. Grote  says  that  he  cannot  accept  a 
hypothesis  which  implies  that  "the  Hellenic 
language  is  a  mere  confluence  of  two  foreign 
barbaric  languages  (Phoenician  and  Egyptian) 
with  two  or  more  internal  barbaric  languages, 
Pelasgian,  Lelegian,  &c.,"  and  considers  futile 
all  inquiries  in  regard  to  the  ante-Hellenic  Pe- 
lasgians.  George  Rawlinson  adopts  the  opin- 
ion of  Niebuhr,  Thirl  wall,  and  K.  O.  Mtiller, 
that  the  relation  of  Greek  to  Pelasgian  was 
like  that  of  English  to  Anglo-Saxon.  Glad- 
stone designates  the  Pelasgians  as  pure  Aryan, 
and  the  Hellenes  "as  Aryan  with  a  residue  or 
mixture  of  Turanian  elements."  Geldart  con- 
siders the  popular  notion  of  the  Greeks  them- 
selves, that  the  language  of  the  modern  Al- 
banians is  that  of  the  ancient  Pelasgians, 
as  nearest  the  truth.  Cuno  contends,  in  his 
Forschungen  aufdem  Gebiete  der  alien  Volker- 
Icunde  (Berlin,  1871),  that  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans used  the  term  Pelasgian  very  nearly  in 
the  same  sense  in  which  modern  linguists  use 
the  term  Aryan  or  Indo-European,  and  that 
Greek  is  most  closely  related  to  the  Lithuanian 
language,  because  it  has  retained  the  same  ac- 
centuation and  several  forms  of  words  which, 
though  found  in  Sanskrit,  have  disappeared  in 
the  other  languages  derived  from  it.  The  be- 
lief that  Latin  is  a  daughter  of  Greek,  which 
was  common  for  centuries  both  in  ancient  and 
374  VOL.  vin. — 14 


modern  times,  has  been  rejected  by  many  emi- 
nent scholars.  The  general  opinion  at  present 
is  that  Greek  is  an  elder  sister  of  Latin.  E. 
Curtius  says  that  out  of  500  Greek  verbal  roots 
only  30  reappear  exclusively  in  Latin.  Lott- 
ner  says  he  has  discovered  that  Greek  has 
fewer  words  in  common  with  Latin  than  Latin 
has  with  German,  Slavic,  and  Lettic.  Max 
Mtiller  makes  the  following  statement  in  re- 
gard to  the  affinity  of  the  classical  tongues  of 
the  Indo-European  family :  "  No  sound  scholar 
would  ever  think  of  deriving  any  Greek  or 
Latin  word  from  Sanskrit.  .  .  .  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin  are  sisters,  varieties  of  one 
and  the  same  type.  They  all  point  to  some 
earlier  stage,  when  they  were  less  different 
from  each  other  than  they  now  are,  but  no 
more." — The  history  of  the  Greek  language  is 
divided  by  Benfey,  in  his  GeschicJite  der  SpracJi- 
wissenschaft  (Munich,  1868),  into  three  periods. 
The  first  is  the  period  of  its  literary  develop- 
ment from  the  time  of  epic  poetry  to  the  rise 
of  the  common  tongue,  the  KOIVJJ  or  the  Helle- 
nic of  the  Hellenes ;  the  second  embraces  the 
time  during  which  the  noivfj  came  to  be  the 
language  of  all  civilized  nations  and  educated 
persons,  and  the  time  during  which  it  was 
gradually  confined  again  to  its  original  limits ; 
the  third  period  begins  with  the  fall  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  and  its  principal  feature  is 
the  gradual  disregard  of  the  literary  language, 
and  the  rise  of  the  popular  forms  of  speech 
which  finally  produced  the  modern  Greek. 
History  becomes  acquainted  with  the  Greek 
language  only  after  it  had  separated  into  nu- 
merous dialects.  The  dialectic  differences  were 
mainly  of  form  and  pronunciation,  and  but 
small  in  steins  and  roots.  Two  main  classes 
predominate  among  all  the  dialect  forms :  the 
Doric  (^  AupiKJ}  or  Awptf)  and  the  Ionic  ($  'IUVIKTJ 
or  'Idf),  which  were  spoken  by  the  two  princi- 
pal races,  of  which  the  Doric  was  the  largest. 
Another  principal  dialect  was  that  spoken  by 
the  ^Eolians  of  Asia  Minor,  Boeotia,  and  Thes- 
saly.  E.  Curtius,  in  his  "History  of  Greece" 
(translated,  London,  1868-'73),  says:  "There 
were  Greeks  who  spoke  neither  Ionic  nor  Doric, 
and  these  were  said  to  speak  ^Eolic.  But  the 
^Eolic  is  not  a  dialect,  like  the  Doric  and  Ionic ; 
it  commands  no  defined  territory  of  language, 
and  possesses  no  fixed  character.  The  so-called 
jEolic  Greek  is  rather  to  such  an  extent  colored 
differently,  according  to  the  different  regions 
in  which  it  settled  itself,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
fix  upon  a  universally  prevalent  type,  upon  a 
fixed  law  of  sounds,  and  a  system  of  gram- 
matical forms  comprehending  all  its  members. 
Speaking  generally,  and  leaving  out  of  the 
question  certain  more  recent  formations,  it  in- 
cluded those  forms  which,  when  compared 
with  the  cognate  languages  of  Asia,  we  must 
recognize  as  the  most  ancient.  The  ^Eolic 
stands  nearest  to  the  original  tongue  of  the 
Greeks,  to  that  tongue  which  we  must  regard 
as  the  common  mother  of  the  various  dialects — 
among  them,  of  the  Grseco-Italic  language; 


GREECE   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


accordingly,  it  is  easy  to  point  out  undeniable 
analogies  between  ^Eolic  Greek  and  Latin." 
The  Doric  dialect  was  spoken  chiefly  in  north- 
ern Greece,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  in  Crete, 
and  in  the  numerous  Doric  colonies,  especially 
Sicily  and  lower  Italy.  It  is  essentially  the 
dialect  of  Pindar  and  Theocritus.  Ionic  was 
spoken  chiefly  in  Asia  Minor  and  Attica,  in  nu- 
merous islands,  and  in  the  Ionic  colonies.  It 
was  early  developed  by  poetry,  and  produced 
three  different  but  nearly  related  dialects :  the 
old  Ionic  or  epic  dialect,  preserved  in  the 
poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod ;  the  new  Ionic, 
chiefly  known  from  the  history  of  Herodotus ; 
and  the  Attic  dialect,  contained  in  the  litera- 
ture of  Athens  at  the  time  of  her  glory.  In  the 
Attic  dialect  three  less  important  distinctions 
are  made,  the  old,  the  middle,  and  the  new ; 
or  the  two  distinctions  between  the  earlier  and 
the  later  Attic.  The  old  Attic  differed  but  lit- 
tle from  the  old  Ionic,  as  the  lonians  were  the 
original  inhabitants  of  Attica;  but  through  in- 
tercourse with  ^Eolians,  Dorians,  and  other 
Greek  and  foreign  races,  it  adopted  many  non- 
Ionic  words,  and  produced  the  middle  or  ear- 
lier Attic,  as  written  by  Thucydides  and  the 
tragedians.  The  new  or  later  Attic  is  con- 
sidered as  beginning  with  Demosthenes  and 
^Eschines.  Through  the  importance  of  Athens 
and  the  superiority  of  its  literature,  the  Attic 
became  the  chief  dialect,  and,  even  after  Ath- 
ens had  ceased  to  be  the  leading  city,  remained 
the  language  of  the  educated  Greeks.  But  it 
soon  lost  its  purity  and  excellence,  and  thus 
from  the  3d  century  B.  C.  the  common  Greek 
dialect  (fj  KOLVT)  di6.feK.ros)  was  distinguished 
from  it.  The  conquests  of  Alexander  gave  it 
an  enormous  territory;  but  being  spoken  by 
Macedonians,  Egyptians,  Ethiopians,  Syrians, 
and  other  minor  nations,  it  was  stripped  of 
many  of  its  original  forms,  and  numerous  bar- 
barisms were  added  to  it.  The  researches  of 
Curtius  tend  to  show  that  the  Greeks  and  Ma- 
cedonians could  not  understand  each  other. 
How  far  the  Macedonian  language  resembled 
that  of  the  Illyrians  is  not  positively  known. 
It  is  apparent,  however,  that  at  this  time  took 
place  a  gradual  mingling  of  Greek  and  Macedo- 
nian speech,  as  Plutarch  asserts  that  Greek 
and  not  Macedonian  was  spoken  at  the  courts 
of  Philip  and  Alexander.  The  fusion  of  the 
two  languages  produced  the  so-called  Mace- 
donian dialects,  of  which  the  most  prominent, 
being  cultivated  by  learned  men,  was  that  of 
Alexandria.  It  has  been  falsely  termed  the 
Hellenistic  language ;  with  its  Syrian,  Hebrew, 
and  Chaldean  peculiarities,  it  was  used  in  the 
Alexandrian  translations  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  subsequently  also  of  the  New, 
whence  it  has  been  carried  into  the  works  of 
the  fathers  of  the  church ;  and  it  has  therefore 
been  proposed  to  designate  it  as  ecclesiastic 
Greek.  The  Greek  spoken  in  Egypt  was  main- 
ly a  language  studied  by  officials  and  traders. 
The  dialect  has  been  found  inscribed  on  the 
stones  of  Rosetta  and  of  Adule,  and  on  a  num- 


ber of  papyri.  The  Greek  of  Ethiopia  was 
still  more  corrupt,  and  was  also  principally 
used  in  business  and  for  inscriptions.  Greek 
was  spoken  in  Carthage  and  Mauritania,  as 
well  as  in  Bactria  and  India.  It  continued 
also  to  be  spoken  in  Gallia  Narbonensis  and 
Aquitania,  where,  starting  with  the  colony  of 
Massilia  established  by  the  Phocseans  in  the  6th 
century  B.  C.,  it  had  gradually  gained  territory 
and  become  the  general  language  of  the  insti- 
tutions of  learning.  Jlenry  Stephens  shows, 
in  his  Traite  de  la  conformite  du  langage  fran- 
foys  avec  le  grec  (Paris,  1569),  that  it  remained 
there  in  use  for  many  centuries  after  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity.  In  Sicily,  and  in 
parts  of  Calabria  and  Apulia,  Greek  was  spo- 
ken as  late  as  the  llth  century  of  our  era. 
Mommsen  has  shown,  in  his  Unteritaluclie 
Dialekte  (Leipsic,  1850),  that  it  continued  to 
be  used  by  the  side  of  Latin  and  Arabic,  until 
Italian  usurped  its  place  as  the  literary  lan- 
guage of  the  country.  Greek  was  thus  during 
the  first  three  centuries  of  our  era  a  sort  of 
universal  language,  and  everybody  who  claimed 
to  be  educated  was  obliged  to  be  conversant 
with  it.  But  the  language  deviated  percepti- 
bly from  the  old  standard,  and  the  efforts  of 
the  purists  to  check  this  tendency,  by  insisting 
on  using  ancient  Attic  forms,  had  but  little 
success.  The  transfer  of  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  Roman  empire  to  Constantinople 
caused  the  introduction  of  many  Latinisms,  and 
the  crusades  that  of  many  Gallicisms  and  other 
foreign  elements.  According  to  Hallam,  arti- 
ficial Attic  Greek  was  spoken  in  Constantino- 
ple, even  till  its  capture  by  Mohammed  II.,  by 
the  superior  ranks  of  both  sexes,  with  toler- 
able purity,  and  at  that  time  had  degenerated 
only  among  the  common  people  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  provinces.  But  the  literary 
documents  show  a  gradual  transition  from  the 
language  of  the  grammarians  to  that  of  the 
people,  which  is  designated  in  them  as  the 
common  and  impure  language,  or  the  common 
and  simple  style,  and  also  as  usage.  The  popu- 
lar dialect  of  the  12th  century  was  essentially 
the  same  as  the  Romaic  or  modern  Greek 
of  the  present  day,  and  the  first  writer  who 
can  be  said  to  have  used  it  in  its  entirety  was 
Theodorus  Prodromus,  nicknamed  Ptochopro- 
domus,  a  monk  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Manuel  Comnenus.  The  appellation 
of  Romaic,  by  which  the  new  dialect  was  desig- 
nated, arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
Greeks  had  affected  the  name  of  'Pa/ualoi,  after 
the  new  name  of  the  seat  of  government  (via 
P^?/),  and  in  distinction  from  the  'EMf/vef,  who 
were  the  latest  advocates  of  the  language  and 
customs  of  ancient  Greece.  But  the  modern 
theory  of  a  complete  extirpation  of  the  Helle- 
nic race  at  this  present  time  is  unsupported  by 
the  unalloyed  speech  of  the  inhabitants  of 
modern  Greece.  Deffner  and  other  students 
of  modern  Greek  have  shown  that  it  contains 
formations  evidently  older  than  the  Attic  dia- 
lect, with  which  a  large  class  of  modern  Greek 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


209 


bhors  are  now  striving  to  supplant  it.  In 
fact,  the  so-called  ancient  forms  never  died 
out,  but  are  nearly  all  found  even  in  the  more 
cultivated  modern  Greek  of  the  middle  ages. 
Greek  is  now,  says  Geldart,  "  as  really  alive  as 
it  was  in  the  days  of  Homer."  "Compara- 
tive philology  derives  no  unimportant  light 
from  modern  Greek,  because  it  preserves  many 
archaic  forms  which  are  postulated  by  phi- 
lologers,  but  not  actually  to  be  found  in  any 
known  dialect."  Mullach,  in  his  Orammatilc 
der  griechischen  Vulgdrspraehe  (Berlin,  1856), 
divides  the  existing  dialects  of  modern  Greece 
into  six  main  varieties,  besides  Tzakonian  and 
Albanian,  whose  claim  to  be  considered  Greek 
dialects  is  not  admitted  by  all.  They  are :  1, 
the  dialect  of  Anatolia  (Asia  Minor) ;  2,  Chi- 
otic;  3,  Cretan;  4,  Cyprian;  5,  Peloponne- 
sian ;  6,  of  the  Ionian  islands.  The  Tzakonian 
dialect  is  the  language  of  ancient  Cynuria,  and 
of  a  foreign  race,  which  was  probably  of  Semitic 
origin.  It  adopted  and  adapted  the  materials 
of  the  Greek  language  gradually,  partly  during 
the  time  that  Greek  was  still  ancient  Greek, 
and  partly  after  it  had  become  modern.  Al- 
banian is  considered  by  many  authorities  the 
direct  descendant  of  ancient  Pelasgic  or  Grseco- 
Italic,  the  parent  of  both  Latin  and  Greek. 
The  modern  Greek  dialects  of  lower  Italy  are 
not  well  known;  they  are  spoken  in  12  vil- 
lages at  the  southern  extremity  of  modern 
Calabria. — The  Greek  alphabet  was  formed 
from  the  Phoenician.  Ancient  writers  sup- 
posed that  it  was  at  first  composed  of  16  let- 
ters only,  obtained  from  Cadmus,  and  that  the 
other  letters  were  due  to  Palamedes  and  oth- 
ers. Many  authorities  consider  these  person- 
ages mythical;  others,  like  Lenormant  in  La 
ttgende  de  Cadmus  (Paris,  1867),  consider  them 
historical.  Mommsen  believes  that  an  .zEolic- 
Achgeic  alphabet  was  in  use  in  the  Peloponnesus 
long  before  the  dominion  of  the  Dorians,  who 
introduced  their  own  graphic  system ;  but  his 
theory  is  hardly  supported  by  palseographic  ma- 
terial. Curtius's  hypothesis  is  that  the  Asiatic 
lonians  obtained  it  from  the  Phoenicians,  and 
carried  it  into  European  Greece  about  14  cen- 
turies B.  0.,  while  Duncker  argues  that  it  was 
brought  from  Crete  to  Greece  during  the  8th 
century.  "Without  regard  to  the  period  and 
manner  in  which  the  Greeks  came  into  its  pos- 
session, the  prevailing  opinion  is  that  they 
adopted  at  once  the  whole  Phoenician  alphabet 
of  22  letters,  and  added  the  sign  Y.  Some  of 
the  letters  passed  out  of  use,  as  the  van  or 
digamma  and  the  Tcoppa,  and  were  replaced 
by  others,  as  the  phi  and  chi,  which  appear 
already  in  the  old  Attic  alphabet.  The  lonians 
added  the  psi  and  the  omega,  and  employed 
the  aspirate  eta  to  designate  the  sound  of 
long  E.  Their  alphabet,  thus  consisting  of  24 
letters,  was  officially  adopted  in  Athens  in 
403  or  401  B.  C.,  and  has  since  continued  in 
general  use.  The  ancients  believed  that  all 
words  beginning  with  a  vowel  had  some  aspi- 
ration, either  soft  (Trvevua  ipiMv,  spiritus  lenis) 


or  hard  (rrvev/^a  6aav,  spiritus  asper).  The 
spiritus  lenis  (')  is  not  rendered  in  other 
tongues;  the  spiritus  asper  (')  is  given  in  Italic 
and  Germanic  languages  by  H.  In  diphthongs 
the  breathing  stands  over  the  second  vowel. 
The  two  breathings  were  distinguished  only 
during  the  flourishing  period  of  Greek,  and 
only  in  Doric  and  Attic.  After  Alexander  the 
Great  it  seems  that  the  spiritus  asper  lost  its 
force  in  the  whole  language.  In  modern  Greek 
both  breathings  are  written,  but  neither  is  pro- 
nounced. The  signs  ~  and  ~  over  a  vowel  to 
denote  that  it  is  long  or  short  are  used  only 
with  the  vowels  a,  <,  v,  since  e,  ??,  o,  w  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  form.  The  sign  ( ' )  for  the 
spiritus  lenis  is  also  used  as  an  apostrophe,  and 
further  as  a  coronis  over  the  junction  of  two 
words  contracted  into  one.  The  Greeks  indi- 
cate also  the  tone  or  accent  of  words.  The 
circumflex  accent  is  placed  only  on  the  last  syl- 
lable, or  last  but  one,  of  a  polysyllabic  word ; 
the  acute  equally  on  short  and  on  long  sylla- 
bles; and  the  grave  accent  may  be  considered 
to  rest  on  every  syllable  not  otherwise  marked, 
especially  on  the  final  syllable  of  polysyllabic 
words,  but  is  written  as  a  substitute  for  the 
acute  on  final  syllables  of  words  within  a  sen- 
tence and  not  immediately  followed  by  a  pause. 
Accentuation,  however,  is  not  uniform  in  all 
Greek  dialects.  It  is  supposed  by  many  that 
Aristopnanes  of  Byzantium  was  the  inventor 
of  the  signs  of  aspiration  and  accentuation, 
and  that  they  were  introduced  about  200  B.  C. 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  language  to 
foreigners.  They  do  not  appear  in  very  old  in- 
scriptions and  manuscripts,  but  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  they  were  used  long  before  his 
time.  The  ancients  wrote  only  in  uncials  and 
capitals  or  majuscules.  A  sort  of  cursive  or 
business  hand  made  its  first  appearance  in 
Alexandria  about  the  2d  century  B.  C. ;  but 
the  small  characters  or  minuscules  are  not 
found  in  manuscripts  older  than  the  8th  cen- 
tury A.  D. — The  pronunciation  of  Greek  in 
the  times  of  Homer,  Sophocles,  and  Xenophon 
is  still  a  matter  of  discussion.  "While  it  has 
gradually  become  quite  uniform  in  continental 
Europe,  the  English  allowed  the  continuance 
of  the  English  vowel  sounds,  a  practice  which 
had  its  origin  with  the  grammar  schools  and 
crept  into  the  universities.  Many  prefer  the 
system  of  pronunciation  called  etacism,  which 
was  introduced  by  Erasmus  in  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  century.  Until  then  it  was  allow- 
able to  read  ancient  Greek  after  the  pronun- 
ciation of  modern  Greek  as  spoken  by  the  na- 
tives who  fled  to  the  west  of  Europe.  This 
pronunciation  is  called  iotacism,  or  Reuchlin- 
ism,  after  Reuchlin,  who  was  its  advocate  in 
the  time  of  Erasmus.  It  consists  in  pronounc- 
ing i,  rj,  v,  ei,  01,  vi  with  the  same  sound,  that 
of  the  Italian  i ;  when  accented,  like  the  Eng- 
lish ee  in  bee;  when  unaccented,  like  i  in  bit. 
Furthermore,  at  is  pronounced  like  the  Italian 
e,  av  like  av  or  of,  ev  like  ev  or  ef,  TJV  like  it  or 
if;  the  iota  subscript  has  no  effect  on  the  pro- 


210 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


nunciation  of  the  vowel  above  it;  ft  is  pro- 
nounced like  our  v  ;  y  before  e,  *,  &c.,  like  y  ; 
6  like  the  soft  th  or  the  soft  Spanish  d  ;  £  like 
z  ;  *  as  a  strong  aspirate,  like  a  or  j  in  Spanish ; 
T  after  v  sounds  like  d  ;  and  TT  after  ^  like  /?.  The 
Erasmians  maintain  that  among  the  ancients 
each  vowel  and  diphthong  had  its  own  proper 
sound :  a  like  the  Italian  a,  i  like  the  Italian  i, 
v  like  the  French  u  or  German  u,  e  and  77  like 
the  Italian  long  and  short  e  respectively,  and 
diphthongs  the  sounds  which  result  from  the 
combined  sounds  of  their  component  letters. 
They  maintain  also  that  ft  has  the  sound  of  our 
J,  y  of  our  hard  g,  6  of  <?,  ?  of  dz,  and  #  of 
German  ch ;  that  T  and  TT  should  always  re- 
tain the  sound  of  t  and  p  ;  and  that  the  initial 
aspirate  should  be  sounded  as  h.  The  contro- 
versy has  been  carried  on  with  renewed  energy 
in  recent  times,  but  so  far  to  no  definite  settle- 
ment, the  etacists  and  the  iotacists  being  equal- 
ly supported  by  high  authorities.— Greek  gram- 
mar has  received  a  scientific  method  through 
the  results  of  comparative  philology,  especially 
subsequent  to  the  labors  of  Bopp  and  Pott, 
and  through  the  recent  researches  of  Curtius. 
The  noun  in  ancient  Greek  has  three  numbers, 
singular,  dual,  and  plural.  The  dual  is  a  later 
formation,  and  did  not  occur  in  ^Eolic.  The 
distinction  of  the  three  genders,  though  un- 
known to  Indo-European  in  its  radical  stage, 
was  introduced  very  early,  probably  before  the 
first  separation  occurred.  There  were  origi- 
nally only  the  three  cases,  vocative,  accusative, 
and  nominative ;  the  genitive  and  dative  were 
introduced  subsequently.  The  three  modes  of 
declension  vary  in  the  ancient  dialects.  Ad- 
jectives have  either  three  or  two  endings,  and 
in  the  latter  case  the  masculine  and  feminine 
agree.  Personal  pronouns  are  declined  in  a 
peculiar  manner;  otherwise  the  declensions  of 
nouns  apply  also  to  adjectives,  and  with  varia- 
tions to  pronouns  and  numerals.  Adjectives 
admit  of  comparison.  Verbs  are  of  three  gen- 
era, possessing,  besides  the  active  and  passive, 
a  middle  voice ;  most  tenses  of  the  passive  and 
middle  voices  coincide ;  the  middle  has  a  kind 
of  reflexive,  reciprocal,  or  deponent  character. 
The  tenses  are  the  present,  imperfect,  perfect, 
pluperfect,  aorist,  future,  and  future  perfect; 
the  moods  are  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  op- 
tative, imperative,  and  infinitive.  The  prete- 
rite tenses  are  formed  by  augments  and  redu- 
plication. There  are  active,  reflexive,  and  pas- 
sive participles,  and  verbal  adjectives.  The 
endings  are  inflected  according  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  verbs,  which  terminate  either  in  pi  or 
in  (j  in  the  first  person  singular  of  the  present 
indicative. — The  language  of  the  common  peo- 
ple of  modern  Greece  has  a  number  of  stri- 
king peculiarities.  A<5£a  and  words  like  it  make 
in  the  genitive  TW  Mfof,  in  the  plural  T/  661-ais, 
accusative  raZf  £rffa<f.  A  large  number  of 
nouns  belonging  to  different  declensions  are 
made  to  follow  one.  The  v  for  the  accusative 
is  dropped  in  pronunciation  where  the  pho- 
netic laws  of  the  language  admit  of  it.  The 


plural  of  many  words,  especially  those  of 
foreign  origin,  is  formed  by  adding  <tef  to  the 
stem,  as  Traadfcf,  from  Traaaf,  pashas.  Many 
feminines  whose  root  vowel  is  u  or  ov  take  f  in 
the  genitive  singular,  as  rfc  luupws,  from  rj 
fj.alp.ov,  monkey.  Metaplastic  nouns  or  secon- 
dary formations  are  common,  as  6  narepas,  6  fta- 
aiMaq.  Of  the  pronouns,  ifie  often  appears  as 
kfiiva,  and  oe  as  ioe  and  kaiva ;  ^fielg  becomes 
often  eueZf,  and  in  the  accusative  both  ipaq  and 
(ia$ ;  and  ipeif  becomes  aelg  and  iaelg .  The  ar- 
ticle as  enclitic  and  proclitic  is  used  for  the 
personal  pronoun  in  oblique  cases.  In  the 
verbs,  Myovai  becomes  heyovv  or  /Uyowe;  £le- 
yov,  £foya;  e/lefaf,  eAefef ;  and  for  eAlfare,  ite- 
gere.  In  the  passive,  teyy  or  Myet  becomes  te- 
yeaat;  heydfieda,  fayd/ueare,  and  many  other 
forms  down  to  faydfteo-da.  The  verb  elpi  is  con- 
jugated almost  like  a  verb  in  the  middle  voice, 
thus:  eZ/MM,  elcai,  elve,  elfieda,  ela0e,  elve;  imper^ 
feet,  f][j.ow,  TJGO,  JJTO,  tjneda,  fjaQe,  ijrov ;  infinitive, 
eladar,  and  imperative,  too.  The  termination 
fit  is  not  found  in  the  language  of  the  common 
people.  Modern  Greek  has  also  lost  the  old 
simplicity  of  expression,  as  may  be  seen  by 
comparing  a  sentence  from  Plutarch's  "Life 
of  Caesar"  with  Rangabe's  translation:  Ori- 
ginal— 'A/Ua  Kovpiuv  re  Myerac  Ty  TTjjttwu  Trepi- 
jSaAwv  VTret-ayayeiv,  avrdg  re  6  K*/c£pwv,  a>f  ol  ve- 
avianot  7rpo<7£/3Aei/;ai>,  avavevaai,  tyofirjQelg  rbv  &jyzov, 
$  rbv  <}>6vov  5A<jf  aSutov  /cat  Trapdvofiov  jjyov/j.evoe. 
Translation — 'AA/la  "Xiyerat  on  6  Kovpiuv  ireptKa- 
/l(»^af  TOTE  avrbv  6ia  rfc  TTjfiiwov  rou,  rbv  i^yaye' 
KOI  6  Kinepuv,  OTCLV  ol  vioi  trpoai^e^av  etc  avrbv, 
bn  ivevaev  a7ro0<m«wf,  (popqdslf;  rbv  dijfiov,  i]  rbv 
<p6vov  fi/lwf  a6iK.ov  /cat  irapdvofiov  deupuv.  The 
words  are  still  the  same  that  Plutarch  or  even 
Thucydides  might  have  employed. — The  gram- 
matical and  lexicographical  study  of  Greek 
was  begun  by  the  sophists,  especially  Prota- 
goras, by  Plato,  and  by  Aristotle  in  regard 
to  rhetoric.  After  the  decline  of  Grecian 
liberty  and  language  many  words  and  phrases 
became  obsolete,  and  were  explained  by  the 
grammarians  under  the  titles  of  Mfris  and 
yhuccai.  There  were  yhuacai  iarpiKai,  vouinai, 
prfropiKai,  <j>i7ioco<j>iK.ai,  dEoTioyiitai,  and  y^aaaai  flap- 
{3apinai,  SuvdiKai,  JlEpainai,  &c.  Homeric  lexi- 
cons appeared  at  an  early  age;  one  of  them 
was  Apollonius's  A£f«f  'O/^pf/ou',  in  which  the 
youth  of  republican  Athens  searched  for  eluci- 
dations of  the  poet.  Didymus  compiled  a 
"Tragic  Lexicon,"  Theo  a  "Comic  Lexicon," 
and  Phrynichus  a  kind  of  dictionary,  contain- 
ing the  more  recondite  and  exquisite  phrases 
of  the  Attic  writers,  and  entitled  HpoTrapaanevf] 
I,o<t>iaTiK^.  Pausanias  of  Caesarea  seems  to  have 
written  the  best  rhetorical  lexicon,  containing 
illustrations  of  the  Greek  orators,  as  it  is  often 
quoted  by  Eustathius.  The  first  who  reduced 
into  one  vocabulary  the  Homeric,  dramatic, 
and  rhetorical  lexicons  was  Diogenianus,  a  cele- 
brated grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian.  The  most  prominent  writers  on 
grammar  were  Aristophanes  Byzantinus  (about 
260  B.  C.),  Aristarchus  of  Samothrace  (about 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


211 


L50),  and  Dionysius  Thrax  (about  80),  who 
prepared  the  first  systematic  grammar,  which 
remained  for  many  centuries  of  great  value, 
subsequent  grammars  being  little  else  than 
commentaries  on  it.  Photius,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, was  the  author  of  a  celebrated  lexi- 
con, which  he  entitled  Aefewv  2way<jy#.  But 
the  most  important  of  all  the  ancient  lexicons 
is  that  of  Hesychius,  a  grammarian  of  uncer- 
tain age,  who  seems  to  have  compiled  it  from 
a  vast  number  of  sources.  The  dictionary  of 
Suidas,  a  Christian  monk  who  lived  about  the 
llth  century,  differs  from  the  other  ancient 
lexicons,  as  it  contains  biographical  notices 
of  celebrated  authors,  and  large  extracts  from 
their  works.  In  western  Europe  but  few  were 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  language  previous 
to  the  emigration  of  the  Greeks  to  Italy  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries.  The  early  Greek 
scholars  were  Bede,  Alcuin,  John  Scotus  Eri- 
la,  Humbert,  Abelard,  John  Basing,  Eobert 
iteste,  Roger  Bacon,  and  a  few  others, 
is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  extent  they 
rere  acquainted  with  the  language,  but  in  all 
)bability  their  knowledge  of  it  was  insig- 
icant.  In  1476  the  Greek  grammar  of  Con- 
itine  Lascaris  was  published  at  Milan;  it 
ras  the  first  attempt  at  printing  from  Greek 
in  the  printed  editions  of  Greek  clas- 
of  an  earlier  date  Greek  words  were  in- 
serted with  a  pen.  The  first  Greek  and  Lat- 
in dictionary  was  compiled  by  a  Carmelite 
friar  of  Piacenza  named  Joannes  Crastonus. 
It  was  a  bare  vocabulary,  but  was  frequent- 
reprinted  with  continual  additions,  "  till 
;  length,"  says  Henry  Stephens,  "unlearned 
rinters  contending  who  should  put  forth  the 
)iggest  lexicon,  and  offering  rewards  to  those 
rho  would  furnish  the  greatest  number  of 
jrds,  the  explanations,  which  were  in  the 
instance  so  meagre,  became  as  fat  as  a 
)tian  sow."  (See  DICTIONARY.)  Greek 
arning  dawned  in  England  toward  the  close 
'  the  15th  century.  Milling,  Selling,  Latimer, 
[ore,  Colet,  Grocyn,  and  Linacre  were  known 
students  of  Greek  before  Erasmus  came  to 
it  at  Cambridge  in  1510.  Later  appear 
names  of  Lilly,  Lupsett,  Lister,  Pace,  Lee, 
stall,  Stokesley,  Clement,  Brian,  Wake- 
field,  Bullock,  Croke,  Tyndale,  Smith,  Red- 
man, and  Cheke  as  Greek  scholars.  In  France 
were  Lefevre  d'Etaples  (Faber  Stapulensis), 
who  was  able  to  criticise  the  Greek  of  Eras- 
mus, and  Bude  (Budseus),  who  was  beyond 
question  the  most  profound  Greek  scholar 
in  Europe.  Germany  produced  Reuchlin  and 
his  younger  contemporary  Melanchthon,  who 
even  in  his  youth  was  deemed  the  peer  of 
Erasmus;  and  next  to  them  Beatus  Rhena- 
nus,  Luscinius,  "Wilibald  Pirkheimer,  Camera- 
rius,  Grynseus,  and  Hessius.  In  Italy  Greek 
was  in  a  measure  superseded  by  the  study 
of  Latin.  Yettori  enjoyed  the  highest  repu- 
tation as  a  student  of  Greek,  and  next  to 
him  Bonamico,  Nizzoli,  Parrhasio,  Corrado, 
and  Maffei.  The  study  seems  to  have  been 


]  little  prosecuted  in  Spain.  The  Greek  gram- 
mars of  this  period  were  by  Clenardus  (Lou- 
vain,  1530),  and  by  Varenius  of  Mechlin  (Lou- 
vain,  1532),  both  of  which  were  often  reprinted, 
and  the  former  is  still  the  basis  of  several 
modern  works,  such  as  the  Eton  Greek  gram- 
mar. The  year  1572  became  an  epoch  in  Greek 
learning  by  the  publication  of  Stephens's  The- 
saurus. Subsequently  Greek  became  better 
known,  and  the  greatest  authorities  upon  it 
were  Scaliger,  Casaubon,  Canter,  and  Sylbur- 
gius.  But  Greek  learning  declined  in  the  17th 
century.  Hallam  says :  "  The  decline  was  pro- 
gressive ;  few  scholars  remained  after  1620,  and 
a  long  blank  ensued,  until  Fabricius  and  Kus- 
ter  restored  the  study  of  Greek  near  the  end 
of  the  century.  Even  in  France  and  Holland, 
where  many  were  abundantly  learned,  and 
some  accomplished  philologers,  the  Greek  lan- 
guage seems  to  have  been  either  less  regarded, 
or  at  least  less  promoted,  by  eminent  scholars, 
than  in  the  preceding  century."  During  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries  the  progress  of  Greek 
learning  was  mainly  due  to  the  labors  of  Bent- 
ley,  Stanley,  Pearson,  Price,  Hudson,  Potter, 
Baxter,  Burney,  Boyle,  Viger,  Fischer,  Labbe, 
Scot,  Erasmus  Schmidt,  Fronton  du  Due,  Gru- 
ter,  Heyne,  Heinsius,  Matthia3,  and  Hermann. 
Buttmann's  Ausfuhrliche  griechische  Sprach- 
lehre,  in  the  revised  edition  of  1819,  must  be 
considered  the  first  grammar  that  can  lay  claim 
to  scientific  method  and  completeness.  Thiersch 
carefully  investigated  the  most  ancient  phases 
of  the  language,  and  Passow's  lexicographical 
labors  have  the  special  merit  of  having  been 
made  on  a  sound  historical  basis.  Lobeck 
carefully  revised  Buttmann's  grammar  and  ren- 
dered it  available  to  modern  students.  Rost, 
Ktlhner,  Kruger,  and  Mehlhorn  introduced  in- 
to their  grammars  the  results  of  comparative 
philology.  Later  Greek  grammars  and  lexi- 
cons are  principally  due  to  the  labors  of  Ger- 
mans, other  nations  having  contented  them- 
selves with  translating  and  rearranging  them 
for  the  educational  purposes  of  their  own 
country.  In  fact,  the  contributions  made  in 
Germany  toward  Greek  philology  during  the 
last  50  years  are  enormous.  Every  small  di- 
vision of  the  study  has  been  specially  repre- 
sented by  numerous  publications.  The  prin- 
cipal authorities  on  the  alphabet  alone  are 
Baumlein  and  Kirchhoff;  on  pronunciation, 
Seyffarth,  Liskovius,  Gotthold,  and  Ellissen; 
on  the  digamma,  Sachs,  Peters,  Savelsberg,  and 
Leskien;  on  the  hiatus,  Benseler;  on  quan- 
tity, Spitzner  and  Passow ;  on  accentuation, 
Gottling,  Geppert,  and  Winckler;  on  word 
building,  Hempel,  Budenz,  Rodiger,  Clemm, 
E.  Curtius,  and  G.  Curtius ;  on  inflection, 
Koch,  Reimnitz,  Grotefend,  Kolbe,  Lissner, 
Ahrens,  H.  Muller,  Aken,  Francke,  Doderlein, 
Becker,  Sander,  and  Traut ;  on  syntax,  Bern- 
hardy,  R.  Kutmer,  Schmidt,  Fritsch,  Weber, 
Ebhardt,  Geist ;  on  dialects  in  general,  Ahrens ; 
on  JEolic,  Giese  and  Hirzel ;  on  Attic,  Kras- 
per  and  Dietfurt ;  on  Bucolic,  Muhlmann ;  on 


212 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUEE) 


Cretan,  Bergmann;  on  Cypric,  Schmidt;  on 
Epic  Grafenhan,  Lucas,  and  Berger ;  on  Ionic, 
Lobeck.  The  best  lexicons  are  by  Rost  and 
Palm,  Kreussler,  Keil,  Peter,  Schneider,  Pape, 
Ramshorn,  Jacobitz  and  Seiler,  Benseler,  and 
Lucas.  Lexicons  for  the  writings  of  single 
authors  or  groups  of  authors  are :  for  ^Eschy- 
1ns,  by  Wellauer;  for  Euripides,  by  Beck;  for 
flerodotus,  by  Schweighauser ;  for  the  Ho- 
meric writings,  by  Doderlein;  for  Hyperides, 
by  Westermann;  for  Plato,  by  Ast;  for  So- 
phocles, by  Schneider  and  Ellendt;  and  for 
the  tragedians,  by  Fahse.  English  scholars  of 
Greek  lexicography  and  grammar  are :  Green, 
Lightfoot,  Evelyn  Abbott,  J.  B.  Mayor,  A.  A. 
Vansittart,  Kennedy,  R.  Ellis,  E.  B.  Cowell, 
Henry  Jackson,  W.  M.  Leake,  Chandler,  Simcox, 
Wordsworth,  Peile,  Donaldson,  Liddell,  Trench, 
Scott,  Yonge,  Ferrar,  and  others.  American 
writers  on  the  Greek  language  are :  Pickering, 
Anthon,  Crosby,  Spencer,  Hadley,  Goodwin, 
Kendrick,  Sophocles,  Drisler,  and  Felton.— 
LITERATURE.  In  its  widest  extent,  the  history 
of  Greek  literature  is  coeval  with  that  of  the 
language.  It  begins  in  a  period  of  indefinite 
antiquity,  and  comes  down  to  the  present  day. 
If  we  commence  with  the  earliest  monuments, 
we  trace  it  back  to  nearly  1000  B.  0.,  where 
we  find  the  art  of  poetical  composition  exist- 
ing already  in  the  highest  perfection,  in  the 
form  of  epic  narrative.  The  admirable  struc- 
ture and  the  wonderful  language  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems  imply  a  long  period  of  antecedent 
culture,  striking  intimations  of  which  are  found 
in  the  poems  themselves.  Poetry  preceded 
prose,  in  the  form  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  and 
songs  or  ballads  in  celebration  of  martial  deeds. 
Of  the  earliest  temple  poetry  no  specimens  have 
been  preserved,  but  the  Homeric  hymns  may 
give  us  some  idea  of  their  style.  Of  the  earliest 
ballads  also,  none  have  come  down  to  us ;  but 
the  song  of  Demodocus  in  the  Odyssey  no  doubt 
very  fairly  represents  their  primitive  style  of 
composition.  The  ballads  were  essentially  epic, 
and  led  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  proper  epic, 
which  is  found  in  its  perfect  type  in  the  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey.  The  temple  poetry  appears 
to  have  originated  in  the  north  of  Greece, 
and  in  the  temples  of  Dodona,  Delphi,  and  oth- 
er primeval  seats  of  Greek  religious  culture. 
Ballad  poetry  probably  appeared  very  early  on 
the  Greek  mainland ;  but  its  full  development 
took  place  among  the  Ionian  colonies  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  ^Egean  islands.  The  principal 
names  of  the  legendary  minstrels  were  Am- 
phion,  Orpheus,  Thamyris,  Eumolpus,  Musaeus, 
Linus,  Olen,  and  Olympus.  .  The  earliest  liter- 
ary documents  are  the  poems  known  as  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  founded  on  the  legends 
of  the  war  of  Troy  and  the  return  of  Ulysses ; 
but  nothing  positive  is  known  of  the  poet,  nor 
where  and  when  they  were  composed.  (See 
HOMER.)  About  50  compositions  of  various 
It.-npth,  in  a  style  closely  resembling  that  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  together  with  a  burlesque 
poem  called  Batrachomyomachia,  or  the  "  Bat- 


tle of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,"  have  also  been  at- 
tributed to  Homer.  The  epic  style  was  con- 
tinued by  a  series  of  poets  called  the  "  cyclic," 
of  whose  works  only  the  titles,  brief  abstracts, 
and  fragments  have  been  preserved.  The  next 
development  of  poetry  was  in  Bceotia,  in  the 
works  of  Hesiod,  who  also  employed  the  epic 
style.  His  principal  poems  are  the  "Works 
and  Days,"  and  the  Theogonia.  The  next 
form  of  Greek  poetry  was  the  elegiac,  and,  in 
close  connection  with  it,  the  iambic.  The 
rhythm  of  the  epic  poetry  was  dactylic,  and 
the  metre  hexameter.  The  lonians  of  Asia 
Minor  were  also  the  originators  of  the  elegiac 
and  iambic.  The  elegiac  rhythm  was  also  dac- 
tylic, and  its  measure  alternately  hexameter 
and  pentameter ;  or  rather,  every  alternate  verse 
consisted  of  two  catalectic  trimeters.  The  prin- 
cipal poets  in  this  style  were  (between  TOO  and 
600  B.  C.)  Archilochus,  Callinus,  Simonides  of 
Amorgos,  who  shares  with  Archilochus  the 
credit  of  having  invented  the  iambic  trimeter, 
Tyrtseus,  author  of  the  martial  elegies,  Mim- 
nermus,  and  Solon.  This  species  of  composi- 
tion is  sometimes  ranked  with  the  lyric;  but 
it  is  more  properly  to  be  considered  as  a  tran- 
sition from  the  epic  to  the  proper  lyric.  The 
principal  orders  of  lyric  poetry  were  paeans, 
hyposchemas,  parcenia,  scolia,  embateria,  and 
epinicia.  The  forms  of  composition  were  stro- 
phic,  i.  e.,  with  divisions  called  strophes,  cor- 
responding to  each  other  line  for  line ;  and  cho- 
ral, with  strophes  corresponding  by  pairs,  or 
with  these  and  proodes,  mesodes,  and  epodes. 
The  rhythms  were  of  the  richest  variety,  and 
artfully  constructed  so  as  to  express  by  their 
movement  the  sentiment  or  passion  intended 
to  be  conveyed  by  the  language.  The  strophic 
composition  was  usually  delivered  with  a  sim- 
ple musical  accompaniment;  the  choral,  with 
a  musical  accompaniment  and  a  rhythmical 
motion,  sometimes  a  dance  performed  by  the 
trained  choreutce,  or  members  of  the  band  who 
delivered  it.  Of  the  lyric  style,  there  were 
two  principal  schools,  the  JEolic  and  the  Doric. 
The  ^Eolic  flourished  chiefly  among  the  ^olian 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  and  especially  in  Les- 
bos. The  Doric  was  more  generally  diffused 
over  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  and  even  Italy. 
The  principal  writers  of  the  ^Eolian  poetry, 
which  was  strophic  in  form,  were  Alcreus  (about 
600)  and  Sappho,  his  contemporary,  both  Les- 
bians. Akin  to  this  school  may  be  considered 
the  lyric  poetry  of  Anacreon  (about  500) ;  not 
the  odes  which  pass  under  his  name,  but  the 
fragments  which  alone  represent  his  genuine 
compositions,  and  which  are  rather  Ionic  than 
^Eolic  in  tone  and  style.  Of  the  poets  who 
form,  as  it  were,  a  transition  to  the  proper 
Dorian  choral  poets,  Alcman  and  Stesichorus 
may  be  placed  at  the  head.  Stesichorus  (600) 
was  the  first  to  introduce  the  epode,  and  to  give 
a  greater  variety  to  the  rhythm  of  the  strophes 
than  had  been  customary.  His  language  was 
the  old  epic,  modified  by  some  Dorian  forms. 
Simonides  of  Ceos  flourished  about  500 ;  Iby- 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEKATUKE) 


213 


eus  about  540;  Bacchylides  was  the  nephew 
of  Simonides.  We  come  now  to  the  greatest 
master  of  the  Dorian  lyric  style,  and  perhaps 
the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  all  ages,  Pindar,  born 
at  Cynoscephalao  in  Boeotia  -about  522.  Of  his 
numerous  compositions,  we  have  only  the  four 
series  of  epinician  odes,  i.  e.,  odes  written  in 
commemoration  of  victories  gained  at  the  four 
national  festivals,  the  Olympic,  Pythian,  Ne- 
mean,  and  Isthmian.  These  are  the  most  im- 
portant specimens  that  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  lyrical  age.  We  say  the  lyrical  age, 
because  lyrical  composition  was  the  character- 
istic style  during  this  period,  although  it  con- 
tinued to  be  cultivated  with  other  species  in 
the  subsequent  times. — The  earliest  writers  of 
prose  were  those  who  first  engaged  in  philo- 
sophical speculations.  Of  their  writings  only 
a  few  fragments  have  been  preserved.  Thales 
was  the  founder  of  the  Ionic  philosophy,  to 
which  belonged  Pherecydes,  Anaximander,  An- 
aximenes,  Anaxagoras,  &c.  Pythagoras  es- 
tablished the  Italian  school,  and  was  followed 
by  Alcmseon,  Tima3us,  Epicharmus,  Theages, 
Archytas,  and  others.  In  histqry  the  lonians 
took  the  lead.  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  about  540, 
is  the  earliest;  Acesilaus  of  Argos  soon  fol- 
lowed. Hecatasus  of  Miletus  came  somewhat 
later ;  Pherecydes  of  Leros,  Charon  of  Lampsa- 
cus,  Hellanicus  of  Mitylene,  Dionysius  of  Mile- 
tus, all  preceded  Herodotus,  but  were  rather 
chroniclers  than  historians  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  word.  The  first  great  historian  was 
Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  (born  in  484),  who, 
though  a  Dorian  by  birth,  wrote  in  the  Ionic 
dialect.  His  delightful  work  is  preserved,  and 
its  extraordinary  merits  have  given  him  justly 
the  name  of  the  "  father  of  history."  Litera- 
ture was  cultivated  later  in  Athens  than  in 
the  Asiatic  colonies;  but  the  foundations  were 
more  deeply  laid,  and  that  famous  city  must 
always  be  regarded  as  the  teacher  of  the  world 
in  arts  and  letters.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned Solon  among  the  elegiac  poets.  The 
Athenians  were  of  Ionian  descent,  and  their 
literature  may  be  regarded  as  the  continuation 
and  perfection  of  the  literature  of  that  race. 
But  the  characteristic  form  of  Athenian  poetry 
was  the  dramatic.  During  the  long  period  of 
democratic  Athens,  especially  in  the  time  of 
Pisistratus,  much  was  done  for  the  patronage 
of  literature  and  literary  men.  The  Homeric 
poems  were  carefully  revised,  and  the  regular 
reading  of  them  was  one  of  the  public  enter- 
tainments of  the  Panathenaic  festival.  Dra- 
matic poetry,  in  a  partially  developed  form, 
had  already  existed  elsewhere ;  the  dithyram- 
bic  tragedy  had  made  its  appearance.  The 
dramatic  element  in  the  Homeric  epics,  espe- 
cially the  Iliad,  could  not  fail  to  strike  the  lis- 
teners at  the  festivals,  and  to  suggest  the  idea 
of  representing  instead  of  narrating  events ;  of 
exhibiting  persons  in  action  rather  than  de- 
scribing them.  The  dramatic  pageantry  of  the 
Dionysiac  worship  furnished  another  suggestion 
of  the  dramatic  form.  The  actual  starting 


point  of  the  Greek  drama  was  the  choral 
song,  tragedy  springing  from  the  dithyramb 
and  comedy  from  the  phallic  representation. 
But  the  direction  given  to  the  new  style  was 
determined  by  the  several  influences  we  have 
mentioned.  Thespis  took  the  first  step  (535), 
by  adding  action  to  the  chorus.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Phrynichus,  who  was  the  first  to 
bring  female  characters  upon  the  stage;  his 
"  Capture  of  Miletus  "  was  performed  in  498. 
Chcerilus  was  his  contemporary  and  rival. 
Pratinas  of  Phlius  lived  in  the  same  period. 
^Eschylus,  the  perfecter  of  tragic  art,  was  born 
at  Eleusis  in  525.  This  great  poet  added  a 
second  actor,  and  lived  to  see  the  tragic  art 
raised  to  its  highest  point  of  excellence  by  his 
own  genius  and  that  of  Sophocles,  who  added 
a  third.  Greek  tragedy  is  well  represented  by 
the  remaining  works  of  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles 
(born  in  495),  and  Euripides  (480).  Of  each 
of  the  two  former  only  seven  plays  are  in  ex- 
istence; of  the  last  there  are  19,  viz. :  IT  tra- 
gedies, one  tragi-comedy,  and  one  satyric  drama. 
It  was  the  practice  of  the  tragic  writers  to  com- 
bine in  one  representation  three  tragedies,  and 
a  kind  of  farce,  called  a  satyric  drama,  he- 
cause  the  chorus  consisted  of  satyrs.  But  in- 
stead of  a  satyric  drama,  the  Alcestis  of  Eurip- 
ides shows  that  sometimes  the  representation 
was  closed  by  a  piece  resembling  the  modern 
tragi-comedy.  The  three  tragedies  were  called 
a  trilogy,  and  the  four  pieces  together  a  tetral- 
ogy. Of  the  tragic  poets  who  succeeded  the 
three  great  masters,  or  were  their  contempo- 
raries, only  the  titles  of  plays  and  brief  frag- 
ments remain.  Comedy  went  along  with 
tragedy,  and  sustained  very  peculiar  relations 
to  it.  It  originated  probably  among  the  Do- 
rians, and  was  brought  into  regular  form  by 
Epicharmus  about  500  B.  C.,  and  he  is  there- 
fore justly  called  the  inventor  of  comedy.  Of 
the  proper  Attic  comedy  Chionides  and  Magnes 
were  among  the  earliest  writers ;  but  of  their 
works  only  a  few  titles  remain.  Cratinus  first 
exhibited  about  450 ;  38  titles  of  his  comedies 
have  been  collected.  Crates  wrote  about  the 
same  year,  and  Phrynichus  the  comic  poet 
lived  a  little  before  the  Peloponnesian  war; 
the  names  of  10  of  his  comedies  are  extant. 
Eupolis  exhibited  for  the  first  time  in  429 ;  he 
was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Aristophanes. 
Of  the  54  comedies  which  Aristophanes  wrote 
(according  to  Suidas),  only  11  have  come  down 
to  us.  His  first  recorded  exhibition  was  in  427, 
and  his  last  in  388.  From  these  plays,  10  of 
which  belong  to  the  old  comedy,  i.  e.,  to  that 
period  of  Attic  comedy  in  which  public  and  pri- 
vate characters  were  introduced  by  name,  we 
can  form  a  distinct  idea  of  the  character  and 
tendencies  of  this  branch  of  the  Attic  drama. 
There  were  many  other  writers  of  the  old 
comedy,  but  only  their  names  and  a  few  frag- 
ments have  been  preserved.  The  middle  com- 
edy is  that  form  which  comedy  assumed  when 
it  was  forbidden  by  law  to  introduce  living 
persons  by  name.  Thirty-four  poets  belonging 


214 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


to  this  branch  are  mentioned,  but  none  of  their 
works,  of  which  an  immense  number  were 
known  to  the  ancients,  have  been  preserved, 
except  in  unimportant  fragments.  The  names 
of  three  sons  of  Aristophanes  occur  in  this 
number.  The  new  comedy  was  a  still  further 
modification  which  comedy  first  assumed  in  the 
age  of  Alexander.  Its  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic was,  that  all  its  characters  were  ficti- 
tious. The  earliest  writer  was  Philippides, 
who  flourished  about  323.  The  two  most 
celebrated  names  were  Philemon  and  Menan- 
der,  the  former  of  whom  wrote  97,  and  the 
latter  105  plays.  Numerous  fragments  of  Me- 
nander,  some  of  them  of  considerable  length, 
show  the  elegance  of  his  style  and  the  variety 
and  vigor  of  his  genius.  The  last  poet  of  the 
new  comedy  was  Posidippus,  who  began  to 
exhibit  in  289 ;  he  wrote  more  than  50  pieces. 
The  fertility  and  excellence  of  the  Greek  dra- 
matic literature  were  most  remarkable.  The 
Dionysiac  festivals,  celebrated  at  Athens  in 
the  spring,  were  the  principal  occasion  on 
which  new  pieces  were  brought  out,  and  al- 
ways in  competition  for  the  prize,  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  chief  magistrates.  The 
emulation  thus  excited  among  men  of  the 
highest  genius  gave  a  wonderful  impulse  to 
this  species  of  composition,  the  originality  and 
extent  of  which  have  always  appeared  so  sur- 
prising.— The  prose  compositions  that  belong 
to  this  age  were  equally  distinguished  by  their 
appropriate  excellences.  In  history,  we  have 
Thucydides,  born  about  471,  whose  work  on 
the  Peloponnesian  war  is  not  only  the  first 
specimen  of  what  has  been  called  philosophical 
history,  but  remains  unsurpassed  down  to  the 
present  time.  Xenophon  was  born  about  444. 
His  historical  works,  though  not  equal  to  that 
of  Thucydides  in  vigor  of  coloring  and  depth 
of  reflection,  yet  are  adorned  with  every  grace  j 
of  narrative  and  description.  His  other  works  I 
are  valuable  for  the  light  they  throw  on  the  I 
spirit  of  Greek  institutions  and  the  peculiar!-  j 
ties  of  Greek  life.  Of  the'  works  of  Ctesias, 
Philistus,  Theopompus,  and  Ephorus,  which 
belong  to  a  period  somewhat  later,  none 
have  come  down  entire.  In  philosophy,  to  I 
which  the  teachings  of  Socrates  (born  in  469)  I 
gave  a  great  impulse,  we  have  the  writings  of  | 
Plato  (about  429)  and  his  pupil  Aristotle  (384).  I 
Plato  was  endowed  with  a  brilliant  imagina- 
tion, and  loved  to  soar  into  the  highest  region 
of  speculation.  His  sense  of  the  beautiful  was 
exquisite ;  and  his  style  was  at  once  idiomatic 
and  lofty,  while  in  passages  it  moved  with  a 
rich  and  stately  music  which  all  ages  have 
admired.  Aristotle  was  a  student  and  ob- 
server; practical  results  were  the  object  of  his 
investigations.  His  style  was  terse,  logical, 
close,  seldom  adorned  with  poetical  embellish- 
ments, and  never  with  rhetorical  exaggera- 
tions. Everything  he  wrote  embodied  the  re- 
sults of  careful  and  extensive  observations.  He 
never  entered  the  world  of  ideas  with  Plato. 
His  views  were  comprehensive,  and  his  exposi- 


tions, except  where  the  writing  evidently  con- 
tains only  the  heads  of  his  discourses,  are  sin- 
gularly clear.  His  works  embrace  the  subjects 
of  logic,  rhetoric,  physics,  metaphysics,  natural 
history,  and  politics.  Plato  founded  the  Aca- 
demic school,  whose  point  of  reunion  was  the 
academy,  on  the  Cephissus,  north  of  Athens ; 
Aristotle  established  the  Peripatetic  school,  in 
the  lyceum,  near  the  Ilissus,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  city. — In  the  same  period,  political 
eloquence,  always  a  characteristic  form  of 
Greek  utterance,  reached  its  highest  perfec- 
tion. In  Homer  we  find  not  merely  traces  of 
eloquence,  but  admirable  specimens.  Public 
discussion  was  the  general  rule  in  the  Greek 
republics.  In  Athens  especially  the  states- 
man could  not  maintain  himself,  or  exercise 
the  smallest  influence,  without  the  faculty 
of  public  speaking.  The  historians  relate 
the  speeches  of  statesmen  and  generals. 
Thucydides  describes  the  debates  at  Athens 
and  elsewhere,  on  the  questions  that  pre- 
ceded and  the  events  that  occurred  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  Herodotus  and  Xenophon 
abound  in  speeches  and  orations ;  Solon,  Pisis- 
tratus,  Miltiades,  Aristides,  Themistocles,  and 
Pericles  were  orators  as  well  as  legislators, 
counsellors,  and  generals.  Pericles  was  the  first 
to  cultivate  the  art,  and  to  adorn  his  mind  with 
the  teachings  of  philosophy  and  general  literary 
culture.  We  have  no  exact  report  of  any  of  the 
speeches  of  this  class  of  statesmen,  though  Thu- 
cydides undoubtedly  gives  us  the  substance  of 
several  of  the  most  important  of  those  of  Peri- 
cles. The  rhetorical  art  in  its  technical  charac- 
acter  originated  in  Sicily ;  and  the  first  rhetor- 
ical school  at  Athens  was  opened  by  Gorgias 
of  Leontini.  Other  sophists  and  teachers  of 
rhetoric  were  Protagoras,  Prodicus,  Hippias, 
&c.  The  peculiar  judicial  system  also  of  Athens 
made  a  great  demand  for  the  rhetorical  talent. 
The  Athenian  orators,  whose  works  are  extant 
in  whole  or  in  part,  are  Antiphon,  Andocides, 
and  Lysias  in  the  5th  century ;  Isasus,  Isocrates, 
Lycurgus,  Hyperides,  ^schines,  Demades,  De- 
mosthenes, and  Dinar chus  in  the  4th.  The 
orations  of  these  men  present  every  variety  of 
excellence,  from  the  subtlest  legal  argument  to 
the  most  passionate  appeal.  Demosthenes  com- 
bines all  the  excellences  of  all  the  others,  with 
some  that  are  peculiar,  at  least  in  degree,  to 
himself.— After  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  although  literature  continued  to  be  cul- 
tivated in  Greece,  and  especially  in  Athens, 
the  rhetorical  and  philosophical  schools  holding 
an  eminent  position  for  centuries,  yet  till  the 
Roman  conquest  the  principal  seat  of  letters 
and  science  was  Alexandria,  under  the  Ptole- 
mies in  Egypt.  This  period  is  called  the  Alex- 
andrian age.  Its  characteristics  were  erudition, 
criticism,  and  the  study  of  science  ;  and  in  poe- 
try the  only  original  species  was  the  bucolic  or 
the  idyl.  The  principal  poets  were  Bion  of 
Smyrna,  Theocritus,  Aratus  (epic),  Lycophron 
(author  of  "Cassandra"),  Callimachus  (epic, 
hymns),  and  Moschus.  The  bucolic  poets  are 


GREECE  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEKATUBE) 


215 


picturesque  and  pleasing.  During  the  Roman 
supremacy,  and  down  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity,  the  principal  poet  was  Nicander ; 
the  most  important  prose  writers  were  Poly- 
bius,  Apollodorus,  Dionysius  Thrax  the  gram- 
marian, Diodorus  Siculus,  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus,  and  Dionysius  Periegetes.  From 
this  period  to  the  close  of  the  Roman  empire 
in  the  West,  there  are  two  parallel  series  of 
writers,  the  pagan  and  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian. Of  the  former,  the  most  important  are 
Babrius,  Strabo,  Epictetus,  Plutarch,  Dion 
Chrysostomus,  Arrian,  Polyaenus,  Pausanias, 
Marcus  Antoninus,  Aristides,  Lucian,  Pollux, 
Diogenes  Laertius,  Achilles  Tatius,  Dion  Cas- 
sius,  Athenseus,  Herodianus,  Philostratus,  Plo- 
tinus,  Dexippus,  Longinus,  Palrophatus,  and 
lamblichus ;  of  the  latter,  Philo,  Josephus,  the 
authors  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
Clement  of  Rome,  Justinus,  Polycarp,  Irenseus, 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Athana- 
sius. — During  the  period  extending  from  the 

iblishment  of  the  seat  of  government  at 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  330,  to  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Justinian  I.  (527),  it  was  common 
to  paraphrase  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  to  versify  the  lives  of  Christian 
martyrs.  The  best  of  this  class  of  productions 
came  from  Egypt,  though  the  empress  Eudocia 
and  Basil  the  Great,  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
were  also  quite  successful  in  it.  Quintus  of 
Smyrna  undertook  to  furnish  some  additions 

the  Iliad,  but  in  spite  of  his  evidently  faith- 
ful study  of  Homer's  diction,  he  was  not  able 
to  equal  it  in  conciseness  and  force.  Cyrus  of 
Panopolis  and  Nonnus  are  the  most  distin- 
guished poets  of  this  period ;  next  to  them  rank 
Tryphiodorus,  Coluthus,  Musaeus,  and  Christo- 
dorus.  The  strangest  production  of  this  age  is 
the  so-called  'O/^pd/cevrpa,  which  give  the  life 
of  Jesus  in  a  kind  of  Homeric  versification,  and 
which  are  said  to  have  been  written  either  by 
the  empress  Eudocia  or  by  Pelagius.  The  most 
distinguished  ecclesiastical  writers  were  Cyril, 
Basil,  Chrysostom,  Eusebius,  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  and  Theodoret.  The  historians  treated 
principally  the  history  of  the  eastern  empire, 
and  the  only  work  of  this  kind  that  has  come 
down  to  us  in  a  somewhat  complete  condition 
is  Zosimus's  account  of  the  empire  during  the 
first  four  centuries.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  Socrates.  Of  Euna- 
pius,  Olympiadorus,  Priscus,  Candidus,  Malchus, 
and  Hesychius  of  Miletus,  we  have  only  a  few 
fragments.  The  Hivat;  r&v  Iv  Traideia  bvofiaa- 
rov,  ascribed  to  Hesychius,  is  considered  a  for- 
gery. Marcianus's  Periplus  and  a  geographi- 
cal dictionary  by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  were 
the  most  prominent  geographical  works.  The 
finest  style  was  displayed  in  rhetoric.  Hime- 
rius  of  ,Bithynia  was  considered  a  rhetorician 
above  comparison,  though  the  emperor  Julian 
and  his  teacher  Libanius  appear  to  modern 
criticism  far  superior  to  him.  Synesius  and 
Procopius  show  that  the  art  was  beginning 
-ls- '  Works  of  imagination  came  prin- 


to  decline. 


cipally  from  the  pens  of  Longus,  Heliodorus, 
Achilles  Tatius,  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  and 
Eumathius,  of  whom  the  last  is  the  poorest 
in  invention,  but  the  most  prodigal  with  the 
coloring  of  Syrian  diction.  The  grammarians 
Choeroboscus,  Theodosius,  Orion,  and  Hesy- 
chius were  less  devoted  to  independent  studies 
than  to  copying  diligently  the  works  of  their 
predecessors ;  and  the  bulky  compilations  of 
Hesychius  are  still  of  value. — The  next  period 
is  that  of  mediaeval  Greek  literature,  extending 
to  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
in  1453.  The  abolition  of  the  pagan  schools 
by  Justinian  closed  also  the  literature  of  pa- 
ganism ;  nevertheless  this  period  contains  ra- 
ther the  history  of  the  decay  than  of  the  growth 
of  a  literature.  After  Procopius,  the  only  one 
who  combined  a  profound  knowledge  of  the 
political  affairs  of  his  country  with  simplicity 
of  style,  and  after  Agathias,  who  endeavored 
to  imitate  Procopius,  there  followed  a  small 
number  of  historians,  like  Petrus,  Hesychius, 
Nonnosus,  Theophanes,  and  Menander  Protec- 
tor, whose  productions  are  neither  trustworthy 
nor  entertaining.  The  chronicle  of  Syncellus 
is  the  most  important.  The  Egyptian  Theo- 
phylactus  Simocattes,  the  Hellene  Georgius 
Pisides,  and  the  Syrian  Malalas,  are  vile  in 
diction  and  vulgar  in  sentiment.  Geographical 
studies  were  represented  by  the  friar  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes,  who  devised  a  new  system  to 
harmonize  with  the  Bible.  The  best  minds  pros- 
ecuted juridical  studies,  such  as  Tribonianus, 
Dorotheus,  Theophilus  Antecessor,  Theodorus, 
Stephanus,  Cyrillus,  Philoxenus,  and  others. 
During  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  the  period 
of  iconoclasm,  literature  could  be  cultivated 
but  little,  and  the  preservation  or  tradition  of 
many  a  Greek  author  is  entirely  owing  to  the 
literary  tastes  prevailing  at  the  time  in  Arme- 
nia, Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  most  celebrated 
man  of  the  second  half  of  the  9th  century  was 
Photius,  the  teacher  of  Leo  the  Philosopher ; 
but  the  literary  spirit  developed  during  this 
period  is  best  represented  by  Constantine  VII. 
Porphyrogenitus,  who  collected  all  the  literary 
productions  of  the  past,  whether  valuable  or 
worthless,  long  or  short,  and  had  them  copied 
by  a  number  of  savants  into  a  kind  of  cyclo- 
paedia of  53  books.  New  literary  productions 
became  exceedingly  scarce,  and  the  few  that 
made  their  appearance  were  surprisingly  defi- 
cient in  logic,  taste,  and  language.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  chronicles  and  me- 
moirs of  Leontius  the  younger,  Genesius,  Leo 
Grammaticus,  Xiphilinus,  Hippolytus,  and  Leo 
Diaconus,  and  above  all  the  history  of  Anna 
Comnena.  The  manuscripts  of  this  age  swarm 
with  errors  in  grammar  and  orthography.  The 
chronicle  of  Simeon  Sethos,  toward  the  end  of 
the  llth  century,  is  considered  the  first  monu- 
ment in  prose  of  modern  Greek ;  but  no  poeti- 
cal work  is  known  that  dates  back  further  than 
the  12th  century. — During  the  interval  between 
the  conquest  of  Constantinople  and  the  strug- 
gle for  independence  in  the  19th  century,  only 


216        GREECE  (LANGUAGE,  &c.) 

a  very  small  number  of  literary  productions 
deserve  to  be  mentioned,  aside  from  the  works 
written  in  the  service  of  the  Greek  church.  In 
the  17th  century  the  Greeks  were  admirers  of 
a  very  weak  idyllic  form  of  poetry,  especially 
of  Drymiticos's  "Beautiful  Shepherdess;"  but 
a  few  compositions  made  their  appearance 
which  aimed  at  a  more  artistic  style,  and  which 
were  more  elevated  in  sentiment,  like  the  "Hel- 
las "  by  Allatios.  In  a  strict  sense  the  litera- 
ture of  modern  Greece  cannot  be  considered 
older  than  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century, 
when  Constantinos  Rhigas  sent  out  the  patri- 
otic songs  that  invigorated  the  national  spirit 
of  the  Greeks.  His  most  celebrated  produc- 
tion is  the  imitation  of  the  Marseillaise,  begin- 
ning Afire  TralSeq  ruv  'EA^vuv  /  Adamantios 
Corals,  often  designated  as  the  father  of  the  lit- 
erature of  modern  Greece,  may  more  deservedly 
be  called  the  literary  Hercules  of  Greece,  being 
a  very  prolific  writer  of  medical  treatises  and 
translator  of  the  classics.  It  is  often  asserted, 
but  not  equally  evident,that  he  produced  a  revo- 
lution in  the  language  of  modern  Greece.  "  His 
linguistic  reform  was  a  very  simple  one,"  says 
Geldart;  "he  proposed  to  use  the  classical 
terminations  wherever  these  were  not  altogeth- 
er obsolete,  in  preference  to  those  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  mouths  of  the  common  people." 
The  Greeks  were  not  slow  to  follow  his  rule 
and  the  example  which  he  set.  Accordingly, 
the  language  of  the  books  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  the  people  of  Greece.  On  the 
threshold  of  the  19th  century  stand  Christo- 
pulos,  Piccolos,  and  Rizos-Nerulos  as  writers 
of  lyric  songs,  tragedies,  and  comedies,  which 
are  characterized  by  a  comparatively  pure  dic- 
tion, and  also  by  imitations  of  French  stand- 
ards. The  poetry  of  Christopulos,  whom  the 
Greeks  designate  as  the  modern  Anacreon,  was 
successfully  imitated  by  the  brothers  Alexan- 
der and  Panagiotis  Sutsos,  Calvos,  Solomos, 
and  Angelica  Pally.  Other  poets  of  the  pres- 
ent time  who  deserve  to  be  noticed  are  Alex- 
ander Rizos  Rangavis  or  Rangabe,  Orphanidis, 
Carasutsas,  Valaoritis,  Zalocostas,  Naphtis, 
Vlachos,  and  Antoniades.  The  sciences  are 
represented  principally  by  translations  of  the 
most  noted  works  of  the  Occident,  but  original 
works  are  rapidly  increasing.  Historical  works 
have  been  published  by  Paparigopulos,  Cumas, 
Sutsos,  Tricupis,  Philimon,  Levkias,  Zampe- 
lios,  Surmelis,  Venizelos,  and  Sathas.  On  the 
geography  of  various  countries  have  written 
Philippidis,  Constantas,  Scarlatos  Byzantios, 
Valetas,  and  Rangavis.  Writers  on  archeol- 
ogy are  Pantazis,  Pittakis,  Rangavis,  and  Lam- 
bros.  Contributions  to  philology  are  furnished 
by  Neophytos  Ducas,  Darvaris,  Bambas,  Aso- 
pios,  Philip  Joannou,  Gennadios,  Bernardakis, 
jiud  Galanot.  The  most  celebrated  mathema- 
ticians are  Vaphas,  Pyrrhos,  and  Zochios. 
Theological  and  philosophical  writers  are  Apos- 
tolidis,  Contogonis,  Adamidis,  Kyriacos,  and 
Agathangelos. — See  Browne's  "History  of 
Classical  Literature"  (London,  1851);  Mure's 


GREECE  (WINES  OF)  . 

"  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Litera- 
ture of  Ancient  Greece"  (1854-'67);  K.  O. 
Miiller's  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  continued  by  J.  W.  Donaldson  (1858) ; 
and  Nicolai,  GescMcJite  der  griechischen  Litera- 
tur  (Magdeburg,  1865). 

GREECE,  Wines  of.  As  a  wine-producing 
country  Greece  no  longer  maintains  the  repu- 
tation which  she  enjoyed  in  ancient  or  even  in 
comparatively  modern  times.  With  a  climate 
admirably  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grape, 
the  area  devoted  to  that  purpose  has  steadily 
diminished.  Among  the  causes  which  have 
contributed  to  this  result  are  the  impoverished 
condition  of  the  soil  of  large  tracts,  formerly 
well  wooded  and  watered,  and  the  rude  systems 
of  viticulture  in  general  use.  With  the  destruc- 
tion of  its  ancient  forests  parts  of  the  country 
are  gradually  becoming  an  arid  desert;  and 
desolating  wars,  brigandage,  and  other  internal 
troubles  have  combined  to  restrict  the  develop- 
ment of  its  agricultural  resources.  In  conse- 
quence, the  production  of  wine  in  Greece, 
which  was  still  considerable  during  the  Vene- 
tian supremacy  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
has  dwindled  to  a  comparatively  insignificant 
amount.  In  like  manner  vinification  has  de- 
teriorated to  such  a  degree  as  to  make  Greek 
wines  compare  disadvantageously  with  those 
produced  in  much  less  favored  localities.  They 
contain,  as  a  rule,  a  large  amount  of  acetic  acid, 
and  many  of  them  are  rapidly  converted  into 
vinegar.  To  prevent  this  result  various  prim- 
itive practices  are  resorted  to,  such  as  smoking 
with  wood  smoke  or  vapor  of  resins,  pitching 
the  barrels,  or  adding  gypsum,  chalk,  salt,  &c., 
which  render  many  of  the  wines  unpalatable. 
— The  country  lying  between  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier and  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  produces  com- 
paratively little  wine  of  repute,  the  principal 
vineyards  being  near  Lepanto,  Chceronea,  and 
Megara,  and  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Poliguna. 
The  plain  surrounding  Mt.  Hymettus,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Athens,  yields  a  wine  which 
has  been  favorably  mentioned  by  European 
connoisseurs.  The  Morea  or  ancient  Pelopon- 
nesus, notwithstanding  many  disturbing  causes, 
continues  to  produce  considerable  quantities 
of  wine,  of  which  that  made  near  Pergos, 
amounting  to  about  1,500,000  gallons  annually, 
is  esteemed  the  best.  Nauplia,  called  also 
ISTapoli  di  Malvasia,  situated  on  the  gulf  of 
Nauplia,  is  noted  as  the  place  whence  the 
Malvasia  or  malmsey  wines  derived  their  name. 
The  vineyards  suffered  greatly  during  the 
Greek  war  of  independence,  and  are  now  of 
little  value.  The  islands  of  the  Greek  archi- 
pelago, and  those  in  the  Mediterranean  colo- 
nized by  the  Greeks,  were  in  ancient  times 
more  famous  for  their  wines  than  the  mainland, 
and  their  superiority  in  that  respect  is  fully 
maintained  at  the  present  day.  Of  the  isl- 
ands of  the  archipelago,  Santorin,  the  ancient 
Thera,  is  the  most  luxuriant.  It  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  forming  an  imperfect  ring,  with  the 
crater  filled  by  the  sea.  The  external  slopes 


GREEK  CHUECH 


217 


ambe 
Bacc 
serve 


rnish  the  wine  lands,  and  every  available 
piece  of  soil  is  under  cultivation.  The  wines 
produced  are  white  and  red.  The  best  red 
growth,  known  as  Santorin,  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  both  port  and  claret,  and  is  highly 
esteemed.  Among  the  white  varieties  are  the 
Thera,  and  a  wine  called  the  "wine  of  the 
night,"  of  which  two  qualities  are  known  to 
commerce,  the  Caliste  and  St.  Elie,  both  rich 
and  full-bodied.  There  is  also  a  fragrant  mus- 
cadine wine,  known  as  the  vino  santo,  and  an 
J1  sr-colored  variety  called  the  "  wine  of 
hus."  All  of  these  wines  doubtless  pre- 
i  many  of  the  qualities  which  made  them 
acceptable  to  the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity. 
In  ordinary  seasons  the  island  produces  from 
10,000  to  11,000  pipes,  most  of  which  goes  to 
Russia.  Next  in  importance  are  the  yields  of 
"  a  (Ceos),  Scio  (Chios),  Tenedos,  and  Samos, 
but  the  first  of  which  belong  to  Tur- 
y.  The  Samian  wine,  notwithstanding  the 
ogistic  allusion  to  it  in  Byron's  verses,  was 
isidered  by  the  ancients  scarcely  equal  to 
e  produce  of  some  of  the  other  islands.  At 
the  present  day  Tenedos  is  wholly  devoted  to 
"  .e  culture  of  the  grape  ;  its  annual  production 
about  1,400,000  gallons,  which  is  exported 
Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  Russia,  and  is 
e  common  table  wine  of  the  Orient.  The 
ian  islands  produce  a  considerable  amount 
dry  and  sweet  wines.  Those  of  Corfu  are 
ht  and  delicate,  and  those  of  Ithaca  rich 
luscious.  All  the  wines  of  this  group 
are  plastered.  The  growths  of  Crete,  Rhodes, 
and  Cyprus,  although  Turkish  dependencies, 
also  come  under  the  head  of  Greek  wines. 
Crete,  famous  in  ancient  times  for  the  abun- 
dance and  excellence  of  her  wines,  is  still  a  large 
producer,  and  for  centuries  her  specialty  has 
been  Malvasia,  the  white  sweet  wine  once  uni- 
versally drunk  in  western  Europe  under  the 
ame  of  malmsey.  During  the  Venetian  su- 
acy  Crete  and  Cyprus  supplied  Europe 
ith  their  choicest  dessert  wines,  and  the  ex- 
of  the  former  is  said  to  have  amounted  to 
i,000  casks  annually.  The  principal  vine- 
rds  are  near  Canea,  Kisamos,  Sphakia,  and 
.dia.  The  wines  of  Cyprus  are  of  three 
ses.  The  first  consists  of  the  wines  of  the 
commandery  of  the  knights  templars,  made  in 
the  neighborhood  of  ancient  Paphos,  and  which 
"  ave  a  bouquet  resembling  the  flavor  of  bitter 
Imonds,  said  to  be  communicated  to  them  by 
spices  ;  the  second  is  a  sweet  muscat,  and  the 
third  a  common  wine,  at  first  pale  red,  but 
which  becomes  colorless  with  time.  These 
wines  are  fermented  and  matured  in  earthen 
vessels  which  preserve  the  shape  of  the  ancient 
amphorae.  The  vintage  of  the  island  has  de- 
clined to  less  than  a  fifth  of  its  production  two 
centuries  ago.  Rhodes  produces  sweet  and  lus- 
cious wines  from  grapes  of  the  size  of  plums. 

GREEK  CHURCH  (also  called  the  Greek  Cath- 
olic, the  Orthodox  Greek,  the  Orthodox,  or  the 
Eastern  church),  that  part  of  the  Christian 
church  which  adheres  only  to  the  doctrinal  de- 


crees of  the  first  seven  oecumenical  councils 
(of  Nice,  325 ;  Constantinople,  381 ;  Ephesus, 
431 ;  Chalcedon,  451 ;  Constantinople,  553  and 
680 ;  and  Nice,  787),  of  the  so-called  Quinisex- 
tum  of  Constantinople,  held  in  692,  and  of  the 
council  held  at  Constantinople  under  Photius 
in  879  and  880,  while  it  rejects  the  authority 
of  all  the  succeeding  councils  recognized  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  as  oecumenical.  A  dog- 
matical difference  between  the  Greek  church 
and  the  church  of  Rome  arose  as  early  as  482, 
when  the  emperor  Zeno  endeavored  to  recon- 
cile the  Monophysites  with  the  Catholic  church 
by  publishing  a  creed  called  the  Henoticon,  in 
which  the  disputed  articles  were  entirely  avoid- 
ed. Felix  II.,  the  bishop  of  Rome,  excommu- 
nicated the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and 
Alexandria  for  having  been  instrumental  in 
issuing  the  Henoticon,  and  thus  actually  severed 
the  communion  between  the  churches  of  the 
East  and  of  the  West.  The  altered  disposition 
of  the  court  of  Constantinople  enabled  Pope 
Hormisdas  in  519  to  restore  the  union,  which 
however  never  became  very  firm  again,  and 
was  repeatedly  interrupted  by  decisions  of  the 
emperors  in  matters  of  faith,  against  which  the 
bishops  of  Rome  protested.  The  adoption  in  the 
western  church  of  an  article  which  declared 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  from  the  Son  as 
well  as  the  Father  (Filioque),  and  its  incorpo- 
ration in  the  confession  of  faith  at  the  synod  of 
Toledo  (589),  constituted  another  point  of  dog- 
matic difference,  although  it  did  not  awaken 
opposition  in  the  Greek  church  until  some 
time  in  the  8th  century.  Still  more  than  these 
dogmatic  differences,  political  and  hierarchical 
reasons  prepared  a  dissolution  of  the  union. 
The  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  to  whom  the 
councils  of  Constantinople  (381)  and  Chalce- 
don (451)  had  assigned  the  second  place  among 
the  patriarchs  of  the  Catholic  church,  strove 
to  obtain  the  first.  The  emperors  claimed  in 
the  settlement  of  the  numerous  dogmatical  con- 
troversies of  the  East  a  power  which  the  bish- 
ops of  Rome  denied  to  them.  The  more  Rome 
and  Italy  became  politically  estranged  from  the 
East,  the  more  intolerable  became  the  exercise 
of  the  supreme  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome.  A  temporary  dissolution  of 
the  union  again  took  place  in  732,  when  the 
pope  condemned  iconoclasm,  which  was  ap- 
proved of  by  several  emperors,  and  by  a 
synod  of  Constantinople  in  754.  More  seri- 
ous than  ever  before  became  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  two  churches  when  the  patriarch 
Photius,  whose  accession  in  858  was  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  court,  was  rejected  by  Pope 
Nicholas  I.  as  an  intruder.  A  circular  was 
then  sent  forth  by  Photius,  censuring  the  ob- 
servance of  Saturday  as  a  fast,  the  use  of  eggs 
and  cheese  during  the  first  week  in  Lent,  the 
administration  of  confirmation  exclusively  by 
bishops,  the  prohibition  of  the  marriage  of 
priests,  and  the  use  of  the  words  Filioque  in 
the  Nicene  creed.  At  a  synod  convened  by 
Photius  at  Constantinople  in  867  the  pope  was 


218 


GREEK  CHURCH 


excommunicated  and  deposed.  Besides  these 
errors,  the  Roman  church  was  charged  with 
having  drawn  the  Bulgarians  into  ecclesiastical 
connection  with  Rome,  though  they  had  been 
converted  by  Greeks.  Since  Photius  the  rela- 
tions of  the  eastern  church  to  that  of  Rome 
have  never  been  reestablished  in  a  definite  form, 
though  the  great  schism  was  not  fully  declared 
before  July  16, 1054,  when  Roman  legates  de- 
posited on  the  great  altar  of  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia  at  Constantinople  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication which  had  been  issued  against  the 
patriarch  Caerularius,  who  in  1053  had  added 
to  the  former  charges  of  heresy  brought  against 
the  Roman  church  that  of  using  unleavened 
bread  in  the  eucharist.  At  the  council  of 
Lyons  (1274)  Michael  Palseologus  allowed  his 
representatives  to  subscribe  to  the  Roman  con- 
fession of  faith,  as  he  hoped  thus  to  obtain  aid 
against  the  Turks  from  the  West ;  but  when 
Pope  Martin  IV.  excommunicated  the  em- 
peror (1281),  Greek  synods  held  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1283  and  1285  reaffirmed  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Greek  church.  For  the  last  time 
a  union  between  the  two  churches  was  con- 
summated at  the  synod  of  Florence  (1439),  by 
the  Greek  emperor  and  the  patriarch  himself. 
But  the  people  and  the  great  body  of  the  in- 
ferior clergy  were  entirely  strangers  to  any 
such  union,  and  the  conquest  of  Constantino- 
ple (1453)  made  the  hostility  of  the  Greek 
church  to  Rome  still  greater.  The  Roman 
Catholic  church  never  ceased  in  its  endeavors 
either  to  bring  about  a  corporate  union,  or 
to  gain  over  individual  Greek  congregations. 
Numerous  Latin  convents  were  established  in 
the  East,  and  in  Calabria  the  Orosinian  semi- 
nary was  founded  by  Clement  XII.  for  this 
special  purpose.  They  succeeded  in  organizing 
a  Greek  United  church,  which  acknowledged 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  pope,  while  on 
the  other  hand  it  was  permitted  to  abide  by  all 
the  peculiar  usages  of  the  Greek  church  which 
did  not  affect  fundamental  doctrines,  as  mar- 
riage of  the  priests,  reception  of  the  Lord's  sup- 
per in  both  kinds,  use  of  the  Greek  language 
in  the  divine  service,  &c.  In  Russia,  however, 
almost  all  the  dioceses  of  the  United  Greek 
church  were  induced,  under  the  reigns  of  Cath- 
arine II.  and  of  Nicholas,  again  to  dissolve 
their  connection  with  Rome,  and  to  pass  over 
to  the  Russian  church.  It  was  believed  that 
a  portion  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  people  were 
opposed  to  this  change  of  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions, and  several  congregations  in  1858  peti- 
tioned Alexander  II.  for  permission  to  return 
to  the  United  Greek  church  ;  but  this  was  not 
granted,  and  that  church  in  1873  had  become 
almost  extinct  in  the  Russian  dominions.  In 
general,  the  clergy  and  people  of  the  Greek 
church  have  at  all  periods  showed  themselves 
decidedly  hostile  to  a  union  with  Rome,  and 
numerous  controversies,  such  as  that  under 
the  patriarch  Dositheua  in  Jerusalem  on  the 
holy  sepulchre  (1674),  as  well  as  the  yearly 
repeated  excommunication  of  the  pope  and 


of  his  adherents,  kept  up  this  spirit  of  hos- 
tility. When,  therefore,  Pius  IX.  in  1848 
again  invited  by  an  encyclical  letter  the  en- 
tire eastern  church  to  a  corporate  union  with 
Rome,  his  proposition  was  rejected ;  and  the 
invitations  which  in  1869  were  addressed  by 
the  pope  to  the  Greek  bishops  to  attend  the 
Vatican  council  were  unanimously  declined. 
There  seems  to  be  in  the  Greek  church  not 
even  any  organized  party,  as  in  most  of  the 
other  eastern  and  some  of  the  Protestant 
churches,  which  hopes  and  labors  for  a  future 
union  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The 
return  to  the  Roman  communion  of  numbers 
of  the  high  Russian  nobility,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  such  societies  as  those  of  St.  Diony- 
sius  in  Turkey  and  St.  Peter  in  Germany  for 
effecting  a  reunion  of  the  churches,  have  led  to 
no  appreciable  result.  The  Protestants  early 
sought  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the 
Greek  church.  Melanchthon  in  1559  sent  a 
Greek  translation  of  the  "  Confession  of  Augs- 
burg "  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
in  1574  an  epistolary  correspondence  on  this 
confession  took  place  between  the  theologians 
of  Tubingen  and  the  patriarch  Jeremiah  II., 
yet  without  success.  Cyril  Lucaris,  who  lean- 
ed toward  Calvinism,  was  strangled  in  1638. 
In  modern  times  the  Greek  church  has  shown 
itself,  in  general,  very  hostile  to  the  Protestant 
missionary  schools,  and  to  the  Bible  societies, 
though  its  literature  shows  a  strong  influence 
of  Protestantism  ;  a  periodical,  sympathizing 
with  the  principles  of  Protestant  Christianity, 
was  established  at  Athens  in  1858,  and  found 
a  large  patronage.  The  high-church  party  in 
the  church  of  England,  which  recognizes  the 
Greek  church  as  an  orthodox  branch  of  the 
church  of  Christ,  sought  to  obtain  from  the 
Greek  bishops  the  same  recognition  for  it- 
self, and  the  establishment  of  a  closer  inter- 
course, and  a  special  society  was  established  for 
promoting  intercommunion  between  the  two 
churches.  ,The  idea  has  found  many  zealous 
friends  among  the  eastern  bishops,  and  a  friend- 
ly correspondence  has  sprung  up  between  the 
dignitaries  of  the  two  churches,  in  which  even 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  have  taken  part.  The  Greek 
church  has  manifested  a  profound  interest  in 
the  progress  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement. 
Prominent  clergymen  of  that  church  attend- 
ed and  addressed  the  congresses  held  by  the 
Old  Catholics  of  Germany,  and  the  hope  was 
generally  expressed  that  the  movement  might 
lead  to  the  reunion  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern churches. — The  internal  history  of  the 
Greek  church  since  its  separation  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  is  almost  entirely  destitute 
of  great  events.  In  1588  Russia  received  an 
independent  patriarchate,  whereby  the  spiritual 
supremacy  which  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople had  virtually  exercised  over  the  church 
was  abolished.  In  1833  a  synod  of  36  Greek 
metropolitans,  held  at  Nauplia,  declared  the 
orthodox  eastern  church  of  Greece  independent 


GREEK  CHURCH 


219 


'  every  foreign  authority ;  and  in  1850  this  in- 
dependence was  recognized  by  Constantinople. 
A  great  commotion  within  the  Greek  church 
of  Turkey  was  subsequently  caused  by  the 
Bulgarian  nationalists,  who  objected  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  non-Bulgarian  bishops  over  Bul- 
garian dioceses.  The  Turkish  government  at 
length  yielded  to  their  demands,  and  organized 
a  number  of  Bulgarian  dioceses  into  an  exarch- 
ate. A  synod  held  in  Constantinople  in  1872, 
and  attended  by  the  patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople, Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria,  ex- 
communicated the  entire  Bulgarian  church  or- 
ganization, which,  however,  had  the  sympathy 
of  the  Russians.  Dogmatic  controversies  rare- 
ly occurred,  and  a  formation  of  new  sects  took 
place  only  in  Russia,  called  forth  not  so  much 
by  doctrinal  differences  as  by  opposition  to 
liturgical  and  hierarchical  changes  in  the  state 
church.  With  regard  to  other  Christian  de- 
nominations, as  well  as  to  Mohammedanism, 
paganism,  and  Judaism,  the  Greek  church  has 
kept  itself  almost  exclusively  on  the  defensive. 
In  Russia,  however,  the  government  has  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  a  large  number  of  its  non- 
Christian  population,  especially  in  Siberia,  to 
the  Greek  church.  The  theological  literature 
of  the  Greek  church  is  not  extensive  ;  none 
of  its  works  have  ever  been  of  marked  in- 
fluence on  Roman  Catholic  or  Protestant  the- 
ology. During  the  present  century,  however, 
the  number  of  ecclesiastical  seminaries  has 
considerably  increased,  and  the  periodical  lit- 
erature is  also  multiplying. — The  Greek  church 
recognizes  the  Bible  and  tradition  as  rules  of 
faith  ;  the  latter,  however,  only  so  far  as  it  is 
in  accordance  with  the  first  seven  oecumenical 
councils  and  the  synods  held  at  Constantinople 
in  692  (known  among  Latin  canonists  as  the 
"  council  in  Trullo "  or  Quinisextum),  and  in 
879-880,  presided  over  by  Photius.  A  system 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  church,  more 
complete,  and,  on  account  of  its  application  of 
Aristotelian  formulas,  more  scientific  than  any 
similar  work  in  the  Latin  church  up  to  that 
time,  was  compiled  by  the  monk  John  Damas- 
cene (died  about  760).  The  most  important 
confessions  of  faith  are  :  'Op066o^  'Qpotoyia  1% 
IHcrewf  r?jg  "KadohiKfa  ^KCU  '  AiroGTolmtfa  'E/c/cA^d/af 
rrjq  'AvaroAi/c^f,  or  Confessio  Orthodoxa,  by 
Petrus  Mogilas,  metropolitan  of  Kiev  (also 
called  the  Russian  catechism),  published  in 
1640) ;  and'AdTUf  'Op6o66jta^  or  Sy nodus  Hier- 
osolymitana,  under  Dositheus,  in  1672.  The 
former,  which  in  1643  was  signed  by  all  the 
Greek  patriarchs,  and  solemnly  recognized  at 
the  synod  of  Jerusalem  in  1672  as  the  confes- 
sion of  faith  of  the  oriental  church  (published 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  Amsterdam,  1662;  Leip- 
sic,  16.95 ;  in  German  by  L.  Frisch,  Frankfort, 
1727),  has  everywhere,  especially  in  Russia, 
symbolic  authority.  The  latter  was  signed  by 
67  bishops  and  clergymen.  None  of  the  other 
books  sometimes  regarded  as  symbolical  (e.  g., 
the  two  confessions  of  the  patriarch  Gennadios 
in  Constantinople,  and  the  confession  of  the 


patriarch  Jeremiah  of  1580)  has  obtained  so 
general  a  symbolic  authority,  and  the  confes- 
sion of  Metrophanes  Kritopulos  of  1661  is  only 
a  private  letter.  (See  Kimmel,  Libri  Symbolici 
Ecclesice  Oriental™,  Jena,  1843,  and  appendix 
to  this  work  by  .Weissenborn,  1850.)  Plato,  a 
Russian  archbishop  and  president  of  the  acad- 
emy of  St.  Petersburg,  was  the  author  of  a 
catechism  which  in  many  points  differs  from 
that  of  Petrus  Mogilas,  and  is  less  hostile  to 
Protestantism.  The  Greek  church  holds  in 
common  with  the  Roman  Catholic  the  doctrines 
of  seven  sacraments,  of  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  of  the  veneration  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the 
saints,  images,  and  relics,  of  the  meritorious- 
ness  of  fasting  and  other  works,  the  hierarchi- 
cal degrees  of  ecclesiastical  orders,  and  monas- 
ticism.  Its  peculiar  tenets  are  mainly  the  fol- 
lowing :  It  disowns  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
and,  in  controversies  of  faith,  acknowledges  the 
infallibility  of  oecumenical  councils.  At  Con- 
stantinople baptism  by  immersion  only  is  ad- 
mitted as  valid ;  but  the  Russian  church  con- 
siders baptism  by  immersion  as  a  matter  of  rite, 
not  of  dogma.  It  administers  the  Lord's  sup- 
per in  both  kinds,  and  gives  confirmation  and 
communion  to  children  immediately  after  bap- 
tism. It  denies  the  existence  of  a  purgatory, 
yet  prays  for  the  dead,  that  God  would,  have 
mercy  on  them  at  the  general  judgment.  It 
maintains  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from 
the  Father,  as  principal,  through  the  Son  as 
medium.  It  admits  of  no  images  in  relief  or  em- 
bossed work,  but  uses  paintings  and  engravings 
in  copper  or  silver.  It  approves  of  the  marriage 
of  priests,  provided  they  enter  into  that  state  be- 
fore their  admission  into  holy  orders;  it  con- 
demns second  marriages  of  priests,  and  fourth 
marriages  of  laymen.  It  keeps  four  fasts  in 
the  year  more  solemnly  than  the  rest. — The 
churches  are  mostly  built  in  the  form  of  a 
cross.  The  altar  stands  toward  the  east  under 
a  vault  which  is  higher  than  the  nave,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  partition  board  contain- 
ing three  doors,  the  middle  of  which  is  called 
the  sacred  door,  and  when  opened  permits 
the  altar  to  be  seen.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
canon  of  the  mass  the  doors  are  closed,  and 
are  not  opened  again  until  after  the  communion 
of  the  priest  and  deacon.  Benches  are  not 
used,  as  the  people  stand  during  divine  service, 
using  a  kind  of  crutch  as  a  support.  The  princi- 
pal act  of  worship  is  the  mass,  which  all  are 
bound  to  hear  every  Sunday.  Only  one  mass  a 
day  is  said  in  each  congregation,  and  that  before 
the  rising  of  the  sun.  The  liturgy  used  at  the 
mass  is  known  as  that  of  the  apostle  James 
and  Basil  the  Great.  This  work  was  again 
abridged  by  Chrysostom,  and  in  this  shorter 
form,  which,  however,  has  likewise  undergone 
some  changes  in  the  course  of  time,  it  is  used 
on  common  days,  while  the  longer  liturgy  of 
Basil  is  still  used  at  some  of  the  higher  festi- 
vals. The  sermon,  which  is  considered  unes- 
sential, was  formerly  very  rare,  and  consisted 
generally  of  a  homily  read  from  old  collections. 


220 


GREEK  CHURCH 


The  priests  of  Russia  began  in  1682  to  preach 
their  sermons  instead  of  reading  them  from 
books,  and  gradually  it  became  the  general 
practice  to  preach  at  least  twice  a  year.  In 
1858  many  of  the  churches  of  St.  Petersburg 
introduced  the  custom  of  having  a  sermon 
every  Sunday.  All  the  sermons,  however, 
had  to  be  submitted  to  the  previous  exami- 
nation of  the  bishops,  which  censorship  was 
abolished  in  the  diocese  of  St.  Petersburg  at 
the  beginning  of  1859.  Festivals  peculiar  to 
the  oriental  church  are  the  consecration  of 
water  on  Jan.  6,  in  commemoration  of  Christ's 
baptism,  and  the  Orthodox  Sunday,  on  which 
a  curse  is  pronounced  against  all  heretics.  It 
is  forbidden  to  use  instrumental  music  in  the 
churches,  but  the  mass  is  generally  accompa- 
nied by  choirs  of  singers.  Catechising  is  some- 
thing rare,  and  the  arrangements  for  religious 
instruction  are  very  imperfect.  The  language 
used  at  divine  service  is  among  the  Greeks  of 
Turkey  and  Greece  the  old  Greek,  among  the 
Russians  and  other  Slavic  nations  the  old  Sla- 
vonic, and  among  the  Georgians  the  old  Geor- 
gian.— The  clergy  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  higher  and  the  lower  clergy.  The  former 
class  comprises  the  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
archbishops,  and  bishops;  all  of  whom  are 
chosen  from  among  the  monks,  and  must  live 
in  celibacy.  The  lower  clergy  are  subdivided 
into  the  black  clergy  (so  called  after  their 
dress)  or  monks,  and  the  white  or  secular  cler- 
gy, who  wear  blue,  violet,  or  brown  dresses. 
A  convent  is  governed  by  an  abbot  or  archi- 
mandrite (apxifJiavdpiTijg) ;  and  among  the  oth- 
er monks  there  are  priors  (fyofyevoi),  priests 
(lepofiovaxoi),  and  deacons  (iepodifaovoi),  who 
can  perform  the  same  functions  as  the  priests 
and  deacons  of  the  secular  clergy.  All  the 
others  are  merely  called  monks  (jiovaxoi).  The 
lower  secular  clergy  are  protopopes  (irpurotepoi, 
arch  priests),  popes  (priests),  deacons,  subdea- 
cons,  and  lectors.  The  monks  of  the  Greek 
church,  as  well  as  the  nuns,  who  are  less  numer- 
ous, generally  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  with 
the  exception  of  those  of  Mt.  Sinai  and  Mt.  Leb- 
anon, who  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Anthony.  At 
the  head  of  the  female  convent  stands  an  oilcono- 
mos,  who  must  be  at  least  80  years  of  age.  He 
chooses  a  priest  as  confessor  of  the  nuns,  who 
also  elect,  under  his  presidency,  an  abbess  (fjyov- 
fitvy).  The  most  celebrated  convents  are  those 
of  Mt.  Athos,  the  convent  of  the  holy  sepulchre 
in  Jerusalem,  and  that  of  Mt.  Sinai  in  Arabia.— 

4th  regard  to  church  constitution,  the  Greek 
church  is  made  up  of  ten  independent  groups. 
I.  The  church  of  Constantinople  is  governed  by 
a  patriarch,  who  bears  the  title  of  "  Most  Holy 
Archbishop  of  Constantinople,  New  Rome 
Ecumenical  Patriarch."  He  has  under  him 

9  bishops,  of  whom  there  are  seven  in  Rou- 
mania, four  in  Servia,  and  one  at  Venice. 
The  churches  of  Roumania  and  Servia  incline  to 
make  themselves  independent  of  Constantino- 
ple ;  and  the  Bulgarians,  after  many  years  of 
agitation,  have  at  last  succeeded  in  obtaining 


from  the  Turkish  government  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Bulgarian  exarchate,  which  at  first 
contained  12  dioceses,  and  which,  on  certain 
conditions  legally  provided,  may  be  joined  by 
any  other  dioceses  in  which  the  Bulgarians 
are  predominant.  The  dioceses  of  the  Ionian 
islands  were,  in  consequence  of  the  incorpo- 
ration of  the  islands  with  Greece,  transferred 
from  the  church  of  Constantinople  to  that  of 
Greece.  Throughout  the  immediate  posses- 
sions of  the  Sublime  Porte  (i.  &,  all  European 
and  Asiatic  Turkey  except  Roumania  and  Ser- 
via) the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  has  not 
only  spiritual,  but  also  a  kind  of  temporal  ju- 
risdiction, as  he  is  considered  by  the  Turkish 
law  the  head  of  all  the  Greek  Christians,  who 
have  to  pay  to  him  a  yearly  tax.  He  presides 
in  the  synod,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  board, 
which  governs  the  Greek  church  of  Turkey, 
and  consists  of  all  the  patriarchs  and  a  certain 
number  of  archbishops  (properly  12),  who 
have  to  take  up  their  permanent  residence  at 
Constantinople.  In  certain  cases,  as  the  elec- 
tion of  a  patriarch,  the  holy  synod  has  to  act 
in  union  with  the  national  assembly,  a  number 
of  representatives  of  the  most  distinguished 
Greek  families  of  Constantinople.  The  Jiatti- 
Jiumayum  of  Feb.  21,  1856,  provided  for  im- 
portant changes  in  the  relation  of  the  patri- 
archs and  the  holy  synod  to  the  Greek  church. 
They  were  to  receive  a  fixed  salary,  to  lose 
their  temporal  and  judicial  power,  and  the  pa- 
triarchs and  bishops  were  to  be  appointed  for 
life.  A  supreme  church  council,  to  consist  of 
priests  and  laymen,  was  to  be  elected  by  the 
entire  church.  II.  The  church  of  Alexandria 
counts  five  bishops,  under  the  "Blessed  and 
Holy  Patriarch  of  the  great  city  of  Alexan- 
dria, of  all  Egypt  and  Pentapolis,  of  Libya  and 
Ethiopia,  Pope  and  Judge  (Ecumenical."  The 
patriarch  habitually  resides  at  Cairo.  III. 
The  church  of  Antioch  numbers  17  bishops. 
Its  chief  bears  the  title  of  "  Blessed  and  Holy 
Patriarch  of  the  City  of  God,  Antioch,  Syria, 
Arabia,  Cilicia,  Iberia,  Mesopotamia,  and  all 
the  East,  Father  of  Fathers  and  Pastor  of  Pas- 
tors." IV.  The  church  of  Jerusalem  has  14 
bishops.  The  patriarch  is  called  the  "Blessed 
and  Holy  Patriarch  of  the  Holy  City  of  Jeru- 
salem, of  Palestine,  Syria,  Arabia  beyond  Jor- 
dan, Cana  Galilee,  and  Holy  Sion."  V.  The 
Russian  church  has  60  bishops,  governed  by 
the  "  Most  Holy  Synod  directing  all  the  Rus- 
sias,"  which  was  first  established  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  consists  of  three  metropolitans,  one 
archbishop,  two  other  clerical  and  two  lay 
members.  VI.  The  church  of  the  island  of 
Cyprus  counts  four  bishops,  under  the  "  Blessed 
and  Holy  Bishop  of  New  Justiniana  and  of  all 
the  Isle  of  Cyprus."  His  see  is  at  Nicosia. 
VII.  The  Greek  church  of  Austria  is  divided 
into  three  jurisdictions  entirely  independent  of 
each  other.  In  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian 
crown  there  is  a  metropolitan  for  the  Serb 
nationality  at  Carlovitz,  and  another  for  the 
Rouman  nationality  at  Hermannstadt ;  there 


GREEK  CHURCH 


GREEK  FIRE 


221 


are  besides  eight  bishoprics.  The  Greek 
church  of  Cisleithan  Austria  has  an  archbish- 
op (since  January,  1873)  at  Czernowitz,  and 
bishops  at  Zara  and  Cattaro.  VIII.  The 
church  of  Mt.  Sinai  has  only  one  bishop,  the 
'Blessed  Archbishop  of  Sinai."  IX.  The 
church  of  Montenegro  likewise  has  but  one 
Bishop,  called  "  Metropolitan  of  Scanderia  and 
the  Seashore,  Archbishop  of  Cettigne,  Exarch 
of  the  Holy  See  of  Ipek,  Lord  of  Montenegro 
and  of  Berda."  He  had  formerly  both  spirit- 
ual and  temporal  power,  but  recently  the  juris- 
dictions have  been  divided.  The  present  bish- 
op was  induced  by  the  Russian  government  to 
to  St.  Petersburg,  and  not,  as  was  done 
)y  his  predecessors,  to  Constantinople,  to  re- 
ceive episcopal  consecration.  X.  The  Hellenic 
church,  in  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  numbers 
31  archbishops  and  bishops,  governed  by  the 
;  Holy  Hellenic  Synod  "  of  Athens.  The  pres- 
idency of  this  board  belongs  by  right  to  the 
letropolitan  archbishop  of  Attica  and  Bceotia, 
aiding  in  Athens.  This  board  was  established 
1852,  and  consists  of  five  prelates  of  the 
ingdom.  They  meet  annually  in  September, 
id  have  to  take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
king  before  beginning  their  proceedings.  All 
these  ten  divisions  of  the  orthodox  church 
recognize  the  supreme  authority  of  a  general 
council ;  but  as  no  general  council  has  been 
ibled  for  1,000  years,  they  do  not  agree 
the  conditions  required  to  make  a  council 
illy  oecumenical.  In  addition  to  these  ten 
ivisions,  which  recognize  each  other  as  ortho- 
lox,  there  are  in  Russia  a  number  of  sects, 
most  of  which  fully  acknowledge  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  Greek  church,  but  reject  the  lit- 
urgy of  the  Russian  church  as  corrected  by 
Patriarch  Nicon  (1654),  and  therefore  keep 
aloof  from  any  intercourse  with  the  state 
church.  By  the  state  church  they  are  called 
Raskolniki  (separatists),  while  they  call  them- 
selves Staromertzi  .(of  the  old  faith).  The 
imber  of  these  sects  dissenting  from  the  state 
large.  They  also  differ  widely  from  each 
her,  and  some  of  them  have  placed  them- 
selves in  open  opposition  not  only  to  the  litur- 
gy and  the  government  of  the  Russian  church, 
but  also  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  church 
in  general.  As  from  their  origin  they  have 
been  incessantly  subjected  to  persecution,  their 
peculiarities  are  but  imperfectly  known.  The 
great  argument  employed  against  those  of  them 
who  adhered  to  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the 
Greek  church  was,  that  the  true  church  is  es- 
sentially episcopal ;  therefore  they,  having  no 
bishop,  could  not  be  the  true  church.  Some 
years  ago,  however,  the  Greek  bishops  of 
the  Austrian  empire  ordained  for  them  a  bish- 
op. t  The  former  rigor  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment against  them  has  been-  mitigated  since 
the  accession  of  Alexander  II.,  and  in  1859  an 
imperial  decree  even  prescribed  that  the  bish- 
ops of  the  state  church  shall  in  future  ordain 
the  priests  and  bishops  of  the  Raskolniks. — The 
Greek  church  predominates  in  all  Russia,  Eu- 


ropean Turkey,  Greece,  and  Montenegro,  and 
its  area  is  continually  extending  by  the  pro- 
gress of  Russia  in  central  Asia.  The  number 
of  Greek  Christians  in  Russia  amounts  to  about 
54,000,000.  This,  however,  includes  the  sects, 
whose  number  is  estimated  at  from  5,000,000 
to  15,000,000.  Turkey  numbers  about  12,000,- 
000  inhabitants  belonging  to  the  Greek  church, 
of  whom  4,275,000  belong  to  Roumania,  and 
1,295,000  to  Servia;  Austria  (according  to  the 
census  of  1871),  3,050,000;  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  1,440,000  ;  Montenegro,  125,000 ;  Ger- 
many, about  3,000.  In  all  other  countries  only 
a  few  Greek  churches  are  found,  nearly  all  of 
which  are  connected  with  Russian  embassies. 
Thus  the  whole  population  connected  with  the 
Greek  church  in  1874  was  about  74,300,000. 
The  greatest  number  of  United  Greeks  is  in 
Austria,  nearly  4,000,000;  Turkey  has  about 
50,000;  Russia,  229,000;  southern  Italy,  60,- 
000.  They  were  formerly  very  numerous  in 
Russia,  where  under  the  Polish  rule  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  church  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope  at  the  synod  of  Brzesc 
or  Brest  (1596).  But  most  of  them  returned  to 
the  Russian  state  church  under  the  reign  of 
Catharine  II.,  and  the  remainder  at  a  synod  in 
Polotzk  in  1839.  The  total  number  thus  lost 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  Russia  is  esti- 
mated at  about  10,000,000.  The  Greek  United 
church  in  Austria  has  two  archbishops  and  six 
bishops ;  in  Turkey,  one  patriarch  (of  Antioch) 
and  eight  suffragans ;  in  Russia,  one  bishop  at 
Chelm. — See  Chytrasus,  De  Statu  Ecclesiarum 
hoc  Tempore  in  Gratia  (Rostock,  1569) ;  Leo 
Allatius,  Grcecia  Orihodoxa  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1652  and  1659) ;  Thomas  Smith,  De  Ecclesm 
GTCBCCB  Statu  Hodierno  (London,  1678) ;  Le 
Quien,  Oriens  Christianus(3vols.,  Paris,  1740); 
Wenger,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  gegenwar- 
tigen  Geistes  der  GriechiscJien  Kirche  (Berlin, 
1839) ;  H.  J.  Schmitt,  Kritische  Gevhichte  der 
NeugriecMschen  Kirche  (Mentz,  1840);  Wig- 
gers,  Kirchliche  Statlstik  (2  vols.,  Hamburg, 
1843);  rfiglise  orihodoxe  d?  Orient  (Athens, 
1853) ;  J.  M.  Neale,  "  History  of  the  Holy  East- 
ern Church  "  (London,  1847  et  seq.) ;  Dean  Stan- 
ley, u  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Eastern 
Church  "(London,  1861;  New  York,  1870);  Sil- 
bernagl,  Verfassung  und  gegenwartiger  Bestand 
sammtliclier  Kirchen  des  Orients  (Landshut, 
1865) ;  and  Gagarin,  Le  clerge  russe  (Paris,  1871). 
GREEK  FIRE,  a  name  applied  to  compounds 
that  burn  on  the  surface  of  or  under  water.  A 
summary  of  what  is  said  about  it  in  old  writers 
is  given  by  Gibbon  in  the  "Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  lii.  The  subject  is 
also  ably  treated  by  Dr.  McCulloch  in  vol.  xiv. 
of  the  "Quarterly  Journal  of  Science."  The 
Greek  fire  was  most  advantageously  employed 
in  the  defence  of  Constantinople  during  the  two 
sieges  by  the  Saracens  of  A.  D.  668-675  and 
716-718.  The  secret  of  its  preparation  and  use 
was  derived  from  Callinicus,  a  deserter  from 
the  service  of  the  caliph  to  that  of  the  empe- 
ror. It  appears  to  have  been  a  compound  of 


222 


GREEK  FIRE 


GREELEY 


bitumen,  sulphur,  and  pitch,  and  to  have  been 
poured  from  caldrons,  or  projected  in  fire  balls, 
or  on  arrows  and  javelins  around  which  flax 
was  twisted  saturated   with  the  inflammable 
compound.    It  was  vomited  through  long  cop- 
per tubes  from  the  prows  of  fire  ships.     These 
were  themselves  consumed,  as  they  sent  fire 
and  destruction  among  the  galleys  of  the  enemy. 
For  400  years  its  secret  was  successfully  pre- 
served by  the  Romans  of  the  East,  the  ven- 
geance of  heaven  being  imprecated  upon  whom- 
soever should  divulge  this  composition,  which 
the  people  were  taught  to  believe  was  revealed 
by  an  angel  to  the  first  of  the  Constantines. 
The  Mohammedans  finally  obtained  the  secret, 
and  in  the  crusades  turned  the  art  against  the 
Christians.     Joinville  in  his  Histoire  de  St. 
Louis  describes  the  fire  as  coming  through  the 
nir  like  a  winged  long-tailed  dragon,  about 
the.  thickness  of  a  hogshead,  with  the  report 
of  thunder  and  the  velocity  of  lightning,  pro- 
ducing so  much  light  from  the  quantity  of  fire 
it  threw  out,  that  one  might  see  in  the  camp 
as  if  it  had  been  day.    Its  use  was  continued  till 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  when  it  gave 
place  to  gunpowder. — M.  Niepce  de  St.  Vic- 
tor experimented,  by  request  of  the  French 
minister  of  war,  upon  the  property  of  benzole 
of  burning  upon  water  and  igniting  if  a  bit  of 
potassium  or  of  phosphuret  of  calcium  be  con- 
tained in  it.     On  this  principle  he  made  an  in- 
extinguishable lamp,  to  be  ignited  by  immer- 
sion under  water,  for  attachment  to  buoys  and 
life  preservers.    He  found  that  if  a  glass  vessel 
containing  300  grammes  of  benzole  and  half  a 
gramme  of  potassium  were  broken  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  the  benzole  would  immedi- 
ately overspread  a  considerable  surface,  burst- 
ing at  the  same  time  into  flame.    A  mixture 
of  three  parts  of  benzole  and  one  of  sulphuret 
of  carbon,  being  put  into  a  hand  grenade  pre- 
viously heated  by  immersion  in  boiling  water, 
produced  ^,  disengagement   of  vapor,  which 
could  be  ignited  and  would  continue  to  burn 
from  a  jet  until  the  whole  was  consumed. 
Phosphorus  in  solution  increases  its  power  of 
setting  fire  to  other  objects.    Petroleum  may 
be  substituted  for  the  benzole.    It  was  thought 
that  this  might  be  used  in  naval  warfare  as 
the  ancient  Greek    fire  was   employed.      It 
was  tried  by  the  Paris  commune  in  1871,  un- 
der whose  direction  many  thousand  petrole- 
um bombs  were  thrown  with  disastrous  effect. 
The  subject  is  fully  treated  by  Scoffern  in  his 
"Projectile  Weapons  of  War  and   Explosive 
Compounds  "  (London,  1858),  in  which  he  also 
names  several  liquid  mixtures  that  spontane- 
ously ignite,  and  may  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  Greek  fire.     A  solution  of  phosphorus 
in  sulphuret  of  carbon  thrown  in  a  glass  gre- 
nade was  found,  in  experiments  conducted  at 
Woolwich,  to  ignite  soon  after  the  liquid  was 
Mattered.     Chloride  of  sulphur  may  be  substi- 
t  it. ••!  for  the  sulphuret  of  carbon,  the  ignition 
riot  taking  place  quite  so  soon,  thus  giving  time 
for  the  liquid  to  penetrate  into  woodwork  and 


canvas.  An  abominable  odor  is  diffused  during 
the  combustion.  The  arsenical  alcohol,  de- 
scribed under  KAKODYLE,  is  proposed  for  a 
similar  purpose,  the  fumes  from  which  would 
greatly  add  to  its  deadly  effects. 

GREEK  MYTHOLOGY.  See  MYTHOLOGY. 
GREELEY.  I.  A  central  county  of  Nebraska, 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870,  drained  by 
branches  of  Loup  fork  of  the  Platte  river ;  area, 
625  sq.  m.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Dakota  terri- 
tory, recently  formed,  and  not  included  in  the 
census  of  1870 ;  area,  about  900  sq.  m.  It  con- 
sists mostly  of  table  land,  being  largely  occupied 
by  the  "  Coteau  des  Prairies,"  and  contains 
several  small  lakes. 

GREELEY,  a  town  of  Weld  co.,  Colorado,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Cache  a  la  Poudre  river,  a 
few  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  South 
Platte,  and  on  the  Denver  Pacific  railroad,  50 
m.  N.  by  E.  of  Denver ;  pop.  in  1870,  480 ;  in 
1874,  about  1,500.  It  is  situated  about  30  m. 
E.  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  is  the  centre 
of  a  rapidly  improving  region,  well  supplied 
with  coal,  stone,  and  timber.  It  contains  three 
tanneries,  two  saw  mills,  a  grist  mill,  three  ho- 
tels, two  banks,  a  graded  school  building  cost- 
ing $25,000,  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  quar- 
terly and  a  semi-annual  periodical,  and  six 
churches.  Greeley  was  founded  in  April,  1870, 
by  the  Union  colony,  which  was  organized  in 
New  York  on  Dec.  23, 1869,  and  was  named  in 
honor  of  Horace  Greeley,  one  of  its  promoters. 
The  colony  purchased  12,000  acres  of  land,  and 
took  the  preliminary  steps  to  secure  a  large 
amount  more  from  the  government.  The  town 
site  was  divided  into  483  business  lots,  660  resi- 
dence lots,  and  81  lots  reserved  for  churches, 
schools,  &c.  The  adjoining  lands  were  divided 
into  sections  of  from  5  to  40  acres,  and  each 
colonist  was  allowed  to  select  one.  A  public 
square  of  10  acres,  planted  with  trees  and  beau- 
tified with  artificial  lakes,  was  laid  out  in  the 
centre  of  the  town,  and  an  island  in  the  river 
just  above  the  town,  embracing  50  acres  and 
covered  with  cottonwood  trees,  was  reserved 
for  public  use.  All  deeds  of  property  contain 
clauses  prohibiting  the  manufacture  or  sale  of 
liquor  in  any  form.  An  extensive  system  of 
irrigation  has  been  established.  The  valuation 
of  town  property  in  1874  was  $850,000;  of 
farming  lands,  $1,500,000. 

GREELEY,  Horace,  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Amherst,  N.  H.,  Feb.  3,  1811,  died  at 
Pleasantville,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  29, 1872.  His  ances- 
tors were  Scotch-Irish.  His  father,  Zaccheus 
Greeley,  had  settled  on  a  small  rocky  farm, 
which  he  vainly  tried  to  pay  for  and  get  a 
living  from.  Horace  was  a  delicate  and  sickly 
child,  but  showed  a  remarkable  appetite  for 
learning.  He  could  read  almost  as  soon  as  he 
could  talk,  devoured  all  the  books  within  reach, 
and  so  far  surpassed  his  schoolmates  that  the 
leading  men  of  the  neighborhood  offered  to 
bear  his  expenses  in  a  college  course,  which  his 
parents  declined  for  him.  When  he  was  ten 
years  old  the  farm  was  sold  by  the  sheriff,  and 


GREELEY 


223 


family  removed  to  West  Haven,  V t.  Hor- 
ace had  early  conceived  a  strong  desire  to  be  a 
printer,  and  in  1826  he  entered  as  an  appren- 
tice the  office  of  the  "  Northern  Spectator  " 
in  East  Poultney,  soon  became  an  expert  work- 
man, and  rendered  occasional  assistance  in  ed- 
iting the  paper.  He  kept  up  his  studies,  and 
was  called  the  "giant"  of  the  village  debating 
society,  being  especially  noted  for  his  familiar- 
ity with  political  statistics.  His  parents  mean- 
while had  removed  to  Erie  co.,  Pa.,  and  he 
had  made  two  visits  there,  walking  a  large 
part  of  the  way.  In  1830  the  "  Spectator  " 
was  discontinued,  and  he  went  west  in  search 
of  employment,  finding  it  at  Jamestown  and 
Lodi,  N.  Y.,  and  Erie,  Pa.  In  August,  1831, 
he  went  to  New  York,  reaching  that  city  on 
the  17th,  with  $10  in  his  pocket.  He  soon 
found  employment  by  undertaking  a  job  which 
no  other  printer  would  accept,  it  being  a  32mo 
New  Testament  in  very  small  type,  with  inter- 
columnar  notes  in  still  smaller.  By  working 
at  this  12  or  14  hours  a  day  he  was  able  to 
earn  but  $5  or  $6  a  week,  yet  he  persevered 
till  the  Testament  was  completed.  He  worked 
as  a  journeyman  in  several  offices  till  Jan.  1, 
1833,  when  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account,  with  Francis  V.  Story  as  his  partner. 
They  printed  the  "Morning  Post,"  the  first 
penny  daily  ever  published,  which  was  owned 
and  edited  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Shepard.  Story  was 
drowned  in  July,  1833,  and  his  place  in  the 
establishment  was  taken  by  Jonas  Winchester. 
On  March  22,  1834,  the  new  firm  issued  the 
first  number  of  "  The  New  Yorker,"  a  weekly 
folio  (afterward  changed  to  double  quarto),  de- 
voted mainly  to  current  literature,  but  giving 
also  a  summary  of  news,  which  soon  became 
celebrated  for  the  accuracy  of  its  political  sta- 
tistics. Mr.  Greeley  was  the  editor.  The  pa- 
per reached  a  circulation  of  9,000,  and  was  con- 
tinued seven  years,  but  was  never  profitable. 
While  engaged  upon  it  Mr.  Greeley  wrote  the 
leading  articles  for  the  "  Daily  Whig,"  and  also 
edited  for  one  year,  1838-'9,  the  "  JefFersonian," 
a  political  weekly  published  at  Albany.  In  1840 
lie  edited  and  published  the  "  Log  Cabin,"  a 
campaign  weekly  devoted  to  the  advocacy  of 
Harrison's  election  to  the  presidency,  which 
attained  a  circulation  of  80,000  copies.  On 
April  10,  1841,  he  issued  the  first  number  of  the 
;' Daily  Tribune,"  which  he  says  was  "a  small 
sheet,  for  it  was  to  be  retailed  for  a  cent."  Mr. 
jreeley  was  at  first  sole  proprietor  and  publish- 
3r,  as  well  as  chief  editor ;  but  he  soon  formed' 
i  partnership  with  Thomas  McElrath,  who 
;ook  charge  of  the  business  department.  The 
'Daily  Tribune"  started  with  500  subscribers, 
md  of  the  first  issue  5,000  copies  were  print- 
id  and  sold  or  given  away.  In  the  autumn  of 
1841  the  "  Weekly  Tribune  "  was  commenced, 
-he  "New  Yorker"  and  "Log  Cabin"  being 
nerged  in  it.  With  these  journals  Greeley  was 
Closely  identified  during  the  remainder  of  his 
ife,  so  that  in  the  popular  mind  "Tribune" 
tnd  "  Horace  Greeley  "  were  interchangeable 


375 


VOL.    VIII. — 15 


terms;  and  of  his  work  as  a  journalist  and  his 
influence  on  the  rising  profession  of  journalism 
he  was  confessedly  and  justly  proud.  In  his 
autobiography  he  writes:  "Fame  is  a  vapor; 
popularity  an  accident ;  riches  take  wings;  the 
only  earthly  certainty  is  oblivion ;  no  man  can 
foresee  what  a  day  may  bring  forth,  while 
those  who  cheer  to-day  will  often  curse  to- 
morrow: and  yet  I  cherish  the  hope  that  the 
journal  I  projected  and  established  will  live 
and  flourish  long  after  I  shall  have  mouldered 
into  forgotten  dust,  being  guided  by  a  larger 
wisdom,  a  more  unerring  sagacity  to  discern 
the  right,  though  not  by  a  more  unfaltering 
readiness  to  embrace  and  defend  it  at  whatever 
personal  cost ;  and  that  the  stone  which  covers 
my  ashes  may  bear  to  future  eyes  the  still  intelli- 
gible inscription,  'Founder  of  the  New  York 
Tribune.'  "  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  congress 
to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  served  from  Dec.  1  of 
that  year  till  March  4, 1849,  distinguishing  him- 
self by  exposing  and  denouncing  the  abuses  of 
the  mileage  system,  but  mainly  through  the 
columns  of  his  journal,  rather  than  from  his 
place  on  the  floor  of  the  house.  He  was  a 
warm  advocate  of  industrial  and  social  reforms, 
and  was  personally  interested  in  the  "North 
American  Phalanx"  (1843-'50),  a  socialist  ex- 
periment near  Ked  Bank,  N.  J.,  partly  based 
upon  the  principles  of  Fourier.  He  labored 
zealously  for  the  welfare  of  the  poorer  classes, 
and  was  a  life-long  opponent  of  slavery.  Be- 
sides being  continually  busy  with  his  editorial 
duties,  he  delivered  numerous  lectures  and  ad- 
dresses at  agricultural  fairs,  and  occasional 
political  speeches.  His  favorite  topics  'were 
popular  education,  temperance,  and  labor  or- 
ganization. In  1851  he  visited  Europe,  was  a 
juryman  at  the  London  crystal  palace  exhi- 
bition, and  travelled  rapidly  through  France, 
Italy,  and  Great  Britain.  In  1855  he  made  a 
second  trip  to  Europe,  spending  six  weeks  in 
Paris.  There  he  passed  two  days  in  prison, 
on  the  action  of  an  obscure  French  sculptor, 
who  claimed  $2,500  for  damages  to  a  statue 
which  had  been  injured  at  the  New  York 
world's  fair  of  1853,  of  which  Mr.  Greeley  was 
a  director.  He  spent  the  winter  of  1855--'6  in 
Washington,  watching  the  memorable  contest 
for  the  speakership  and  commenting  on  it  in 
his  letters  to  the  "Tribune."  For  certain 
strictures  on  a  resolution  introduced  by  Albert 
Rust  of  Arkansas  he  was  brutally  assaulted 
by  the  latter  in  the  capitol  grounds,  and  was 
confined  for  several  days  by  his  injuries.  In 
1 859  he  visited  California  by  the  overland 
route,  had  public  receptions  in  San  Francisco 
and  elsewhere,  and  addressed  various  assem- 
blies on  the  Pacific  railroad,  political  questions, 
&c.  In  1860  he  attended  the  republican  na- 
tional convention  at  Chicago,  where  he  was 
largely  instrumental  in  defeating  the  nomina- 
tion of  William  H.  Seward  for  president  and 
securing  that  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  though  his 
preference  was  for  Edward  Bates  of  Missouri. 
This  action  was  attributed  to  a  personal  feeling 


GREELEY 


of  resentment  on  the  part  of  Greeley,  which  is 
explained  by  the  following  extracts  from  a  letter 
dated  Nov.  11,  1854,  which  he  addressed  pri- 
vately to  Mr.  Seward,  but  demanded  for  pub- 
lication when  it  was  referred  to  by  the  latter's 
friends  during  the  canvass  of  1860  :  "  The  elec- 
tion is  over,  and  its  results  sufficiently  ascer- 
tained. It  seems  to  me  a  fitting  time  to  an- 
nounce to  you  the  dissolution  of  the  political 
lirm  of  Seward,  Weed,  and  Greeley,  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  junior  partner,  said  with- 
drawal to  take  effect  on  the  morning  after 
the  first  Tuesday  in  February  next.  .  .  .  I  was 
a  poor  young  printer  and  editor  of  a  literary 
journal — a  very  active  and  bitter  whig  in  a 
small  way,  but  not  seeking  to  be  known  out 
of  my  own  ward  committee — when,  after  the 
jjreat  political  revulsion  of  1837,  I  was  one 
day  called  to  the  City  hotel,  where  two  stran- 
gers introduced  themselves  as  Thurlow  Weed 
and  Lewis  Benedict  of  Albany.  They  told  me 
that  a  cheap  campaign  paper  of  a  peculiar 
stamp  at  Albany  had  been  resolved  on,  and 
that  I  had  been  selected-  to  edit  it.  ...  I  did 
the  work  required,  to  the  best  of  my  ability. 
It  was  work  that  made  no  figure,  and  created 
no  sensation  ;  but  I  loved  it,  and  I  did  it  well. 
When  it  was  done,  you  were  governor,  dispen- 
sing offices  worth  $3,000  to  $20,000  per  year  to 
your  friends  and  compatriots,  and  I  returned 
to  my  garret  and  my  crust,  and  my  desperate 
battle  with  pecuniary  obligations  heaped  upon 
me  by  bad  partners  in  business  and  the  disas- 
trous events  of  1837.  I  believe  it  did  not  then 
occur  to  me  that  some  one  of  these  abundant 
places  might  have  been  offered  to  me  without 
injustice ;  I  now  think  it  should  have  occurred 
to  you.  ...  In  the  Harrison  campaign  of  1840 
I  was  again  designated  to  edit  a  campaign  paper. 
I  published  it  as  well,  and  ought  to  have  made 
something  by  it,  in  spite  of  its  extremely  low 
price ;  my  extreme  poverty  was  the  main  rea- 
son why  I  did  not.  .  .  .  Now  came  the  great 
scramble  of  the  swell  mob  of  coon  minstrels 
and  cider-suckers  at  Washington,  I  not  being 
counted  in.  ...  I  asked  nothing,  expected 
nothing;  but  you,  Governor  Seward,  ought 
to  have  asked  that  I  be  postmaster  of  New 
York."  In  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  Gree- 
ley declared  himself  in  favor  of  allowing  the 
southern  states  to  secede  from  the  Union,  pro- 
vided a  majority  of  their  citizens  voted  in 
favor  of  that  course.  When  hostilities  were 
actually  commenced,  he  demanded  their  vig- 
orous prosecution,  and  was  popularly  held 
responsible  for  the  "On  to  Richmond"  cry 
first  uttered  in  the  "  Tribune,"  which  preceded 
the  defeat  of  Bull  Run.  In  1864,  with  the  un- 
official sanction  of  President  Lincoln,  he  went 
to  Clifton,  Canada,  to  confer  with  George  N. 
Sanders,  Jacob  Thompson,  and  Beverly  Tucker, 
on  the  subject  of  peace.  In  that  year  also  he 
was  a  presidential  elector,  and  a  delegate  to 
the  Philadelphia  convention.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  advocated  a  policy  of  universal 
amnesty  with  universal  suffrage.  In  May,  1867, 


he  signed  the  bail  bond  of  Jefferson  Davis, 
thereby  incurring  so  much  popular  censure  at 
the  north  that  the  sale  of  his  "  History  of  the 
American  Conflict,"  which  had  been  very  large 
on  the  publication  of  the  first  volume,  suddenly 
stopped  almost  entirely  on  the  second,  then 
just  issued.  In  1869  he  was  the  republican 
candidate  for  comptroller  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  but  was  defeated,  though  he  received  a 
larger  vote  than  any  other  candidate  on  the 
ticket  except  Gen.  Sigel.  In  1870  he  was  a 
candidate  for  congress  in  the  6th  New  York  dis- 
trict, and  ran  300  votes  ahead  of  the  state  ticket, 
but  was  defeated  by  the  democratic  candidate, 
S.  S.  Cox.  Early  in  1872  he  made  a  journey  to 
Texas,  nominally  for  the  purpose  of  delivering 
an  address  at  the  state  agricultural  fair  and 
observing  the  industrial  and  commercial  con- 
dition and  prospects  of  the  states  he  traversed; 
but  probably  the  visit  had  also  its  political 
bearings,  and  he  stopped  at  numerous  places 
to  make  speeches  and  hold  conferences  with 
prominent  citizens.  On  May  1  of  that  year  a 
convention  of  so-called  liberal  republicans,  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  administration,  met 
at  Cincinnati,  and  on  the  sixth  ballot  Mr. 
Greeley  was  nominated  for  president,  B.  Gratz 
Brown  of  Missouri  being  subsequently  nomi- 
nated for  vice  president.  The  democratic  con- 
vention, which  met  at  Baltimore  in  July,  adopt- 
ed these  candidates  and  their  platform.  Mr. 
Greeley  accepted  the  nomination,  retired  from 
the  editorship  of  the  "  Tribune,"  and  entered 
the  canvass  personally,  travelling  and  speaking 
almost  constantly  till  within  a  short  time  of  the 
election.  He  received  in  the  election  2,834,- 
079  votes,  against  3,597,070  for  Grant,  and 
carried  the  states  of  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Ma- 
ryland, Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Texas.  His 
powers  of  endurance  had  been  strained  to  the 
utmost  in  the  canvass,  which  was  unusually 
exciting,  and  in  which  his  foibles,  his  personal 
habits,  and  his  anomalous  political  position 
were  unsparingly  caricatured  and  ridiculed. 
During  the  last  month  of  it  he  was  watching 
by  the  bedside  of  his  wife,  who  died  a  few 
days  before  the  election.  Shortly  after,  he  was 
prostrated  by  a  disorder  of  the  brain  and  sank 
rapidly.  His  funeral,  though  simple,  was  per- 
haps the  most  impressive  ever  witnessed  in 
New  York.  The  body  lay  in  state  in  the  city 
hall,  through  which  an  unbroken  stream  of 
visitors  passed  for  an  entire  day;  and  the 
funeral  services  were  attended  by  the  presi- 
dent and  vice  president  of  the  United  States, 
the  vice  president  elect,  the  chief  justice,  and 
many  other  eminent  citizens  from  distant 
places.  He  died  with  a  full  belief  in  the 
doctrines  of  Universalism,  which  he  had  held 
for  many  years. — About  the  year  1852  Mr. 
Greeley  purchased  a  farm  of  50  acres,  after- 
ward enlarged  to  75,  on  the  Harlem  railroad. 
in  the  township  of  New  Castle,  Westchester 
co.,  35  m.  N.  of  New  York.  The  railroad 
station  there  was  known  as  Chappaqua,  from 
the  Indian  name  of  a  mill  stream  which  ran 


GREEN 


225 


through  the  place.  Here  for  the  last  20  years 
of  his  life  he  spent  his  Saturdays,  working  about 
the  farm,  his  especial  delight  being  in  the  wood- 
land. His  farming  was  not  profitable,  and  was 
the  subject  of  innumerable  jests,  all  of  which 
he  took  in  good  part,  replying  that  he  was  only 
a  fanner  by  proxy,  and  therefore  did  not  ex- 
pect to  make  money  by  it. — Mr.  Greeley's  pub- 
lished volumes  are  as  follows:  "  Hints  toward 
Reforms,"  consisting  mainly  of  lectures  and 
addresses  (New  York,  1850);  "Glances  at 
Europe  "  (1851) ;  "  History  of  the  Struggle  for 
Slavery  Extension"  (1856);  "Overland  Jour- 
ney to  San  Francisco  "  (1860) ;  "  The  American 
Conflict"  (2  vols.,  Hartford,  1864-'6);  "Rec- 
ollections of  a  Busy  Life  "  (New  York,  1868) ; 
"Essays  designed  to  elucidate  the  Science 
of  Political  Economy "  (Boston,  1870) ;  and 
"What  I  Know  of  Farming"  (New  York, 
1871).  His  life  has  been  written  by  James 
Parton  (New  York,  1855;  new  ed.,  1868),  and 
by  L.  U.  Reavis  (1872).  See  also  "  A  Memorial 
of  Horace  Greeley"  (New  York,  1873). 

GREEN.    See  LIGHT,  and  PAINTS. 

GREEN.  I.  A  central  county  of  Kentucky, 
intersected  by  Green  river,  which  is  navigable 
by  steamboats,  and  drained  by  several  small 
streams;  area,  525  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,379, 
of  whom  1,937  were  colored.  It  contains 
much  excellent  limestone  and  a  number  of  salt 
springs.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  hilly. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  34,098 
bushels  of  wheat,  281,827  of  Indian  corn,  47,- 
231  of  oats,  87,222  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,375,091 
of  tobacco.  There  were  2,540  horses,  1,869 
milch  cows,  2,245  other  cattle,  8,925  sheep, 
and  15,190  swine.  Capital,  Green sburg.  II. 
A  S.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bordering  on  Illinois, 
intersected  by  Pekatonica  and  Sugar  rivers,  the 
latter  of  which  is  a  valuable  mill  stream ;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,611.  The  surface 
is  much  diversified,  the  S.  part  consisting  of 
prairies  and  the  remainder  being  thinly  wooded. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile.  Limestone  is  abun- 
dant, and  lead  is  mined.  A  branch  of  the  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul  railroad  extends  from 
Tanesville  to  Monroe.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  54*1,859  bushels  of  wheat,  25,469 
3frye,  947,105  of  Indian  corn,  743,019  of  oats, 
184,195  of  potatoes,  909,485  Ibs.  of  butter, 
358,830  of  cheese,  139,110  of  wool,  and  43,229 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  9,744  horses,  11,474 
milch  cows,  15,506  other  cattle,  39,477  sheep, 
ind  35,879  swine;  2  manufactories  of  boots 
md  shoes,  20  of  carriages  and  wagons,  11  of 
Nothing,  4  of  barrels  and  casks,  4  of  furniture, 
12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  sashes,  11  of 
:in,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  6  of  cigars, 
I  of  woollen  goods,  2  flour  mills,  10  saw  mills, 
md  3  breweries.  Capital,  Monroe. 

GREEN,  Ashbel,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
it  Hanover,  N.  J.,  July  6,  1762,  died  in  Phila- 
lelphia,  May  19,  1848.  He  graduated  at  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  in  1783,  and  was  tutor 
md  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
osophy  there  till  licensed  to  preach  in  1786; 


was  ordained  as  colleague  pastor  of  the  second 
Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia  in  May, 
1787,  and  became  pastor  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
Sproat  in  1793.  He  was  chaplain  of  congress 
from  1792  to  1800.  In  1809  he  had  a  primary 
agency  in  forming  the  Philadelphia  Bible  soci- 
ety. He  was  one  of  the  originators  and  most 
efficient  friends  of  the  theological  seminary  at 
Princeton.  In  1812  he  became  president  of 
Princeton  college,  but  resigned  in  1822  and  re- 
turned to  Philadelphia,  where  during  the  next 
12  years  he  edited  the  monthly  "  Christian 
Advocate."  He  also  preached  to  an  African 
congregation  for  two  years  and  a  half,  and  ren- 
dered many  important  services  in  aid  of  the 
general  interests  of  the  church.  Dr.  Green 
was  a  clear,  bold,  and  effective  preacher,  and 
an  able  college  president.  He  was  for  nearly 
half  a  century  one  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
Presbyterian  church.  He  published  a  "Dis- 
course delivered  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
with  a  History  of  the  College  "  (Boston,  1822) ; 
a  "History  of  Presbyterian  Missions;"  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Shorter  Catechism"  (2  vols.);  11 
discourses,  and  various  addresses,  reports,  &c. 

GREEN,  Horace,  an  American  physician,  born 
at  Chittenden,  Vt.,  Dec.  24, 1802,  died  at  Sing 
Sing,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  29,  1866.  He  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Middlebury,  Vt.,  in  1824,  and  prac- 
tised in  Rutland  till  1835,  when  he  removed 
to  New  York.  From  1840  to  1843  he  was 
professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  medical  college  at  Castleton,  Vt., 
and  in  1850  he  accepted  the  same  chair  in  the 
New  York  medical  college,  which  he  had  that 
year  assisted  in  founding.  He  resigned  his 
professorship  in  1860.  In  1854  he  and  his 
colleagues  established  the  "American  Medical 
Monthly,"  of  which  he  became  one  of  the  edi- 
tors. Dr.  Green  was  noted  for  his  treatment 
of  diseases  of  the  throat  and  air  passages  by 
topical  medication  with  nitrate  of  silver  in  so- 
lution. He  published  "  Diseases  of  the  Air 
Passages  "  (New  York,  1846) ;  "  Pathology  and 
Treatment  of  the  Croup"  (1849);  "Surgical 
Treatment  of  the  Polypi  of  the  Larynx  and  the 
(Edema  of  the  Glottis"  (1852);  "Report  of 
106  Cases  of  Pulmonary  Diseases  treated  by 
Injections  into  the  Bronchial  Tubes  with  a 
Solution  of  Nitrate  of  Silver  "  (1856) ;  "  Selec- 
tions from  the  Favorite  Prescriptions  of  Living 
American  Physicians"  (1858);  and  "Pulmo- 
nary Tuberculosis"  (1864). 

GREEN,  Jacob,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  26,  1790,  died  there,  Feb. 
1,  1841.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  at  the  age  of  1 6,  and  immediately 
afterward  published  in  connection  with  a  young 
friend  a  treatise  on  electricity  and  galvanism. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  prac- 
tised, and  in  1818  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry,  experimental  philosophy,  and  natu- 
ral history  in  the  college  of  New  Jersey.  This 
position  he  exchanged  four  years  later  for  the 
chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Jefferson  medical 
college,  Philadelphia,  which  he  filled  until  his 


226 


GREEN 


death.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  sci- 
entific text  books,  including  "Chemical  Phi- 
losophy "  (Philadelphia,  1829),  "  Astronomical 
Recreations,"  "  Treatise  of  Electro-Magnetism," 
"  Monograph  of  the  Trilobites  of  North  Amer- 
ica," &c. :  of  papers  in  the  "  American  Journal 
of  Science ;"  and  of  "  Notes  of  a  Traveller 
through  England  and  Europe"  (3  vols.,  1831). 

GREEN,  Samuel,  an  American  printer,  born 
in  England  in  1615,  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Jan.  1,  1702.  He  succeeded  Day  in  the  print- 
ing house  at  Cambridge  about  1648.  He  print- 
ed the  "Cambridge  Platform"  in  1649,  the 
laws  in  1660,  and,  in  the  Indian  language,  the 
Psalter,  Eliot's  Catechism,  Baxter's  "  Call  to 
the  Unconverted,"  the  New  Testament,  and 
1,000  copies  of  the  Bible  in  1683.  He  had  19 
children,  and  his  descendants  were  a  race  of 
printers,  living  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Vermont,  and  Maryland. 

GREEN,  Seth,  an  American  fish  culturist,  born 
in  Eochester,  N.  Y.,  March  19,  1817.  A  fish- 
erman by  occupation,  his  attention  was  early 
attracted  by  the  gradual  diminution  of  fish 
in  the  waters  of  the  state,  and  in  1838  he 
began  to  devote  himself  to  practical  fish  cul- 
ture. In  1864  he  organized  the  fish-breeding 
establishment  at  Caledonia  springs  in  Living- 
ston co.,  which  he  managed  with  great  success 
for  four  years.  In  1867  he  invented  a  shad- 
hatching  box,  which  has  been  extensively  used 
in  stocking  the  Connecticut,  Hudson,  and  other 
rivers.  He  published  a  work  on  "  Trout  Cul- 
ture" in  1870,  and  in  1871  succeeded  in  trans- 
porting 10,000  young  shad  from  the  Hudson  to 
the  Sacramento.  He  was  for  some  years  com- 
missioner of  fisheries  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
and  is  now  (1874)  superintendent  of  the  state 
hatching  house  at  Caledonia.  He  has  been  justly 
styled  the  father  of  American  fish  culture. 

GREEN,  William  Mercer,  an  American  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  born  in 
Wilmington,  N.  C.,  May  2, 1798.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  his  native  state  in  1818, 
studied  for  the  ministry,  and  was  ordained  in 
1820.  lie  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  university  of  North  Carolina  in  1837, 
and  was,  elected  first  bishop  of  Mississippi  in 
1849,  and  consecrated  Feb.  24,  1850.  Bishop 
Green  was  among^  the  founders  of  the  "  Uni- 
versity of  the  South,"  at  Suwanee,  Tenn.,  in 
1858,  and  became  its  chancellor  in  1866,  which 
post  he  still  occupies  (1874).  He  has  published 
a  "  Memoir  of  Bishop  Ravenscroft,"  and  "  Ser- 
mons on  Apostolic  Succession  and  Baptismal 
Regeneration." 

GREEN  BAY,  a  large  arm  of  Lake  Michigan, 
communicating  with  the  W.  side  of  the  lake 
by  a  broad  opening  at  which  lies  a  group  of 
islands.  It  partly  separates  Wisconsin  from 
the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  is  100  m. 
long  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  from  15  to  30 
m.  broad.  It  receives  Menomonee,  Fox,  and 
several  smaller  rivers.  The  name  Green  was 
given  it  on  account  of  its  color,  caused  by  its 
great  depth,  which  is  said  to  exceed  500  ft. 


GREENBRIER 

GREEN  BAY,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Brown 
co.,  Wisconsin,  on  a  low  peninsula  between 
Fox  and  East  rivers,  about  2  m.  above  the 
head  of  Green  bay,  100  m.  N.  of  Milwaukee- 
pop.  in  1860,  2,275 ;  in  1870,  4,666.  It  has 
a  fine  harbor,  accessible  by  the  largest  steam- 
ers  from  Lake  Michigan ;  while,  by  means  of 
the  improvements  on  Fox  river  and  the  canal 
across  the  portage,  boats  of  5  ft.  draught  have 
passed,  during  high  water,  by  way  of  the  Fox 
and  Wisconsin  rivers,  from  Lake  Michigan  to 
the  Mississippi.  The  Wisconsin  division  of  tho 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad  passes 
through  Fort  Howard  (pop.  in  1870,  2,462),  a 
borough  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Fox  opposite 
Green  Bay,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
bridge  and  ferries.  Green  Bay  itself  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Milwaukee  and  Northern  and 
the  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Pepin  railroads.  The 
most  important  item  of  trade  is  lumber,  about 
79,000,000  feet,  besides  200,000,000  shingles 
and  6,000,000  staves,  the  product  of  40  or  50 
mills  in  the  surrounding  country,  being  mar- 
keted here  annually.  The  grain  and  flour  trade 
is  also  considerable.  The  receipts  in  1871,  in- 
cluding Fort  Howard,  amounted  to  539,102 
bushels  of  grain  and  110,000  barrels  of  flour. 
To  accommodate  this  traffic,  an  elevator  with 
a  capacity  of  225,000  bushels  has  been  erected 
upon  a  pier  which  projects  800  ft.  into  the  river, 
and  along  which  the  railroad  tracks  have  been 
extended.  The  entire  trade  of  the  city  in  1871 
amounted  to  about  $3,500,000.  It  contains 
a  number  of  noteworthy  public  buildings,  in- 
cluding large  warehouses,  an  elegant  court 
house,  and  a  well  arranged  opera  house,  and 
has  many  handsome  residences.  There  are 
three  national  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $200,000,  12  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school,  a  daily  and  three  weekly  (one  German) 
newspapers,  and  11  churches. — The  first  per- 
manent settlement  at  Green  Bay  was  effected 
by  the  French  in  1745.  A  portion  of  the  site 
was  laid  out  about  1830  under  the  name  of 
Navarino,  and  another  portion  in  1835  under 
that  of  Astor.  They  were  incorporated  as 
Green  Bay  in  1839,  and  in  1854  a  city  charter 
was  granted.  In  the  early  parf  of  this  century 
it  was  a  post  of  the  American  fur  company. 

GREENBRIER,  a  S.  E.  county  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, bordering  on  Virginia,  intersected  by 
Greenbrier  river,  a  N.  E.  affluent  of  the  Great 
Kanawha  or  New  river,  and  bounded  S.  E.  by  a 
ridge  of  the  Alleghanies ;  area,  880  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  11,417,  of  whom  1,103  were  colored. 
The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile.  The  celebra- 
ted White  Sulphur  Springs  are  in  this  county, 
which  is  crossed  by  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
50,214  bushels  of  wheat,  181,381  of  Indian 
corn,  92,295  of  oats,  13,928  of  potatoes,  174,- 
865  Ibs.  of  butter,  34,051  of  wool,  and  7,444 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,805  horses,  3,201 
milch  cows,  6,199  other  cattle,  13,880  sheep, 
and  5,733  swine ;  4  saw  mills,  and  2  woollen 
factories.  Capital,  Lewisburg. 


GREENBUSH 


GREENE 


227 


IEENBFSH,  a  town  of  Rensselaer  co.,  New 
York,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Hudson,  opposite 
Albany,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  two 
bridges  ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,202.  It  is  the  S.  ter- 
minus of  the  Troy  and  Greenbush  railroad,  and 
is  intersected  by  the  Boston  and  Albany  and 
the  Hudson  River  lines.  The  depot  of  the  lat- 
ter is  at  a  point  locally  known  as  East  Albany. 
The  town  contains  two  saw  mills,  flour  mills, 
a  blast  furnace,  &c.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1795,  and  in  1855  East  Greenbush  and  North 
Greenbush  were  separated  from  it. 

GREENCASTLE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Put- 
nam co.,  Indiana,  1  m.  E.  of  Walnut  fork  of 
Eel  river,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Louisville, 
New  Albany,  and  Chicago  railroad  with  the  St. 
Louis,  Vandalia,  Terre  Haute,  and  Indianapo- 
lis, and  the  Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis  lines, 
10  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Indianapolis  ;  pop.  in  1870, 
3,227.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  high  table 
land,  and  is  the  commercial  centre  of  a  rich 
farming  and  extensive  stock-raising  region.  It 
sontains  a  court  house,  a  jail,  a  national  bank, 
i  large  rolling  mill  and  nail  factory,  seven 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  and 
several  churches,  and  has  two  weekly  newspa- 
pers. Indiana  Asbury  university  (Methodist), 
situated  here,  was  organized  in  1835,  and  in 
1874  had  10  professors  and  instructors,  and 
i39  students,  of  whom  245,  including  38  fe- 
rcales,  were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The 
^hitcomb  and  the  college  circulating  libraries 
contain  9,000  volumes.  There  is  also  in  the 
3ity  a  Presbyterian  female  college,  having  5 
instructors  and  120  students. 

GREENE,  the  name  of  counties  in  14  of  the 
[Jnited  States.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  New 
fork,  bounded  E.  by  the  Hudson  river,  and 
Irained  by  Catskill  creek  and  Schoharie  river ; 
irea,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  31,832.  The 
surface  is  broken  by  the  Catskill  mountains, 
which  are  mostly  sterile.  The  valleys  and 
evel  districts  of  the  N.  E.  contain  some  ex- 
cellent soil.  A  branch  of  the  New  York 
Oentral  railroad  from  Schenectady  terminates 
it  Athens  in  this  county.  The  chief  produc- 
:ions  in  1870  were  72,016  bushels  of  rye,  138,- 
389  of  Indian  corn,  378,422  of  oats,  97,947  of 
Buckwheat,  276,787  of  potatoes,  1,538,203  Ibs. 
rf  butter,  52,147  of  wool,  and  103,357  tons  of 
my.  There  were  5,902  horses,  14,825  milch 
x>ws,  10,791  other  cattle,  12,778  sheep,  and 
5,276  swine ;  10  manufactories  of  carriages,  10 
)f  bricks,  6  of  barrels  and  casks,  1  of  cotton 
joods,  8  of  furniture,  5  of  iron  castings,  2  of 
Machinery,  2  of  paper,  9  of  saddlery  and  har- 
less,  4  of  woollen  goods,  5  ship  yards,  4  saw 
nills,  7  flour  mills,  and  4  tanneries.  Capital, 
Jatskill.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
Bounded  S.  and  W.  by  West  Virginia  and  E. 
)y  the  Monongahela,  and  watered  by  several 
mriall  streams ;  area,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
25,887.  It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  fertile 
'oil,  and  abounds  in  bituminous  coal.  The 
ihief  productions  in  1870  were  255,584  bushels 
)f  wheat,  26,606  of  rye,  749,520  of  Indian  corn, 


438,222  of  oats,  53,712  of  potatoes,  759,135  Ibs. 
of  butter,  444,489  of  wool,  and  23,206  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  7,278  horses,  7,369  milch  cows, 
15,380  other  cattle,  121,135  sheep,  and  19,580 
swine ;  7  manufactories  of  carriages,  6  of  barrels 
and  casks,  8  of  furniture,  14  of  saddlery  and  har- 
ness, 4  of  stone  and  earthenware,  3  of  woollen 
goods,  4  flour  and  4  saw  mills,  8  tanneries,  and  6 
currying  establishments.  Capital,  Waynesburg. 
III.  A  central  county  of  Virginia,  lying  partly 
on  the  S.  E.  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  and 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Rapidan  river ;  area,  230  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,634,  of  whom  1,452  were 
colored.  It  has  an  uneven  surface,  traversed 
by  some  fertile  valleys.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  36,060  bushels  of  wheat,  84,033 
of  Indian  corn,  37,886  of  oats,  and  262,030 
Ibs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  1,046  horses,  885 
milch  cows,  1,221  other  cattle,  and  3,466  swine. 
Capital,  Stanardsville.  IV.  An  E.  county  of 
North  Carolina,  drained  by  the  Mackoson,  an 
affluent  of  the  Neuse  river ;  area,  about  280 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  8,687,  of  whom  4,521 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Marl  is  found  in  several  places. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  223,988 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  23,521  of  peas  and 
beans,  44,531  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  6,268 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  779  horses,  982 
milch  cows,  2,225  other  cattle,  and  9,657 
swine.  Capital,  Snow  Hill.  V.  A  N.  E.  cen- 
tral county  of  Georgia,  bounded  S.  W.  by  the 
Appalachee  and  Oconee  rivers,  the  latter  of 
which  intersects  the  N.  W.  part ;  area,  374  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,454,  of  whom  8,156  were 
colored.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Georgia  and 
Athens  branch  railroads.  It  has  a  hilly  surface, 
and  the  soil,  though  originally  fertile,  is  partly 
worn  out.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
24,651  bushels  of  wheat,  132,635  of  Indian  corn, 
9,735  of  oats,  13,971  of  sweet  potatoes,  63,020 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  5,699  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  829  horses,  993  mules  and  asses,  1,384 
milch  cows,  2,651  other  cattle,  2,240  sheep, 
and  5,100  swine;  3  carriage  factories,  1  cotton 
factory,  and  6  flour  mills.  Capital,  Greens- 
borough.  VI.  A  W.  county  of  Alabama, 
bounded  S.  E.  by  Black  Warrior  river  and  S. 
W.  by  the  Tombigbee,  the  two  streams  uniting 
at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  county,  and 
being  navigable  by  steamboats  during  half  the 
year ;  area,  about  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
18,399,  of  whom  14,541  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  moderately  uneven ;  the  soil  is  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  207,782 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  22,080  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  9,910  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
1,077  horses,  2,101  mules  and  asses,  2,145 
milch  cows,  3,459  other  cattle,  2,576  sheep,  and 
6,674  swine.  Capital,  Eutaw.  VII.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Mississippi,  bordering  on  Alabama, 
drained  by  Chickasawha  and  Leaf  rivers,  which 
unite  in  the  S.  part  to  form  the  Pascagoula  ; 
area,  830  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,038,  of  whom 
372  were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face, a  soil  only  moderately  fertile,  and  pine 


228 


GREENE 


forests.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  touches 
the  N.  E.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  21,473  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and 
18  877  of  sweet  potatoes.  There  were  400 
horses,  2,402  milch  cows,  3,777  other  cattle, 
4,357  sheep,  and  7,338  swine.  Capital,  Leakes- 
ville.  VIII.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bounded  N.  by  Missouri,  and  separated  from 
it  on  the  E.  by  St.  Francis  river,  and  bordered 
S.  W.  by  the  Cache  river;  area,  950  sq. 
m.  i  pop.  in  1870,  7,573,  of  whom  156  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  of 
the  river  bottoms  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  10,890  bushels  of  wheat, 
208,352  of  Indian  corn,  10,623  of  oats,  12,904 
of  sweet  and  7,691  of  Irish  potatoes,  and  983 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,173  horses, 
1,305  milch  cows,  2,852  other  cattle,  2,727 
sheep,  and  8,232  swine.  Capital,  Gainesville. 
IX.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering 
on  North  Carolina,  and  traversed  by  Noli- 
chucky  river ;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
21,688,  of  whom  2,064  were  colored.  It  con- 
tains valuable  beds  of  iron  ore.  The  surface 
is  elevated,  uneven^  and  well  timbered.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and 
Georgia,  and  the  Cincinnati,  Cumberland  Gap, 
and  Charleston  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  238,716  bushels  of  wheat, 
496,659  of  Indian  corn,  149,518  of  oats,  21,296 
of  Irish  and  11,331  of  sweet  potatoes,  268,411 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  7,124  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,644  horses,  5,279  milch  cows,  8,008 
other  cattle,  21,130  sheep,  and  25,306  swine; 
2  blast  furnaces,  3  flour  and  5  saw  mills,  10 
tanneries,  and  7  currying  establishments.  Cap- 
ital, Greeneville.  X.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Ohio, 
watered  by  Mad  and  Little  Miami  rivers ;  area, 
432  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  28,038.  It  contains 
limestone  and  variegated  marble.  The  surface 
is  undulating,  and  the  soil  consists  of  fertile  clay. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Little  Miami  railroad,  the 
Dayton,  Xenia,  and  Western,  and  the  Spring- 
field branch,  which  connect  at  Xenia,  the  At- 
lantic and  Great  Western,  and  the  Cincinnati, 
Sandusky,  and  Cleveland  railroads.  Antioch 
college  is  at  Yellow  Springs  in  this  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  643,980 
bushels  of  wheat,  10,674  of  rye,  1,527,647  of 
Indian  corn,  152,747  of  oats,  22,491  of  barley, 
83,270  of  potatoes,  370,179  Ibs.  of  butter, 
109,691  of  wool,  277,360  of  tobacco,  14,283 
tons  of  hay,  1,137,675  Ibs.  of  flax,  and  38,998 
bushels  of  flax  seed.  There  were  7,585  horses, 
6,741  inilch  cows,  8,695  other  cattle,  29,320 
sheep,  and  3,395  swine;  2  manufactories  of 
bagging,  8  of  bricks,  21  of  carriages,  21  of 
clothing,  2  of  barrels  and  casks,  1  of  cordage 
and  twine,  1  of  gunpowder,  3  of  linseed  oil,  5 
bakeries,  11  flour  mills,  1  tannery,  1  currying 
establishment,  1  distillery,  and  8  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Xenia.  XI.  A  S.  W.  county  of  In- 
diana, drained  by  the  W.  fork  of  White  river ; 
area,  540  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  19,541.  It  is 
diversified  by  prairies,  oak  openings,  and  forests, 
and  has  a  rich  soil.  The  Indianapolis  and  Vin- 


cennes  railroad  and  the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal 
pass  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  190,647  bushels  of  wheat,  784,195 
of  Indian  corn,  101,410  of  oats,  39,639  of 
potatoes,  160,958  Ibs.  of  butter,  79,319  of 
wool,  112,242  of  tobacco,  and  7,833  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  6,464  horses,  4,530  milch 
cows,  8,132  other  cattle,  30,341  sheep,  and 
26,195  swine;  6  flour  mills,  11  saw  mills,  and 
1  distillery.  Capital,  Bloomfield.  XII.  A  W. 
county  of  Illinois,  bounded  W.  by  the  Illinois 
river;  area,  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,277. 
It  has  a  rolling  surface  and  a  fertile  soil,  and 
contains  an  abundance  of  anthracite  coal  and 
timber.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Chicago  and 
Alton  railroad  (Jacksonville  division),  and  the 
Kockford,  Bock  Island,  and  St.  Louis  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  577,400 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,051,313  of  Indian  corn, 
64,029  of  oats,  50,435  of  potatoes,  195,992  Ibs. 
of  butter,  70,854  of  wool,  and  20,031  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  9,034  horses,  4,479  inilch 
cows,  13,146  other  cattle,  13,690  sheep,  and 
31,690  swine;  12  manufactories  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  6  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  stone 
and  earthern  ware,  1  of  woollen  goods,  5  of 
bricks,  4  saw  and  5  flour  mills.  Capital,  Car- 
rollton.  XIII.  A  W.  central  county  of  Iowa,  in- 
tersected by  Kaccoon  river  ;  area,  600  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,627.  It  consists  mostly  of  prai- 
ries. It  is  traversed  by  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western and  the  Des  Moines  Valley  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  98,943 
bushels  of  wheat,  226,965  of  Indian  corn,  54,967 
of  oats,  18,951  of  potatoes,  and  6,862  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  1,774  horses,  1,300  milch 
cows,  2,966  other  cattle,  3,875  sheep,  and 
5,852  swine ;  1  flour  mill,  and  4  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Jefierson.  XIV.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Missouri,  drained  by  branches  of  the  Osage 
and  White  rivers ;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  21,549,  of  whom  2,156  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  diversified  and  occupied  by  al- 
ternate forests  and  prairies.  Limestone  and 
lead  are  found.  The  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  171,166 
bushels  of  wheat,  859, 953  of  Indian  corn,  256,- 
096  of  oats,  47,626  of  potatoes,  159,245  Ibs. 
of  butter,  37,491  of  wool,  and  4,487  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  6,752  horses,  4,661  milch 
cows,  7,940  other  cattle,  22,492  sheep,  and 
29,542  swine;  3  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  3  of  bricks,  1  of  iron  castings,  3 
of  carriages,  1  of  engines  and  boilers,  2  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  tobacco  and  snuff, 
5  flour  mills,  1  distillery,  1  planing  mill,  and  7 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Springfield. 

GREENE,  Christopher,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Warwick,  R.  I.,  in  1737,  killed  near 
the  Croton  river,  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.,  May 
13,  1781.  He  was  among  the  first  to  take  the 
field  on  the  patriotic  side  after  the  engage- 
ments at  Lexington  and  Concord.  He  served 
in  the  campaign  in  Canada  under  Arnold,  and 
subsequently  under  Montgomery  with  the  rank 


GREENE 


229 


colonel,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  at- 
on  Quebec,  Dec.  31,  1775.  On  Oct.  22, 
1777,  while  in  command  of  Fort  Mercer  at  Red 
Bank,  on  the  Delaware,  he  sustained  an  attack 
from  a  large  force  of  Hessians  under  Col.  Do- 
nop,  who  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter. 
For  these  services  a  sword  was  voted  him  by 
congress,  which  was  presented  in  1786  to  his 
son,  and  a  monument  commemorative  of  the 
battle  was  erected  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort 
Mercer  in  1829.  Col.  Greene  lost  his  life  in  an 
encounter  with  a  superior  body  of  tory  dra- 
goons who  had  surprised  his  post.  He  killed 
several  of  the  enemy  with  his  own  hand,  but 
was  finally  overpowered. 


£ 


GREENE,  George  Washington,  an  American  au- 
)rn  in  East  Greenwich,  R.  I.,  April  8, 
11.     He  is  a  grandson  of  Nathanael  Greene, 


111  X. 

s 


the  revolutionary  general.  He  was  obliged  by 
ill  health  to  leave  Brown  university  in  his  ju- 
nior year  in  1827,  and  resided  from  that  time 
in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  short 
~  its  home,  till  1847.  From  1837  to  1845  he 
as  United  States  consul  at  Rome.  Between 
5  and  1850  he  published  a  series  of  essays 
in  the  "  North  American  Review,"  which  were 
collected  in  a  volume  entitled  "Historical 
Studies  "  (New  York,  1850).  On  his  return  to 
the  United  States  he  became  instructor  in  mod- 

K  languages  in  Brown  university,  and  edited 
eral  text  books,  among  which  were  a  new 
tion  of  Piitz  and  Arnold's  "  Ancient  Geog- 
hy  and  History"  (New  York,  1849)  and 
'History  and    Geography  of   the   Middle 
Ages  "  (1851).     He  furnished  the  life  of  Gen. 
Greene  in  Sparks's   "American  Biography," 
and  afterward  published  separately  a  "Life  of 
Nathanael  Greene"  (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York, 
1867-'8).     In  1860  he  published  a  volume  of 
"Biographical  Studies;"  in  1865  a  "Historical 
View  of  the  American  Revolution;"  and  in 
1866  a  criticism  of  the  account  of  Gen.  Greene 
Bancroft's  history.     In  1872  he  was  appoint- 
non-resident  professor  of  American  history 
Cornell  university. 

GREENE,  Nathanael,  an  American  soldier,  born 
Potowhommet,  Warwick  co.,  R.  I.,  May  27, 
42,  died  near  Savannah,  Ga.,  June  19,  1786. 
is  father  had  a  farm  and  a  forge,  and  was  a 
ading  preacher  among  the  Quakers.  Na- 
thanael was  trained  to  manual  labor,  but  picked 
up  more  than  ordinary  knowledge  of  history, 
geometry,  law,  and  moral  and  political  science. 
In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  general 
assembly  for  Coventry,  whither  he  had  remov- 
ed to  take  charge  of  another  forge ;  and  from 
that  time  he  took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs 
till  the  close  of  the  war.  He  was  the  first  to  es- 
tablish a  public  school  in  Coventry,  and  for  en- 
gaging in  military  exercises  was  expelled  from 
the  society  of  Friends.  In  1774  he  joined  the 
Kentish  guards  as  a  private.  In  July  of  the 
same  year  he  married  Catharine  Littlefield  of 
Block  island,  and  in  May,  1775,  was  appointed 
by  the  general  assembly  to  command  as  briga- 
dier general  the  Rhode  Island  contingent  in 


the  army  before  Boston.  He  joined  his  com- 
mand at  Roxbury  on  June  3,  and  from  that 
time  remained  in  active  service  without  a  day's 
furlough  till  the  final  disbandment  of  the  army 
in  1783.  At  Boston  his  brigade  was  distin- 
guished by  its  discipline,  and  he  won  the  love 
and  confidence  of  Washington  from  the  begin- 
ning of  their  intercourse.  After  the  evacua- 
tion of  Boston  he  was  intrusted  with  the  de- 
fence of  Long  Island,  but  was  stricken  down 
by  a  fever  a  few  days  before  the  battle  there. 
In  September,  1776,  he  was  made  major  general, 
and  appointed  to  the  command  in  New  Jersey. 
At  Trenton  he  led  the  division  with  which 
Washington  marched  in  person,  and  with  Knox 
was  for  following  up  the  advantages  of  that 
brilliant  surprise  by  advancing  directly  upon 
the  other  detachments  of  the  enemy.  He  took 
an  equal  part  in  the  battle  of  Princeton.  At 
the  Brandy  wine  he  commanded  a  division,  and 
by  a  rapid  march  and  successful  stand  preserv- 
ed the  army  from  destruction.  At  German- 
town  he  commanded  the  left  wing  which  pene- 
trated into  the  village.  On  March  2,  1778,  he 
accepted,  at  the  urgent  solicitation  of  Washing- 
ton and  the  committee  of  congress,  the  office 
of  quartermaster  general,  stipulating  that  he 
should  retain  his  right  to  command  in  action. 
He  held  this  position  until  August,  1780. 
At  Monmouth,  in  1778,  he  commanded  the  right 
wing.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  attempt 
upon  Newport,  commanding  the  right  wing 
in  the  battle  of  Tiverton  heights.  On  June 
23,  1780,  he  checked  with  two  brigades  and  a 
small  body  of  militia  the  advance  of  a  corps  of 
5,000  of  the  enemy,  in  the  brilliant  battle  of 
Springfield.  He  was  in  command  of  the  army 
during  Gen.  Washington's  visit  to  Hartford  in 
September,  1780,  when  Arnold's  conspiracy 
was  discovered,  and  sat  as  president  of  the 
court  of  inquiry  upon  Major  Andre".  On  Oct. 
14  of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  southern  army,  which  he 
found  on  his  arrival,  Dec.  2,  in  a  state  of  utter 
disorganization  and  want.  On  the  20th  he  ad- 
vanced to  a  well-chosen  camp  on  the  banks  of 
the  Pedee,  and  began  a  series  of  operations 
which  in  less  than  a  year  stripped  the  enemy 
of  nearly  all  their  hard-won  conquests  in  the 
Carolinas  and  Georgia,  and  shut  them  up  in 
Charleston  and  its  immediate  neighborhood. 
The  events  of  this  year  were  the  battle  of  the 
Cowpens,  won  by  Gen.  Morgan  at  the  opening 
of  the  campaign ;  a  brilliant  retreat  from  the 
Catawba  to  the  Dan ;  the  return  into  North 
Carolina,  in  which  Gen.  Greene  maintained 
his  position  for  two  weeks  within  striking  dis- 
tance of  a  superior  enemy,  in  such  a  manner 
as  both  to  avoid  an  engagement  and  cover  the 
roads  by  \vhich  his  reinforcements  were  coin- 
ing ;  the  battle  of  Guilford  Court  House,  in 
which  he  lost  the  field,  but  gained  the  end  for 
which  he  fought ;  the  pursuit  of  Cornwallis  to 
the  Deep  river ;  the  daring  advance  into  South 
Carolina ;  the  battle  of  Hobkirk's  hill,  a  second 
defeat  followed  by  the  results  of  victory ;  the 


(IUFFNF 


Siege  of  l-'ort  Ninclv  six.  raised  by  (lie  :i.l\  aneo 
of  LordlJawdon,  I. ill  followed  by  the  immediate 
evacuation  of  the  post  nn«l  the  retreat  of  the 
enemy  to  ward  the  \\osl  ;  the  drawn  lint  lie  of 
Kulaw  Springs,  tho  hardest  fought  Held  of  the 
Mild  (lie  adv. 'Hire  ii|.on  Dorchester, 
spoken  of  I'.v  Washington  as  "another  proof 
of  the  singular  al'ililies  of"  (ien.  (troono. 
II  pivseiited  him  uilh  a  medal  for  the 
battle  of  Kutnw  Springs,  and  I  u  o  of  (lie  cannon 
taken  iVom  I  lie  enemy  for  his  general  •  cr\  ices. 
The  Carolina*  and  (loorgia  made  him  valuable 
grants  of  proper! \.  Afier  passing  a  year  in 

Rhode  Island,  ho   removed   to  Mulberry  (irovo 
on  tin*  Savannah   river,  where  he  died  of  sun 
stroke.      A  monument    was  voted   by    congrc     . 
but  never  i«reeted,  and  all  traces  of  his  hnrial 
place    have    boon    lost.      lie    left,   t  u  o   sons  and 
I  hive   daughters,   and    an   estate  seriously  em 
harrasgcd  hy  his  oUorts  in   17HIJ  to  food  and 
elolhe  his  -irmx. 

(iUKKNK.     I.  NNthftnlH,  an   Ameriean  author, 
horn   in    Uoseawon,  N.  II.,  May   l!0,  IV'.>7.      At 
the  ago  of  1'2  hocntercd  the  ollice  of  t  ho  "  New 
Hampshire  Patriot  "  at  Concord,  and  at   l.'>  he-  j 
came  editor  of  the  "  Concord    lia/otlo."      Re     ' 
to  Portsmouth  in  ISM,  he  oil  it  oil  fora  I 
year  the  "New    Hampshire   (Ja/.ette."     From 
'isi.'i  to    IS17  he  conducted   t  he  "  ( ia/elte  "  at 
llaverhill,  Mass.      lie  commenced    the  puhliea 
lion   ,,f  the  "  Fssex    Patriot"  at    llaverhill  in 
Ma\,  lsi;,  niid   eondnelod    it    for  nearly    four 
years,   when  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  cslal' 
iished,  l-'eh.  (>,  1  S'J  1 ,  the  "  Moston  Statesman," 
which  hocame  the   loading  ilomoeratie  journal 
ol'the  state.      In   IS'J'.I,  on  the  election  of  Pros 
ident    .lackson,     Mr.    (Jrocnc    was   mado  post- 
master   of    Post. >n,    \\hieh     ollieo     he     held     till 
ISII.and   again    from    |S|,">io    ISp.t.      In  IS.'ii; 
he    translated    a  "Hi-. lory    of   Italy  "  from    the 
Italian  of  Sfor/.o/.i,  vv  hich  was  followed  hy  the 
translation  of  two  volumes  of  "Talcs  from  the 
Cerman  "  (Hoston,   IS:?;).      Six   years   later   he 
published     "Tales    and     Sketclies     from     the 
French,    Herman,    and     Italian."       U.    Umrlos 
Gordon,  an   American  journalist,  hrother  of  the 
preceding,    horn    in    Uoscawon,  N.    11.,  .Inly    1, 
l^o  I        At  an   e:irl\   ar.e    ho    was    place. 1    in'  tho 
otlloo  of  tlio  "  Kssex  Patriot  "as  an  apprentice, 
whence  lie  was  removed  to  a  print itii;-  otlice   at 
K\«'ter.      At    IS    ho    went    to    Uostoii,  and    ho 
came    connected    with    the    "Statesman,"    his 
Ill-other's  journal.       lie   conducted    in    IS •.',*•    '('. 
tho  '•  1  '  at    Tannlon.      Ki-turning  to 

Hoston.  he  puhlMiod  a  literary  paper,  'the 
"Speetiitor,"  atu-r  which  he  resiimcd  his  con 
nection  with  the  "Statesman."  In  1827  he 
removed  (,.  Philadelphia,  whore  he  was  one 
I  onddOtonof  the  "  National  Palladium," 
the  tiixi  Pennsylvania  journal  that  ailvocated 
the  election  of  (Jon.  .laekson  to  the  proMdencv . 
18  he  WM  employed  in  tlu>  otlice  of  the 
"  Tinted  States  Telegraph."  conducted  hy 
li"'  I 'nil*  C.rci'ii,  at  Washington,  then  the 
pnncipal  journal  of  the  democratic  party. 
After  the  election  of  Jackson  he  succeeded 


., 1:1.1  \i  ir.i.h 

his  hrother  Nathaniel  as  one  of  the  proprietors 
and  publishers  of  the  "Statesman,"  of  which 
he  finally  hecamo  sole  proprietor.  On  Nov. 
'.»,  |S:t|.  he  issue. 1  the  lirsl  numher  of  t  he  l>os 
ton  "  Morning  Post."  lie  has  several  times 
heen  a  candidate  tor  memher  of  congress,  lie 
was  naval  ollieer  at  Most  on  from  |s;>;;  to  IS 

<;KIIM,  Kobort,  an  l;n:'li  h  dramatist  and 
miscellaiietuis  writer,  horn  at  Ipswich  ahoiit 
l.'.r.O,  «lied  in  London,  Sept.  ;5,  IfiD'J.  lie  was 
educated  at  Catnhrid^e,  and  studied  for  a  w  hiU 
also  at  (Kl'ord.  Although  hrcd  t  o  a  profession, 
lu<  followed  the  career  of  an  author,  rivalling 
his  hrother  dramatists,  if  not  always  in  dramat- 
ic power,  at  least  in  prollifacx  .  His  life  was 
spent  alternately  in  plenty  and  pciiurv.  lleiu:-; 
deserted  hy  all  his  friends,  he  was  indebted 
for  shelter  and  attendance  in  his  last  sickness 
to  a  poor  eohhler  and  his  wife,  lie  was  a 
prolific  writer,  and  in  addition  to  his  dramas, 
of  which  onlv  live  that  are  certainly  his  have 
come  down  to  us,  wrote  poem--,  tales,  and 
pamphlets.  Some  of  his  poems  are  character- 
i/ed  hy  much  elegance  of  diction.  His  talc  of 
"  Pandosto,  or  the  Historic  of  Poraslus  and 
Kaniua,"  furnished  Shakespeare  the  plot  for 
his  "  Winter's  Tale."  In  "  A  (Jroat'.s  \\  orth 
of  Wit  hought  with  a  Million  of  Kcpcntanoo," 
(ireene  alludes  to  Shakespeare  as  "an  upstart, 
crow  hoautitiod  with  our  leal  hers  in  his  own 
conceit  tho  only  .v/M/l,  xr<'n<-  in  a  country." 
An  edition  of  his  works  was  published  hy  tho 
Kev.  A.  hveo  in  I  SHI  ('.'  vols.  Svo). 

(.KIIMHII),  the  shire  town  of  1'ranklin 
co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Connecticut  river,  'JO  m.  N.of  Northampton, 
and  SO  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Ho-toti;  pop.  in  ISTO, 
:l,f>SD.  ll  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Vermont  and  Massachusetts  with  the  Connec- 
ticut Kiver  railroad,  and  is  connected  with 
Alhany  and  Troy  hy  the  Troy  and  (iroentiold 
line,  which  passes  through  the  lloosac  tunnel. 
It  is  supplied  with  water  power  hy  Cirocn  and 
L'all  rivers,  the  latter  of  which  forms  part  of 
(he  I',  boundary,  besides  the  county  buildings, 
it  contains  three  manufactories  of  hardw  are  for 
children's  carriages,  one  of  children's  carriages, 
one  of  bolt  culling  machines,  one  of  plumbs 
and  lovoK  one  of  bench  planes  and  o\  shoes, 
atannerv,  a  carriage  factor\,  and  a  sasli  uiul 

blind  factory.  The  first  manufactory  of  table 
cutlery  in  the  I'nitod  States  was  established 
here  by  John  Russell  in  ISlM,  under  tho  name 
of  the  tlreen  Kiver  manufacturing  company; 
destroyed  by  tire  in  IS.'Ui,  it  was  rebuilt  near 
Cireenlield  village,  but  within  the  limits  of  the 
town  ol  heertield.  The  ,1 .  Russell  manufac- 
turing company  of  table  cutlery  was  estab- 
lished in  IS.Vi;  in  IS7H  its  works  were  ro- 
moved  to  Turner's  Falls,  a  village  on  the  F. 
bank  of  the  Connecticut,  '.'  \  m.  from  lireclt- 
tield,  with  which  it  is  connected  hy  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  built  in  IS7-.  Ureentiold  contains 
two  national  hanks  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $."iOO,OUO,  two  savings  banks  with  depos- 
its amounting  to  $:v>00,000,  four  hotels,  gas 


(1KKKM1KAKT 


(JKKKNHOrSK 


works,  water   works,   10  public  schools,   inolu 

ling  a  high  school,  a  young  ladies'  select  school. 

town   library   of  -1,000  volumes,   and   seven 

lurches,    and    has    two    weekly    news] 

.'ho  town  was  separate.!  from  iVortield  ii 

MIKKMIKAHT,  a  tree  belonging  to  the 

lily   and  of  the  genus  /,,, •/,«;.-. .•'.-./.      Ho 
lo  not  agree  as  to  the  species,  some 
,'.    A','.//,/,   while  others  consider  it 

A.  !<-:;c,n;th>t.      It  is  found  in  several  of  tho 
i'est    India    islands  and   in    various   parts  of 

ith  America,  where  it  forms  a  large  tree, 

.r>0  or  (50  ft.  high  and  *J  or  ;>   ft.  in   diam 
the  alternate  polished  leaves  are   from    1 
!>    in.    long;    the  (lowers,    in  loose   panicles, 
of  a  w  heel  shaped  calyx,  no  petals,  nine 
Ttile  stamens,   and   a  single  pistil;   the  divi- 
lons  of  the  calyx   fall   away,  and  its  tube   re 
lains  as  a  small  eup  which  supports  the  berry. 
ho   hark    has   boon   used   as  a   substitute  for 
inohona,  and,   under  the  name  of   bibiru  or 
'boom,    has    been     somewhat     employed    in 
odieine.     It  contains  an  aetivo  principle  called 
U'beerine,  which  is  not  to  ho  confounded  with 
borherino.      Tho  great    value   of  the   tree   is  in 
its   timber,    which    is  sent    from    homcrara    to 
'.ngland,  where  from  its  hardness  it    is  substi- 
itod  in  some  cases  for  lignum  vita»;   it  is  eon 
lered   one  of  the  most    valuable  timbers  for 
hip  building  on  account  of  its  great  strength 

durability. 

<,K1  IMIOISK,  a  name  commonly  applied   to 
my  glass  structure  in  which  plants  are  raised, 
nil    bv    professional    gardeners    restricted   to 
ouses   in    which  a    comparatively    cool    tern 
>raturo  is  maintained.      A  cool  greenhouse   is 
intended   simplv  to   protect    tender   plants 
luring  tho  winter  season,  and  tho  temperature 
nay  boas  low   as  ,">,">"  or    10';   but    plants  are 
>t  expected  to  grow  in  such  a  house.     Where 
>wors  are  desired,  the  day  temperature  must 
•   at    least    tiO",   with   a   minimum   of  -10"   at 
night.      Where  a  higher  temperature  than  this 
kept    up,    the   house   is  called    a    stove,    and 
heated   to  VO"  or  SO"  or  more,  according  to 
10   character  of   the   plants   it    contains.       A 
Miservatory    is   a    greenhouse   attaohod    to    a 
Iwelling,  and  is  designed  more  for  tho  effective 
lisplay  of  plants  than  for  raisin:1;  them.     Houses 
for  special  cultures  are  graperies,  ferneries,  or 
hard  houses,  orchid  houses,  <v.c.      In  designing 
a  greenhouse,  light,  heat,  air,  and    water   have 
be  considered.     The  simplest  form  of  a  green 
house   is   a  "loan  to,"    in    whieh    tho    back    is 
>rmod  by  its  being-  placed  against  some   other 
building,  a  t'enee  or  a  wall  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose.     Tho  roof  slopes  at  an  angle  of   l">     from 
"10  back  wall  to  the  front,  one,  which  is  usually 
trovidod    with    a    row    of  lights    between    the 
'neb  upon   which   the   plants  are   placed   and 
lie    plate    upon    which    the    roof   rost.s.     The 
span-roofed   house,   being  intended    to  receive 
light  upon  all  sides,  usually  stands  apart   from 
other  buildings;    its  roof  is  straight,  or  eurvi 
linear,  and  its  height  and  other  dimensions  are 
governed  by  the  kind  of  plants  for  which  it 


is  intended;  houses  of  this  kind  are  frequently 
made  ornamental  by  moans  of  architectural 
embellishments.  Largo  houses  are  often  built 
with  a  central  dome  and  span  rooted  wings, 
and  some  are  built  with  a  half  span,  one  por 
(ion  of  the  roof  being  shorter  than  tho  other. 
In  commercial  establishments,  w  hero  the  great 
est  economy  is  studied  and  little  regard  is  paid 
to  appearances,  tho  houses  are  usually  low 
span  roofs.  Sa>hes  ('.  ft.  long  are  used  for  the 
roof;  those  moot  aho\o  on  a  central  ridgepole, 
and  rest  below  on  a  plate  which  has  its  upper 
surface  hollowed  to  form  a  water  conductor. 
An  excavation  is  made  deep  enough  to  allow 
head  room  beneath  tho  glass,  and  walled  up 
with  briek  to  a  foot  or  t  \\  o  abo\o  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Such  houses  are  about  11  ft 
wide,  with  a  bench  -1  t't.  wide  upon  each  side 
and  a  central  path  of  ;>  t't.  This  brings  the 
plants  upon  the  benches  near  to  the  glass,  the 
position  most  fa\orab!o  to  growth,  and  gives 
sullioiont  room  to  work  in;  as  the  plants  are 


dod   to  b 


required  than  in  houses  for  other  purposes. 
Heating  was  formerly  accomplished  entirely 
bv  means  of  tines  rnnnin.";  the  whole  lon.";th  of 
the  house,  erossinj;;  the  end,  and  returning  upon 
tho  other  side,  the  fnrnaeo  being-  in  a  pit  and 
accessible  from  the  outside.  This  method  of 
heating  is  sometimes  still  employed,  as  tho 
ontlav  is  loss  than  in  any  other  plan.  Tho  tine 
is  sometimes  built  of  briek  its  whole  length,  or 
is  of  brick  for  a  few  feet  nearest  tho  furnace, 
while  the  remainder  is  of  pipes  of  earthenware 
or  cement.  The  disadvantages  of  lines  are  the 
danger  from  leaks  which  may  allow  injurious 
gases  to  escape,  and  the  ditliculty  of  heating- 
all  parts  of  tho  house  equally.  On  these  ae 
counts  heating  by  means  of  hot  water  is  pro 
ferred.  There  are  numerous  styles  of  groon- 
houso boilers,  but  they  are  all  built  upon  the. 
same  principle,  viz.:  a  reservoir  of  water  with 
a  pipe  beginning  near  its  upper  portion,  run 
ning  tho  whole  length  of  tho  house,  and  re 
turning  to  the  boiler,  which  it  enters  near 
its  lower  part.  ^  hen  a  tire  is  lighted  un- 
der the  boiler,  tho  water  immediately  begins 
to  circulate,  the  lighter  warm  water  passing 
out  by  the  upper  outlet,  through  the  pipe, 
and  returning  to  it  through  the  inlet.  In  its 
passage  through  the  pipes  it  gives  ,>!!'  its  heat 
by  radiation,  and  with  a  well  constructed 
apparatus  tho  heat  will  be  evenly  distributed. 
At  tho  end  of  the  house  furthest  from  the 
boiler  is  the  expansion  tank,  an  upright  iron 
eyTmdor  of  somowhat  larger  diameter  than  tho 
heating  pipes;  tho  llow  and  return  pipe  are 
both  connected  w  ilh  this,  which  is  open  at  the 
top  or  loosolv  covered;  this  prevents  the  e\ 
pansion  of  tho  water  when  heated  from  exert 
iii:'.  any  pressure  upon  the  pipe's,  and  allows 
the  air  liberated  from  the  water  to  escape,  as 
well  as  any  steam  that  may  be  formed  when 
the  apparatus  is  working-  to  its  fullest  capacity. 
There  is  much  ditlerenco  in  the  internal  con 
st ruction  of  the  boilers,  each  inventor  striving1 


232 


GREEN  LAKE 


to  expose  the  greatest  possible  heating  surface 
to  the  action  of  the  fire.  To  economize  heat, 
a  flue  to  carry  off  the  products  of  combustion 
from  the  boiler  is  sometimes  run  through  the 
house.  Ventilation  is  accomplished  in  various 
ways :  in  small  houses  by  lifting  or  sliding  the 
sashes,  and  in  large  ones  by  raising  a  portion 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  roof  by  proper  ma- 
chinery. A  water  cistern  is  generally  built 
under  the  floor  of  the  greenhouse,  into  which 
the  water  from  the  roof  is  conducted.  Shading 
is  required  as  spring  approaches,  which  is  com- 
monly accomplished  by  washing  the  glass  with 
ordinary  lime  wash,  or  with  whiting  and  milk ; 
in  some  cases  a  screen  of  muslin  is  used,  or  a 
lattice  work  of  narrow  strips  of  wood. — For 
the  construction  and  management  of  commer- 
cial greenhouses,  Henderson's  "  Practical  Flo- 
riculture "  may  be  consulted.  "  Choice  Stove 
and  Greenhouse  Plants,"  by  B.  S.  Williams,  is 
one  of  the  most  recent  English  works ;  and  the 
amateur  will  find  useful  hints  in  "  The  Green- 
house as  a  Winter  Garden,"  by  F.  E.  Field. 

GREEN  LAKE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
intersected  by  Fox  river ;  area,  360  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  13,195.  Green  and  Pacawa 
lakes,  each  about  9  m.  long,  are  in  the  county. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  produc- 
tive. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
614,247  bushels  of  wheat,  17,702  of  rye,  251,- 
822  of  Indian  corn,  300,814  of  oats,  18,416  of 
barley,  11,800  of  buckwheat,  91,343  of  pota- 
toes, 362,598  Ibs.  of  butter,  119,214  of  wool, 
32,551  of  hops,  and  29,628  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,108  horses,  4,353  milch  cows,  5,403 
other  cattle,  31,501  sheep,  and  4,659  swine ;  3 
manufactories  of  boots  and  shoes,  15  of  car- 
riages, 3  of  cheese,  5  of  clothing,  3  of  barrels 
and  casks,  4  of  furniture,  1  of  woollen  goods,  1 
saw  mill,  and  10  flour  mills.  Capital,  Dartford. 

GREENLAND  (Dan.  and  Ger.  Gronland ;  Fr. 
GroZnland),  an  extensive  region  belonging  to 
Denmark,  lying  N.  E.  of  the  mainland  of 
North  America,  from  which  and  its  outlying 
islands  it  is  separated  by  Davis  strait,  Baffin 
bay,  and  the  northward  extensions  of  the  lat- 
ter, known  as  Smith  sound,  Kennedy  channel, 
and  Robeson  strait ;  pop.  in  1871,  9,825.  Cape 
Farewell,  its  S.  extremity,  is  a  point  on  a  small 
island,  in  lat.  59°  49'  N.,  Ion.  43°  54'  W.,  from 
which  the  E.  coast  extends  N.  E.  to  Cape 
Brewster,  lat.  70°,  where  it  takes  a  more  north- 
erly course  and  stretches  toward  the  pole  to 
an  unknown  distance.  The  S.  part  of  this 
coast  is  washed  by  the  Greenland  sea,  a  por- 
tion of  the  N.  Atlantic,  and  the  N.  part  by  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Iceland,  which  is  distant  about 
Hio  in.,  is  separated  from  it  by  Denmark  strait. 
The  W.  coast  pursues  a  N.  N.  W.  direction  to 
Cape  Alexander,  its  westernmost  extremity, 
about  lat.  78°  10',  Ion.  73°  30',  where  it  turns 
N.  E.  and  extends  beyond  lat.  82°.  According 
to  the  report  of  two  of  the  crew  of  the  Polaris, 
it  terminates  about  lat.  83°,  and  trends  thence 
E.,  thus  indicating  the  insularity  of  Greenland. 
A  channel  about  60  m.  wide,  running  E.  and 


GREENLAND 

W».,  is  said  to  have  been  seen  on  the  north,  and 
beyond  it  the  lofty  hills  of  a  polar  land.  The 
E.  coast  is  practically  inaccessible  on  account 
of  the  drift  ice,  which,  borne  S.  by  the  polar 
current,  sometimes  fills  the  entire  sea  between 
it  and  Iceland,  and  forms  a  barrier  around 
Cape  Farewell  extending  more  than  100  m. 
seaward.  The  outline  of  this  coast  is  rugged 
and  barren,  with  cliffs  and  lofty  precipices 
which  are  visible  far  out  at  sea.  A  number 
of  inlets,  the  principal  of  which  are  Scoresby 
and  Davy  sounds,  extend  an  unknown  dis- 
tance into  the  interior.  Henry  Hudson  ex- 
plored this  coast  in  1607,  in  an  attempt  to 
make  the  N.  W.  passage,  and  named  a  cape  in 
lat.  73°  30'  Hold  with  Hope.  It  was  visited 
by  Scoresby  in  1822,  Clavering  and  Sabine  in 
1823,  Graah  in  1829  and  1830,  and  Hegeman 
in  1870,  all  of  whom  confirm  the  accounts  of 
its  ruggedness  and  inaccessibility.  The  W. 
coast  is  better  known.  It  is  generally  rocky 
and  high,  but  sometimes  flattens  into  low  val- 
leys, penetrated  by  numerous  inlets  and  fiords, 
some  of  which  extend  far  inland.  Into  most  of 
these  come  down  glaciers  from  the  great  gla- 
cier which  appears  to  cover  the  whole  interior. 
About  lat.  70°  is  Disco  island,  lying  in  the 
mouth  of  Disco  bay,  and  numerous  smaller 
islands  line  the  entire  coast.  Melville  bay  is  a 
large  and  wide  indentation,  usually  filled  with 
floating  ice.  Its  N.  shore  is  formed  by  Hayes 
peninsula,  into  which  makes  Wolstenholme 
sound.  Inglefield  gulf  is  the  next  indentation, 
N.  of  which  lies  Prudhoe  land.  In  the  W.  ex- 
tremity of  this  is  Lifeboat  cove,  the  winter 
quarters  of  the  Polaris  in  1872-'3.  Further  N. 
is  the  great  Humboldt  glacier,  which  extends 
over  almost  an  entire  degree  of  latitude,  be- 
tween lat.  79°  and  80°.  The  whole  coast  here 
is  a  mer  de  glace  formed  by  the  crowding  to- 
ward the  sea  of  the  glaciers,  which,  raised  final- 
ly by  the  water  beneath,  break  off  with  loud 
detonations,  and  floating  free  become  icebergs. 
This  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  ice- 
bergs of  the  N.  Atlantic.  Next  is  a  peninsula 
called  Washington  land,  with  South  fiord  on 
its  N.  side,  an  inlet  opening  into  Hall  basin 
and  extending  far  inland.  Above  Hall  basin  is 
Robeson  strait,  first  explored  in  1871  by  Capt. 
Charles  F.  Hall,  who  named  the  several  har- 
bors along  the  coast  Polaris  bay,  Thank  God 
bay,  Newman  bay,  and  Repulse  harbor.  In 
Thank  God  bay,  lat.  81°  38',  the  Polaris  made 
her  winter  quarters  in  1871-'2.  Dr.  Pingel,  a 
Danish  naturalist,  has  established  the  fact  that 
the  W.  coast  from  lat.  60°  to  70°  is  gradually 
sinking  at  the  rate  of  several  feet  in  a  century. 
At  numerous  places  are  submerged  ruins,  some 
not  more  than  75  years  old,  and  the  present 
Greenlanders  avoid  building  near  the  water's 
edge.  The  interior  is  buried  under  a  colossal 
mass  of  ice,  which  conceals  all  the  minor  ridges 
and  valleys,  and  permits  but  a  few  steep  moun- 
tains to  protrude.  This  ice  is  continually  mov- 
ing seaward,  a  very  small  part  of  it  eastward 
and  the  rest  westward.  The  greatest  discharge 


GREENLAND 


233 


is  through  the  large  friths,  down  which  the  ice 
moves  in  masses  several  miles  wide,  until, 
reaching  deep  water  in  Baffin  bay,  it  breaks 
up  and  forms  icebergs.  Rink  counted  22  great 
ice  streams  on  the  coast,  indicating  as  many 
concealed  valleys.  Large  streams  of  muddy 
water  pour  out  from  under  the  ice,  even  when 
it  is  2,000  ft.  thick,  showing  that  a  powerful 
grinding  action  is  going  on  upon  the  surface 
of  the  rocks  beneath. — The  rocks  of  the  coast 
are  chiefly  granite,  gneiss,  porphyry,  slate,  and 
calcareous  formations.  On  the  E.  coast  Scores- 
by  found  the  slates  of  the  coal  formation,  con- 
taining impressions  of  extinct  species  of  tropi- 
cal plants,  like  those  of  the  same  strata  in  more 
southern  latitudes.  Good  coal  is  mined  in 
abundance  on  the  island  of  Disco,  and  at  vari- 
ous places  on  the  mainland  are  found  silver, 
copper,  iron,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  plumbago,  arsenic, 
molybdenum,  and  other  metals.  The  Swedish 
scientific  expedition  of  1871  found  immense 
masses  of  meteoric  iron  on  the  coast,  between 
ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  One  specimen 
weighing  49,000  Ibs.  Swedish,  with  a  maximum 
sectional  area  of  42  sq.  ft.,  is  now  in  the  royal 
academy  at  Stockholm,  and  another  of  20,000 
Ibs.  in  the  museum  of  Copenhagen.  They 
contain  5  per  cent,  of  nickel  and  from  1  to  2 
per  cent,  of  carbon.  Asbestus,  serpentine, 
zircon,  gadolinite,  tourmaline,  iolite,  rock  crys- 
tal, and  garnets  also  occur ;  but  the  only  min- 
eral exported  is  cryolite,  from  the  mine  at 
[viktut,  on  the  fiord  of  Arsut.  About  100 
miners  are  employed,  and  the  annual  product 
is  from  10,000  to  12,000  tons,  one  half  of  which 
is  sent  to  Denmark  and  the  remainder  to  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  made  into  commer- 
cial soda  by  the  Pennsylvania  salt  company. 
A  royalty  of  20  per  cent,  is  paid  to  the  Danish 
government ;  and  as  the  season  of  working  is 
lort  and  the  navigation  of  the  fiord  is  attend- 
with  danger  on  account  of  icebergs,  the 
mine  yields  but  little  profit. — The  climate  is 
considered  healthy  by  the  Danes,  and  in  S. 
reenland  is  less  rigorous  than  the  high  lati- 
ide  and  the  immense  fields  of  ice  would  indi- 
ite,  the  cold  being  greatly  modified  by  the 
On  the  E.  coast  the  mean  temperature  is 
low  the  freezing  point,  but  it  is  milder  on  the 
W.  coast.  Further  N.  the  cold  is  intense,  ex- 
ling  that  of  corresponding  latitudes  in  Lap- 
land. According  to  Dr.  Hayes,  the  mercury 
stood  at  —68°  F.  in  March,  1861,  in  lat.  70°  30' 
but  in  1871  Capt.  Hall  found  a  much 
milder  climate  at  his  winter  quarters  in  lat. 
81°  38' ;  the  plain  surrounding  Thank  God  bay 
ras  free  from  snow  in  June,  and  the  ground 
was  covered  with  herbage,  on  which  numer- 
ous herds  of  musk  oxen  found  pasture,  and 
rabbits  and  lemmings  abounded.  The  wild 
flowers  were  brilliant,  and  large  flocks  of  birds 
flew  northward.  This  would  indicate  either 
an  exceptional  season,  or  that  the  climate  is 
less  rigorous  toward  the  pole.  Generally  the 
winter  cold  is  interrupted  by  thaws,  which 
last  sometimes  for  weeks.  Through  June  and 


July  the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon. 
The  earth  begins  to  thaw  in  June,  and  in  July 
the  ice  is  melted  away  in  the  southern  fiords, 
and  small  streams,  flowing  from  the  interior, 
feed  a  few  unimportant  lakes,  which  remain 
open  for  a  brief  season.  But  even  in  the  heat 
of  summer  ice  can  always  be  found  a  short 
distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Permanent  springs  are  almost  unknown,  but 
Dr.  Kane  found  one  at  Godhavn,  Disco, 
which  had  a  winter  temperature  of  33°  F.t 
and  Giesecke  speaks  of  a  thermal  spring  which 
maintained  a  temperature  of  104°.  The  heat 
of  the  long  summer  day  evaporates  the  water 
left  by  the  tide  in  the  hollows  and  clefts  of  the 
rocks  and  leaves  a  fine  salt.  Fogs  prevail  from 
April  to  August.  Little  rain  falls,  especially  in 
the  north.  Gales  are  infrequent,  but  in  the 
autumn  they  rage  sometimes  for  days  with 
great  fury.  There  is  occasional  lightning,  but 
no  thunder.  The  aurora  borealis  is  often  seen 
in  winter,  frequently  so  bright  as  to  cause  the 
stars  to  disappear,  and  mirage  is  common  on 
the  coast. — The  vegetation  is  slight,  but  it  ex- 
ceeds that  of  high  mountainous  districts  in 
warmer  latitudes.  Dr.  Hooker  noted  that 
most  of  the  320  phsenogams  and  vascular 
cryptogams  which  make  up  the  flora  of  Green- 
land were  of  Scandinavian  origin,  and  that  few 
American  types  were  found,  notwithstanding 
the  comparative  nearness  of  the  continent.  A 
few  additional  species  have  since  been  discov- 
ered. Mosses,  lichens,  and  a  few  grasses  and 
stunted  plants  and  shrubs  grow  even  in  the  far 
north,  and  furnish  food  for  the  reindeer,  bear, 
and  musk  ox.  Dr.  Hayes  noticed  at  Proven, 
among  other  flowers,  the  golden-petalled  poppy 
(papaver  nudicaule),  the  dandelion  (contodon 
palustre),  the  buttercup  (ranunculus  nivalis), 
the  saxifrages,  purple,  white,  and  yellow,  the 
potentilla,  the  purple  pedicularis,  and  the  an- 
dromeda.  In  sheltered  places  the  pine,  alder, 
and  birch  attain  a  height  of  barely  6  ft.  and  a 
stem  of  but  3  or  4  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  wil- 
low becomes  little  more  than  a  running  vine. 
The  scant  soil  is  so  full  of  fibrous  roots  that 
when  cut  and  dried  it  is  used  for  fuel.  At- 
tempts to  raise  oats  and  barley  are  unsuccess- 
ful, but  potatoes  are  grown  in  the  south.  Tur- 
nips attain  only  the  size  of  pigeons'  eggs,  and 
cabbages  are  very  small.  The  radish  is  the 
only  vegetable  that  is  unchecked  in  its  growth. 
— The  seas  around  Greenland  abound  with  ani- 
mal life.  The  great  rorqual  whale,  which  at- 
tains sometimes  a  length  of  120  ft.,  the  more 
valuable  mysticetus,  or  true  whale,  and  other 
varieties,  make  them  their  resort.  The  wal- 
rus, the  narwhal,  the  porpoise,  and  the  seal  are 
found  on  all  the  coasts.  The  arctic  shark 
(squalus  fiorealis)  abounds,  and  is  taken  for  the 
sake  of  the  oil  extracted  from  its  liver,  which 
is  preferred  to  the  best  seal  oils.  Smaller  fish 
are  found  in  all  the  bays,  and  various  kinds  of 
crabs  and  shrimps  exist  in  great  numbers.  Sea 
fowl  in  vast  flocks  frequent  the  coast,  among 
them  the  little  auk,  guillemot,  petrel,  gull, 


234 


GREENLAND 


goose,  and  duck.  There  are  traditions  of  the 
uk,  but  it  has  not  been  seen  by  late  ex- 
plorers. The  eider  duck  visits  the  most  north- 
ern shores  in  the  spring  and  raises  its  young. 
Other  birds  often  seen  are  the  raven,  ptarmi- 
gan, grouse,  tern,  sandpiper,  plover,  dovekie, 
and  snow  bunting.  In  the  more  northerly 
parts  the  polar  bear  and  the  musk  ox  are 
found,  but  they  are  seldom  seen  in  the  south, 
excepting  in  severe  winters,  when  it  is  difficult 
to  paw  the  snow  from  the  scant  vegetation. 
In  summer  the  bears  live  upon  seals,  which 
they  catch  on  the  ice.  The  reindeer,  once 
abundant,  are  becoming  scarce  on  the  coast, 
the  natives  having  hunted  them  with  great 
persistency  since  the  introduction  of  rifles ;  it 
is  said  that  at  least  10,000  have  been  killed  in 
the  past  30  years  in  the  district  of  Omenak. 
Two  species  of  fox,  the  white  and  the  blue, 
abound.  The  skins  of  the  blue  fox  are  much 
sought  after,  the  fur  commanding  a  high  price. 
The  domestic  animals  are  sheep,  a  few  cattle, 
and  dogs,  the  last  of  which  constitute  the  chief 
wealth  of  the  Greenland ers,  who  train  them  to 
draw  sledges.  They  relapse  sometimes  into 
the  savage  state  and  roam  in  packs,  hunting 
the  reindeer. — With  the  exception  of  about 
300  Europeans,  mostly  Danes,  the  population 
is  composed  entirely  of  Esquimaux,  who  live 
by  hunting  and  fishing.  A  few  live  on  the  E. 
coast,  below  lat.  65°,  but  all  the  villages  and 
settlements  are  on  the  W.  coast,  upon  the  low 
lands  along  the  fiords.  After  years  of  dis- 
couraging effort  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries, 
all  the  natives  have  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. They  have  given  up  their  nomadic 
habits  and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  civilization, 
while  they  are  afflicted  with  fewer  of  its  vices 
than  are  the  Indians  who  have  come  in  contact 
with  the  white  man  elsewhere.  Liquor  is  pro- 
hibited in  all  the  settlements,  and  it  is  only 
once  a  year,  on  the  king's  birthday,  that  every 
man  in  Greenland  is  permitted  to  receive 
from  the  government  storehouses  a  glass  of 
schnapps,  to  drink  the  health  of  his  sovereign. 
For  administrative  purposes  the  country  is  di- 
vided into  two  inspectorates,  North  and  South 
Greenland.  North  Greenland  is  subdivided 
into  seven  districts,  Upernavik,  Omenak,  Riten- 
benk,  Jacobshavn,  Godhavn,  Christianshaab, 
and  Egedesminde,  the  last  being  the  most 
southerly.  Godhavn  (Good  Harbor),  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  island  of  Disco,  in  lat.  69°,  has  a 
population  of  250,  and  is  the  residence  of  the 
inspector.  The  districts  of  South  Greenland 
are,  beginning  with  the  most  northerly,  Hol- 
steinborg,  Sukkertoppen,  Godthaab  and  Nye 
Herrnhut,  Lichtenfels,  Frederikshaab,  and  Ju- 
haneshaab.  Godthaab,  in  lat.  64°,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  inspector,  has  a  population  of 
740.  Each  of  these  13  districts  has  a  director 
(colonibestyrere),  who  is  assisted  in  his  admin- 
istrative duties  by  a  parliament  chosen  from 
the  principal  men.  Julianeshaab,  the  chief 
district,  comprises  all  the  coast  from  Cape 
Farewell  to  lat.  01°.  The  town  is  in  lat.  60° 


44',  on  the  fiord  of  Igalliko,  a  large  inlet  from 
the  sea,  from  2  to  5  m.  in  width,  which  is  so 
shut  in  by  the  mountains  that  no  glacier  finds 
its  way  into  it.  Along  its  banks  are  still  to  be 
seen  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Norse  settlements. 
The  town  has  a  population,  according  to  some 
authorities,  of  2,600,  but  according  to  Dr. 
Hayes  of  only  800.  The  settlements  of  Nye 
Herrnhut,  Lichtenfels,  Frederiksdal,  and  Fre- 
derikshaab belong  to  the  Moravian  missions. 
The  rest  of  the  coast  is  in  charge  of  the  Lu- 
theran missions,  which  are  under  the  direct  pa- 
tronage of  the  government,  and  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  board  appointed  by  the  Danish  crown. 
The  Moravians  depend  for  their  supplies  upon 
private  negotiations  and  the  courtesy  of  Danish 
vessels. — The  whole  trade  of  Greenland  is  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  crown  of  Denmark,  and  is  carried 
on  under  the  direction  of  the  Greenland  trading 
company  (Kongelige  GronlandsTce  Handel},  an 
association  founded  in  1781,  and  controlled  by 
a  directory  in  Copenhagen.  Each  settlement 
is  presided  over  by  an  agent,  either  a  Dane  or 
a  half-breed,  who  keeps  the  company's  ac- 
counts, disposes  of  stores,  and  gathers  pro- 
ducts. The  stores  are  brought  annually  from 
Denmark  to  Julianeshaab,  whence  they  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  various  outposts.  The  chief  ex- 
ports from  Greenland  are  stock  fish  (cod  dried 
without  salt),  the  skins  of  the  seal,  fox,  and  rein- 
deer, whale  and  seal  oil,  blubber,  eider  down, 
and  cryolite.  The  imports  are  grain,  coffee, 
sugar,  tobacco,  brandy,  and  firewood.  The  ex- 
penses are  so  great  that  the  trading  company 
pays  but  a  small  sum  annually  into  the  royal 
treasury. — Greenland  was  discovered  by  the 
Northman  Gunnbjorn,  who  saw  its  E.  coast  in 
876  or  877 ;  but  he  was  wrecked  on  the  rocks 
afterward  called  by  his  name,  and  did  not  land 
upon  it.  In  983  Eric  the  Red  (so  called  from 
the  color  of  his  hair),  son  of  a  jarl  of  Jadar  in 
Norway,  set  sail  from  Bredifiord,  Iceland,  in 
search  of  the  land  seen  by  Gunnbjorn,  of 
which  a  tradition  still  lingered  in  Iceland.  He 
doubled  Cape  Farewell  and  sailed  up  the  W. 
coast  to  the  present  site  of  Julianeshaab,  where 
he  saw  large  herds  of  reindeer  browsing  on 
the  meadow  lands.  The  country  pleased  him, 
and  he  named  it  Greenland,  and  the  inlet 
Ericsfiord.  In  985  Eric  returned  to  Iceland, 
and  again  set  sail  with  25  ships  loaded  with 
emigrants  and  the  means  of  founding  a  colony. 
He  reached  Ericsfiord  with  14  of  these  ships, 
the  rest  having  been  lost  by  the  way  or  forced 
to  put  back,  and  built  a  settlement  far  up  the 
fiord.  The  town  grew  and  prospered,  and  in 
time  the  coast  was  explored  and  new  planta- 
tions were  founded.  How  far  N.  the  Norse- 
men penetrated  is  not  known,  but  an  inscribed 
pillar,  erected  in  1135  on  one  of  the  Woman's 
islands  on  the  E.  shore  of  Baffin  bay,  and 
found  there  in  1824  by  Sir  Edward  Parry, 
proves  that  one  of  their  expeditions  went  as 
far  as  Upernavik,  lat.  72°  50',  and  "cleared 
ground  "  there.  As  no  trees  grow  in  that  re- 
gion now,  it  is  probable  that  the  land  was  then 


GREENLEAF 


GREEN  MOUNTAINS 


235 


far  more  habitable  than  at  present.     The  early 
chroniclers,  too,  make  very  little  mention  of 
ice,  and  there  are  evidences  that  the  soil  bore 
more  generously  in  those  days.     Eric  found  no 
indigenous  race,  and  he  and  his  followers  be- 
came the  sole  tenants  of  the  land.    The  several 
settlements  around  Ericsfiord  were  called  col- 
lectively Ostre  Bygd  (East  country),  and  the 
more  northerly  plantations  Westre  Bygd  (West 
country).     At  one  time  there  were  more  than 
300  farms  and  villages  between  Disco  and  Cape 
Farewell.      Churches  and  monasteries  were 
built,  and  in  the  12th  century  Greenland  was 
erected  into  a  bishopric,  it  having  been  pre- 
viously a  dependency  of  the  see  of  Iceland. 
Seventeen  successive  bishops  held  the  see  of 
Gardar,  the  last  of  whom  was  consecrated  in 
1406.     No  Esquimaux  (Skralinger)  are  men- 
ioned  by  the  chroniclers  until  the  14th  cen- 
iry,  when  Thorwald  saw  them  on  the  coast 
*  Labrador.     Toward  the  middle  of  this  cen- 
tury a  horde  of  Skralinger  appeared  on  the 
borders  of  the  Westre  Bygd,  and  18  Norsemen 
were  killed  in  an  encounter  with  them.     When 
the  news  reached  the   Ostre  Bygd  in  1349, 
Ivar  Beer  went  with  a  force  to  the  rescue  ;  but 
he  found  only  the  ruins  of  the  colony.    Toward  | 
the  close  of  the  14th  century  Greenland  was 
visited  by  Nicol6  Zeno,  a  Venetian  navigator. 
Tn  1409  the  bishop's  see  was  abandoned.     A 
letter  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.  to  the  bishop  of 
Iceland,  written  in  1448,  mentions  the  descent 
)f  a  hostile  fleet  on  the  coast  about  30  years 
jfore,  which  laid  waste  the  country  with  fire 
id  sword,  so  that  the  organization  of  the 
lonies  was  destroyed ;  and  we  hear  no  more 
Greenland  until  the  time  of  the  Elizabethan 
ivigators.     In  1576  Martin  Frobisher,  sailing 
quest  of  a  N.  W.  passage  to  China,  came  in 
jht  of  the  E.  coast  in  lat.  61°,  and  rounded 
ipe  Farewell.      Other  navigators  followed, 
id  attempts  were  made  to  recover  the  lost 
>lonies  during  the  succeeding  century ;  but  it 
T&S  not  till  1721,  when  the  Danish  missionary 
Tans  Egede  established  himself  at  Godthaab, 
iat  any  success  was  attained.     The  Moravian 
lissions  were  founded  soon  after,  and  the  set- 
mients  have  since  continued  to  grow.     Even 
le  sites  of  the  ancient  colonies  were  unknown 
itil  a  recent  period.     In  1829  the  king  of 
>enmark  sent  an  expedition  under  Capt.  Graah 
a  determine  the  site  of  the  Ostre  Bygd,  which 
ras  supposed  to  be  on  the  E.  coast,  the  ruins 
Igalliko  fiord  being  taken  for  those  of  the 
restre  Bygd.     He  found  reasons  for  believing 
iat  both  settlements  were  on  the  W.  coast, 
id  within  a  few  years  it  has  been  demonstra- 
~  beyond  a  doubt  that  Igalliko  fiord,  or  Erics- 
>rd,  was  the  site  of  Eric's  long  lost  colony. 
GREENLEAF,  Simon,  an  American  jurist,  born 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  Dec.  5,  1783,  died  in 
Cambridge,  Oct.  6,  1853.     He  practised  law  in 
[assachusetts  and  afterward  in  Maine,  was  re- 
nter of  the  supreme  court  of  Maine  from 
1820  to  1832,  and  during  this  period  published 
ine  volumes  of  reports,  and  a  treatise  on  the 


"  Origin  and  Principles  of  Free-Masonry " 
(Portland,  1820).  In  1833  he  became  professor 
of  law  in  Harvard  university,  and  held  this 
office  till  1848.  In  1840  he  published  a  volume 
of  "Overruled,  Denied,  and  Doubted  Deci- 
sions and  Dicta,"  which  was  expanded  in  sub- 
sequent editions  to  three  volumes.  In  1846  he 
published  an  "Examination  of  the  Testimony 
of  the  Four  Evangelists,  by  the  Rules  of  Evi- 
dence as  administered  in  Courts  of  Justice, 
with  an  Account  of  the  Trial  of  Jesus."  In 
1849  he  published  an  edition  of  Cruise's  "Di- 
gest of  the  Law  of  Real  Property."  But  his 
great  work  was  a  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Evidence  "  (3  vols.,  1842-'53). 

GREEN  MOUNTAINS,  the  northernmost  por- 
tion of  the  Appalachian  chain,  extending  from 
Canada  S.  through  Vermont.  To  this  state, 
over  which  they  are  largely  spread,  they  give 
its  name,  from  the  term  monts  verts  by  which 
they  were  known  to  the  early  French  settlers. 
The  continuation  of  the  range  through  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut  is  also  known  to 
geographers  as  the  Green  mountains,  but  by 
the  inhabitants  of  these  states  other  names  are 
applied  to  them ;  as  the  Hoosac  mountains  in 
Massachusetts  for  that  portion  lying  between 
the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic  rivers,  and 
constituting  the  most  elevated  portion  of  the 
state,  and  the  Taconic  mountains  for  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  range,  along  the  New  York  line. 
These  ranges  extend  into  Vermont  near  the  S. 
W.  corner  of  the  state,  and  join  in  a  contin- 
uous line  of  hills,  that  pass  through  the  west- 
ern portion  of  the  state  nearly  to  Montpelier. 
Without  attaining  very  great  elevation,  these 
hills  form  an  unbroken  watershed  between  the 
affluents  of  the  Connecticut  on  the  east  and  the 
Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain  on  the  west,  and 
about  equidistant  between  them.  South  from 
Montpelier  two  ranges  extend,  one  N.  E.  near- 
ly parallel  with  the  Connecticut  river,  dividing 
the  waters  flowing  E.  from  those  flowing  W. ; 
and  the  other,  which  is  the  higher  and  more 
broken,  extending  nearly  N.  and  near  Lake 
Champlain.  Through  this  range  the  Onion, 
Lamoille,  and  Missisque  rivers  make  their 
way  toward  the  lake.  Among  the  principal 
peaks  are  Mt.  Mansfield,  20  m.  N.  W.  of  Mont- 
pelier, 4,279  ft.  above  the  sea;  Camel's  Hump, 
17  m.  W.  of  Montpelier,  4,188  ft. ;  Killington 
peak,  near  Rutland,  3,924  ft. ;  and  Ascutney, 
in  Windsor  co.,  near  the  Connecticut  river, 
3,320  ft. — This  portion  of  the  Appalachian 
chain  neither  possesses  the  marked  uniformity 
of  elevation  and  parallelism  of  its  ridges  that 
characterize  the  same  chain  further  S.,  nor  has 
it  the  abruptness  and  precipitous  outlines  of  the 
granitic  summits  of  the  White  mountains.  The 
body  and  eastern  side  of  the  Green  mountain 
range  is  generally  of  primitive  geological  struc- 
ture, consisting  of  hornblende,  granite,  gneiss, 
&c.  The  rocks  of  the  western  slope  are  prin- 
cipally old  red  sandstone,  containing  iron  ore 
and  manganese.  The  general  range  of  the 
rocks  is  about  N.  15°  E.,  with  a  prevailing  dip 


236 


GREENOCK 


of  30°  to  55°,  and  sometimes  more,  toward  the 
east.  These  give  a  comparatively  smooth  out- 
line to  the  surface  of  the  hills;  and  though  the 
soil  they  produce  is  not  generally  fertile,  the 
slopes  are  covered  on  the  disappearance  of  the 
snow  with  fine  pastures  of  rich  green  grass, 
which  may  have  given  the  mountains  their 
name,  though  this  is  commonly  referred  to  the 
growth  of  evergreen  forest  trees,  which  abound 
upon  the  poorer  lands  and  along  the  margins 
of  the  streams.  Upon  the  better  lands  is  found 
the  hard-wood  growth  of  beech,  birch,  sugar 
maple,  white  oak,  ash,  &c.  The  mineral  pro- 
ducts of  the  Green  mountains  are  very  valua- 
ble, including  excellent  iron  ores,  manganese, 
marble,  slate,  &c.  (See  VERMONT.) 

GREENOCK,  a  parliamentary  borough  and 
seaport  town  of  Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  on  the 
S.  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde,  18  m.  W. 


GREENPORT 

N.  W.  of  Glasgow;  pop.  in  1871,  57,138.  It 
stands  partly  on  a  narrow  plain,  and  partly  on 
the  declivity  of  a  high  hill.  It  has  about  35 
churches  and  chapels,  a  Latin  school,  a  town 
library  of  12,000  volumes,  a  mechanics'  hall, 
excellent  docks  and  wharves,  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood an  aqueduct  3  m.  long.  There  are  nu- 
merous sugar  refineries  and  iron  founderies, 
considerable  ship  building,  in  particular  of  iron 
ships,  and  manufactories  of  sail  cloth,  shoes, 
soap,  and  candles.  The  entrances  at  the  port 
in  1871  were  64  steamers  and  562  sailing  ves- 
sels ;  the  clearances,  22  steamers  and  339  sail- 
ing vessels.  The  imports  were  valued  at  £6,- 
117,796  (from  the  United  States,  £53,453);  the 
exports  at  £649,313  (to  the  United  States, 
£63,521).  All  the  steamers  of  the  Clyde  touch 
at  this  port.  The  Victoria  dock,  opened  Oct. 
17, 1850,  is  a  tidal  basin  covering  an  area  of  six 


Greenock. 


acres,  and  exceeding  30  ft.  in  depth  ;  it  cost 
upward  of  £120,000.— Until  1697  Greenock 
was  a  small  fishing  village.  James  Watt,  the 
inventor  of  the  steam  engine,  was  a  native  of 
the  town,  and  in  1838  a  marble  statue  by 
Chantrey  was  erected  to  him  here. 

GREENOIGH,  Horatio,  an  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Boston,  Sept.  6,  1805,  died  at  Somer- 
ville,  near  Boston,  Dec.  18,  1852.  A  French 
sculptor  named  Binon,  resident  in  Boston,  was 
his  first  master;  and  he  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship and  advice  of  Washington  Allston.  Before 
completing  his  college  course  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  arrived  in  the  autumn  of  1825.  He 
returned  to  Boston  in  1826,  and  after  model- 
ling busts  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  Chief  Jus- 
tice Marshall,  and  others,  returned  to  Italy  and 
settled  in  Florence.  His  first  commission  was 
from  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  for  whom  he 
executed  his  "Chanting  Cherubs."  In  1831 
he  went  to  Paris  to  model  the  bust  of  Lafay- 
ette, and  after  his  return  to  Florence  received 
liberal  commissions  from  his  countrymen,  prin- 
cipally for  busts.  To  Cooper  he  was  indebted 
for  the  commission  from  congress  to  execute 
his  colossal  statue  of  Washington,  which  was 


finished  in  1843,  after  many  years'  labor.  Du . 
ring  this  time  he  executed,  among  other  original 
works,  the  "  Medora  "  for  Mr.  Gilmore  of  Bal- 
timore, the  "  Angel  Abdiel,"  and  the  "  Venus 
Victrix  "  in  the  gallery  of  the  Boston  Athe- 
na5um.  A  second  commission  from  congress 
employed  him  for  some  years  subsequent  to 
this,  and  in  1851  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  to  superintend  the  placing  in  Washing- 
ton of  his  group  of  the  "Rescue."  Many  vex- 
atious delays  prevented  the  arrival  of  the  work 
from  Italy,  and  Greenough  was  attacked  by 
brain  fever  soon  after  he  had  commenced  a 
course  of  lectures  on  art  in  Boston,  and  died 
after  a  short  but  severe  illness.  At,  his  death 
he  had  sketches  of  work  for  20  years.  A  "  Me- 
morial of  Horatio  Greenough,"  published  in 
1853,  contains  a  collection  of  his  papers  on  art 
and  other  subjects,  preceded  by  a  life  of  the 
artist  by  H.  T.  Tuckerman. 

GREENPORT,  a  village  and  port  of  delivery  in 
the  town  of  Southold,  Suffolk  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  N.  E.  point  of  Long  Island, 
95  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  New  York;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,819.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor  at  the  en- 
trance to  Peconic  bay,  capacious  enough  for 


GREEN  RIVER 

le  largest  ships,  and  seldom  obstructed  by  ice. 
Coasting  vessels  are  owned  here,  and  there  are 
several  ship  yards.     The  village  contains  sev- 
en churches,  two  newspaper  offices,  a  stereo- 
type foundery,  a  national  bank,  a  public  school, 
and  four  large  hotels.     It  is  the  E.  terminus  of 
the  Long  Island  railroad.     Great  quantities  of 
are  manufactured  in  floating  and  stationary 
stories,  from  menhaden  or  bunkers.     Torpe- 
fireworks  are  extensively  made,  chiefly  by 
rermans  and  their  children.     For  a  few  years 
ist  Greenport  has  been  rapidly  rising  in  im- 
)rtance   as  a  summer  resort   and  watering 
lace,  on  account  of  its  superior  facilities  for 
iting,  fishing,  and  bathing.     A  large  hotel 
r&s  erected  on  the  S.  side  of  the  bay  in  1872, 
id  a  still  larger  one  has  lately  been  completed 
by.     In  summer  there  are  steamboat  lines 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Newport. 
GREEN  RIVER.     I.   A  considerable  stream 
rhich  rises  in  Lincoln  co.,  Ky.,  flows  W.  past 
he  Mammoth  cave,  and,  after  receiving  Big 
Jarren  river,  bends  N.  W.  and  enters  the  Ohio 
i  m.  above  Evansville  in  Indiana ;  length,  nearly 
)0  m.     It  is  200  yards  wide  at  its  mouth,  and 
the  lower  part  of  its  course  is  navigable  by 
amboats  at-  all  seasons,  while,  by  means  of 
ims  and  locks,  small  steam  vessels  can  ascend 
>  Greensburg,  a  distance  of  200  m.    The  upper 
irt  of  its  valley  is  occupied  by  cavernous  lime- 
3ne,  and  the  lower  abounds  in  coal.    II.  One 
the  constituents  (properly  the  upper  con- 
mation)  of  the  Colorado  of  the  West.     It 
ses  in  the  Rocky  mountains  near  Fremont's 
ak,  in  the  W.  part  of  Wyoming  territory,  in 
bout  lat.  43°  15'  N.,  Ion.  109°  45'  W.,  flows  S., 
rns  S.  E.  through  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Utah, 
tering  the  N.  W.  corner  of  Colorado,  then 
nds  S.  W.  and  reenters  Utah,  and  afterward 
rsues  a  general  S.  course  to  its  junction,  with 
e  Grand.     Its  entire  course  is  about  500  m. 
ides  numerous  affluents  which  it  receives 
Wyoming,  the  principal  tributaries  are  the 
ampah  or  Bear  and  the  White  from  the  east, 
d  the  Uintah,  White,  Little  White,  and  San 
ael  from  the  west.     Green  river  for  the 
ater  part  of  its  course  flows  through  deep 
d  precipitous  canons.     It  first  enters  the 
intah  mountains  in  the  extreme  N.  W.  corner 
Colorado,  at  a  point  called  Flaming  Gorge, 
ust  below  which  the  walls  of  the  cafion  are 
nearly  1,500  ft.  high.    The  stream  is  swift,  the 
descent  being  in  places  20  ft.  to  the  mile.    Rap- 
f  "ns  and  cataracts,  some  of  them  of  great  height, 
frequent.     There  is  generally  on  the  one 
side  or  the  other  a  narrow  strip  of  land  form- 
ing the  valley  of  the  river,  but  for  considerable 
distances  the  walls  rise  perpendicularly  from 
'he  water's  edge  to  the  height  of  5,000  or  6,000 
"  ,  and  at  one  point  of  6,500  ft. 

GREENSAND,  an  important  member  of  the 
retaceous  group  of  stratified  rocks.  In  Europe 
it  is  found  in  both  divisions  of  these  rocks,  the 
upper  and  lower,  the  clay  called  gault  being  in- 
termediate. The  chalk  overlies  the  greensand ; 
and  the  Wealden  clays,  where  they  appear  at 


GREENSAND 


237 


ues 

£: 

Sid( 


all,  separate  it  from  the  next  inferior  group, 
the  oolite.  In  the  United  States,  the  greensand 
is  not  found  throughout  the  range  of  the  creta- 
ceous group  around  the  southern  termination  of 
the  Alleghanies  and  thence  west.  It  is  indeed 
little  known  except  on  its  range  through  New 
Jersey.  The  tract  it  occupies,  commencing  at 
the  N.  E.  on  Sandy  Hook  bay,  extends  S.  on  the 
coast  to  Shark  inlet,  giving  a  width  across  the 
Atlantic  outcrop  of  the  formation  from  N.  W.  to 
S.  E.  of  about  18m.  Its  length  is  directed  S. 
W.  across  the  state,  the  tract  gradually  growing 
narrower  and  terminating  in  a  point  at  Salem, 
opposite  the  N.  part  of  Delaware.  Its  N.  line 
approaches  within  1^  m.  of  the  Delaware  at 
Bordentown,  and  is  but  little  further  back  from 
it  a  few  miles  below  Camden,  opposite  Phila- 
delphia. The  dip  of  the  formation  is  toward 
the  S.  E.  at  a  small  angle.  On  this  side  its 
uppermost  strata  disappear  beneath  the  sands 
which  cover  the  country ;  and  on  the  N.  W. 
come  up  from  beneath  its  lowest  beds  the  clays, 
well  known  at  Amboy  and  other  points  on  their 
range  toward  the  S.  W.  for  their  use  in  pottery 
and  the  manufacture  of  fire  brick.  A  straw- 
colored  limestone,  which  occasionally  appears 
overlying  the  greensand  on  its  S.  E.  margin, 
calls  to  mind  by  its  position  and  the  numerous 
marine  fossils  it  contains  the  calcareous  strata 
of  Europe  known  as  the  chalk.  The  whole 
thickness  of  the  strata  known  as  greensand  is 
about  100  ft.,  but  one  principal  bed  is  recog- 
nized among  the  other  strata  of  sand  and  clays 
and  intermixed  greensand,  which  is  about  30  ft. 
thick.  This  is  in  great  part,  sometimes  wholly, 
made  up  of  small  round  dark  granules ;  several 
are  often  united  in  one,  and  a  quantity  of  them 
moistened  may  sometimes  be  kneaded  like  clay. 
The  grains  are  commonly  of  deep  green  color, 
sometimes  bluish,  and  sometimes  a  dark  choco- 
late ;  but  whatever  their  external  color  may 
be,  they  are  all  bright  green  when  well  washed, 
and  especially  when  crushed.  Clay  and  white 
silicious  sand  are  commonly  intermixed  in  va- 
riable proportions  with  the  greensand.  In  some 
places  fossil  shells  and  other  marine  organic 
remains  abound  in  the  greensand,  being  grouped 
together  in  layers  a  few  feet  in  thickness.  The 
species  are  numerous  and  often  beautifully  pre- 
served. This  is  especially  the  case  with  those 
found  in  the  overlying  yellowish  limestone; 
all  are  extinct.  Of  60  shells  collected  by  Lyell, 
5  proved  to  be  identical  with  European  species, 
viz.  :  ostrea  larva,  0.  vesicularis,  grypJicea  cos- 
tata,  peeten  quinquecostatus,  belemnites  mii- 
cronatiis.  Prof.  Forbes  regarded  15  of  the  60 
"  as  good  geographical  representatives  of  well 
known  cretaceous  fossils  of  Europe."  Besides 
these  organic  remains  are  found  teeth  and  ver- 
tebrae of  sharks  and  some  other  fishes,  also  teeth 
and  other  vestiges  of  crocodiles  and  several 
other  saurians,  some  of  gigantic  size,  one  of 
the  largest  of  which,  the  hadrosauriis  Faulkii, 
has  been  restored  from  a  few  bones  by  Prof. 
B.  Waterhouse  Hawkins,  and  is  now  deposited 
in  the  museum  of  the  Philadelphia  academy 


238 


GREENSAND 


of  science.  Remains  of  several  crustaceous  ani- 
mals, as  crabs,  are  also  met  with,  and  finely 
preserved  specimens  of  various  species  of  the 
echinodermata,  and  of  zoophytes,  sponges,  &c. 
The  shells  which  most  abound  in  the  greensand, 
occasionally  making  up  the  principal  portion 
of  the  layers  in  which  they  occur,  are  gryphseas, 
terebratulas,  ostreas,  belemnites,  and  the  ex- 
ogyra  costata,  the  last  named  a  very  common 
and  large  bivalve  peculiar  to  the  cretaceous 
group. — The  greensand  is  of  importance  for  its 
fertilizing  property;  and  this  is  found  to  be 
derived,  not  from  the  calcareous  nature  of  its 
organic  remains,  but  from  the  green  grains 
which  commonly  make  up  the  greater  portion 
of  its  beds.  These,  as  they  are  found  in  New 
Jersey,  when  separated  from  adhering  sand 
and  clay,  present  a  composition  varying  only 
within  a  limited  range,  and  not  differing  from 
that  of  the  greensand  near  Havre,  France,  as 
determined  by  Berthier.  But  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Dr.  Turner,  the  same  mineral  sub- 
stance of  Kent,  England,  is  deficient  in  the  very 
element,  potash,  to  which  its  valuable  qualities 
in  this  country  are  essentially  owing.  Some 
of  the  same  material  also  met  with  in  Marsh- 
field,  Duxbury,  and  Gay  Head,  Mass.,  resem- 
bles the  English  in  this  particular.  The  mean 
of  four  analyses  of  New  Jersey  greensand,  made 
by  John  C.  Smock  and  E.  H.  Bogardus  in  1865- 
'8,  and  the  result  of  the  examination  of  foreign 
specimens,  are  given  in  the  following  table  : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

N.  J. 

France. 

Gay  Heid. 

England. 

Silica... 
Potash 

48-50 
9'00 

50-00 
10-90 

56-70 

48-50 

Lime      . 

1'50 

i'62 

Alumina  

8-00 

7:66 

13-82 

17-00 

Protoxide  of  iron  
Peroxide  of  iron  
Water   .  .  . 

5-00  1 
21-00) 
9*00 

21-00 

11-00 

20-10 
T'OO 

22-00 
7*00 

Magnesia    

1*18 

8*80 

In  New  Jersey  the  greensand  (there  called 
marl)  is  dug  from  pits  during  the  winter,  and 
brought  out  upon  the  fields,  where  it  is  spread 
to  be  ploughed  in.  The  effect  is  experienced 
with  the  first  crop,  and  continues  for  several 
years. — The  investigations  of  Ehrenberg  first 
showed  that  many  of  the  greensand  grains  are 
casts  of  the  microscopic  shells  of  polytlialamia 
(the  many-chambered)  and  of  other  organic 
bodies.  The  shells  themselves  had  disappear- 
ed ;  but  the  internal  form  of  their  cavities  was 
retained  in  the  more  durable  silicate  of  iron, 
which  took  the  place  of  the  animal  bodies 
as  these  decayed,  and  preserved  their  shapes. 
Even  the  very  finest  canals  of  the  cell  walls, 
and  all  their  connecting  tubes,  are  thus  pet- 
rified and  separately  exhibited.  Many  of  the 
grains  which  cannot  be  recognized  as  of  this 
origin  still  suggest  some  connection  with  ani- 
mal bodies  by  their  forms  being  sometimes 
lobed  and  again  presenting  the  appearance  of 
coprolites.  Prof.  Bailey  by  his  experiments 
confirmed  the  conclusions  of  Ehrenberg,  and, 
extending  his  investigations  to  cretaceous  rocks 


GREEN  UP 

from  Alabama  and  W.  Texas,  found  attached 
to  them  grains  of  greensand  exhibiting  the 
same  phenomena.  From  specimens  of  marl 
and  limestone  of  the  eocene  of  the  southern 
states  he  also  succeeded  in  bringing  to  light 
similar  grains  of  the  same  character  by  dissolv- 
ing away  with  dilute  acid  the  calcareous  mat- 
ters. One  of  his  specimens  was  brought  up  in 
sinking  the  artesian  well  at  Charleston  from 
the  depth  of  140  ft.  The  soundings  of  the 
coast  survey  brought  up  from  the  depths  of  the 
ocean,  in  the  Gulf  stream  and  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, something  resembling  greensand.  Count 
Pourtales  reports  one  sounding  as  of  this  char- 
acter obtained  in  lat.  31°  32',  Ion.  79°  35',  at 
the  depth  of  150  fathoms.  This,  as  well  as  the 
others  referred  to,  were  examined  by  Prof.  Bai- 
ley, who  found  them  to  be  greensand,  and  that 
this  is  often  in  the  form  of  well  defined  casts 
of  polythalamia,  minute  mollusks,  and  branch- 
ing tubuli.  The  material  he  found  to  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  fossil  casts  ;  but  the  chief 
part  of  the  soundings  he  found  consisted  of 
perfectly  preserved  shells  of  the  same  species, 
which  retained  their  brilliant  colors,  and  gave 
evidence  by  treatment  with  acid  that  the  soft 
parts  were  still  present,  thus  proving  the  re- 
cent existence  of  the  animals.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears that  in  some  deep  seas  the  production  of 
greensand  is  still  going  on,  and  formations  of 
this  obscure  material  are  there  growing  up  by 
the  same  agencies  which  elaborated  those  of 
ancient  geological  periods. 

GREENSBORO,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Hale 
co.,  Alabama,  80  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Montgomery  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,760,  of  whom  972  were  col- 
ored. It  is  surrounded  by  large  cotton  plan- 
tations, has  a  flourishing  trade,  and  contains 
a  court  house,  a  jail,  two  banks,  and  several 
churches,  and  has  a  weekly  newspaper.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Southern  university  (Methodist), 
which  in  1872  had  13  professors  and  instructors, 
120  students,  and  a  library  of  10,000  volumes. 

GREEN  SNAKE.     See  COLUBER. 

GREENSTONE,  a  trappean  rock  of  granular 
texture,  either  crystalline  or  compact,  composed 
of  hornblende  and  orthoclase,  or  augite  with 
either  orthoclase  or  albite.  When  albite  re- 
places orthoclase,  the  rock  is  called  diorite. 
Its  greenish  color  is  due  to  minute  quantities 
of  chromium  compounds.  It  is  called  trap 
when  in  columnar  form.  Basalt  is  essentially 
the  same  rock.  Being  of  irregular  fracture, 
too  hard  to  cut,  and  lacking  uniform  grain,  it 
is  unfit  for  use  in  building  except  of  rough 
walls.  (See  BASALT,  and  TRAP.) 

GREENUP,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Kentucky,  bor- 
dering on  the  Ohio  river  ;  area  480  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  11,463,  of  whom  461  were  col- 
ored. It  is  hilly  and  well  timbered,  has  a  fer- 
tile soil,  and  abounds  in  coal  and  iron.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  29,842  bushels 
of  wheat,  164,650  of  Indian  corn,  26,864  of 
oats,  9,498  of  potatoes,  and  1,668  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  747  horses,  533  milch  cows,  1,624 
other  cattle,  2,086  sheep,  and  2,834  swine;  7 


GREENVILLE 


blast  furnaces,  3  tanneries,  1  currying  estab- 
lishment, 2  lime  kilns,  3  saw  mills,  and  1  rail- 
road repair  shop.  Capital,  Greenupsburg. 

GREENVILLE.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  North  Carolina,  bounded  N.  by 
the  Nottoway  river,  and  watered  by  the  Meher- 
rin  river;  area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,362, 
of  whom  4,207  were  colored.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and  Poto- 
mac railroad,  and  the  Gaston  branch.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  moderately  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,524  bush- 
els of  wheat,  112,392  of  Indian  corn,  13,509 
of  oats,  and  33,200  Ibs.  of  tobacco.  Capital, 
Hicksford.  II.  A  N.  W.  county  of  South  Car- 
olina, bordering  on  North  Carolina,  and  bound- 
ed W.  by  Saluda  river ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  22,262,  of  whom  7,141  were  col- 
ored. The  Blue  Ridge  touches  the  N.  border, 
and  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  pleasantly  diversi- 
fied. The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  Green- 
ville and  Columbia  railroad  terminates  at  the 
county  seat,  and  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond 
Air-Line  railroad  crosses  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  44,421  bushels 
of  wheat,  355,526  of  Indian  corn,  23,698  of 
oats,  22,499  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,864  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,556  horses,  1,184 
mules  and  asses,  3,561  milch  cows,  5,111  other 
cattle,  7,640  sheep,  and  17,400  swine;  4  cotton 
mills,  2  tanneries,  2  currying  establishments, 
and  1  paper  mill.  Capital,  Greenville. 

GREENVILLE.  I.  A  city  and  the  capital  of 
Greenville  co.,  South  Carolina,  on  Reedy  river, 
an  affluent  of  the  Saluda,  near  its  source,  and 
on  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air-Line  rail- 
road, at  the  terminus  of  the  Greenville  and 
Columbia  line,  95  m.  N.  W.  of  Columbia;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,757,  of  whom  1,375  were  colored. 
Having  an  elevated  and  healthy  situation  at 
the  foot  of  Saluda  mountain,  it  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort.  It  is  the  seat  of  several  Bap- 
tist educational  institutions.  Furman  univer- 
sity, organized  in  1851,  in  1873-'4  had  4  pro- 
fessors, more  than  50  students,  and  a  library 
Df  2,000  volumes.  The  Greenville  high  school, 
formerly  in  name  and  still  practically  the  pre- 
paratory department  of  the  university,  had  4 
nstructors  and  more  than  100  pupils.  Green- 
ville Baptist  female  college,  organized  in  1854, 
a  ad  9  professors  and  instructors  and  about  100 
students.  The  Southern  Baptist  theological 
seminary  was  organized  in  1858,  and  in  1873-'4 
lad  5  professors,  60  or  70  students,  and  a 
ibrary  of  3,000  volumes.  Greenville  has  six 
:hurches,  a  national  bank,  grain  mills,  a  saw 
nill,  planing  mills,  a  coach  and  wagon  factory, 
i  boot  and  shoe  factory,  a  cotton  factory,  and 
-wo  Aveekly  newspapers.  II.  A  town  and 
-he  capital  of  Greene  co.,  Tennessee,  on  the 
5ast  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  railroad, 
520  m.  E.  of  Nashville,  and  66  m.  E.  by  N.  of 
vnoxville;  pop.  in  1870,  1,039,  of  whom  253 
vere  colored.  It  is  the  seat  of  Greenville  and 
fusculum  college,  organized  in  1868  by  the 
nion  of  Greenville  and  Tusculum  colleges, 
376  VOL.  viii.— 16 


GREENWICH 


239 


founded  respectively  in  1794  and  1844.  In 
1872  it  had  10  professors  and  instructors,  12 
collegiate  and  87  (21  female)  preparatory  stu- 
dents, and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  Green- 
ville has  three  weekly  newspapers. 

GREEN  VITRIOL.     See  COPPERAS. 

GREENWICH,  a  town  and  borough  of  Fairfield 
co.,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  sound,  and 
on  the  New  York  and  New  Haven  railroad, 
30  m.  N.  E.  of  New  York  and  42  m.  S.  W.  of 
New  Haven ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,644.  The  town 
borders  on  the  state  of  New  York,  forming  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  New  England,  and  con- 
tains a  savings  bank,  two  hotels,  19  public 
schools,  an  academy,  and  15  churches.  The 
village  is  beautifully  situated  near  the  water, 
and  contains  the  residences  of  many  people 
doing  business  in  New  York.  Putnam's  hill, 
famous  as  the  precipice  down  which  Gen.  Put- 
nam galloped  in  his  perilous  escape  from  the 
British  in  1779,  is  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  town. 

GREENWICH,  a  town  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  5  m.  S.  E.  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral, 
London ;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1871,  1 69,361.  It 
stands  mostly  on  low,  marshy  ground.  There 
are  numerous  churches,  chapels,  schools,  and 
charitable  institutions.  But  the  great  objects 
of  attraction  are  its  hospital  for  seamen,  and 
its  observatory,  whence  longitude  is  reckoned 
by  the  British  and  often  by  other  geographers. 
(See  LONGITUDE.)  The  hospital,  first  opened 
in  1705,  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  royal 
palace  called  Greenwich  house,  Placentia,  or 
"  The  Pleasaunce,"  a  favorite  residence  of  sev- 
eral sovereigns,  and  the  birthplace  of  Henry 
VIII.,  Queen  Mary,  and  Queen  Elizabeth.  It 
consists  of  quadrangular  buildings,  enclosing 
a  square,  each  bearing  the  name  of  the  sov- 
ereign in  whose  reign  it  was  erected.  The 
N.  W.  quadrangle  contains  the  apartments  of 
the  governor  and  the  libraries  of  the  officers 
and  pensioners.  The  N.  E.  quadrangle  is  in- 
habited by  the  officers  and  men.  In  the  S.  W. 
building  is  the  painted  hall,  adorned  with  the 
portraits  of  British  naval  heroes  and  repre- 
sentations of  naval  victories.  In  the  S.  E. 
division  is  the  chapel,  the  interior  of  which 
is  richly  decorated.  Previous  to  1865  the  in- 
stitution generally  supported  about  2,700  in- 
pensioners,  and  from  5,000  to  6,000  out-pen- 
sioners. The  in-pensioners  were  amply  sup- 
plied with  food,  uniformly  clothed,  comfortably 
lodged,  and  allowed  one  shilling  a  week  each 
for  tobacco.  The  out-pensioners  receive  each 
an  annual  stipend  which  averages  about  £12. 
There  is  an  infirmary  connected  with  the  hos- 
pital, and  a  school  for  the  children  of  decayed 
non-commissioned  officers,  seamen,  and  ma- 
rines, which  is  attended  by  800  scholars.  The 
governorship  of  the  hospital  is  usually  held  by 
some  veteran  naval  commander.  By  an  act 
of  parliament  passed  in  1865  the  in-pensioners 
were  permitted  to  reside  where  they  pleased, 
and  were  allowed  two  shillings  a  day  besides 
their  service  pension.  All  but  200  or  300 


240 


GREENWOOD 


infirm  and  bed-ridden  pensioners  thereupon 
left  the  hospital,  and  it  is  now  kept  as  a  medi- 
cal hospital  for  wounded  seamen  in  time  of 
war.  The  income  of  the  hospital  amounts  to 


about  £150,000  a  year.  The  observatory  was 
erected  by  Charles  II.  for  the  advancement  of 
navigation  and  nautical  astronomy.  Its  organ- 
ization is  very  complete.  It  is  charged  with 


Greenwich  Hospital. 


the  transmission  of  time  throughout  England 
by  means  of  electro-magnetic  circuits,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  ordinary  functions.  Greenwich  has 
several  large  factories,  extensive  engineering 
establishments,  iron-steamboat  yards,  rope- 
walks,  &c.  The  borough  comprises  Green- 
wich, Deptford,  and  Woolwich. 

GREENWOOD.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Kansas, 
intersected  by  Verdigris  and  Fall  rivers ;  area, 
1,155  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,484.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  35,449  bushels  of  wheat, 
173,590  of  Indian  corn,  24,492  of  oats,  14,774 
of  potatoes,  and  10,485  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,638  horses,  2,323  milch  cows,  5,427 
other  cattle,  3,575  sheep,  1,890  swine,  and  5 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Eureka.  II.  An  E.  coun- 
ty of  Colorado,  bordering  on  Kansas;  area, 
about  4,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  510.  It  has 
since  been  absorbed  by  Bent  and  Elbert  coun- 
ties. It  was  intersected  by  Big  Sandy  creek, 
a  branch  of  the  Arkansas,  and  watered  in  the 
E.  part  by  the  head  streams  of  Smoky  Hill 
river.  Irrigation  is  necessary.  Buffalo  grass 
and  cactus  abound.  The  Kansas  Pacific  rail- 
road traverses  the  region.  Capital,  Kit  Carson. 

GREENWOOD,  Francis  William  Pitt,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  in  Boston,  Feb.  5,  1797, 
died  there,  Aug.  2,  1843.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1814,  and  immediately  com- 
menced the  study  of  theology  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  Ware,  approving  in  the  main,  then 
and  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  the  doctrines  preva- 
lent in  Boston  under  the  name  of  liberal  Chris- 
tianity. In  October,  1818,  he  became  pastor 


of  the  new  South  church  and  society  in  Bos- 
ton ;  but  after  a  single  year  his  course  was  ar- 
rested by  a  pulmonary  disease.  He  went  to 
England  in  1820,  but,  not  fully  recovering  his 
health,  resigned  his  pastorate.  He  returned 
in  the  autumn  of  1821,  passed  a  little  more 
than  two  years  at  Baltimore,  preached  occa- 
sionally, and  wrote  for  and  edited  for  nearly 
two  years  a  periodical  called  the  "  Unitarian 
Miscellany."  In  1824  he  became  colleague  of 
Dr.  James  Freeman,  pastor  of  King's  chapel, 
Boston,  who  with  the  consent  and  coopera- 
tion of  his  society  had  revised  the  "Book  of 
Common  Prayer"  there  used  so  as  to  ex- 
clude the  recognition  of  the  Trinity.  Bodily 
infirmities  compelled  Dr.  Freeman  to  give  up 
the  pulpit  in  1827,  and  Mr.  Greenwood  took 
the  full  charge.  He  had  a  strong  taste  for  the 
natural  sciences,  conchology  and  botany  being 
his  especial  favorites,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Boston  society  of  natural 
history.  A  return  of  haemorrhage  of  the  lungs 
compelled  him  to  make  a  voyage  to  Cuba  in 
1837.  While  confined  to  a  sick  ch amber  the 
year  before  his  death,  he  prepared  for  publica- 
tion "  Sermons  of  Consolation  "  (1842).  He  was 
also  the  author  of  "  History  of  King's  Chapel" 
(Boston,  1833),  "Lives  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles" (1838),  "Sermons  to  Children,"  and  nu- 
merous contributions  to  periodicals.  After  his 
decease  Samuel  A.  Eliot  edited  two  volumes 
of  his  sermons  from  the  MSS.,  and  prefaced 
them  with  a  memoir  of  the  author;  and  a  vol- 
ume of  his  miscellaneous  writings  was  pub- 
lished by  his  son  (1846). 


GREER 

GREER,  the  N.  W.  county  of  Texas,  as 
claimed  by  the  state  authorities,  lying  between 
the  forks  of  Red  river;  area,  3,480  sq.  m. ; 
still  unsettled.  There  is  considerable  good 
land,  but  little  timber.  This  region  is  claimed 
by  the  United  States  as  being  within  the  limits 
of  the  Indian  territory. 

GREG,  William  Rathbone,  an  English  author, 
born  in  1812.  He  has  published  "  Investments 
for  Working  Classes"  (1852);  "Essays  on  Po- 
litical and  Social  Science"  (1854);  "Creed  of 
Christendom,  its  Foundations,"  &c.  (1863); 
"  Literary  and  Social  Judgments  "  (1868) ; 
"Truth  vs.  Edification"  (1869);  "Why  are 
Women  Redundant?  "  (1869);  "Political  Prob- 
lems for  our  Age  and  Country  "  (1870) ;  "The 
Great  Duel,  its  True  Meaning  and  Uses" 
(1871);  and  "Enigmas  of  Life"  (1872).  He 
has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  English 
periodicals.  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
reprinted  in  the  United  States. 

GREGARIM,  the  best  known  genus  of  the 
gregarinidce,  a  division  of  protozoa,  with  no 
mouth  and  without  the  power  of  sending  out 
the  delicate  filaments  of  sarcode  characteristic 
of  the  foraminifera.  They  are  among  the  low- 
est of  the  protozoa,  parasitic,  varying  in  size 
from  a  pin's  head  to  half  an  inch  in  length  ; 
they  infest  the  intestines  of  various  animals, 
principally  articulates,  as  the  earth  worm, 
lobster,  beetle,  and  cockroach.  They  appear 
like  a  single  cell,  filled  with  a  granular  and 
fatty  matter,  with  a  nucleus  and  nucleolus ; 
the  external  covering  may  be  smooth,  bristly, 
or  ciliated.  They  have  no  definite  organs,  and 
the  processes  of  nutrition  and  waste  must  be 
effected  by  the  general  surface  of  the  body,  as 
is  common  with  internal  parasites.  In  repro- 
duction, the  nucleus  disappears,  and  the  gran- 
ular sarcode  breaks  up  into  little  masses, 
which  afterward  become  pointed,  forming  the 
so-called  navicellaB ;  these  escape  from  the 

ptured  cyst,  giving  rise  to  active  sarcode 
s,  which  have  the  property  of  throwing 
out  processes,  like  the  amoeba;  these  in  a 
suitable  locality  become  developed  into  gre- 
garinge.  One  of  the  largest,  said  to  be,  with 
the  exception  of  the  yolk  of  the  eggs  of  birds 
and  some  other  animals,  the  largest  known 
cell,  the  G.  gigantea,  is  found  in  the  intestine 
of  the  lobster;  it  is  nearly  two  thirds  of  an 
inch  long,  and  almost  as  wide. 

GREGOIRE,  Henri,  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Veho,  near  Luneville,  Dec.  4, 1750,  died 
in  Paris,  May  28,  1831.  He  commenced  active 
life  as  a  parish  priest,  and  being  nominated 
by  the  clergy  of  Lorraine  in  1789  to  represent 
them  in  the  states  general,  he  at  once  took 
ground  as  a  republican,  and  was  one  of  the  first 
of  the  clergy  to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
constitution.  He  voted  against  primogeniture 
and  special  privileges,  and  zealously  advocated 
the  admission  of  Jews  and  men  of  color  to  full 
rights  of  citizenship.  Under  the  new  constitu- 
tion of  the  clergy  the  department  of  Loir-et- 
Cher  in  1792  elected  him  bishop,  on  which  he 


GREGOIRE 


241 


so-cai 
ruptui 
masse 


assumed,  from  the  seat  of  the  episcopate,  the 
appellation  of  bishop  of  Blois.  In  the  conven- 
tion he  led  the  movement  for  the  abolition  of 
the  regal  office,  and  made  a  bitter  speech 
against  kings  in  general,  ending  by  demanding 
that  Louis  Capet  should  be  brought  to  trial. 
One  maxim  of  his  became  a  watchword  of  the 
revolution  :•  Uhistoire  des  rois  cst  le  martyro- 
loge  des  nations.  His  oration  caused  him  to 
be  made,  the  same  day,  president  of  the  con- 
vention. He  was  absent  with  three  other 
delegates  on  a  mission  to  revolutionize  Savoy 
when  the  king  was  brought  to  trial,  but  with 
his  colleagues  he  wrote  from  Chambery  to 
the  convention,  urging  the  condemnation  of 
the  king,  though  he  afterward  denied  that  he 
wished  him  to  be  condemned  to  death.  Fur- 
ther, he  says  he  endeavored  to  save  the  life 
of  the  king  by  proposing  to  abolish  the  death 
penalty.  When  Gobel,  archbishop  of  Paris, 
assented  to  the  worship  of  Reason,  Gr6goire 
boldly  refused  to  follow  his  example.  He  con- 
tributed zealously  to  preserve  the  monuments 
of  art,  and  extended  his  protection  to  men  of 
letters  and  artists.  In  1800  he  entered  the 
legislative  body,  and  having  been  transferred 
in  1801  to  the  senate,  formed  one  of  the  mi- 
nority of  five  opposed  to  the  accession  of  the 
first  consul  to  the  throne.  He  alone  opposed 
the  reestablishment  of  titles  of  nobility.  Na- 
poleon unwillingly,  on  the  request  of  both  houses 
of  the  legislature,  afterward  made  him  a  count 
of  the  empire  and  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor. 
He  was  also  opposed  to  the  emperor's  divorce, 
and  declined  to  be  present  at  the  marriage 
with  Maria  Louisa.  On  Napoleon's  reverses  in 
1814  Gr6goire  pronounced  a  vehement  oration 
against  him.  On  the  second  restoration  he 
was  excluded  from  the  institute,  deprived  of 
his  bishopric,  and  compelled  by  the  stoppage 
of  his  pension  to  sell  his  library  for  the  means 
of  support.  He  retired  to  Auteuil,  where  he 
passed  the  last  15  years  of  his  life  in  literary 
labor.  He  never  renounced  his  republican 
principles.  The  last  offices  of  religion  were 
denied  him  on  his  deathbed  by  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors;  but  the  civil  power  having  inter- 
fered, funeral  rites  were  performed  over  his 
body  in  the  church  of  the  Abbaye  aux  Bois  by 
a  proscribed  priest.  The  people  then  took  his 
remains  in  charge,  and,  removing  the  horses 
from  the  hearse,  drew  it  to  the  cemetery  of 
Mont  Parnasse.  Bernardin  de  1'Oise  describes 
Gregoire's  character  in  saying  that  he  wished 
to  "  Christianize  the  revolution."  The  most 
important  of  his  numerous  publications  are  his 
Histoire  des  sectes  religieuses  (2  vols.,  1810); 
Essai  Mstorique  sur  les  libertes  de  VEglise  gal- 
licane  (1818);  De  ^influence  du  Christianisme 
sur  la  condition  des  femmes  (1821);  Histoire 
des  confesseurs  des  empereurs,  des  rois  et  d'autres 
princes  (1824) ;  and  Histoire  du  mariage  despre- 
tres  en  France  (1826).  He  also  wrote  a  work 
entitled  De  la  litterature  des  negres,  containing 
sketches  of  the  lives  and  writings  of  negroes 
"  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  science, 


242 


GREGORIAN  CHANT 


literature,  and  the  arts."  This  work  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  published  both  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  His 
Memoires  were  published  in  1837. 

GREGORIAN  CHANT,  a  method  of  singing  the 
psalms  and  litanies  of  the  church,  introduced 
by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  about  590.  It  was 
mainly  founded  on  the  Ambrosian  chant,  pre- 
viously in  use  in  the  western  churches,  to  the 
four  authentic  or  principal  modes  of  which 
Gregory,  either  for  variety  or  convenience  of 
the  voice,  added  the  plagal  or  collateral  modes. 
His  additional  object  in  effecting  this  reform 
was  to  banish  from  the  church  all  rhythmic 
singing,  as  too  lively  for  the  place  and  occasion, 
and  to  substitute  in  his  own  chant,  which  was 
called  the  canto  fermo,  a  gravity  and  simplicity 
suited  to  the  solemn  offices  of  the  church.  He 
also  established  in  Rome  a  school  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  new  method  of  singing,  which  existed 
for  three  centuries  after  his  death.  Notwith- 
standing the  monotony  of  the  Gregorian  chant, 
its  extreme  simplicity  and  dissimilarity  to  sec- 
ular music,  or  even  to  that  at  present  employed 
in  the  services  of  the  church,  it  is  still  in  use, 
and  during  Lent  and  on  other  special  occasions 
may  be  heard  in  all  its  ancient  glory  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in 
those  of  other  denominations.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  fragments  of  the  melodies  sung 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
are  discernible  in  the  Gregorian  chant. 

GREGOROVIUS,  Ferdinand,  a  German  author, 
bora  at  Neidenburg,  Prussia,  Jan.  19, 1821.  He 
entered  the  university  of  Konigsberg  in  1838, 
studied  theology  and  philosophy,  and  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  history.  His 
first  important  work  was  Goethe's  Wilhelm 
Meister  in  seinen  socialist ischen  Elementen 
(Konigsberg,  1849),  in  which  he  showed  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  work  of  the  great  poet, 
and  presented  many  striking  views  of  modern 
life.  He  published  in  1848  a  small  work  on  Po- 
land, in  1849  Polen-  und  Magyar enlicder,  and 
in  1851  the  tragedy  Der  Tod  des  Tiberius  and 
Geschichte  des  romischen  Kaisers  Hadrian  und 
seiner  Zeit.  In  1852  he  travelled  through  Italy, 
and  the  results  of  his  studies  and  observations 
were  published  in  Corsica  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1854),  Figuren,  Geschichte,  Leben  und  Scenerie 
aus  Italien  (4th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1874),  Lateinische. 
Sommer  (1863),  and  Siciliana  (3d  ed.,  1874). 
The  last  three  have  been  published  under  the 
title  Wanderjahre  in  Italien,  including  Von 
Ravenna  bis  Mentana  (4  vola.,  1874).  He  also 
published  Lieder  des  Giovanni  Meli  ton  Paler- 
mo (1856),  Die  Grabmdler  der  romischen  Pdpste 
(1857),  and  a  long  poem,  Euphorion  (1858 ; 
illustrated  ed.,  1872).  His  most  important 
works  are  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Mittel- 
alter(8  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1859-72 ;  3d  ed.,  1874; 
Italian  translation,  Venice,  1874  et  seq.),  and 
(!^<-hichte  der  Lucrezia  Borgia  (2  vols.,  1874). 
^  GREGORY,  a  S.  county  of  Dakota,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  the  Missouri  river,  recently  formed, 
and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870;  area, 


GREGORY 

about  1,400  sq.  m.  It  is  separated  from  Ne- 
braska on  the  south  by  the  Niobrara  and  Keya 
Paha  rivers. 

GREGORY,  the  name  of  16  popes.  I.  Saint, 
surnamed  the  Great,  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
Rome  about  540,  died  March '12,  604.  His  pa- 
rents were  patricians  of  great  wealth.  His 
father,  Gordianus,  renounced  his  senatorial 
rank  to  become  a  clergyman,  and  when  he 
died  was  one  of  the  seven  regionarii  or  cardi- 
nal deacons ;  and  his  mother,  Sylvia,  devoted 
herself  at  the  same  time  to  an  ascetic  life. 
To  a  commanding  presence  and  affable  man- 
ners Gregory  united  great  learning  and  execu- 
tive ability.  He  was  appointed  governor  or 
prefect  of  Rome  about  573,  but  soon  abdicated 
the  office,  withdrew  from  the  world,  and,  after 
his  father's  death,  employed  his  revenue  in 
founding  religious  institutions,  changed  his  own 
house  on  the  Cselian  hill  into  a  monastery,  and 
himself  became  a  monk  in  it.  On  seeing  one 
day  some  handsome  English  youths  exposed 
for  sale  in  the  market  place,  he  exclaimed, 
"  They  would  be  angels  rather  than  Angles, 
were  they  only  Christians !  "  Carried  away 
by  the  desire  of  converting  England,  he  be- 
sought the  pope  to  allow  him  to  go  thither ; 
and  he  set  out  by  night  from  Rome,  but  was 
followed  and  brought  back  by  the  people. 
Pope  Pelagius  II.  named  him  one  of  the  seven 
regionary  deacons,  and  shortly  afterward  sent 
him  as  legate  to  Constantinople.  He  convinced 
the  heretic  Eutychius  of  his  error,  won  the 
good  graces  of  the  emperor  Mauricius,  and  was 
recalled  to  Rome  about  585.  During  this  peri- 
od he  wrote  his  Libri  Moralium,  a  commentary 
on  Job.  In  590  the  plague  broke  out.  in  Rome, 
and  Pope  Pelagius  having  died  of  it,  Gregory 
was  unanimously  chosen  to  fill  his  place.  He 
wrote  to  the  emper.or  Mauricius  beseeching  him 
not  to  ratify  the  election ;  but  the  letter  was 
intercepted  by  the  prefect  of  Rome,  one  of 
quite  a  different  import  despatched  in  its  stead, 
and  the  consent  of  the  emperor  obtained  with- 
out delay.  Meanwhile  Gregory  had  fled  from 
Rome  and  concealed  himself;  but  his  retreat 
was  discovered,  and  on  Sept.  3,  590,  he  was 
consecrated  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  Pesti- 
lence and  famine  were  desolating  Italy  at  that 
time,  and  hostile  armies  were  on  their  march 
toward  Rome.  He  called  his  clergy  around 
him,  labored  at  their  head  night  and  day  to 
stay  the  ravages  of  the  plague,  collected  funds 
and  purchased  large  stores  of  grain  in  Sicily, 
which  brought  back  plenty  to  the  city,  and  by 
his  eloquence  arrested  the  invasion  of  the  ad- 
vancing Lombards.  He  bent  his  whole  mind 
on  reforming  the  abuses  which  had  crept  into 
the  clerical  body,  many  of  which  had  become 
inveterate,  and  sent  missionaries  to  all  parts  of 
the  known  world.  Among  them  Augustin  and 
his  companions  went  by  his  order  to  England, 
which  was  soon  converted  to  the  faith.  He 
extinguished  Arianism  in  Lombardy,  and  com- 
bated it  incessantly  in  Spain,  where  he  won 
over  to  orthodoxy  the  king  Recared  ;  in  Africa 


GREGORY 


243 


put  down  the  Donatists,  and  in  Constanti- 
nople opposed  energetically  the  pretensions  of 
the  patriarch  John  the  Abstinent  to  the  title 
of  oecumenical  patriarch,  assuming  as  his  own 
title  that  of  "  servant  of  the  servants  of  God," 
which  was  adopted  by  the  subsequent  bishops 
of  Rome.  Equally  tolerant  and  zealous,  while 
using  every  endeavor  to  spread  the  faith,  he 
would  have  no  other  means  employed  for  that 
purpose  than  those  of  an  exemplary  life  and 
rational  instruction.  He  reprimanded  the 
bishop  of  Terracina,  who  would  not  permit 
the  Jews  to  assemble  for  religious  worship ; 
and  wrote  in  the  same  spirit  to  the  bishops  of 
Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Marseilles.  At  Cagliari 
a  converted  Jew  had  changed  a  synagogue 
which  he  owned  into  a  Christian  church ; 
Gregory  commanded  that  it  be  restored  to  its 
former  use.  He  deplored  the  evils  of  slavery 
as  it  existed  before  his  time,  and  seeing  it  ag- 
gravated by  the  barbarian  wars,  he  emancipa- 
ted all  his  own  slaves  as  an  example.  His 
works,  besides  his  Libri  Noralium,  are  Liber 
Regulm  Pastoralis,  4  books  of  dialogues,  and 
14  books  of  letters.  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  the  Benedictines  (4  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1705). 
An  old  English  version  of  his  dialogues,  edited 
by  Henry  James  Coleridge,  S.J.,  was  published 
at  London  in  1874.  A  life  of  St.  Gregory  was 
written  by  Paul  the  Deacon,  another  by  John 
the  Deacon,  and  a  history  of  his  pontificate  by 
Maimbourg.  II.  Saint,  born  in  Rome  in  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  7th  century,  died  in  February, 
731.  He  was  equally  renowned  for  learning 
and  virtue  when  elected  to  the  papal  chair, 
in  May,  715.  He  found  Constantinople  given 
up  to  revolutions  in  the  imperial  palace,  the 
coasts  of  Italy  open  to  the  incursions  of  the 
newly  created  Mohammedan  navy,  and  the  in- 
terior ravaged  by  the  Lombards.  The  empe- 
ror Leo  the  Isaurian  urged  in  both  east  and 
west  the  persecution  of  those  who  honored 
images,  and  Gregory  opposed  him,  while  up- 
holding his  authority  in  Italy.  He  built  up  at 
his  own  expense  the  ruined  walls  of  Rome, 
purchased  back  from  the  Lombards  the  city 
of  Cumae,  persuaded  King  Liutprand  to  restore 
Sutri  to  the  emperor,  and  some  time  afterward 
stopped  the  united  forces  of  Liutprand  and  the 
exarch  of  Ravenna  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  and 
induced  them  to  spare  that  city.  He  was  most 
zealous  in  promoting  the  conversion  of  infidels, 
sent  St.  Boniface  to  preach  the  gospel  among 
the  Germans,  and  wrote  to  Charles  Martel  to 
beg  his  protection  for  the  missionaries.  He 
restored  the  ruined  monastery  of  Monte  Ca- 
sino, published  important  laws  concerning 
Christian  matrimony,  and  was  firm  in  enforc- 
ing clerical  morality.  There  are  17  letters  of 
this  pope  in  Labbe's  collection  of  the  councils, 
vols.  vi.  and  vii.  HI.  Born  in  Syria,  succeeded 
Gregory  II.  in  731,  died  in  741.  He  wrote  to 
the  emperor  Leo,  reproaching  him  for  uphold- 
ing the  iconoclasts;  but  finding  that  prince 
incorrigible,  he  assembled  a  council  in  732, 
which  excommunicated  them  as  heretics.  The 


Lombards  annoyed  him,  and  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  the  aid  of  Charles  Martel  against 
them  he  sent  an  embassy  to  France,  but  the 
application  proved  fruitless.  Gregory  was  the 
first  pope  who  ruled  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna 
in  a  temporal  sense,  not  in  virtue  of  any  for- 
mal donation,  but  because,  abandoned  by  the 
Greeks,  the  citizens  saw  no  one  to  whom  they 
could  appeal  for  protection  but  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  IV.  Born  in  Rome,  made  pope  in  827, 
died  in  844.  He  rebuilt  the  city  of  Ostia,  to 
defend  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  against  the  in- 
roads of  the  Mussulmans  who  had  taken  pos- 
session of  Sicily.  He  went  to  France  in  the 
hope  of  putting  an  end  to  the  dissensions  be- 
tween Louis  le  Debonnaire  and  his  sons,  but 
failed,  and  returned  to  Rome  disgusted  with 
both  parties.  V.  Bruno,  a  Saxon,  nephew  of 
the  emperor  Otho  II.,  elected  pope  in  May,  996, 
died  in  999.  His  pontificate  was  troubled  by 
Philogethes,  bishop  of  Piacenza,  who  became 
antipope  under  the  name  of  John  XVI.  The 
latter  was  sustained  by  Crescentius,  consul  of 
Rome,  but  finally  driven  thence  by  Otho  III., 
and  excommunicated  by  Gregory  in  the  council 
of  Pavia,  997.  Otho  was  crowned  by  his  cou- 
sin in  996.  VI.  John  Gratianns,  a  Roman,  and 
archpriest  of  the  Roman  church,  elected  pope, 
some  say  by  simoniacal  means,  April  8,  1045, 
died  in  1047.  He  resigned  at  the  council  of 
Sutri  in  December,  1046,  and  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Cluny.  VII.  Hildebrand,  Saint,  born 
at  Soano,  Tuscany,  about  1018,  died  in  Salerno, 
May  25,  1085.  He  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter, 
and  was  educated  by  his  uncle  in  a  Roman 
monastery.  He  afterward  went  to  France,  and 
became  a  monk  of  Cluny.  Recalled  to  Rome, 
and  made  prior  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Paul  extra 
muros,  he  found  his  church  almost  in  ruins,  the 
community  reduced  to  a  few  members,  and 
nearly  all  its  lands  in  the  possession  of  powerful 
laymen.  With  an  energy  which  foreshadowed 
his  career,  he  recovered  the  lands,  restored  the 
church,  improved  the  discipline,  and  increased 
the  community.  He  gained  the  favor  of  Greg- 
ory VL,  became  the  confidential  adviser  of  Leo 
IX.,  and  preserved  his  influence  under  Victor 
II.  and  Alexander  II.  By  Gregory  VI.  he  was 
sent  to  France  in  1045  to  urge  the  extirpation 
of  simony.  He  had  a  law  passed  against  it  in 
a  council  at  Lyons,  and  presided  in  the  coun- 
cil of  Tours,  in  which  Berengarius  recanted  his 
opinions  concerning  the  eucharist.  He  was  in- 
strumental in  effecting  the  election  of  Nicholas 
II.  and  Alexander  II. ;  and  was  himself  chosen 
pope  on  April  22,  1073.  It  is  asserted  that  he 
did  not  seek  this  elevation,  and  that  he  wrote 
to  Henry  IV.,  then  in  Bavaria,  beseeching 
him  to  have  the  election  set  aside,  and  giving 
the  'emperor  warning  that  if  he  occupied  the 
papal  chair  he  would  call  him  to  account  for 
his  tyranny  and  licentiousness.  Henry  sent 
officers  to  examine  into  the  hasty  election, 
ratified  it,  and  allowed  Gregory  to  be  conse- 
crated on  June  80.  Once  enthroned,  he  re- 
solved to  purge  the  priesthood  of  the  two  enor- 


244 


GREGORY 


raoas  evils  of  simony  and  unchastity,  and  to 
emancipate  the  church  from  the  interference  of 
the  temporal  power*  He  wrote  to  the  countess 
Beatrice  and  her  daughter  Matilda  to  hold  no 
communion  with  the  simoniacal  bishops  of 
Tuscany.  The  emperor,  who  made  no  scruple 
or  secret  of  selling  ecclesiastical  livings  to  the 
highest  bidder,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
had  thus  twice  disposed  of  the  see  of  Milan. 
Gregory  deposed  the  archbishop  as  an  ex- 
ample to  offenders,  and  held  a  council  in  Rome, 
in  which  it  was  made  a  law  that  all  persons 
guilty  of  simony  should  be  ipso  facto  excom- 
municated as  incapable  of  exercising  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction,  and  disqualified  for  holding 
any  benefice  whatever.  It  was  furthermore 
decreed  that  all  married  and  unchaste  priests 
should  be  degraded  from  their  office.  This 
legislation  produced  great  excitement  through- 
out Germany,  where  an  attempt  to  enforce  it 
well  nigh  cost  the  archbishop  of  Mentz  his  life. 
It  brought  the  pope  into  direct  collision  with 
the  emperor,  who  traded  in  benefices.  Henry 
had  been  summoned  to  Rome  to  answer  for  his 
tyrannical  and  licentious  conduct ;  he  laughed 
at  the  summons,  and  derided  the  legates  whom 
Gregory  repeatedly  sent  to  bring  him  to  a 
sense  of  his  wrong  doing.  In  1075  Cencius, 
prefect  of  Rome,  had  been  excommunicated, 
with  several  of  his  abettors,  for  various  crimes. 
On  Christmas  eve,  while  the  pope  was  cele- 
brating midnight  mass  at  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore, 
Cencius  rushed  into  the  church  with  a  body 
of  armed  men,  who  dragged  Gregory  from  the 
altar,  wounded  him  in  the  neck,  and  hurried 
him  off  to  a  prison.  This  outrage  was  at- 
tributed by  some  to  the  emperor's  instigation. 
The  only  reply  Henry  made  to  the  papal  sum- 
mons was  to  assemble  a  council  at  Worms  in 
1076,  which  passed  a  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation against  Gregory.  Henry  informed  him 
of  this  in  a  letter  addressed  "to  the  false  monk 
Hildebrand,"  which  the  imperial  messenger 
handed  to  the  pope  at  Rome  in  the  midst  of 
the  solemn  session  of  the  council.  A  sentence 
of  excommunication  was  fulminated  against  the 
emperor,  whose  crown  was  declared  forfeited. 
Saxony  and  Thuringia  had  already  been  driven 
into  open  rebellion  by  the  conduct  of  Henry ; 
on  reception  of  the  tidings  from  Rome,  a  ma- 
jority of  the  princes  of  the  empire  and  several 
bishops  met  near  Mentz,  and,  after  vainly 
summoning  Henry  to  appear  and  make  satis- 
faction, they  elected  in  his  stead  Rudolph, 
duke  of  Swabia.  Abandoned  by  his  adhe- 
rents, Henry  was  compelled  to  sue  for  pardon, 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  presented  himself  before 
the  pope,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle 
of  Canossa.  Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in 
the  relations  of  those  who  assert  that  the  pon- 
tiff kept  the  suppliant  emperor  three  whole 
days  in  the  court  of  the  castle,  clad  in  a  single 
garment  and  shivering  in  the  cold  of  January, 
we  may  well  believe  that  he  treated  him  with 
severity.  Absolved  from  excommunication, 
Henry  returned,  fought  his  enemies,  and  re- 


gained his  crown  by  the  death  of  Rudolph. 
The  pope  in  absolving  him  had  not  reinstated 
him  in  his  imperial  rank  ;  hence  the  resistance 
he  met  with  on  his  return  to  Germany,  and 
hence,  too,  the  animosity  with  which  from  that 
moment  he  pursued  Gregory  to  the  death.  In 
1081  he  crossed  once  more  into  Lombardy, 
and  assembled  a  council,  which  deposed  and 
excommunicated  the  pope,  and  elected  in  his 
stead  Guibert,  archbishop  of  Ravenna,  with 
whom  Henry  advanced  toward  Rome,  but 
withdrew  at  the  approach  of  Robert  Guiscard 
and  his  Normans.  He  returned  the  next  year 
with  no  better  success,  but  on  his  third  at- 
tempt was  admitted  into  Rome  by  the  treachery 
of  some  of  the  citizens.  The  pope  fled  to  the 
fortress  of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  Guibert  was  en- 
throned as  Clement  III. ;  but  Robert  hastened 
by  forced  marches  to  the  relief  of  Gregory, 
and  Henry  with  his  antipope  withdrew  from 
Rome.  The  Tuscan  forces  were  victorious  in 
Lombardy  over  Gregory's  enemies,  but  his 
health  was  hopelessly  broken.  Robert,  his 
deliverer,  was  unwilling  to  allow  him  in  his 
enfeebled  state  to  remain  within  reach  of  his 
persecutors,  and  persuaded  him  to  rest  for  a 
while  in  Monte  Casino,  and  then  to  take  up  his 
abode  temporarily  in  Salerno,  where  he  died 
repeating  the  words,  Dilexi  justitiam  et  odim 
iniquitatem,  propterea,  morior  in  exilio  ("I 
have  loved  righteousness  and  hated  wicked- 
ness, therefore  do  I  die  in  exile ").  These 
words  may  still  be  read  on  his  tomb  in  the 
church  of  St.  Matthew  in  Salerno.  There  is  a 
collection  of  his  letters  in  the  Bollandists'  Acta 
Sanctorum.  See  also  his  epistles  in  Migne's 
Patrologie,  vol.  cxlviii. ;  his  life  by  the  Ger- 
man Protestant  Voigt;  and  the  posthumous 
work  of  Villemain,  Histoire  de  Oregoire  VII. 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1873  ;  English  translation 
by  Brockley,  London,  1874).  VIII.  Alberto  dc 
Mora,  succeeded  Urban  III.,  Oct.  21, 1187,  died 
Dec.  17  of  the  same  year.  He  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  antipope  Bourdin,  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Gregory  VIII.  IX.  I'golino, 
succeeded  Honorius  III.  in  1227,  died  in  Rome, 
Aug.  21,  1241.  He  is  remarkable  chiefly  for 
his  protracted  struggle  with  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick II.  (See  FREDERICK  II.  of  Germany.) 
X.  Tebaldo  Visconti,  born  in  Piacenza  about 
1209,  died  in  Arezzo,  Jan.  10,  1276.  He  be- 
came successively  canon  of  Lyons,  archdea- 
con of  Li£ge,  and  cardinal.  He  was  papal  le- 
gate in  Palestine,  when,  after  an  interregnum 
of  three  years,  he  was  elected  pope  Sept.  1, 
1271.  He  opened  the  second  general  council 
of  Lyons  in  1274,  made  vain  endeavors  to 
rouse  Christian  princes  to  succor  Palestine,  ef- 
fected a  temporary  reunion  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  and  was  the  first  to  enact  a 
stringent  law  for  the  holding  of  conclaves. 
(See  CONCLAVE.)  Gregory  X.  was  beatified  in 
1713.  XI.  Pierre  Roger,  born  in  Lower  Limou- 
sin in  1329,  elected  pope  in  1370  (the  last 
Frenchman  who  has  occupied  the  pontifical 
chair),  died  March  27,  1378.  To  him  belongs 


GREGORY 


245 


the  credit  of  having  put  an  end  to  what  was 
called  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  meaning  the 
residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon.  Yield- 
ing to  the  solicitations  of  many  of  the  most 
eminent  persons  in  Christendom,  he  quitted 
Avignon  in  1376,  and  returned  to  Rome  at 
the  beginning  of  1377.  This  pope  was  the 
first  who  condemned  the  teachings  of  Wyc- 
liffe.  XII.  Angelo  Corario,  born  in  Venice 
about  1325,  elected  pope  in  1406,  died  at  Re- 
canati,  Oct.  18,  1417.  For  an  account  of  him 
see  CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF.  XIII.  Ugo  Buon- 
eompagni,  born  in  Bologna,  Feb.  7, 1502,  elected 
pope  May  13,  1572,  died  April  10,  1585.  Dis- 
tinguished as  a  lawyer  and  professor  of  civil 
and  canonical  jurisprudence,  he  appeared  with 
success  at  the  great  council  of  Trent.  His 
pontificate  is  remarkable  as  the  epoch  of  the 
reformation  of  the  calendar.  (See  CALENDAR.) 
The  Decretum  Gratiani  (see  CANON  LAW)  was 
published  by  him  in  splendid  style,  and  with 
copious  notes,  some  of  which  were  from  the 
pope's  own  hand.  The  end  of  his  pontificate 
was  signalized  by  the  appearance  in  Rome  of 
an  imposing  embassy  from  Japan,  sent  by  some 
of  the  princes  who  had  been  recently  converted 
to  the  Christian  faith.  XIV.  Nicolo  Sfondrati, 
born  in  Cremona,  elected  pope  Oct.  8,  1590, 
died  in  1591.  XV.  Alessandro  Lndovisio,  born  in 
Bologna  in  1554,  elected  pope  Feb.  9,  1621, 
died  July  8,  1623.  He  founded  the  celebrated 
congregation  de  propaganda  fide,  a  sort  of 
foreign  office  for  the  disposing  and  arranging 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  missionary  countries 
throughout  the  world.  He  canonized  four 
celebrated  saints  of  the  Catholic  church,  Ig- 
natius Loyola,  Francis  Xavier,  Philip  Neri,  and 
Teresa.  He  enacted  that  the  balloting  for  the 
election  of  new  popes  should  be  done  secretly. 
XVI.  Bartolommeo  Alberto  Capellari,  born  in  Bel- 
luno,  Sept.  18,  1765,  died  in  Rome,  June  1, 
1846.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Mauro  on 
making  his  profession  in  the  order  of  Camal- 
dolese  monks  in  1783,  became  proficient  in  the 
oriental  languages,  taught  theology  with  much 
distinction,  published  in  1799  11  trionfo  della 
Santa  Sede  e  della  Chiesa,  and  in  1801  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of  the  Catho- 
lic religion  in  Rome,  where  he  annually  lec- 
tured on  subjects  bearing  on  the  relations  be- 
tween science  and  revelation.  In  1807  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  censors  of  the  academy, 
and  elected  vice  procurator  general  of  his  or- 
der, and  abbot  of  his  monastery  in  Rome.  In 
1809  the  violent  abduction  of  Pius  VII.  was 
followed  by  the  dispersion  of  the  religious  or- 
ders. Capellari  withdrew  to  his  native  coun- 
try, and  taught  theology  in  the  monastery  of 
St.  Michael  at  Murano.  In  his  island  solitude 
he  remained  comparatively  quiet  till  1812, 
when  the  ancient  and  magnificent  library  of 
the  monastery  was  seized,  and  either  sold  at 
auction  or  sent  to  enrich  the  libraries  of  Ven- 
ice. In  the  beginning  of  1814  he  and  his  pupils 
and  fellow  professors  took  refuge  in  Padua. 
Recalled  to  Rome  after  the  return  of  Pius  VII., 


he  was  made  procurator  general  of  his  order, 
consultor  of  the  Propaganda,  examiner  of  bish- 
ops, commissary  for  examining  works  on  ori- 
ental liturgical  literature,  and  vicar  general  of 
the  Camaldolese.  He  was  preconized  cardinal 
M#rch  13,  1826,  and  became  prefect  of  the 
Propaganda.  He  was  charged  soon  after  with 
negotiating  a  concordat  with  the  government 
of  the  Netherlands  in  favor  of  the  Catholic 
citizens,  and  with  regulating  the  ecclesiastical 
aft'airs  of  the  United  States,  and  obtained  from 
the  Turkish  government  the  emancipation  of 
the  Armenian  Catholics.  On  Feb.  2,  1831, 
after  50  days  of  conclave,  he  was  elected  pope. 
The  secret  societies  which  aimed  both  at  Italian 
unity  and  at  secularizing  the  administration  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  made  some  insurrec- 
tionary movements  at  the  beginning  of  his  pon- 
tificate. With  Prussia  a  long  controversy  arose 
about  mixed  marriages,  the  government  claim- 
ing to  regulate  them  as  belonging  solely  to 
the  civil  administration.  The  archbishop  of 
Cologne  was  imprisoned  for  his  resistance,  and 
the  pope  energetically  interfered  in  his  favor. 
The  Catholics  of  Russian  Poland  were  also 
subjected  to  oppression  to  induce  them  to  join 
the  Greek  church ;  and  the  pope  used  no  less 
energy  in  protesting  against  this  violence 
through  his  representative  in  St.  Petersburg. 
He  solemnly,  condemned  the  innovations  of 
Hermes  in  theology,  and  the  extreme  political 
radicalism  of  Lamennais.  He  spared  no  effort 
to  spread  the  Catholic  religion  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, and  to  stimulate  at  home  the  zeal  of  all 
ranks  of  the  priesthood  for  the  attainment  of 
solid  learning  and  purity  of  life.  In  Rome  he 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  study  of  the  sci- 
ences and  fine  arts,  created  several  museums, 
and  founded  a  number  of  establishments  of 
public  beneficence  and  utility.  During  the  15 
years  of  his  reign  he  gave  hospitality  to  more 
than  one  royal  exile.  In  December,  1845,  the 
emperor  Nicholas  visited  Rome,  and  during 
his  interview  with  the  pope  he  was  bitterly  re- 
proached for  his  cruelty  toward  the  Poles.  It 
is  said  that  Gregory  spoke  to  him  as  would 
one  on  whom  the  shadow  of  death  had  already 
fallen,  threatening  the  autocrat  with  that  judg- 
ment for  which  he  was  himself  preparing. 
The  emperor  was  much  moved,  and  returned 
again  to  visit  his  venerable  host.  It  is  certain 
that  the  Poles  experienced  less  harsh  treat- 
ment for  some  years  after  that. 

GREGORY.  I.  James,  a  Scottish  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Drumoak,  Aber- 
deenshire,  in  November,  1638,  died  in  Edin- 
burgh in  October,  1675.  He  was  educated  at 
Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  and  at  the  age  of 
24  published  his  Optica  Promota  (London, 
1663),  which  formed  an  era  in  the  history  of 
science  in  the  17th  century,  and  in  which  he 
described  the  reflecting  telescope  invented  by 
him.  In  the  same  work  he  pointed  out  the 
method  of  employing  the  transits  of  Mercury 
and  Venus  to  determine  the  sun's  parallax.  In 
1667  he  went  to  the  university  of  Padua,  and 


246 


GREGORY 


soon  after  published  a  treatise  on  the  quadra- 
ture of  the  circle  and  hyperbola  by  means  of 
a  converging  series,  which  involved  him  in 
a  controversy  with  Huygens.  About  1668  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  at  St. 
Andrews.  In  1674  he  accepted  the  same 
chair  in  Edinburgh,  and  a  year  later  was 
struck  with  sudden  blindness,  and  died  a  few 
days  afterward.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
concave  burning  mirror,  of  methods  for  squar- 
ing curves  and  making  logarithms  by  an  in- 
finitely converging  series,  and  of  a  variety  of 
other  ingenious  mathematical  and  geometrical 
processes.  II.  David,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Aberdeen,  June  24,  1661,  died  about 
1710.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  in  1684,  and  was  instrumental 
in  introducing  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  In 
the  same  year  he  published  a  Latin  treatise 
on  the  dimensions  of  figures,  Exercitatio  Geo- 
metrica,  which  is  esteemed  his  best  work.  In 
1692,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Flam- 
steed  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  he  was  appointed 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford, 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Halley  being  his  competi- 
tor. In  1702  appeared  his  Astronomice  Physica 
et  Geometric^  Elementa,  a  sort  of  digest  of 
Newton's  Principia,  which  Newton  himself 
highly  commended  ;  and  in  1703  he  published 
an  edition  of  Euclid  in  Greek  and  Latin.  He 
was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death  upon  an 
edition  of  Apollonius,  which  was  completed  by 
Halley.  Newton  intrusted  Gregory  with  a 
manuscript  copy  of  his  Principia,  and  in  a 
second  edition  availed  himself  of  his  friend's 
marginal  comments.  III.  John,  grandson  of 
James  Gregory,  born  in  Aberdeen,  June  3, 
1724,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  10,  1773.  He 
graduated  in  medicine  at  the  university  of 
Aberdeen,  where  he  filled  the  chair  of  medi- 
cine from  1756  to  1764,  when  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh.  From  1766  till  his  death  he  was 
professor  of  the  practice  of  physic  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  His  principal  works 
are  "Elements  of  the  Practice  of  Physic" 
(Edinburgh,  1772),  left  unfinished,  and  "A 
Father's  Legacy  to  his  Daughters  "  (1774). 

GREGORY,  Ollnthns  Gilbert,  an  English  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Yaxley,  Huntingdonshire, 
Jan.  29,  1774,  died  in  Woolwich,  Feb.  2,  1841. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "Use  of  the  Sliding 
Rule,"  a  "Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  and  in 
1802,  in  connection  with  Dr.  John  Mason  Good, 
undertook  to  edit  the  "  Pantalogia,"  a  cyclo- 
paedia of  the  arts  and  sciences.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  mathematical  master  at  the  royal 
military  academy  at  Woolwich,  and  in  1806 
was  raised  to  the  professor's  chair,  which  he 
held  till  June,  1838.  Ills  principal  works  are 
a  "Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  a  "Treatise  on 
Mechanics,"  the  "  Evidences  of  Christianity," 
and  "  Memoirs  "  of  the  Rev.  Robert  Hall  and 
Dr.  John  Mason  Good. 

GRKGORY  THE  ILLUMINATOR,  a  saint  of  the 
church,  the  apostle  and  first  patriarch  of  Ar- 


GREGORY  NAZIANZEN 

menia,  born  in  257,  died  about  332.  He  was 
the  son  of  Anag,  a  prince  of  the  royal  family 
of  the  Arsacidse,  who  having  assassinated 
Chosroes,  king  of  Armenia,  was  put  to  death 
with  all  his  family  except  Gregory,  then  two 
years  old.  Gregory  was  taken  to  Ca3sarea 
in  Cappadocia  by  a  Christian  nurse,  and  on 
becoming  of  age  was  there  married,  but  sep- 
arated from  his  wife  three  years  later  by  mu- 
tual consent.  He  went  to  Rome,  attached  him- 
self to  the  suite  of  Tiridates  III.,  king  of  Ar- 
menia, and  accompanied  him  to  that  country, 
where,  having  refused  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  he 
was  subjected  to  various  tortures,  and  finally 
cast  into  a  dungeon  near  Artaxata.  A  benev- 
olent widow  supported  him  here  for  14  years. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  the  king,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  cured  by  his  prayers  of  a  despe- 
rate malady,  embraced  the  faith  (302).  The 
saint  afterward  went  to  Caesarea,  and  was 
consecrated  metropolitan  of  Armenia.  Return- 
ing to  that  country,  he  preached  the  gospel 
both  E.  and  W.  of  the  Euphrates,  baptized 
many,  destroyed  pagan  temples,  built  churches, 
ordained  priests,  and,  having  converted  most 
of  the  nation,  consecrated  his  son  Arisdages  as 
his  successor  in  318.  In  325  he  and  the  king 
were  invited  by  Constantine  to  the  council  at 
Nice.  In  331  he  withdrew  into  a  cavern,  where 
he  died. 

GREGORY  NAZIANZEN,  a  saint  and  doctor  of 
the  church,  born  about  328,  died  about  389. 
His  father  Gregory,  a  convert  from  heathen- 
ism, was  on  account  of  his  holy  life  and  great 
zeal  made  bishop  of  Nazianzus  in  Cappadocia, 
which  see  he  governed  45  years,  and  died  when 
about  90  years  old.  He  and  Nonna,  the  moth- 
er of  the  saint,  are  recognized  as  saints  in  the 
calendars  of  the  church.  The  son  was  care- 
fully educated  in  the  schools  of  Csesarea,  Al- 
exandria, and  Athens,  and  had  for  fellow  stu- 
dents Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and 
Julian  the  Apostate.  At  his  return  to  Nazi- 
anzus he  was  baptized,  and  lived  austerely  as 
a  hermit  in  company  with  St.  Basil.  After 
some  time  thus  spent  in  study  and  religious  ex- 
ercises, he  was  recalled  to  Nazianzus,  was  or- 
dained priest,  and  assisted  his  father  in  the 
government  of  his  diocese.  He  fled  again  for 
a  time  to  the  desert,  but  fearing  to  incur  the 
displeasure  of  heaven  by  shrinking  from  his 
work,  he  returned  to  Nazianzus,  and  on  Easter 
Sunday  preached  his  first  sermon.  He  is  con- 
sidered by  many  as  the  most  eloquent  of  all 
the  fathers  of  the  church.  His  addresses  are 
fervid,  florid,  and  fanciful,  for  Gregory  was  a 
poet,  and  wrote  much  in  verse  as  well  as  in 
prose.  Among  his  early  discourses  were  two 
of  great  severity  against  the  emperor  Julian. 
In  372  he  was  consecrated  by  St.  Basil  bishop 
of  Sasima ;  but  being  prevented  from  occupying 
that  see,  he  remained  to  help  his  father  at 
Nazianzus.  In  378  the  death  of  the  emperor ' 
Valens  restored  peace  to  the  church,  and  the 
pastors  everywhere  sought  to  revive  in  their 
churches  their  pristine  glory,  obscured  by  40 


GREGOEY  OF  NYSSA 


years  of  Arian  domination.     Some  of  the  prin- 
cipal sees  were  in  a  deplorable  condition,  and 
in  Constantinople  especially  the  Christians  were 
without  a  pastor,  or  even  a  place  where  they 
might  assemble  for  worship.     Gregory  was  liv- 
ing in  retirement  at  Seleucia,  but  many  of  the 
bishops  desired  to  place  him  in  the  episcopal 
chair  of  Constantinople.     He  finally  yielded  to 
their  joint  entreaties  and  appeared  upon  his 
new  field  of  labor.     His  lowly  and  penitential 
exterior  made  an  unfavorable  impression  upon 
the  citizens  of  the  proud  and  wealthy  capital 
Df  the  East.     The  Arians  and  Apollinarists  de- 
rided, and  even  pelted  him  with  stones.     Still 
lis  great  patience  and  zeal  acted  favorably 
ipon  the  people,  aided,  as  we  are  told,  by 
sveral  miracles.     Many  were  converted  from 
>aganism,  heresy,  and  dissolute  lives  through 
lis  eloquence  and  learning.      Gregory,  how- 
jver,  soon  became  weary  of  the  growing  cares 
)f  his  great  see  ;    and  although  the  emperor 
"leodosius  and  Pope  Damasus  and  the  bishops 
ipported  him  against  his  persecutors,  especial- 
against  an  intruded  bishop  named  Maximus, 
id  although  even  a  council  called  at  Constan- 
lople  declared  him  patriarch,  he  insisted  upon 
signing  all  his  honors,  and  retired  again  to 
lazianzus,  and  withdrew  from  thence  to  a  soli- 
iry  abode  near  Arianzus.     Worn  out  by  age 
id  unremitting  austerities,  he  died  in  his  re- 
3at.     The  Latins  honor  him  on  May  9.     His 
shes  were  conveyed  from  Nazianzus  to  Con- 
intinople,  and  thence  during  the  crusades  to 
>me,  where  they  repose  under  an  altar  in- 
3ribed  to  his  memory  in  the  Vatican  church, 
[is  works  consist  chiefly  of  55  sermons,  235 
itters,  and   158  pieces  of  poetry.      Twenty 
3ms  are  to  be  found  in   Tollius,  Insignia 
Itinerarii  Italici  (4to,  Utrecht,  1696),  called 
by  the  editor  Carmina  Cygnea.    Muratori  pub- 
lished 228  unedited  epigrams  of  Gregory's  in 
'ilsAnecdota  Grceca  (Padua,  1709).     The  prin- 
cipal editions  of  his  works  are  those  of  Basel, 
"ol.,  1550,  with  life  by  Suidas  and  by  Gregory 
he  Presbyter;  De  Billy,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1609- 
11 ;  the  Benedictine  Dom  Maran,  Paris,  1T88 
(only  vol.  i. ;  vol.  ii.,  Paris,  1840,  edited  by  the 
Benedictine  Caillau) ;  and  vols.  xxxv.  to  xxxviii. 
Migne's  Patrologie  grecque,  Paris,  1856-'66 
(Greek  text  with  Latin  translation).     A  selec- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  by  Goldhorn 
ipsic,  1854).     See  Ullmann's  Gregorius  von 
Vazianz    (Darmstadt,    1825),   and  Villemain, 
Tableau  de  ^eloquence  chretienne  au  quatrieme 
siecle  (Paris,  1846). 

GREGORY  OF  NYSSA,  a  saint  and  father  of 
the  church,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  331,  died 
about  400.  He  was  a  younger  brother  of  Basil 
the  Great,  studied  with  him  at  Athens  and 
Constantinople,  was  married,  then  embraced 
the  ecclesiastical  profession,  and  was  ordained 
lector.  Yielding  to  his  passion  for  literature, 
he  opened  a  school  of  eloquence,  but  was  in- 
duced by  Gregory  Nazianzen  to  dedicate  his 
talents  to  the  ministry.  In  370  he  became  as- 
sistant to  his  brother  at  Csesarea,  and  in  372 


GREGORY  OF  TOURS 


247 


was  chosen  bishop  of  Nyssa.  He  was  exiled 
under  Valens  by  the  Arians,  was  deputed  in 
October,  379,  by  the  council  of  Antioch,  to 
visit  the  churches  of  Palestine  and  Arabia,  was 
present  at  the  council  of  Constantinople  in  381, 
and  again  in  382  and  383.  Gregory  of  Nyssa's 
works  contain  the  most  complete  philosophical 
exposition  of  Christian  dogma  given  before  St. 
Augustine.  He  follows  Origen  in  his  scientific 
methods,  combats  expressly  his  heterodox  the- 
orems, and  has  been  accused  of  leaning  toward 
his  theory  of  the  final  salvation  of  all  beings. 
His  works  were  published  in  part  by  Sifanus 
(Basel,  1562-'71);  by  the  Jesuit  Fronton  du 
Due  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1615;  vol.  iii.  edited  by 
Claude  Morel  in  1638) ;  and  by  Migne  (Patro- 
logie grecque,  vols.  xliv.-xlvi.,  Paris,  1857-'66). 
A  selection  of  his  works  is  found  in  Ohler's 
Eiblioihek  der  Kirchenvater,  vols.  i.-iv.  (Leip- 
sic,  1858). 

GREGORY  THAUMATURGUS  (the  wonder  work- 
er), a  saint  of  the  church,  born  in  Neo-Ca3sa- 
rea  about  210,  died  there  about  270.  He  is 
also  called  Gregory  of  Neo-Caesarea.  He  was 
educated  a  pagan  until  his  14th  year,  studied 
the  law  at  Alexandria  and  Athens,  and  in  234 
entered  the  school  of  Origen  at  Csesarea,  where 
he  remained  for  five  years.  He  was  chosen 
first  bishop  of  his  native  city  at  a  time  when 
it  only  numbered  17  Christians;  but,  accord- 
ing to  historians,  he  labored  so  faithfully  that 
at  his  death  only  17  pagans  were  to  be  found 
in  his  place.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  his  biographer, 
relates  from  the  local  traditions  the  miracles 
said  to  have  been  wrought  by  him,  and  which 
obtained  him  his  surname.  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Latin  church  on  Nov.  17.  His 
works,  which  contain  "  A  Panegyrical  Oration 
on  Origen  "  and  "  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Book  of 
Ecclesiastes,"  are  found  in  vol.  x.  of  Migne's 
Patrologie  grecque.  See  also  Eusebius,  "Ec- 
clesiastical History,"  books  vi.,  vii. 

GREGORY  OF  TOURS  (GEORGIUS  FLORENTIFS 
GEEGOEIUS),  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  born  in  Auvergne  about  540,  died  in 
Tours  probably  on  Nov.  17,  595.  He  is  called 
the  father  of  French  history,  was  descended 
from  a  senatorial  family,  and  educated  under 
St.  Gall,  bishop  of  Clermont.  In  573  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Tours ;  and  in  575  he  refused 
to  surrender  Duke  Gontran,  who  had  sought  an 
asylum  in  the  church  of  St.  Martin,  to  Chil- 
peric  and  Fredegonda.  For  this  his  property 
was  confiscated  and  his  diocese  laid  waste. 
Later,  Chilperic's  son  Meroveus  having  taken 
refuge  there,  the  king  besieged  the  city  of 
Tours;  but  Gregory  would  not  give  up  the 
fugitive.  After  the  assassination  of  Chilperic, 
Gregory  displayed  on  many  occasions  the  same 
intrepidity  in  vindicating  the  rights  of  the  op- 
pressed. In  587  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of 
Andelot  between  Childebert,  Brunehaut,  and 
Gontran,  which  gave  a  brief  peace  to  France. 
His  complete  works  were  published  by  Dom 
Ruinart  (fol.,  Paris,  1699);  and  a  translation 
of  his  Historia  Francorum  by  Guizot  (2  vols., 


248 


GREIFSWALD 


1859 ;  2d  ed.,  1863).  His  life,  written  in  Latin 
by  Odo,  abbot  of  Cluny,  in  the  10th  century,  is 
given  by  Baillet  in  his  Vies  des  saints. 

GBEIFSWALD,  or  Greifswalde,  a  town  of  Po- 
merania,  Prussia,  on  the  river  Ryck,  3  in.  from 
the  sea  and  20  m.  S.  E.  of  Stralsund;  pop. 
in  1871,  17,208.  It  was  once  a  place  of  con- 
siderable strength,  and  is  still  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  which  has  been  converted  into  a  prom- 
enade. It  contains  a  university  founded  in 
1456,  which  in  1873  had  57  professors  and  537 
students.  Connected  with  the  university  is  an 
academy  of  political  economy  and  agriculture 
at  Eldena.  There  are  also  several  high  schools. 
The  town  has  manufactories  of  pins,  soap,  can- 
dles, tobacco,  and  leather.— Greifswald  was 
founded  in  the  13th  century,  soon  became 
flourishing,  and  was  conspicuous  as  a  member 
of  the  Hanse  league.  In  the  thirty  years'  war 
it  was  taken  from  Bogislas,  duke  of  Pomerania, 
by  the  imperialists  under  Wallenstein,  and  soon 
after  (1631)  by  the  Swedes,  who  were  con- 
firmed in  its  possession  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia. It  afterward  often  changed  masters, 
being  finally  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

GREINER,  John,  an  American  journalist,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  14,  1810,  died  in  Toledo, 
O.,  May  13,  1871.  He  early  became  promi- 
nent in  Ohio  as  a  whig  politician,  and  in  the 
presidential  canvass  of  1840  wrote  "  Old  Zip 
Coon,"  "The  Wagoner  Boy,"  and  other  popu- 
lar electioneering  songs.  He  was  also  distin- 
guished as  a  temperance  lecturer.  He  was 
state  librarian  of  Ohio  from  1845  to  1851, 
when  he  was  appointed  Indian  agent  for  New 
Mexico,  and  in  1852  was  governor  of  that  ter- 
ritory. He  was  afterward  successively  local 
editor  of  the  "Ohio  State  Journal,"  and  editor 
and  proprietor  of  the  Columbus  "  Gazette " 
and  the  Zanesville  "Times."  In  1861  he  was 
appointed  receiver  of  the  land  office  at  Santa 
Fe,  and  in  1862  sub-treasurer  there,  which 
office  he  held  till  1866. 

GREIZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the 
senior  princes  of  Reuss,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  White  Elster,  near  the  Saxon  border,  49  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  Leipsic ;  pop.  in  1871,  11,582.  It 
contains  an  imposing  chateau,  with  a  summer 
palace,  an  ancient  castle  on  the  adjoining  Fels- 
berg,  several  churches,  and  a  new  town  hall. 
Woollen  and  half-woollen  goods  (employing 
3,000  looms)  and  many  other  articles  are  made 
here,  and  about  70  manufacturers  of  Greiz  at- 
tend the  annual  fairs  at  Leipsic. 

GRELLET,  Stephen,  a  Quaker  missionary,  born 
in  France  in  1773,  died  in  Burlington,  N.  J., 
Nov.  16,  1855.  He  was  originally  a  Catholic, 
and  was  educated  at  the  military  college  of 
Lyons.  At  the  age  of  17  he  entered  the  body 
guard  of  Lonis  XVI.,  after  whose  execution  he 
escaped  to  Demerara.  In  1795  he  went  to 
New  York,  where,  chancing  to  attend  a  Qua- 
ker meeting,  he  determined  to  join  that  soci- 
ety. In  the  following  winter  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  and  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
yellow  fever  there  in  1798  he  ministered  to 


GRENADA 

the  sick,  the  dying,  and  the  afflicted.  In  1799 
he  removed  to  New  York  and  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile business.  Becoming  impressed  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  go  forth  as  a  missionary,  he 
made  a  tour  into  the  southern  states  in  1800, 
and  in  1801  into  New  England  and  Canada. 
In  1807  he  visited  the  south  of  France,  and  in 
1812  travelled  in  England  and  Germany.  In 
1816  he  preached  to  the  inhabitants  of  Hayti, 
and  in  1818  and  the  two  following  years  he 
travelled  through  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia, 
Greece,  and  Italy,  having  an  audience  of  the 
czar,  and  preaching  before  the  pope.  He  re- 
turned to  New  York  in  1820,  and  again  travel- 
led through  Europe  from  1831  to  1834,  when 
he  retired  to  Burlington. — See  "  Memoirs  of 
Stephen  Grellet,"  edited  by  B.  Seebohm  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1868). 

GRENADA,  a  British  colony  and  island  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  most  southerly  of  what  are 
called  the  Caribbee  islands,  between  lat.  11° 
58'  and  12°  20'  N.,  and  Ion.  61°  40'  and  61° 
55'  W.,  about  90  m.  from  the  nearest  part  of 
South  America ;  length  from  N.  to  S.  about  24 
m.,  greatest  breadth  12  m. ;  area,  133  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  37,684,  about  one  tenth  of  whom 
were  whites.  A  range  of  mountains,  whose 
highest  peak,  Mt.  St.  Catharine,  is  3,200  ft. 
above  the  sea,  traverses  the  whole  length  of  the 
island,  with  outliers  of  less  elevation.  Numer- 
ous small  rivers  rise  in  these  mountains,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Great  Bucolet,  Du- 
quesne,  Antoine,  St.  John's,  and  Beau  Sejour. 
In  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  1,700  ft.  above 
the  sea,  is  a  circular  lake  2£  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  island  is  divided  into  six  districts 
called  parishes.  The  capital,  St.  George  (pop. 
5,000),  is  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  near  a  large  and 
strongly  fortified  bay,  which  is  capable  of 
giving  shelter  to  a  large  fleet  of  first  class  ves- 
sels. It  is  nearly  landlocked,  and  steamers  of 
1,800  tons  can  lie  alongside  the  wharves.  This 
port  is  a  coal  depot  and  central  station  for  the 
British  West  India  mail  steamers.  Grenada  is 
governed  by  a  lieutenant  governor,  a  council 
of  12  members,  and  a  legislative  assembly  of 
17.  The  revenue  in  1870  was  £23,106,  the 
expenditure  £20,824 ;  the  public  debt  in  1869 
was  £7,000.  The  imports  in  1870  were  in 
value  £104,475,  and  the  exports  £127,184. 
The  staple  products  of  the  island  are  sugar, 
rum,  molasses,  and  cacao  of  a  superior  quality. 
Among  the  minor  articles  of  export  are  yams, 
charcoal,  and  arrowroot.  The  Grenadines  are 
four  small  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  Grenada, 
the  largest  of  which,  Carriacou,  is  7  m.  long 
and  2£  m.  broad ;  total  pop.  3,000. — Grenada 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was 
at  that  time  peopled  by  the  fierce  and  warlike 
Caribs.  In  1650  the  first  European  settlement 
was  made  by  Du  Parquet,  the  French  governor" 
of  Martinique,  who  landed  with  200  followers, 
and  speedily  conquered  the  island  and  massa- 
cred the  natives.  In  1762  it  was  conquered  by 
the  British,  from  whom  it  was  retaken  by  the 
French  in  1779,  and  by  them  restored  to  Great 


GRENADA 

Britain  at  the  peace  of  1783.  Slavery  was 
completely  abolished  in  18^8,  at  which  time 
the  slaves  numbered  17,190,  and  the  free  pop- 
ulation 3,804,  most  of  whom  were  colored. 

GRENADA,  a  N.  county  of  Mississippi,  inter- 
sected by  Yallabusha  river;  area,  about  400 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,571,  of  whom  6,642 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  level,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Mississippi 
and  Tennessee  and  the  Mississippi  Central  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
191,675  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  19,548  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  6,479  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
832  horses,  1,108  mules  and  asses,  1,976  milch 
cows,  4,484  other  cattle,  2,059  sheep,  and  9,419 
swine ;  also,  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Grenada. 

GRENOBLE  (anc.  Cularo  or  Ghratianopolis), 
a  fortified  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Isere,  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Isere,  58  m.  S.  E.  of  Lyons  and  290  m.  S.  E. 
of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  42,660.  The  old  part 


GRENVILLE 


249 


Grenoble 


of  the  city,  called  the  faubourg  St.  Laurent,  is 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  river,  and  is  connected 
with  the  modern  quarter  on  the  opposite  bank 
by  two  bridges.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame, 
the  episcopal  palace,  a  hospital,  several  con- 
vents, halls  of  justice,  a  theatre,  arsenal,  and 
citadel  are  admired.  There  is  a  public  garden, 
a  normal  school,  schools  of  design  and  of  ar- 
chitecture, a  college,  a  public  library  of  80,000 
volumes  and  1,200  MSS.,  a  museum,  a  cabinet 
of  natural  history,  manufactories  of  kid  gloves 
(which  alone  employ  several  thousand  hands), 
liqueurs,  leather,  &c.,  and  a  trade  in  hemp, 
iron,  and  marble.  The  city  was  called  Gra- 
tianopolis  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Gratian  in 
the  4th  century,  and  its  present  name  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  that  word.  It  was  afterward  the 
capital  of  Dauphiny. 


GRENVILLE,  an  E.  county  of  Ontario,  Cana- 
da, bordering  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  bounded 
N.  by  the  Kideau  river  and  canal ;  area,  463 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  22,616.  It  is  well  wa- 
tered, and  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  railroads. 
Capital,  Prescott. 

GRENVILLE,  George,  an  English  statesman, 
the  reputed  author  of  the  famous  stamp  act, 
born  Oct.  14,  1712,  died  Nov.  24,  1770.  He 
was  chosen  to  parliament  in  1741,  and  contin- 
ued a  member  till  the  time  of  his  death.  In 
1762  he  was  made  successively  secretary  of 
state  and  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1763 
he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  first  lord  of  the  treasury;  but  in  1765  he 
resigned  the  premiership,  giving  place  to  Lord 
Rockingham.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker 
and  an  able  man  of  business. 
GRENVILLE,  Richard.  See  TEMPLE,  EAEL. 
GRENVILLE,  Greenville,  or  Granville,  Sir  Rich- 
ard, an  English  naval  officer,  born 
in  the  west  of  England  in  1540, 
died  at  sea  in  1591.  He  was 
nearly  related  to  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh. At  the  age  of  16  he  served 
in  the  German  imperial  army  as 
a  volunteer  against  the  Turks. 
On  his  return  he  was  appointed 
to  a  command  in  Ireland,  and 
was  made  sheriff  of  Cork.  In 
1571  he  represented  Cornwall  in 
parliament,  and  afterward,  being 
made  high  sherhT  of  that  county, 
was  knighted  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. He  entered  with  ardor  in- 
to Raleigh's  schemes  of  coloniza- 
tion in  America,  and  in  1585  com- 
manded the  fleet  of  seven  ves- 
sels carrying  108  colonists  which 
Raleigh  despatched  to  Carolina, 
sailing  from  Plymouth  April  9. 
The  fleet  touched  at  the  Canaries 
and  at  the  West  Indies,  where 
it  captured  two  Spanish  frigates, 
and  on  June  20  made  the  main- 
land of  Carolina,  or  Florida,  as  it 
was  then  called.  It  narrowly  es- 
caped wreck  on  the  cape  to  which  Grenville, 
in  consequence,  gave  its  present  name  of  Cape 
Fear.  It  anchored  at  Wocoken  June  26,  and 
passing  through  Ocracoke  inlet  made  its  way 
to  Roanoke.  Grenville  with  a  party  explored 
the  country  for  eight  days,  and  in  revenge  for 
the  theft  of  a  silver  cup  burned  an  Indian  vil- 
lage and  destroyed  the  standing  corn.  In  Au- 
gust, leaving  the  colonists  under  command  of 
Ralph  Lane,  he  sailed  for  England.  On  his 
way  home  he  took  a  rich  Spanish  vessel,  and 
was  received  at  Plymouth  with  high  honors, 
Sept.  18.  The  next  year  he  recrossed  the  At- 
lantic with  three  ships  laden  with  supplies,  but 
found  his  colony  broken  up  and  the  settlers 
gone.  They  had  departed  about  three  weeks 
before  in  a  fleet  commanded  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  who  on  his  way  home  from  the  West 


at- 


250 


GRESHAM 


Indies  had  paid  them  a  visit,  and  found  them 
tired  of  their  situation.  Grenville,  to  keep  pos- 
session of  the  country,  left  15  men  on  Roanoke 
island,  and  sailed  again  for  England.  In  1588 
he  was  made  a  member  of  the  council  created 
to  devise  means  of  defence  against  the  Span- 
ish armada,  and  in  1591  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vice  admiral  and  sent  with  five  ships  to 
cruise  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies. 
Off  the  Azores  he  encountered  a  Spanish  fleet 
of  53  ships  with  10,000  men  on  board.  He 
gave  them  battle  at  3  P.  M.,  fought  them  till 
daybreak,  and  beat  them  oft'  15  times.  Four  of 
the  Spanish  ships  sank  during  the  action  or 
soon  afterward,  and  1,000  Spaniards  were  kill- 
ed. Grenville  was  wounded  early  in  the  fight, 
but  refused  to  go  below,  and  had  his  wounds 
dressed  on  deck.  At  length  he  was  shot 
through  the  body,  and  was  carried  into  his 
cabin,  upon  which  the  remnant  of  his  crew  sur- 
rendered. He  was  taken  on  board  a  Spanish 
ship  and  well  treated,  but  died  in  three  days. 

GRESHAM,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  merchant, 
bora  in  London  in  1519,  died  there,  Nov.  21, 
1579.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
a  London  merchant,  and  was  employed  in  1551 
in  negotiating  foreign  loans  for  the  government 
of  Edward  VI.,  and  subsequently  for  those  of 
Mary  and  Elizabeth ;  and  he  suggested  to  the 
latter  the  advantage  of  raising  loans  from  her 
own  subjects  rather  than  from  foreign  states. 
He  accumulated  immense  wealth,  and  was  the 
founder  of  the  first  royal  exchange,  and  of 
Gresham  college.  By  his  will  his  London  resi- 
dence was  vested  in  trustees,  who  were  to  see 
that  seven  able  lecturers,  each  with  a  salary 
of  £50  per  annum,  payable  from  the  rents  of 
the  exchange,  and  having  apartments  in  the 
mansion,  were  elected  to  deliver  lectures  there 
on  divinity,  astronomy,  music,  geometry,  law, 
physic,  and  rhetoric.  In  1768  the  building 
was  sold  to  government,  and  the  character  of 
the  institution  modified  by  act  of  parliament ; 
the  lectures  were  subsequently  read  at  the  royal 
exchange  until  it  was  burned  in  1838,  and  in 
1843  the  present  college  was  opened. 

GRESLON,  Adrien,  a  French  missionary  in 
Canada  and  China,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1618, 
died  in  1697.  He  came  to  America  in  1647, 
and,  after  seeing  the  Huron  mission  destroyed 
and  many  of  his  fellow  missionaries  put  to 
death  by  the  Iroquois,  returned  to  Europe  in 
1650.  He  went  to  China  in  1657,  and  remain- 
ed there  till  1670.  While  in  Chinese  Tartary 
he  is  said  to  have  met  an  Indian  woman  whom 
he  had  known  on  Lake  Huron,  and  who  had 
been  sold  from  tribe  to  tribe.  This  led  to  the 
belief  that  America  and  Asia  approached  each 
other  very  nearly. 

CRESSET,  Jf* an  Baptiste  Lonls,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Amiens  in  1709,  died  in  1777.  He 
was  educated  at  a  college  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
at  the  age  of  16  entered  the  order  as  a  novice. 
In  1733  he  published  a  poem  under  the  title  of 
Vert-tert,  in  which  he  ridiculed  some  of  the 
features  of  convent  life.  Having  removed  to 


GRETNA  GREEN 

Paris,  he  produced  successively  La  Chartreuse, 
Le  careme  impromptu,  Le  lutrin  vivant,  and 
Les  ombres,  all  of  which  were  received  with 
great  favor  on  account  of  their  spirited  style 
and  elegant  versification.  But  the  freedom  of 
some  of  his  remarks  displeased  his  religious 
superiors,  and  he  left  the  order  before  the  end 
of  his  novitiate.  He  now  produced  a  tragedy, 
Edouard  ///.,  and  a  few  years  later  Sidney,  a 
drama.  In  1747  appeared  his  comedy  of  Le 
mechant,  which  procured  him  admission  to  the 
French  academy.  In  the  midst  of  his  successes 
Gresset  retired  to  Amiens,  where  having  mar- 
ried he  passed  his  time  in  religious  employ- 
ments, in  the  care  of  his  family,  and  in  attack- 
ing various  abuses.  He  condemned  the  irreli- 
gious tendency  of  his  works,  committed  several 
unpublished  pieces  to  the  flames,  and  asked 
pardon  of  heaven  in  a  copy  of  verses  which 
Voltaire  and  Piron  ridiculed.  He  founded  an 
academy  of  letters  at  Amiens,  and,  as  director 
of  the  French  academy,  was  chosen  to  con- 
gratulate Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette  on 
their  accession  to  the  throne  in  1774;  in  re- 
turn for  which  he  received  a  patent  of  nobil- 
ity. An  edition  of  his  works  in  3  vols.  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1811.  Vert-vert  has  re- 
peatedly been  translated  into  English. 

GRESWELL,  Edward,  an  English  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  in  Manchester  in  1797,  died  in 
Oxford,  June  29,  1869.  After  graduation  at 
the  university,  he  became  fellow  and  vice  pres- 
ident of  Corpus  Christi  college,  and  devoted 
himself  to  theological  literature.  His  works 
are  valuable  and  highly  esteemed  by  scholars. 
Among  them  are:  "Exposition  of  the  Para- 
bles and  other  Parts  of  the  Gospels"  (5  vols. 
8vo,  1834-'5  ;  Prolegomena  ad  Harmoniam 
Evangelicam  (4th  ed.,  1845);  "Dissertations 
upon  the  Principles  and  Arrangement  of  a 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels "  (5  vols.,  2d  ed., 
1837) ;  Fasti  Temporis  Catholici  (5  vols.,  with 
tables,  1852)  ;  and  Origines  Kalendaria  Italic® 
(4  vols.,  1854),  showing  the  early  calendars  of 
Romulus,  of  Numa  Pompilius,  and  of  the  de- 
cemvirs. He  also  translated  into  Greek  verse 
Milton's  "Comus"  and  "Samson  Agonistes." 

GRETCH,  Nikolai,  a  Russian  author,  born  in 
St.  Petersburg,  Aug.  14,  1787,  died  there,  Jan. 
24,  1867.  He  acquired  eminence  as  a  teacher, 
and  became  councillor  of  state  in  1829,  and 
privy  councillor  in  1862.  His  best  known  work 
is  a  manual  of  Russian  literature  (4  vols.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1819-'22). 

GRETNA  GREEN,  a  small  village  of  Dumfries- 
shire, Scotland,  9  m.  N.  W.  of  Carlisle,  famous 
for  the  celebration  of  irregular  marriages  until 
December,  1856,  from  which  date,  by  the  act 
passed  July  29,  such  marriages  were  declared 
invalid,  unless  one  of  the  parties  had  been  for 
21  days  a  resident  of  Scotland.  The  ceremony 
consisted  in  an  admission  before  witnesses  by 
the  parties  that  they  were  husband  and  wife, 
this  being  sufficient,  according  to  the  law  of 
Scotland,  to  constitute  a  valid  marriage.  After 
the  ceremony,  the  officiating  functionary  (who 


GRETRY 


was  often  a  blacksmith)  signed  a  certificate  of 
marriage,  which  was  also  signed  by  two  wit- 
nesses, and  then  the  union  became  perfect  and 
indissoluble.  When  they  were  English,  the 
marriage  service  of  the  church  of  England  was 
sometimes  used.  The  number  of  these  mar- 
riages celebrated  at  Gretna  and  the  other  bor- 
der villages  has  been  said  to  have  averaged 
about  500  a  year. 

GRETRY,  Andre  Ernest  Modeste,  a  French  com- 
poser, born  in  Liege,  Feb.  8,  1741,  died  at 
Montrnorency,  near  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1813.  At 
six  years  of  age  he  was  placed  in  the  choir  of 
the  cathedral  at  Liege,  was  subsequently  in- 
structed in  music  by  some  of  the  masters  of  the 
place,  and  at  18  went  to  Rome,  where  he  pur- 
sued his  studies  for  eight  years.  Going  to 
Paris,  he  encountered  many  disappointments, 
and  was  on  the  point  of  leaving  the  city  in  de- 
spair when  MarmonteFs  libretto,  Le  Huron, 
founded  on  Voltaire's  tale,  was  put  into  his 
hands.  In  a  few  weeks  the  music  was  ready, 
and  the  first  performance  of  the  opera  raised 
Gr6try  to  the  first  rank  of  composers.  It  was 
followed  by  Lucile,  Zemire  et  Asor  (success- 
fully produced  upon  th'e  English  stage  under 
the  title  of  "Selima  and  Azor"),  Cephale  et 
Procris,  Richard  Cosur  de  Lion,  Barbe-Bleue, 
and  many  others,  both  serious  and  comic ;  and 
for  nearly  40  years  G retry  enjoyed  a  popu- 
larity in  France  which  the  efforts  of  rival  com- 
posers could  never  impair.  Sixteen  years  after 
his  death  (1829)  his  Guillaume  Tell  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris  with  great  care,  and  evoked 
such  enthusiasm  that  the  composer's  bust  was 
brought  upon  the  stage  attended  by  the  prin- 
cipal singers,  who  crowned  it  with  laurels.  His 
principal  operas  are  full  of  grace  and  spirit, 
and  the  music  is  melodious  and  dramatic.  The 
authors  of  his  librettos  were  in  nearly  every 
instance  men  of  genius,  which  will  in  a  mea- 
sure account  for  the  uniform  success  of  his 
works.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  founders 
of  the  French  comic  opera.  In  1780  he  pub- 
"  .ed  Essais  sur  la  musique  (3  vols.  8vo). 
GREUZE,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  painter,  born 
Tournus,  Burgundy,  in  1726,  died  in  Paris, 
arch  21,  1805.  He  began  as  a  portrait  paint- 
;  failing  in  which,  he  devoted  himself  to  pic- 
res  of  genre.  His  first  works  in  this  class, 
A  Father  explaining  the  Scriptures  to  his 
amily,"  and  "The  Paralytic  Father,"  gained 
him  admission  to  the  academy  as  an  associate. 
For  this  occasion  he  painted  a  historical  piece, 
"  Severus  reproaching  his  son  Caracalla," 
which  the  academy  refused  to  notice,  declaring 
that  his  admission  was  wholly  due  to  his  merit 
as  a  painter  of  genre.  Greuze  was  ambitious 
to  become  a  historical  painter,  and  went  to 
Rome  to  study  the  old  masters ;  but  he  soon  re- 
turned to  his  former  style,  in  which  to  the  end 
of  his  career  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation. 
His  pictures  are.  highly  prized  by  collectors, 
and  command  enormous  prices.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  are  "The  Blind  Man  Cheated," 
"The  Village  Bride,"  "The  Broken  Pitcher," 


GREY 


251 


"The  Unnatural  Father,"  and  "The  Little 
Girl  and  the  Dog ;"  the  last  is  by  many  con- 
sidered his  best  picture.  These  and  many 
others  have  been  repeatedly  engraved. 

GREVILLE,  Sir  Fulke  (Lord  BKOOKE),  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1554, 
died  in  London,  Sept.  30,  1628.  He  studied 
both  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  In  1597  he 
was  knighted,  and  for  several  years  represented 
his  native  county  in  parliament.  In  1615  he 
was  made  under  treasurer  and  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  and  in  1620  became  Baron 
Brooke.  His  death  was  caused  by  a  wound 
received  from  an  enraged  domestic  who  did  not 
consider  his  services  adequately  rewarded.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  works,  including 
"Life  of  the  renowned  Sir  Philip  Sidney" 
(1652) ;  "  A  Treatise  of  Human  Learning,  in  15 
stanzas;"  "A  Treatise  of  Warres,  in  68  stan- 
zas;" two  tragedies,  letters,  minor  poems,  &c. 
There  are  two  collections  of  his  writings: 
"  Certaine  Learned  and  Elegant  Workes  of  Rt. 
Hon.  Fulke  Lord  Brooke,  written  in  his  Youth 
and  familiar  Exercise  with  Sir  Philip  Sidney" 
(fol.,  1633);  and  "Remains  of  Sir  Fulke  Gre- 
ville,  Lord  Brooke"  (8vo,  1670).  "The  Five 
Years  of  King  James  "  (4to,  1643),  which  bears 
his  name,  is  probably  not  authentic. 

GREVY,  Francois  Paul  Jules,  a  French  politi- 
cian, born  at  Mont-sous- Vaudrez,  Jura,  Aug. 
15,  1813.  He  became  an  advocate  at  Paris, 
and  acquired  influence  as  an  opponent  both  of 
socialism  and  of  Bonapartism,  and  after  the 
February  revolution  was  a  member  and  vice 
president  of  the  constituent  and  legislative 
assemblies  from  1848  till  Dec.  2,  1851.  In 
1848  he  proposed  that  the  executive  should 
be  chosen  by  the  national  assembly,  and  hold 
office  at  its  pleasure,  with  the  title  of  president 
of  the  council  of  ministers.  In  1868  he  was 
named  Mtonnier  of  the  order  of  advocates. 
He  was  elected  to  the  corps  legislatif  in  1868 
and  1869,  and  in  1871  to  the  national  assembly 
by  three  departments,  taking  his  seat  for  that 
of  Jura,  his  old  constituency.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  assembly  from  March,  1871,  to  April, 
1873;  but  declined  the  invitation  of  President 
Thiers  to  serve  longer  in  that  capacity.  He 
published  in  1873  Le  gouvernement  necessaire. 

GREW,  Nehemiab,  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Coventry  about  1628,  died  in  London,  March 
25,  1711.  He  was  the  first  Englishman  who 
studied  vegetable  anatomy  and  physiology,  and 
was  elected  in  1677  secretary  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety. His  principal  works  are :  "  The  Anat- 
omy of  Plants,  with  an  Idea  of  the  Philosophi- 
cal History  of  Plants  "  (fol.,  1682) ;  "  Cosmolo- 
gia  Sacra,  or  a  Discourse  of  the  Universe  as  it 
is  the  Creature  and  Kingdom  of  God"  (fol., 
1701);  and  "A  Catalogue  and  Description  of 
the  Natural  and  Artificial  Rarities  belonging  to 
the  Royal  Society." 

GREY,  a  W.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Georgian  bay  and  Owen 
sound,  and  watered  by  Saugeen  river  and 
smaller  streams;  area,  1,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 


252 


GREY 


1871,  59,395,  of  whom  23,511  were  of  Irish, 
17,551  of  Scotch,  11,283  of  English,  4,702  of 
German,  and  426  of  French  origin.  The  land 
is  rough,  sandy,  and  stony,  but  supports  a  val- 
uable growth  of  pine.  The  county  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Toronto,  Grey,  and  Bruce  rail- 
way. Capital,  Owen  Sound. 

GREY.  I.  Charles,  earl,  an  English  states- 
man, born  at  Fallowden,  Northumberland, 
March  13,  1704,  died  at  Howick  house,  July 
17,  1845.  He  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  Northumberland  in  1786,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  whig  party,  then  under  the 
leadership  of  Fox.  In  1788  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  managers  of  the  trial  of  Warren 
Hastings.  In  1792  he  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  People," 
whose  object  was  to  obtain  a  reform  in  parlia- 
ment. About  this  time  he  attempted  to  miti- 
gate the  law  of  imprisonment  for  debt.  Being 
in  opposition,  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  en- 
deavor to  obtain  a  committee  of  inquiry  into 
the  conduct  of  ministers,  in  his  plan  of  parlia- 
mentary reform,  and  in  his  proposal  to  abolish 
a  number  of  Irish  rotten  boroughs.  Pitt  hav- 
ing died  in  1806,  a  new  ministry  was  formed 
under  Lord  Grenville,  and  Grey,  now  Baron 
Howick,  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty, Fox  being  secretary  for  foreign  affairs. 
Fox  dying  in  September,  Grey  took  his  place. 
Lord  Grenville  and  he  were  now  the  recog- 
nized leaders  of  the  whig  party,  Grenville  in 
the  house  of  lords  and  Grey  in  the  commons. 
During  this  session  Grey  carried  through  the 
bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
moved  the  abolition  of  the  oath  which  excluded 
Roman  Catholics  from  rank  in  the  army  and 
navy.  His  proposal  was  met  with  violent  op- 
position by  the  Protestant  interest,  and  the 
king  exacted  from  his  ministers  a  written 
pledge  that  they  would  not  press  a  measure 
which  he  considered  perilous  to  church  and 
state.  Grey  declined  to  give  such  a  promise, 
resigned,  and  the  cabinet  was  broken  up.  The 
death  of  his  father  in  the  succeeding  year 
called  him  as  Earl  Grey  to  the  house  of  lords. 
For  the  18  years  succeeding  the  death  of  Per- 
ceval (1812-'30)  Earl  Grey  ably  led  the  opposi- 
tion. The  chief  events  of  his  career  during 
this  period  were  his  opposition  to  a  renewal 
of  the  war  in  1815 ;  his  condemnation  of  the 
coercive  measures  of  the  government  against 
the  people  in  the  depression  and  restlessness 
which  followed  the  peace;  his  opposition  to 
every  attempt  to  abridge  the  right  of  public 
meeting,  and  to  the  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
against  Queen  Caroline;  his  support  of  Hus- 
kisson's  measures  of  commercial  reform ;  and 
his  vehement  hostility  to  Canning's  adminis- 
tration. He  had  the  satisfaction  in  1829  of 
seeing  the  Catholic  emancipation  act  passed. 
The  French  revolution  of  1830  and  other  causes 
having  given  a  new  impulse  to  the  agitation 
for  reform,  the  tory  ministry  under  Welling- 
ton was  ohliged  to  retire,  and  William  IV. 
requested  Earl  Grey  to  form  a  government; 


he  consented  only  on  condition  that  the  reform 
of  the  parliamentary  representation  should  be 
brought  forward  as  a  cabinet  question.  In 
November,  1830,  the  new  premier  announced 
in  the  house  of  lords  that  the  policy  of  his  ad- 
ministration would  be  "peace,  retrenchment, 
and  reform  ;"  and  in  March,  1831,  the  first  re- 
form bill  was  introduced.  On  May  7,  1832,  a 
motion  having  been  carried  which  was  con- 
sidered hostile  to  the  reform  measure,  the  min- 
istry resigned,  and  the  duke  of  Wellington  un- 
dertook to  form  a  new  administration.  On 
May  17,  however,  Earl  Grey  returned  to  power; 
on  June  4  the  reform  bill  passed  the  house  of 
lords,  and  three  days  afterward  it  received 
the  royal  assent.  He  resigned  in  July,  1834, 
in  consequence  of  Irish  difficulties.  II.  Henry 
George,  earl,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  Dec.  28,  1802.  He  entered 
parliament  in  1826.  On  the  formation  of  the 
reform  ministry  by  his  father  in  1830,  Lord 
Howick,  as  he  was  then  called,  was  appointed 
under  secretary  for  the  colonies,  but  resigned 
in  1833  in  consequence  of  his  disapproving  the 
details  of  the  measure  for  negro  emancipation. 
For  a  few  months  of  1B34  he  was  under  secre- 
tary for  the  home  department.  He  was  secre- 
tary at  war  in  the  Melbourne  administration 
from  1835  to  1839.  When  the  Peel  adminis- 
tration came  in,  he  earned  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  brilliant  men  of  the  op- 
position. On  his  father's  death,  in  July,  1845, 
he  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  lords  as  Earl 
Grey,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  was  appoint- 
ed secretary  for  the  colonies  in  the  administra- 
tion of  Lord  John  Russell.  On  his  retirement 
with  his  colleagues  in  1852,  he  published  in 
two  volumes  a  defence  of  his  colonial  policy, 
and  in  1858  an  "  Essay  on  Parliamentary  Gov- 
ernment as  to  Reform  "  (2d  ed.,  1864). 

GREY,  Sir  George,  a  British  author,  born  at 
Lisburn,  Ireland,  in  1812.  He  was  educated 
in  the  military  college  at  Sandhurst.  In  1837, 
being  then  a  captain,  he  asked  and  received 
permission  to  explore  the  interior  of  Australia. . 
In  1838,  with  another  expedition,  he  explored 
the  Swan  river  district.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1840,  and  in  1841  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  South  Australia,  in  1846  of  New  Zea- 
land, in  1854  of  Cape  Colony,  and  in  1861 
again  of  New  Zealand.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1867.  He  has  published  "  Journals  of 
Two  Expeditions  of  Discovery  in  N.  W.  and 
W.  Australia  "  (2  vols.,  London,  1841) ;  "  Poly- 
nesian Mythology  and  Ancient  Traditional 
History  of  the  New  Zealand  Race"  (1855); 
and  "  Proverbial  Sayings  of  the  Ancestors  of 
the  New  Zealand  Race  "  (1858).  He  possessed 
a  celebrated  library,  especially  rich  in  geo- 
graphical and  ethnological  works.  Dr.  II.  J. 
Bleck  published  in  1859  a  critical  list  of  the 
works  on  African  and  Polynesian  languages. 

GREY,  Lady  Jane,  a  noble  English  lady,  born 
at  Bradgate,  her  father's  estate  in  Leicester- 
shire, in  1537,  beheaded  in  the  tower  of  Lon- 
don, Feb.  12,  1554.  She  was  the  great-grand- 


GREY 


GREYHOUND 


253 


daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  whose  daughter  Mary, 
the  young  widow  of  Louis  XII.  of  France,  be- 
came the  wife  of  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of 
Suffolk.  Their  daughter,  Lady  Frances  Bran- 
don, was  married  to  Henry  Grey,  marquis  of 
Dorset,  afterward  duke  of  Suffolk.  Lady  Jane 
was  the  eldest  of  three  daughters  of  this 
pair,  who  had  no  male  issue.  She  suffered 
much  rigorous  treatment  in  childhood.  Her 
remarkable  talents  early  displayed  themselves, 
and  her  parents  placed  her  under  the  tutorship 
of  John  Aylmer,  afterward  bishop  of  London. 
At  the  age  of  15  she  spoke  and  wrote  Greek, 
Latin,  Italian,  and  French,  with  ease  and  cor- 
rectness; she  had  also  some  knowledge  of 
Hebrew,  Ohaldee,  and  Arabic.  To  these  ac- 
complishments (not  entirely  unusual  to  young 
ladies  of  the  period)  were  added  sweetness  of 
disposition  and  piety  of  heart.  Edward  VI. 
was  disposed  to  bequeath  his  crown  to  her  in 
consequence  of  his  aversion  to  the  Catholic 
principles  of  his  sister  Mary,  and  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  excluding  this  sister  on  the  plea  of 
illegitimacy,  without  also  excluding  Elizabeth 
on  the  same  ground.  The  duke  of  Northum- 
berland, knowing  Edward's  disposition,  effect- 
ed a  marriage  between  Lady  Jane  and  his  own 
son,  Lord  Guilford  Dudley.  His  machinations 
were  otherwise  so  successful  that  Edward  gave 
his  final  consent  to  the  succession  of  the  bride. 
Royal  letters  patent  were  signed  and  sealed, 
excluding  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  whose  rights 
were  affirmed  by  the  will  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
settling  the  crown  upon  the  heirs  of  the  duch- 
ess of  Suffolk.  The  king's  health,  which  had 
languished  for  a  year,  from  this  time  rapidly 
declined,  his  physicians  being  dismissed,  and 
the  royal  patient  committed  to  a  creature  of 
Northumberland.  The  duke  did  not  commu- 
nicate his  plan  to  his  daughter-in-law  until 
July  10,  1553,  four  days  after  the  king's  death, 
when  he  visited  her  at  Sion  House,  and  ap- 
proached her  with  the  ceremony  usual  to 
royal  state.  She  accepted  the  crown  with 
great  reluctance,  yielding  only  to  the  entrea- 
ties of  her  husband  and  father.  It  was  the  cus- 
tom that  the  first  days  of  a  new  reign  should 
be  passed  by  the  sovereign  in  the  tower  of 
London.  Lady  Jane  Grey  was  accordingly 
conducted  thither.  She  was  proclaimed  queen, 
but  without  the  slightest  manifestation  of  wel- 
come by  the  people.  Northumberland  and 
Suffolk  were  so  disliked  that  not  even  the  hor- 
ror with  which  the  princess  Mary  was  regarded 
by  the  Protestant  party  could  diminish  the 
popular  ill  feeling  toward  them.  Mary  had 
taken  refuge  with  her  friends  in  the  north, 
and  as  soon  as  Edward's  death  was  known  the 
Catholics  rose  to  her  support  in  all  directions, 
and  she  soon  approached  London  with  12,000 
men.  The  most  considerable  nobles  and  gen- 
try declared  for  her  without  delay ;  and  the 
duke  of  Suffolk,  who  had  been  appointed  by 
Northumberland  to  command  the  army,  could 
bring  but  little  over  6,000  troops  into  the  field. 
Northumberland,  seeing  the  danger,  and  losing 


all  confidence  in  Suffolk,  hastened  to  take  the 
command  in  person.  His  departure  from  Lon- 
don was  the  signal  for  a  general  desertion  of 
the  cause.  The  mayor  and  council  proclaimed 
Queen  Mary.  Even  Suffolk  deserted  his  hap- 
less daughter,  who,  after  the  vain  pageantry  of 
ten  days  of  royal  state,  would  willingly  have 
withdrawn  to  her  private  abode.  Mary  en- 
tered the  capital  in  triumph.  Northumberland, 
falling  upon  his  knees,  begged  abjectly  for  life, 
but  was  executed  with  two  of  his  most  active 
adherents,  Sir  Thomas  Palmer  and  Sir  John 
Cate.  Suffolk  was  set  at  liberty,  and  the 
queen  would  not  consent  to  the  death  of  Lady 
Jane,  though  urged  by  her  ministers  to  do  so. 
Sentence,  however,  was  pronounced  against 
her  and  her  husband,  without  any  immediate 
intention  of  putting  it  into  execution,  and  they 
were  confined  in  the  tower.  But  in  conse- 
quence of  "Wyatt's  insurrection,  in  which  Suf- 
folk was  mad  enough  to  engage,  Mary  signed 
a  warrant  for  their  execution  on  Feb.  8,  1554. 
Dudley  was  beheaded  on  Tower  hill;  Jane,  on 
account  of  her  royal  blood,  was  allowed  to 
suffer  within  the  precincts  of  the  tower.  She 
met  her  fate  with  calmness  and  piety,  refu- 
sing to  take  leave  of  her  husband,  whom  she 
hoped  that  day  to  meet  in  heaven. 

GREYHOUND  (canis  venaticus),  a  species  of 
dog  characterized  by  a  narrow  and  sharp  head, 
a  nose  greatly  prolonged,  and  with  its  plane 
passing  with  little  elevation  nearly  to  the  occi- 
put, long  neck,  deep  chest,  arched  loins,  ab- 
domen much  drawn  up,  and  buttocks  elevated ; 
the  stature  is  high  on  account  of  the  elongated 
and  slender  limbs ;  the  ears  are  small,  pointed, 
and  semi-pendulous ;  the  tail  long  and  slender, 
and  in  the  original  races  fringed.  Representa- 
tions of  the  greyhound  are  found  on  the  oldest 
Egyptian  monuments.  The  permanence  and 


Persian  Greyhound. 

peculiarities  of  the  greyhound  characters  indi- 
cate that  it  arose  from  an  aboriginal  indepen- 
dent species,  whose  primitive  seat  was  proba- 
ably  in  the  extensive  plains  of  western  Asia, 
extending  from  Hindostan  and  Persia  through 
Tartary  to  Russia,  where  now  the  largest 


254 


GREYTOWN 


breeds  of  the  race  exist,  and  whence  they  were 
carried  by  or  followed  man  in  his  migrations 
into  Egypt  and  Europe.  The  general  colors 
are  black,  white,  and  slaty;  the  northern 
breeds  have  long  and  shaggy  hair,  while  the 
southern  are  smooth  or  silky,  from  the  effects 
of  climate  or  from  an  original  difference.  The 
largest  and  fiercest  greyhounds  have  long  hair, 
like  those  of  the  Deccan  and  Persia,  the  for- 
mer of  which  is  of  a  yellowish  tan  color,  and  the 
latter  slaty  or  white,  the  hair  of  both  being 
rather  soft ;  the  Arabian  greyhound,  variously 
crossed,  is  large  and  strong.  The  Russian  and 
Tartar  breeds  are  large,  rough,  usually  white, 
black  clouded,  with  long  hairy  tails;  the 
Scotch  greyhound  is  of  the  same  breed,  but, 
from  a  probable  cross  with  a  staghound,  has 
an  excellent  nose  and  considerable  sagacity, 
with  great  speed  and  endurance;  the  Irish 
greyhound,  the  largest  dog  of  western  Europe, 
and  more  than  a  match  for  a  wolf,  is  consid- 
ered of  the  same  breed  with  the  last,  crossed 
in  various  localities  with  the  great  Danish  dog, 
the  staghound,  and  the  bloodhound  ;  the  Gre- 
cian greyhound,  still  extant,  and  used  in  deer 


English  Greyhound. 

hunting,  has  a  rather  short  and  soft  fur,  slaty 
and  white.  Among  the  smooth-haired  breeds 
are  the  Turkish,  ashy,  white,  or  brindled,  with 
long  hairy  ears  and  very  pointed  nose;  the 
Italian,  small,  elegant,  very  delicate,  swift,  and 
chiefly  regarded  as  a  lady's  pet  (there  is  a  lar- 
ger variety  resembling  this  in  the  Barbary 
states) ;  and  the  English  greyhound,  unrivalled 
in  speed,  beauty,  and  docility,  used  in  the  chase 
of  the  hare ;  the  last  is  the  most  common  in 
western  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  The 
lurcher  (C.  tertagus)  was  originally  a  grey- 
hound, but,  from  mixture  with  other  breeds 
and  from  want  of  care,  has  degenerated. 

GREYTOWN.    See  SAN  JUAN  DE  NICARAGUA. 

GRIBEAUYAL,  Jean  Baptist*  Vaqnette  de,  a 
French  artillerist,  born  in  Amiens,  Sept.  15, 
1T1."»,  died  in  Paris,  May  9,  1789.  In  1732  he 
i-ntrivd  the  royal  regiment  of  artillery  as  a 
volunteer,  in  1752  was  sent  by  the  government 
to  study  the  Prussian  system  of  artillery,  and 
jn  1757  was  made  lieutenant  colonel.  He  now 
•nt. •!•.-. 1  thfsiTvireof  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria, 
and  served  during  the  seven  years'  war  with 


GRIFFIN 

the  rank  of  general,  distinguishing  himself  es- 
pecially in  the  defence  of  Schweidnitz.  Re- 
turning to  France,  he  was  appointed  in  1765 
inspector  of  artillery,  and  in  1776  inspector 
general,  and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life 
to  the  improvement  of  that  branch  of  the  ser- 
vice. (See  ARTILLERY.)  His  principal  work  is 
Reglement  concernant  lesfontes  et  constructions 
de  Vartillerie  de  France  (3  vols.  fol.,  in  4  parts, 
with  125  plates,  Paris,  1792).  Only  125  copies 
for  the  use  of  the  government  were  printed. 

GRIDLEY.  I.  Jeremy,  an  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  10,  1702,  died  in 
Brookline,  Sept.  10,  1767.  He  was  educated 
at  Harvard  college,  and  was  for  a  year  editor 
of  the  "  Weekly  Rehearsal,"  a  newspaper  es- 
tablished in  Boston  in  1731.  He  soon  acquired 
great  reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  appointed 
attorney  general  for  the  province  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay.  In  1761,  while  holding  this  office, 
he  defended  the  writs  of  assistance  which  the 
Boston  custom-house  officers  had  applied  for 
to  enable  them  to  enter  at  discretion  the  dwell- 
ings of  suspected  individuals.  He  was  eminent 
for  his  classical  attainments.  II.  Richard,  an 
American  soldier,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Boston,  Jan.  3,  1711,  died  in  Stoughton, 
June  20,  1796.  In  1745  he  served  as  engineer 
at  the  siege  of  Louisburg,  in  1755  was  made 
chief  engineer  and  colonel  of  infantry,  and  in 
the  following  year  took  part  in  the  expedition 
to  Crown  Point  under  Winslow,  and  constructed 
the  fortifications  on  Lake  George.  In  1758  he 
served  under  Amherst,  and  subsequently  under 
Wolfe  on  the  plains  of  Abraham.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war  he  received  Magdalen  island 
and  half  pay  as  the  reward  of  his  services.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  war  he  was 
appointed  chief  engineer,  and  constructed  the 
fortifications  on  Breed's  hill  the  night  before 
the  battle  of  June  17,  1775,  in  which  he  was 
wounded.  He  was  commissioned  major  gene- 
ral in  September,  and  commander  of  the  con- 
tinental artillery,  but  was  superseded  by  Knox 
in  November. 

GRIESBACH,  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  Biblical 
critic,  born  at  Butzbach,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Jan. 
4,  1745,  died  in  Jena,  March  24, 1812.  He  was 
educated  at  Tubingen,  Halle,  and  Leipsic,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  critical  study  of  the 
original  text  of  the  New  Testament.  In  1773 
he  wasmade  extraordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Halle,  and  subsequently  was  elected  a  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  the  university  of  Jena,  of 
which  institution  he  became  rector  in  1780. 
The  first  edition  of  his  Greek  Testament  was 
published  at  Halle  in  1775-'7 ;  the  second  was 
completed  in  1806.  Strictly  speaking,  this  was 
the  first  critical  edition  of  the  New  testament. 
It  was  reprinted  in  London  in  1809  and  in  1818. 
An  American  edition  was  published  in  1808. 

GRIFFIN,  a  fabulous  monster,  half  bird,  half 
beast,  that  dwelt  in  the  Rhipaean  mountains, 
and  guarded  the  gold  of  the  Hyperborean  re- 
gions from  the  one-eyed  Arimaspians.  Griffins 
were  also  supposed  to  watch  over  the  treasures 


GRIFFIN 


of  India,  and  the  fable  probably  originated  in 
the  East.  The  fabulists  and  poets  of  antiquity 
represent  it  with  the  body  of  a  lion,  the  head 
and  wings  of  an  eagle,  the  ears  of  a  horse,  and 
a  comb  of  fishes'  fins. 

GRIFFIN,  Edward  Dorr,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  East  Haddam,  Conn.,  Jan.  6, 1770,  died 
in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Nov.  8,  1837.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  college  in  1790,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  October,  1792,  and  in  1795  was  settled  as 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  New 
Hartford,  Conn.,  from  which  in  1801  he  was 
called  to  the  first  Presbyterian  church  in  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  where  he  remained  till  1809.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  in  Andover  theological  seminary,  which 
omce  he  filled  till  1811,  when  he  became  pas- 
tor of  Park  street  church,  Boston.  There  he 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures  in  exposition  of 
Calvinistic  doctrines,  afterward  published  under 
the  title  of  "  Park  Street  Lectures,"  and  often 
reprinted.  In  1815  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
second  Presbyterian  church  in  Newark.  In 
1821  he  became  president  of  Williams  college, 
Mass.,  and  devoted  himself  most  successfully 
to  its  interests  till  1836,  when  he  resigned  and 
removed  again  to  Newark.  Dr.  Griffin  was  a 
vigorous  writer  and  an  eloquent  preacher.  His 
publications  were  numerous,  consisting  chiefly 
of  sermons  and  addresses,  a  selection  from 
which,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Sprague,  was  published  in  2  vols.  in  1839, 
and  an  additional  volume  of  sermons  in  1844. 
RIFFIN,  Gerald,  an  Irish  novelist,  born  in 
erick,  Dec.  12,  1803,  died  in  Cork,  June 


GRIMALDI 


255 


1840.  When  he  was  about  17  years  of  age 
his  family  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  leav- 
ing him  at  Adare,  near  Limerick.  Determining 
to  devote  himself  to  a  literary  career,  he  went 
in  1823  to  London  with  "Aguire,"  a  tragedy, 
composed  two  years  previous,  which  he  was 
unable  to  dispose  of.  Another  called  "  Gisip- 

Z"  (performed  after  the  author's  death  at 
ry  Lane  with  complete  success)  proving 
equally  unfortunate,  he  was  forced  to  become 
a  writer  for  the  periodical  press,  and  for  several 
years  lived  in  a  precarious  manner.  He  grad- 
ually acquired  reputation  as  a  brilliant  maga- 
zine writer,  and  in  1827  published  his  "Hol- 
land-tide," which  was  followed  shortly  by 
"^ Tales  of  the  Munster  Festivals,"  both  de- 
signed to  illustrate  the  manners  of  the  Irish 
peasantry.  In  1828  appeared  "The  Colleen 
Bawn,  or  the  Collegians,"  the  most  successful 
of  his  novels,  "  The  Invasion,"  "  The  Rivals," 
'^The  Duke  of  Monmouth,"  &o.  In  1838  he 
joined  the  society  of  the  Christian  brothers. 
He  was  likewise  distinguished  as  a  poet.  His 
works  have  been  published  in  New  York  in  10 
vols.,  with  a  memoir  by  his  brother. 

GRIFFIN  CITY,  the  capital  of  Spalding  co., 
Georgia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Savannah, 
Griffin,  and  North  Alabama  railroad  with  the 
Macon  and  Western  line,  35  m.  S.  of  Atlanta ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,421,  of  whom  1,588  were  col- 
ored. It  has  a  healthy  situation,  is  well  built, 
377  VOL.  viii.— 1 7 


and  carries  on  an  active  trade.  It  has  a  female 
college,  founded  in  1848,  a  daily,  a  semi-week- 
ly, and  three  weekly  newspapers,  a  bank,  and 
several  churches. 

GRIFFITH,  William,  an  English  physician, 
born  in  1810,  died  in  Malacca,  Feb.  9,  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  the  London  university,  in 
1832  went  out  to  India  as  assistant  surgeon, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  Bengal  government 
to  examine  the  botany  of  Tenasserim.  In  1835 
he  was  selected  to  accompany  Dr.  Wallich  to 
Assam  to  report  on  the  growth  of  the  tea  plant. 
In  1837  he  accompanied  Capt.  Pemberton  on 
his  mission  to  Bootan,  and  was  subsequently 
sent  to  examine  the  vegetable  productions  of 
Afghanistan.  In  1841  he  was  placed  on  the 
medical  staff  at  Malacca.  He  collected  ani- 
mals as  well  as  plants,  and  his  collections  of 
birds  alone  numbered  600  specimens. 

GRIJALVA,  Juan  de,  a  Spanish  navigator,  born 
at  Cuellar  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, slain  by  the  Indians  in  Nicaragua,  Jan. 
21,  1527.  He  was  intrusted  by  his  uncle,  Don 
Diego  Velasquez,  the  first  governor  of  Cuba, 
with  the  command  of  four  vessels,  which  in  the 
spring  of  1518  sailed  from  Santiago  de  Cuba,  to 
complete  the  discoveries  which  Fernandez  de 
Cordova  had  made  in  Yucatan  the  preceding 
year.  He  coasted  along  the  peninsula,  and 
rounding  it  extended  his  explorations  as  far  as 
the  region  of  the  Panuco,  giving  his  name  and 
that  of  his  companion,  Alvarado,  to  two  rivers 
on  the  coast.  His  communication  with  the 
Aztecs  was  friendly,  and  so  profitable  that  he 
was  enabled  to  send  back  one  of  the  ships 
freighted  with  gold,  jewels,  and  other  treasures. 
He  afterward  settled  in  Nicaragua,  and  was 
slain  in  the  valley  of  Ulancho. 

GRILLPARZER,  Franz,  a  German  dramatist, 
born  in  Vienna,  Jan.  15,  1791,  died  there,  Jan. 
20,  1872.  He  was  from  1813  to  1856  director 
of  the  archives  of  the  ministry  of  finance,  and 
in  1861  became  member  for  life  of  the  Reichs- 
rath.  He  was  first  brought  into  notice  by  Die 
Ahnfrau,  a  tragedy  of  the  fatalistic  school,  pro- 
duced in  1816.  In  1819  he  produced  Sappho, 
in  1822  Das  goldene  Vliess,  a  fantastic  work, 
and  in  1825  Konig  OttoTcar^s  Qluck  und  Ende. 
He  also  wrote  comedies  and  lyrics.  A  collec- 
tion of  his  works  in  10  vols.  was  published  in 
1872  (2d  ed.,  1874),  and  his  biography  by  Kuh 
in  the  same  year.  Early  in  life  he  became  in- 
timate in  the  family  of  Counsellor  Frohlich,  af- 
ter whose  death  he  assumed  the  guardianship 
of  his  three  daughters,  with  whom  he  resided 
till  his  death.  At  the  public  celebration  of  his 
80th  birthday  he  was  made  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  Francis  Joseph. — See  Orillparzer  ah 
Archie-Director,  by  G.  Wolf  (Vienna,  1874). 

GRIMALDI,  one  of  the  four  great  patrician 
families  of  Genoa.  They  derive  their  descent 
from  Grimoald,  mayor  of  the  palace  under 
the  Frankish  king  Childebert  II.,  and  first 
made  their  appearance  in  northern  Italy  in 
the  10th  century.  In  980  they  gained  posses- 
sion of  the  lordship  of  Monaco,  of  which  they 


256 


GRIMES 


remained  the  hereditary  princes  for  upward 
of  seven  centuries.  They  belonged  to  the 
Guelph  faction,  and  cooperated  with  the  Fies- 
chi  in  those  incessant  struggles  with  the  Ghi- 
bellines,  headed  by  the  Doria  and  Spinola  fam- 
ilies which  kept  Genoa  in  a  turmoil;  and 
notwithstanding  the  law  of  1339  excluding 
the  nobles,  both  Guelph  and  Ghibelline,  from 
holding  supreme  authority  in  the  state,  they 
continued  to  exert  the  greatest  influence  in 
the  government  of  their  country.  The  Gri- 
maldis  possessed  large  estates  in  France  and 
Italy.  Branches  of  this  family  still  exist  in 
Nice  and  southern  France.  RANIERI  II.  was 
the  first  Genoese  who  led  the  fleet  of  the  re- 
public beyond  the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  As  an 
ally  of  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  he  defeated 
in  1304  the  Flemish  fleet  under  Guy  of  Flan- 
ders, whom  he  took  prisoner.  CARLO  II.,  sur- 
named  the  Great,  commanded  the  Genoese 
crossbowrnen  in  the  battle  of  Cre"cy.  His 
troops,  rendered  helpless  by  the  damage  which 
a  heavy  shower  had  caused  to  their  bow- 
strings, were  attacked  not  only  by  the  Eng- 
lish, but  also  by  the  French,  who  were  en- 
raged at  the  falling  back  of  their  allies,  and  a 
dreadful  carnage  ensued,  in  which  their  com- 
mander was  killed  (1346).  ANTONIO,  an  ad- 
miral, in  1332  avenged  the  aggressions  of  the 
Catalonians  and  Aragonese  by  ravaging  their 
coasts.  The  supremacy  which  the  Genoese 
thus  gained  was  maintained  till  1353,  when  the 
combined  Catalonian  and  Venetian  fleets,  under 
command  of  Nicol6  Pisani,  inflicted  a  disas- 
trous defeat  upon  Grimaldi  off  the  coast  of 
Sardinia,  by  which  the  naval  strength  of 
Genoa  was  for  a  time  prostrated.  GIOVANNI, 
in  the  service  of  the  Milanese,  gained  a  decided 
victory  over  the  Venetian  fleet  under  Trevesani 
on  the  Po,  in  1431,  taking  numbers  of  galleys 
and  immense  spoils.  DOMENIOO  distinguished 
himself  as  a  zealous  churchman,  and  also  as  a 
naval  commander  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto 
(1571).  He  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of 
•cardinal,  and  extirpated  heretical  doctrines 
from  his  diocese.  GERONIMO,  who  died  in  1685 
at  the  age  of  89,  was  also  an  ecclesiastic,  and 
•as  bishop  of  Aix  effected  some  very  wholesome 
Teforms  in  his  diocese.  He  annually  distribu- 
ted 100,000  livres  in  alms.  He  was  sent  as 
jjuncio  to  Germany  by  Urban  VIII.,  who  made 
him  a  cardinal. 

GRIMES,  an  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  W. 
:by  Navasoto  and  Brazos  rivers ;  area,  902  sq. 
•ra. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,218,  of  whom  7,921  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  occupied 
by  prairies  and  forests.  Much  of  the  soil  is  a 
rich  black  loam.  The  county  is  traversed  by 
the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  336,690  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  80,966  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
10,025  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  3,569 
horses,  1.305  mules  and  asses,  5,779  milch 
cows,  4,765  working  oxen,  17,814  other  cattle, 
3,794  sheep,  and  15,913  swine;  3  saw  mills, 
.and  3  carriage  factories.  Capital,  Anderson. 


GRIMKE 

GRIMES,  James  Wilson,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Deering,  N.  H.,  Oct.  20,  1816, 
died  in  Burlington, '  Iowa,  Feb.  7,  1872.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1836,  and 
removed  to  Burlington,  where  he  began  the 
practice  of  law.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  territorial  legislature  of  Iowa  in  1838,  and 
held  a  seat  in  the  state  legislature  for  several 
terms.  In  1854  he  was  the  whig  and  freesoil 
candidate  for  governor,  canvassed  the  state  in 
person,  and  was  elected,  though  his  party  had 
previously  been  in  the  minority.  He  held  the 
office  three  years,  and  did  much  to  secure  lib- 
eral legislation  in  behalf  of  common  schools 
and  a  better  treatment  of  the  insane.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in  1859, 
and  reflected  in  1865.  In  the  senate  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committees  on  naval  affairs 
and  public  lands,  and  a  member  of  the  special 
joint  committee  on  the  rebellious  states.  On 
the  trial  of  President  Johnson  he  was  one  of 
the  few  republican  senators  who  voted  for  ac- 
quittal. In  1869,  in  consequence  of  a  stroke 
of  paralysis,  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate, 
and  made  a  brief  tour  in  Europe. 

GRDIKE.  I.  Thomas  Smith,  an  American  law- 
yer and  scholar,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  0., 
Sept.  26,  1786,  died  near  Columbus,  0.,  Oct. 
12,  1834.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in 
1807,  studied  law  in  Charleston,  and  rose  to 
eminence  at  the  bar  and  in  politics.  Among 
his  more  noted  efforts  were  a  speech  in  the 
state  senate  on  the  tariff  question  in  1828,  in 
which  he  supported  the  general  government, 
and  an  argument  on  the  constitutionality  of 
the  South  Carolina  test  act  in  1834.  He  be- 
came more  widely  known  by  his  addresses  in 
behalf  of  peace,  religion,  and  literature.  An 
early  and  prominent  advocate  of  the  American 
peace  society,  he  held  the  opinion  that  even 
defensive  warfare  is  wicked.  He  entertained 
some  eccentric  notions  on  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion, and  in  several  pamphlets  he  introduced  a 
new  system  of  English  orthography.  He  pub- 
lished several  addresses  before  Sunday  schools 
and  peace  societies,  before  the  society  of  the 
Cincinnati  at  Charleston,  July  4,  1809,  and  be- 
fore various  societies  and  associations  on  sub- 
jects connected  with  education.  A  volume  of 
his  addresses  was  published  at  New  Haven  in 
1831.  II.  Frederick,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Sept.  1,  1791,  died 
March  8,  1863.  He  removed  to  Ohio,  where 
he  held  for  many  years  the  office  of  judge  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas  and  of  the  supreme 
court.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  "  The 
Nature  and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions" 
(Cincinnati,  1848),  and  of  an  essay  on  "  Ancient 
and  Modern  Literature."  HI.  Sarah  Moore,  sis- 
ter of  the  preceding,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Nov.  26,  1792,  died  at  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  Dec. 
23,  1873.  From  early  youth  she  and  her 
younger  sister  Angelina  felt  a  strong  repug- 
nance to  slavery,  and  on  receiving  slaves  by 
inheritance  immediately  set  them  free.  About 
1828  they  removed  to  Philadelphia  and  joined 


the  society  of  Friends.  In  1836  they  began  to 
lecture  against  slavery,  and  their  addresses  had 
great  influence  on  public  opinion.  In  1837-'8 
Sarah  visited  Massachusetts,  making  many 
public  speeches,  and  wrote  for  Garrison's 
"  Liberator  "  a  series  of  letters  on  "  The  Equal- 
ity of  the  Sexes,"  which  were  afterward  pub- 
lished in  a  volume.  In  these  letters  all  the 
principles  and  nearly  all  the  arguments  since 
advanced  by  the  woman's  rights  party  were 
anticipated.  In  the  latter  part  of  her  life  Miss 
Grhnke  was  a  teacher  of  French,  and  trans- 
ted  and  published  Lamartine's  Jeanne  cTArc 
d  Emile  Souvestre's  Confession*  d'un  ou- 
'.  Her  sister  became  the  wife  of  Theodore 
ight  Weld.  (See  WELD.) 
GRIMM,  Friedrich  Melchior,  baron,  a  French 
tic,  born  in  Katisbon,  Dec.  26,  1723,  died  in 
itha,  Dec.  19,  1807.  After  distinguishing 
self  as  a  scholar  at  Leipsic,  he  accompanied 
unt  Schonberg  to  Paris  as  tutor  to  his  chil- 
He  soon  afterward  became  reader  to 
e  prince  of  Saxe-Gotha,  gained  the  acquaint- 
.ce  of  J.  J.  Eousseau  about  1749  by  his  taste 
music,  was  introduced  into  the  circle  of  the 
cyclopa3dists,  and  was  made  secretary  suc- 
vely  of  Count  Friesen  and  of  the  duke  of 
rleans.  He  was  noted  for  romantic  and  senti- 
ental  amours,  and  joined  the  coterie  of  critics 
ho  favored  the  Italian  and  assailed  the  French 
ra.  Pie  achieved  his  first  literary  success 
a  pamphlet  entitled  Le  petit  prophete  de 
hmischbroda  (Paris,  1753),  a  plea  in  Biblical 
yle  for  Italian  music,  which,  together  with 
veral  lively  and  enthusiastic  critiques  on  the 
gave  him  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
ost  brilliant  French  writers.  Employed  by 
.e  abbe  Raynal  to  conduct  his  foreign  corre- 
mdence,  Grimm  became  the  regular  corre- 
dent  of  seven  royal  personages,  among 
horn  were  Catharine  II.  of  Russia,  Gustavus 
I.  of  Sweden,  and  Stanislas  Poniatowski  of 
'oland,  chronicling  for  them  the  literary  move- 
nts  for  which  Paris  was  then  distinguished, 
is  correspondence,  which  gives  a  detailed 
tory  of  French  literature  from  1753  to  1790, 
one  of  the  best  collections  of  criticism  of  the 
century.  No  important  work  appeared 
France  during  that  period  which  is  not  the 
subject  of  ingenious  and  piquant  remarks.  He 
was  appointed  in  1776  by  the  duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  his  envoy  at  the  French  court,  and  saw 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  and  de- 
scribed its  early  scenes,  but  retired  from  Paris 
with  the  other  members  of  the  diplomatic 
corps,  and  passed  his  last  years  at  Gotha,  hold- 
ing from  1795  the  title  of  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary of  Russia.  His  Correspondance  litteraire, 
philosophique  et  critique  was  published  in 
Paris  (16  vols.,  1812-'13).  A  new  edition,  an- 
notated by  Taschereau  (5  vols.,  1829-'31),  con- 
tains passages  suppressed  by  the  censorship  un- 
der the  Napoleonic  regime.  The  Correspon- 
dance inedite  de  Grimm  et  Diderot  appeared 
in  1829,  and  Etudes  sur  Grimm,  by  Sainte- 
Beuve  and  Paulin  Limayrac,  in  1854. 


GRIMM 


257 


GRIMM.  I.  Jakob  Ludwig,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Hanau,  Jan.  4,  1785,  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Sept.  20,  1863.  He  studied  law  in  the 
university  of  Marburg  under  Savigny,  whom 
in  1805  he  accompanied  to  Paris.  In  1806  he 
returned  to  Hesse,  was  appointed  secretary  of 
war,  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  literature 
of  the  middle  ages.  He  participated  in  the 
congress  of  Vienna  (1814-'15),  and  was  sent 
to  Paris  by  the  Prussian  government  to  obtain 
manuscripts  carried  thither  by  Napoleon.  He 
was  second  librarian  at  Cassel  from  1816  to 
1830,  when  he  became  professor  and  librarian 
at  Gottingen,  and  for  seven  years  lectured  on 
the  antiquities  of  the  German  language,  liter- 
ature, and  law.  In  1837  he  was  one  of  the 
seven  professors  who  signed  the  protest  against 
the  abolition  of  the  constitution  by  the  king 
of  Hanover,  for  which  he  with  most  of  the 
signers  was  deprived  of  his  office  and  ban- 
ished. He  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  sub- 
ject entitled  Jalcob  Grimm  uber  seine  Entlas- 
sung  (Basel,  1838).  In  1841  he  was  called  to 
Berlin  as  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  as  professor.  He  presided  over  the  as- 
semblies of  German  philologists  held  in  Frank- 
fort in  1846  and  in  Lilbeck  in  1847,  was  a 
member  of  the  Frankfort  parliament  of  1848, 
and  participated  in  the  gathering  at  Gotha  in 
1849,  acting  with  the  moderate  liberal  party. 
His  first  publication  was  Ueberden  altdeutschen 
Meistergesang  (Gottingen,  1811).  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  Deutsche  Grammatik  (4  vols., 
1819-'37),  containing  a  history  of  the  gramma- 
tical forms  of  all  the  Germanic  dialects  in  the 
different  eras  of  the  language.  His  Deutsche 
Rechtsalterthumer  (1828;  new  ed.,  1854)  re- 
counts the  poetical  and  fantastic  customs  which 
flourished  among  the  Germans  in  the  middle 
ages;  and  his  Deutsche  Mythologie  (1835  ;  2d 
ed.,  1843)  is  a  complete  discussion  of  the  old 
gods  of  the  North.  His  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Sprache  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1848 ;  2d  ed.,  1853) 
traces  the  ethnological  affinities  of  the  German- 
ic nations  by  comparative  philology.  Among 
his  numerous  other  works  are  a  collection  of 
German  proverbs,  Weisthumer  (4  vols.,  Gottin- 
gen, 1840-'63),  and  editions  of  various  mediae- 
val productions.  He  also  published,  in  con- 
nection with  his  brother  Wilhelm  Karl,  the 
German  Kinder-  und  Hausmarchen  (Berlin, 
1812 ;  often  republished,  and  translated  into 
English  and  French),  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lar collections  of  juvenile  stories ;  Altdeutsche 
Walder  (3  vols.,  Cassel,  1813-'16) ;  Die  Lieder 
der  Alien  Edda  (Berlin,  1815) ;  Deutsche  Sagen 
(2  vols.,  Berlin,  1816-'18);  and  Irische  Elf  en- 
mar  chen  (Leipsic,  1826),  founded  on  Croker's 
"  Fairy  Legends."  In  1852  he  and  his  brother 
commenced  the  publication  of  the  Deutsches 
Worterbuch,  on  a  plan  more  elaborate  and  ex- 
tensive than  that  of  any  dictionary  of  any  mod- 
ern language.  It  was  intended  to  include 
every  word  employed  in  German  literature 
from  Luther  to  Goethe.  He  lived  to  complete 
three  volumes  and  a  part  of  the  fourth,  embra- 


258 


GRIMMA 


cing  but  a  small  part  of  the  alphabet.  The 
completion  of  the  work,  his  brother  having 
died  before  him,  was  intrusted  to  Moritz  Heyne, 
Rudolf  Hildebrand,  and  Karl  Weigand;  and  it 
is  said  that  the  brothers  Grimm  left  sufficient 
materials  to  carry  out  the  original  plan  in  all 
its  essential  features.  The  first  part  of  vol. 
iv.,  reaching  to  the  word  Garten,  was  published 
in  Leipsic  at  the  beginning  of  1874.  The  work 
was  completed  nearly  to  the  letter  L,  and  it 
is  expected  that  the  whole  will  be  ready  about 
1890.  Since  his  death  three  volumes  of  his 
minor  writings  (Kleinere  Schriften\  including 
an  autobiography,  have  been  published.  II. 
Wilhelm  Karl,  a  German  philologist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Hanau,  Feb.  24,  1786, 
died  in  Berlin,  Dec.  16,  1859.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Cassel  and  Marburg,  was  appointed  in 
1814  secretary  of  the  library  of  Cassel,  and  in 
1830  assistant  librarian  at  Gottingen,  where  he 
became  professor  in  1835.  He  was  deprived 
of  this  office  in  1837,  and  accompanied  his 
brother  to  Cassel  and  Berlin.  He  devoted 
himself  especially  to  German  medieval  poetry, 
and,  besides  the  works  which  were  the  joint 
productions  of  the  two  brothers,  wrote  trea- 
tises Ueber  die  deutschen  Eunen  (Gottingen, 
1821)  and  Ueber  die  deutschen  Fingemamen 
(Berlin,  1848) ;  translated  the  Altddnische  Hel- 
denlieder,  Balladen  und  MarcJien  (Heidelberg, 
1811) ;  and  edited  the  Grave  Euodolf  (Gottin- 
gen, 1828),  Die  deutsche  Heldensage  (1829),  Der 
Freiaank  (1834),  Der  grosse  fiosengarten(1834:), 
Das  Rolandslied  (1838),  Wemners  vom  Nied- 
herrhein  Veronica  (1839),  Konrads  von  Wurz- 
lurg  Goldene  Schmiede  (Berlin,  1840),  Athis 
und  Prophilias  (1846),  Exhortatio  ad  Plebem 
Christianam  (1848),  and  Altdeutsche  GesprdcTie 
(1851),  for  all  of  which  he  furnished  introduc- 
tions and  disquisitions  of  great  value.  III.  Lnd- 
nig  Emil,  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hanau  in  1790, 
died  in  Cassel,  April  4, 1863.  He  studied  under 
Karl  Hess  at  Munich,  served  in  the  campaign 
of  1813,  and  in  1817  went  to  Italy.  In  1832 
he  became  professor  in  the  academy  of  painting 
at  Cassel.  He  made  more  than  130  engravings, 
most  of  them  his  own  compositions.  Of  his 
paintings,  a  "  Madonna  "  and  numerous  por- 
traits are  most  admired.  IV.  Hermann  Friedrieh, 
son  of  Wilhelm  Karl,  born  in  Cassel,  Jan.  6, 
1828.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  has 
since  1849  resided  in  the  former  city.  Among 
his  works  are  the  drama  Arminius  (1851),  the 
tragedy  Demetrius  (1854),  the  poem  Traum 
und  Erwachen  (1854),  Novellen  (1856  ;  2d  ed., 
1862),  Essays  (1859),  Leben  Michel  Angela^  (2 
vols.,  1860-'63  ;  3d  ed.,  1868  ;  English  transla- 
tion by  F.  E.  Bunnett,  2  vols.,  1865),  Neue  Es- 
says (1865),  mainly  devoted  to  the  writings  of 
Emerson,  and  the  novel  Unuberwindliche  Mdch- 
te  (3  vols.,  1867).  He  has  also  edited  Ueber 
Kunstler  nnd  Knnstwerlce  (3  vols.,  1865-'7). 

(.KIMMA,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the  Mulde, 
14m.  S.  E.  of  Leipsic;  pop.  in  1871,  6,536.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated, and  contains  several  church- 


GRINDELWALD 

es,  an  ancient  town  hall,  and  a  royal  palace 
which  is  used  for  public  offices.  Celebrated 
among  its  schools  is  the  Furstenschule  (Illustre 
Moldanuni),  with  more  than  120  pupils  and 
a  library  of  6,000  volumes.  Grimma  was  the 
most  important  commercial  and  manufacturing 
emporium  of  Saxony  until  the  14th  century, 
but  has  considerably  declined.  The  local  in- 
dustry has  lately  somewhat  revived,  and  it  also 
contains  two  large  publishing  houses.  The 
Gfolzermiihle,  outside  the  town,  includes  an  ex- 
tensive manufactory  of  paper  and  machinery, 
and  an  iron  foundery.  Albert  the  Brave,  pro- 
genitor of  the  Saxon  dynasty,  was  born  in  the 
castle  of  Grimma  in  1443. 

GRINDAL,  Edmund,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Kensingham,  Cumberland,  in  1519,  died  at  Croy- 
don,  July  6,  1583.  In  1459  he  became  presi- 
dent of  Pembroke  hall,  Cambridge,  and,  having 
greatly  distinguished  himself  as  a  preacher, 
became  Bishop  Ridley's  private  chaplain  in 
1550.  The  next  year  he  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  the  king ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Mary 
he  fled  to  Strasburg,  where  he  remained  till  her 
death,  when  returning,  he  was  employed  to 
draw  up  the  new  liturgy,  and,  with  seven  other 
Protestants,  to  oppose  the  Roman  Catholic 
prelates  in  public  debate.  In  1559  he  was 
made  master  of  Pembroke  hall,  and  the  same 
year  was  nominated  to  succeed  Bonner  as  bish- 
op of  London.  In  1570  he  was  translated  to 
the  see  of  York,  and  five  years  after  succeeded 
Parker  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Eliza- 
beth, disliking  the  frequent  meetings  of  the 
clergy  for  mutual  improvement,  directed  Grin- 
dal  to  break  up  these  "  prophesyings."  Ven- 
turing decidedly  to  question  the  propriety  of 
doing  this,  he  was  confined  to  his  house  by 
order  of  the  star  chamber,  and  his  see  was 
sequestered  from  him.  He  was  afterward 
partially  restored  to  his  power  and  place,  but 
in  1582  he  became  blind,  and  resigned  his  see, 
receiving  a  pension  from  the  queen.  He  wrote 
little,  but  a  tract  of  his  on  the  real  presence  is 
printed  in  Fox's  "Acts  and  Monuments." 

GRINDELWALD,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  and  36  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Bern,  and  10  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Interlaken,  about 
3,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  Bergelbach ;  pop. 
about  3,000.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  rqad  to 
the  Bernese  Oberland,  and  is  celebrated  for 
the  scenery  of  the  Grindelwald  valley,  the 
beauty  of  the  passes  of  the  Scheideck,  and  the 
surrounding  mountains  and  glaciers.  The  vil- 
lage consists  of  picturesque  wooden  cottages 
widely  scattered  over  the  valley.  The  inhab- 
itants are  mainly  employed  in  rearing  cattle, 
in  dairy  work,  and  in  preparing  Kirschwasser. 
The  most  celebrated  Swiss  guides  are  natives 
of  this  vicinity.  Owing  to  the  proximity  of  the 
glaciers,  the  climate  is  cold  and  unsettled  even 
in  summer. — The  Grindelwald  valley  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Black  Lutschine,  and  is  about 
16  in.  long  and  2  m.  wide.  South  of  the  val- 
ley rise  the  Wellborn,  Wetterhorn,  Mettenberg, 
Schreckhorn,  Eiger,  and  Monch;  and  north 


noraru 

there  \ 

GRD 

ocean, 


GRINNELL 


the  Faulhorn  and  other  mountains.  About  4 
m.  S.  E.  of  the  village  the  two  glaciers  of 
Grind  el  wald  issue  from  both  sides  of  the  Met- 
tenberg ;  they  belong  to  the  field  of  ice  which 
occupies  the  table  land  and  elevated  valleys  of 
the  Bernese  Alps.  The  upper  one  descends 
lower  than  any  other  glacier  in  Switzerland, 
being  almost  on  a  level  with  inhabited  houses. 
It  is  accessible  without  danger,  and  the  little 
or  lower  glacier  is  so  easily  explored  that  it  is 
popularly  known  as  the  DamengletscJier  (lady's 
glacier). 

GRINNELL,  a  town  of  Poweshiek  co.,  Iowa, 
at  the  intersection  of  the  Central  railroad  of 
Iowa  with  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa- 
cific line,  about  50  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Des  Moines ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,482.  It  is  in  a  fertile  undu- 
lating prairie,  and  is  the  seat  of  Iowa  col- 
lege (Congregational),  originally  established  at 
Davenport.  This  institution  was  organized  in 
1848,  and  has  a  normal  and  English  depart- 
ment, besides  academic  courses  and  a  regular 
collegiate  course.  It  possesses  a  valuable  mu- 
seum of  natural  history  and  extensive  philo- 
sophical apparatus.  The  college  and  society 
libraries  contain  6,500  volumes.  In  1872-'3 
re  were  19  professors  and  338  students. 

CRINNELL  LAND,  a  tract  of  land  in  the  Arctic 
separated  from  Greenland  by  Kennedy 
channel  and  Robeson  strait.  Its  discovery  has 
been  claimed  by  both  English  and  American 
explorers.  It  was  seen  by  the  first  Ameri- 
can Grinnell  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  under  Lieut.  De  Haven,  Sept.  22, 
1850,  and  eight  months  later  was  visited  by 
Capt.  Penny  in  the  British  vessel  Lady  Frank- 
lin. This  officer,  ignorant  of  its  previous  dis- 
covery, gave  it  the  name  of  Prince  Albert  land. 
Dr.  Kane,  on  his  second  expedition  in  1854, 
explored  and  mapped  it  toward  the  west  and 
north,  in  Ion.  76°  W.,  and  as  far  1ST.  as  lat.  82°. 
Capt.  Hall  in  1871  sailed  up  its  coast  to  lat. 
82°  16',  and  his  crew  reported  that  its  extreme 
N.  point  appeared  to  be  about  lat.  83°  20', 

I  whence  the  shore  trended  westward. 
GRIQUAS,  or  Baastaards,  a  mixed  race  of  S. 
Africa,  consisting  of  the  progeny  of  Dutch  set- 
tlers by  Hottentot  and  Bush  women.  They 
occupy  the  right  bank  of  the  great  bend  of 
Gariep  or  Orange  river,  on  the  N.  frontier  of 
Cape  Colony,  and  are  supposed  to  number 
about  15,000  souls,  most  of  whom  profess 
Christianity  and  are  partly  civilized.  They 
have  a  prosperous  community  at  Griqua  Town, 
about  500  m.  N.  E.  of  Cape  Town,  under  the 
direction  of  the  London  missionary  society. 
This  place  was  the  seat  of  a  well  known  Chris- 
tian chief  named  Waterboer,  who  managed  du- 
ring his  reign  of  30  years  (about  1814-'44)  to 
break  up  the  marauding  practices  for  which  his 
people  had  been  noted.  The  chiefs  are  elect- 
ed. The  people  retain  many  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  both  African  and  European  progeni- 
tors. The  Christians  of  this  race  are  generally 
well  clad.  Many  of  them  are  thriving  agricul- 
turists and  cattle  breeders. 


GRISCOM 


259 


GRISAR,  Albert,  a  French  composer,  born  in 
Antwerp,  Dec.  26,  1808,  died  at  Asnieres,  near 
Paris,  June  14,  1869.  He  was  sent  to  Liver- 
pool to  qualify  himself  for  business  pursuits, 
but  left  that  city  secretly  and  studied  music  in 
Paris  under  Reicha.  The  outbreak  of  the  Bel- 
gian revolution  soon  obliged  him  to  return  to 
Antwerp,  where  he  continued  to  practise  his 
art,  and  his  first  productions,  the  ballad  La 
folle  and  the  comic  opera  Mariage  impossible, 
made  him  famous  and  won  from  the  Belgian 
government  an  allowance  of  1,200  francs.  Ho 
then  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Paris. 
The  best  of  his  earlier  comic  operas,  each  in 
one  act,  are  IJEau  merveilleuse  (1844),  Gillea 
ramsseur  (1849),  and  Bon  soir,  Monsieur  Pan- 
talon.  Among  his  later  works,  in  three  acts, 
are  Les  amours  du  (Liable  (1853),  La  chatte 
merveilleuse  (1862),  and  Les  tegayements  de 
V amour  (1864) ;  but  one  of  the  most  popular 
is  the  one-act  piece  Le  chien  dujardinier,  first 
performed  in  1855.  He  had  Afraja,  in  three 
acts,  JKigolo,  in  one  act,  and  four  other  new 
operas  nearly  completed  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  His  most  popular  ballad  is  Adieu, 
beau  rivage  de  France. 

GRISCOM.  I.  John,  an  American  educator, 
born  at  Hancock's  Bridge,  Salem  co.,  N.  J., 
Sept.  27,  1774,  died  in  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Feb. 
26,  1852.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  Friends, 
passed  his  youth  on  a  farm,  and  began  to  teach 
when  but  17  years  old.  He  studied  for  a  time 
at  the  Friends'  academy  in  Philadelphia,  and 
afterward  for  13  years  had  charge  of  the  Friends' 
monthly  meeting  school  in  Burlington,  during 
which  time  students  were  attracted  thither 
from  all  the  surrounding  states.  In  1807  he 
removed  to  New  York,  and  taught  there  for 
25  years.  In  1818-'!  9  he  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe,  visiting  the  principal  institutions  of 
learning  and  charity,  prisons,  and  manufacto- 
ries, and  in  1823  published  "  A  Year  in  Eu- 
rope "  (2  vols.).  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
and  for  six  years  secretary  of  the  society  for 
the  prevention  of  pauperism,  and  was  the  au- 
thor of  many  of  its  reports.  He  was  also  the 
projector  of  the  New  York  high  school,  which 
was  under  his  supervision  from  1825  to  1831. 
He  was  literary  principal  of  a  Friends'  boarding 
school  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  from  1831  to  1835, 
when  he  removed  to  Burlington.  In  the  last 
years  of  his  life  he  reorganized  the  common 
school  system  of  New  Jersey.  His  biography, 
by  his  son  John  H.  Griscom,  was  published 
in  New  York  in  1859.  II.  John  Hoskins,  an 
American  physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  New  York,  Aug.  13,  1809,  died  there,  April 
28,  1874.  He  studied  at  the  Rutgers  medical 
college,  New  York,  and  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  graduated  in  1832,  his 
inaugural  thesis  being  published  by  the  facul- 
ty. In  1833  he  was  appointed  assistant  phy- 
sician to  the  New  York  dispensary,  and  in 
1834  chief  physician.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  New  York  college  of  pharmacy 
from  1836  to  1840.  In  1843  he  was  appoint- 


260 


GRISEBACH 


ed  physician  to  the  New  York  hospital,  which 
post  he  held  till  1867.  He  was  for  15  years  a 
member  of  the  prison  association,  and  for  10 
years  the  chairman  of  its  executive  committee. 
He  paid  much  attention  to  hygiene  and  the 
ventilation  of  buildings,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  upon  these  subjects.  His  principal 
works  are :  "  Animal  Mechanism  and  Physiol- 
ogy" (1839):  "Sanitary  Condition  of  the  La- 
boring Classes  of  New  York"  (1844);  "Uses 
and  Abuses  of  Air,  and  the  Means  for  the  Ven- 
tilation of  Buildings  "  (1850)  ;  "  Hospital  Hy- 
giene" (1853);  "A  History,  Chronological 
and  Circumstantial,  of  the  Visitations  of  the 
Yellow  Fever  in  New  York"  (1858);  "First 
Lessons  in  Physiology,  with  Brief  Rules  of 
Health,  for  the  use  of  Schools  "  (1860) ;  "  Sani- 
tary Legislation,  Past,  Present,  and  Future" 
(1861);  and  "Use  of  Tobacco,  and  the  Evils 
resulting  from  it "  (1868). 

GRISEBACH,  Angost  Ueinrieh  Rudolf,  a  German 
botanist,  born  in  Hanover,  April  17,  1814.  He 
studied  in  Gottingen  and  Berlin,  and  became 
in  1837  adjunct  and  in  1847  regular  professor 
of  botany  in  the  university  of  Gottingen.  He 
published  Beise  durch  Bumelien  und  nach 
Brussa  im  Jahre  1839  (2  vols.,  Gottingen, 
1841) ;  and  among  his  many  botanical  works 
is  Die  Vegetation  der  Erde  nach  Hirer  Tdimati- 
schen  Anordnung :'  ein  Abriss  der  vergleichenden 
Geographic  der  Pfianzen  (2  vols.,  with  a  map, 
Leipsic,  1872).  The  author  in  this  work  gives 
a  geographical  description  of  plants  in  relation 
to  the  physical  history  of  the  earth. 

GRISI,  Ginlia,  an  Italian  singer,  born  in  Mi- 
lan in  1812,  died  in  Berlin,  Nov.  25,  1869. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Gaetano  Grisi,  who 
was  an  officer  of  engineers,  and  niece  of  the 
singer  Grassini;  and  she  was  assisted  in  her 
musical  studies  by  her  elder  sister  Giuditta,  who 
was  also  a  celebrated  singer.  On  her  d6but 
in  Bologna  at  the  age  of  17  she  made  a  great 
impression  by  the  grace  and  loveliness  of  her 
person,  her  intelligence,  and  fine  vocal  abili- 
ties. In  1832  she  took  the  part  of  Adalgisa  on 
the  first  representation  of  Bellini's  Norma  at 
Milan,  and  shared  with  Pasta,  who  personated 
Norma,  the  triumph  of  the  occasion.  She  had 
previously  entered  into  a  contract  with  Lanari, 
the  impresario  at  Florence,  to  sing  for  him  for 
six  years  at  a  very  moderate  salary ;  but  find- 
ing that  her  talents  could  command  higher  pay 
elsewhere,  she  secretly  fled  to  France  to  avoid 
her  obligations.  In  Paris,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Rossini,  she  was  engaged  as  prima 
donna  of.  the  Italian  opera ;  and  in  1834  her 
d6but  in  London  was  very  successful.  In  the 
parts  of  Norma,  Semiramide,  Lucrezia  Borgia, 
and  Elvira  in  I  Puritani,  she  showed  dramatic 
capacities  which  rendered  her  scarcely  less  at- 
tractive as  an  actress  than  as  a  singer ;  while 
in  the  buffo  music  of  II  barMere  di  Seviglia, 
Don  Pasquale,  or  Cenerentola,  she  was  almost 
equally  successful.  In  August,  1854,  in  com- 
pany with  Signor  Mario,  she  visited  the  United 
States.  In  1836  she  married  in  London  M.  do 


GRISONS 

Melcy,  but  retained  in  her  profession  her  for- 
mer name.  The  marriage  was  unhappy  and 
was  judicially  dissolved.  Mme.  Grisi  subse- 
quently married  Mario. 

GRISONS  (Ger.  GrauMndteri),  the  eastern- 
most and  largest  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  border- 
ing on  Liechtenstein,  Tyrol,  Italy,  and  the  can- 
tons of  St.  Gall,  Glarus,  Ticino,  and  Uri ;  great- 
est length  90  m.,  greatest  breadth  64m. ;  area, 
2,774  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  91,782,  of  whom 
about  52,000  were  Protestants.  The  whole 
canton  is  an  alternation  of  valleys  and  moun- 
tains, several  of  the  latter  of  which  reach  an 
elevation  of  from  10,000  to  13,000  ft.  above  the 
sea.  Among  the  Alpine  mountain  passes  are 
those  of  the  Bernardino,  Spltigen,  Julier,  and 
Bernina;  among  the  valleys  is  the  Engadine. 
The  scenery  is  surpassingly  grand.  The  cli- 
mate is  more  diversified  than  is  usual  even 
in  Switzerland.  While  on  the  mountains  win- 
ter reigns  for  more  than  half  the  year,  the  air 
of  the  vale  below  is  almost  as  mild  and  genial 
as  that  of  Italy.  In  the  loftier  districts  the 
snow  sometimes  continues  as  late  as  July,  but 
in  the  valleys  which  look  toward  the  south 
cultivation  can  commence  as  early  as  the  be- 
ginning of  March.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  upper  courses  of  the  Rhine  and  Inn,  and 
several  tributaries  of  the  upper  Ticino  and 
Adda.  The  chief  productions  are  rye,  barley, 
oats,  timber,  hemp,  flax,  potatoes,  fruit,  wine, 
cheese,  and  cattle ;  the  rearing  of  the  last  con- 
stitutes the  great  business  of  the  inhabitants. 
Iron,  lead,  and  zinc  are  produced,  but  not  ex- 
tensively mined.  There  are  no  manufactures 
of  importance,  but  a  considerable  transit  trade 
is  carried  on  through  the  canton  between  Italy 
and  Germany.  The  annual  value  of  exports  is 
about  6,500,000  francs;  of  imports,  8,000,000. 
The  canton  is  divided  into  three  leagues,  the 
(rraubund  (league  of  counts,  or  gray  league), 
Gotteshausbund  (league  of  God's  house),  and 
Zehngerichteiibund  (league  of  ten  jurisdictions), 
which  are  governed  by  their  respective  presi- 
dents and  by  a  general  diet  of  deputies  from 
each  Bund.  They  are  subdivided  into  com- 
munes, each  of  which  was  formerly  almost  in- 
dependent within  its  own  limits.  Of  late  cen- 
tralization has  made  some  progress ;  the  can- 
tonal government  has  received  greater  powers, 
and  cantonal  courts  have  taken  the  place  of 
the  former  independent  courts.  As  a  canton 
the  country  is  now  divided  into  14  districts, 
which  are  subdivided  into  circles.  The  name 
of  the  canton  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
color  of  the  dress  worn  by  a  band  of  the  people 
who  in  1424  met  in  a  forest  near  Trons  and 
bound  themselves  to  defend  each  other  against 
their  feudal  lords.  Formerly  Romansh  was 
the  language  of  the  entire  population ;  the 
first  German  settlers  came  into  the  country 
about  600  years  ago,  since  which  time  the 
German  language  has  steadily  gained  ground, 
until  by  the  census  of  1870  the  number  of  Ger- 
man families  was  found  to  exceed  the  Ro- 
mansh. Capital,  Coire. 


GRISSEII 


GRITTI 


261 


GRISSEII,  or  Orissee,  a  town  of  Java,  12  m. 
N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Surabaya,  on  the  strait  of 
Madura ;  pop.  not  stated,  though  believed  to 
be  numerous,  and  mainly  consisting  of  Java- 
nese and  Chinese.  The  principal  nouses  ex- 
tend along  the  shore  and  are  shaded  by  tama- 
rind trees,  and  many  of  the  residents  are  scat- 
tered over  a  large  distance  inland,  but  in  a 
much  less  healthy  locality.  The  finest  build- 
ings are  a  Chinese  temple  and  the  dwelling 
of  the  Dutch  resident.  The  roadstead  is  the 
safest  on  that  part  of  the  Javanese  coast,  and 
ship  building  is  actively  carried  on.  Salt  and 
saltpetre  abound  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  towns  of  Java ;  and  here  Mo- 
hammedanism was  first  firmly  established. 

GRISWOLD,  Alexander  Viets,  a  bishop  of  the 
'rotestant  Episcopal  church  in    the  United 
States,   born  in   Simsbury,    Conn.,  April  22, 
1766,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1843. 
lis  early  education  was  mainly  derived  from 
uncle,  the  Rev.  Roger  Viets,  rector  of  the 
Episcopal  church  in  Simsbury.     Mr.  Viets  du- 
ing  the  revolution  sided  with  the  royalists, 
id  removed  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1787;  but  he 
unable  to  persuade  his  nephew  to  go  with 
,     After  some  hesitation  between  law  and 
livinity,  Mr.  Griswold  was  ordained  June  3, 
L795.     He  entered  at  once  upon  a  large  field 
)f  labor,  including  East  Plymouth,  Harwinton, 
Northfield,  at  the  same  time  teaching  a 
listrict  school.     In  1804  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Bristol,  R.  L,  where  he  labored  with  much 
iccess.     On  the  formation  in  1810  of  what 
ras  called  the  Eastern  diocese,  composed  of 
Tew    Hampshire,     Vermont,    Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Dr.  Griswold  was  elected 
op.    At  first  he  declined,  not  deeming  him- 
qualified  for  the  office;  but  his  scruples 
ing  been  removed,  he  was  consecrated  by 
ishop  White,  May  29,  1811.     He  continued 
hold  the  rectorship  of  the  church  in  Bristol 
1  1830,   when  he  removed  to  Salem,  Mass. 
On  Bishop  White's  death  in  1836,  he  became 
presiding  bishop.     In  June,  1838,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Alonzo  Potter  was  elected  his  assistant,  but 
declined.     Dr.  Eastburn  of  New   York  was 
elected  in  1842,  and  his  consecration,  Dec.  29, 
was  Bishop  Griswold's  last  public  act.   He  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  meekness,  soundness 
of  judgment,  and  gentle,  courteous  demeanor. 
His    publications    were    mostly  sermons    ad- 
Iressed  to  conventions  of  the  church,  and  a 
volume  of  "  Sermons  on  the  most  important 
~  )ctrines  and  Duties  of  the  Christian  Religion  " 
3vo,  1830).— A  "Life"  of  Bishop   Griswold 
was  written  by  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Stone,  D.  D. 
GRISWOLD,  Rnfus  Wilmot,  an  American  au- 
lor,  born  in  Benson,  Rutland  co.,  Vt.,  Feb.  15, 
1815,  died  in  New  York,  Aug.  27,  1857.     A 
great  part  of  his  early  life  was  spent  in  roaming 
about  the  world.     He  had  learned  the  printing 
trade,  which  he  followed  for  some  time,  and 
afterward  studied  divinity  and  became  a  Bap- 
tist preacher.     He  soon  became  associated  in 
the  editorship  of  literary  periodicals  in  Boston, 


New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  among  which 
were  the  "New  Yorker,"  "Brother  Jonathan," 
and  "New  World."  In  1841  he  published  a 
volume  of  poems  and  one  of  sermons,  the  for- 
mer anonymously.  In  1842  and  1843  he  edited 
"  Graham's  Magazine  "  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1850  he  projected  the  "International  Maga- 
zine," published  in  New  York,  and  edited  by 
him  till  April,  1852.  The  works  by  which  he  is 
chiefly  known  are  collections  of  specimens  from 
American  authors,  accompanied  by  memoirs 
and  critical  remarks.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  "  (Philadelphia, 
1842;  17th  ed.,  1856).  It  was  followed  by  the 
"Prose  Writers  of  America"  (Philadelphia, 
1846 ;  4th  ed.,  1856),  and  by  the  "  Female  Poets 
of  America"  (Philadelphia,  1849;  5th  ed., 
1857;  new  ed.  by  R.  H.  Stoddard,  1874).  Mr. 
Griswold  also  edited  the  "  Sacred  Poets  of  Eng- 
land and  America  "  (1849),  and  the  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  " 
(4th  ed.,  1854).  His  other  principal  publica- 
tions are  "  Curiosities  of  American  Literature," 
published  as  an  appendix  to  Disraeli's  "  Curiosi- 
ties of  Literature;"  two  series  of  biographies, 
"Washington  and  the  Generals  of  the  American 
Revolution,"  in  conjunction  with  W.  G.  Simms, 
E.  D.  Ingraham,  and  others  (2  vols.,  1847),  and 
"Napoleon  and  the  Marshals  of  the  Empire," 
in  conjunction  with  H.  B.  Wallace  (2  vols., 
1847);  and  "The  Republican  Court,  or  Ameri- 
can Society  in  the  Days  of  Washington  "  (New 
York,  1854). 

GRITTL  I.  Andrea,  doge  of  Venice,  born  in 
1454,  died  Dec.  28,  1538.  During  the  war 
against  the  league  of  Cambrai  he  led  the  armies 
of  the  republic  against  the  imperialists,  whom 
he  at  first  defeated  and  drove  out  of  Padua  and 
Vicenza.  In  1512  he  regained  Brescia  and 
Bergamo  from  the  French,  but  was  shortly 
after  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Gaston 
de  Foix,  who  took  him  to  Paris.  During  his 
imprisonment  he  formed  an  alliance  between 
France  and  the  Venetian  republic,  and  on  his 
return  to  Venice  he  cooperated  with  French 
troops  in  driving  the  imperialists  out  of  Brescia 
and  overrunning  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  In 
May,  1523,  he  was  elected  doge,  and  filled  that 
office  until  his  death.  II.  Lnigi,  an  adven- 
turer in  the  service  of  the  Turks,  son  of  the 
preceding  by  a  Turkish  slave,  born  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1501,  while  his  father  was  ambas- 
sador there,  died  in  Transylvania,  Sept.  28, 
1534.  He  was  educated  at  Padua,  but  finding 
no  honorable  employment  open  to  him  in  Italy, 
he  went'to  Constantinople,  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  grand  vizier,  and  became  a  favorite 
with  Solyman  II.,  who  intrusted  him  with  di- 
plomatic missions  to  various  nations.  He  per- 
suaded his  master  to  support  the  claims  of  John 
Zapolya  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  and  took 
part  in  the  attack  on  Vienna  in  1529.  After 
the  coronation  of  Zapolya  at  Buda,  Gritti  was 
appointed  governor  general  of  Hungary,  but 
abused  his  power  by  a  bloody  persecution  of 
his  enemies.  The  murder  of  the  vicar  of  the 


262 


GROAT 


bishopric  of  Grosswardein  and  governor  of 
Transylvania  finally  aroused  the  indignation 
of  the  people  of  that  province,  who  marched 
against  him  with  an  overpowering  force,  be- 
sieged him  in  Mediasch,  and  put  him  to  death. 

GROAT  (Dan.  groot,  Ger.  gross,  great),  an  old 
English  silver  coin,  of  the  value  of  four  pence 
(originally  about  equal  to  the  present  shilling), 
first  struck  under  Edward  III.  about  1351,  and 
so  named  because  it  was  the  greatest  silver 
coin  then  in  use,  none  having  been  previously 
struck  of  value  over  a  penny.  The  grot,  groot, 
and  groscJien  are  silver  coins  or  moneys  of  ac- 
count on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

GRODNO.  I.  A  government  of  European 
Russia,  in  Lithuania,  formerly  a  part  of  Po- 
land, bordering  on  Wilna,  Minsk,  Volhynia,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Poland;  area,  14,960  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  958,852,  the  large  majority  of 
whom  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  surface  is 
generally  level,  and  a  great  portion  of  it  is 
covered  with  pine  forests  and  swamps.  The 
principal  productions  are  rye,  barley,  timber, 
hops,  hemp,  flax,  fruit,  honey,  and  cattle.  The 
most  important  minerals  are  iron,  chalk,  lime- 
stone, and  nitre.  The  forests  abound  with  wild 
boars,  wolves,  bears,  elk,  and  roebucks.  The 
manufactures  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
woollen  stuffs,  hats,  and  leather.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Niemen,  Bug,  Narew,  and  Pri- 
petz.  The  principal  towns  are  Grodno,  Novo- 
grodek,  and  Slonim.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  government,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nie- 
men, 93  m.  S.  W.  of  Wilna;  pop.  in  1867, 24,789, 
among  whom  are  many  Jews.  It  has  several 
Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  churches,  a  Lu- 
theran church,  two  synagogues,  an  academy 
of  medicine,  a  gymnasium,  a  military  school 
for  young  noblemen,  several  other  educational 
institutions,  and  manufactories  of  cloth,  silk, 
and  cotton.  After  1673  every  third  Polish 
diet  was  held  here,  and  in  1793  the  Polish  diet 
was  here  forced  to  assent  to  the  second  divi- 
sion of  Poland. 

GRONINGEN.  I.  A  N.  E.  province  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, bordering  on  the  North  sea  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Ems,  Prussia,  and  the  prov- 
inces of  Drenthe  and  Friesland ;  area,  885  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  234,903.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally level,  and  in  some  places  marshy.  The 
climate  is  humid  and  unhealthy.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  and  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers 
and  canals.  The  productions  are  corn,  potatoes, 
butter,  cheese,  coal,  flax  seed,  honey,  wool, 
seeds,  fruits,  pigs,  and  cattle,  which  form  the 
great  exports  from  the  province.  It  is  divided 
into  the  districts  of  Groningen,  Winschoten, 
and  Appingadam.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
province,  at  the  junction  of  the  Aa  and  the 
Hunse,  92  m.  N.  E.  of  Amsterdam;  pop.  in 
1870,  88,258.  The  streets  are  traversed  by 
oannls,  bordered  with  trees  and  crossed  by  18 
bridges.  The  principal  public  edifice  is  the 
province  house,  a  large  Gothic  structure  com- 
pleted in  1810.  It  has  a  university  which  was 
established  in  1614,  academies  of  design,  of 


GRONOVIUS 

architecture,  and  of  navigation,  several  learned 
associations,  manufactories  of  paper,  brushes, 
linen,  and  woollens,  and  a  considerable  trade 
in  corn,  butter,  cheese,  cattle,  and  wool.  About 
600  vessels  arrive  at  and  leave  the  port  annu- 
ally. Canals  connect  the  town  with  the  Dol- 
lart  and  the  Zuyder  Zee. — Groningen  appears 
as  a  village  in  the  9th  century,  when  the  sur- 
rounding territory  belonged  to  Friesland.  Li 
the  10th  century  it  was  annexed  to  the  Ger- 
man empire,  and  was  subsequently  governed 
by  imperial  burgraves.  Having  become  a  free 
city,  it  joined  the  Hanse  league.  Maximilian 
I.  bestowed  the  hereditary  governorship  of  the 
city  and  country  on  the  dukes  of  Saxony.  The 
people  revolted,  and  after  a  struggle  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  duke 
of  Gelderland,  who  subsequently  became  a 
vassal  of  Charles  V.  The  province  joined  the 
league  of  Utrecht  in  1579.  The  capital  was 
repeatedly  besieged  during  the  Dutch  war  of 
independence,  Maurice  of  Nassau  capturing  it 
in  1594. 

GRONOVIIIS,  the  Latinized  form  of  Gronov, 
the  name  of  a  German  family  settled  in  Hol- 
land. I.  John  Frederick,  born  in  Hamburg, 
Sept.  8,  1611,  died  in  Leyden,  Dec.  28,  1671. 
He  was  educated  at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  and 
studied  law  at  Altorf.  In  1634  he  became  a 
private  tutor  in  Amsterdam,  but  three  years 
later  he  gave  up  all  other  pursuits  for  the  study 
of  antiquities  and  the  classics.  He  spent  much 
time  in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  studying 
old  manuscripts  and  rare  books.  In  1643  he 
was  appointed  rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  De- 
venter,  and  in  1658  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
Leyden.  He  published  annotated  editions  of 
Livy,  Tacitus,  Seneca,  Sallust,  Pliny,  and  other 
classical  writers,  and  numerous  essays  on  phi- 
lology and  antiquities.  II.  Jacobus,  his  eldest 
son,  born  in  Deventer,  Oct.  20,  1645,  died  in 
Leyden,  Oct.  21, 1716.  In  1668  he  visited  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  to  study  antiquities,  and 
in  1672  went  to  Madrid  as  a  member  of  the 
embassy  from  the  states  general.  He  was  for 
two  years  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Pisa,  and  from  1679  in  Leyden.  He 
published  editions  of  many  of  the  classical 
writers,  but  is  best  known  by  his  Thesaurm 
Antiquitatum  Grcecarum  (13  vols.  fol.,  Ley- 
den, 1697-1702).  III.  Abraham,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Leyden  in  1694,  died  there, 
Aug.  17,  1775.  He  practised  medicine  success- 
fully in  England  and  in  Holland,  but  finally  be- 
came librarian  to  the  university  of  Leyden. 
He  published  editions  of  Justin,  Pomponius 
Mela,  and  Tacitus,  and  several  works  exhibit- 
ing much  classical  erudition.  IV.  John  Frede- 
rick, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Leyden, 
March  10,  1690,  died  there  in  1760.  He  stud- 
ied jurisprudence  and  was  a  magistrate  of  Ley- 
den, but  devoted  himself  to  botany,  and  was 
intimate  with  Linnaeus.  Among  his  works  are 
Flora  Virginica  (1743),  and  Flora  Orientals 
(1755).  V.  Laurentius  Theodoras,  a  naturalist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Leyden  in  1730, 


GROOT 


„„, 

: 


died  there  in  1778.  He  published  BibliotJieca 
Regni  Animalis  (4to,  1740),  Museum  Ichthyo- 
logicum  (2  vols.  fol.,  l754-'6),  and  Zoophyla- 

;'  im  Gronomanum  (fol.,  1763-'81). 
GROQT,  Gerhard,  or  Gerard  the  Great,  founder 
the  congregation  of  "Brethren  and  Clerks 
of  the  Common  Life,"  born  in  Deventer,  Hol- 
land, in  1340,  died  Aug.  20,  1384.  He  studied 
in  Paris,  graduated  master  of  arts  at  the  age  of 
18,  and  taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  Co- 
logne, where  his  eloquence  and  learning  gained 
him  the  surname  of  Magnus.  Although  not  in 
priestly  orders,  he  held  several  rich  benefices, 
besides  a  considerable  patrimony,  and  lived  in 
great  luxury  until  an  interview  with  the  prior 
of  a  Carthusian  monastery  at  Geldern  induced 
him  to  enter  the  religious  state.  He  renounced 
his  benefices,  and  after  three  years  was  or- 
dained deacon,  refusing  higher  advancement. 
He  now  passed  through  the  principal  cities  of 
the  diocese  of  Utrecht,  preaching  with  extra- 
ordinary effect  to  immense  audiences,  and 
rking  reforms  no  less  among  the  clergy  than 
ng  the  laity.  He  assailed  scholastic  theol- 
,  taught  that  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
and  of  the  writings  of  the  fathers  should  be  one 
of  the  chief  occupations  of  a  Christian,  and 
translated  the  Psalms  and  the  church  office  into 
Dutch.  Having  collected  some  of  the  best 
manuscript  copies  of  the  Bible  and  the  fathers, 
he  established  in  his  own  house  at  Deventer  a 
society  whose  principal  employment  was  the 
transcribing  of  these  books.  He  gave  them  a 
rule  of  life,  prescribed  community  of  goods, 
and  placed  over  them  Florent  Radewyn,  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Prague,  a  rich  man 
who  had  been  converted  by  Gerhard's  preach- 
ing. The  "Brethren  and  Clerks  of  the  Com- 
mon Life,"  as  the  associates  were  called,  be- 
came immensely  popular.  In  a  short  time  they 
counted  100  communities,  among  which  there 
were  some  of  women.  They  encountered  great 
opposition  from  the  mendicant  orders,  who 
sought  to  identify  them  with  the  Beguins,  and 
Iso  from  the  "Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit;" 
it  Gerhard  defended  himself  with  great  skill, 
d  obtained  the  formal  sanction  of  Gregory 
'.  in  1376.  During  a  visit  to  Ruysbroek  he 
ved  to  give  to  his  order  the  rule  of  the 
ons  regular,  and  shortly  afterward  on  his 
deathbed  recommended  this  change  to  Ra- 
dewyn.  The  first  monastery  of  canons  regular 
was  established  in  1386  at  Windesheim  near 
Zwolle,  and  the  order,  thenceforward  bearing 
the  name  of  Windesheim,  numbered  in  1460 
upward  of  150  monasteries.  The  corrected 
text  of  the  Bible  published  at  Windesheim, 
from  collated  manuscripts  of  the  version  of  St. 
Jerome,  was  approved  by  the  popes  and  used 
as  a  chief  authority  in  the  edition  of  Sixtus  V. 
The  school  of  Deventer  belonging  to  this  order 
produced  Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  reputed  author 
of  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ." 

GROS,  Antoine  Jean,  baron,  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris,  March  16,  1771,  died  about  June 
25,  1835.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of 


GROSBEAK 


263 


David.  "  Bonaparte  on  the  Bridge  of  Arcole," 
painted  in  1801,  first  brought  him  into  notice ; 
but  the  "Plague  at  Jaffa,"  with  Napoleon  vis- 
iting the  sick,  exhibited  in  1804,  excited  an  ex- 
traordinary enthusiasm.  The  artist  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  living  painters,  and  his  picture 
was  crowned  with  wreaths  of  palm.  Gros 
next  painted  in  rapid  succession,  and  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  immense  pictures  of  the  "Battle 
of  Aboukir,"  the  "Battle  of  the  Pyramids," 
"  Napoleon  '  visiting  the  Field  of  Eylau  after 
the  Battle,"  the  "Battle  of  Wagram,"  and 
other  subjects  suggested  by  events  of  the 
first  empire.  In  France  his  chief  work  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  cupola  of  Ste.  Genevieve  at 
Paris,  begun  in  1811,  exhibiting  the  saint  pro- 
tecting the  throne  of  France,  represented  by 
Clovis,  Charlemagne,  St.  Louis,  and  Louis 
XVIII.  The  picture  covers  an  immense  space, 
and  is  correct  in  design,  but  defective  in  color 
and  expression.  The  artist  received  for  it 
150,000  francs,  and  the  title  of  baron.  To- 
ward the  close  of  his  life  his  style  deteriorated 
so  greatly  that  his  pictures  were  very  severely 
criticised.  He  made  a  last  attempt  to  compete 
with  the  new  romantic  school  in  his  "  Hercules 
and  Diomecles;"  failing  in  which,  he  closed  his 
studio,  exclaiming  "that  he  knew  no  misfor- 
tune greater  than  to  survive  oneself."  Soon 
after  his  body  was  found  in  the  Seine  near 
Meudon.  It  was  supposed  that  he  drowned 
himself  in  a  fit  of  temporary  insanity. 

GROS,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis,  baron,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Ivry-sur-Seine,  Feb.  8, 
1793.  He  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1823,  was  made  a  baron  in  1829,  and  became 
secretary  of  legation  in  Mexico,  and  in  1834 
charge  d'affaires  at  Bogota.  Afterward  em- 
ployed in  various  missions  in  South  America, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  tact  in  the  set- 
tlement of  the  complications  with  the  La  Plata 
states.  In  1849  he  went  to  London  to  recon- 
cile the  English  cabinet  with  the  French  ex- 
pedition to  Rome.  The  delicate  question  in 
respect  to  the  Franco-Spanish  boundary,  which 
had  been  in  abeyance  for  several  centuries,  was 
satisfactorily  settled  by  him,  after  protracted 
negotiations  at  the  convention  of  Bayonne, 
Dec.  2,  1856.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador extraordinary  to  China,  where  he 
cooperated  with  Lord  Elgin  during  the  capture 
of  Canton  and  in  the  government  of  that  city. 
He  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  China  at  Tien- 
tsin in  June,  1858,  and  on  Nov.  6  a  treaty  of 
commerce  and  amity  with  Japan.  He  partici- 
pated in  the  final  operations  of  the  French  and 
English  expedition  on  the  Pei-ho  against  China 
in  August,  1860,  and  in  the  conclusion  of  an- 
other treaty  of  peace  (Oct.  25).  In  November, 
1862,  he  became  ambassador  in  London,  but 
retired  from  the  service  in  October,  1863. 

GROSBEAK,  the  name  of  many  conirostral 
birds  of  the  finch  family,  and  subfamily  coc- 
cothraustincB  and  spizince,  or  hawfinches,  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  One  of  the  hand- 
somest of  the  American  species  is  the  pine  gros- 


264 


GROSBEAK 


beak  (pinicola  Canademis,  Cab.),  classed  by 
Gray  among  the  bullfinches.  In  this  genus  the 
bill  is  short,  stout,  and  much  curved,  and  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible  nearly  concealed 
by  bristly  feathers;  the  wings  moderate,  the 
second  and  third  quills  the  longest;  the  tail 
shorter  than  the  wings,  broad  and  nearly  even  ; 
tarsi  as  long  as  the  middle  toe,  strongly  scutel- 
lated,  and  the  claws  long  and  sharp.  The 
length  of  the  pine  grosbeak  is  8£  in.,  and  the 
extent  of  wings  14;  the  bill  and  legs  are 
black;  the  general  color  of  the  plumage  is 
bright  carmine,  with  grayish  brown  centres  to 
the  feathers  of  the  back;  the  loral  region, 
lower  jaw,  sides,  and  lower  parts,  light  gray  ; 
wings  blackish  brown,  with  two  white  bands, 
the  outer  edge  of  the  quills  also  white.  The  fe- 
male is  ash-gray  and  brownish  above,  with  yel- 
low tinges  below,  and  on  the  head,  rump,  and 
upper  tail  coverts;  the  young  resemble  the 
female,  but  are  browner.  This  bird  inhabits 
arctic  America,  coming  as  far  south  as  Penn- 
sylvania in  severe  winters. ,  It  is  a  charming 
songster,  singing  toward  sunset,  and  in  cap- 
tivity during  the  night;  it  is  easily  kept  in 
cages,  and  will  eat  most  kinds  of  seeds,  berries, 
and  fruits,  becoming  very  familiar ;  in  its  wild 
state  it  feeds  on  the  buds  and  seeds  of  various 
trees,  especially  of  the  firs.  The  flight  is  un- 
dulating and  direct,  and  they  alight  on  the  top- 
most branches,  from  which  they  gradually  de- 
scend ;  they  are  not  shy,  and  are  easily  ap- 
proached, especially  while  bathing.  The  nest 
is  made  of  sticks,  at  a  small  distance  from  the 
ground,  and  lined  with  feathers;  the  eggs  are 
generally  four,  and  white.  Other  species  are 
found  in  the  pine  forests  of  Eurdpe  and  Asia ; 


Evening  Grosbeak  (Hesperiphona  vespertina). 
1.  Male.     2.  Female. 

the  P.  enucleator  of  Europe  is  smaller  with  a 
less  stout  bill,  narrower  tail,  and  less  white  on 
the  wings.— The  evening  grosbeak  (hesperi- 
phona  tespertina,  Bonap.)  is  characterized  by 
an  enormous  vaulted  bill,  of  a  greenish  yellow 
color,  much  curved  at  the  tip ;  the  wings  are 


GROSEILLIERS 

long  and  pointed ;  the  tail  short,  and  its  feath- 
ers narrow  ;  the  length  is  8  in.  The  anterior 
half  of  the  body  is  yellowish  olive;  outer 
scapulars,  band  over  eye,  axillaries,  and  mid- 
dle under  wing  coverts,  yellow ;  crown,  tibiae, 
wings,  upper  tail  coverts,  and  tail,  black.  It  is 
found  in  the  northwest  as  far  east  as  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  about 
the  Columbia  river ;  from  its  abundance  in  the 
northern  maple  groves,  it  is  called  by  the  In- 
dians sugar  bird.  The  habits  are  those  of  the 
preceding  species ;  they  are  noisy  all  day,  and 
not  in  the  evening  only,  as  their  name  would 
indicate ;  their  notes  are  harsh  and  screaming. 
The  females  have  the  head  and  back  brownish, 
with  yellowish  ash  rump,  upper  tail  coverts  spot- 
ted with  white,  and  less  white  on  the  wings. — 
The  rose-breasted  grosbeak  (guiraca  Ludovi- 
ciana,  Swains.)  has  a  very  thick,  slightly  arched 
bill,  pointed  wings  longer  than  the  even  tail, 
and  the  tarsi  shorter  than  the  middle  toe.  The 
length  is  8£  in. ;  the  general  color  above  is 
glossy  black,  with  the  breast,  axillaries,  and 
under  wing  coverts  carmine  ;  the  rest  of  lower 
parts,  rump,  upper  tail  coverts,  middle  wing 
coverts,  spots  on  the  wings,  base  of  primaries 
and  secondaries,  and  patch  on  the  end  of  the 
inner  webs  of  the  outer  three  tail  feathers,  pure 
white.  The  female  is  brownish  above,  with  yel- 
lowish marks  and  tinges.  Its  song  is  soft,  clear, 
and  sweet,  and  in  captivity  prolonged  into  the 
night.  It  is  found  in  the  eastern  states,  as  far 
west  as  Missouri,  and  south  to  Guatemala;  it 
feeds  on  young  and  tender  buds  and  seeds. 
Other  species  are  the  black-headed  grosbeak 
(G.  melanocephala,  Swains.),  found  on  the  high 
central  plains  from  Yellowstone  river  to  the 
Pacific  and  on  the  table  lands  of  Mexico,  and 
the  blue  grosbeak  (G,  ccerulea,  Linn.),  found  in 
the  southern  states  and  across  the  continent. — 
For  the  cardinal  grosbeak,  see  CARDINAL  BIED. 

GROSE,  Francis,  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Greenford,  Middlesex,  in  1731,  died  in  Dublin, 
May  6,  1791.  His  first  work,  "  Views  of  An- 
tiquities in  England  and  Wales,"  came  out  in 
numbers,  and  was  completed  in  1787.  In  1789 
he  went  to  Scotland  to  illustrate  the  antiquities 
of  that  kingdom.  The  first  number  of  his 
work  on  this  subject  appeared  in  1790.  While 
in  Scotland  he  became  acquainted  with  Burns, 
who  celebrated  his  convivial  qualities  in  two 
ballads.  Grose  had  few  qualifications  for  an 
antiquary,  but  produced  a  number  of  works 
besides  those  above  mentioned,  the  chief  of 
which  are :  "  Guide  to  Health,  Beauty,  Riches, 
and  Honor"  (London,  1783);  "Classical  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Vulgar  Tongue  "  (1785) ;  "  Trea- 
tise on  Ancient  Armor  and  Weapons"  (4to, 
1785,  to  which  he  added  a  supplement  in  1789) ; 
"Provincial  Glossary"  (1787);  "Military  An- 
tiquities "  (2  vols.  4to,  !786-'8) ;  "  Rules  fof 
Drawing  Caricatures  "  (1788). 

GROSEILLIERS,  Medard  Chonart  de,  a  French 
explorer  of  the  17th  century.  He  was  an  ear- 
ly emigrant  to  Canada,  where  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Abraham  Martin,  king's  pilot. 


GROSS 


GROSSETESTE 


-265 


About  1660  he  penetrated  westward  to  the 
territory  of  the  Sioux.  He  made  his  way  from 
Lake  Assiniboine  to  James  bay,  and,  failing  to 
induce  Quebec  merchants  to  occupy  Hudson 
bay,  went  to  England,  and  in  1663  led  thither 
an  English  vessel  commanded  by  Gillam,  a 
Few  Englander.  He  subsequently  returned  to 
the  French  service  and  aided  to  break  up  the 
English  posts  in  the  bay,  which  he  explored, 
naming  the  rivers  that  flow  into  it. 

GROSS)  Samuel  D.5  an  American  surgeon,  born 
in  Northampton  co.,  Pa.,  July  8, 1805.  He  re- 
ceived his  medical  degree  in  1828,  and  began 
practice  in  Philadelphia,  devoting  his  leisure 
to  study  and  to  the  translation  of  French  and 
German  medical  works,  as  Bollard's  ''General 
Anatomy,"  Hatin's  "Manual  of  Obstetrics," 
Hildenbrand  on  "Typhus  Fever,"  and  Taver- 
nier's  "  Operative  Surgery."  His  first  original 
work  was  a  treatise  on  the  "  Diseases  and  In- 
juries of  the  Bones  and  Joints"  (1830).  In 
this  occurs  the  first  account  of  the  use  of  ad- 
hesive plaster  as  a  means  of  extension  in  the 
treatment  of  fractures.  In  1833  he  became 
demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  col- 
lege of  Ohio,  and  removed  to  Cincinnati ;  and  in 
1835  he  became  professor  of  pathological  anat- 
omy in  the  medical  department  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati college,  where  he  delivered  the  first 
systematic  course  of  lectures  on  morbid  anato- 
my that  had  ever  been  given  in  this  country, 
and  composed  the  first  systematic  treatise  on 
the  subject  ever  published  in  the  United  States, 
"Elements  of  Pathological  Anatomy  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Boston,  1839;  3d  ed.,  1857).  In  1840 
Dr.  Gross  removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  having 
been  elected  professor  of  surgery  in  the  uni- 
versity of  that  city.  In  1850  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  surgery  in  the  university  of 
New  York,  but  at  the  end  of  the  session  re- 
turned to  Kentucky,  where  he  was  soon  re- 
stored to  his  chair.  In  1856  he  was  called  to 
Jefferson  medical  college  in  Philadelphia.  Dr. 
Gross  was  chosen  president  of  the  American 
medical  association  in  1867",  and  in  1870  pre- 
sided over  the  teachers'  convention  at  "Wash- 
ington for  the  improvement  of  medical  educa- 
tion. He  is  a  member  of  many  American  and 
European  societies,  and  has  received  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  Jefferson  college  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  that  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford  uni- 
versity (1872).  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  is  the  author  of  a  monograph 
on  "  Wounds  of  the  Intestines  "  (1843) ;  "  For- 
eign Bodies  in  the  Air  Passages"  (1850); 
"Diseases,  Injuries,  and  Malformations  of  the 
Urinary  Organs "  (1851)  ;  "  Report  on  the 
Causes  which  retard  'the  Progress  of  American 
Medical  Literature  "  (1856) ;  "  System  of  Sur- 
gery, Pathological,  Diagnostic,  Therapeutic,  and 
Operative"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1859;  3d  ed.,  revised, 
1864 ;  translated  into  French,  Dutch,  and  Rus- 
sian) ;  "  Lives  of  Eminent  American  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,"  and  "  Manual  of  Military  Sur- 
gery" (1861).  In  conjunction  with  Dr.  T.  G. 
Richardson,  he  founded  and  for  five  years  ed- 


ited the  "  North  American  Medico-Chirurgical 
Review." 

GROSSE,  Jnlins  Waldemar,  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Erfurt,  April  25,  1828.  He  studied  at 
Magdeburg  and  Halle,  and  devoted  himself  to 
art  at  Munich,  but  became  a  journalist,  and  in 
1870  secretary  of  the  Schiller  institution  at 
Weimar.  He  has  published  many  novels,  dra- 
mas, and  poems.  Among  the  novels  are  Ma- 
ria Mancini  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1869;  2d  ed., 
1871),  Ein  Revolutions  (1869;  2d  ed.,  1871), 
and  Der  neue  AMlard  (Leipsic,  1871).  His  Ge- 
sammelte  dramatische  Werke  appeared  in  Leip- 
sic in  1870,  in  7  vols.,  and  a  complete  edition 
of  his  poems,  including  the  exquisite  piece 
Das  Madchen  von  Capri,  in  Berlin  in  1871  et 
seq.  He  published  a  volume  of  patriotic  poems, 
Wider  Frankreich,  in  1870. 

GROSSE.MIAIN,  or  Main,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on 
the  Roder,  18  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Dresden ;  pop.  in 
1871, 10,438.  It  has  pleasant  gardens,  several 
churches,  many  schools,  and  extensive  manu- 
factories of  cloth,  cotton,  prints,  &c.  The 
town  was  strongly  fortified  in  the  middle  ages, 
when  it  belonged  to  Bohemia.  A  great  fire 
broke  out  July  6,  1540,  in  a  nunnery,  said  to 
have  been  the  work  of  the  inmates,  who  were 
incensed  by  the  proposed  abolition  of  the  in- 
stitution ;  and  the  conflagration  consumed  the 
greater  part  of  the  town,  and  also  the  castle, 
which  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  is  now  used 
as  a  manufactory.  After  great  vicissitudes 
during  the  thirty  years'  war,  and  in  the  war 
with  Sweden,  it  was  desolated  by  another  fire, 
July  8,  1744,  which  spared  only  about  40 
houses.  The  town  has  gradually  recovered 
from  its  misfortunes,  and  its  population  and  in- 
dustry are  steadily  increasing. 

GROSSETESTE,  Greathead,  or  Grouthcad  (Lat. 
CAPITO),  Rotocrt,  a  British  theologian,  born  at 
Stradbrooke,  Suffolk,  about  1175,  died  at  Buck- 
den,  Oct.  9, 1253.  He  was  educated  first  at  Ox- 
ford and  Paris,  became  a  professor  in  the  latter 
university,  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Ches- 
ter in  1210,  and  was  successively  archdeacon 
of  "Wilts,  Northampton,  and  Leicester,  preben- 
dary of  Clifton,  lecturer  on  divinity  in  the  first 
Franciscan  school  at  Oxford,  and  chancellor 
of  the  university  (rector  scholarum).  In  1232 
he  resigned  all  his  preferments  except  the  pre- 
bend of  Clifton,  and  wrote  a  work  in  defence 
of  the  Jews.  In  1235  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  opened  in  his  residence 
a  school  for  young  noblemen,  for  whom  he 
composed  the  book  entitled  De  Morilm  Pueri 
ad  Mensam.  He  removed  all  scandalous  and 
inefficient  pastors,  and  refused  institution  to 
pluralists,  to  clergymen  employed  in  courts  of 
judicature  or  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue, 
and  to  all  who  were  unable  to  reside  on  their 
benefices.  Besides  the  harassing  and  expensive 
lawsuits  arising  from  his  reforms,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  go  to  Rome  in  1245  to  plead  his  own 
cause  against  the  complaints  of  his  chapter, 
sustained  by  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. He  succeeded  there,  and  after  his  re- 


266 


GROSSETO 


GROS  VENIRES 


turn  to  England  his  chapter  submitted,  and  he 
visited  the  convents  and  monasteries,  deposing 
negligent  or  inefficient  superiors,  and  enforcing 
the  observance  of  monastic  rules.  He  opposed 
the  royal  extravagance  and  favoritism,  contend- 
ed in  parliament  against  the  exactions  of  the 
king,  and  resisted  the  intrusion  of  foreigners 
into  English  livings.  On  a  second  visit  to  Ly- 
ons in  1250,  he  presented  to  Innocent  IV.  a 
memorial  on  the  evils  of  the  church,  which  the 
pope  ordered  to  be  read  in  the  consistory  of 
cardinals.  Returning  to  England,  Robert  was 
dissuaded  by  his  friend  Adam  de  Marisco  from 
resigning  his  bishopric,  and  soon  afterward  he 
refused  to  induct  into  a  rich  benefice  an  Italian 
ignorant  of  English,  while  he  excommunica- 
ted an  unworthy  nominee  of  the  king's,  and 
placed  an  interdiction  on  the  church  to  which 
he  had  been  nominated.  In  the  parliament  of 
London,  Oct.  13,  1252,  the  king  having  pre- 
sented a  demand  for  a  new  subsidy,  backed  by 
a  papal  bull,  Grosseteste  united  the  entire  body 
of  the  clergy  in  opposition  to  it.  He  also  ad- 
dressed an  appeal  to  the  lords  and  commonalty 
to  suppress  by  statute  the  appointment  of  for- 
eigners to  preferment  within  the  kingdom. 
One  of  his  last  acts  was  to  refuse  carrying  out 
a  provision  sent  him  by  the  nuncio,  promoting 
to  a  prebend  in  the  church  of  Lincoln  Frede- 
rick of  Louvain,  the  nephew  of  Innocent  IV. 
The  story,  says  Lingard,  that  Grosseteste  died 
under  an  ecclesiastical  sentence  rests  on  ques- 
tionable authority.  The  catalogue  of  Iris  works 
contains  treatises  on  almost  every  branch  of  sci- 
ence ;  it  fills  23  closely  printed  quarto  pages  in 
Pegge's  "Life  of  Grosseteste"  (4to,  London, 
1793).  No  complete  collection  of  his  works 
exists.  Among  the  principal  are:  JRuperti 
Lincolniensu  Opuscula  dignissima  (fol., Venice, 
1514) ;  Compendium  SphcerfB  Mundi  (Augsburg, 
1483;  fol.,  Venice,  1518;  and  several  other 
editions ;  translated  into  English) ;  "  Testament 
of  the  XII.  Patriarchs"  (12mo,  London,  1577, 
with  woodcuts ;  several  times  reprinted) ;  "  A 
Treatyse  of  Husbandry,"  or  "  The  Buke  of  Hus- 
bandry," according  to  Wynkin  de  Worde's  edi- 
tion; De  Cessations  Legalium  (4to,  London, 
1652 ;  2d  ed.,  8vo,  1658)  ;  "  Castell  of  Love," 
edited  by  Weymouth  (1864);  and  "Letters 
and  Treatises,"  edited  by  H.  R.  Luard  (1862). 
A  life  in  Latin  verse  by  Ricardus  Barderiensis 
is  to  be  found  in  Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra,  vol. 
ii.  See  also  his  "Life  and  Times."  bv  G.  G. 


Perry  (London,  1871). 
GROSSKTO. 


GROSSETO.  I.  A  province  of  central  Italy, 
Tuscany,  bounded  W.  by  the  Mediterranean ; 
area,  1,712  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1872, 107,457.  The 
most  important  river  is  the  Ombrone.  It  is 
the  least  productive  province  of  Tuscany,  the 
soil  consisting  partly  of  sterile  mountain,  part- 
ly of  marshes,  and  only  a  small  portion  of  it 
being  capable  of  cultivation.  Both  agriculture 
and  manufactures  are  unimportant.  Among 
the  chief  products  are  sugar,  lumber,  coal,  and 
potash.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  province, 
in  the  plain  of  the  Orabrone,  70  m.  S.  by  W. 


of  Florence  ;  pop.  about  6,500.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  large  cathedral  and  an 
artesian  well.  During  summer  most  of  the  in- 
habitants leave  the  town  to  escape  the  exhala- 
tions of  the  Maremma. 

GROSS-GLOGAU.     See  GLOGATJ. 

GROSSWARDEIN  (Hungarian,  Nagy  -  Vdrad), 
a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bihar,  on 
the  Swift  Koros,  in  a  beautiful  but  somewhat 
marshy  plain  on  a  branch  of  the  Pesth  and 
Debreczin  railway,  134  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Pesth ; 
pop.  in  1870,  28,698.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  a  Greek  Catholic  bishop,  has 
16  Catholic,  two  Greek,  and  three  Protestant 
churches,  several  convents,  a  Greek  Catholic 
diocesan  seminary,  an  academy  of  law,  a  gym- 
nasium, two  normal  schools,  several  orphan 
houses  and  other  charitable  institutions,  and 
several  distilleries.  The  peace  between  John 
Zapolya  and  Ferdinand  I.  was  concluded  here 
in  1538.  In  the  neighborhood  is  the  watering 
place  Haj6. 

GROS  VENIRES  (Fr.,  Big  Bellies),  a  name 
applied  to  two  Indian  tribes  of  different  origin : 
1,  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Missouri,  or  Minne- 
taries  (see  MINNETARIES)  ;  2,  the  Gros  Ventres 
of  the  prairies.  The  latter  tribe,  dwelling  be- 
tween the  Milk  and  Missouri  rivers,  are  a  part 
of  the  Arrapahoes.  They  say  that  they  came 
from  the  north  and  joined  the  Arrapahoes  only 
temporarily;  but  the  language  is  said  to  be 
the  same,  showing  a  common  origin.  Their 
separation  from  the  Arrapahoes  took  place 
early  in  this  century  according  to  some,  or  at 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century  according  to 
others.  Wandering  eastward,  they  met  and 
fought  the  Sioux  and  then  struck  north.  They 
next  joined  the  Crows,  but  were  plundered 
by  that  tribe,  who  killed  many,  carrying  off 
their  women  and  arms.  Then  they  wandered 
for  several  years,  plundering  trading  posts  at 
the  north,  but  were  driven  off  by  the  Koote- 
nais,  and  finally,  about  1824,  settled  near  Milk 
river,  where  the  Blackfeet  in  a  manner  adopt- 
ed them,  giving  them  horses.  The  traders 
supplied  guns  and  ammunition.  They  soon 
became  wealthy,  as  well  as  .very  independent 
and  hostile  to  the  whites.  About  1830  they 
were  estimated  at  430  lodges,  containing  nearly 
3,000  souls.  Attempts  were  made  by  Father 
De  Smet  and  other  Jesuits  to  Christianize  them 
as  early  as  1846,  but  with  little  success.  Trea- 
ties were  made  with  them  at  Fort  Laramie  in 
September,  1851,  at  the  Judith  in  1853  and 
in  October,  1855,  and  at  Fort  Benton  in  No- 
vember, 1865,  some  of  which  were  never  rati- 
fied. The  Gros  Ventres  have  remained  peaceful 
since  the  treaties.  In  1854  they  became  hostile 
to  the  Blackfeet,  who  had  murdered  and  robbed 
a  Gros  Ventre.  In  1862,  with  the  Crows,  they 
made  war  on  the  Piegans;  a  Blackfoot  tribe ;  but 
peace  was  made  between  them  by  Agent  Upton 
at  Fort  Benton  in  February,  1864.  They  soon 
after  lost  severely  by  measles,  and  in  1867,  hav- 
ing again  gone  to  war  with  the  Piegans,  were 
defeated  near  Cypress  mountains  with  a  loss  of 


GROTE 

300  men,  nearly  all  their  horses  and  many  of 
their  women  and  children  being  taken.  The 
next  year  they  ceded  their  lands  for  an  annu- 
ity of  $35,000  in  goods,  by  a  treaty  which  was 
not  immediately  ratified,  although  they  were 
placed  on  a  reservation  on  Milk  river  with  a 
part  of  the  Crows.  In  1870  their  numbers  were 
reduced  to  1,300  by  smallpox,  and  they  were 
plundered  by  the  Sioux,  who  killed  many  of 
their  people.  They  were  then  joined  by  their 
indred  the  Arrapahoes,  and  by  the  northern 

eyennes,  who  wished  to  reside  permanently 
ith  them.  The  greatest  chief  of  later  days 
Farmasee  or  Sitting  Squaw,  a  tall,  athletic 
,  the  bravest  of  his  tribe  and  a  great  friend 

the  whites.  They  are  divided  into  bands, 
under  a  hereditary  chief  or  a  band  leader 

osen  for  his  valor.  They  have  comfortable 
lodges  built  by  their  women,  large  enough  to 
mmodate  100  persons.  One  part  is  assigned 

their  horses,  dogs,  cattle,  and  chickens, 
hile  another  is  for  sleeping  apartments.  The 
ros  Ventres  now  occupy  a  portion  of  the 
Blackfoot  reservation  of  17,000,000  acres  in 
Montana,  .and  receive  from  government  an- 
nually $35,000  in  such  goods  as  the  president 

,y  from  time  to  time  determine  are  neces- 
pursuant  to  the  treaty  of  July  13,  1868. 

GROTE,  George,  an  English  historian,  born  at 

ay  Hill,  Beckenham,  Kent,  Nov.  17,  1794, 

~  in  London,  June  18,  1871.  He  was  edu- 
ated  at  Charterhouse  school,  and  in  1809  be- 
came a  clerk  in  his  father's  bank.  His  leisure 
hours  were  given  to  literature  and  political 
studies.  He  was  a  liberal  in  politics,  incli- 
ning to  radicalism,  and  his  first  literary  produc- 
tion was  a  reply  to  an  article  by  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review  "  on 
parliamentary  reform.  It  was  published  anony- 
mously in  pamphlet  form  in  1821,  and  he  wrote 
also  a  small  work  on  "  The  Essentials  of  Parlia- 
mentary Reform."  He  studied  political  econ- 
omy in  the  school  of  Mr.  James  Mill,  and  was 
influenced  in  philosophy  by  the  theories  of 
Comte.  He  began  to  collect  materials  for  his 
history  of  Greece  in  1823,  but  was  drawn 
away  from  this  project  by  the  reform  move- 
ment, and  was  elected  to  parliament  in  1832 
from  the  city  of  London.  The  principal  fea- 
ture of  his  political  career  was  an  attempt  to 
introduce  the  ballot  into  English  elections. 
His  motion  was  defeated  in  1833  by  a  vote  of 
211  to  106.  He  renewed  the  motion  unsuccess- 
fully the  next  session,  and  continued  to  advo- 
cate the  measure  until  the  close  of  his  parlia- 
mentary service  in  1841,  when  he  resigned  in 
order  to  give  his  whole  attention  to  his  history. 
While  in  retirement  he  contributed  to  the 
"Westminster  Review  "  an  article  on  Mitford's 
"History  of  Greece,"  and  one  to  the  " London 
and  Westminster  Review"  onNiebuhr's  "He- 
roic Legends  of  Greece."  The  first  two  vol- 
umes of  his  work  were  printed  in  1846,  and 
were  received  with  general  applause  from  all 
parties.  The  12th  volume  was  published  in 
1856,  bringing  down  the  subject  to  the  end  of 


GROTIUS 


267 


the  generation  contemporary  with  Alexander, 
the  limit  which  the  author  had  assigned  for  it. 
The  work  at  once  rose  to  a  high  position  in 
literature,  and  several  editions  have  been  called 
for.  It  has  been  translated  into  German  and 
French.  Mr.  Grote  throws  upon  Greek  history 
new  light,  and  unfolds  with  clearness  the  pro- 
gress of  Hellenic  thought.  His  geographical 
descriptions  are  also  exact.  He  describes  bat- 
tles with  minute  accuracy,  and  is  equally  suc- 
cessful in  painting  Socrates  disputing  in  the 
Agora,  in  defending  the  sophists,  or  in  unfolding 
the  bold  and  generous  nature  of  Demosthenes. 
His  philosophical  speculations  are  sometimes 
abstruse  and  above  the  popular  understanding ; 
but  his  style  is  strong  and  bold.  In  1865  he 
published  "Plato  and  the  other  Companions 
of  Socrates."  This  was  to  be  followed  by 
"Aristotle,"  which  he  never  completed.  In 
1868  he  succeeded  Lord  Brougham  as  president 
of  the  council  of  the  university  of  London.  His 
minor  works,  "with  critical  remarks  on  his 
intellectual  character,  writings,  and  speeches," 
by  Alexander  Bain,  were  published  in  1873 ; 
and  in  the  same  year  a  sketch  of  his  personal 
life  was  published  by  his  widow,  the  authoress 
of  a  "  Memoir  of  Ary  Scheffer  "  (1860),  and  of 
"  Collected  Papers  in  Prose  and  Verse  "  (1862). 

GROTEFEND,  Georg  Friedrich,  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  archaeologist,  born  in  Mtinden, 
June  9,  1775,  died  in  Hanover,  Dec.  15,  1853. 
He  studied  in  Gottingen,  officiated  for  some 
time  as  -rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Frank- 
fort, founded  in  1817  the  Gelefirtenverein  fur 
deutsehe  Sprache,  and  was  director  of  the  lyce- 
um  of  Hanover  from  1821  to  1849.  He  was  a 
contributor  to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  cyclopedia, 
wrote  on  German  philology  and  poetry,  and 
extensively  on  the  ancient  languages  and  the 
geography  of  Italy,  prepared  several  Latin 
grammars  for  the  use  of  schools,  and  was  the 
first  to  question  the  genuineness  of  Wag enf eld's 
alleged  discovery  of  Sanchoniathon's  original 
history  of  the  Phoenicians.  He  gained  reputa- 
tion by  deciphering  the  Pehlevic  inscriptions 
of  the  Sassanides  at  Naksh-i-Rustam,  near  an- 
cient Persepolis.  His  principal  works  on  the 
subject  are :  Beitrdge  zur  Erlduterung  der  per- 
sepolitanischen  KeilscJirift  (Hanover,  1837); 
Neue  Beitrdge  zur  JErlauterung  der  ^abylo- 
nischen  KeilscJiri/t  (1840) ;  and  Anlage  und 
Zerstorung  der  Oebdude  zu  Nimrud  (Gottin- 
gen, 1851). 

GROTIUS  (DE  GEOOT),  Hugo,  a  Dutch  jurist, 
born  in  Delft,  April  10,  1583,  died  in  Rostock, 
Aug.  28,  1645.  In  his  15th  year  he  published 
an  edition  of  Marcianus  Capella,  from  the  an- 
notations of  which  it  is  evident  the  young  edi- 
tor must  have  been  critically  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  Cicero,  Aristotle,  Pliny,  Euclid, 
Strabo,  Ptolemy,  and  many  other  even  more 
recondite  authors.  After  three  years  at  the 
university  of  Leyden,  which  he  had  entered  at 
the  age  of  12,  he  was  made  an  attache"  of  Barne- 
veldt's  embassy  from  the  Dutch  states  to  Henry 
IV.  He  returned  to  Holland  in  1599,  published 


268 


GROTIUS 


an  edition  of  the  Phenomena  of  Aratus,  and  be-  | 
gan  the  practice  of  law  at  the  Hague.  In  1607  ' 
he  accepted  the  office  of  advocate  general  for 
the  treasury  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  and  shortly 
afterward  married  the  daughter  of  an  opulent 
family  in  the  latter  province.  In  1608  he  pub- 
lished his  treatise  on  the  freedom  of  the  seas 
(Mare  Liberum),  and  in  1610  a  dissertation  on 
the  "  Antiquity  of  the  Batavian  Republic."  In 
1613  he  was  elected  pensionary  of  Rotterdam 
for  life,  and  soon  afterward  was  sent  to  England 
to  adjust  a  dispute  on  the  subject  of  fishery 
in  the  northern  seas.  The  mission  was  not 
successful,  and  the  negotiation  was  transferred 
to  commissioners  at  Rotterdam.  Grotius  had 
adopted  the  principles  of  Arminius,  and  soon 
after  his  return  from  England  became  deeply 
involved  in  religious  disputes.  The  public  peace 
was  violently  interrupted  through  their  acri- 
mony ;  and  various  events  of  a  short  civil  war 
led  at  length  to  the  arrest  of  Barneveldt,  Gro- 
tius, and  Hoogarbetz.  They  were  tried  and 
condemned,  the  first  to  death,  and  the  two 
others  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Their  crime 
was  defence  and  support  of  religious  toleration. 
The  castle  of  Loevenstein,  on  an  island  formed 
by  the  Waal  and  the  Meuse,  was  selected  as 
the  prison  of  Grotius.  His  father  was  denied 
the  privilege  of  seeing  him,  but  his  wife  at 
length  obtained  permission  to  share  his  fate ; 
and  with  her  society  and  in  close  habits  of 
study  he  found  his  prison  by  no  means  an  in- 
tolerable home.  His  favorite  study  was  the- 
ology ;  and  its  result  was  his  celebrated  anno- 
tations on  the  Gospels.  He  also  wrote  in  Dutch 
the  foundation  of  his  treatise  on  the  truth  of 
the  Christian  religion,  which,  published  after-  j 
ward  in  Paris  in  Latin,  became  the  most  valued 
of  all  his  works,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
17th  century  had  been  translated  into  English, 
French,  Flemish,  German,  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
Greek.  After  nearly  two  years'  imprisonment, 
the  escape  of  Grotius  was  effected  through  the 
wit  and  address  of  his  wife.  It  had  been  her 
practice  to  send  away  and  receive  books  in  a 
chest;  and  observing  that  after  a  time  the 
guards  neglected  to  examine  it  in  its  passage 
to  and  fro,  she  caused  Grotius  to  be  carried 
out  in  it,  March  21,  1621.  Disguised  as  a  ma- 
son, he  escaped  to  Antwerp.  His  wife  at  first 
was  rigorously  confined,  but  was  soon  liberated. 
The  illustrious  refugee  was  well  received  at 
the  French  court,  and  in  the  course  of  the  year 
became  a  French  pensioner.  He  immediately 
published  his  "Apology,"  in  vindication  of  his 
conduct,  and  attacking  the  legality  of  his  sen- 
tence. The  states  general  in  reply  outlawed 
the  author,  and  forbade  the  reading  of  his  me- 
morial on  pain  of  death.  His  personal  safety 
was  assured  meanwhile  by  letters  of  naturali- 
zation from  Louis  XIII.  He  retired  to  a  coun- 
try seat  near  Senlis,  and  began  his  great  work 
on  the  "  Rights  of  Peace  and  War  "  (De  Jure 
Belli  et  Pacis),  for  which  he  made  extensive  I 
researches,  and  which  has  been  translated  into  ! 
nearly  all  European  languages.  The  author  ' 


remained  more  than  nine  years  in  France; 
and  at  last,  through  the  application  of  friends 
and  the  entreaties  of  his  wife,  Prince  Frederick 
Henry,  who  succeeded  the  incensed  Maurice  in 
the  stadtholdership,  reversed  the  decree  of  con- 
fiscation of  the  exile's  property.  In  1631  Gro- 
tius revisited  Holland,  but  finding  no  security 
against  renewed  persecution,  he  went  to  Ham- 
burg in  1632,  and  received  immediate  and 
pressing  invitations  from  Spain,  Portugal,  Den- 
mark, and  Sweden.  Gustavus  Adolphus  had 
previously  made  overtures  to  him,  and  after  the 
death  of  that  monarch  Oxenstiern,  the  regent, 
prevailed  upon  Grotius  to  become  Swedish 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  France  (1635).  He 
filled  this  post  for  10  years  to  the  entire  satis- 
faction of  the  government  which  he  represent- 
ed. The  service  was  far  from  agreeable  to 
him,  but  at  Oxenstiern's  desire  Grotius  re- 
mained at  his  post  until  the  majority  of  Chris- 
tina. On  his  visit  to  Stockholm  in  June,  1645, 
he  was  received  with  great  honor  and  cordial- 
ity. He  seems  to  have  found  Sweden  unsuited 
to  his  health  or  disposition,  and  to  have  re- 
solved to  leave  it.  Christina  at  first  refused 
him  a  passport,  but  finally  dismissed  him  with 
large  presents  of  money  and  plate.  The  vessel 
in  which  he  embarked  was  driven  into  a  port 
near  Dantzic ;  whence,  in  the  most  tempestu- 
ous weather,  he  set  forth  in  an  open  carriage, 
but  was  seized  at  Rostock  by  his  last  illness. 
Grotius  was  the  first  who  investigated  the 
principles  of  international  law  and  attempted 
to  reduce  them  to  a  science.  Besides  the  works 
mentioned,  he  is  the  author  of  a  great  number 
of  writings  on  various  subjects,  among  which 
are:  Adamus  Exul,  a  tragedy  (Ley den,  1601); 
Christus  Patiens,  a  tragedy  (1608) ;  Sophompa- 
neas,  a  tragedy  (1617);  Defensio  Fidei  Catholicw 
de  Satisfactione  Christi  adversus  F.  Socinum 
(1617) ;  "Introduction  to  the  Jurisprudence  of 
Holland  "  (the  Hague,  1631),  in  Dutch ;  Florum 
Sparsio  ad  Jus  Justinianeum  (Paris,  1642); 
Via  ad  Pacem  Ecclesiasticam  (Amsterdam, 
1642);  De  Origine  Gentium  Americanarum 
(Paris  and  Amsterdam,  1642),  and  a  second 
dissertation  on  the  same  subject  (Paris,  1643); 
De  Imperio  Summarum  Potestatum  circa  Sacra 
(1647) ;  Historia  Gothorum,  Vandalorum  et 
Longobardorum  (Amsterdam,  1655);  Annales 
et  Histories  de  Rebus  Belgicis  (fol.,  1657); 
Parallelon Rerumpublicarum  Librilll.  (3  vols. 
8vo,  Haarlem,  1801) ;  commentaries  on  various 
portions  of  the  Scriptures,  Latin  poems,  and 
miscellaneous  treatises.  His  letters  were  pub- 
lished in  full  at  Amsterdam  (fol.,  1087).  His 
Opera  Theologica  were  published  in  1679  (4 
vols.  fol.,  Amsterdam,  and  3  vols.  4to,  Lon- 
don), and  his  poems  in  1617  (Leyden ;  llth  ed., 
Amsterdam,  1670).  There  are  numerous  Eng- 
lish translations  of  the  most  important  of  his 
works,  including  the  treatises  De  Veritate 
Religionis  Christianas  and  De  Jure  Belli  et 
Pacis. — See  fitude  sur  la  vie  et  les  travaux  de 
Hugo  Grotius,  by  Caumont  (1862),  and  Motley's 
"  Life  of  John  of  Barneveld  "  (1874).— His  bro- 


GROTON 


GROUCHY 


269 


ther  WILLEM  (1597-1662),  who  was  a  distin- 
guished lawyer,  collected  and  published  his 
Latin  poems,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  natural 
law  (the  Hague,  1655)  and  lives  of  the  jurists 
named  in  the  Pandects  (Leyden,  1690). 

GROTON.  I.  A  town  of  Middlesex  co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, on  Nashua  and  Squannacook  rivers, 
30  m.  N.  W.  of  Boston  and  13  m.  W.  of  Lowell ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,584.  Since  the  census  the  town 
of  Ayer  has  been  taken  from  it.  Four  rail- 
roads, viz.,  the  Worcester  and  Nashua,  the 
Fitchburg,  the  Stonybrook,  and  the  Peter- 
borough and  Shirley,  intersect  at  Ayer  Junction 
(formerly  Groton  Junction).  Groton  is  the 
seat  of  the  Lawrence  academy,  which  was  in- 
corporated in  1793,  and  owes  a  liberal  endow- 
ment to  the  munificence  of  the  Lawrence  fam- 
ily, who  are  natives  of  this  place.  The  academy 
has  a  library  of  2,500  volumes  and  an  endow- 
ment of  $80,000.  In  1872  the  number  of  in- 
structors was  7,  and  of  pupils  147,  of  whom 
92  were  males  and  55  females.  The  town  con- 
tains several  saw  and  grist  mills,  manufactories 
of  agricultural  implements,  paper,  and  leather, 
and  10  public  schools.  II*  A  town  of  New 
London  co.,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  sound, 
at  the  E.  side  of  the  mouth  of  Thames  river, 
and  opposite  New  London ;  pop.  in  1870.  5,124. 
It  is  on  the  Stonington  and  Providence  railroad, 
the  principal  village  being  12  m.  W.  of  Stoning- 
ton, and  62  m.  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Providence. 
There  is  a  good  harbor,  and  the  town  is  inter- 
ested in  the  coasting  trade,  ship  building,  and 
the  fisheries.  A  considerable  export  business 
is  carried  on  with  New  York.  Mystic  and  Pe- 
quonnock  rivers  flow  through  the  town  to  Long 
Island  sound,  and  supply  valuable  motive  power, 
which  is  employed  in  running  cotton  mills,  &c. 
There  are  founderies  of  brass  and  iron,  manu- 
factories of  britannia  ware  and  carriages,  two 
granite  quarries,  and  11  public  schools.  The 
town  contains  a  United  States  naval  station 
and  five  post  offices,  viz.  :  Groton,  Centre 
Groton,  Poquonoc  Bridge,  Noank,  and  Mystic 
River.  Groton  is  the  site  of  Fort  Griswold, 
memorable  for  the  massacre  of  an  American 
garrison  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  New 
London  and  Groton  by  the  British  troops  under 
Benedict  Arnold,  Sept.  6,  1781.  The  British 
having  captured  the  fort  after  a  desperate  re- 
sistance, the  American  commander,  Col.  Led-  I 
i  yard,  surrendered  to  the  officer  of  the  detach- 
ment, and  was  immediately  killed  with  his 
own  sword,  most  of  his  men  being  also  butch- 
ered ;  85  of  the  Americans  were  killed  and  60 
wounded.  A  granite  monument  to  commemo- 
rate this  event  was  erected  in  Groton  in  1830. 

GROTTO  (It.  grotto),  a  natural  cavern,  or  an 
artificial  excavation  in  the  earth.  Among  the 
most  famous  caverns  particularly  designated  by 
this  name  is  the  Kasegrotte  at  Bertrich,  Rhe- 
nish Prussia,  so  called  from  the  columnar  piles 
of  blocks  of  basalt  shaded  like  cheeses,  in  the 
midst  of  which  the  cave  extends.  Still  more 
celebrated  is  the  Grotta  del  Cane,  near  Pozzu- 
oli,  Naples,  referred  to  by  Pliny  as  one  of  the 


class  of  excavations  known  as  "  Charon's 
ditches."  It  would  seem  from  his  reference 
that  in  his  time  the  mephitic  gas  for  which  it  is 
still  remarkable  was  exhaled  in  quantity  suffi- 
cient to  prove  fatal  to  human  life.  At  the 
present  time  this  forms  but  a  shallow  stratum 
upon  the  floor,  in  which  a  candle  is  extin- 
guished and  dogs  are  stifled  by  way  of  experi- 
ment. The  custom  of  exhibiting  the  effect  of 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  upon  dogs  has  given  the 
distinctive  name  to  the  grotto.  The  excavation 
is  described  as  extending  about  10  ft.  into  the 
base  of  a  hill,  with  a  width  of  4  and  a  height 
of  9  ft.  Prof.  Silliman,  in  his  "  Notes  on  Eu- 
rope," speaks  of  it  as  a  little  hole  dug  arti- 
ficially into  the  foot  of  a  hill  facing  Lake 
Agnano.  The  aperture  is  closed  by  a  door, 
and  the  space  within  is  barely  sufficient  for 
one  person  to  stand  erect.  Into  this  narrow 
cell  a  dog  is  dragged,  and  placed  in  a  depres- 
sion of  the  floor,  where  he  is  soon  narcotized 
by  the  carbonic  acid.  The  earth  is  warm  to 
the  hand,  and  the  volume  of  gas  given  out  is 
very  constant.  Among  other  celebrated  grot- 
toes is  that  of  the  island  of  Antiparos.  (See  AN- 

TIPAROS.) 

GROUCHY,  Emmanuel,  marquis  de,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  23,  1766,  died  in 
St.  Etienne,  May  29,  1847.  He  entered  the 
military  service  at  the  age  of  14,  and  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revolution  had  been  for 
five  years  a  lieutenant  in  the  royal  body  guards. 
He  was  then  placed  in  command  of  a  regiment 
of  chasseurs,  served  in  1792  under  Lafayette, 
was  made  a  brigadier  general,  commanded  the 
cavalry  in  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and  contrib- 
uted to  the  conquest  of  Savoy.  The  decree 
of  the  convention  cashiering  all  officers  who 
belonged  to  noble  families  suspended  his  ca- 
reer for  a  while.  Reentering  the  army  as  a 
private,  he  was  reinstated  in  1795  by  a  special 
decree  and  made  a  general  of  division.  Being 
called  to  the  army  in  Italy  in  1798,  he  persua- 
ded the  king  of  Sardinia  to  abdicate  and  sur- 
render Piedmont  to  France.  In  1799,  at  the 
battle  of  Novi,  he  received  14  wounds  and  was 
taken  prisoner.  The  battle  of  Marengo  pro- 
cured his  liberation ;  he  then  joined  Moreau 
on  the  Rhine,  took  part  in  the  victory  of  Ho- 
henlinden,  and  was  made  inspector  general  of 
cavalry.  He  served  in  1806  and  1807  in  Prus- 
sia ;  was  governor  of  Madrid  in  1808  ;  assisted 
in  1809  in  the  battle  of  Wagram  ;  and  finally 
signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of  Borodino  in 
1812.  On  the  retreat  from  Moscow  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  guard  selected  to 
accompany  the  emperor.  After  the  battle  of 
Leipsic  he  vigorously  opposed  the  invasion  of 
France  by  the  allied  troops,  making  a  stand  at 
Brienne,  La  Rothiere,  Yauchamps,  and  Etoges. 
A  wound  received  at  Craonne,  March  7,  1814, 
forced  him  to  leave  the  army.  Coldly  treated 
by  the  Bourbons  on  the  first  restoration,  he 
joined  Napoleon  at  once  on  his  return  from 
Elba,  and  being  placed  in  command  of  the 
army  at  Lyons,  arrested  the  duke  of  Angou- 


270 


GROUND  HOG 


lAme,  and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  concluding 
scenes  of  the  hundred  days ;  at  the  head  of  a 
corps  of  the  army,  he  marched  into  Belgium 
against  the  united  English  and  Prussians,  fought 
successfully,  June  16,  at  Fleurus  and  Ligny, 
received  orders  from  Napoleon  to  follow  up 
Blucher  and  the  Prussian  army  to  prevent  their 
joining  the  English,  and,  strictly  adhering  to 
the  very  letter  of  his  orders,  declined,  notwith- 
standing the  entreaties  of  his  subordinate  gen- 
erals, to  march  toward  Waterloo,  June  18,  and 
thus  became  the  indirect  cause  of  the  defeat 
of  the  French  army.  Being  proscribed  by  a 
royal  decree  on  the  second  restoration,  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  and  lived  for  five  years  in 
Philadelphia.  An  amnesty  recalled  him  to 
France  in  1821 ;  and  after  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830,  his  rank  of  marshal  was  restored. 
He  defended  his  conduct  in  several  pamphlets, 
the  most  important  points  of  which  are  to  be 
found  in  his  Fragments  historiques  (Paris,  1840). 

GROUND  HOG.     See  WOODCHUCK. 

GROUND  NUT.    See  PEANUT. 

GROUND  PINE.     See  HORSETAIL. 

GROUNDSEL,  the  common  name  of  senecio 
vulgaris,  of  the  natural  order  composites.  It  is 
a  little,  weedy  plant,  found  in  waste  places  and 
in  gardens  from  New  England  to  Pennsylvania, 
adventitiously  introduced  from  abroad.  The 
name  groundsel  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
word  for  "  ground  glutton,"  probably  in  allu- 
sion to  its  character  as  a  weed.  It  is  an  incon- 
spicuous annual,  and  not  difficult  to  keep  in 
subjection.  Its  seeds  are  a  favorite  food  of 
many  small  birds,  and  the  flower  heads  are 
sometimes  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
canary  birds.  Groundsel  has  no  ray  flowers, 
but  in  our  native  senecios  the  heads  are  mostly 
radiate  and  showy.  Among  the  commonest 
of  these  is  the  golden  ragroot  (8.  aureus),  an 
elegant  ornament  of  our  wet  meadows ;  and 
in  the  greenhouse  the  rich  purple  blossoms  of 
8.  elegant  are  much  admired.  The  fireweed, 
so  conspicuous  upon  recently  burnt  lands  for 
its  coarse  rank  growth  and  white  silky  heads, 
was  formerly  called  a  senecio,  but  is  now  put 
in  a  separate  genus,  and  is  erecJithites  hieracifo- 
lia  (Raf.).  Senecios  are  found  in  every  part  of 
the  globe,  especially  in  South  Africa.  Hum- 
boldt  noticed  some  species  in  the  upper  regions 
of  the  Andes,  just  below  the  snow  line.  De 
Candolle  describes  nearly  600  species,  of  which 
50  or  more  are  natives  of  North  America. 

GROUXD  SQURREL.     See  CHIPMUNK. 

GROUSE,  the  name  of  gallinaceous  birds  of 
the  family  tetraonidos,  characterized  by  a  short 
broad  bill  with  culmen  curved;  the  nostrils 
concealed  by  closely  set  feathers  in  the  nasal 
groove;  wings  short,  concave,  and  rounded; 
tarsi  moderate  and  densely  feathered ;  the  toes 
usually  naked,  with  scaly  pectinations  along 
the  edges,  but  feathered  to  the  claws  in  the 
snow  grouse  or  ptarmigans.  The  tail  varies  in 
l«-:iirth  and  shape,  and  consists  of  16,  18,  or  20 
feathers :  there  is  generally  a  bare  space  about 


GROUSE 

the  orbits,  with  fringed  processes  above  the 
upper  lid ;  the  hind  toe  is  short,  and  slightly 
elevated.  The  old  genus  tetrao  (Linn.)  has 
been  subdivided  into  many  genera  by  modern 
systematists ;  it  included  both  the  grouse  and 
the  ptarmigans  or  moor  fowl,  the  latter  of 
which  will  be  described  under  PTARMIGAN. 
The  grouse  are  the  largest  of  the  family,  robust 
and  round-bodied,  frequenting  heathy  woods, 
feeding  on  young  shoots,  tender  buds,  and  ber- 
ries, in  pine  and  spruce  forests  and  cedar 
swamps  in  the  northern  regions  of  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia. — In  the  genus  tetrao  (Linn.) 
and  the  allied  centrocercus  (Swains.),  the  legs 
are  feathered  .as  far  as  the  basal  membrane  of 
the  toes;  the  tail  is  lengthened,  slightly  nar- 
rowed to  the  somewhat  rounded  tip,  and  the 
shafts  stiffened ;  no  ruff  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck.  The  largest  species  is  the  wood  grouse 
or  capercailzie  (T.  urogallus,  Linn.),  measur- 
ing nearly  3  ft.  in  length,  and  weighing  about 
15  Ibs. ;  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  cheeks 
are  elongated  and  erectile;  the  hind  neck, 
back,  and  sides  are  minutely  varied  with 
black,  brown,  and  gray ;  the  lower  breast  and 
belly  black,  with  a  few  white  feathers ;  the 
.fore  part  of  breast  rich  glossy  green,  with 
metallic  reflections.  The  females  are  much 
smaller,  and,  like  the  young  males,  are  brown 
with  black  crescent  marks.  In  size,  strong 
hooked  bill,  and  noble  bearing,  it  resembles  a 
bird  of  prey;  it  is  nearly  extinct  in  Great 
Britain,  though  it  is  found  in  Norway,  Swe- 
den, Russia,  and  northern  Asia.  It  inhabits 
forests  of  pine  and  birch  with  an  undergrowth 
of  juniper ;  it  is  extremely  shy,  but  will  breed 
in  confinement,  and  may  be  domesticated,  in 
which  state  it  feeds  on  grains  and  resinous 
twigs.  This  species  perches  in  trees ;  the  nest 
is  placed  amid  brakes  and  underbrush;  the 
eggs  are  8  to  16,  yellowish  white,  with  darker 
yellow  spots.  The  T.  Jiybridus  (Linn.)  is  gen- 
erally considered  a  hybrid  between  the  caper- 
cailzie and  the  black  grouse  (T.  tetrix,  Linn.); 
it  is  found  in  northern  Europe,  and  is  from  2^ 
to  2£  ft.  long ;  the  general  color  is  black,  with 
purple  and  bronzed  reflections,  dashes  of  white 
on  the  belly,  and  on  the  secondaries  a  spot  of 
the  same ;  the  scapulars  and  wing  coverts  deep 
brown,  with  delicate  yellowish  waves;  tail 
slightly  forked,  the  upper  coverts  black,  the 
under  tipped  with  white.  The  black  grouse 
has  been  described  under  BLACKCOCK.  Among 
the  American  species  is  the  Canada  grouse, 
sometimes  called  erroneously  the  spruce  par- 
tridge (T.  Canadensis,  Linn.).  It  is  about  16£ 
in.  long;  the  prevailing  color  is  black  in  the 
male,  each  feather  of  the  upper  parts  waved 
with  leaden  gray ;  those  of  the  sides,  scapulars, 
and  outer  surface  of  the  wings  have  a  central 
white  streak  expanding  toward  the  tip;  the 
under  parts  are  mostly  uniform  black,  broadly 
tipped  with  white  on  the  sides,  this  color 
sometimes  forming  a  pectoral  band ;  bar  across 
base  of  upper  mandible,  spot  on  lower  lid, 
line  on  cheeks  and  throat,  white;  quills  dark 


I 


GKOUSE 


271 


brown;  tail  of  16  feathers,  dark  brown,  tipped 
with  a  band  of  orange  chestnut  half  an  inch 
wide ;  chin,  throat,  and  bill  black ;  under  tail 
coverts  black,  barred  and  tipped  with  white. 
The  female  is  smaller,  but  similar,  with  broad- 
er black  bars  above,  and  below  barred  with 
orange  and  white;  the  continuous  black  on 
the  head  and  breast  is  wanting.  They  are 
found  in  the  spruce  forests  and  cedar  swamps 
of  the  northern  states  to  the  arctic  seas,  and 
westward  nearly  to  the  Kocky  mountains; 
their  flesh,  like  that  of  the  other  grouse,  is  ex- 
cellent, but  in  the  winter  it  has  the  bitter  fla- 
vor of  the  spruce  on  which  they  feed  at  that 
season.  They  are  not  very  shy ;  when  alarmed 
they  resort  to  trees;  the  nest  is  made  upon 
the  ground,  and  the  eggs,  comparatively  few, 
are  varied  with  white,  yellow,  and  black. — The 
pheasant- tailed  grouse,  sage  cock,  or  cock  of 
the  plains  (centrocercus  urophasianus,  Swains.), 
is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  American  grouse, 
measuring  about  30  in.,  with  an  extent  of 
wings  of  about  40  ;  the  tail  is  very  long,  wedge- 
shaped,  the  feathers  all  lanceolate,  and  longer 
than  the  wings;  the  feathers  of  the  lower 
throat  and  sides  are  stiif  and  spiny.  Above, 
the  plumage  is  varied  with  black,  brown,  and 
brownish  yellow,  the  coverts  streaked  with  the 
latter ;  black  below,  the  breast  and  tips  of  tail 
coverts  white,  the  lower  part  of  the  former 
with  black  streaks ;  the  tail  has  20  feathers. 
It  is  found  in  the  desert  plains  of  the  far  west, 
especially  about  the  branches  of  the  Columbia 
river  ;  it  feeds  on  the  various  species  of  worm- 
wood, which  impart  a  bitter  flavor  to  its  flesh ; 
it  is  not  shy,  and  is  a  poor  flier ;  the  eggs  are  nu- 
merous, 13  to  17,  of  a  wood-brown  color,  with 


Cock  of  the  Plains  (Centrocercus  urophasianus), 
Female  (upper  figure)  and  Male. 

irregular  chocolate  blotches  on  the  larger  end, 
and  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  common  fowl. 
The  sharp-tailed  grouse  (T.  phasianellus,  Linn. ; 
genus  pedioecetes,  Baird)  has  a  short,  gradua- 
ted tail  of  18  feathers,  the  central  pair  elonga- 
ted about  an  inch  beyond  the  rest ;  the  length 
378  VOL.  viii.— 18 


is  18  in.  and  the  extent  of  wings  26.  Above, 
the  color  is  light  brownish  yellow,  varied  with 
black,  and  with  rounded  white  spots  on  the 
wings ;  below  pure  white,  with  dark  V-shaped 
marks  on  the  breast  and  sides ;  there  are  no 
elongated  feathers  on  the  neck,  as  in  the  next 


Pinnated  Grouse  (Tetrao  cupido),  Female  (upper  figure) 
and  Male. 

species,  the  bill  is  stouter,  and  the  tarsi  are 
more  densely  feathered.  It  inhabits  the  north- 
ern prairies  and  plains  from  Illinois  to  Oregon. 
Its  food  consists  of  the  buds  and  sprouts  of  the 
beech,  willow,  aspen,  larch,  and  similar  trees, 
and  of  berries ;  the  eggs,  about  13,  are  white, 
with  colored  spots.  The  pinnated  grouse,  prai- 
rie hen  or  chicken  (T.  cupido,  Linn. ;  genus 
cupidonia,  Reich.),  has  a  tail  of  18  feathers, 
short,  truncate,  and  much  graduated,  and  a 
tuft  of  long,  lanceolate  feathers  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  covering  a  bare  space  capable  of 
considerable  inflation.  The  plumage  is  covered 
with  transverse  bands  of  white  on  a  brown 
ground,  the  latter  nearly  black,  and  the  former 
with  a  rufous  tinge,  above ;  long  feathers  of 
the  throat  black ;  different  specimens  vary 
much  in  color.  The  length  is  about  17  in., 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  28,  and  a  weight  of 
3  Ibs.  This  species,  once  common  in  the  At- 
lantic states,  is  now  mostly  confined  to  the 
western  plains ;  the  old  name  in  New  York 
was  heath  hen.  The  food  is  acorns,  buds, 
leaves,  berries,  and  grains.  They  remain  all 
the  year  in  their  favorite  and  barren  grounds ; 
in  spring  the  males  meet  at  break  of  day  in 
what  are  called  "  scratching  places,"  where 
they  swell  and  strut  with  great  pomp,  and  en- 
gage in  fierce  contests,  uttering  a  peculiar  sound 
rendered  more  intense  by  the  large  inflated 
sacs  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  Their  flesh,  as 
Avell  as  that  of  the  preceding  species,  is  excel- 
lent.— The  ruffed  grouse,  erroneously  called 
partridge  in  New  England  and  pheasant  in  the 
middle  states  (bonasa  umbellus,  Steph.),  is  fa- 
miliarly known  by  its  ruff  of  velvety  black 
feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  its  broad  fan- 
like  tail  of  18  feathers,  partially  crested  head, 


272 


GROUSE 


and  tarsi  naked  in  their  lower  half.  The  sexes 
are  nearly  alike.  It  is  reddish  brown  or  chest- 
nut above,  varied  with  lighter  heart-shaped 
spots  and  streaks  of  light  brownish  yellow ; 
below,  whitish,  with  transverse  bars  of  dull 
brown;  tail  tipped  with  gray,  with  a  subter- 
minal  bar  of  black.  The  length  is  18  in.,  and 
the  extent  of  wings  2  ft. ;  it  is  found  in  the 
eastern  states  and  Canadas,  and  probably  as 
far  as  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  species  of  the 
Pacific  coast,-  darker  and  with  a  longer  middle 
toe,  has  been  described  as  the  B.  Sdbinii.  The 
ruffed  grouse  prefers  wooded  regions,  where 
evergreen  trees  and  streams  abound.  They 
are  rather  solitary,  usually  seen  in  pairs  or 
single,  and  fond  of  frequenting  travelled  paths; 
the  males  make  a  peculiar  drumming  sound, 
standing  upon  a  log,  inflating  the  body,  and 
b'eating  the  air  with  short  and  quick  strokes 
of  the  wings ;  this  is  most  commonly  heard  in 
the  morning  and  evening,  but  also  at  all  times 
of  the  day.  The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground, 
early  in  May,  and  the  eggs,  9  to  15,  are  clear 
brownish  white ;  the  female,  like  other  birds 
of  the  family,  exhibits  signs  of  great  distress 
when  her  young  brood  are  approached,  and 
makes  use  of  various  well  known  stratagems 
to  lead  the  intruder  from  the  spot.  The  flight 
is  vigorous,  and  accompanied  by  a  loud  whir- 
ring noise  ;  they  are  easily  hunted  with  a  good 
dog,  generally  betaking  themselves  to  a  tree ; 
they  are  taken  in  traps  and  snares  set  in  their 
favorite  paths ;  in  severe  winters  they  are  often 
-found  frozen  under  the  snow,  into  which  they 
dive  for  protection,  a  crust  having  formed  above 
them.  Their  flesh  is  excellent,  and  in  best 
condition  in  autumn,  when  the  partridge  ber- 
ries impart  a  peculiar  aromatic  flavor ;  in  win- 
ter they  are  sometimes  forced  to  eat  the  tender 
buds  of  the  laurel,  and  then  their  flesh  may 
possess  poisonous  properties  so  strong  as  to 
cause  death  in  delicate  persons. — The  willow 
or  white,  the  rock,  the  white-tailed,  the  Ameri- 
can, and  the  red  grouse  of  Europe,  belong  to 
the  genus  lagopus  (Briss.),  and  will  be  described 
under  PTARMIGAN. — The  sand  grouse  (pterocles, 
Temm.)  represents  the  family  of  tetraonidcB  in 
the  sandy  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in 
some  of  the  bare  rocky  plains  of  southern 
Russia.  Their  very  long  and  pointed  wings, 
with  the  first  and  second  quills  the  longest, 
enable  them  to  traverse  vast  distances  with  an 
ease  and  rapidity  unnecessary  in  birds  of  the 
moor  and  forest;  their  bodies  are  light  and 
slender,  and  the  tail  large  and  wedge-shaped ; 
the  tarsi  robust,  long,  covered  with  feathers 
in  front  and  on  the  inside ;  the  short  and  stout 
toes,  united  at  the  base  by  a  prominent  mem- 
brane, enable  them  to  run  lightly  over  the  soft 
sand.  Their  prevailing  colors  are  shades  of 
brown,  gray,  and  ochreous  yellow,  like  that 
of  the  deserts  in  which  they  live.  The  banded 
sand  grouse  (P.  arenarius,  Pall.),  found  occa- 
sionally in  Europe,  has  the  belly  deep  brown- 
ish black,  with  a  spot  of  the  same  on  the  throat 
and  a  band  on  the  breast ;  the  female  is  paler, 


GROVE 

without  the  patch  on  the  throat.  The  food 
consists  of  seeds,  bulbs,  and  insects ;  the  nest 
is  made  upon  the  ground,  and  the  eggs  are  only 


Banded  Sand  Grouse  (Pterocles  arenarius). 

four  or  five  in  number. — The  grouse  are  polyga- 
mous, and  very  tyrannical  in  their  gallinaceous 
harems ;  after  the  short  love  season  the  males 
desert  the  females  and  lead  a  solitary  life,  car- 
ing for  neither  mate  nor  progeny. — The  name 
of  partridge  cannot  properly  be  given  to  any 
grouse  ;  the  genus  perdix  (Briss.),  and  indeed 
the  whole  family  of  perdicince,  are  not  found  in 
America ;  the  term  is  equally  inapplicable  to 
the  quail  family. 

GROUSSET,  Paschal,  a  French  communist,  born 
in  Corsica  about  1845.  He  is  the  son  of  the 
president  of  a  college,  and  early  went  to  Paris 
to  study  medicine,  but  became  a  journalist,  and 
eventually  joined  Rochefort  in  the  Marseillaise 
and  wrote  for  the  Revanche,  a  Corsican  journal. 
Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte  having  challenged 
Rochefort  for  articles  which  Grousset  had  writ- 
ten, the  latter  sent  Victor  Noir  and  Ulrich  de 
Fonvielle  as  his  seconds  to  the  prince,  by  whom 
Noir  was  killed,  Jan.  10,  1870.  The  prince  was 
tried  and  acquitted,  and  Grousset  was  arrested 
and  fined  for  his  violent  articles  in  the  Marseil- 
laise. He  became  director  of  that  journal  after 
the  proclamation  of  the  republic,  Sept.  4,  but 
suspended  its  publication  in  consequence  of 
Rochefort's  disavowal  of  its  tendency.  The 
fiercest  of  the  various  journals  which  he  next 
edited  was  La  Bouche  de  Fer.  He  became  the 
foreign  minister  of  the  central  committee  after 
the  insurrection  of  March  18,  1871,  and  on 
being  elected  to  the  commune  he  continued  to 
hold  the  same  position,  and  in  April  became 
member  of  the  new  executive  commission. 
He  was  arrested  on  June  3,  disguised  in  the 
attire  of  his  mistress,  betrayed  by  his  bearing, 
which  had  made  him  conspicuous  as  the  most 
fashionable  member  of  the  commune.  He  was 
transported  to  New  Caledonia  in  1872,  but  es- 
caped in  March,  1874. 

GROVE,  Sir  William  Robert,  an  English  physi- 
cist, born  in  Swansea,  July  14, 181 1 .  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1833,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1835,  and  from  1840  to  1847  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  the  London  institution. 
In  1853  he  was  made  queen's  counsel,  and  af- 
terward vice  president  of  the  royal  society. 
His  scientific  researches  have  been  chiefly  in 


GROVETON 


the  field  of  electricity;  and  his  contributions 
to  philosophical  publications,  principally  on 
this  subject,  are  very  numerous.  A  few  only 
of  his  original  researches  can  here  be  noticed. 
In  1839  he  described  in  the  "Philosophical 
Magazine  "  his  new  battery,  much  more  power- 
ful than  any  previous  one,  and  still  in  general 
use  under  his  name,  in  which  platinum  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  copper  plate,  and  nitric  for 
sulphuric  acid.  About  the  same  time  he  made 
the  discovery  that  if  two  pieces  of  gold  are 
placed,  one  in  a  cell  of  nitric,  and  the  other  in 
one  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  cells  sepa- 
rated by  an  earthenware  partition,  no  chemi- 
cal action  takes  place ;  but  if  the  two  pieces 
are  connected  by  a  metallic  wire,  they  are  im- 
mediately attacked  by  the  acids.  In  1841  he 
described  in  the  same  journal  a  method  of  en- 
graving the  daguerreotype  plate  by  galvanic 
action.  In  January,  1842,  Mr.  Grove  delivered 
a  lecture  before  the  London  institution  on  the 
progress  of  physical  science,  in  which  he  first 
announced  what  is  now  generally  known  as 
"the  theory  of  the  correlation  of  forces."  In 
1847  he  published  his  essay  on  "The  Corre- 
lation of  Physical  Forces,"  which  has  passed 
through  several  editions,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  various  European  languages.  Among 
his  numerous  discoveries  not  already  mentioned 
are  the  decomposition  of  water  into  free  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen,  the  electricity  of  the  flame 
of  the  blowpipe,  electrical  action  produced  by 
proximity  without  contact  of  dissimilar  metals, 
molecular  movements  induced  in  metals  by  the 
electric  current,  and  the  conversion  of  elec- 
tricity into  mechanical  force.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  British  association  in  1866,  was  ap- 
pointed a  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
in  1871,  and  was  knighted  in  1872. 

GROVETON.    See  BULL  RUN. 

GRUBER,  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German  cyclo- 
pasdist,  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Halle,  born  in  Kaumburg,  Prussia,  Nov. 
29,  1774,  died  in  Halle,  Aug.  7,  1851.  He 
wrote  nearly  30  works  on  historical,  critical, 
and  imaginative  subjects,  and  was  joint  editor 
with  Ersch  of  the  Allgemeine  Encylclopadie 
der  Wissenschaften  und  Kunste.  (See  ERSCH.) 

GRp,  Inastasins.     See  AUERSPERG,  A.  A. 

GRUNBERG,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  in 
the  government  of  Liegnitz,  50  m.  S.  E.  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder;  pop.  in  1871,  11,091. 
It  is  walled  and  surrounded  by  suburbs.  Its 
environs  are  noted  for  their  vineyards.  It 
manufactures  woollens,  linens,  printed  cottons, 
silk  goods,  leather,  and  champagne  wine. 

GRUNDTVIG,  Nicolai  Frederik  Severin,  a  Danish 
writer,  born  at  Udby,  Seeland,  Sept.  8,  1783, 
died  in  Copenhagen,  Sept.  2,  1872.  He  studied 
theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  in  1810  began  to 
preach  in  that  city.  His  doctrines  ofiended 
the  clergy,  and  he  finally  separated  from  the 
orthodox  Lutheran  church  and  became  the 
head  of  a  distinct  school  opposed  to  centraliza- 
tion in  church  government.  In  1848  he  engaged 
in  politics,  and  became  an  influential  leader  in 


GRUNDY 


273 


j  the  diet  of  the  Danish  party,  in  opposition  to 
German  influence  and  in  favor  of  a  union  of 
the  Scandinavian  nations.  Grundtvig  pub- 
lished two  collections  of  sermons,  a  collection 
of  hymns,  and  many  historical  works,  among 
which  are  :  Nordens  Mythologie  (1808 ;  2d  ed. 
revised,  1832) ;  Kort  Begreb  af  Verden&krenike 
("Short  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  World," 
1812) ;  translations  of  Saxo  Grammaticus  and 
Snorro  Sturleson  (6  vols.,  1818-'22);  Haand- 
"bog  i  Verdendhistorien  ("Manual  of  Universal 
History,"  4  vols.,  1833-'43).  Among  his  poet- 
ical works  are :  Optrin  af  Kampelivets  Under- 
gang  i  Nord  (2  vols.,  1809);  Boeslcilde-Riim 
(1814) ;  and  Nordislce  Smaadigte  (1838).  From 
1816  to  1820  he  published  a  literary  journal, 
DannemrTce,  and  from  1848  to  1851  a  political 
weekly,  Danslceren.  During  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  war  he  wrote  spirited  songs  for  the 
Danish  cause. 

GRUNDY.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee, 
drained  by  Collins  river ;  area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  3,250,  of  whom  137  were  colored.  It 
has  a  mountainous  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  12,131 
bushels  of  wheat,  73,373  of  Indian  corn,  11,242 
of  oats,  10,218  of  potatoes,  and  47  bales  of  cot- 
ton. Capital,  Altamont.  II.  A  N.  E.  county 
of  Illinois,  drained  by  Illinois  river ;  area,  430 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 14,938.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and 
the  Chicago  and  Alton  railroads,  and  by  the 
Illinois  and  Michigan  canal.  The  surface  is 
generally  level,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  Timber 
is  not  abundant,  but  bituminous  coal  has  been 
found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
21,850  bushels  of  wheat,  295,971  of  Indian  corn, 
269,332  of  oats,  51,451  of  potatoes,  438,309  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  37,116  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,264  horses,  6,770  milch  cows,  12,575  other 
cattle,  3,845  sheep,  and  8,269  swine;  2  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  implements,  4  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  3  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
2  flour  mills,  1  tannery,  1  currying  establish- 
ment, and  1  distillery.  Capital,  Morris.  III. 
A  N.  E.  central  county  of  Iowa,  watered  by 
branches  of  Red  Cedar  river ;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,399.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  prairies;  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  621,322  bushels  of  wheat, 
345,717  of  Indian  corn,  201,733  of  oats,  13,360 
of  barley,  38,995  of  potatoes,  154,107  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  14,576  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
3,667  horses,  2,881  milch  cows,  2,995  other  cat- 
tle, 2,972  sheep,  and  4,111  swine.  Capital, 
Grundy  Centre.  IV.  A  N.  county  of  Missouri, 
drained  by  Weldon  and  other  rivers,  and  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  fertile  prairies;  area,  462 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 10,567,  of  whom  115  were 
colored.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
63,242  bushels  of  wheat,  13,138  of  rye,  427,818 
of  Indian  corn,  186,184  of  oats,  37,666  of  pota- 
toes, 123,251  Ibs.  of  butter,  48,207  of  wool,  and 
7,100  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,241  horses, 
4,137  milch  cows,  8,853  other  cattle,  18,896 
sheep,  and  19,110  swine.  Capital,  Trenton. 


GRUNDY 


GRUNDY,  Felii,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Berkeley  co.,  Va.,  Sept.  11,  1777,  died  in 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  Dec.  19,  1840.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  a  physician,  but  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  practice  in  1798,  and  soon  acquired 
reputation  as  an  advocate.  In  1799  he  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  to  revise  the  consti- 
tution of  the  state,  and  was  elected  to  the 
legislature,  and  in  1806  was  appointed  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  errors  and 
appeals.  Soon  afterward  he  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  Kentucky,  which  office  he  re- 
signed in  1808,  and  removed  to  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  where  he  soon  ranked  as  the  head  of  the 
Tennessee  bar.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in 
1811,  and  efficiently  supported  Madison  in  the 
war  with  Great  Britain.  He  was  reflected  in 
1813,  but  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in  1815. 
In  1829,  and  again  in  1833,  he  was  elected  a 
senator  of  the  United  States,  and  was  among 
the  most  prominent  supporters  of  President 
Jackson.  In  1838  Van  Buren  appointed  him 
attorney  general  of  the  United  States.  In  1840 
he  resigned,  and  was  reflected  to  the  senate, 
but  died  before  taking  his  seat. 

GRINER,  Wilhelm  Heinrlch  Ludwig,  a  German 
engraver,  born  in  Dresden,  Feb.  24,  1801.  He 
studied  in  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  England. 
His  first  effort,  an  engraving  of  a  Spanish  shep- 
herd, after  Velasquez,  was  followed  by  a  por- 
trait of  Mengs,  and  engravings  of  Madonnas  af- 
ter Raphael,  and  of  the  paintings  of  Giulio  de' 
Medici  and  Moses  by  Murillo.  In  Rome  he 
published  in  1839  a  series  of  engravings,  under 
the  title  Imosaici  della  capella  Chigi^  and  soon 
afterward  he  copied  the  frescoes  in  the  hall  of 
Heliodorus.  For  the  Berlin  museum  he  pre- 
pared, at  the  request  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  a 
series  of  engravings  after  the  cartoons  of  Ra- 
phael at  Hampton  Court.  A  disease  of  the 
eyes  preventing  him  from  working  with  the 
burin,  he  executed  many  frescoes  by  order  of 
Prince  Albert,  and  published  "  Fresco  Decora- 
tions and  Stuccoes,"  &c.  (London,  1844),  and 
"Decorations  of  the  Garden  Pavilion  in  the 
Grounds  of  Buckingham  Palace"  (1846),  ac- 
companied with  a  text  by  Mrs.  Jameson.  Re- 
suming his  labors  as  an  engraver,  in  1848  he 
published  "  Ornamental  Designs  for  Decorators 
and  Manufacturers,"  and  in  1850  "Specimens 
of  Ornamental  Art."  He  took  a  part  in  the 
decoration  of  the  London  crystal  palace  and  in 
the  illustration  of  Layard's  "  Nineveh."  His 
"  Raphael  Caryatides  from  the  Vatican  "  ap- 
peared in  1852.  Between  1854  and  1856  he 
superintended  the  decoration  of  the  new  wing 
of  Buckingham  palace  and  of  Osborn  castle. 
In  1858  he  became  director  of  the  society  of 
engravers  at  Dresden,  and  professor  of  engra- 
ving at  the  academy  in  that  place.  About  the 
same  time  he  published  "The  Bass  Reliefs  on 
the  Facade  of  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto." 

GRUTLI,  or  Itiitli.  a  locality  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Uri,  5  m.  S.  W.  of  Schwytz, 
consisting  only  of  a  small  space  occupied  by  a 
meadow  with  a  few  cottages  and  walnut  and 


GUACHARO 

chestnut  trees,  but  celebrated  as  the  cradle  of 
Swiss  liberty,  and  as  the  spot  where  Stauffa- 
cher,  Walther  Furst,  and  Arnold  of  Melchthal 
met,  according  to  tradition,  during  the  night  of 
Nov.  7-8,  1307,  with  30  followers,  and  formed 
a  Swiss  league  against  Austrian  tyranny.  It 
is  at  the  N.  E.  declivity  of  the  Seelisberger 
or  Niederbauer  Kulm,  a  mountain  about  6,000 
ft.  high,  near  the  watering  place  of  Seelisberg, 
on  the  lake  of  Lucerne,  and  is  easily  acces- 
sible by  boats  from  steamers  plying  between 
Lucerne  and  Fluelen.  About  1  m.  N.  of  it 
is  the  Mythenstein,  a  lofty  rock  on  which 
is  the  inscription  Dem  Sdnger  Tells,  Friedrich 
Schiller,  die  Urcantone,  1860.  Tell's  chapel 
is  3  m.  from  Grutli.  The  land  became  national 
property  in  1858,  having  been  purchased  by  the 
Swiss  patriotic  association  for  55,000  francs. 

GRUYERE,  or  Grnyeres  (Ger.  Greyerz),  a  vil- 
lage of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  and  15  m. 
S.  by  W.  of  the  city  of  Fribourg ;  pop.  about 
1,000.  It  stands  on  a  hill  crowned  by  an 
ancient  and  very  perfect  feudal  castle,  and 
gives  name  to  a  celebrated  kind  of  cheese. 
(See  CHEESE,  vol.  iv.,  p.  352.) 

GRYPHIUS,  Andreas,  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Glogau,  Silesia,  Oct.  11,  1616,  died  there,  July 
16,  1664.  He  studied  at  Dantzic  and  Leyden, 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  spent  the  last 
part  of  his  life  as  syndic  of  Glogau.  His 
tragedies  are  stilted  imitations  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  dramas,  but  his  comedies  have 
much  merit,  and  a  new  edition  of  some  of  them 
appeared  in  1855.  He  also  wrote  a  Latin  re- 
ligious epic,  Olwetum.  His  select  poems  are 
contained  in  W.  Muller's  collection  of  German 
poets  of  the  17th  century  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1822). 

GUACHARO,  a  fissirostral  bird  of  the  family 
caprimulgidce  or  goatsuckers,  subfamily  stea- 
tornince  or  oil  birds,  and  genus  steatornis 
(Humboldt).  There  is  only  one  described  spe- 


Guacharo  Bird  (Steatornis  Caripensis). 

cies,  the  S.  Caripensis  (Humb.) ;  it  is  noctur- 
nal, living  in  great  numbers  in  the  cave  of  Gua- 
charo in  Venezuela,  described  by  Humboldt. 
The  family  and  genus  are  treated  in  the  article 
GOATSUCKER.  The  bird  is  about  the  size  of 
the  common  fowl,  with  a  curved  and  toothed 


GUACO 


GUADALQUIVIR 


275 


11 ;  the  color  is  dark  bluish  gray,  with  minute 
streaks  and  spots  of  deep  brown,  and  white 
spots  bordered  with  black  on  the  head,  wings, 
and  tail ;  the  spread  of  the  wings  is  about  3£ 
ft.     The  food  is  vegetable,   principally  seeds 
and  hard  fruits,  upon  which  they  grow  so  fat 
that  the  Indians  destroy 
great  numbers  for  the 
sake  of  their  oil,  which 
they  use  in  preparing 
their    favorite    dishes. 
They  would  long  ago 
have   been    extermina- 
ted, were  it  not  for  the 
superstitious    fears    of 
the  natives,  who  do  not 
dare  to    penetrate  far 
into  their  caves,  terri- 
fied by  the  shrill  cries 
of  the  vast  multitudes 
when  disturbed  by  the 
torches  of  explorers. 

GUACO,  or  Huaco,  a 
name  given  in  the  trop- 
ical regions  of  America 

several  plants  used 

antidotes  for  the  bites 
poisonous    snakes. 
olochia    guaco    is 
to  be  the  one  most 

repute ;  and  so  great  is  the  confidence  in  its 
efficacy  that  the  Indians  and  negroes  of  parts 
of  South  America  will  not  undertake  a  jour- 
ney without  carrying  some  of  the  dried  leaves 
of  the  plant.  The  aristolochias  are  generally 
climbing  plants,  with  grotesquely  formed  and 
often  lurid-colored  flowers.  Two  North  Amer- 
ican species  of  aristolocMa  were  found  by  the 
early  settlers  to  be  in  use  among  the  aborigi- 
nes for  the  same  purposes  as  the  South  Amer- 
ican one,  and  they  still  retain  the  name  of  Vir- 
ginia snakeroot.  The  name  guaco  is  also  given 
to  one  of  the  composite  family,  the  miTcania 
guaco,  described  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland 
*as  a  plant  with  twining  stems,  leaves  ovate, 
pointed,  and  dentate,  and  flowers  in  opposite, 
axillary  corymbs.  The  fresh  leaves  are  bruised 
and  applied  to  the  wound,  and  they  are  also 
made  to  yield  an  infusion  which  is  drunk  at 
the  same  time.  The  preparation  has  a  bitter, 
disagreeable  taste,  and  acts  as  a  mild  tonic  and 
a  gentle  stimulant  to  the  secretions. 

GUADALAJARA,  a  city  of  Mexico,  the  second 
in  importance  of  the  republic,  capital  of  the 
state  of  Jalisco,  275  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Mexico ;  pop.  about  70,000.  It  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rio  Santiago,  in  the  midst  of 
a  vast  barren  plain.  The  streets  are  wide,  and 
the  houses,  which  are  generally  but  two  stories 
high  owing  to  the  frequency  of  earthquakes, 
are  neat  and  handsome.  There  are  14  public 
squares,  the  finest  of  which,  the  Plaza  de 
Armas,  is  very  spacious.  On  its  north  side  is 
the  cathedral,  completed  in  1618.  The  cupolas 
of  both  towers  were  destroyed  by  the  great 
earthquake  of  May  31,  1818.  The  governor's 


palace  occupies  the  whole  of  the  east  side  of 
the  plaza,  and  the  two  remaining  sides  form 
each  an  uninterrupted  arcade,  with  brilliant 
shops  and  bazaars.  Besides  the  cathedral  there 
are  many  churches  and  convents.  The  Alar- 
con  theatre,  of  modern  construction,  is  large 


Plaza  de  Armas,  Guadalajara. 

and  elegant.  There  are  two  hospitals,  a  mint, 
two  prisons,  a  university,  a  seminary,  a  school 
of  design,  a  collegiate  and  several  common 
schools,  and  many  private  schools.  There  are 
manufactories  of  serapes,  a  kind  of  shawl, 
paper,  earthenware,  and  leather.  The  climate 
is  temperate. — The  town  was  founded  in  1532 
by  Cristobal  de  Ofiate,  under  the  name  of  San- 
to Espiritu.  It  became  the  capital  of  New 
Galicia  in  1543,  and  an  episcopal  see  in  1549. 

GUADALAJARA.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in 
New  Castile,  bordering  on  the  provinces  of 
Segovia,  Soria,  Saragossa,  Teruel,  Cuenca,  and 
Madrid ;  area,  4,869  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870  (esti- 
mated), 208,638.  The  surface  toward  the  north 
and  east  is  mountainous,  particularly  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Atienza,  but  in  the  south  and  west-it 
expands  into  large  elevated  plains.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Tagus,  Tajufia,  and  Jarama.  In 
the  district  of  Tamajon  the  soil  is  well  adapted 
to  corn;  in  that  of  Alcarria  the  vine  and  olive 
also  grow ;  while  the  mountain  districts  are 
suited  to  pasturage.  The  most  important  min- 
erals are  iron,  lead,  and  coal.  Mines  of  iron 
have  been  worked  from  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans. II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  on 
the  Henares  river,  33  m.  N.  E.  of  Madrid; 
pop.  about  8,000.  It  has  a  large  Roman 
aqueduct,  which  supplies  the  public  fountains. 
There  are  ten  churches,  two  hospitals,  a  mili- 
tary school,  a  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Infantado, 
and  manufactories  of  cloth. 

GUADALQUIVIR  (anc.  Bcetis),  a  river  of  Spain, 
which  rises  near  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Jaen,  flows  first  N.  E.  and  N.  W.  and 
then  S.  W.  through  Andalusia,  passing  Andu- 


GUADALUPE 


GTJAHAN 


jar,  Villafranca,  Cordova,  and  Seville,  and  falls 
into  the  Atlantic  at  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda, 
14  m.  N.  of  Cadiz.  It  is  more  than  250  m. 
long,  and  is  navigable  for  nearly  70  m.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Guadalimar,  Jan- 
dula,  and  Guadiato  on  the  right,  and  the  Gua- 
diana  Menor,  Guadajoz,  and  Jenil  on  the  left. 
The  Guadalquivir  drains  an  area  of  about  20,- 
000  sq.  m. 

GUADALUPE,  a  river  of  Texas,  rising  in  Ed- 
wards co.,  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  state.  It 
flows  nearly  E.  until  it  enters  the  alluvial  plain 
that  stretches  toward  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  from 
which  point  it  pursues  a  general  S.  course  to 
its  junction  with  the  San  Antonio,  about  12  m. 
from  its  mouth  in  Espiritu  Santo  bay.  Its 
length  is  about  250  m.  On  its  banks  are  the 
towns  of  New  Braunfels,  Seguin,  Gonzales, 
Clinton,  and  Victoria.  The  San  Marcos,  which 
enters  the  Guadalupe  in  Gonzales  co.  from 
the  north,  is  the  principal  tributary.  Steamers 
have  occasionally  ascended  to  Victoria. 

GUADALUPE,  a  central  county  of  Texas, 
drained  by  the  Guadalupe  river ;  area,  807  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,282,  of 'whom  2,534  were 
colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface,  covered 
with  prairies  and  good  timber.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  197,889  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  13,556  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  2,874 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  6,859  horses,  6,061 
milch  cows,  51,454  other  cattle,  3,262  sheep, 
and  11,748  swine.  Capital,  Seguin. 

GUADALUPE,  or  Gnadalnpe  Hidalgo,  a  small 
town  in  the  republic  and  federal  district  of 
Mexico,  about  3  m.  N.  of  the  capital,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  two  beautiful  paral- 
lel roads.  It  owes  its  importance  to  its  church, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  de  Tepeyac, 
and  dedicated  to  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  Guadalupe, 
the  patron  saint  of  the  republic,  who  is  there 
represented  by  a  gorgeous  image,  and  whose 
reputed  power  of  working  miracles  attracts  im- 
mense numbers  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  annually 
with  great  pomp.  After  the  defeat  of  Santa 
Anna's  troops  by  the  American  forces,  the 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Guadalupe,  Feb. 
2,  1848. 

GUADELOUPE,  one  of  the  Leeward  islands 
of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  most  important  of 
those  which  belong  to  France,  between  lat.  15° 
67'  and  16°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  61°  15'  and  61°  45' 
"W. ;  area,  including  dependencies,  625  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1868,  152,910,  three  fourths  of  whom 
are  colored.  It  consists,  properly  speaking,  of 
two  islands,  separated  by  a  narrow  channel, 
not  more  than  from  30  to  100  yards  broad, 
called  Riviere  Salee  or  Salt  river,  navigable 
for  small  vessels.  The  western  island,  styled 
Guadeloupe  proper,  is  85  m.  long  and  18  m. 
wide ;  the  eastern,  called  Grande-Terre,  is  of 
about  the  same  length,  but  only  12  m.  wide. 
Guadeloupe  proper  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  is 
traversed  from  N.  to  S.  by  a  mountain  range 
whose  summit  is  a  volcano  called  the  Soufriere, 
about  5,000  ft.  high.  Grande-Terre  is  low, 


flat,  and  marshy,  composed  of  coralline  matter 
and  marine  detritus.  The  climate  is  hot,  hu- 
mid, and  unhealthy.  Hurricanes  are  frequent 
and  destructive.  In  1843  there  was  a  severe 
earthquake.  The  exports  are  sugar,  molasses, 
rum,  cotton,  tobacco,  coffee,  dye  woods,  and 
copper.  The  imports  are  cotton  goods,  pot- 
tery, glassware,  provisions,  medicines,  &c. 
In  1870  the  exports  to  France  amounted  to 
24,900,000  francs,  the  imports  from  France  to 
9,800,000  francs.  The  government  of  Guade- 
loupe consists  of  a  governor,  a  privy  council 
of  6,  and  a  general  council  of  30  members.  It 
has  its  seat  at  Basse-Terre,  the  capital,  and  ex- 
ercises jurisdiction  over  the  islands  of  Guade- 
loupe, Marie  Gal  ante,  D6sirade,  Les  Saintes, 
and  St.  Martin.  Grande-Terre  possesses  two 
harbors,  those  of  Moule  and  Pointe-a-Pitre. 
The  latter,  at  the  S.  entrance  of  the  Riviere 
Sal6e,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  Antilles,  and 
is  the  residence  of  a  United  States  consul. 
Guadeloupe  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1493.  The  French  took  possession  of  it  in 
1635,  and  after  having  been  repeatedly  taken 
from  and  by  them  in  the  next  century  and  a 
half,  it  was  ultimately  restored  to  them  in 
1816.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848. 

Gl  ADI  AN  A  (anc.  Anas),  a  river  of  Spain,  ri- 
sing on  the  N.  side  of  the  Sierra  Alcaraz,  in  La 
Mancha,  and  falling  into  the  Atlantic  between 
the  Spanish  town  of  Ayamonte  and  the  Portu- 
guese town  of  Castro  Marim.  It  flows  first  N. 
W.,  and  after  several  windings  enters  Estrema- 
dura,  which  it  traverses  in  a  westerly  direc- 
tion, passes  Badajoz,  and  forms  altogether  60 
m.  of  the  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. In  the  Portuguese  province  of  Alemtejo 
it  forms  a  cataract  called  the  Salto  del  Lobo 
(wolf's  leap),  a  narrow  passage  between  the 
Sierra  Abeloeira  and  the  Sierra  de  Caldeirao. 
It  is  navigable  above  the  Chanza.  Length 
about  380  m. 

GUADIX,  an  old  city  of  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  42  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Gra- 
nada, on  the  N.  declivity  of  the  Sierra  Ne-* 
vada ;  pop.  about  11,000.  It  was  once  a  place 
of  considerable  strength,  and  is  still  surrounded 
with  walls,  and  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  bishop- 
ric in  Spain.  It  has  manufactories  of  silk,  sail 
cloth,  cutlery,  and  earthenware. 

GUAHAN,  Guam,  or  San  Jnan,  the  largest  and 
southernmost  of  the  Ladrone  islands,  in  lat. 
13°  N.,  Ion.  145°  E.  ;  pop.  about  5,000.  It  is 
about  100  m.in  circumference,  and  surrounded 
by  coral  reefs.  The  coasts  are  broken  by  sev- 
eral bays,  one  of  which,  called  Calderon  de 
Apra,  is  a  commodious  haven.  The  S.  part  of 
the  island  is  of  volcanic  formation,  and  there 
is  also  a  small  volcano  in  the  N.,  but  the  shores 
on  this  side  are  high  and  coralline.  The  in- 
terior is  well  watered,  wooded,  and  fertile, 
rice,  maize,  cacao,  sugar  cane,  indigo,  cotton, 
and  fruits  growing  in  profusion.  The  domes- 
tic animals  of  Europe  were  imported  long  ago, 
but  most  of  them  have  become  wild.  The 
primitive  possessors  of  the  island  were  long 


GUAIACUM 

since  extirpated.  The  present  inhabitants,  de- 
scendants of  Mexicans  and  Philippine  islanders, 
are  peaceable,  and  are  skilful  mechanics.  The 
principal  place  is  San  Ignazio  de  Agana,  a 
fortified  village  of  bamboo  huts,  having  a  good 
harbor  enclosed  by  coral  reefs.  The  island 
was  discovered  by  Magalhaens  in  1521. 

GUAIACUM,  a  name  applied  to  both  the  wood 
and  a  resinous  substance  from  the  guaiacum 
officinale,  of  the  natural  order  zygophyllacece. 
The  tree  grows  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  the 
mainland  opposite.      The  trunk  is  sometimes 
6  ft.  in  circumference.     The  wood,  commonly 
known  as  lignum  vitoe,  is  remarkably  heavy 
id  hard,  and  is  much  used  for  the  sheaves  of 
3kle  blocks,   for  nine-pin  balls,   and  other 
irposes  requiring  strength  and  resistance  to 
It  possesses  medicinal  properties,   as 
also  the  concrete  juice  or  resin.     Both 
kept  by  druggists,  the  wood  in  the  form 
1  chips  or  shavings,  and  the  resin  in  lumps  or 
jwder  under  the  name  of  gum  guaiacum. 


GUALEYGUAY 


277 


Guaiacum  officinale. 

ie  wood  contains  about  26  per  cent,  of  resin, 
0'8  of  a  bitter  pungent  extractive.     The  j 

which  is  the  more  active  medicine,  is 
Gained  either    by    spontaneous    exudations 
)m  incisions  made  into  the  tree,  or  by  heat- 
blocks  of  the  wood,  in  which  auger  holes 
ive  been  bored  in  the  centre  in  the  direction 
the  grain,  and   collecting  the  juice  as  it 
)ws  out  through  the  holes;  also  by  boiling 
ie  chips  and  sawdust  of  the  wood  in  salt 
rater,  and  skimming  off  the  matter  which  rises 
to  the  surface.     This  is  the  form  in  which  it  is 
usually  met  with.     More  rarely  it  is  found  in 
rounded  or  oval  masses,  about  the  size  of  a  wal- 
nut, called  "  guaiac  in  tears  ; "  this  is  said  to 
be  produced  by  G.  sanctum,  another  "West  In- 
dian^ species,  which  is  also  found  in  southern 
Florida.     The  irregular-shaped  pieces  brought 
to  the  United  States  are  of  a  dark  olive  color 
without  and  reddish  brown  within,  diversified 
with  various  shades ;  they  have  a  slight  fra- 
grant odor,  and  a  pungent  acrid  taste  after 
being  held  in  the  mouth  a  short  time.    The 


pure  substance  is  entirely  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  alkaline  solutions,  and  sulphuric  acid. 
It  is  adulterated  with  common  rosin,  from 
which  it  maybe  distinguished  by  the  solubility 
of  the  latter  in  turpentine.  The  powder  and 
the  tincture  become  green  on  exposure  to  light. 
The  Cincture  affords  blue,  green,  and  brown 
precipitates  with  the  mineral  acids,  and  a  blue 
color  with  oxidizing  agents.  If  tincture  of 
guaiacum  is  applied  to  the  freshly  cut  surfaces 
of  many  vegetables,  or  added  to  infusions  of 
the  green  plants,  it  gives  a  bright  blue  color, 
which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  oxygen  in  the 
nascent  form  or  of  ozone,  for  the  presence  of 
which  guaiacum  is  a  useful  test.  The  color  is 
most  marked  at  those  portions  of  the  plant 
where  growth  is  taking  place  most  rapidly. 
Similar  reactions  afforded  by  guaiacum  with 
blood,  pus  and  mucus,  have  been  made  avail- 
able for  physiological  and  medico-legal  pur- 
poses. Guaiacum  is  administered  in  many 
complaints,  especially  chronic  rheumatism.  It 
promotes  various  secretions,  especially  those 
of  the  skin  and  kidneys,  but  diminishes  ex- 
cessive secretion  of  mucous  surfaces.  In  large 
doses  it  purges.  Febrile  affections  and  irri- 
tated conditions  of  the  gastro-intestinal  mem- 
brane contraindicate  its  use.  When  a  rheu- 
matic diathesis  underlies  bronchitis,  leucor- 
rhoea,  dysmenorrhcea,  amenorrhoea,  or  syphilis, 
guaiacum  often  yields  an  unequivocal  benefit. 
It  is  much  less  used  now  than  formerly.  It 
may  be  given  in  the  form  of  decoction  of  the 
wood,  tincture  of  the  resin,  or  of  the  resin  in 
substance.  The  dose  of  the  latter  is  from  10  to 
30  grs. ;  of  the  tincture,  about  a  teaspoonful. 

GFAICURf  S,  a  nation  of  Brazilian  Indians,  in 
that  portion  of  the  region  watered  by  the 
Paraguay  between  lat.  18°  and  22°  S.  They 
are  of  medium  height  and  strong,  and  their 
skin  is  of  copper  color.  Their  hair  is  long 
and  straight.  Formerly  they  tattooed  their 
bodies.  The  only  garment  of  the  men  was  a 
sort  of  short  drawers;  on  feast  days  they  or- 
namented their  heads  with  crowns  of  feathers, 
while  in  the  under  lips  they  inserted  a  cylin- 
drical piece  of  wood  about  three  inches  long. 
The  women  are  ill  shaped  and  always  painted. 
They  accompany  the  men  in  all  their  excursions 
on  horseback  and  in  canoes,  and  the  men  aid 
them  in  cooking.  Their  chief  occupations  are 
spinning  cotton,  weaving,  making  utensils  of 
earthenware,  and  manufacturing  cords  and 
mats.  The  riches  of  the  Guaicurus  consist  in 
the  number  of  their  horses,  which  they  mark 
just  as  they  mark  their  women.  They  live 
mostly  on  venison,  fish,  and  fruit,  and  hate  agri- 
culture. Their  language  is  harmonious,  though 
somewhat  guttural.  They  count  the  years  by 
the  return  of  the  fruit  season.  A  few  of  these 
Indians  were  converted  by  the  early  mission- 
aries, but  the  mass  are  still  pagans.  The  pop- 
ulation is  distinguished  into  the  classes  of  the 
nobles,  warriors,  and  slaves. 

GUALEYGUAY.  I.  A  river  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  which  rises  in  the  mountains  in  the 


j 


278 


GUALEYGUAYCHU 


centre  of  the  province  of  Entre-Rios,  flows  S. 
and  S.  W.,  unites  with  the  Pabon,  and  falls 
into  the  Parana,  after  a  course  of  about  150 
m.  It  is  navigable  by  schooners  to  the  town 
of  Gualeyguay,  40  m.  from  its  mouth.  II.  A 
town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  120  m.  N. 
by  W.  of  Buenos  Ay  res ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It 
is  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  sheep  and  cattle 
district,  is  growing  rapidly,  and  has  an  active 
trade  in  hides,  wool,  timber,  and  firewood. 

GUALEYGUAYCIlC,  a  city  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gualey- 
guaychu  river,  in  the  province  of  Entre-Rios, 
120  m.  N".  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  pop.  about 
25,000  (in  1849,  7,000).  The  streets  are  wide, 
regular,  and  kept  in  good  order,  and  the  town 
is  well  built.  In  the  surrounding  country  im- 
mense numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  ; 
there  are  many  salting  establishments  in  the 
vicinity,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  jerked 
beef,  hides,  wool,  tallow,  bone  manure,  and 
other  animal  products.  Gualeyguaychu.  is  the 
entrepot  for  all  the  export  trade  from  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  province. 

GUAM.    See  GUAIIAN. 

GUAMANGA.     See  AYACUOHO. 

GUAN,  a  gallinaceous  bird,  of  the  family  cra- 
cidfe  or  curassows,  and  subfamily  penelopince ; 
it  includes  the  genera  ortalida,  penelope,  and 
oreophasis,  the  first  two  South  American,  and 
the  last  peculiar  to  Central  America.  (For 
the  family  characters,  see  CUEASSOW.)  In  the 
genus  penelope  (Merrem)  the  bill  is  shorter  than 
the  head,  broad  at  the  base,  arched  at  the  tip ; 
wings  short  and  rounded,  with  the  fourth  to 
the  sixth  quills  the  longest,  and  the  first  series 
arched  and  narrowed  at  the  ends ;  tail  long, 
very  broad,  and  rounded  at  the  end;  tarsi  rather 


Crested  (Juan  (Penelope  crtstata). 

slender,  as  long  as  the  middle  toe ;  hind  toe 
long  and  on  the  same  plane  with  the  others ; 
claws  short  and  curved ;  the  sides  of  the  head 
and  front  of  the  throat  naked  and  wattled,  the 
latter  capable  of  inflation.  The  crested  guan 
(P.  cristata,  Linn.)  is  the  largest,  measuring 


GUANACASTE 

from  2  to  2£  ft.  in  length ;  the  color  is  a  shi- 
ning reddish  green,  with  rump  and  belly  chest- 
nut, neck  and  chest  white  spotted ;  naked  tem- 
ples violet,  and  the  throat  and  feet  red ;  the 
female  is  of  a  more  reddish  tint,  with  the  crest, 
neck,  and  mantle  bordered  with  white.  Sev- 
eral other  species  are  described,  all  inhabit- 
ing the  central  portion  of  South  America. 
Though  the  guans  have  most  of  the  habits  of 
the  curassows,  they  are  far  less  gregarious; 
they  are  more  noisy  and  restless,  and  have  two 
broods  in  a  year,  about  January  and  June ;  the 
nests  are  built  in  trees.  They  are  mild  and 
peaceable,  easily  domesticated,  breeding  in  cap- 
tivity. They  are  heavy  fliers,  but  rapid  run- 
ners, keeping  their  wings  unfolded. — The  par- 
raqua  guans  (ortalida,  Merrem)  have  the  head 
and  throat  covered  with  feathers,  or  with  very 
slight  bare  spaces  on  the  cheeks  and  throat; 
the  bill  is  higher  and  more  pheasant-like  than 
in  the  penelope.  The  best  known  species  (0. 
katraca,  Bodd.)  is  about  20  in.  long,  bronze- 
colored  above,  whitish  beneath,  and  reddish  on 
the  head ;  they  prefer  woods  near  the  seacoast, 
and  are  fond  of  cultivated  fields ;  the  voice  is 
loud  and  disagreeable,  resembling  the  utter- 
ance of  their  specific  name ;  they  are  found 
only  in  the  warm  regions  of  South  America.— 
A  curious  and  handsome  bird  of  this  family  is 
the  orcophasis  DerManus  (Gray),  from  Guate- 
mala. The  base  of  the  bill  is  covered  with 
velvety  black  down ;  the  space  above  the  eye 
is  naked,  and  the  forehead  is  surmounted  by  a 
broad,  rounded,  truncated  red  knob ;  there  is 
a  small  bare  space  on  the  throat.  The  general 
color  above  is  greenish  black ;  below  whitish, 
with  longitudinal  blackish  dashes;  white  band 
on  the  middle  of  the  long  and  rounded  tail ; 
bill,  legs,  and  bare  spaces  red. 

GUANABACOA,  a  town  of  Cuba,  on  a  bay  of 
the  same  name,  2  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Havana ;  pop. 
about  7,000.  The  streets  are  wide  and  regu- 
lar, and  the  houses  remarkably  well  built, 
many  of  them  being  very  handsome.  It  has  a 
church,  two  convents,  a  theatre,  philharmonic 
society,  schools  and  academies  for  both  sexes, 
and  several  hospitals.  It  is  rendered  espe- 
cially attractive  by  its  sea  baths,  which  are 
frequented  by  the  wealthy  Ilavanese.  Many 
Havana  merchants  reside  here.  It  communi- 
cates with  Havana  by  rail. 

GUANACACHE,  a  lake  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, in  the  province  of  San  Juan,  lat.  31° 
50'  S.,  Ion.  68°  40'  W.  Its  length  is  about 
40  m.,  and  mean  breadth  14  m. ;  it  is  fed  by 
the  Mendoza,  San  Juan,  and  other  rivers,  and 
sends  its  waters  through  the  Cruces  and  Lake 
Silverio  to  the  large  lake  El  Bebedero  on  the 
confines  of  the  provinces  of  San  Luis  and 
Mendoza. 

GUANACASTE,  a  province  of  Central  America, 
lying  between  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  bay 
of  Nicoya,  and  comprising  a  broken  country, 
thinly  populated,  and  only  adapted  for  grazing. 
During  the  dominance  of  the  Spanish  crown  it 
was  under  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  juris- 


GUANACO 


GUANAJUATO 


279 


iction  of  Nicaragua;  but  after  the  indepen- 
lence,  and  the  establishment  of  the  republic  of 
Central  America,  it  was  set  off  by  the  federal 
igress  to  the  state  of  Costa  Rica.  The 
leasure  was  declared  to  be  temporary,  and 
ras  against  the  wishes  of  its  inhabitants.  On 
the  dissolution  of  the  federation,  Costa  Rica 
asserted  jurisdiction  over  it,  on  the  strength  of 
enactment  of  congress ;  the  question  led  to 
)itter  discussions,  until  by  a  treaty  in  1858  the 
greater  part  of  the  district  was  conceded  to 
jsta  Rica.  Nicaragua  still  urges  her  claim 
the  province.  In  1873  telegraphic  com- 
mnication  was  established  between  Liber- 
1,  the  capital,  and  San  Jos6,  the  capital  of 

Rica. 

GUANACO.     See  LLAMA. 
GUANAJUATO.    I.  A  central  state  of  Mexico, 
ig  between  lat.  20°  and  22°  N.,  and  Ion.  100° 
id  102°  W.,  and  bounded  N.  by  San  Luis  Po- 
31,  E.  by  Queretaro,  S.  by  Michoacan,  and  TV. 
>y  Jalisco  ;   area,  11,130  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869, 
T4,073,  about  200,000 
whom  are  whites  of 
Spanish  descent,  300,000 
ire  -  blooded    Indians, 
ly  of  whom  speak 
ly  their  own  langua- 
3s,  and  the  remainder 
lestizos.     The  state  is 
ivided  into  five  depart- 
lents :  Guanajuato,  Le- 
Celaya,  Allende,  and 
pa  Gorda.   The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Guana- 
ito,  Celaya,  San  Mi- 
3!  de  Allende,  Salva- 
ierra,   Salamanca,   and 
Silao.     The   surface  of 
le  country,  almost  the 
rhole  of  which  is  com- 
>rised  within  the  plateau 
"  Anahuac,  at  a  mean 
leight  of  6,000  ft.  above 
"ie  sea,  is  extremely  ir- 
ilar.     It  is  traversed 
>y  two  mountain  chains  from  S.  E.  to  N.  TV. ; 
"latto  the  north  is  the  Sierra  Gorda,  the  other 
Sierra  de  Guanajuato.     In  the  latter  are  the 
iree  peaks  of  Los  Llanitos,  upward  of  9,000  ft. 
high,  El  Gigante,  and  El  Cubilete.     There  are 
other  cordilleras  to  the  south,  between  which 
and  the  Sierra  de  Guanajuato  lie  picturesque  and 
fertile  valleys,  watered  by  numerous  torrents, 
and  comprehended  under  the  general  designa- 
tion of  El  Bajio.     The  three  principal  rivers 
are  the  Rio  de  Lerma  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Laja  and  the  Turbio.     The  only  lake  of  note 
is  the  Yuriria,  not  far  from  the  capital,  12  m. 
long  and  4J  broad  ;  its  waters,  which  are  per- 
fectly fresh,   abound   in  lagres,  a  small  fish 
mch  esteemed.   Most  of  the  mountains  are  por- 
)hyritic,  but  the  Cerro  del  Cubilete  is  mostly 
sal  tic.     The  mines  of  Guanajuato  are  by  far 
the  richest  in  the  republic.     The  most  extensive 
'Iver  mine  was  that  of  Valenciana,  which  for 


40  years  yielded  an  annual  profit  of  $3,000,000 ; 
in  1803  its  depth  was  1,800  ft. ;  it  was  worked 
by  3,100  Indians  and  mestizos.  Lead,  tin,  cop- 
per, iron,  cobalt,  sulphur,  salts,  crystals,  mar- 
ble, &c.,  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  state. 
There  are  numerous  hot  and  sulphur  springs, 
well  known  and  much  frequented  by  invalids. 
The  climate  in  the  department  of  Guanajuato 
is  generally  mild  and  salubrious,  while  in  the 
district  of  La  Luz  and  in  the  elevated  regions 
of  the  Sierra  de  Guanajuato  it  is  quite  cold. 
Some  years  little  or  no  rain  falls,  and  the  crops 
fail.  The  soil  of  Guanajuato  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  in  Mexico,  and  large  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  potatoes,  and  several 
varieties  of  beans  are  obtained.  Chilli,  the  fruit 
of  the  capsicum  annuum,  is  one  of  the  staple 
products ;  the  maguey  (agave  Americana)  is 
plentiful ;  the  sugar  cane  grows  well  in  some 
parts ;  the  olive  flourishes,  as  do  most  of  the 
European  fruits  and  leguminous  plants ;  and 
the  forests  produce  an  abundance  of  building 


Cathedral  of  Guanajuato, 
timber.     The  chief  industry  is  mining; 


but 


agriculture  is  the  favorite  occupation  of  the 
Indians.  There  are  cotton-spinning  factories 
in  Salamanca,  which  is  also  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
cellent earthenware;  cotton  fabrics  are  made 
in  Salvatierra ;  woollen  stuffs  in  Celaya ;  and 
tanneries  exist  in  all  the  large  towns.  The 
staple  articles  of  export  are  the  precious  met- 
als, spices,  medicinal  plants,  and  hides.  II.  A 
city,  capital  of  the  state,  situated  in  a  deep 
valley  6,836  ft.  above  the  sea,  160  m.  N.  W. 
of  Mexico;  lat.  21°  1'  N:,  Ion.  101°  W. ;  pop. 
about  63,000.  Such  is  the  unevenness  of  the 
site  that  in  many  streets  the  houses  appear 
to  be  built  in  amphitheatre,  and  often  the  door 
of  one  dwelling  is  almost  on  a  level  with  the 
roof  of  the  next.  Most  of  the  streets  are  too 
narrow  for  wheeled  vehicles,  and  all  are  ex- 
tremely irregular.  On  the  east  rises  a  moun- 
tain torrent  which  passes  through  some  of 


280 


GUANARE 


the  streets,  and  causes  much  damage  during 
floods.  Guanajuato  has  many  handsome  build- 
ings, private  and  public ;  among  the  latter  are 
the  alhdndiga  de  granaditas  (now  used  as  a 
public  granary,  but  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  important  events  during  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence), the  parish  and  several  other  churches, 
monasteries  and  convents,  and  the  mint.  There 
are  also  a  college,  several  public  and  a  few 
private  schools,  a  theatre,  a  hospital,  and  a 
charitable  institution. — Guanajuato  was  found- 
ed in  1554,  and  was  made  a  city  in  1741. 

GUANARE,  a  city  of  Venezuela,  in  the  state 
of  Barinas,  215  m.  S.  W.  of  Caracas ;  pop. 
about  12,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  picturesque 
valley,  has  straight  wide  streets,  well  built 
houses,  and  a  few  substantial  public  build- 
ings, one  of  which  is  its  church,  much  re- 
sorted to  by  pilgrims.  There  is  a  college, 
and  dependent  upon  it  a  few  schools.  Cattle 
are  the  chief  source  of  wealth.  The  principal 
articles  of  export  are  cacao,  coffee,  indigo, 
sugar,  and  tobacco.  Guanare  was  founded  in 
1593  by  Juan  Fernandez  de  Leon,  or  accord- 
ing to  some  in  1609.  A  river  of  the  same 
name  (sometimes  called  the  Guanarito),  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Orinoco,  passing  within  3  m.  of 
the  city,  considerably  facilitates  exportation. 

GUANCHES,  the  aborigines  of  the  Canary  isl- 
ands, extinct  since  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  gigantic  in  stature, 
well  proportioned,  of  an  olive  complexion, 
with  long  straight  hair,  and  simple  and  mild 
in  character.  They  believed  in  an  invisible 
creator  of  the  universe,  an  evil  spirit,  a  future 
state,  and  a  place  of  torment  for  the  bad,  which 
they  supposed  was  in  the  volcano  of  Teneriffe. 
They  preserved  the  bodies  of  their  dead  and 
deposited  them  in  catacombs,  which  are  now 
visited  among  the  curiosities  of  the  islands. 
They  had  solemn  marriage  rites,  in  preparation 
for  which  the  brides  were  fattened  on  milk. 
Not  more  than  150  words  of  their  language  are 
known,  and  these  have  an  analogy  with  certain 
Berber  dialects.  Their  origin  is  disputed.  Some 
regard  them  as  Libyans  who  fled  to  these  isl- 
ands on  the  conquest  of  Barbary  by  the  Arabs, 
and  this  opinion  is  supported  by  the  similarity 
of  several  customs  of  the  Libyans  and  Guanches. 
Humboldt  supposes  them  to  have  belonged  to 
the  races  of  the  old  continent,  perhaps  to  the 
Caucasian,  and  not,  like  the  rest  of  the  Atlan- 
tides,  to  the  nations  of  the  western  world. 

GUANCABELICA.     See  HUANCAVELIOA. 

GUANO,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  in  the  province 
of  Chimborazo,  about  100  m.  S.  W.  of  Quito  ; 
pop.  about  9,000.  It  contains  many  fine 
houses,  a  handsome  church,  and  manufactories 
of  woollen  stuffs,  carpets,  blankets,  sulphuric 
acid,  &c.  Cinchona  bark  is  exported. 

GUANO  (Sp.  guano  or  huano,  Peruvian  huanu, 
dung),  the  excrement  of  sea  fowl,  intermixed 
with  their  decomposed  bodies  and  eggs,  and  the 
remains  of  seals,  found  accumulated  principally 
upon  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  coasts  of 
South  America  and  Africa.  The  three  small 


GUANO 

islands  called  the  Chincha  islands,  off  the  south 
coast  of  Peru,  and  the  Lobos  islands  off  the 
north  coast,  were  covered  with  it.  It  was 
known  to  the  ancient  Peruvians  as  a  valuable 
manure,  and  the  immense  deposits  of  it  were 
an  especial  object  of  care  to  the  incas.  Acosta 
(quoted  by  Prescott)  states  that  during  the 
breeding  season  no  one  was  allowed  under  pain 
of  death  to  set  foot  on  the  islands  on  which  it 
was  produced,  and  to  kill  the  birds  at  any  time 
was  a  like  offence.  The  Spanish  conquerors 
called  the  islands  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or  snowy 
mountains,  from  the  hills  covered  with  white 
saline  incrustation.  Humboldt  first  drew  at- 
tention in  Europe  to  the  substance  in  1804. 
He  described  the  deposits  as  covering  the  gra- 
nitic rocks  of  the  Chincha  islands  to  the  depth 
of  50  or  60  ft.,  and  yet  the  accumulation  of  the 
preceding  300  years  had  formed  only  a  few  lines 
of  this  thickness.  He  procured  analyses  to  be 
made  of  the  substance  by  Fourcroy,  Vauquelin, 
and  Klaproth,  by  which  it  was  found  to  be  com- 
posed of  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  lime,  with 
urate  and  oxalate  of  ammonia,  water,  organic 
matters  not  determined,  and  some  sand.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  alluded  to  it  about  1810  as 
likely  to  prove  valuable  to  European  farmers; 
and  in  that  year  a  trial  was  made  of  it  at  St. 
Helena  by  Gen.  Beatson.  But  none  was  brought 
to  Europe  for  trial  till  1840,  when  20  casks 
were  imported  into  Liverpool  by  Mr.  Myers. 
The  next  year  the  shipments  amounted  to  sev- 
eral cargoes.  The  exclusive  right  of  digging 
and  shipping  guano  for  the  term  of  nine  years 
was  sold  at  this  time  by  the  Peruvian  and 
Bolivian  governments  for  the  sum  of  $40,000; 
but  the  contract  was  soon  after  repudiated  by 
the  former,  as  the  increasing  demand  for  the 
article  developed  the  immense  value  of  the  de- 
posits. The  monopoly  was  soon  after  revived, 
however,  the  Peruvian  government  confining 
the  exportation  and  sale  to  a  single  house  in 
London  and  another  in  New  York.  Upon  the 
Chincha  islands  it  was  estimated  that  there 
were  about  40,000,000  tons,  the  largest  one 
having  no  less  than  17,000,000  tons.  The  Lo- 
bos islands  also  contained  enormous  deposits, 
and  many  smaller  islands  were  covered  with 
it.  Upon  the  principal  Chincha  island  the  de- 
posit is  said  to  attain  a  thickness  of  160  ft. 
The  exports  from  these  localities  rapidly  in- 
creased, so  that  guano  became  an  important 
article  of  commerce,  and  vessels  returning  from 
the  Pacific  to  England  or  the  United  States 
now  found  a  profitable  return  cargo  at  the 
Chincha  islands,  instead  of  going  as  they  had 
previously  done  to  China  and  the  East  Indies 
in  search  of  one.  The  revenue  to  the  Peru- 
vian government  from  this  trade  exceeded  that 
from  all  other  sources ;  and  its  agents  reaped 
enormous  profits  from  their  authorized  com- 
missions upon  the  shipments.  The  demand  led 
to  explorations  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
and  other  deposits  were  found,  but  nearly  all 
inferior  in  quality  to  those  collected  upon  the 
rainless  islands  off  the  coast  of  Peru.  Upon 


GUANO 


281 


these  the  ingredients  have  remained  little 
changed  in  the  dry  atmosphere  and  under  the 
tropical  sun.  The  uric  acid  and  ammonia, 
both  products  particularly  subject  to  ferment 
and  decompose  in  the  presence  of  moisture, 
remain  unaltered,  except  as  they  become  dry 
and  are  locked  up  in  the  coarse  brown  powder 
produced  from  these  and  the  other  ingredients 
of  the  excrement.  So  the  nitrate  of  soda  and 
common  salt,  both  deliquescent  in  a  moist  at- 
mosphere, are  found  as  a  dry  deposit  among 
the  parched  sands  of  the  desert  of  Atacama  in 
the  same  rainless  district.  In  localities  subject 
to  rains  these  valuable  nitrogenous  compounds 
disappear,  and  the  value  of  the  guano  consists 
principally  in  the  next  useful  ingredients,  the 
phosphates,  which  remain.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  guano  product  of  Peru  is  sent  to  Eng- 
land. The  entire  imports  into  Great  Britain 
lounted  in  1870  to  280,311  tons,  valued  at 
£3,476,680 ;  in  1871,  178,808  tons,  valued  at 
£1,986,989;  and  in  1872,  118,704  tons,  valued 
at  £1,201,042.  Of  the  imports  in  1872,  74,401 
tons,  valued  at  £875,882,  came  from  Peru ; 
17,475  tons,  worth  £113,073,  from  the  islands 
in  the  Pacific  ;  and  14,068  tons,  worth  £108,- 
150,  from  Bolivia.  During  the  year  ending 
Tune  30,  1872,  there  was  imported  into  the 
United  States  14,309  tons  of  guano,  valued  at 
$423,323,  of  which  11,654  tons,  worth  $385,- 
063,  were  from  Peru,  and  1,820  tons,  worth 
t,473,  from  the  British  West  Indies.  Besides 
ris  amount,  4,209  tons,  valued  at  $60,865, 
were  from  the  islands,  rocks,  and  keys  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States. — The  composition  of 
guano  is  exceedingly  complex.  The  following 
minute  analyses  of  South  American  samples 


were  communicated  by  J.  Denham  Smith  to 
the  chemical  society,  and  published  in  vol.  ii. 
of  their  "  Memoirs."  Nos.  1  and  2  were  in  the 
state  of  powder;  the  others  were  of  the  con- 
crete variety : 


.  CONSTITUENTS. 

I. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Soluble  in  cold  water. 

Water  

222-00 

215-00 

204-20 

106-66 

77-00 

Muriate  of  ammonia 

25-50 

85-22 

4-43 

30-80 

Sulphate  of  potash  . 

80-00 

Sulphate  of  soda  

trace 

87-90 

259-44 

12-23 

191-77 

Oxalate  of  ammonia 

74-00 

100-38 

93-90 

Oxalate  of  soda  

105-63 

Phos.  of  ammonia  .  . 

6330 

30-06 

61-24 

trace 

Phosphate  of  lime  .  . 

12-56 

Phosphate  of  potash 
Phosphate  of  soda.  . 
Chlor.  of  potassium 

20-02 
35-82 

77-82 

14-94 

49'-47 
8-60 
41-63 

Chloride  of  sodium  . 

29-22 

9"-50 

286-31 

Organic  matter  

15-66 

6l"-74 

6-68 

2-40 

25-53 

Soluble  in  boiling  water. 

Urate  of  ammonia  . 

154-18 

25-12 

Uric  acid 

2516 

Phos.  am.  and  mag. 

5-64 

4-04 

7-84 

l"-83 

Phosphate  of  soda.  . 
Phosphate  of  lime  .  . 
Organic  matter  

1-20 
1-26 
11-18 

1-28 

2-88 
6-88 

8-60 

trace 
11-37 
10-00 

V-io 

7-56 

.  Insoluble  in  water. 

Oxalate  of  lime  

25-CO 

107-26 

109-58 

Phosphate  of  lime  .  . 

197-50 

192-00 

62-70 

6C4'47 

ttl'is 

Phos.  of  magnesia.  . 

20-30 

19-84 

8-74 

30-56 

25-80 

Humus  

25-36 

20-60 

8-62 

)    .... 

Organic  matter  
Water 

t  34-nii 

11-40 
42-42 

49-74 

V  29-73 
I  80-60 

i  18-36 

Sand,  &c..                 >  (  15-fiO 

16-4S 

7-20 

20-43 

'    4-20 

Ox.  iron  and  alum'  a 

1-50 

Loss,  &c  

0-44 

1-50 

4-98 

2-68 

Total  

1,000-00 

1,000-00 

1,000-00 

1,000-00 

1,002-22 

The  following  are  forms  and  examples  of  ordi- 
nary commercial  analyses : 


BOLF 

?IAN. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Angamos. 

Peruvian. 

Ichaboe. 

Govern- 
ment. 

Inferior. 

Hand. 

bay. 

lian. 

nian. 

Chilian. 

Water    

12-36 

13-73 

18-89 

16-44 

14-15 

24-96 

21-03 

13-20 

20-61 

14-89 

Org.  matter  and  ammon'al  salts  . 
Phosphates  

59-92 
17-01 

53-16 

23-48 

32-49 
19-63 

12-23 
56-09 

26-14 
23-13 

10-96 

54-47 

14-93 
56-40 

13-77 
44-47 

19-72 
80-66 

16-81 
8690 

Sulphate  of  lime  

9-65 

2-82 

4-55 

1-30 

Carbonate  of  lime 

12-87 

2-20 

8-82 

3-06 

10-28 

Alkaline  salts.. 

7-20 

7-97 

8-82 

11-33 

5-97 

4-06 

6-io 

7-34 

7-01 

6-84 

Sand 

3'51 

1-66 

6-72 

2-81 

8'09 

0'51 

1-54 

7-85 

17-04 

14-26 

Total  

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

Ammonia.. 

21-10 

17-50 

10-42 

2-57 

8-26 

1-26 

1-62 

1-01 

2-69 

1-42 

Phosphoric  acid  in  alkaline  salts 

1-20 

2-50 

g-11 

3-00 

For  commercial  purposes  it  is  of  no  impor- 
tance to  enumerate  all  the  compounds.  The 
approximate  value  of  samples  can  be  arrived 
at  in  the  following  manner :  Multiply  the 
values  named  below  by  the  per  cent,  found  of 
each  ingredient ;  the  sum  obtained  will  repre- 
sent the  value  of  100  tons  of  the  guano.  Thus 
for  the  nitrogen  found  the  rate  per  cent,  is 
$370,  or  if,  instead  of  this  being  separated, 
the  ammonia  is  estimated,  the  rate  is  $300 ; 
for  phosphate  of  lime  the  additional  amount  is 
$40 ;  soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  $120 ;  organic 
matter,  $5;  alkaline  salts,  $5;  'sulphate  of 
lime,  $5.  Example  of  sample  of  first-class  Pe- 
ruvian guano : 


•Per  cent. 

Moisture 15-10 

Organic  matter 51-27  x  $5=  $256  25 

Silica 2-20 

Phosphate  of  lime 22-13  x  40=    885  20 

Phosphoric  acid 3'23 

Alkaline  salts...                 6-07x     5=     3035 


100-00 
Soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  equivalent 

to  the  phosphoric  acid  above 7'00  x  120=   840  00 

Ammonia  derivable  from  the    organic 

matter  above 16'42  x  300=4,926  00 

Value  of  100  tons $6,937  90 

The  following  three  analyses  of  Jarvis  island 
and  one  of  Baker's  island  guano  are  by  Prof. 
John  0.  Draper  of  New  York : 


GUANO 


Ci  iNSTI  11   1  A  l>. 

Jtrvli 

ll.nl. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Jar  vli 
i.land. 

IHker'. 

i  I  u,.|. 

Water 

"ii-iiii 

17-50 

Water  

7-60 

•l-:,n 

Oix-  inutttTiiiul 
•nuDon'l  Mlta 

Phosplu 
Hulph.  of  lime. 
Alkallno  salts.. 

is-oo 

•21-00 

.VJ-iiO 
4-00 

4-00 
10-00 

4-00 

Or-Mlli.'   IMatt.T 

Soluble  halts  .. 
Sulph.  of  lime. 

Phot,  of  Una*.. 

Curbs.  &  silica 

4-00 
2-60 
6-00 
81-00 

11  Mill 

h-oo 

7C-80 
I'M 

Total 

|,M.-.HI 

loo-no 

IIHI-IHI 

100-00 

Analyses  and  calculations  like  those  given 
ought  to  ho  made  in  entering  upon  all  large 
purchases  of  guano,  as  well  on  account  of  the 
great  natural  diHercnces  in  the  qualities  of  the 
various  kinds,  oven  from  the  same  locality,  as 
of  i lu-  gross  adulterations  which  are  largely 
and  most  ingeniously  practised;  suhstances  of 
no  value  as  fertilizers  being  intermixed  with 
the  genuine  article,  so  as  to  very  materially 
reduce  its  value.  Full  half  the  guano  sold  in 
England  is  said  to  he  thus  deteriorated.  The 
analyses,  moreover,  are  of  importance,  as  they 
Indicate  the  most  advantageous  methods  of 
applying  the  guanos,  and  for  what  crops  and 
what  soils  tin  \  are  best  adapted.  But  for  the 
knowledge  of  their  composition  thus  acquired, 
tin-  hot  Peruvian  guano,  rich  in  ammonia, 
might  be  extravagantly  employed  upon  soils 
that  would  he  almost  equally  benefited  by  the 
cheaper  qualities,  of  which  the  phosphates  are 
tin-  chi<-f  fertilizing  ingredients.  Upon  light 
soils  especially,  the  ammoniacal  guano  may  be 
used  to  waste,  owing  to  the  little  obstruction 
they  present  to  the  escape  of  its  volatile  and 
very  soluble  portions ;  the  full  benefit  of  these 
will  bo  secured  only  in  the  strongest  soils,  or 
in  composts  prepared  with  the  view  of  their 
absorption  and  retention.  In  such  mixtures 
guano  is  used  most  advantageously.  Of  itself 
alone  it  may  furnish  all  the  ingredients  re- 
quired by  the  plants ;  but  its  activity  and  eva- 
nescence need  to  be  chocked,  and  on  account 
of  its  caustic  quality  care  should  bo  taken  that 
it  be  not  brought  in  direct  contact  with  the 
seed.  The  quantity  of  best  guano  that  should 
bo  employed  to  the  aero  is  generally  rated  at 
from  ;{  to  5  cwt. ;  and  it  should  bo  applied  in 
wet  weather,  when  the  rains  diffuse  it  equally 
through  the  soil.  The  Peruvians,  it  is  s:iiii, 
irrigate  immediately  after  applying  it.  They 
use  it  only  for  Indian  corn  and  potatoes,  bury- 
ing about  half  a  handful  near  each  root  when 
the  plants  are  perhaps  half  grown,  ami  add- 
ing some  \\aicr  "to  fix  the  guano."  In  this 
country  it  is  found  to  bo  an  excellent  top 
dressing  for  grass  and  young  corn,  and  is  a 
most  efficient  manure  for  Ml  the  root  crops. 
The  search  for  new  localities  of  guano  led 
to  the  discovery  in  I  s.V,  ,,f  animal  deposits 
of  the  same  original  nature'  upon  the  groups 
•  >f  islands  lying  oil'  the  coast  of  (iuiana  and 
Veiie/.uela.  Immense  lloeks  of  sea  fowl  fre- 
quent, these  i>laiids  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
their  C-L'S.  lint,  bring  in  the  region  of  the 
tropical  rains  the  deposits  of  , -\creinent  and 
other  organic  matters  are  subject  to  chemical 


changes,  from  which  result  singular  products, 
renr  different  from  those  of  the  earthy  guano 
of  the  dry  islands  of  t  he  Pacific.  The  principal 

S'OUps  which  furnish  these  products  are  l.os 
onges  (Monks1  island),  Kl  Roque,  and  Centi- 
nella.  Some  of  the  islands  are  low,  and  strewed 
with  sand,  which  is  made  up  of  comminuted 
coral,  madrepore,  and  shells,  in  which  the 
birds  lay  their  eggs.  Others  rise  in  peaks  to 
the  height  of  800  ft.,  and  upon  these  are  strati- 
fied rocky  layers  of  metamorphio  guano,  some- 
times covered  with  the  deposits  still  in  process 
of  accumulation.  Several  qualities  of  guano 
are  recognized,  one  of  which  is  arenaceous,  in 
grains  as  coarse  as  mustard  seed,  light  yellow- 
ish brown  or  nearly  white  when  dried,  exha- 
ling an  odor  not  ammoniacal,  but  like  that  of 
freshly  dug  earth.  Its  average  composition  is 
thus  stated  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes:  moisture, 
after  drying,  4'40  ;  organic  matter,  0'4() ;  hone 
phosphate  of  lime,  40-60;  carbonate  of  lime, 
39'80  ;  phosphate  of  magnesia,  1 -20  ;  sulphate 
of  lime,  0-80;  sand,  0-21;  traces  of  chloride 
and  sulphate  of  soda;  total,  99-41.  The  am- 
monia or  nitrogen  in  the  organic  matters  does 
not  exceed  2  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  Another 
variety  is  in  aggregated  grains,  the  iirst  step  in 
the  change  of  the  material  into  rock.  It,  dinars 
in  composition  from  the  preceding  principally 
by  loss  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  increased 
proportion  of  bone  phosphate.  A  third  va- 
riety is  a  solid  rock,  which  forms  a  crust  some- 
times 2  ft.  thick  over  the  lower  portions  of  the 
deposit,  and  is  the  product  of  the  change  that 
has  taken  place  upon  the  surface  of  the  mass. 
Its  composition  is  somewhat  variable  at  differ- 
ent localities;  but  it  is  every  where  distinguished 
by  the  disappearance  of  carbonate  of  lime  and 
largo  increase  in  the  proportion  of  phosphate 
and  sulphate  of  lime.  The  carbonate  of  lime 
has  been  decomposed  by  the  acids  generated 
in  the  fermentation  induced  by  the  moisture 
at  the  prevailing  elevated  temperature,  and 
with  other  soluble  matters  has  been  removed 
by  the  rains.  The  passage  of  the  gaseous  ex- 
halations through  the  mass,  gradually  thicken- 
ing as  its  aqueous  portion  evaporates  and  the 
salts  gather  at  the  surface,  renders  its  structure 
porous  and  cellular,  and  so  much  like  that  of 
some  trachytic  rocks  that  the  substance'  has 
been  mistaken  for  one  of  igneous  origin,  or  at 
least  metamorphosed  by  heat.  The  granular 
structure  has  given  place  to  a  compact,  close 
texture,  and  a  mineral  appearance  and  hard- 
ness closely  approaching  that  of  feldspar;  and 
in  some  specimens  are  observed  angular  frag- 
ments and  grains  hardly  to  be  distinguished 
by  tin-  eye  from  epidote.  Tin- external  surface 
has  an  uneven  weathered  appearance  like  that 
of  trap  rock,  and  is  of  a  lighter  color  than  the 
body  of  the  rock  within.  Various  analyses 
have  bec'ii  made  of  this  substance  by  ditl'erent 
chemists,  and  it  is  found  to  consist  principally 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  the  former  gener- 
ally raniring  from  87  to  40  per  cent.,  and  the 
latter  from  :;:»  to  1 1  per  cent.,  of  which  a  small 


GUAPEY 


GUARANTY 


283 


portion  is  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  to  form 
sulphate  of  lime,  the  proportion  of  this  some- 
times exceeding  's  per  cent.,  and  tho  crystals 
being  visible  in  the  eellsof  tbe  mitier:il.      \\aler 
organic  matters  some!  lines  exceed   10  per 
t.     In  the  bodv  of  the  rock  the  phosphoric 
is  found  combined  with  two  atoms  of  base 
d  one  of  water,  in  the  form  of  common  phos- 
ihate  of  lime  ;  while  tho  external  part  is  a  com- 
ination  of  an  atom  of  acid  with  three  of  lime, 
forming  the   so-called  tri-phosphate  of  lime, 
e  acid  is  also  sometimes  combined  in  small 
>por!ion  with  iron,  alumina,  and  magnesia, 
oda  is  present  in  some  samples  to  the  amount 
of  -  or  :'•  per  cent.    Much  of  tho  guano  rock 
ly  resembles  in  appearance  the  phosphate 
lime  rocks  of  the  older  crystalline  forma 
and  it  affords  a  remarkable  instance  of 
e  conversion  of  modern  collections  of  organic 
nces  into  what  appears  to  ho  an  ancient 
k.     Though  traced  directly  into  the  mass 
these  substances  with  which  it  is  associated, 
the  derivation  of  which  is  obviously  from 
digested  bones  of  fishes  and  other  food  of 
s,  from  comminuted  shells,  and  the  remains 
tho  birds  themselves  and  of  their  eggs,  all 
ges  of  animal  life  have  as  completely  dis- 
ared  in  tho  hard  strata  as  they  have  from 
true  metamorphic  rocks,  the  changes  in 
we  have  been  accustomed  to  ascribe  to 
heat  produced  under  the  pressure  of 
perincumbent  mountains  of  rock,  and  exert- 
through  long  and  indefinite  periods. 
Gl'APEY.     See  Rio  GRANDE. 
<;i'  \ll.\Y\.  a  paste  formed  chiefly  from  seeds 
r<niHini(i  sorbilis,  and  perhaps  P.  cupana, 
bing  shrubs  of  the  order  sapindacece,  grow- 
g  in  Bra/il  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco. 
e  paste  is  dried  into  rough,  hard,  reddish 
wn  masses,  which  may  he  reduced  to  pow- 
.    It  is  habitually  used  by  the  Brazilian  In- 
ans  as  a  part  of  their  diet,  either  mixed  with 
r  articles  or  as  a  drink.     It  is  said  to  con- 
n  more  than  5  per  cent,  of  a  crystallizahle 
nciplo  identical  with   caffeine,  and  has  in 
dition  tannic  acid  and  two  or  three  volatile 
It  has  long  been  used  in  Brazil  as  a  med- 
ine,  especially  in  tho  treatment  of  diseases 
'  t  he  bowels  ;   but  although  known  in  Europe 
a  number  of  years,  it  has  only  recently  re- 
much  attention.     Its  action  upon   tho 
in  in  a  state  of  health  is  apparently  nega- 
,  as  it  affects  neither  pulse  nor  temperature, 
increased  capacity  for  mental  labor,  mode- 
,te  wakefulncss,  and  an  influence  upon  tho 
rvous  system,  similar  to  that  produced  by 
and  coffee,  have  been  observed.     It  evi- 
lly acts  somewhat  like  a  tonic;  but  more 
rate  observations  than  any  we  now  pos- 
are  requisite  in  order  to  determine  its  phy- 
logical  action  upon  the  system.     It  has  ro- 
ntly  been  used  both  in  this  country  and  Eu- 
with  advantage  in  tho  treatment  of  head- 
les,  especially  those  of  a  nervous  character. 
renders  the  greatest  service  in  such  cases 
hen  it  is  administered  near  the  commence- 


ment of  an  attack,  and  repeated  at  short  inter- 
vals. It  is  best  given  in  milk,  and  should  bo 
repeated  if  necessary  at  intervals  of  half  an 
hour,  three  or  four  times,  in  doses  of  from  ten 
grains  to  half  a  drachm.  In  other  nervous  af- 
fections it  has  been  tried,  especially  in  nervous 
derangement  of  tho  stomach,  but  in  these  it 
has  not  been  found  useful.  Its  action  closely 
resembles  that  of  tea  and  coffee.  A  fluid  ex- 
tract has  also  been  made.  Its  administration 
is  contra-indicated  by  an  inflammatory  con- 
dition of  the  system. 

GUARANlS.    See  Tupf-GuAEAwfs. 

GUARANTY.  This  word  is  derived  from  tho 
old  English  word  warrant.  The  Latin  and  tho 
Norman  French  languages,  not  having  the  let- 
ter w,  in  spelling  this  word  and  many  others 
used  the  letter  g  instead  of  w,  as  in  the  name 
Wilhelm  or  William,  which  is  in  Latin  Guiliel- 
mus,  and  in  French  Guillaumo.  Thus  the  bar- 
barous word  guarantito  came  into  use  in  law- 
proceedings,  although  the  even  more  barbarous 
word  warrantiso  was  also  used.  Gradually  tho 
words  became  distinguished  in  their  meaning ; 
and  at  present  it  is  found  very  convenient  to 
use  the  Latin  form  guaranty  in  one  sense,  and 
warranty  in  a  different  although  an  analogous 
meaning.  A  guaranty  is  a  promise  that  some 
other  party  (who  is  called  the  principal)  shall 
pay  a  debt,  or  discharge  some  duty,  or  perform 
some  act;  and  to  answer  for  the  consequences 
if  the  principal  fails  to  do  what  is  thus  prom- 
ised. It  is  an  extremely  common  business 
transaction ;  and  we  shall  endeavor  to  give  the 
principal  rules  by  which  it  is  governed. — Every 
indorser  of  negotiable  paper  is  in  fact  a  guar- 
antor; but  in  such  a  peculiar  way,  that  tho 
law  attaches  to  him  duties  on  tho  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  gives  him  rights,  not  known 
to  common  guarantors.  (See  \'K(;OTI. \HI.K  PA- 
PER, and  PROMISSORY  NOTE.)  Every  surety 
also  is  a  guarantor,  and  the  law  for  guarantors 
and  for  sureties  is  in  many  respects  similar, 
but  in  other  respects  different.  (See  SURETY.) 
In  the  first  place,  a  guaranty  is  not  in  general 
negotiable ;  by  which  is  meant  that  it  cannot  be 
transferred  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  trans- 
feree tho  right  of  suing  upon  it  in  his  name,  or, 
if  this  bo  permitted,  of  suing  with  nil  the  rights 
and  advantages  of  an  original  holder.  In  tho 
next  place,  although  it  is  a  promise  only  to  pay 
tho  debt  of  another,  tho  guarantor  may  be  held, 
alt  hough  the  promise  of  that  other  was  void- 
able by  him  who  made  it,  and  could  not  be  en- 
forced at  law  ;  as  if  it  were  tho  promise  of  an 
infant,  and  not  for  necessaries,  or  of  a  married 
woman.  In  fact,  guaranties  are  very  often 
taken  for  tho  very  reason  that  the  debt  or 
promise  guarantied  is  one  which  has  no  value 
by  itself.  But  generally,  tho  liability  of  the 
guarantor  is  measured  and  determined  by  that 
of  the  principal,  or  tho  party  whose  debt  or 
promise  is  guarantied,  fro  especial  words  or 
phrases  or  form  of  instrument  is  necessary  to 
constitute  a  guaranty.  Tho  intention  must  bo 
manifest,  and  tho  words  must  bo  such  as  may 


GUARANTY 


be  construed  into  an  expression  of  that  in- 
tention; and  this  will  be  sufficient.  The 
contract  of  guaranty  is  one  which  is  construed, 
if  not  severely,  at  least  exactly.  Thus  if  A 
guaranties  the  notes  of  B,  he  is  not  bound  for 
notes  which  B  signs  jointly  with  C ;  and  if  B 
changes  his  business  or  the  nature  of  his  debts, 
so  as  to  throw  upon  A  a  liability  distinctly  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  it  was  his  intention  to 
assume,  A  is  thereby  discharged  from  his  guar- 
anty.— The  guarantee  (or  party  guarantied) 
must  preserve  all  the  securities  he  has  of  the 
principal  debtor  unimpaired,  because  if  the 
guarantor  pays  the  debt,  he  is  entitled  to  all 
these  securities;  and  a  court  having  equity 
powers  will,  upon  cause  shown,  compel  the 
guarantee  to  do  what  he  can  to  turn  these  se- 
curities to  account  for  the  beneft  of  the  guar- 
antor, if  the  guarantee  alone  can  do  it,  or  can 
do  it  to  the  most  advantage,  before  it  will  per- 
mit him  to  call  upon  the  guarantor.  Indeed, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  a  fundamental  proposi- 
tion of  the  law  of  guaranty,  that  the  guarantee 
shall  act  with  entire  fairness  toward  the  guar- 
antor, and  shall  do  all  that  can  properly  be 
done  to  lessen  his  burden.  Therefore  if  the 
creditor,  being  guarantied,  agree  with  the  prin- 
cipal to  reduce  his  debt  in  any  certain  propor- 
tion, he  shall  be  understood  to  make  the  agree- 
ment for  the  guarantor's  benefit  as  much  as 
for  his  own,  and  therefore  the  guaranty  shall 
be  reduced  in  the  same  proportion.  Still, 
however,  it  seems  to  be  generally  held  that  the 
guarantor's  right  is  confined  to  the  securities 
for  the  debt,  and  does  not  extend  to  the  debt 
itself;  if  therefore  a  guarantor  pays  a  debt,  it 
is  said  that  he  has  no  right  to  demand  from 
the  creditor  a  transfer  of  the  debt  itself,  or  of 
the  note  by  which  the  debt  was  evidenced,  for 
the  reason  that  this  very  debt  has  been  already 
paid  or  discharged  by  himself  as  guarantor. 
But  he  may  demand,  with  the  securities,  the 
note  itself,  or  a  transfer  of  the  debt,  if  this  be 
necessary  to  make  the  securities  available ;  and 
it  would  be  difficult  to  resist  his  right,  we 
should  say,  to  be  subrogated  to  the  creditor's 
claim,  so  far  as  he  could  make  that  available  to 
himself.  But  the  law  on  this  point  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  distinctly  settled. — The  prom- 
ise to  pay  the  debt  of  another,  like  every  other 
promise  known  to  the 'law,  must  rest  upon  a 
good  consideration,  or  it  cannot  be  enforced  by 
legal  process.  The  law  on  this  subject  is  a 
little  nice  in  respect  to  guaranties;  for  while  it 
demands  inexorably  that  there  should  be  a  con- 
sideration, it  sometimes  declares  that  if  the 
promise  which  is  guarantied  rests  upon  a  good 
consideration,  this  same  consideration  shall  be 
sufficient  to  sustain  the  promise  of  guaranty; 
but  if  the  tinaranty  is  given  subsequently,  after 
the  consideration  for  the  original  promise  is 
executed  and  passed,  so  that  it  can  have  no 
force  or  application  whatever  to  the  new  and 
distinct  promise  of  guaranty,  the  latter  will 
require  a  new  and  distinct  consideration  for  its 
support.  But  to  make  this  consideration  suf- 


ficient, it  is  not  necessary  that  anything  shall 
pass  directly  from  him  who  receives  the  guar- 
anty to  him  who  gives  it;  for  if  the  party 
for  whom  it  is  given,  or  the  party  by  whom  it 
is  given,  receive  any  benefit,  or  the  party  to 
whom  it  is  given  suffer  any  loss  or  injury,  from 
or  by  reason  of  the  promise  of  guaranty,  it  is  a 
good  consideration.  The  guarantee  must  con- 
duct himself  in  all  respects  with  entire  good 
faith,  and  if  there  be  any  taint  or  fraud  about 
the  consideration  (as,  for  example,  if  a  guaranty 
is  given  for  a  certain  amount  of  goods  sold,  and 
the  seller  has  made  an  arrangement  with  the 
buyer  whose  debt  is  guarantied,  by  which  ar- 
rangement the  buyer  is  to  pay  him  more  than 
the  true  price,  the  difference  going  toward  an 
old  debt  due  from  the  buyer  to  the  seller),  this 
is  a  fraud  upon  the  guarantor,  and  he  is  dis- 
charged not  only  as  to  this  unfair  excess,  but 
as  to  his  whole  promise  of  guaranty.— A  guar- 
anty, being  a  promise  to  pay  the  debt  of  an- 
other, is  precisely  within  the  clause  of  the  stat- 
ute of  frauds  which  requires  that  such  a  prom- 
ise be  in  writing  and  signed  by  the  guarantor. 
It  often  happens,  however,  that  a  guaranty,  or 
a  contract  which  has  all  the  appearance  of  a 
guaranty,  and  which  is  not  in  writing,  is  still 
enforced  by  the  courts.  This  occurs  when  they 
can  hold  the  promise  to  be  an  original  promise, 
and  not  a  collateral  promise.  For  an  original 
promise  is  a  promise  to  pay  one's  own  debt ; 
while  a  collateral  promise  is  a  promise  to  pay  a 
debt  which  is  primarily  the  debt  of  another. 
This  is  a  very  nice  and  difficult  question,  and 
has  been  very  variously  decided.  The  disposi- 
tion of  the  courts  so  to  construe  and  apply 
the  statute  of  frauds  as  that  it  shall  not  be  an 
instrument  of  fraud,  has  led  them  to  some 
strange  decisions.  Comparing  the  cases,  and 
drawing  from  them  the  true  principle  which 
must  govern  the  question,  we  should  say  the 
rule  must  be  this :  If  one  who  promises  to  pay 
the  debt  of  another  receives  an  independent 
consideration  for  his  promise,  and  thereby  en- 
joys a  benefit  or  advantage  which  is  entirely 
his  own,  and  which  he  would  not  have  enjoyed 
but  for  the  transaction,  then  the  promise  is  to  be 
regarded  as  his  promise  to  pay  his  own  debt,  and 
therefore  needs  not  to  be  in  writing.  As  an 
illustration  of  this  question,  which  is  frequently 
recurring  and  always  difficult,  we  should  say 
that  if  the  creditor  had  attached  the  property 
of  the  original  debtor,  and  the  alleged  guaran- 
tor had  requested  that  the  attachment  might 
be  discharged  and  agreed  to  pay  the  debt  if  it 
were,  and  the  attachment  was  then  discharged 
and  the  property  set  free,  this  would  not  be 
enough  to  make  it  the  guarantor's  promise  for 
his  own  benefit,  or  his  original  promise,  and 
therefore  it  could  not  be  enforced,  unless  it  was 
in  writing.  But  if  the  alleged  guarantor  had  re- 
quested not  only  that  the  attachment  should  be 
discharged,  but  that  the  property  should  be  de- 
livered over  to  him  for  his  own  advantage,  this 
new  element  would  make  his  promise  one  for 
his  own  benefit,  or,  in  the  language  of  the  law, 


GUARANTY 


285 


an  original  and  not  a  collateral  promise,  and 
therefore  it  needs  not  to  be  in  writing.  So,  if 
A  delivers  goods  to  B,  at  the  request  of  C,  who 
is  to  pay  for  them,  and  who  may  be  considered 
as  the  buyer  of  them,  C,  when  he  promises  to 
pay  for  them,  promises  to  pay  his  own  debt, 
and  therefore  the  promise  may  be  in  spoken 
words  only.  But  if  A  sells  goods  to  B,  on  C's 
promise  to  pay  for  them  if  B  does  not,  then  A's 
promise  is  only  collateral  to  B's,  and  it  must 
be  in  writing.  The  question  therefore  is,  were 
the  goods  sold  to  C  for  the  benefit  of  B,  or 
were  they  sold  to  B  on  C's  guaranty  ?  On  this 
question  the  seller's  entry  in  his  books  is  some- 
times very  important  evidence.  If  he  charges 
]  with  them  primarily,  this  may  not  go  far  to 
ind  C,  because  he  may  have  charged  them  so 
r  the  very  purpose  of  holding  C.  But  if  he 
arges  them  simply  to  B,  it  will  be  very  difficult 
r  him  to  prove  afterward  that  he  considered 
imself  as  selling  them  to  C,  and  not  to  B  on 
s  guaranty.  But  still  he  might  show  that 
en  this  entry  was  made  by  mistake,  and  did 
t  represent  the  truth. — The  contract  of  guar- 
ty,  like  every  legal  contract,  requires  two 
rties,  who  agree  to  the  same  thing.  It  fol- 
ws  therefore  that  a  guaranty,  or  a  promise 
pay  the  debt  of  another,  is  not  valid  until 
is  accepted ;  and  this  is  true,  whatever  be 
consideration,  and  whether  it  be  in  wri- 
g  or  otherwise.  But  this  acceptance  need 
t  be  direct  and  unequivocal ;  indeed,  it  need 
^  be  in  any  words  whatever ;  it  may  be  im- 
ied  from  circumstances.  Thus,  if  A  goes 
with  B  to  C,  and  says  to  C,  "  If  you  will  sell 
B  the  goods  he  wishes,  I  will  see  that  he  pays 
the  price,"  and  C,  without  reply  to  A, 
rns  to  B  and  sells  and  delivers  him  the 
s,  there  would  be  no  question  in  this  case 
to  whether  0  accepted  and  acted  upon  the 
aranty  of  A.  It  is  under  a  different  class 
circumstances  that  this  question  generally 
ises.  Thus,  if  the  guaranty  were  by  letter,  and 
ferred  to  subsequent  operations,  the  question 
ould  then  arise  whether  there  was  a  sufficient 
ptance  of  it.  Some  courts  have  asserted 
the  guarantor  had  a  perfect  right  to  know 
hether  his  offer  was  accepted,  and  whether 
e  stood  bound  as  guarantor ;  and  some  have 
ne  so  far  as  to  hold  that  the  guarantor  was 
titled  to  know  at  once,  not  only  that  his  guar- 
,nty  was  acted  upon,  and  the  amount,  but  all 
he  terms  of  the  sale  which  it  could  be  desira- 
le  for  him  to  know,  that  he  might  arrange  ac- 
ordingly.  On  the  other  hand,  courts  of  the 
ighest  authority  have  held,  tfiat  where  an  of- 
r  of  guaranty  is  absolute,  and  does  not  ex- 
essly  or  by  distinct  intimation  call  for  any 
ceptance  or  any  special  information,  the  par- 
y  making  the  offer  might  suppose  it  to  be  ac- 
ipted  and  act  on  that  supposition;  and  the 
arty  receiving  the  offer  may  act  under  it  and 
within  the  terms  of  it,  and  hold  the  guarantor 
without  giving  him  any  notice  of  his  accept- 
ance. It  has  already  been  said  that  the  party 
receiving  the  guaranty  must  conduct  himself 


with  good  faith  and  proper  care  toward  the 
guarantor ;  and  one  effect  of  this  principle  is, 
that  if  any  material  change  is  made  in  the  ex- 
tent or  the  terms  or  character  of  the  liability 
of  the  principal,  this  discharges  the  guarantor. 
Nor  will  a  guarantor  be  held  in  such  case  by 
the  party  guarantied  showing  that  the  change 
was  in  no  way  injurious  to  the  guarantor ;  be- 
cause he  has  a  right  to  judge  for  himself  as  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  he  is  content  to 
be  liable,  and  he  may  stand  upon  the  precise 
terms  of  his  contract.  The  guarantor  may, 
however,  assent  to  such  a  change,  and  then  he 
will  be  held.  Thus,  if  a  new  note  be  given  for 
an  old  one,  this  discharges  the  guarantor  on 
the  old  note ;  and  it  has  been  held  that  if  a 
guarantor  thus  discharged,  in  ignorance  that 
his  liability  has  thus  terminated,  makes  a  new 
acknowledgment  of  this  liability,  he  cannot  be 
held  thereon.  So,  a  guaranty  to  a  partnership 
is  discharged  by  a  change  in  the  partnership, 
although  no  change  in  the  firm  or  style  of  it  be 
made ;  and  this  has  been  held  where  the  guar- 
anty was  given  "for  advances  made  by  them, 
or  by  either  of  them."  The  reason  given  is, 
that  the  guarantor  may  have  trusted  to  the 
skill  or  care  of  the  members  of  the  firm  as  they 
stood  when  he  gave  his  guaranty;  and  the 
change  of  a  single  member  may  be  important 
in  this  respect.  It  should  be  stated,  however, 
that  the  guaranty  itself  may  provide  expressly 
for  all  these  changes,  and  will  not,  of  course, 
be  affected  by  any  which  it  anticipates. — 
Whether  a  guaranty  be  a  continuing  guaranty, 
or  be  intended  to  cover  one  single  transaction 
only,  is  sometimes  a  difficult  question.  In  gen- 
eral, however,  a  guarantor  who  intends  to  lim- 
it his  liability  to  a  single  transaction  should  so 
express  it ;  but  if  it  can  be  gathered  from  the 
terms  of  the  guaranty  that  it  was  intended  and 
should  have  been  understood  to  apply  to  more 
than  one  transaction,  it  will  be  so  held.  The 
limit  may  be  one  of  time,  as  to  be  liable  for  any 
amount  of  goods  sold  before  a  certain  day ;  or 
one  of  amount,  as  for  any  goods  up  to  a  certain 
sum. — That  a  guarantor  is  entitled  to  a  rea- 
sonable protection  we  have  already  seen,  but 
it  has  been  much  disputed  whether,  on  this 
ground,  he  may  insist  that  the  party  guarantied 
shall  proceed  forthwith  against  the  debtor.  It 
would  seem  to  be  very  unjust  to  the  guarantor 
to  permit  a  creditor  to  let  his  debt  lie  without 
taking  any  steps  to  secure  it,  because  he  knows 
that  the  guarantor  is  perfectly  responsible,  and 
he  chooses  to  indulge  some  feeling  of  personal 
kindness  to  the  debtor.  This  question  has  fre- 
quently come  before  the  courts,  especially  in 
New  York ;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
law  is  not  quite  certain.  We  think,  however, 
that  this  rule  may  be  drawn  from  the  best  au- 
thority, and  sustained  by  strong  reasons,  viz. : 
that  the  guarantor  is  not  discharged  by  mere 
delay  of  the  creditor  in  calling  on  the  debtor ; 
but  if  after  a  request  from  the  guarantor  that 
he  should  proceed  (especially  if  the  request  be 
accompanied  by  an  offer  to  pay  the  costs  of 


286 


GUAKATINGUETA 


proceeding),  the  creditor  delay  the  demand 
and  all  proceedings  so  long  and  so  stubbornly 
aa  to  indicate  great  negligence  if  not  fraud, 
and  the  guarantor  can  show  that  by  such  delay 
he  has  lost  the  means  of  indemnifying  himself, 
the  guarantor  is  now  discharged,  at  least  to  the 
extent  of  the  injury  which  he  can  show  that 
he  thus  received.  Nor  is  a  creditor  prohibited 
from  giving  to  his  debtor  all  indulgence  what- 
ever. He  certainly  may  favor  him  in  some 
respects  without  discharging  the  guarantor. 
After  some  fluctuation  the  law  seems  to  have 
settled  down  upon  the  following  rule :  Mere 
forbearance  of  the  debt,  without  fraud,  does 
not  discharge  the  guarantor ;  nor  does  an 
agreement  to  forbear,  provided  this  is  not  so 
binding  on  the  creditor  as  to  prevent  his  suing 
the  debtor  at  any  time.  That  is,  the  creditor 
must  retain  the  power  of  putting  the  debt  in 
suit  at  any  time ;  but  if  he  retain  this  power, 
any  forbearance  consistent  therewith  does  not 
discharge  the  guarantor.  The  reason  is,  that 
the  guarantor  has  the  right  of  paying  the  debt 
at  any  time  after  it  is  due,  and  so  acquiring  the 
right  of  suing  it  at  once ;  and  if  the  creditor 
destroys  this  right  by  putting  the  debt  in  such 
a  condition  that  it  cannot  be  sued  at  once,  he 
deprives  the  guarantor  of  a  valuable  right,  and 
so  loses  his  hold  upon  him.  Reasonable  notice 
should  also  be  given  to  the  guarantor  of  the 
failure  of  the  debtor,  so  that  he  may  have  all 
proper  opportunity  of  obtaining  indemnity.  But 
what  this  reasonable  notice  should  be  is  not 
quite  settled.  There  is  no  time  fixed,  as  in  the 
case  of  indorsed  paper,  within  which  the  no- 
tice of  non-payment  must  be  given ;  and  per- 
haps the  rule  may  be  stated  that  no  mere  de- 
lay of  notice  would  discharge  the  guarantor, 
unless  he  can  show  that  he  has  suffered  injury 
by  such  delay.  But  if  he  can  show  that  if  he 
had  received  this  notice  within  a  day  or  two 
from  the  time  when  the  debt  was  unpaid,  he 
might  then  have  secured  himself,  and  has  now 
lost  the  opportunity,  even  that  delay  might 
suffice  to  discharge  him. — Guaranties  are  some- 
times given  by  one  expressly  in  an  official  ca- 
pacity as  trustee,  church  warden,  executor, 
assignee,  and  the  like.  But  the  guarantor  is 
still  held  personally  on  this  guaranty,  unless, 
1,  he  holds  that  office,  and  2,  has  a  right  by 
virtue  of  the  office  to  give  the  guaranty  in  his 
official  capacity. — Every  guaranty  may,  in  gen- 
eral, be  revoked  at  the  pleasure  of  the  guaran- 
tor, by  giving  due  notice  to  the  party  guaran- 
tied, unless,  1,  the  guaranty  is  given  upon 
some  continuing  consideration  which  is  not  yet 
exhausted,  and  cannot  be  restored  or  rescinded ; 
or,  2,  upon  some  specific  transaction,  which  is 
not  yet  wholly  completed ;  or,  3,  the  guaranty 
is  against  the  misconduct  of  some  servant  or 
officer,  whom  the  guarantee  cannot  at  once 
dismiss,  or  secure  himself  against  by  other 
means,  if  the  guaranty  be  rescinded. 

GIARATINGIETA,  a  town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
pruvinoo  of  Sao  Paulo,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rio  Parahyba,  120  m.  W.  of  Rio  de  Ja- 


GUARDIAN 

neiro;  pop.  about  7,600.  The  streets  are  reg- 
ular, but  narrow,  and  the  houses  built  of 
adobe.  It  has  a  church  and  three  chapels; 
one  of  the  latter,  outside  the  town,  is  visit- 
ed by  numbers  of  pilgrims.  The  surrounding 
country  is  fertile,  and  sugar,  coffee,  and  to- 
bacco are  cultivated,  and,  with  fat  cattle  and 
swine,  are  sent  in  considerable  quantities  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  to  Sao  Paulo. 

GUARD,  National,  a  system  of  militia  instituted 
in  France  in  1789.  The  court  had  concentra- 
ted at  the  gates  of  the  capital  an  army  of  30,- 
000  regular  troops.  To  counteract  this  demon- 
stration, the  citizens  demanded  arms,  and  on 
July  13  a  municipal  council  decreed  the  for- 
mation of  a  militia  of  60  battalions  numbering 
48,000  men.  White,  the  color  of  the  royal 
standard,  was  united  with  the  blue  and  red 
colors  of  the  city  of  Paris  to  form  the  color  of 
this  revolutionary  force,  afterward  so  famous 
as  the  tricolor.  The  other  cities  of  France 
promptly  followed  the  example,  and  the  insti- 
tution took  the  name  of  national  guard.  In 
1795  the  national  guard  of  Paris,  to  the  num- 
ber of  30,000,  rose  in  arms  against  the  conven- 
tion, Oct.  5,  and  attacked  the  Tuileries,  but 
were  repulsed  and  defeated  by  6,000  regular 
troops  commanded  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
The  national  guard  was  now  placed  under  the 
authority  of  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  regu- 
lar army.  During  the  revolution  of  July,  1830, 
the  national  guard  was  revived  at  Paris,  and 
on  July  30  Lafayette,  who  40  years  before  had 
commanded  the  first  national  guard,  was  again 
made  commander-in-chief.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848  the  national  guard  was  largely  in- 
creased, and  by  a  law  of  June  26,  1851,  it  was 
organized  throughout  France,  and  made  to  in- 
clude all  citizens  above  the  age  of  20,  except 
regular  soldiers  and  persons  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  government.  After  the  coup  d'e- 
tat of  Dec.  2,  1851,  it  was  dissolved,  and  re- 
established by  a  decree  dated  Jan.  11,  1852,  on 
a  new  and  much  restricted  plan,  reducing  it  to 
the  condition  of  a  mere  armed  police  for  the 
repression  of  tumults.  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  the  national  guard  was  reorgan- 
ized. After  the  evacuation  of  Paris  by  the 
Germans  and  the  ratification  of  peace  by  the 
national  assembly,  in  the  early  part  of  1871, 
the  national  guards  still  remained  under  arms. 
They  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  govern- 
ment to  disarm  and  disband,  but  seized  a  num- 
ber of  guns,  and  occupied  the  batteries  of  Mont- 
martre  and  the  quarters  of  Belleville  and  Vi- 
lette.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  commune, 
the  national  assembly  voted  the  dissolution  of 
the  national  guard  throughout  France. 

GUARDIAN,  one  who  guards,  or  has  the  care 
and  charge  of  another.  Guardians  in  law  are 
of  many  kinds.  There  are  guardians  of  minor 
children,  and  of  those  incapacitated  otherwise 
than  by  age  from  taking  care  of  themselves. 
Guardians  of  infants  (minors)  were,  at  common 
law:  1.  Guardians  by  nature.  In  exact  and 
technical  construction,  by  this  term  is  meant 


GUARDIAN 


only  that  guardianship  which  belonged  to  the 
ancestor,  in  respect  to  the  heir  apparent.  It 
extended  only  to  the  care  of  the  person,  and 
did  not  include  the  care  of  the  property.  2. 
Guardians  by  nurture.  This  guardianship  also 
extended  only  to  the  person  and  not  to  the 
estate ;  and  it  terminated  when  the  ward  was 
14  years  of  age,  whereas  guardianship  by  na- 
ture continued  until  the  ward  was  21.  It  was 
given  to  the  father,  and  if  no  father,  to  the 
mother.  3.  Guardians  in  socage,  limited  to 
cases  where  the  minor  had  lands  by  descent; 
and  this  guardianship  extended  over  these  lands 
and  the  person  also,  until  the  ward  was  14  years 
of  age.  It  fell  by  common  law  to  the  next  of 
blood  to  whom  the  inheritance  could  not  de- 
scend, and  therefore  this  kind  of  guardianship 
could  hardly  have  existed  in  the  United  States. 
4.  Guardians  by  statute ;  and  5,  guardians  by 
will,  or  testamentary  guardians.  These  last 
two  are  almost  the  only  ones  known  practically 
in  this  country  (by  statutes  following  that  of 
12  Charles  II.),  whereby  a  father  has  power  to 
appoint  by  will  a  guardian  for  his  minor  chil- 
dren ;  and  if  such  appointment  be  not  made, 
or  fails,  the  court  of  probate,  or  some  other 
court  exercising  similar  powers,  makes  the  ap- 
pointment. The  statutes  of  different  states 
make  somewhat  different  provisions  as  to  the 
persons  to  be  appointed  (usually  the  next  of 
kin  of  proper  age),  the  degree  and  way  in 
which  the  minor  is  to  be  consulted,  the  bonds 
to  be  given,  and  the  power  and  the  duty  of  the 
guardian. — All  guardianship  is  a  personal  trust, 
and  is  therefore  not  transferable  by  assignment, 
devise,  or  inheritance.  Whether  it  expires  by 
the  marriage  of  a  female  ward  who  is  still  a 
minor  is  not  certain,  but,  we  think,  probable. 
It  seems  that  as  to  a  male  ward  marrying,  the 
distinction  has  been  taken  that  it  terminates 
the  guardianship  as  to  his  person,  but  not  as  to 
his  estate.  The  law  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
settled  in  the  United  States  generally  as  to  the 
effect  of  the  marriage  of  the  ward.  The  mar- 
riage of  a  female  guardian  terminates  her  au- 
thority in  some  states  by  statute,  and  in  others, 
generally  at  least,  by  practice.  A  married  wo- 
man cannot  be  appointed  guardian  without  the 
consent  of  her  husband ;  but  with  that  consent 
she  may  be. — The  guardian  has  very  full  power 
over  the  personal  estate  of  the  ward,  but  very 
little  over  the  real  estate,  any  further  than  re- 
lates to  the  rents,  issues,  and  profits,  and  to 
necessary  law  proceedings.  He  cannot  dispose 
of  the  real  estate  generally,  without  an  order 
from  a  court  having  jurisdiction,  and  can  lease 
it  only  for  the  minority  of  the  ward.  Gener- 
ally, in  the  United  States,  it  is  more  proper 
and  more  safe  for  the  guardian  to  get  the  au- 
thority of  a  proper  court,  before  even  convert- 
ing the  personal  property  of  an  infant  into 
real  estate,  and  certainly  before  attempting  any 
transfer  or  any  burden  of  the  real  estate.  In 
some  of  the  states  there  are  general  statutory 
provisions  as  to  investments  which  guardians 
and  others  in  trust  may  or  may  not  make.  The 
379  VOL.  viii.— 19 


GUAR1NI 


287 


guardian  is  not  permitted  to  make  any  profit 
out  of  the  ward's  property,  or  to  use  it  in  his 
own  business  or  speculations ;  nor  can  he  act 
for  his  own  especial  advantage  in  any  transac- 
tion relating  to  the  property  of  the  ward.  If 
he  make  a  beneficial  bargain  about  the  prop- 
erty or  interests  of  the  ward,  the  whole  of 
the  benefit  must  be  transferred  by  him  to  the 
ward's  estate.  If  he  cause  or  suffer  any  waste 
or  damage  to  the  ward's  property,  he  must  re- 
fund in  full  damages,  and  in  some  states  in 
treble  damages.  And  in  settlement  of  his  ac- 
counts a  court  will  sometimes  charge  him  with 
compound  interest,  where  it  seems  that  he  has 
himself  been  deriving  from  the  use  of  the  ward's 
property  a  profit  equal  to  that.  So  if  he  use 
his  ward's  property  in  his  own  business,  the 
court  will  decree  to  the  ward  all  the  capital, 
with  all  the  profit  it  has  made  if  this  be  more 
than  interest ;  or  if  it  be  less  or  none,  it  will 
decree  the  capital  with  interest  (which  may  be 
made  compound  if  the  court  see  fit),  because 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  guardian  to  invest  the 
property  so  that  it  would  earn  this  safely.  If 
he  promise,  on  sufficient  consideration,  to  pay 
the  debt  of  his  ward,  he  is  personally  bound, 
although  the  ward's  estate  fails  to  pay  the 
debt,  and  he  described  himself  as  guardian, 
unless  it  was  a  specific  part  of  the  contract 
that  he  should  be  held  only  so  far  as  the  funds 
sufficed,  or  should  not  be  held  personally; 
and  if  he  discharge  the  debt  of  his  ward  law- 
fully, he  may  charge  it  against  the  ward  in  his 
accounts,  or,  if  he  be  deprived  of  his  guardian- 
ship, or  the  ward  become  of  age,  he  may  have 
his  action  against  the  ward  for  the  amount.  If 
the  ward  enter  into  a  contract  or  make  a  prom- 
ise, the  guardian  cannot  be  sued  thereon,  but 
the  action  must  be  brought  against  the  ward ; 
and  the  guardian  may  make  any  lawful  defence 
for  the  ward. — Besides  the  general  guardian 
(whether  he  be  appointed  by  will  or  by  the 
court),  it  is  common  for  courts  to  appoint  a 
guardian  ad  litem,  to  represent  and  act  for  the 
ward  in  the  settlement  of  the  guardian's  ac- 
counts, or  in  or  for  any  other  legal  proceedings, 
where  it  seems  proper  that  such  appointment 
should  be  made.  Guardians  are  also  appoint- 
ed generally  in  the  United  States  for  the  insane 
and  for  spendthrifts.  The  manner  of  the  ap- 
pointment is  regulated  everywhere  by  statute ; 
and  the  general  principles  already  stated  in 
reference  to  guardians  of  infants  are  equally 
applicable  to  other  guardians,  with  such  changes 
only  as  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
may  make  necessary. 

GUAR1NI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  poet, 
born  in  Ferrara,  Dec.  10,  1537,  died  in  Venice, 
Oct.  4,  1612.  Having  become  at  an  early  age 
a  professor  at  Ferrara,  and  for  some  time  lec- 
tured on  the  ethics  of  Aristotle,  he  entered 
the  service  of  Alfonso  II.  of  Ferrara,  and  was 
intrusted  with  diplomatic  missions  to  Venice, 
Savoy,  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  Poland. 
He  also  served  Ferdinand  I.  of  Tuscany  and 
the  city  of  Ferrara.  His  best  productions  are 


GUARNERI 


GUATEMALA 


his  comedy  Uldropica,  his  dialogue  R  segreta- 
rio,  his  Rime  and  Lettere,  but  particularly  the 
drama  U  pastor  fido,  which  passed  through  40 
editions  in  his  lifetime,  has  been  translated  into 
nearly  all  European  languages,  and  found  many 
imitators,  although  itself  an  imitation  of  Tasso's 
Aminta.  An  incomplete  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  at  Verona  in  1737-'8  (4  vols.  4to)  ;  his 
Trattato  delta  politico,  libertd  was  first  print- 
ed at  Venice  in  1818,  with  his  life  by  Ruggieri. 

GUARNERI,  or  GnarneriDS,  the  name  of  a  fam- 
ily living  at  Cremona  in  the  17th  century,  some 
of  whose  members  are  celebrated  as  violin  ma- 
kers.— ANDREA,  born  about  1630,  worked  at 
his  art  from  1650  to  about  1695.  His  instru- 
ments are  mostly  inscribed  Andreas  Guarne- 
rius  fecit  Cremona  sub  titulo  Sanctce  Teresa. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Nicol6  Amati,  whose  work- 
manship he  imitated  with  some  slight  differ- 
ences of  detail.  The  tone  of  his  instruments 
is  sweet  but  not  powerful.  They  rank  in  the 
second  class. — GIUSEPPE,  his  son  and  pupil,  in 
middle  life  made  his  instruments  like  those  of 
Stradivarius,  and  later  imitated  his  cousin  Giu- 
seppe Antonio. — PIETBO,  second  son  of  An- 
drea, lived  at  Cremona  till  1700,  and  then  at 
Mantua,  and  his  violins  bear  the  names  of  both 
these  cities.  He  worked  from  1690  to  1725, 
and  his  instruments  were  inferior  to  those  of 
his  father. — GIUSEPPE  ANTONIO,  nephew  of 
Andrea,  born  June  8,  1683,  was  a  pupil  of 
Stradivarius,  and  the  most  renowned  of  the 
family.  He  possessed  genius,  but  led  an  irreg- 
ular life,  much  of  it  marked  by  idleness  and 
intemperance,  and  a  part  of  it  spent  in  prison, 
where  he  died  in  1745.  Naturally  his  produc- 
tions were  unequal,  some  of  them  being  of 
consummate  workmanship,  and  others  poor  in 
material  used  and  in  method  of  construction. 
These  last  belong  to  the  later  years  of  his  life, 
his  prison  days.  He  worked  from  1725  to  1745, 
and  his  violins  were  mostly  inscribed  "  Giuseppe 
Guarnerius,  Andreas  Nepos.  I.  H-  S."  From 
the  use  of  this  latter  symbol  he  was  common- 
ly known  in  Italy  as  Guarneri  del  Gesu.  His 
earlier  works  do  not  show  much  care  either  in 
the  choice  of  woods  or  the  varnish.  Many  of 
those  made  in  his  middle  epoch  are  superb, 
distinguished  for  harmony  of  form,  beauty  of 
color,  the  care  with  which  the  different  woods 
composing  the  instruments  were  selected,  and 
the  adaptation  of  the  curves  and  thickness  to 
the  production  of  the  finest  tone.  To  these 
noble  instruments  succeeded  others  inferior  in 
all  respects.  Paganini  and  A  lard  were  both 
accustomed  to  use  Guarnerius  violins  at  their 
concerts. — Violins  and  basses  exist,  dated  from 
1725  to  1740,  made  by  PIETKO,  son  of  Giuseppe. 

Gl  ASTALLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Reggio,  at  the  junction  of  the  Cros- 
tolo  and  the  Po,  18  m.  N.  E.  of  Parma ;  pop. 
about  10,000.  It  is  well  built,  is  surround- 
ed by  walls,  and  contains  a  cathedral,  eight 
churches,  a  decayed  castle,  a  public  library, 
a  theatre,  a  musical  academy,  and  several  ed- 
ucational and  charitable  institutions.  It  was 


founded  by  the  Lombards,  and  during  the  mid- 
dle ages  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of 
several  Italian  families  and  states.  Subsequent- 
ly it  was  made  a  fief  of  the  German  empire, 
and  was  raised  to  a  duchy  in  1621.  By  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  it  was  given 
to  Don  Philip  of  Spain,  duke  of  Parma.  In 
1796  the  French  united  it  and  the  surrounding 
region  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  In  1805  Na- 
poleon gave  it  to  his  sister  Pauline,  whose  hus- 
band, the  prince  Borghese,  was  created  duke 
of  Guastalla.  In  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna 
allotted  it,  together  with  Parma  and  Piacenza, 
to  the  ex-empress  Maria  Louisa,  upon  whose 
death  in  1847  it  passed  to  the  duke  of  Lucca, 
who  in  accordance  with  a  previous  arrange- 
ment ceded  it  to  Modena,  with  which  it  was  in 
1860  incorporated  into  the  dominions  of  Victor 
Emanuel. 

GUATEMALA.  I.  A  republic  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, lying  between  lat.  13°  50'  and  18°  15'  N"., 
and  Ion.  88°  14'  and  93°  12'  W.,  bounded  N. 


by  Yucatan,  E.  by  British  Honduras,  the  bay 
of  Honduras,  and  the  republics  of  Honduras 
and  San  Salvador,  S.  by  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
W.  by  the  Mexican  state  of  Chiapas.  Its 
greatest  length  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  is  325  m., 
greatest  breadth  about  300  m. ;  area  estimated 
at  40,777  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,200,000.  The 
Pacific  coast  presents  a  slightly  convex  line 
extending  from  S.  E.  to  N.  TV. ;  the  shore  be- 
ing in  some  parts  extremely  low,  and  in  others 
high  and  rocky,  and  bordered  with  a  succes- 
sion of  rocky  barriers  not  far  from  the  main- 
land. The  Atlantic  shore  line  is  very  irregu- 
lar, presenting  here  and  there  abrupt  cliffs 
reaching  to  the  very  edge  of  the  sea.  Tl 
only  port  now  frequented  to  any  consideral 
extent  on  the  Pacific  side  is  that  of  San  Jot 
which,  however,  has  only  an  open  roadster 
which  affords  no  shelter  for  shipping ;  debar- 
kation is  at  all  times  difficult,  and  sometimes 


GUATEMALA 


289 


impossible  for  weeks  together.  San  Jose  is  a 
miserable  village  of  not  more  than  200  inhabi- 
tants, mostly  Indians,  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Michatoya.  One  or  two  other  ports 
further  northward  might  be  available  but  for 
the  want  of  an  adequate  population.  The 
port  of  Izabal,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  situated 
on  the  S.  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Dulce,  which 
communicates  with  the  sea  by  the  river  Dulce, 
is  a  wretched  place  of  about  150  houses,  and 
owes  its  importance  to  its  proximity  to  the 
capital,  for  all  the  merchandise  in  transitu  to 
and  from  which  it  is  the  exclusive  port  of  re- 
ception on  that  side  of  the  republic.  The 
shallowness  of  the  water  on  the  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  closes  the  port  to  large  ves- 
sels. Santo  Tomas,  on  the  bay  of  Honduras, 
is  the  principal  seaport  of  Guatemala;  it  has 
a  picturesque  harbor,  sheltered  by  high  moun- 
tains, and  always  affording  safe  and  commodi- 
ous anchorage  for  ships  of  the  deepest  draught, 
hich  moor  close  to  the  shore  in  six  fathoms 
water. — Almost  the  whole  surface  of  the 
blic  is  composed  of  an  elevated  plateau, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  table  land  of 
Yucatan,  intersected  by  numberless  moun- 
ins,  with  deep  and  extensive  valleys,  partic- 
larly  in  the  west  and  northwest,  adjacent  to 
Chiapas ;  but  no  continuous  chain  traverses 
the  country.  The  depression  of  the  table  land 
ward  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  is  so  rapid 
d  presents  so  many  steep  acclivities  that, 
hen  viewed  from  the  sea,  it  looks  like  an  ele- 
ted  mountain  range  ;  the  illusion  is  the  more 
complete  as  the  edge  of  the  plain  appears 
marked  by  a  number  of  volcanoes,  some  of 
which  are  still  active.  Eemarkable  among  the 
extinct  volcanoes  is  the  Volcan  de  Agua,  so 
named  from  a  torrent  of  water  which  burst  from 
its  crater  in  1541  and  overwhelmed  the  first 
city  of  Guatemala,  the  ruins  of  which  still  exist 
under  the  name  of  Oiudad  Vieja.  It  has  an  ele- 
vation of  about  14,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Near 
it  is  the  Volcan  de  Fuego,  which  vomits  forth 
fire  and  smoke  every  day,  and  which,  with  the 
Volcan  de  Agua,  and  that  of  Amilpas  (13,200 
high),  constitutes  the  principal  volcanic 
earth  of  Central  America.  Other  volcanoes 
are  Sapotitlan  and  Atitlan,  each  nearly  13,000 
ft.  high.  All  the  volcanoes  of  Guatemala, 
whether  extinct  or  active,  are  in  the  same  line 
with  those  of  Nicaragua  and  San  Salvador. 
The  shore  region  consists  of  a  strip  of  flat  low 
country,  not  more  than  30  m.  broad.  The 
slope  of  the  plain  eastward  to  the  bay  of 
Honduras  is  intersected  by  detached  mountain 
groups,  forming  parallel  ridges,  which  nowhere 
attain  a  greater  elevation  than  500  or  600  ft. 
above  the  plain,  and  alternate  with  extensive 
valleys.  Some  of  these  heights  reach  to  the 
shores  of  the  sea ;  but  to  the  W.  and  N.  W.  of 
the  gulf  of  Dulce  they  are  entirely  lost  in  a 
low  plain.  The  table  land  attains  an  elevation 
of  5,000  ft.  in  the  volcanic  zone ;  and  the  maxi- 
mum height  is  reached  in  the  vicinity  of  Que- 
zaltenango,  at  the  S.  border  of  the  department 


of  Vera  Paz. — Little  is  known  of  the  geologi- 
cal structure  of  the  country.  Although  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  are  sufficiently  abun- 
dant to  be  worked  with  profit,  the  only  mining 
operations  are  those  in  the  department  of  To- 
tonicapan,  where  lead  mines  are  worked  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chiautla,  chiefly  by  the  Indians.-  Salt 
is  made  from  springs  near  Ixtatan  in  the  same 
department,  and  in  large  quantities  on  the  Paci- 
fic coast.  Sulphur  is  found  in  great  quantities, 
and  jasper  is  abundant. — The  country  is  water- 
ed by  numerous  rivers,  the  principal  of  which 
is  the  Usumasinta,  whose  main  stream  rises  in 
the  mountains  near  San  Ger6nimo,  flows  W.  by 
N.  150  m.,  receives  the  waters  of  the  Lacan- 
dones,  and  thence,  bending  N.  and  afterward  N. 
W.,  leaves  the  republic  and  falls  into  the  gulf 
of  Mexico  through  the  Lago  de  Terminos  in  Yu- 
catan. Throughout  the  whole  course  of  this 
river  in  Guatemala,  about  350  m.,  it  is  unfavor- 
able to  navigation.  Its  affluents  are  numerous. 
The  Motagua,  descending  from  the  S.  declivi- 
ties of  the  same  mountains  as  the  Usumasinta, 
curves  around  their  base,  and,  after  a  course 
of  nearly  300  m.,  falls  by  several  mouths  into 
the  bay  of  Honduras,  near  the  E.  boundary 
of  the  republic;  in  the  upper  portion  it  is 
called  the  Kio  Grande;  it  is  only  navigable 
by  canoes  and  barges.  The  Polochique,  which 
rises  in  the  hills  adjacent  to  Coban,  is  a  large, 
deep,  and  beautiful  stream,  150  m.  long;  but 
owing  to  the  rapidity  of  its  current,  and  a  bar 
across  its  mouth  with  but  4  ft.  of  water,  it 
can  only  be  navigated  by  light  craft.  On  the 
W.  side,  a  host  of  minor  streams  hurry  down 
to  the  Pacific  by  short  precipitous  courses,  one 
of  them,  the  Michatoya,  passing  the  port  of  San 
Jose.  Among  the  many  lakes,  a  few  of  which 
are  of  considerable  size,  are  Dulce,  through 
which  the  most  of  the  shipping  traffic  is  car- 
ried on ;  Amatitlan,  near  the  town  of  the  same 
name,  12  m.  long  by  3  m.  broad,  and  remark- 
able for  the  large  pieces  of  pumice  stone  lying 
along  its  shores  and  floating  on  its  surface; 
and  Atitlan,  30  m.  long  by  10  m.  broad,  in 
which  no  soundings  have  been  found  with  a 
line  of  300  fathoms,  and  which,  though  fed  by 
numerous  rivers,  has  no  visible  outlet.  Peten 
lake,  in  Vera  Paz,  is  about  70  m.  in  circuit, 
and  dotted  with  a  number  of  islands,  on  the 
largest  of  which  stands  the  town  of  Flores. 
At  Quirigua  and  other  places  are  remarkable 
ruins,  which  attest  the  high  proficiency  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants  in  architecture  and 
sculpture.  (See  AMEEIOAN  ANTIQUITIES.) — The 
climate,  excessively  hot  in  the  low  and  cool 
in  the  elevated  regions,  is  generally  salubrious. 
During  the  wet  season,  from  May  to  October, 
heavy  rains  fall,  though  rarely  in  the  forenoon. 
Snow  is  seldom  seen,  but  frosts  are  frequent. 
The  highlanders  are  much  afflicted  with  goitre 
and  cretinism.  Earthquakes  are  frequent,  and 
at  times  disastrous.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  fer- 
tile ;  but  agriculture  is  rudely  conducted  with 
the  same  kind  of  implements  used  by  the  first 
colonists.  Modern  machinery,  however,  has 


290 


GUATEMALA 


been  introduced  by  some  of  the  wealthier  plant- 
ers. Maize,  wheat,  and  other  cereals,  cotton, 
sugar  cane,  and  tobacco  are  extensively  pro- 
duced ;  but  the  chief  staple  is  coffee,  the  culti- 
vation of  which  began  in  1872,  to  take  the 
place  of  that  of  cochineal,  owing  to  a  distemper 
prevailing  among  the  insects.  Indigo,  cacao, 
and  vanilla  are  abundant;  the  vine  and  olive 
thrive  well  in  the  valleys;  and  the  supply  of 
tropical  fruits,  and  of  those  of  the  temperate 
zone  also,  is  very  plentiful.  The  arboreal 
vegetation  is  remarkably  luxuriant.  The  fauna 
of  Guatemala  precisely  resembles  that  of  Mex- 
ico, to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  Horses, 
mules,  black  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry 
are  reared  in  large  numbers,  particularly  in 
Totonicapan,  Quezaltenango,  and  Chiquimula. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  cotton  and  wool- 
len fabrics  for  home  consumption,  such  as 
ponchos  and  jergas  (coarse  stuffs)  ;  and  in  To- 
tonicapan the  inhabitants  are  mainly  occupied 
in  making  household  utensils  of  earthenware, 
wood,  &c.  The  value  of  the  exports  in  1 871  was 
$2, 747, 784.  In  Guatemala,  as  in  other  Hispano- 
American  countries,  the  want  of  adequate  high- 
ways is  a  great  hindrance  to  the  development 
of  the  material  resources ;  the  chief  signs  of 
awakening  energy  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment in  this  respect  were  the  making  of  one  or 
two  new  roads  in  1860  and  folio  wing  years,  and 
the  ordering  a  bridge  to  be  built  over  the  Rio 
Negro  in  1872. — The  territory  of  Guatemala 
is  divided  into  seven  departments  or  corregi- 
mientos:  Guatemala,  Sacatepeque,  Solala,  Que- 
zaltenango, Totonicapan,  Chiquimula,  and  Vera 
Paz.  The  population  is  made  up  of  whites 
(12,000),  mostly  descended  from  the  early 
Spanish  settlers ;  mestizos  or  ladinos  (430,000), 
the  children  of  whites  and  Indians ;  negroes, 
pure  and  mixed  (8,000) ;  and  pure-blooded 
Indians  (750,000).  The  Indians  mostly  live  by 
themselves,  and  the  civil  authorities  imme- 
diately governing  them  are  commonly  chosen 
from  their  own  race.  The  different  families 
are  mild,  temperate,  and  industrious,  unless  cor- 
rupted by  military  chiefs,  when  they  become 
rapacious,  fierce,  and  barbarous.  Indolence 
and  licentiousness  are  the  besetting  vices  of 
the  other  classes  of  the  population.  By  the 
constitution  of  Oct.  19,  1851,  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  congress  consisting  of  a 
council  of  state  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives, the  former  with  24  members  elected  by 
the  52  members  of  the  latter,  these  being 
elected  by  the  people,  and  both  for  a  term  of 
four  years.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  president,  elected  for  a  like  period,  who  is 
aided  by  the  three  ministers  of  interior  and 
justice,  foreign  affairs,  and  war  and  finance. 
The  chief  sources  of  the  national  revenue  are 
the  customs,  direct  and  indirect  imposts,  and 
the  tobacco  monopoly.  The  revenue  amount- 
ed in  1872  to  $1,798,000,  and  the  expenditures 
for  the  same  year  to  $1,785,000.  In  1869  a 
loan  of  $2,500,000  was  contracted  in  England, 
including  which  the  total  debt  of  Guatemala 


in  1872  was  $4,320,000.  Besides  this  debt, 
there  is  another  floating  debt,  the  amount  of 
which  is  unknown.  Education,  for  a  while 
so  much  neglected  that  of  280  public  schools 
which  existed  in  the  republic  in  1860,  with 
about  7,000  pupils,  scarcely  half  were  open 
in  1865,  is  now  again  becoming  an  object  of 
importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  government. 
A  free  school  was  established  at  Quezaltenango 
in  1872,  toward  which  many  citizens  gave 
handsome  contributions,  and  the  governor  his 
entire  salary  for  that  year.  The  Eoman  Cath- 
olic is  the  only  religion  tolerated. — The  coast 
of  this  region  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1502 ;  the  country  became  a  Spanish  depen^ 
dency  in  1524,  and  was  erected  into  a  captain- 
generalcy  in  1527  by  Charles  V.  In  1821 
Guatemala  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and 
was  annexed  to  the  Mexican  empire  under 
Iturbide  ;  but  it  became  a  part  of  the  Central 
American  federal  republic  in  1823.  In  1839 
the  territory  of  the  latter  was  diminished  by  the 
secession  of  Honduras;  and  eight  years  later 
Guatemala  separated  from  the  confederation, 
becoming  an  independent  republic  on  March 
21,  1847.  Guatemala  kept  out  of  the  many 
wars  which,  up  to  1862,  proved  so  disastrous 
to  the  other  Spanish  American  states ;  but 
shortly  after  that  time  its  finances  were  con- 
siderably embarrassed  and  its  material  devel- 
opment retarded  by  a  succession  of  petty  wars. 
In  1870  several  towns  and  villages  were  severe- 
ly damaged  by  earthquakes.  In  May,  1871,  a 
revolution  broke  out  against  President  Cerna, 
and  terminated  in  his  deposition  by  Granados, 
who  was  installed  in  the  executive  chair.  The 
new  government  was  soon  obliged  to  exile  the 
archbishop  of  Guatemala,  and  banish  the  Jesu- 
its, who  were  charged  with  stirring  up  a  new 
revolution  in  favor  of  Cerna.  The  port  of 
Champerico  was  opened  in  1872,  and  a  road 
was  to  be  constructed  thence  to  Quezaltenan- 
go. Corporal  punishment  was  abolished  in 
the  schools.  A  law  passed  in  March  restricted 
the  liberty  of  the  press.  The  collection  of  in- 
land duties  was  abolished,  and  all  cities  were 
opened  to  commerce,  except  those  on  the 
frontiers  of  Chiapas,  San  Salvador,  and  Hon- 
duras. The  order  of  Jesuits  was  declared  ex- 
tinct, and  its  property  confiscated.  A  treaty 
of  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  was  made 
with  San  Salvador  in  this  year,  the  principal 
stipulations  of  which  were :  mutual  protec- 
tion in  the  event  of  internal  dissensions ;  the 
connecting  of  the  two  republics  by  telegraph 
lines;  and  the  complete  interdiction  of  the 
Jesuits.  Contracts  were  signed  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  line  of  railway  from  San  Jos6 
to  the  capital,  and  of  six  lines  of  telegrt 
the  first  of  which  was  to  be  from  Gi 
mala  la  Nueva  to  the  river  Paz.  II.  Gi 
mala  la  Nneva  (NEW  GUATEMALA),  a  city,  ci 
ital  of  the  republic,  and  of  a  department 
the  same  name,  in  lat.  14°  37'  N.,  Ion.  90°  30' 
W. ;  pop.  about  40,000.  This  city,  by  far  the 
finest  in  Central  America,  stands  upon  a  pic- 


GUATEMALA 


291 


.  resque  plateau  100  ft.  high,  3  m.  long  and 
1  m.  broad,  and  occupies  the  northern  extrem- 
ity of  a  plain  21  m.  long  and  12  m.  broad,  with 
a  mean  elevation  of  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Its  situation  is  unfavorable  for  commerce,  being 
nearly  90  m.  from  San  Jos6  on  the  Pacific,  and 
120  m.  from  Izabal  on  the  Atlantic  side.    The 
volcanoes  Agua  and  Fuego  rise  on  either  side 
of  the  town.     The  streets,  all  40  ft.  wide,  are 
laid  out  with  severe  regularity;    they  cross 
h  other  at  right  angles,  are  badly  paved, 
d  not  very  clean  ;  only  a  few  of  them  have 
lidewalks.     Water  being  scarce  on  the  pla- 
teau, the  supply  for  the  city  is  brought  from  a 
istance  of  9  m.  by  two  aqueducts,  and  dis- 
buted  by  numerous  fountains.     On  account 
the  frequency  of  earthquakes,  the  houses 
but  one  story  high,  so  that  at  a  distance 
y  a  monotonous  succession  of  roofs  is  seen, 


relieved  here  and  there  by  the  domes  and 
clock  towers  of  the  churches.  The  houses  of 
the  suburbs  are  mere  thatched  hovels,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  hedges  or  by  open 
spaces.  The  city  proper,  however,  contains 
many  large  and  well  constructed  private  dwell- 
ings, each  surrounding  a  large  courtyard  em- 
bellished with  statuary  and  fountains,  and 
orange,  oleander,  and  other  fragrant  and 
flowering  trees.  The  internal  decorations  of 
these  mansions  are  at  once  tasteful  and  mag- 
nificent, but  glazed  windows  are  almost  un- 
known. The  most  usual  building  materials 
are  a  species  of  indurated  clay,  a  variety  of 
pozzuolana,  and  mortar,  the  walls  being  uni- 
versally plastered  and  whitewashed.  The 
roofs  are  either  flat  or  covered  with  tiles ;  and 
the  general  style  of  architecture  is  that  of  the 
south  of  Spain.  There  are  several  public 


Guatemala  la  Antigua. 


lares.  The  largest,  a  rectangle  625  ft.  long 
535  ft.  wide,  has  on  the  E.  side  the  cathe- 
Iral  and  the  archiepiscopal  palace ;  on  the  W. 
the  governor's  palace,  ministerial  offices,  &c., 
with  the  mint  in  the  rear ;  on  the  N.  the  city 
hall';  and  on  the  S.  a  line  of  shops.  In  the 
centre  is  a  fountain  and  basin  formerly  sur- 
mounted by  an  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  IV., 
the  horse  of  which  alone  remains  ;  and  a  great 
part  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  rows  of  miser- 
able little  huts  in  which  pottery,  iron  utensils, 
agave  thread,  and  other  small  wares  are 
vended,  and  the  rent  of  which  forms  a  part 
fif  the  municipal  revenue.  In  the  centre  of 
another  square  is  the  theatre,  equal  in  size  and 
elegance  to  any  in  Spanish  America ;  rows 
of  orange,  oleander,  and  other  trees  of  brilliant 
flowers  and  grateful  fragrance  surround  the 
building,  while  a  profusion  of  statues,  foun- 
tains, &c.,  placed  at  intervals  throughout  the 


square,  enhances  the  beauty  of  this  the  fash- 
ionable evening  promenade.  Foremost  among 
the  public  buildings  is  the  cathedral,  built  in 
1780,  of  simple  and  elegant  design,  and  occu- 
pying a  space  of  450  ft.  square.  In  the  deco- 
ration of  the  interior  a  chaste  variety  is  ob- 
served ;  and  there  are  sculptures  in  wood  and 
some  fine  paintings  by  native  artists.  There 
are  24  other  churches,  a  hospital,  and  a  prison. 
Guatemala  has  the  largest  number  of  edu- 
cational institutions  of  any  city  in  Central 
America;  many  of  the  wealthy  people  of  the 
other  states  send  their  children  here  for  in- 
struction. In  1873  there  were  27  common 
schools,  mostly  supported  by  private  contribu- 
tions, 16  of  them  being  for  females,  and  a  num- 
ber of  schools  for  the  working  classes  of  all 
ages.  Mechanical  industry  is  little  cultivated, 
and  the  instruments  and  tools  are  of  the  most 
primitive  character.  In  spite  of  the  diversity 


292 


GUATEMOZIN 


GUAVA 


of  races  and  castes,  there  is  little  variety  of 
costume.  The  wealthy  adopt  the  European 
fashions.  The  garb  of  the  people  consists  of 
a  short  woollen  jacket  of  native  manufacture, 
cotton  pantaloons,  a  palm-leaf  hat  covered 
with  oilcloth,  and  a  many-colored  serape  or 
shawl.  The  dress  of  the  women  more  closely 
imitates  that  of  their  superiors,  except  that 
of  the  Indian  women,  which  is  simple  in  the 
extreme,  being  a  piece  of  blue  cotton  cloth 
drawn  round  the  body  above  the  hips,  and  oc- 
casionally a  white  chemise,  which  is  often 
embroidered,  while  their  hair,  interbraided 
with  a  red  cord,  is  wound  around  the  temples. 
The  climate  is  mild,  but  changeable ;  the  aver- 
age temperature  is  65°  F.,  the  maximum  80°, 
and  the  minimum  45°.  The  chief  occupations 
are  agriculture  and  the  manufacture  of  a  few 
coarse  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  earthenware, 
and  other  objects  for  domestic  use.  The  city 
was  founded  in  1776,  three  years  after  the  de- 
struction of  the  old  capital.  III.  Guatemala  la 
Antigua  (Old  Guatemala),  a  city,  once  among 
the  finest  in  America,  and  capital  of  Guate- 
mala, picturesquely  situated  30  m.  "W.  of  New 
Guatemala ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  was  found- 
ed in  1524  by  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  who  named 
it  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  made  a  bishopric 
in  1533,  and  destroyed  in  1541  by  a  flood  of 
water  from  the  Volcan  de  Agua,  at  the  foot  of 
which  the  ruins  still  stand,  designated  by  the 
name  Ciudad  Vieja  (old  city).  The  city  was 
rebuilt  between  the  Volcan  de  Agua  and  the 
Volcan  de  Fuego.  In  1773,  the  population  be- 
ing 60,000,  it  was  almost  totally  razed  by  an 
earthquake;  and  the  rebuilding,  commenced 
in  1799,  has  since  continued  steadily,  the  sur- 
rounding country  being  peculiarly  suited  to  the 
production  of  cochineal.  It  had  before  the 
earthquake  good  streets,  many  fine  edifices,  20 
monasteries,  and  100  churches;  the  cathedral, 
now  roofless,  was  300  ft.  long,  120  wide,  and 
70  high,  and  lighted  by  50  windows. 

GUATEMOZIN,  the  last  Aztec  emperor  of  Mex- 
ico, nephew  and  son-in-law  of  Montezuma, 
born  about  1495,  executed  Feb.  15,  1525.  On 
the  death  of  Montezuma's  brother  and  succes- 
sor Cuitlahua,  in  1520,  he  was  elected  to  the 
vacant  throne.  The  Spaniards,  repulsed  du- 
ring the  reign  of  his  predecessor,  were  pre- 
paring for  a  new  attack  upon  the  Mexican 
capital.  Guatemozin  at  once  made  energetic 
preparations  for  defence,  which  were  barely 
completed  when  the  Spanish  army  appeared 
before  the  city  (April  28,  1521)  and  speedily 
invested  it.  The  siege  was  productive  of  the 
most  terrible  suffering  to  the  Mexicans;  but 
they  did  not  yield  till  exhausted  by  famine  and 
greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  pestilence. 
Guatemozin,  at  the  entreaties  of  his  family, 
endeavored  to  escape  by  the  lake  of  Tezcuco, 
but  he  was  pursued  and  captured.  He  was 
first  treated  with  respect  by  Cortes ;  but  when  j 
the  smallness  of  the  booty  found  in  the  city 
caused  the  Spanish  soldiers  to  charge  their 
leader  with  bring  in  collusion  with  the  fallen 


emperor  to  deprive  them  of  their  plunder, 
Cortes  permitted  him  to  be  put  to  the  torture, 
as  though  to  force  from  him  either  a  confes- 
sion or  denial  concerning  the  treasure.  Gua- 
temozin bore  the  torture  (the  burning  of  his 
feet  at  a  slow  fire)  with  great  firmness,  and  is 
said  to  have  answered  the  complaints  of  the 
cacique  of  Tacuba,  who  suffered  with  him, 
with  the  stoical  query,  "Do  you  think,  then, 
that  I  am  taking  my  pleasure  in  my  bath  ? " 
All  that  was  extorted  from  him  was  the  in- 
formation that  "much  treasure  had  been 
thrown  into  the  water;"  but  this  statement 
was  probably  intended  to  mislead  his  captors, 
as  the  lake  and  canals  were  dragged  without 
result.  As  nothing  was  to  be  gained  from  the 
prisoner,  he  was  allowed  to  live  at  Mexico  in 
an  honorable  captivity.  When  Cortes  began 
in  1524  his  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Hon- 
duras, he  took  Guatemozin  with  him ;  and  he 
was  thus  a  witness  of  the  misfortunes  that  at- 
tended this  march  of  his  conquerors.  Late  in 
the  campaign  two  Spanish  nobles  accused  him 
and  his  Mexican  companions  of  having  formed 
a  plot  to  assassinate  the  Spanish  chiefs,  Cortes 
among  the  rest.  The  latter  ordered  them  to 
be  at  once  brought  before  him,  and  after  a 
brief  inquiry  into  the  accusation,  which  was 
not  sustained  by  proof,  he  commanded  their 
execution.  According  to  Prescott  they  were 
hanged  on  a  large  ceiba  tree  standing  by  the 
roadside ;  according  to  other  authorities,  they 
were  executed  with  considerable  ceremony 
in  the  public  square  of  Teotilac.  The  widow 
of  Guatemozin  was  thrice  married  after  his 
death,  in  each  case  to  a  Spaniard. 

GUATUSOS,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  living  on  the 
banks  and  head  waters  of  the  Rio  Frio,  which 
flows  into  Lake  Nicaragua  at  its  S.  extremity. 
The  country  of  these  Indians,  who  are  popu- 
larly supposed  to  have  comparatively  fair  com- 
plexions and  red  hair,  has  never  been  pene- 
trated. The  attempts  made  by  the  Catholic 
missionaries  and  the  governors  of  Nicaragua  to 
reach  them,  though  often  renewed,  have  always 
been  repulsed.  A  body  of  men  under  the  com- 
mander of  the  fort  of  San  Carlos  endeavored 
to  enter  their  country  in  1849,  but  they  were 
driven  back.  There  are  some  reasons  for  be- 
lieving that  they  are  of  the  same  Aztec  family 
which  occupied  the  western  shores  of  Lake 
Nicaragua,  and,  that  they  still  preserve  their 
original  language  and  habits. 

GUAVA  (Span,  guayaba),  a  name  for  trees 
of  the  genus  psidium,  belonging  to  the  myrtle 
family.  There  are  about  100  species  of  the 
genus,  which  grow  in  tropical  and  sub-tropi( 
America,  though  the  number  that  bear  edibl 
fruit  is  small.  The  one  best  known  as 
guava  is  P.  guaiava,  of  which  there  are  sever 
cultivated  forms,  differing  in  the  size,  shape, 
and  quality  of  their  fruit.  It  is  a  small  tree, 
from  9  to  15  ft.,  seldom  over  20  ft.  high,  with 
angular  branches,  and  an  abundance  of  ellipti- 
cal pointed  leaves,  which  are  covered  below 
with  a  velvety  down.  The  flowers  are  solitary 


GTJAXACA 


or  three  together  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  white,  and  with  an 
agreeable  odor ;  the  fruit,  usually  about  an  inch 
in  diameter,  varies  in  size  and  shape  ;  the  prin- 
cipal cultivated  varieties  are  called  maliforme, 
)ple-shaped,  and  pyriforme,  pear-shaped,  from 


GUAYAQUIL 


293 


Guava  (Psidium  Cattleyanum). 


the  form  of  the  fruit.  Guavas  are  bright  yel- 
low, exceedingly  fragrant,  and  filled  with  a 
yellowish  or  reddish  seedy  pulp,  which  has  an 
acid-sweet  flavor,  but  is  rather  disappointing 
to  the  taste  after  the  sense  of  smell  has  been 
gratified  by  its  odor.  The  guava  grows  abun- 
dantly in  the  West  Indies,  has  been  acclimated 
in  Algeria  and  other 
warm  countries,  and  is 

Ciivated  under  glass 
its  ornamental  foli- 
and  flowers  as  well 
for  its  fruit.  Catt- 
^^  's  or  the  purple 
guava,  P.  Cattleyanum, 
'  ough  brought  to  Eu- 
from  China,  is 
bably  a  native  of 
uth  America;  it  is 
uch  more  hardy  than 
the  common  guava,  and 
though  its  claret-col- 
ored fruits,  with  a  pit- 
ted rind,  are  smaller 
and  more  acid,  it  pro- 
duces them  in  greater 
abundance.  The  wood 
of  the  guavas  is  close- 
grained,  but  their  prin- 
cipal value  is  in  their 
fruit,  which  is  consumed 

in  the  fresh  state,  and  large   quantities  are 
made  into  jelly. 

GUAXACA.     See  OAJACA. 
GUAYANA.     See  GUIANA,  and  VENEZUELA. 
GUAYAPE,  a  river  of  Honduras,   an  affluent 
of  the  Patuca,  in  the  department  of  Olancho. 


This  river  has  been  celebrated  from  the  earliest 
period  for  its  rich  gold  washings,  which  are 
worked  by  the  natives  in  a  rude  manner.  All 
the  streams  in  Olancho  carry  gold  in  their 
sands,  but  none  have  an  equal  celebrity  in  this 
respect  with  the  Guayape. 

GUAYAQUIL,  a  maritime  city  of  the  republic 
of  Ecuador,  capital  of  the  province  of  Guayas, 
150  m.  S.  W.  of  Quito ;  pop.  about  26,000.  It 
is  built  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  bay  of  Guaya- 
quil, on  which  it  has  a  front  of  a  mile  and  a 
half,  and  is  traversed  by  four  creeks,  crossed  by 
three  wooden  bridges,  two  of  which  separate 
the  old  town  from  the  new  or  more  modern 
portion.  Many  of  the  streets  are  tortuous,  but 
a  few  are  regular,  cutting  each  other  at  right 
angles,  and  all  are  lighted  with  gas ;  most  of 
the  houses  are  of  wood,  roofed  with  tiles, 
and  rarely  of  more  than  two  stories.  Por- 
tals or  covered  arcades  surround  every  block 
or  square  of  houses.  The  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  cathedral  and  six  other 
churches,  the  governor's  palace,  city  hall, 
prison,  two  hospitals,  and  barracks.  There 
are  two  colleges,  a  naval  and  a  number  of  com- 
mon schools,  and  a  new  school  for  females 
commenced  in  1872.  An  association  for  mu- 
tual instruction  was  organized  in  the  same  year. 
The  town  has  an  orphan  asylum  and  several 
other  benevolent  institutions.  The  port,  formed 
by  the  river  and  its  estuary,  is  very  commo- 
dious, presents  good  anchorage  for  vessels  of 
any  draught,  and  is  monthly  visited  by  an 
average  of  17  steamers.  In  1870,  125  vessels 
of  all  kinds  and  flags  were  entered,  the  aggre- 
gate tonnage  being  55,310.  A  large  number 


Cathedral  of  Guayaquil. 

of  ships  were  formerly  built  here.  There  are 
several  factories  employing  steam  power,  in- 
cluding one  for  artificial  ice  and  a  foundery. 
Provisions  are  brought  each  morning  in  canoes, 
which  literally  throng  the  river,  and  give  it 
the  appearance  of  another  town.  The  heat  is 


294 


GUAYAQUIL 


excessive;  epidemics  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  during  the  rainy  season,  from  De- 
cember to  May,  noxious  insects  and  reptiles 
infest  the  city  and  surrounding  country.  Many 
and  important  improvements  were  commenced 
in  1872,  mostly  of  a  hygienic  nature.  Two 
lighthouses  were  built  in  1873,  one  on  the 
island  of  Santa  Clara  and  the  other  on  the 
island  of  Puna.  Three  forts  defend  the  town. 
Guayaquil  is  the  chief  commercial  centre  of 
Ecuador ;  the  principal  articles  of  export  are 
cacao,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  nu^s,  fruits, 
jipijapa  (or  Panama)  hats,  sarsaparilla,  India 
rubber,  and  pearl  shells.  In  1872  there  were 
shipped  181,973  quintals  of  cacao  (the  total 
crop  of  which  was  187,238  quintals),  75,000  of 
India  rubber,  58,451  of  pearl  shell,  22,531  of 
vegetable  ivory,  6,600  of  coffee,  and  39,728  Ibs. 
of  sarsaparilla.  The  value  of  the  exports  to 
Great  Britain  in  1868  was  $510,505;  in  1869, 
$1,320,000;  in  1870,  $692,055  ;  in  1871  $1,388,- 
830;  in  1872,  $1,219,200;  total  in  five  years, 
$5,130,590.  The  imports  from  Great  Britain 
during  the  same  period  amounted  to  $1,422,- 
045.  A  new  road  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito  is 
in  rapid  progress  (1874),  and  a  railway  has  been 
commenced  over  a  part  of  the  same  route.  A 
quicksilver  mine  and  coal  mines  have  been  dis- 
covered near  the  city. — Guayaquil  was  con- 
quered by  Sebastian  Belacazar  in  1535.  Of 
the  numerous  fires  which  have  occurred  since 
1624,  that  of  1764  was  the  most  destructive, 
the  place  having  been  almost  entirely  aban- 
doned for  a  time.  In  1770  a  royal  order  was 
issued  for  its  restoration. 

GUAYAQUIL,  a  river  of  Ecuador,  flowing  whol- 
ly within  the  province  of  Guayas,  and  giving  its 
name  to  the  preceding  city.  It  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  a  great  number  of  small  streams 
which  rise  among  the  Andes;  enter,s  the  Pa- 
cific through  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil  in  lat.  2° 
27'  S.;  is  navigable  about  110  m.  to  Caracol; 
and  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course  is  known 
successively  as  the  Caracol  and  Babahoyo.  It 
is  subject  to  overflow,  and  is  encumbered  by  a 
bar  12m.  from  its  mouth,  and  by  shifting  sands. 

GUAYAS,  a  maritime  province  of  Ecuador, 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  and  Peru,  and  ori  the 
provinces  of  Manabi,  Asuay,  Los  Rios,  and  Loja; 
pop.  about  37,000.  It  is  drained  by  four  or 
five  rivers,  of  which  only  the  Guayaquil  is  navi- 
gable to  any  considerable  distance  from  the  sea. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile ;  rice,  cacao,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  and  tropical  fruits  are  largely 
produced.  The  northern  portions  are  marshy ; 
in  the  southwest  are  vast  forests  affording  the 
finest  species  of  American  precious  woods  and 
excellent  building  timber.  The  climate  is  ex- 
cessively hot,  and  rain  falls  almost  incessantly 
from  December  to  May.  Fevers  prevail. 

GUAYMAS,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of 
Sonora,  on  Yaqui  bay,  gulf  of  California,  in  lat. 
28°  N.,  Ion.  110°  50'  W. ;  pop.  about  3,000.  It 
is  surrounded  by  hills,  and  is  hot  and  unhealthy. 
Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and 
there  are  no  buildings  worthy  of  note.  The 


GUDGEON 

port  is  commodious,  has  excellent  anchorage, 
and  is  frequented  by  many  vessels.  Its  foreign 
trade  is  large,  as  it  is  the  port  of  entry  for  the 
states  of  Sonora  and  Chihuahua.  The  chief 
exports  are  wheat,  flour,  and  hides.  The  In- 
dians carry  on  a  profitable  fishery  in  the  bay. 

GUBBIO  (anc.  Igumum  or  Eugubium),  a  town 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  near  Mount 
Calvo,  30  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Perugia,  and 
110  m.  N.  of  Rome  ;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  con- 
tains a  cathedral,  several  churches,  about  20 
convents,  and  a  theatre ;  and  silk  and  woollens 
are  manufactured.  During  the  middle  ages  it 
had  a  population  of  30,000,  and  was  the  seat 
of  a  fine  school  of  painting.  It  is  supplied 
with  water  from  a  reservoir  formed  by  a  dam 
across  the  valley  between  Mounts  Ingino  and 
Calvo,  which  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
specimens  of  mediaeval  engineering.  There  is 
a  museum  containing  many  Pelasgic  remains. 
The  famous  Eugubian  tablets,  with  inscriptions 
in  the  Umbrian,  Etruscan,  and  Latin  languages, 
which  have  been  variously  interpreted  by  anti- 
quaries, were  discovered  in  1444  about  8  m. 
from  the  town.  In  the  14th  century  Gubbio 
became  a  part  of  the  Papal  States,  with  which 
it  passed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  ancient 
Iguvium  was  considered  by  the  Romans  to  be 
of  great  strategical  importance,  and  was  prom- 
inent in  the  early  part  of  the  civil  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey. 

GUBEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  at  the  junction  of  the  Neisse 
and  the  Lubst,  25  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Frankfort-on- 
the  Oder;  pop.  in  1871,  21,423.  It  contains 
several  churches  and  a  gymnasium ;  has  exten- 
sive manufactories  of  cloth  and  tobacco,  and  an 
active  trade,  especially  in  red  wines,  produced 
on  the  adjoining  Neisse  hills.  The  Hussites 
devastated  the  place  in  1434  and  1437,  and  the 
Swedes  occupied  it  in  1631  and  1642. 

GUBITZ,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Leipsic,  Feb.  27,  1786,  died  June  5, 
1870.  He  studied  theology,  worked  as  a  type 
founder,  printer,  and  engraver,  became  profes- 
sor of  wood  engraving  at  the  Berlin  academy 
of  fine  arts  in  1805,  and  afterward  engaged 
also  in  bookselling.  His  principal  works  are 
Gedichte  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1859),  WirUichTceit 
und  Phantasie  (4  vols.,  1862),  and  Erlebnisse 
(3  vols.,  1868-'9).  His  most  popular  play  is 
Der  Kaiser  und  die  Mullerin.  As  a  theatri- 
cal critic  and  the  founder  of  several  periodicals 
devoted  to  dramatic  literature,  he  contributed 
much  to  the  improvement  of  the  stage.  His 
Deutscher  Volkslcalender,  which  he  edited  for 
many  years,  became  exceedingly  popular,  and 
found  numerous  imitations. 

GUDGEON,  a  cyprinoid  fish  of  the  genus  golio 
(Guv.),  found  chiefly  in  the  fresh- water  streams 
and  lakes  of  central  and  temperate  Europe.  It 
is  characterized  by  a  lengthened,  rounded  body, 
with  short  dorsal  and  anal  fins  without  ser- 
rated rays ;  a  labial  barbel  at  each  corner  of 
the  mouth ;  pharyngeal  teeth,  conical,  slightly 
curved  at  the  tip,  and  in  two  rows;  and  a 


GUDIN 


wide,  flattened  head,  with  an  obtuse  snout,  and 
the  lower  jaw  the  shorter;  the  swimming  blad- 
der is  large  and  double.  The  common  gudgeon 
(G.fluviatilis,  Guv.)  is  7  or  8  in.  long,  greenish 
brown  above  and  on  the  sides,  white  below, 
the  pectorals,  ventrals,  and  anal  grayish  white 
tinged  with  brown,  and  the  dorsal  and  caudal 
pale  brown,  with  darker  spots.  It  occurs  in 
shoals  in  the  gravelly  waters  of  Europe.  The 
food  consists  of  worms,  aquatic  insects  and  lar- 
vae, small  mollusks,  ova,  and  fry ;  the  eggs  are 


i .   \^m- 


GUELDER  ROSE 


295 


Gudgeon  (Gobio  flnviatffls). 

between  April  and  August,  and  the  young 
w  to  a  length  of  about  5  in.  the  first  year. 
J;  is  much  esteemed  for  its  delicate  flavor,  and 
affords  good  sport  to  the  angler ;  it  will  bite  at 
1  times  of  day,  but  best  in  the  morning  and 

ening,  and  in  cloudy  weather ;  the  line  must 
very  fine,  and  the  hook  kept  within  an  inch 
the  bottom;  the  best  bait  is  the  common 
red  dunghill  worm.  Five  other  species  are  de- 

ibed  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  one  from  the 

iagara  river  (G.  cataractce,  Val.),  about  5  in. 

ng;  the  color  of  this  above  is  gray,  plum- 
beous on  the  sides,  silvery  white  below,  and 
the  fins  gray. 

GFDIN,  Jean  intoine  Theodore,  a  French  paint- 

',  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  15,  1802.  He  was  a  pu- 
pil of  Girodet-Trioson,  and  from  the  outset  of 
his  career  devoted  himself  mainly  to  sea  pieces. 
Among  his  best  productions  are  a  view  of 
"Mont  St.  Michel  at  High  Tide  ;"  "A  Steam- 
boat landing  Passengers  at  Dover;"  "  A  Gale, 
an.  7, 1831,  in  Algiers  Harbor;"  uLa  Salle 
discovering  Louisiana;"  "A  Naval  Battle  in 
the  Chesapeake;"  and  "A  Shipwreck  on  the 
Coast  of  America."  ' 

GCEBRES,  or  Ghebers  (Turkish,  GUaurs, 
Ghaurs,  and  Giaours,  infidels),  a  name  applied 
to  those  Persians  who  adhered  to  the  ancient 
religion  of  Zoroaster  after  the  great  majority 
of  the  nation  had  been  converted  to  Moham- 
medanism, and  who  are  generally  known  by  Eu- 
ropeans as  fire  worshippers.  They  call  them- 
selves BeTi-Din,  "those  of  excellent  belief." 
The  Arabs  completed  the  conquest  of  Persia  in 
the  7th  century,  and  the  great  mass  of  the  na- 
tion adopted  the  faith  of  the  conquerors.  Those 
who  refused  to  do  so  were  subjected  to  perse- 
cution. Some  of  them  took  refuge  in  the  wil- 
derness of  Khorasan,  and  others  in  Kohistan. 
The  latter  in  the  9th  century  emigrated  to  In- 


dia and  settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Surat. 
Their  descendants  still  inhabit  the  same  region, 
and  are  called  Parsees.  (See  PAESEES.)  The 
descendants  of  those  who  remained  in  Persia 
have  gradually  decreased  in  numbers  and  sunk 
into  ignorance  and  poverty,  though  still  pre- 


Guebre  Priests. 

serving  a  reputation  for  honesty,  chastity,  in- 
dustry, and  obedience  to  law,  superior  to  that 
of  the  other  Persians.  They  are  estimated  to 
number  about  7,000.  They  reside  chiefly  in 
Yezd  and  the  surrounding  villages,  but  are 
found  here  and  there  over  the  whole  of  Persia. 
A  celebrated  temple  of  the  Guebres  is  situated 
near  the  Russian  town  of  Baku,  on  the  Cas- 
pian sea.  (See  BAKU.)  For  an  account  of  their 
religion,  see  ZENDAVESTA,  and  ZOROASTER. 

GUEBWILLER.     See  GEBWEILER. 

GUELDERLAND.     See  GELDERLAND. 

GUELDER  ROSE,  the  name  of  a  garden  form 
of  viburnum  opulus,  a  shrub  which  in  its 
wild  state  is  common  in  the  cooler  parts  of 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  It  grows  with  an 
upright  habit  from  2  to  10  ft.  high,  has  oppo- 
site three-lobed  leaves,  and  each  branch  termi- 
nated by  a  broad  cluster  (cyme)  of  white 
flowers,  the  majority  of  which  are  small  and 
perfect,  while  those  upon  the  margin  of  the 
cluster  have  corollas  many  times  larger  than 
the  others,  and  showy,  but,  having  neither 
stamens  nor  pistil,  are  sterile;  the  perfect 
flowers  are  succeeded  by  a  berry-like  spherical 
fruit  having  one  flat  smooth  stone ;  it  is  bright 
red,  very  acid,  and  is  sometimes  cooked  with 
sugar  under  the  name  of  high  or  bush  cran- 
berry. The  wild  shrub  is  worth  cultivating, 
as  its  flowers  are  pleasing,  its  bright  fruit 
showy,  and  its  leaves  in  autumn  turn  to  a  dark 
crimson.  In  the  guelder  rose  all  the  flowers 
of  the  cluster  are  like  the  marginal  ones  of 
the  wild  plant,  and  the  cymes  become  spheri- 


GUELPH 


GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELLUSTES 


cal  masses  of  crowded  white  petals,  which 
have  given  to  it  the  popular  name,  and  the  one 
most  used  in  this  country,  of  snowball,  and 
with  the  French  of  boule  de  neige.  The  gar- 
den form  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
Gelderland,  but  it  has  been  so  long  in  culti- 


Ouelder  Kose  (Viburnum  opulus). 

vation  that  its  history  is  obscure.  A  form 
with  variegated  foliage  is  cultivated,  and  there 
has  recently  been  introduced  a  variety  with 
very  large  flower  clusters  as  V.  macrocepha- 
lum.  The  Japanese  viburnum  plicatum  has 
finer  foliage  and  flowers  than  the  common 
plant.  All  are  of  the  easiest  culture. 

GUELPH,  a  town  and  inland  port  of  entry, 
capital  of  Wellington  co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  45 
m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Toronto;  pop.  in  1871,  6,878. 
It  is  built  upon  several  hills,  on  the  river 
Speed,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Wellington,  Grey,  and  Bruce 
line,  and  the  Gait  and  Guelph  branch  of  the 
Great  Western  railway.  The  court  house  and 
several  other  buildings  are  of  limestone  quar- 
ried in  the  vicinity.  The  surrounding  country 
is  a  rich  agricultural  region,  and  wheat  and 
flour  are  shipped  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  river  here  falls  about  30  ft.,  furnishing 
abundant  water  power.  There  are  several  flour 
mills,  saw  mills,  planing  mills,  breweries,  and 
manufactories  of  woollens,  iron  castings,  ma- 
chinery, agricultural  implements,  leather,  sew- 
ing machines,  musical  instruments,  wooden 
ware,  &c.  There  are  three  branch  banks,  a 
library  and  reading  room,  two  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  churches  of  seven  de- 
nominations. 

GUELPHS  AND  CHIBELLIKES  (Ger.  Welfen, 
Ital.  Guelfi,  and  Ger.  Wiblingen  or  Waiblin- 
gen,  an  estate  belonging  to  the  Hohenstaufen 
family,  in  the  modern  Wurtemberg),  the  names 
of  two  celebrated  factions  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many during  the  middle  ages.  Guelph  or  Welf 
is  a  baptismal  name  in  several  German  fami- 
lies, but  more  particularly  known  in  the  his- 


tory of  a  line  of  princes  originally  Italian,  and 
traced  to  the  9th  century.  They  emigrated  to 
Germany  two  centuries  later,  and  became  di- 
vided into  two  branches,  both  possessing  large 
estates  in  southern  Germany,  between  the 
Brenner  and  St.  Gothard.  The  present  royal 
family  of  England  and  the  ducal  line  of  Bruns- 
wick in  Germany  trace  their  descent  to  a 
Guelphic  princess,  Kunigunde,  the  heiress  of 
one  of  the  branches,  who  became  the  wife  of 
Alberto  Azzo  II.,  prince  of  Este,  born  in  996. 
By  this  marriage  the  estates  of  the  Guelphs 
were  united  to  those  of  the  Este  princes  in 
Lombardy.  The  son  of  Kunigunde,  Guelph 
IV.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  inherited  also  the  estates 
of  the  senior  branch  of  the  Guelphs,  called  the 
Guelphs  of  Altorf,  and  became  thus  the  found- 
er, as  it  were,  of  the  reunited  Guelphs.  The 
emperor  Henry  IV.  bestowed  upon  him  the 
duchy  of  Bavaria,  but  soon  incurred  his  enmity 
by  restoring  a  part  of  the  Bavarian  possessions 
to  their  rightful  duke,  Otho  II.  Guelph  took 
up  arms  against  the  emperor,  and,  in  league 
with  other  discontented  princes,  defeated  him 
in  several  battles.  They  were  afterward  rec- 
onciled, and  Guelph  joined  in  the  first  crusade 
and  was  present  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem. 
He  died  in  Cyprus  in  1101,  on  his  return. 
Guelph  If.,  his  son,  at  first  supported  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV.,  but  soon  deserted  him  and 
embraced  the  cause  of  his  rebellious  son  Henry 
V.,  of  whom  he  became  a  great  favorite.  He 
died  in  1120,  without  children;  and  the  duchy 
of  Bavaria  was  inherited  by  his  brother,  Henry 
the  Black,  who  transmitted  it  to  his  son,  Henry 
the  Haughty,  in  1126.  The  latter  married  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Lothaire,  and  received 
from  his  father-in-law  the  duchy  of  Saxony. 
He  subsequently  disputed  the  crown  of  Ger- 
many with  Conrad  III.,  was  deprived  of  most 
of  his  possessions,  and  was  put  under  the  ban 
of  the  empire  (1139).  His  brother,  Count 
Guelph  of  Altorf,  guardian  of  the  famous 
Henry  the  Lion,  his  nephew,  the  son  of  Henry 
the  Haughty,  at  that  time  but  ten  years  of  age, 
endeavored  to  recover  for  his  ward  possession 
of  the  confiscated  duchies.  Bavaria  had  been 
bestowed  upon  Leopold  of  Austria;  Saxony 
upon  Albert  the  Bear,  of  Brandenburg.  The 
Saxons  demanded  a  Guelphic  prince ;  and  Al- 
bert, at  the  emperor's  desire,  formally  resigned 
the  duchy  to  the  youthful  heir.  In  Bavaria 
Count  Guelph  was  less  successful.  He  was  put 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire  as  a  rebel  in  1140, 
but  ventured  nevertheless  to  give  battle  to 
Conrad's  troops,  near  Weinsberg,  and  was  de- 
feated. In  this  action  were  first  heard  those 
famous  battle  cries,  which  afterward  became 
the  most  noted  in  Europe:  "Strike  for  the 
Guelphs ;"  "  Strike  for  the  Ghibellines."  The 
wars  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  origina- 
ting thus,  soon  became  of  much  wider  political 
consequence.  In  Germany  they  were  of  no 
great  duration,  but  they  long  raged  in  Italy. 
Throughout  the  peninsula  the  family  of  the 
Guelphs  found  partisans  weary  of  the  yoke  of 


GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELLINES 


GUERIOKE 


297 


German  emperors.     The  pope,  irritated  by 
German  opposition  in  the  matter  of  the  inves- 
titures, declared  for  the  Guelphs.     The  Lom- 
bard cities  formed  their  league  in  favor  of  the 
Guelphic  princes,  while  a  similar  league,  under 
the  patronage  especially  of  Pavia,  declared  for 
the  Hohenstaufen,  by  this  time  better  known 
the  Ghibellines.     The  latter  prevailed  for 
ly  years.     The  emperor  Frederick  Barba- 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Pope  Alex- 
ider  III.,  took  Milan,  and  reduced  the  whole 
Lombardy.     The  contest  was  resumed  under 
lerick  II.     His  grandson  Conradin  was  the 
3t  of  the  race  of  Hohenstaufen.     The  Ghibel- 
les  had  rallied  about  this  unfortunate  prince, 
rho,  at  the  age  of  16,  was  beheaded  at  Naples 
order  of  his  perfidious  enemy,  Charles  of 
'  HI  (1268).     The  Guelphs  meanwhile  had 
.  driven  from  both  of  their  German  duchies, 
grandson  of  Henry  the  Lion,  Otho   the 
lild,  had  done  homage  to  Frederick  II.  in 
235.     He  had  been  thereafter  created  by  this 
iperor  duke  of  Brunswick,  and  held  some 
mant  of  his  ancestors'  estates  as  fiefs  of  the 
ipire.     From  him  were  descended  the  reign- 
houses  of  England,  Hanover,  and  Bruns- 
Twenty  years  later  the  contest  became 
it  a  private  feud  of  various  Italian  factions; 
families  sometimes  in  the  same  city.     In 
1259  the  marquis  of  Este,  a  Guelph,  triumphed 
>ver  a  Ghibelline  faction  of  Verona,  headed  by 
iJzzelino  the  Ferocious.     (See  EZZELINO.)    At 
tilan,  in  1277,  the  Torriani,  Guelphic  chiefs, 
rere  compelled  to  surrender  power  to  the  Vis- 
itis,  representing  the  Ghibellines.    At  Flor- 
ence, in  1258,  Silvestro  de'  Medici,  of  a  Guelph- 
ic faction  known  then  as  the  blacks  (neri), 
against  the  whites  (bianchi),  by  which  name 
the  Ghibellines  had  come  to  be  designated,  de- 
>rived  the  family  of  the  Uberti  of  their  power, 
id  gave  to  the  Florentines  a  republican  gov- 
iment.     Pisa,  after  a  disastrous  war  with 
moa,  fell  under  the  domination  of  the  Guelphs 
rat  1284,  but  only  for  a  time.    Rome,  in  the 
le  of  Rienzi  (middle  of  the  14th  century),  for 
rears  vacillated  between  oligarchy  and  democ- 
3y,  Ghibellines  and  Guelphs,  as  those  factions 
rere  now  designated.     In  general  the  former 
rere  partisans  of  imperial  and  feudal  hierarchy ; 
le  latter  of  the  church  and  national  indepen- 
ice.     Their  contests,  after  desolating  Italy 
400  years,  yielded  to  self-exhaustion.     The 
rench  invasion  of  1494  was  mainly  instru- 
ental,   however,   in  diverting    the   national 
lind,  and  interrupting  a  party  spirit  unsur- 
"  in  the  histories  of  obstinate  and  cruel 
)mestic  wars. — In  1815,  shortly  after  Hano- 
was  erected  into  a  kingdom,  the  prince  re- 
it,  afterward  George  IV.  of  Great  Britain, 
honor  of   the   Guelphic   founders  of   the 
louse  of  Brunswick-Hanover,  established  an 
ler  of  knighthood,  known  as  the  Guelphic 
ler  of  Hanover.     The  insignia  are  a  cross  of 
)ld,  bearing  a  medallion,  on  the  red  field  of 
rhich  is  a  silver  horse  upon  a  green  mound 
inople) ;  the  motto  is :  Nee  aspera  terrent. 


GUENOX.     See  MONKEY. 

GUEPARD.     See  LEOPARD. 

GUERANDE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Loire-Inferieure,  38  m.  N.  W.  of 
Nantes ;  pop.  in  1866,  6,749.  It  is  now  3  m. 
from  the  sea,  but  it  once  had  a  harbor  and 
was  a  place  of  importance.  It  is  surrounded 
by  massive  walls  flanked  with  imposing  tow- 
ers, and  has  four  gates.  In  the  environs  are 
extensive  salt  marshes,  which  are  below  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  are  protected  by  dikes, 
through  which  the  water  is  admitted  at  high 
tide  into  basins  and  evaporated.  The  annual 
production  of  salt  is  over  80,000  tons.  Gue- 
rande  has  also  manufactories  of  cotton  and 
linen  goods,  herring  fisheries,  and  a  brisk  trade 
in  wine.  It  was  founded  in  the  6th  century, 
and  was  fortified  in  1431. 

GUERAZZI.     See  GUERRAZZI. 

GUERCINO  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO  BARBIERI), 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cento,  near  Ferrara, 
in  1590,  died  in  Bologna  in  1666.  An  acci- 
dent deprived  him  in  infancy  of  the  use  of  his 
right  eye,  whence  he  gained  his  name  Guercino 
(little  squint-eye).  While  a  boy  he  manifested 
a  remarkable  talent  for  painting,  and  accord- 
ing to  common  report  became  a  disciple  of  the 
Carraccis  at  Bologna,  although  Cremonini  and 
Benedetti  Gennari,  artists  of  little  note,  seem  to 
have  been  the  masters  from  whom  he  acquired 
chiefly  the  rudiments  of  the  art.  Writers  have 
distinguished  three  different  styles  in  Guer- 
cino's  paintings,  of  the  first  of  which  few  speci- 
mens are  to  be  found,  being  the  least  known, 
while  the  second  and  third  embrace  the  great- 
er portion  of  his  works.  His  earlier  pictures 
show  the  influence  of  Caravaggio ;  but  by  in- 
tercourse with  prominent  artists  of  other 
schools  he  formed  what  is  known  as  his  second 
style.  In  this  style  are  painted  his  "  St.  Pe- 
tronilla,"  formerly  in  St.  Peter's;  the  "Au- 
rora," at  the  villa  Ludovisi ;  "St.  Philip  of 
Neri,"  at  Rome;  the  "Resurrection,"  at 
Cento;  "St.  Helena,"  at  Venice;  and  above 
all  his  frescoes  on  the  dome  of  the  cathedral 
at  Piacenza.  His  third  style,  a  palpable  imita- 
tion of  Guido,  is  feeble  and  languid.  He  was 
exceedingly  industrious,  and  among  his  works 
are  enumerated  106  altarpieces,  144  large  com- 
positions, and  an  immense  number  of  Madon- 
nas, portraits,  and  landscapes.  He  also  left  nu- 
merous drawings.  He  founded  a  school,  which 
flourished  for  a  number  of  years  at  Cento. 

CUE*  RET,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Creuse,  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Creuse,  35  m.  N.  E.  of  Limoges;  pop.  in  1866, 
5,126.  It  has  a  communal  college,  normal 
school,  public  library,  and  museum ;  manufacto- 
ries of  combs,  bone  black,  buttons,  and  potash ; 
distilleries  and  tanneries ;  and  a  brisk  trade  in 
coal,  lumber,  butter,  and  fruits.  Gueret  was 
built  around  an  abbey  founded  about  720. 

GUERICKE,  Heinrieh  Ernst  Ferdinand,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Wettin,  Prussia,  Feb. 
23,  1803.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Halle,  and  was  appointed  professor  there  in 


GUERICKE 


GUEROULT 


1829.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  union  be- 
tween the  Protestant  churches  in  Prussia,  and 
was  dismissed  from  the  university  in  1835,  but 
resumed  his  academical  functions  in  1840.  He 
afterward  edited  the  Zeitschrift  fur  lutherische 
Theologie,  in  concert  with  Rudelbach.  His 
principal  works  are  :  Historisch-kritische  Ein- 
leitung  in  das  Neue  Testament  (1843),  the 
second  part  of  which  appeared  in  Leipsic  in 
1854  under  the  title  of  Gesammtgeschichte  des 
Neuen*  Testaments,  oder  Neutestamentliche  Isa- 
gogik  (3d  ed.,  1868);  Allgemeine  christlicJie 
Symbolilc  (3d  ed.,  1861) ;  LeJirbuch  der  christ- 
lichen  Archaologie  (1847;  2d  ed.,  1859);  and 
Handbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (9th  ed.,  3 
vols.,  1867).  The  last  named  work  has  been 
translated  by  Prof.  Shedd  (Andover,  1857). 

GUERICKE,  Otto  von,  a  German  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Magdeburg,  Nov.  20,  1602, 
died  in  Hamburg,  May  11, 1686.  He  was  for  35 
years  burgomaster  of  Magdeburg.  In  1650  he 
invented  the  air  pump,  subsequently  perfected 
by  Robert  Boyle  and  others.  He  illustrated 
the  force  of  atmospheric  pressure  by  fitting  to- 
gether two  hollow  brass  hemispheres,  which, 
after  the  air  within  them  had  been  exhausted, 
could  not  be  pulled  apart.  He  also  invented 
a  species  of  barometer.  As  an  astronomer  he 
was  one  of  the  first  to  express  the  opinion  that 
the  return  of  comets  might  be  calculated.  He 
published  several  treatises  in  natural  philoso- 
phy, of  which  Experiments  Nova,  ut  vacant 
Magdeburgica,  &c.  (Amsterdam,  1672),  con- 
tains his  experiments  on  a  vacuum. 

U  KU I \.  Jean  Baptiste  I'aiilin.  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Toulon,  March  25,  1783,  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  16, 1855.  He  was  the  son  of  a  locksmith, 
and  at  first  made  a  living  as  a  workman.  Hav- 
ing saved  enough  money  to  go  to  Paris,  he  ac- 
cepted a  menial  office  in  the  studio  of  Gerard, 
where  he  secretly  executed  a  large  picture, 
"  Cain  after  the  Death  of  Abel,"  which  was 
purchased  by  the  government.  Among  his 
paintings,  some  of  which  are  mythological, 
while  most  of  them  are  of  a  religious  charac- 
ter, are  the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which 
was  presented  to  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
in  Baltimore,  U.  S.,  by  Louis  XVIII. ;  "  An- 
chises  and  Venus,"  purchased  by  the  French 
government  in  1822  ;  and  "Adam  and  Eve  ex- 
pelled from  the  Garden  of  Eden,"  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  French  school.  He  left 
also  many  portraits,  those  of  Charles  X.  and 
Lamennais  among  the  number. 

GtERIN-MENEYILLE,  Felix  Edonard,  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Toulon,  Oct.  12,  1799,  died 
in  Paris  early  in  1874.  He  studied  under  Cu- 
vier,  and  became  in  1850  professor  of  entomol- 
ogy at  the  college  de  France,  and  subsequently 
was  inspector  general  of  silk  culture.  His 
works  include  Iconographie  du  R&gne  animal 
de  M.  le  baron  Guvier  (7  vols.,  1830-'44); 
Magasin  de  zoologie,  d'anatomie  com.paree  et  de 
paleontoUgie  (26  vols.,  1831-'44);  and  Genera 
des  insectes  (6  vols.,  1835).  A.  Percheron  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  last  named  publica- 


tion, and  Eugene  Robert  in  the  Guide  de  Vele- 
veur  des  vers  d  soie  (1856). 

GUERNSEY,  the  westernmost  of  the  Channel 
islands,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  and  lying 
in  the  English  channel,  28  m.  from  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  France,  and  65  m.  from  England,  be- 
tween lat.  49°  24'  and  49°  33'  N.,  and  Ion.  2° 
30'  and  2°  40'  W. ;  area,  25  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  30,593.  The  surface  toward  the  north 
is  low  and  level,  but  toward  the  south  is 
hilly.  The  coast  is  deeply  indented  with  ex- 
cellent harbors,  and  in  some  places  rises  into 
precipitous  cliffs  270  ft.  high.  The  climate, 
though  variable,  is  temperate  and  healthy. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  but  agriculture  is  generally 
in  a  backward  state.  The  principal  produc- 
tions are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  potatoes, 
fruit,  cider,  wine,  butter,  pigs,  and  cattle.  The 
most  important  exports  are  apples,  cider,  wine, 
potatoes,  and  granite.  The  inhabitants  are  a 
simple  and  thrifty  race,  and  speak  a  dialect  of 
that  Norman  French  which  has  been  obsolete 
for  centuries  save  in  these  islands.  The  mili- 
tary government  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, who  represents  the  sovereign  in  the 
assembly  of  the  states.  The  legislative  body, 
called  the  states,  is  composed  of  32  members, 
two  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  crown. 
The  states  vote  the  ordinary  expenses,  but 
new  taxes  must  be  sanctioned  by  the  crown. 
Victor  Hugo  resides  in  this  island.  Capital, 
St.  Peter  Port,  or  Peter-le-port. 

GUERNSEY,  an  E.  county  of  Ohio,  drained  by 
branches  of  Muskingum  river ;  area,  460  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  23,838.  It  has  a  hilly  surface, 
with  a  soil  of  moderate  fertility,  and  abound- 
ing in  coal.  The  slopes  afford  good  pasturage, 
and  in  many  places  are  covered  with  vineyards 
from  which  wine  is  produced.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  central  Ohio  division  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  175,051  bushels  of  wheat,  685,758 
of  Indian  corn,  325,676  of  oats,  81,885  of  po- 
tatoes, 696,183  Ibs.  of  butter,  617,551  of  wool, 
474,178  of  tobacco,  and  31,376  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  7,047  horses,  6,411  milch  cows, 
8,673  other  cattle,  151,848  sheep,  and  15,222 
swine ;  13  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  salt,  2 
of  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds,  6  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen  goods,  6 
flour  mills,  6  saw  mills,  7  tanneries,  and  5  cur- 
rying^establishments.  Capital,  Cambridge. 

GUEROULT,  Adolphe,  a  French  journalist,  born 
at  Radepont,  Jan.  29,  1810,  died  in  Paris,  July 
22,  1872.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  manu- 
facturer, and  early  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits  and  to  the  advocacy  of  St.  Simonism. 
He  was  the  correspondent  of  the  Journal  des 
Debate  in  Spain  and  in  Italy  for  many  years. 
In  1842-'7  he  was  consul  at  Mazatlnn,  and  in 
'  1847-'8  at  Jassy ;  and  in  1852  he  became  sub- 
chief  of  the  credit  fonder.  As  a  member  of 
the  corps  legislatif  (1863-'9)  and  as  the  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  Opinion  nationale,  which  he 
founded  in  1859,  he  exerted  great  influence 


GUERRAZZI 

behalf  of  the  so-called  imperialistic  de- 
mocracy, and  as  a  strenuous  opponent  of  ultra- 
montanism.  With  other  deputies  he  was  de- 
nounced in  1869  by  M.  de  Kerv6guen  for  his 
alleged  friendly  attitude  toward  Prussia,  but 
was  vindicated  by  the  assembly.  Among  his 
publications  is  Discours  prononees  au  corps  le- 
gislate/ (Paris,  1869). 

GUERRiZZI,  Francesco  Domenico,   an  Italian 
author  and   politician,    born    in  Leghorn   in 
1805,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  23,  1873.     He  was 
educated   as  a   lawyer,   and  at   the   age   of 
22  brought   himself  into  notice   by    writing 
La  lattaglia  di   Benevento,  a  historical  ro- 
mance (Florence,  1828).     Being  an  ardent  re- 
iblican,  he  took  part  in   a  conspiracy,  and 
1831  was  thrown  into  prison,  where   he 
rrote  DAssedio  di  Firenze  and  Isabella  Or- 
(the   latter   translated   into   English  by 
ngi   Monti,  New   York,   1859).     Upon  his 
discharge  he  removed  to  Florence,  where  he 
a  successful  lawyer.     Among  his  pub- 
itions    while    there  were    Veronica   Cybo, 
rina,  and  I  Nuom  Tartufi,  and  a  drama, 
Uanchi  ed  i  Neri.     He  took  a  leading  part 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  imprisoned 
a  short  time.     He  had  no  sooner  recovered 
lis  liberty  than  he  placed  himself  in  relation 
ith  Mazzini,   Gioberti,  and  other  agitators, 
inded  a  republican  journal  at  Florence,  was 
losen  a  deputy  to  the  national  assembly  of 
iscany,  and  appointed  minister  of  the  interior 
October,  1848.     After  the  departure  of  the 
id  duke  from  his  capital  in  February,  1849, 
ruerrazzi  became  a  member,  and  in  March 
le  chief  of  the  provisional  government,  which 
ras  overthrown  in  the  following  month.     He 
ras  arrested  April  14,  and  removed  in  June  to 
le  state  prison  of  Volterra,  where  he  was  de- 
till  July,  1853,  and  wrote  a  defence  of 
is  political  course,  Apologia  della  vita  politi- 
di  F.  D.  Guerrazzi  (Florence,  1851).     After 
ial  he  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  banish- 
ient,  and  proceeded  to  Marseilles.     Not  being 
irmitted  to  reside  there,  he  went  to  Bastia  in 
sica,  where  he  wrote  Beatrice  Cenci  (Pisa, 
1854 ;    English  translations  by  Monti  and  Mrs. 
Tatts  Sherman,  New  York,  1858).  •  His  next 
:>lace  of  residence  was  in  Piedmont,  where  he 
>ublished  UAsino,  a  satirical  journal.   As  mem- 
ber of  the  parliament  which  assembled  at  Tu- 
rin, and  afterward  of  the  Italian  parliament, 
he  belonged  to  the  extreme  left.     He  also  pub- 
lished Pasquale  Paoli  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1865). 

GUERRERO.  I.  A  state  of  Mexico,  bounded  N. 
by  the  states  of  Michoacan,  Mexico,  and  Pue- 
bla,  E.  by  Oajaca,  S.  by  the  Pacific,  and  W.  by 
Michoacan ;  area,  24,226  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869, 
241,860,  mostly  Indians.  This  state,  formed  in 
1849  of  three  districts  from  Mexico,  two  from 
Puebla,  and  one  from  Michoacan,  is  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  in  the  republic.  It  has  a 
very  irregular  surface,  being  traversed  from  E. 
to  W.  by  the  Cordillera  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
which  throws  off  numerous  spurs,  many  ex- 
tending almost  to  the  coast,  especially  in  the 


GUERRERO  299 

western  half,  where  also  the  greatest  altitude 
is  attained,  and  some  trending  N.  until  they 
are  lost  in  Michoacan,  or  confounded  with  the 
gradual  descending'  slope  of  the  Mexican  pla- 
teau. There  are  few  valleys,  and  these  of  in- 
considerable extent.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Rio  de  las  Balsas,  which  rises  in  Tlascala, 
enters  the  state  near  the  N.  E.  corner,  and 
flows  first  W.  and  then  S.  W.,  and  falls  into 
the  Pacific  by  two  mouths,  half  way  be- 
tween Acapulco  and  Manzanillo,  forming  the 
whole  dividing  line  with  the  state  of  Micho- 
acan. It  is  not  navigable  except  by  small 
craft.  Silver  is  the  most  important  mineral, 
but  of  the  numerous  mines  formerly  in  opera- 
tion, only  13  are  now  worked,  partly  owing 
to  the  inferior  quality  of  the  metal  in  the 
others,  and  partly  to  the  want  of  capital.  At- 
tention has  within  a  few  years  been  called  to 
important  gold  mines  at  San  Jos6  and  Piedras 
Blancas.  Cinnabar  is  abundant  elsewhere,  as 
are  likewise  lead,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  and  cop- 
peras; and  anthracite  is  found  in  Chilpan- 
cingo.  The  climate  varies  from  cold  to  ex- 
tremely hot,  according  to  elevation.  Inter- 
mittent and  other  fevers  prevail  in  most 
localities ;  goitre  along  the  banks  of  the  Bal- 
sas, and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital  a  species 
of  leprosy.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  vege- 
tation, particularly  arboreal,  is  rich  and  varied, 
and  there  are  extensive  virgin  forests,  pre- 
senting excellent  timber  and  many  species 
of  precious  woods.  Maize  and  beans  are  the 
chief  agricultural  productions,  the  former  yield- 
ing three  large  crops  annually ;  cotton,  the 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  cacao,  yuca,  and  tobacco 
are  also  cultivated ;  and  cochineal  and  indigo 
are  extensively  produced.  Agriculture  is, 
however,  little  attended  to  save  in  the  central 
portions  of  the  state.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  are  cochineal,  indigo,  cacao,  wool,  and 
hides;  the  imports  consist  of  cotton  and  silk 
fabrics,  spices,  and  hardware.  The  foreign 
trade,  once  very  important,  is  carried  on 
through  the  port  of  Acapulco.  Manufactures 
are  limited  to  coarse  cotton  and  woollen  stuffs, 
rude  agricultural  implements,  and  household 
utensils.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  miners ; 
and  on  the  coast  numbers  are  engaged  in  pearl 
fishing.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  state,  for- 
merly called  Tixtla  or  Tixtlan,  in  a  narrow 
gorge  between  two  mountains  in  the  Sierra 
Madre,  152  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Mexico;  pop.  in 
1869,  6,501.  Raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  upon 
the  formation  of  the  state  in  1849,  this  place 
is  as  yet  of  little  importance  in  any  respect. 
The  chief  occupations  of  the  people  are  coarse 
manufactures,  mining,  and  agriculture.  Not- 
withstanding its  elevation,  5,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  its  climate  is  hot ;  intermittent  fevers  and 
goitre  are  common,  and  a  species  of  leprosy 
called  pinto  prevails  to  an  alarming  extent 
among  the  lower  classes. 

GUERRERO,  Vicente,  president  of  Mexico, 
born  at  Tixtla  about  1770,  executed  at  Cailapa, 
Feb.  14,  1831.  He  was  a  mulatto,  and  origi- 


300 


GUESCLIN 


nally  a  slave.  In  the  struggle  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  Mexico  he  exhibited  great  cour- 
age, and  after  the  death  of  Mina  became  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents.  In  1820  he 
entered  the  service  of  Iturbide,  upon  whose 
overthrow  in  1823  he  gave  in  his  adherence  to 
the  provisional  government  and  to  the  repub- 
lic. In  1827  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency, but  was  defeated  by  Pedraza  by  a  ma- 
jority of  two  votes  in  the  electoral  college. 
The  partisans  of  Guerrero  alleged  that  the 
election  was  carried  by  fraud,  and  rose  in  in- 
surrection. Pedraza  resigned  in  1829,  and  Guer- 
rero took  possession  of  the  presidency.  On 
Sept.  15  of  that  year  he  issued  a  proclamation 
abolishing  slavery.  The  next  year,  a  Spanish 
force  having  invaded  Mexico,  dictatorial  power 
was  conferred  upon  Guerrero,  and  his  troops 
under  Santa  Anna  defeated  the  Spaniards ;  but 
thereupon  Bustamente  and  Santa  Anna,  on 
pretence  that  he  ought  not  to  have  prolonged 
his  dictatorship  after  the  defeat  of  the  Span- 
iards, revolted  against  Guerrero,  who  was 
deserted  by  his  troops  and  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  his  hacienda  at  Tixtla.  He  was 
popular,  and  the  people  rallied  to  his  support. 
He  renewed  the  contest,  but  it  was  brought  to 
a  sudden  close  through  the  agency  of  a  Ge- 
noese ship  captain,  who  invited  him  to  a  din- 
ner on  board  his  vessel  at  Acapulco,  and  be- 
trayed huii  to  his  enemies.  He  was  tried  by  a 
military  commission  and  shot. 

GUESCLDT.     See  Du  GUESCLIN. 

GUESS,  George,  or  Sequoyah,  a  half-breed  Cher- 
okee Indian,  inventor  of  the  Cherokee  alpha- 
bet, born  about  1770,  died  in  San  Fernando, 
northern  Mexico,  in  August,  1843.  He  culti- 
vated a  small  farm  in  the  Cherokee  country  of 
Georgia,  and  was  occupied  as  a  silversmith  when 
in  1826  he  invented  a  syllabic  alphabet  of  the 
Cherokee  language,  which  consisted  of  85  char- 
acters, each  representing  a  single  sound  in  the 
language.  This  is  probably  the  most  perfect 
alphabet  ever  devised  for  any  language.  For  the 
characters  he  used,  as  far  as  they  went,  those 
which  he  found  in  an  English  spelling  book, 
although  he  knew  no  language  except  his  own. 
A  newspaper  called  the  "  Phoenix  "  was  estab- 
lished, a  part  of  it  printed  in  Cherokee,  using 
the  alphabet  of  Guess.  A  part  of  the  New 
Testament  was  also  printed  in  this  character. 
He  was  not  a  Christian,  and  is  said  to  have  re- 
gretted his  invention  when  he  found  it  used 
for  this  purpose.  He  accompanied  his  tribe 
in  1 1 11- ir  migration  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and 
resided  for  some  tune  in  Brainerd.  In  1842 
he  went  with  other  Indians  into  Mexico,  where 
he  was  attacked  by  a  fatal  sickness. 

GtETTEE,  Wladimlr,  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Blois  about  1815.  He  took  orders,  and  was 
for  several  years  a  parish  priest.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  edited  at  Blois  a  journal 
entitled  La  Democratie.  Subsequently  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  chaplain  in  several 
hospitals,  but  was  removed  on  account  of  his 
Jansenist  opinions.  He  contributed  largely  to 


GUIANA 

the  Observateur  Catholique,  the  leading  organ 
of  the  Gallican  church.  His  principal  works 
are :  Histoire  de  VEglise  de  France  (12  vols., 
1847-'57) ;  Jansenisme  et  jesuitisme  (1857) ; 
Histoire  des  jesuites  (4  vols.  8vo,  1858-'72) ; 
Papaute  temporelle  condamnee  par  le  pape  St. 
Gregoire  le  Grand  (1861);  Refutation  de  la 
pretendue  Vie  de  Jesus  de  M.  Renan  (1864) ; 
De  V Ency clique  du  8  decembre,  1864  (1865); 
and  Exposition  de  la  ^doctrine  de  VEglise  or- 
thodoxe  et  des  autres  Eglises  chretiennes  (1868). 

GUGGENBUHL,  Louis,  a  Swiss  philanthropist, 
born  in  Zurich  in  1816,  died  Feb.  2, 1863.  He 
took  his  medical  degree  in  1836,  and  then 
spent  three  years  in  the  study  of  cretinism  at 
Seruf  in  the  canton  of  Glarus.  In  1842  he 
opened  a  retreat  for  cretins  at '  Abendberg, 
above  Interlaken.  At  first  he  encountered 
some  opposition  from  the  government  in  con- 
sequence of  having  substituted  Protestants  for 
the  sisters  of  mercy  who  had  been  originally 
employed,  but  afterward  had  great  success, 
and  showed  that  the  condition  of  many  of  the 
cretins  is  susceptible  of  improvement.  The 
institution  established  by  him  was  abandoned 
after  his  death.  He  published  a  treatise  (Ba- 
sel, 1851)  and  various  pamphlets  on  cretinism. 

GUAM,  Guyana,  or  Gnayana.  I.  An  extensive 
territory  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  South  America, 
comprising  three  distinct  colonies,  viz. :  British, 
Dutch,  and  French  Guiana.  It  lies  between 
lat.  0°  55'  and  8°  40'  N.,  and  Ion.  51°  30'  and 
61°  W.,  and  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Atlantic,  E. 
and  S.  by  Brazil,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Oyapok  river  and  the  Tumucuraque  and 
Acaray  mountains,  and  W.  by  Brazil  and  the 
Venezuelan  province  of  Guayana;  area  esti- 
mated at  195,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  280,000. 
The  coast  line  is  about  740  m.  long.  The 
shore  is  skirted  with  mud  banks,  the  water 
on  which  gradually  decreases  in  depth  toward 
the  beach ;  which  circumstance,  added  to  the 
absence  of  landmarks,  and  the  existence  of 
rocks,  bars  of  mud,  and  quicksands  at  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers,  renders  the  approach 
difficult  for  all  craft,  and  impossible  for  vessels 
drawing  more  than  12  ft.,  these  being  obliged 
to  moor  3  m.  from  shore.  The  level  of  the 
coast  region,  from  Ion.  54°  to  61°,  normally 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  sea  at  high  water, 
sinks  at  least  one  foot  when  the  lands  are 
drained  and  cultivated,  so  that  the  water  can 
only  be  kept  back  by  means  of  embankments 
and  sluices.  From  Ion.  54°  eastward,  the  shore 
is  not  quite  so  low;  but  it  is  in  some  parts 
marshy,  and  is  chiefly  covered  with  mangrove 
forests.  Beyond  the  flat  country,  which  ex- 
tends to  a  mean  distance  of  50  m.  inland,  ex- 
cept E.  of  Ion.  54°,  where  it  ends  much  nearer 
the  sea,  the  surface  gradually  swells  to  an  ele- 
vation of  200  ft.,  forming  the  northern  edge 
of  the  table  land  of  Guiana.  This  plateau, 
with  a  generally  rising  tendency,  is  intersected 
by  parallel  ranges  of  hills,  much  more  numer- 
ous to  the  eastward,  extending  rib-like  to  the 
sierras  of  Tumucuraque  and  Acaray  at  the 


GUIANA 


301 


south,  and  limiting  the  basins  of  large 
ivers.     The  loftiest  eminences,  however,  are 
the  west.     Mt.  Koraima,  in  the  Socaraima 
3,  forming  for  a  distance  of  18  m.  part  of 
western  limit  of  the  country,  is  at  once  the 
_hest  in  Guiana  (7,500  ft.)  and  one  of  the 
lost  remarkable  on  the  globe;   it  is  a  flat- 
>pped  solid  mass,  the  upper  portion  of  which 
its  a  precipice  1,500  ft.  high,  glistening 
the  spray  of  numberless  cascades  which 
slunge   down  its  sides.     None  of  the  other 
lountains  attain  a  greater  altitude  than  4,000 
They  are  mostly  of  granite,  and  not  a  few 
)lated  pyramidal  or  conical  peaks  shoot  ab- 
iptly  upward,  and  present  with  their  denuded 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  luxuriant 
station  at  their  base.     The  hills  at  the  N. 
ler  of  the  table  land  are  mostly  of  sand- 
and  some  of  white  quartz,  with  numer- 
i  particles  of  mica,  glitter  like  gold.  Through- 
>ut  the  whole  flat  country  between  the  plateau 
id  the  sea  a  granite  stratum  underlies  allu- 
soil  and  clays,  the  last  being  covered  with 
black  vegetable  mould  many  feet  deep,  de- 
ited  by  the  rivers  during  their  inundations, 
the  Essequibo  is  found  a  species  of  pure 
"  3  clay. — The  territory  is  drained  by  six 
rivers.     The  Essequibo  and  the  Berbice, 
le  western  or  British  division,  are  both  navi- 
e  by  large  vessels  for  50  m.  from  the  sea. 
Corentyn  separates  the  British  from  the 
ch  possessions ;  and  in  the  latter  are  the 
ramaca  and  the  Surinam,  both  of  consider- 
)le  magnitude.     The  Maroni  forms  the  divi- 
line  between  Dutch  and  French  Guiana, 
["he  Demerara,  though  comparatively  small,  is 
ivigable  for  100  m.  up.      All  these  rivers 
Id  a  generally  northern  course,  through  re- 
is  of  great  natural  beauty,  and  receive  the 
raters  of  numerous  and  extensive  tributaries, 
tially  the  Essequibo,  which  has  the  Cuyuni 
Masaruni  (both  little  inferior  to  itself  in 
agnitude),  the  Eupununi,  Potaro,  and  others, 
le  grand  waterfall  of  Kaieteur  is  formed 
>y  the  waters  of  the  Potaro  dashing  in  a  sin- 
leap  from  the  basin  of  that  river  into  the 
lley  of  the  Essequibo,  a  depth  of  822  ft. 
width  of  the  river  at  the  edge  of  the  fall 
369  ft.,  and  the  depth  of  the  water  near 
e  edge  is  15  ft.  in  the  dry  season.     Several 
laller  rivers  fall  into  the  Atlantic  at  various 
)ints.     The  climate,  naturally  hot  in  the  low 
ions,  is  tempered  by  easterly  breezes  blowing 
lily  all  the  year  round,  the  mean  annual 
iperature  being  80°  F.,  and  is  much  more 
ilubrious  than  that  of  any  of  the  West  India 
lands,  especially  in  the  interior,  where  epi- 
smics  are  almost  unknown.      In  the  rainy 
>ns,  which  embrace  the  months  of  Decem- 
,  January,  February,  June,  July,  and  August, 
the  rivers  inundate  the  surrounding  country, 
and  intermittent  fevers  prevail.     These  seasons 
re  ushered  in  by  terrific  thunderstorms,  but 
hurricanes  never  occur.    Slight  shocks  of  earth- 
quake are  sometimes  felt.     The  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  unsurpassed  in  South  America,  and  ve- 


getation  is  everywhere  luxuriant.  Fully  one 
half  of  the  territory  is  occupied  by  dense 
forests,  whose  majestic  trees,  supporting  num- 
berless convolvuli  and  other  parasitic  plants  of 
endlessly  varying  hues,  afford  excellent  timber 
prized  for  its  hardness  and  durability,  and  in- 
exhaustible quantities  of  fancy  woods.  The 
hard-wood  species  include  varieties  of  mimu- 
sops,  such  as  the  bully  tree,  often  growing  to  a 
height  of  100  ft.,  with  a  trunk  6  ft.  in  diame- 
ter, destitute  of  branches  for  the  first  60  or  70 
ft. ;  the  greenheart  (nectandra  Rodiei),  whose 
ash-colored  bark  is  efficacious  as  a  febrifuge ; 
the  crabwood  (carapa  Guianensis),  sirwabali, 
sawari,  purpleheart  (copaifera  pubiflora,  and 
C.  firacteata),  and  the  mira  tree  (mimosa  ex- 
celsa),  attaining  a  height  of  150  ft.,  whose 
wood  is  reputed  as  not  inferior  to  teak.  Chief 
among  the  precious  woods  is  the  mahogany, 
and  among  the  palms  the  areca  oleracea  or 
cabbage  palm.  The  Bertholletia  excelsa,  or 
Brazil-nut  tree,  constitutes  in  some  parts  whole 
forests ;  and  almost  all  the  intertropical  fruit 
trees  are  found  in  abundance.  Of  woods  and 
plants  used  for  dyeing,  there  are  several  varie- 
ties ;  medicinal  plants  are  common ;  and  there 
are  numerous  fibrous  plants  furnishing  a  sub- 
stitute for  flax.  The  wild  flowers  are  of  in- 
describable splendor,  including  the  gorgeous 
Victoria  regia.  One  fourth  of  the  country  is 
devoted  to  plantations,  where  maize,  cassava, 
yams,  sweet  potatoes,  and  arrowroot  are  culti- 
vated to  a  considerable  extent.  The  soil  is 
well  adapted  to  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton ;  and 
tobacco  and  indigo  are  likewise  produced.  The 
remaining  fourth  of  the  territory  comprises 
meadow  plains,  affording  excellent  pasture  to 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  horses.  The 
hilly  regions  are  frequented  by  couguars  and 
jaguars;  the  tapir  is  the  largest  quadruped; 
ant-eaters,  armadillos,  and  agoutis  are  common ; 
there  are  two  or  three  varieties  of  deer ;  and 
the  forests  are  inhabited  by  hosts  of  monkeys 
of  many  kinds.  Vampire  bats  are  numerous ; 
the  boa  constrictor  and  anaconda  or  tragave- 
nados  abound  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers ; 
and  all  the  South  American  varieties  of  ven- 
omous snakes  are  here  represented.  There  are 
several  sorts  of  lizards,  and  the  iguana  is  eaten 
as  a  delicacy  by  the  natives.  The  marshy  dis- 
tricts, and  the  flat  country  generally,  after  the 
rains  have  subsided,  are  infested  by  myriads  of 
insects  capable  of  inflicting  troublesome  if  not 
dangerous  wounds.  The  rivers  swarm  with  alli- 
gators, sharks,  and  peris  or  omas.  2  ft.  long,  and 
armed  with  strong  and  formidable  teeth  ;  and 
they  also  afford  excellent  edible  fish,  such  as 
the  silurus,  often  measuring  12  ft.  and  weigh- 
ing upward  of  200  Ibs.  In  most  of  the  large 
rivers  there  are  electric  eels,  turtles,  and  mana- 
tees or  sea  cows  of  gigantic  size,  but  differing 
in  most  respects  from  the  manatee  of  the  West 
Indies.  Among  the  birds  are  flamingoes,  tou- 
cans, pelicans,  spoonbills,  peacocks,  and  Mus- 
covy ducks;  macaws,  parrots,  and  other  birds 
of  brilliant  plumage,  including  the  humming 


302 


GUIANA 


bird.— The  population  is  made  np  of  English, 
Dutch,  French,  and  other  Europeans,  negroes 
and  mulattoes,  descended  from  the  slaves  for- 
merly imported  from  Africa,  and  Indians,  in- 
cluding the  remnants  of  half  a  dozen  tribes. 
The  Warrows  dwell  in  the  vicinity  of  the  plan- 
tations, where  they  sometimes  work  for  wages ; 
the  Arrawaks  inhabit  the  coast,  and  are  skilled 
in  boat  building;  but  they  are  intemperate, 
improvident,  and  filthy.  The  other  tribes  live 
far  from  the  European  settlements;  many  of 
them  are  of  a  remarkably  fair  complexion.  A 
few  still  practise  cannibalism,  but  with  these 
are  not  to  be  confounded  the  small  number  of 
Oaribs  to  be  met  with  in  the  same  region,  and 
who,  like  all  the  continental  Oaribs,  have  never 
been  addicted  to  eating  human  flesh. — Guiana, 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  was  visited 
by  Vicente  Pinzon  two  years  later.  Diego 
de  Ordaz  founded  in  1531  the  first  town,  St. 
Thomas;  Dutch  settlements  were  established 
about  1580;  and  in  1595  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
landed  in  the  country  with  the  intention  of 
exploring  it  in  search  of  gold,  a  project  which 
he  did  not  execute  till  1617.  African  slaves 
were  first  introduced  in  1621.  II.  British  Gui- 
ana, sometimes  called  DEMERAEA,  the  largest 
of  the  three  colonies  comprised  in  the  preceding 
territory,  lies  between  lat.  0°  55'  and  8°  40'  N., 
and  Ion.  56°  20'  and  61°  W.,  and  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  Atlantic,  E.  by  Dutch  Guiana,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  river  Oorentyn,  S.  by  Brfe,- 
zil,  and  W.  by  Brazil  and  the  Venezuelan  prov- 


ince of  Guayana;  area,  99,925  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871, 193,491.  In  1851  the  population  was  about 
130,000,  and  by  the  end  of  1861  no  fewer  than 
80,000  immigrants  had  been  received,  consisting 
of  Europeans,  free  negroes,  and  East  Indian 
and  Chinese  coolies.  The  census  of  that  year 
gave  148,026  as  the  total  population,  79,644  of 
whom  were  males.  The  immigration,  though 
costly  (agents  having  been  sent  to  Calcutta  and 
Canton  to  promote  it),  has  been  successful. 
(See  COOLY.)  The  number  of  indentured  la- 
borers in  June,  1866,  was  32,124,  and  3,069 
not  indentured,  8,739  of  the  whole  being  fe- 
males. Some  invest  their  money  in  the  pur- 
chase of  land,  the  price  being  fixed  by  law  at 
$10  per  acre.  Licenses  for  cutting  timber, 
large  quantities  of  which  are  exported,  can  be 
obtained  for  from  300  to  1,000  acres,  at  Is.  3d 
per  acre.  The  country  was  formerly  divided 
into  the  three  counties  of  Essequibo,  Demerara, 
and  Berbice,  but  the  two  first  are  now  united. 
The  chief-towns  are  Georgetown,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Demerara  river,  the  capital  of  the  colony, 
Demerara,  and  New  Amsterdam  or  Berbice. 
The  staple  products  are  coffee  (the  cultivation 
of  which  has  diminished  of  late  years),  tobacco, 
indigo,  maize,  rice,  sugar  cane,  fruits  of  various 
sorts,  vegetables,  &c.  Wheat  does  not  thrive. 
The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  rum,  molas- 
ses, cacao,  cotton,  timber,  dye  woods,  and  dye 
stuffs.  The  total  exports  to  Great  Britain  in 
the  five  years  from  1868  to  1872  inclusive  were 
as  follows : 


ARTICLES. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

Earn  ... 

$1  645  760 

*  i  220  880 

£1  f»%  740 

Sugar... 

(L008745 

4.405500 

5  408,250 

Cacao 

8,'426 

q  A.  v> 

17QRA 

101  785 

103  910 

Wood  

882  750 

149  110 

Cotton  

72  765 

77  880 

Sundries  (dye  stuffs,  <kc.) 

56005 

78  560 

QO  flOA 

Total 

$8226.285 

JO  044940 

$7  851  750 

&fi  CO  A  AQK 

The  imports  from  the  same  country  in  the  same 
period  were : 


YEARS.  Value. 

1868 $8,355,520 

1869 8,271,535 

1870.... 4,288,190 


YEARS.  Value. 

1871 $3,957,790 

4,480,760 


1872  ......... 


Total $19,248,795 

The  total  exports  for  the  year  1871  amount- 
ed to  $13,745,000,  and  the  total  imports  to 
$9,485,000.  The  internal  communication  is 
carried  on  by  boats  upon  the  rivers.  In  1871 
[1  vessels  entered  and  cleared.  The  finances 
of  the  colony  in  the  same  year  were  as  follows : 


Surplus 


1260,000 


The  public  debt  was  $2,565,000.  The  govern- 
ment consists  of  a  court  of  policy,  of  ten  mem- 
bers, five  of  whom  are  official,  the  governor, 
chief  justice,  attorney  general,  collector  of  cus- 


toms, and  government  secretary,  and  five  non- 
official.  There  were  101  public  schools  in  1863 
receiving  public  aid,  and  attended  by  8,251 
scholars ;  and  the  whole  number  of  children 
receiving  instruction  in  the  colony  was  12,425. 
In  1866  the  schools  numbered  118,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  6,615  pupils.— British 
Guiana  was  discovered  by  Vicente  Pinzon  in 
the  spring  of  1500,  and  the  Dutch  formed  the 
settlements  of  New  Amsterdam,  Demerara, 
and  Essequibo  about  1580.  The  English,  who 
settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  Amster- 
dam in  1634,  withdrew  in  1667.  The  colonies 
were  attacked  by  the  French  in  1690  and  in 
1712,  and  a  contribution  levied  on  each  occa- 
sion. A  negro  insurrection  took  place  in  1762. 
The  colonies  were  occupied  by  the  English,  un- 
der Gen.  Whyte,  in  1796,  but  were  restored  to 
the  Dutch  in  1802.  They  were  retaken  in 
1803,  and  by  an  agreement  between  England 
and  the  Netherlands,  concluded  in  1814,  re- 
tained by  the  former  country.  In  1831  they 


GUIAJSTA 

3re  formed  into  one  colony,  under  the  name 
of  British  Guiana.  Slavery  was  abolished  in 
1834,  and  the  system  of  apprenticeship  was 
abandoned  in  1838.  In  1827  the  territory  was 
included  in  the  bishopric  of  Barbadoes  and  the 
Leeward  Isles  ;  but  in  1838  it  became  an  arch- 
deaconry, and  in  1842  was  erected  into  a  sep- 
arate bishopric.  III.  Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam, 
extends  from  the  Corentyn  to  the  river  Maroni, 
lying  between  lat.  1°  20'  and  6°  N.,  and  Ion. 
53°  15'  and  57°  45'  W.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  Atlantic,  E.  by  French  Guiana,  S.  by  Bra- 
zil, and  W.  by  British  Guiana;  area,  55,785 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  59,860,  including  650 
soldiers,  400  marines,  1,000  Indians,  and  7,500 
maroons  or  fugitive  African  slaves  and  their 
descendants,  who  live  chiefly  in  the  hill  country. 
Paramaribo,  on  the  bank  and  about  10m.  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Surinam  river,  is  the  capi- 
tal; the  governor's  residence  is  at  Zeelandia, 
a  short  distance  N.  of  that  city.  Since  the  im- 
portation of  slaves  ceased,  the  population  has 
gradually  diminished ;  in  1852  it  was  64,270. 
The  country  is  flat  and  swampy  near  the  coast, 
mountainous  in  the  interior,  and  watered  by 
numerous  rivers.  The  products  are  the  same 
as  in  British  Guiana.  The  exports,  principally 
cacao,  sugar,  rum,  cotton,  indigo,  and  other 
dyes  and  dye  woods,  are  far  from  being  as  ex- 
tensive now  as  when  slavery  existed.  The 
total  value  of  the  exports  to  Great  Britain  in 
1868  was  $406,980;  1869,  $369,650;  1870, 
$544,420;  1871,  $823,295;  1872,  $874,890;  of 
the  imports  in  1868,  $177,015 ;  1869,  $184,- 
845 ;  1870,  $235,505  ;  1871,  $192,965  ;  1872, 
$213,700.  Surinam  is  an  expensive  colony  to 
the  Netherlands,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  state 
of  the  finances  in  1872,  viz. :  revenue,  $79,- 
944  80  ;  expenditure,  $480,274  40 ;  deficit, 
$300,329  60.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
governor  general  and  council. — Dutch  Guiana 
was  visited  by  the  French  in  1640.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1650,  and  granted  by 
charter  of  Charles  II.  to  Lord  Willoughby  in 
1662.  The  Dutch  took  possession  of  it  in  1667 ; 
the  English  retook  it  shortly  afterward,  but 
ceded  it  back  to  the  Dutch  in  1669.  By  the 
peace  of  Westminster  it  was  allotted  to  the 
Dutch  in  exchange  for  the  province  of  New 
York.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  English  in 
1796,  restored  in  1802,  recaptured  in  1804, 
and  again  given  up  to  Holland  in  1814.  IV. 
French  Gniana,  or  Cayenne,  lies  between  lat.  1° 
15'  and  5°  45'  K,  and  Ion.  51°  30'  and  54°  35' 
W.  It  is  bounded  N".  by  the  Atlantic,  E.  and 
S.  by  Brazil,  and  W.  by  Dutch  Guiana ;  area, 
40,140  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1868,  25,151.  The  ter- 
ritory includes  the  island  of  Cayenne  (see 
CAYENNE),  and  is  divided  into  the  two  districts 
of  Cayenne  and  Sinnamary,  and  subdivided 
into  14  communes  or  arrondissements.  The 
country  near  the  coast  is  flat,  marshy  in  some 
parts,  and  in  others  covered  with  forests  of 
mangroves.  The  climate  is  much  hotter  and 
more  unhealthy  than  in  the  other  divisions  of 
Guiana.  The  products  of  the  other  two  col- 
380  TOL.  vin. — 20 


GUIDO   ARETINO 


303 


onies  are  likewise  found  here,  with  the  addition 
of  pepper  (especially  the  kind  bearing  the  name 
cayenne),  cloves,  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  &c.  The 
state  of  agriculture  is  very  low.  The  total  ex- 
ports in  1864  amounted  to  $265,475,  and  the 
imports  to  $1,956,765.  The  governor  has  a 
privy  council,  with  a  colonial  council  of  16 
members  elected  by  the  colonists. — The  coun- 
try was  settled  by  the  French  in  1604,  and 
again  in  1635.  The  English  seized  the  colony 
in  1654,  and  held  it  till  1664.  The  Dutch  took 
it  in  1676,  but  were  obliged  to  restore  it  to  the 
French  in  1677.  It  was  again  taken  by  the 
British  in  1809,  and  finally  restored  to  France 
at  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 

GUICCIARDIM,  Francesco,  an  Italian  historian, 
born  in  Florence,  March  6, 1482,  died  near  that 
city  in  May,  1540.  At  the  age  of  23  he  held  a 
professorship  of  law,  and  was  afterward  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 
He  was  soon  called  to  the  court  of  Leo  X., 
who  made  him  governor  of  Modena  and  Reg- 
gio,  which  dignity  he  retained  under  Adrian  VI. 
Clement  VII.  sent  him  to  the  Romagna,  where 
he  succeeded  in  quelling  the  conflicts  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  "As  lieutenant  gen- 
eral of  the  pope  he  defended  Parma  against 
the  enemy,  and  subdued  the  revolted  city  of 
Bologna,  after  which  he  retired  (1534)  to  Flor- 
ence and  commenced  his  history.  On  the  as- 
sassination of  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  he  ex- 
erted himself  to  defeat  the  project  of  the  senate 
for  restoring  the  republic.  Cosmo  de'  Medici 
was  made  governor  by  his  influence,  but  soon 
exchanged  this  title  for  that  of  duke,  and  as- 
sumed absolute  power  in  the  state,  when  Guic- 
ciardini,  who  had  been  attached  to  him,  re- 
signed his  office  and  retired.  Of  his  "  History 
of  Italy,"  the  first  complete  16  books  appeared 
in  1561,  edited  by  his  nephew.  A  few  years 
afterward  four  more  were  added,  but  these  are 
not  complete.  It  has  since  been  often  reprint- 
ed in  20  vols.,  but  the  best  edition  is  that  by 
Rosini  (10  vols.,  Pisa,  1819-'20).  Among  the 
other  remains  of  Guicciardini  are  Consigli  aurei 
ed  avvertimenti  politici  (translated  into  French, 
Paris,  1577),  and  parts  of  his  correspondence 
published  by  Bernigio  under  the  title  Con- 
sider azioni  cimli  sopra  Vistoria  di  Francesco 
Guicciardini  (Venice,  1582),  and  under  that 
of  Legazione  di  Spagna  (Pisa,  1825). 

Gt'ICCIOLI,  Teresa,  countess,  born  about  1802, 
died  in  Rome,  March  26,  1873.  See  BYEON. 

GUICOWAR,  or  Guikwar,  Dominion  of  the,  or 
Baroda,  a  tributary  state  of  British  India,  in 
the  division  of  Guzerat,  province  of  Bombay. 
The  former  dominions  of  the  Guicowar  com- 
prised about  29,400  sq.  m.,  lying  around  the 
gulf  of  Cutch,  between  lat.  20°  40'  and  24°  N., 
and  Ion.  69°  and  74°  E.  The  present  Baroda, 
which  is  all  that  remains  under  the  nominal 
rule  of  the  native  prince,  has  an  area  of  4,400 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  350,000.  (See  BAEODA.) 
For  its  physical  characteristics,  see  GUZEEAT. 

GUIDI,  Tommaso.     See  MASACCIO. 

GUIDO  ARETINO.     See  ARETINO. 


304 


GUIDO  RENI 


GUIDO  RENI,  an  Italian  painter,  of  the  Bo- 
lognese  school,  born  near  Bologna  in  1575, 
died  there  in  1642.  He  studied  under  Denys 
Calvaert  and  Ludovico  Carracci,  and  went  tt> 
Rome,  where  his  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Cecilia  " 
was  very  successful.  He  received  an  order 
from  the  pope  to  decorate  the  private  chapel 
of  the  palace  of  Monte  Cavallo,  but  became 
disgusted  with  the  parsimony  of  the  papal 
treasurer  and  returned  to  Bologna,  where  he 
painted  the  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."  Re- 
called by  the  pope  to  Rome,  he  executed  a 
number  of  important  works,  including  his  fres- 
coes of  the  "Aurora"  in  the  Rospigliosi  pal- 
ace, the  "Concert  of  Angels"  in  the  apsis  of 
the  Capella  Sta.  Silvia,  the  "  St.  Andrew  "  in 
the  chapel  of  that  name,  and  the  painting  of 
"  Fortune  "  in  the  gallery  of  the  capitol.  He 
was  invited  to  Naples,  and  had  nearly  finished 
the  "Nativity,"  now  in  the- choir  of  San  Mar- 
tino,  when  he  was  driven  away  by  the  jealousy 
of  the  Neapolitan  artists.  The  remainder  of 
his  life  was  passed  at  Bologna.  At  this  period 
he  gave  himself  up  to  play,  and  painted  rapidly 
and  carelessly.  Many  of  his  later  works  are 
unfinished,  and  some  which  bear  his  name  are 
by  his  pupils.  The  best  of  this  period  are  his 
"Assumption,"  in  the  gallery  at  Munich,  and 
the  Madonna  with  angels,  now  in  Bologna. 

GD1ENNE,  an  ancient  province  in  S.  W.  France, 
a  part  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Aquitaine,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Saintonge,  Angoumois,  Limousin,  and 
Auvergne,  E.  by  Languedoc,  S.  by  Languedoc 
and  Gascony,  and  W.  by  the  bay  of  Biscay.  In 
1152  the  duchy  passed  to  Henry  Plantagenet 
(afterward  Henry  II.  of  England)  through  his 
marriage  with  Eleanor,  niece  of  William  X.  of 
Aquitaine.  The  kings  of  England  maintained 
their  possession  of  it  with  some  interruption 
till  1451,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  army 
of  Charles  VII.,  under  Dunois.  Out  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Guienne  the  departments  of  Gironde, 
Lot,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Dordogne,  Aveyron,  and 
part  of  those  of  Landes  and  Tarn-et-Garonne, 
have  been  formed. 

GCIGNES.  I.  Joseph  de,  a  French  orientalist, 
born  in  Pontoise,  Oct.  19,  1721,  died  in  Paris 
in  March,  1800.  When  only  20  years  old  he 
was  an  extraordinary  sinologue.  In  1752  the 
royal  society  of  London  elected  him  a  member, 
and  in  1754  the  French  academy  of  inscrip- 
tions did  the  same.  His  principal  work  was 
Histoire  generale  des  Huns,  des  Turcs,  des  Mo- 
gols  et  des  autres  Tartares  occidentaux,  want  et 
depui*  J.  C.  jusqu^d  present  (5  vols.  4to,  1756- 
'8).  He  was  appointed  in  1757  professor  of 
Syriac  in  the  college  de  France,  and  in  1769 
keeper  of  the  antiquities  in  the  Louvre.  He 
wrote  several  essays  and  papers,  among  which 
was  a  curious  memoire  in  which  he  contends 
that  the  Chinese  are  but  an  Egyptian  colony. 
II.  Chretien  Lools  Joseph,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris,  Aug.  25,  1759,  died  March  9, 
1846.  For  17  years  he  was  French  resident 
and  consul  at  Canton.  He  published,  besides 
several  other  papers,  Voyages  d  Peking,  Manille 


GUILD 

et  rile  de  France  (3  vols.  4to,  1808),  and  ed- 
ited under  his  own  name  in  1813  a  Diction- 
naive  chinois,francais  et  latin,  which  was  really 
only  the  Han-tse-sy-y  of  Bafeilius  de  Glemona 
revised  and  enlarged. 

GUILD,  or  Gild  (Sax.  gildam,  to  pay),  a  name 
given  in  England  and  France  to  societies  or- 
ganized for  mutual  aid  and  protection,  as  well 
as  to  confraternities  whose  chief  object  is  piety 
or  beneficence.  The  denomination  of  confra- 
ternity (confrerie)  was  formerly  bestowed  in 
France  on  lay  brotherhoods  united  for  secular 
as  well  as  for  religious  purposes ;  it  is  now  re- 
stricted to  pious  and  charitable  organizations. 
Before  the  reformation  the  term  guild  was 
used  in  England  indifferently  for  both,  and  it  is 
often  so  applied  at  present.  I.  SEOULAE  GUILDS. 
Societies  of  artisans  were  organized  in  Rome 
at  a  very  early  period,  and,  together  with  mer- 
chants' corporations,  continued  to  increase  in 
numbers  and  importance  until  the  fall  of  the 
republic.  Their  turbulence  caused  them  to  be 
suppressed  in  the  consulship  of  L.  Caecilius  and 
J.  Martius ;  but  they  were  restored  by  Clodius. 
Incorporated  with  fixed  statutes  under  the  last 
Caesars,  they  spread  all  over  the  empire.  The 
Christian  religion  found  them  among  the  labor- 
ing classes  in  the  East  and  West,  infused  into 
them  its  active  spirit  of  brotherly  charity,  and 
thus  the  old  pagan  corporation  (collegium)  be- 
came the  Christian  guild.  In  364  Valentinian 
I.  confirmed  the  privileges  granted  by  prece- 
ding emperors  to  the  trades'  corporations,  and 
about  this  epoch  each  trade  became  a  separate 
guild,  whose  members,  as  well  as  their  off- 
spring, could  embrace  no  other  calling.  As  a 
compensation,  the  guilds  were  empowered  to 
accept  donations  and  legacies,  and  to  inherit 
the  property  of  intestate  members.  They  were 
also  bound  to  provide  for  the  requirements  of 
the  public  service,  and  in  return  obtained  in 
many  instances  most  lucrative  monopolies. 
Throughout  the  West  these  societies  are  called 
by  early  Christian  writers  collegia  opificum, 
companies  of  craftsmen.  In  Piedmont  some 
charters  of  guilds  date  from  the  year  707.  The 
records  of  Ravenna  mention  a  guild  of  fisher- 
men in  943,  one  of  merchants  in  953,  and  "  a 
provost  of  the  guild  of  butchers  in  1001."  In 
southern  Gaul  the  municipalities  from  time  im- 
memorial had  their  confraternities  of  trades- 
men, forming  the  great  body  of  free  citizens, 
and  their  consuls,  as  the  chief  magistrates  were 
called.  Nor  was  it  otherwise  in  northern 
Gaul,  when  the  invasion  of  the  Franks  came 
to  disturb  the  social  growth  of  centuries.  The 
annals  of  the  Merovingian  kings  mention  a  col- 
lege or  guild  of  jewellers  or  workers  in  gold 
and  silver ;  and  the  edicts  of  Dagobert  desig- 
nate a  guild  of  bakers.  In  1061  Philip  I. 
granted  privileges  to  the  master  chandlers. 
Louis  VII.  in  1162  speaks  of  "the  ancient  cus- 
toms of  the  guild  of  butchers,"  and  granted ^to 
the  widow  of  one  Ives  Laccobre  and  her  heirs 
the  right  of  collecting  the  moneys  due  to  the 
royal  treasury  by  the  guilds  of  leather  dressers, 


GUILD 


305 


and  harness  makers,  &c.  The  most  an- 
cient of  chartered  French  guilds  is  the  hanse  of 
merchants  and  watermen  of  the  Seine,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  Parisian 
"  nautes  "  (Lat.  nautce,  sailors  or  boatmen)  ex- 
isting in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  This  body 
had  absolute  control  of  the  trade  carried  on  by 
the  watercourses  of  the  Seine  and  the  Yonne 
between  Mantes  and  Auxerre;  no  merchant 
could  bring  his  wares  into  Paris  without  he- 
coming  a  member  of  this  guild  or  obtaining 
from  it  lettres  de  hanse.  Similar  guilds  sprang 
up  in  most  of  the  commercial  cities  situated 
aloug  the  other  river  courses  or  on  the  sea- 
shore. Sometimes  several  of  these  formed  a 
commercial  league,  such  as  existed  between 
the  Hanseatic  towns  of  Germany.  Above 
the  trades  were  several  privileged  guilds, 
such  as  the  merchants'  guilds  called  les  six 
corps,  viz.  :  drapers,  grocers,  haberdashers, 
furriers,  hatters,  and  jewellers. — According  to 
Sismondi,  the  cities  of  Flanders  and  Holland 
secured  the  benefit  of  self-government  before 
those  of  France  or  Italy ;  and  Thierry  deduces 
this  fact  from  the  institution  of  guilds  or  fra- 
ternities among  the  burghers.  Two  essential 
characteristics  belonged  to  them,  the  common 
banquet  and  the  common  purse.  In  many  in- 
stances they  had  a  religious,  and  in  some  a 
secret  ceremonial,  to  knit  more  firmly  the 
bond  of  fidelity.  From  the  private  guild,  pos- 
sessing the  vital  spirit  of  faithfulness  and 
brotherly  love,  sprang  the  sworn  communi- 
ty, the  body  of  citizens,  bound  by  a  voluntary 
but  perpetual  obligation  to  guard  each  other's 
rights  against  the  thefts  of  the  weak  or  the  tyr- 
anny of  the  powerful.  The  progress  from  the 
guild  to  the  corporation  can  be  traced  in  other 
European  countries ;  but  in  the  Low  Countries 
from  time  immemorial  they  are  found  to  co- 
exist. All  through  the  middle  ages  the  Dutch 
and  Flemish  guilds  exercised  a  preponderating 
influence.  There  is  not  a  cathedral  or  church 
edifice  of  any  importance  in  Holland  or  Bel- 
gium but  contains  some  pictorial  or  sculptured 
monument  commemorative  of  some  great  event 
connected  with  these  guilds,  and  representing 
their  costumes,  banners,  corporate  seal,  or  pub- 
lic festivities.  In  Paul  Lacroix's  Mceurs,  usages 
et  costumes  au  rnoyen  dge,  are  engravings  of 
various  trades'  guilds  of  St.  Trond,  Hasselt, 
Bruges,  Maestricht,  Antwerp,  and  Ghent. — In 
Germany  the  immunities  and  privileges  enjoyed 
under  the  Roman  domination  by  the  brother- 
hoods of  craftsmen  were  swept  away  by  feudal- 
ism ;  the  condition  of  the  workmen  was  one  of 
serfage  down  to  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hen- 
ry I.  (919-'36).  During  the  next  two  centu- 
ries the  guilds  banded  themselves  together, 
and  gradually  acquired  such  power  in  the  cit- 
ies that  they  rivalled  the  nobles  in  influence 
and  aimed  at  controlling  the  municipal  gov- 
ernment. Charlemagne  had  felt  their  power, 
and  in  his  capitularies  laid  down  rules  limiting 
the  growth  of  guilds  in  conformity  with  local 
needs.  The  emperors  Frederick  II.  and  Henry 


VII.  vainly  attempted  long  afterward  to  sup- 
•press  the  guilds,  whose  incessant  contests  with 
the  nobility  led  to  frequent  bloodshed.— The 
whole  laboring' population  of  England  during 
the  Anglo-Saxon  period  was  virtually  organ- 
ized into  guilds.  The  charters  of  many  Eng- 
lish guilds  date  from  the  10th  century ;  the 
steelyard  merchants  (gilda  Theutonicorum)  ex- 
isted before  96V,  and  were  chartered  in  1232  ; 
the  establishment  of  the  saddlers'  company 
dates  from  the  same  epoch.  Trade  guilds  are 
mentioned  in  the  Judicia  Civitatis  Londo- 
nice,  compiled  by  King  Athelstan,  and  in  other 
Anglo-Saxon  laws;  they  must  therefore  have 
existed  in  939.  But  it  is  certain  that  others 
existed  before  that;  lawyers  agree  that  the 
stallingers  of  Sunderland,  the  dredgers  of 
Whitstable,  and  the  free  fishermen  of  Faver- 
sham  have  existed  from  time  immemorial. 
Another  famous  brotherhood  was  the  cnichten 
or  knigten  guild,  which  existed  in  the  reign  of 
Edgar  (died  in  975),  and  was  chartered  by  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  (1042-'66).  All  this  con- 
firms the  assertion  of  Lingard,  that  at  the  Nor- 
man conquest  there  were  guilds  not  only  in  the 
chief  cities  of  England,  but  in  the  surrounding 
rural  districts,  all  organized  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples. The  boroughs  were  made  up  of  guilds 
of  tradesmen,  who  had  conquered  their  free- 
dom by  their  union ;  and  in  each  borough  these 
guilds  formed  one  body  politic  with  common 
rights  and  common  interests.  They  had  each 
their  hall  or  hanse  house,  in  which  they  met 
and  deliberated ;  they  exercised  the  power  of 
enacting  by  (or  borough)  laws ;  and  they  pos- 
sessed, by  lease  or  purchase,  houses,  pasture, 
and  forest  lands  for  the  common  use.  Under 
Norman  rule,  the  growth  of  guilds  was  much 
interfered  with  at  first.  Henry  I.  (1100-'35) 
commanded  that  all  should  receive  the  royal 
license ;  and  he  subjected  several  guilds,  secu- 
lar and  religious,  to  heavy  fines,  because  they 
had  been  established  without  license,  or  exer- 
cised their  functions  independently  of  it.  This 
penalty  fell  heavily  on  London,  where  the  re- 
ligious guilds  or  confraternities  were  very  nu- 
merous. They  were  much  encouraged  by  Hen- 
ry II. ;  but  as  they  increased  under  this  patron- 
age, and  were  much  given  to  parading  with 
their  respective  "liveries"  and  banners,  colli- 
sions between  rival  trades  became  so  frequent 
that  at  length  under  Henry  IV.  they  were  for- 
bidden to  wear  their  liveries.  In  subsequent 
reigns  they  were  permitted  to  appear  in  them 
at  coronations,  and  finally  it  became  necessary 
to  obtain  the  royal  license  for  appearing  in 
public  with  their  insignia.  The  term  "  livery 
company  "  was  substituted  for  that  of  guild  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  (1327-'77),  and  has 
been  applied  ever  since  to  the  London  trades 
in  particular.  The  most  ancient  of  these  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  guild  of  woollen  weavers  (gil- 
da telariorwri),  chartered  by  Henry  I.  In 
Stow's  time  there  were  in  London  63  livery 
companies,  12  of  which  are  called  by  him  "  hon- 
orable companies  out  of  which  the  lord  mayor 


306 


GUILD 


is  to  be  chosen  yearly."  At  the  present  day 
there  are  89  such  guilds  in  London,  39  of  which 
have  halls  of  their  own,  the  others  meeting  in 
Guildhall  or  in  certain  taverns.  The  freemen 
or  liverymen  of  "  the  city  "  elect  two  candi- 
dates for  the  mayoralty,  one  of  whom  is  chosen 
by  the  court  of  aldermen ;  the  liverymen  also 
elect  the  sheriffs  and  chamberlain.  Many  rel- 
ics exist  in  other  English  cities  to  attest  the 
importance  of  guilds  in  the  middle  ages.  Once 
in  20  years,  toward  the  end  of  August,  Pres- 
ton celebrates  "  guild  day  "by  a  solemn  pro- 
cession, in  which  the  corporation  and  all  the 
local  guilds  take  part.  Throughout  Norfolk, 
in  Norwich,  Aylesham,  Lynn,  and  Worstead, 
survive  memories  of  the  numerous  and  power- 
ful guilds  of  woollen  workers  (carders,  spin- 
ners, weavers,  fullers,  shearers,  &c.),  who  con- 
tributed so  much  in  their  day  to  the  commer- 
cial prosperity  of  England. — In  Great  Brit- 
ain, in  spite  of  the  severe  control  exercised 
by  the  crown,  the  establishment  of  guilds  and 
the  exercise  of  independent  trade  were  not 
subjected  to  the  tyrannical  restraints  which 
existed  on  the  continent.  All  trades  were 
equal  in  England;  every  individual  was  free 
to  choose  the  craft  to  which  he  wished  to 
belong;  and  the  road  to  apprenticeship  and 
mastership  was  equally  open  to  all.  Besides, 
as  membership  in  an  English  borough  soon 
came  to  be  coupled  with  the  right  of  suffrage, 
numbers  of  men  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
craft  sought  to  obtain  the  freedom  of  the 
guild.  But  the  common  law,  the  watchful 
jealousy  of  the  civil  courts,  and  the  spirit  of 
the  nation  did  not  allow  these  organizations  to 
cover  the  land  with  their  network  as  they  did 
in  France  and  Germany.  Beyond  the  limits 
of  the  boroughs,  which  were  the  centres  of  the 
great  industrial  guilds,  labor  and  trade  flour- 
ished in  freedom  over  a  wide  domain.  Still, 
ever  since  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  they  had 
their  distinctive  liveries  and  banners,  lived  or- 
dinarily in  the  same  street,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  occupied  an  entire  ward  or  quarter, 
and  were,  in  fact,  so  many  close  corporations. 
Many  of  the  guilds  in  England  and  Scotland 
maintained  up  to  a  recent  date  their  character- 
istic exclusiveness ;  no  person  who  was  not 
free  of  the  borough  or  of  certain  of  these 
guilds  was  permitted  to  open  a  shop  for  mer- 
chandise, or  exercise  certain  trades  within  the 
borough.  These  restrictions  were  abolished  in 
1835;  and  their  place  has  since  to  a  large 
extent  been  taken  by  the  trades'  unions. — In 
France  the  guilds  were  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  high  officers  of  the  crown.  Thus 
the  high  chamberlain  governed  all  the  trades 
which  bore  a  relation  to  his  office,  such  as 
clothiers,  upholsterers,  &c. ;  the  master  of  the 
horse  was  head  of  the  farriers,  &c. ;  and  so 
with  the  other  officials.  They  disposed  of  the 
masterships  in  each  trade,  delivered  patents,  and 
collected  the  heavy  fees  attendant  on  master- 
ship. This  authority  was  delegated  to  lieuten- 
ants, who  had  a  superintendence  of  their  re- 


spective trades  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
were  called  "  kings  of  guild."  They  main- 
tained in  the  14th  century  a  courtly  retinue 
of  subordinates  at  the  expense  of  the  trades- 
men, decided  all  civil  and  criminal  questions 
among  their  subjects,  visited  merchants'  and 
tradesmen's  houses  and  workshops  to  discover 
frauds,  imposed  fines,  levied  taxes,  and  exacted 
pleasure  money  for  their  own  use.  Between 
the  kings  of  guilds  themselves  arose  frequent 
conflicts  of  jurisdiction,  in  which  rival  preten- 
sions were  sustained  by  armed  force;  while 
the  provosts  of  the  various  cities  strenuously 
resisted  all  exercise  of  authority  over  the  guilds 
by  these  officials  as  a  usurpation  of  their  own. 
The  tradesmen  were  invariably  called  upon  to 
support  these  conflicting  claims,  which  led  to 
continual  riots  and  bloodshed.  However,  the 
authority  of  the  provosts  prevailed  in  the  end, 
because  their  interests  were  identified  with 
those  of  the  workmen.  Each  craft  or  "  mys- 
tery "  had,  besides  the  officers  thus  imposed 
upon  it  by  the  crown,  its  own  chosen  chiefs, 
designated  as  masters,  deans,  wardens,  syn- 
dics, &c.  It  was  the  duty  of  these  to  visit  at 
all  hours  the  workshops  of  members  of  the 
guild  and  their  salesrooms,  to  enforce  the  strict 
rules  of  the  craft,  and  to  examine  candidates 
for  apprenticeship  and  mastership.  In  France 
the  exclusive  esprit  de  corps  permitted  but  few 
to  find  admittance  into  a  craft.  The  children 
of  a  master  workman  were  alone  free  from  the 
usual  restrictions.  Each  trade  was  divided 
into  three  classes,  masters,  companions,  and 
apprentices.  Apprenticeship  began  between 
the  ages  of  12  and  17,  and  lasted  from  2  to  10 
years.  In  most  trades  a  master  was  allowed 
only  a  single  apprentice  besides  his  son.  Tan- 
ners, printers  in  color,  and  jewellers  might 
have  a  second  apprentice,  provided  he  were, 
if  possible,  a  kinsman.  Butchers  and  bakers 
were  permitted  to  have  any  number  of  appren- 
tices they  required.  Candidates  for  a  master- 
ship underwent  a  most  trying  ordeal.  They 
had  to  work  alone,  under  the  supervision  of 
the  syndics  or  judges,  in  order  to  produce  a 
"  masterpiece,"  or  faultless  piece  of  handicraft, 
besides  fabricating  all  the  tools  and  machinery 
in  use  in  the  craft.  A  mastership  was  only 
recognized  within  the  borough  limits.  No 
work  was  to  be  done  by  night,  because  the 
trade  required  all  workmanship  to  be  thorough- 
ly good.  Morality  and  concord  were  secured 
by  stringent  regulations.  Illegitimate  children 
could  never  become  apprentices ;  and  a  stain- 
less reputation  was  also  necessary.  Known 
immorality  or  irregularity  of  conduct  was  suffi- 
cient cause  of  expulsion  from  the  guild.  Each 
guild  had  its  patron  saint.  Crispin  and  Cris- 
pinian  were  the  patrons  of  shoemakers,  and 
St.  Joseph  of  carpenters.  The  patron  saint  had 
a  special  chapel  dedicated  to  him  in  the  nearest 
parish  church  or  cathedral ;  it  was  furnished 
and  decorated  by  the  guild,  and  served  for  all 
ceremonies  in  which  the  craftsmen  were  inter- 
ested. The  guilds  aided  sick  members,  and 


GUILD 


307 


)k  care  of  the  families  of  deceased  members. 
Lt  a  later  period  a  union  of  kindred  guilds  en- 
abled workmen  to  get  employment  in  any  city. 
— Among  the  guilds  of  the  middle  ages  which 
exercised  a  widespread  influence,  were  the 
brotherhoods  of  artisans  (masons,  carpenters, 
workers  in  bronze  and  iron,  painters  of  stained 
glass,  &c.),  who  were  employed  on  public  con- 
structions. Even  before  the  appearance  of  the 
ogival  or  Gothic  style  of  architecture,  the  erec- 
tion of  the  beautiful  round-arched  cathedrals 
and  municipal  edifices  of  eastern  and  western 
Europe  had  employed  hosts  of  craftsmen  and 
artists.  Their  guilds  had  been  everywhere 
special  objects  of  favor  from  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities ;  the  popes  themselves 
bestowing  on  them  the  most  coveted  franchises 
and  immunities.  They  were  taken  under  the 
pontifical  protection  and  declared  free  from 
the  burdens  which  weighed  on  the  masses,  and 
from  which  the  other  trades  and  professions 
were  not  exempt.  They  were  in  consequence 
denominated  "free." — Guilds  were  not  limit- 
ed to  merchants,  mechanics,  and  laborers ;  the 
liberal  arts  and  the  higher  professions  had  also 
kindred  organizations.  In  France  the  "  order 
of  advocates  "  has  been,  from  the  14th  century 
at  least,  a  guild  with  its  head  in  Paris  and 
branches  in  all  the  cities.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  judicial  body  and  the  bar  (la  magis- 
trature  et  le  barreau)  became  at  an  early  date 
quite  marked,  one  profession  excluding  the 
other,  although  both  were  inseparable  coordi- 
nates in  the  ^administration  of  justice.  St. 
Louis  in  his  JEtablissemens  has  several  statu- 
tory enactments  concerning  the  body  of  ad- 
vocates or  avantparliers.  The  edicts  of  1274 
and  1291,  issued  by  his  successors,  regulate 
the  maximum  fee  to  be  paid  an  advocate  in 
each  case.  In  1315  the  advocates  of  Toulouse 
gave,  as  a  body,  a  large  sum  toward  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war  in  Flanders.  An  order  of 
the  parliament  of  Paris  in  1344  prescribes 
that  no  lawyer  shall  be  heard  in  court  whose 
name  is  not  inscribed  on  the  roll  of  advo- 
cates (rotulus  nominum  advocatorum) ;  and  a 
royal  edict  of  1364  commands  all  advocates  to 
plead  gratuitously  the  cause  of  the  poor.  In 
every  city  where  there  was  a  parliament  they 
had  their  dean  or  bdtonnier,  elected  by  them- 
selves, and  a  council  which  judged  of  the 
qualifications  for  membership.  The  applicant 
must  be  a  graduate,  licentiate,  or  doctor  in 
laws,  and  after  his  admission  pass  three  years 
as  a  stagiaire  ;  the  council  then  decided 
whether  his  name  should  be  placed  on  the 
roll.  When  this  had  been  done,  the  advocate 
had  the  right  of  pleading  in  any  court  of  the 
land  where  his  services  were  asked  for.  The 
profession  was  incompatible  with  any  salaried 
function,  commercial  pursuit,  or  labor  for  wa- 
ges, as  well  as  with  the  position  of  notary, 
avoue,  or  clerk  ;  but  not  with  any  dignity  that 
was  purely  honorific.  The  amount  of  their  fees 
was  left  to  the  generosity  of  the  client ;  any 
attempt  to  exact  them  or  sue  for  them  entailed 


expulsion  from  the  order.  These  qualifications 
and  privileges  are  substantially  true  of  the  or- 
der in  its  present  state.  It  was  suppressed  in 

1790,  and  reestablished  with  many  limitations 
in  1810,  but  was  not  looked  upon  with  favor  by 
Napoleon  I.     Connected  with  the  "  order  of 
advocates  "  in  France  was  la  basoche,  or  guild 
of  lawyers'  apprentices  (from  Lat.  basilica,  a 
court  of  law,  and  old  Fr.  baseugue  and  basogue) 
of  the  parliament  of  Paris.     This  guild  was 
authorized  by  Philip  the  Fair  in  1303.     It  pre- 
served throughout  its  existence  the  character 
of  an  essentially  lay  organization.     The  title 
of  kingdom  (royaume  de  la  basoche)  was  be- 
stowed upon  it  from  its  infancy,  and  its  chief 
was  authorized  by  royal  edict  to  assume  the 
title  of  king,  to  wear  the  robes  of  royalty,  and 
to  surround  himself  with  high  officers  named 
after  those  of  the  crown,  and  vested  within 
the  brotherhood  with  supreme  civil  and  crimi- 
nal jurisdiction.    The  king  of  this  guild  had  his 
own  great  seal,  kept  by  his  high  chancellor ; 
coined  money  of  gold  and  silver,  which  was  a 
legal  currency  in    all    transactions    between 
members  of  the  guild  and  all  who  trafficked 
with  them ;  and  had  his  army,  consisting  of 
the  members  mounted  and  equipped.     This 
army  sometimes  paraded  as  many  as  10,000 
cavaliers  arrayed  in  blue  and  yellow ;  it  fur- 
nished a  cavalry  corps  of  6,000  members  to 
Henry  II.  in  1548,  which  aided  effectively  in 
quelling  the  revolt  in  Guienne.     Their  charter 
obliged   them  to  parade   annually;    and  the 
pageant  never  failed  to  draw  immense  crowds 
to  Paris,  all  the  more  so  as  they  soon  added  to 
the  military  spectacle  dramatic  representations, 
in  which  the  vices  of  all  classes  in  church  and 
state  were  held  up  to  merciless  ridicule.     This 
custom  and  their  numbers  so  alarmed  the  cruel 
and  superstitious  Henry  III.  that  he  suppressed 
the  office  and  title  of  king  of  la  basoche,  and 
forbade    their    parades    and    representations. 
Thus  deprived  of  their  prestige,  they  main- 
tained their  organization  down  to  the  end  of 
the  last  century,  and  furnished  an  armed  bat- 
talion at  the  commencement  of  the  French 
revolution,  which  figured  prominently  on  sev- 
eral occasions,  appearing  for  the  last  time  at 
the   assault  on   the  Bastile.     The   basochiens 
were  suppressed  with  all  other  corporations  in 

1791.  Besides  the  above  organization  among 
the  clerks  of  the  Parisian  parliament,  the  chd- 
telet  and  the  cour  des  comptes  had  their  ba- 
soches.     The  provincial  parliaments  organized 
guilds  similar  to  that  of  the  capital,  and  vying 
with  it  in  influence,  turbulence,  literary  activi- 
ty, and  joyousness  of  spirit. — The  members  of 
the  Scottish  bar  form  a  guild,  with  the  title  of 
faculty  of  advocates,  which  has  existed  from 
immemorial  custom,  with  constitutional  privi- 
leges founded  on  no  statute  or  charter.     The 
body  formed  itself  gradually  from  time  to  time 
on  the  model  of  the  French  guilds  of  advo- 
cates, appointing  like  them  a  dean,  who  is  their 
presiding  officer. — A  "guild  of  literature  and 
art "  was  originated  in  1851  by  Charles  Dick- 


308 


GUILD 


ens  and  Lord  Lytton,  for  the  relief  of  indigent 
men  of  letters  and  artists.  A  fund  was  created 
by  a  distinguished  party  of  amateurs,  who  gave 
representations  of  the  comedy  "  Not  so  Bad  as 
we  Seem ;"  and  three  buildings  were  erected 
near  Stevenage  in  Hertfordshire,  on  ground 
given  by  Lord  Lytton,  and  inaugurated  July  29, 
1865.  II.  RELIGIOUS  GUILDS,  also  called  confra- 
ternities or  sodalities  (Lat.  sodalis,  companion), 
have  always  been  numerous  and  popular  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  Some  of  them,  like 
the  confraternity  of  bridge  builders  (fratres 
pontifices),  were  closely  allied  to  the  guilds 
of  carpenters  and  masons,  devoting  themselves 
in  the  13th  century  to  opening  and  repairing 
roads,  building  bridges,  maintaining  cheap  or 
gratuitous  hostelries,  and  watching  over  the 
safety  of  travellers.  Kindred  to  these  were 
the  confraternities  established  during  and  after 
the  crusades,  to  prevent  wars  between  the 
feudal  lords,  to  protect  widows  and  orphans 
from  oppression,  to  guard  churches  and  mon- 
asteries from  violence,  and  repress  the  bands 
of  roving  mercenaries  (routiers)  who  infested 
the  highways  of  Europe.  Such  were  the  con- 
fraternity of  "  the  truce  of  God,"  the  confrerie 
de  Dieu  in  Normandy,  the  "  militia  of  Christ " 
in  northern  Italy,  and  even  the  Vehmgerichte 
of  Westphalia.  These  confraternities,  much 
as  they  may  have  been  perverted  from  their 
original  purpose,  sprang  from  motives  of  re- 
ligion and  beneficence.  The  confraternities 
devoted  to  works  of  pure  charity  were  innu- 
merable. In  Rome  before  the  late  change  of 
government  upward  of  200  such  guilds  were 
in  activity ;  and  the  other  cities  of  Italy  were 
little  inferior  in  this  respect.  Paris,  after 
Rome,  counted  the  largest  number  of  confrater- 
nities, prominent  among  which  are  the  sodality 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  known  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  the  societies  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier  and  St.  Francis  Regis,  which  aim  at 
doing  away  with  concubinage  among  the  labor- 
ing classes,  &c.  The  confrerie  de  la  passion^ 
organized  for  the  purpose  of  representing  on 
Sundays  and  holidays  the  mysteries  of  Christ's 
passion  and  other  Biblical  subjects,  was  origi- 
nally a  lay  brotherhood  attending  on  the  sick 
in  the  hospital  of  La  Trinite  in  Paris.  The 
entertainments  which  they  instituted  for  the 
convalescents  in  one  of  the  wards  soon  became 
so  popular  that  the  king  gave  them  a  monopoly 
of  all  such  plays.  In  1543  they  opened  a  salle 
de  spectacle  in  the  rue  de  Mauconseil,  which 
became  the  cradle  of  French  comedy.  But  as 
the  edict  which  renewed  their  charter  of  mo- 
nopoly forbade  pagan  plays  and  other  than  sa- 
cred dramas,  they  renounced  profane  theatricals 
as  inconsistent  with  their  religious  garb,  and 
made  over  their  privilege  to  another  company. 
Religious  guilds  have  recently  much  increased 
in  England,  as  well  among  Roman  Catholics 
as  among  those  called  ritualists  in  the  church  of 
England  and  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
in  the  United  States.  A  list  of  the  latter  is 
given  in  the  "Church  Union  Almanac"  for 


GUILFORD 

1869.  In  the  United  States  and  British  North 
America  confraternities  are  both  numerous  and 
flourishing;  temperance  and  mutual  benevo- 
lent societies  among  Roman  Catholics  general- 
ly take  this  form,  having  prescribed  religious 
practices,  a  patron  saint,  and  stated  feast  days. 

GUILDFORD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  market  town,  and  the  capital  of  Sur- 
rey, England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wey, 
29  m.  S. .  W.  of  London,  at  the  junction  of  a 
branch  of  the  Southwestern  with  the  Guild- 
ford  and  Reigate  railway;  pop.  in  1871,  9,801. 
The  town  stands  on  a  declivity  sloping  toward 
the  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  hand- 
some bridge.  There  are  three  parish  churches, 
a  hospital,  a  theatre,  barracks,  several  schools, 
and  the  Guildford  institute,  with  library  and 
reading  room.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
paper,  powder,  bricks,  coaches,  iron,  and  malt 
liquors;  the  trade  is  mostly  in  timber,  grain, 
malt,  and  live  stock.  In  1036,  under  the  reign 
of  Harold  I.,  Alfred,  son  of  Ethelred  II.,  after 
landing  in  Kent  with  the  design  of  recovering 
the  kingdom,  was  induced  to  enter  Guildford, 
where  he  was  made  prisoner  in  the  night,  and 
his  600  Norman  attendants  were  massacred. 

GUILFORD,  a  N.  W.  county  of  North  Caro- 
lina, drained  by  Deep  river,  a  branch  of  the 
Cape  Fear,  and  by  Reedy  fork  of  Haw  river; 
area,  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,736,  of 
whom  6,080  were  colored.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating and  abundantly  timbered;  the  soil 
is  fertile,  well  watered,  and  highly  cultivated ; 
and  there  is  a  copper  mine.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Richmond,  Danville,  and  Piedmont, 
and  the  North  Carolina  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  132,783  bushels  of 
wheat,  308,347  of  Indian  corn,  169,847  of  oats, 
22,521  of  Irish  and  23,468  of  sweet  potatoes, 
149,490  Ibs.  of  butter,  31,461  of  wool,  177,782 
of  tobacco,  and  5,761  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,790  horses,  4,791  milch  cows,  6,859 
other  cattle,  and  13,302  sheep ;  1  cotton  factory, 
18  flour  mills,  10  tanneries,  8  currying  estab- 
lishments, and  1  manufactory  of  wagon  ma- 
terial. Capital,  Greensborough. 

GUILFORD,  a  town  and  village  of  New  Haven 
co.,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  sound,  and  on 
the  Shore  Line  division  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad,  15  m.  E.  of  New 
Haven ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,576.  The  village  has 
an  antiquated  appearance,  but  contains  a  few 
handsome  buildings,  the  chief  of  which  is  a 
high-school  building  of  stone.  In  the  centre 
is  a  public  square,  on  which  front  the  hotel,  the 
principal  stores,  and  four  churches.  There  are 
few  manufactures,  the  inhabitants  being  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  farming  and  maritime  pursuits. 
The  harbor  is  visited  by  fishing  and  coasting 
vessels.  About  1  m.  S.  of  the  village  is  the 
Point,  a  favorite  watering  and  bathing  place; 
and  3  m.  S.  W.  is  the  watering  place  called 
Sachem's  Head.  Guilford  is  the  birthplace  of 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  and  here  he  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life.  Here  also  the  regicides  Goife 
and  Whalley  were  for  a  time  secreted.  The 


GUILFORD   COURT  HOUSE 


GUILLEMOT 


309 


settlement  in  the  town  was  made  by  a 
irty  of  English  nonconformists  in  1639,  and 
le  residence  of  their  leader,  the  Rev.  Henry 
bitfield,  called  "  the  old  stone  house,"  is  still 

ling,  near  the  railroad  station. 
GUILFORD   COURT  HOUSE,  a  locality   about 
m.  from  Greensborough,  Guilford  co.,  N.  0., 
smorable  for  a  battle  fought,  March  15, 1781, 
tween  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Greene  and 
le  British  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  The  Ameri- 
force  numbered  4,243  foot  and  161  horse, 
)ut  1,500  being  regular  troops,  and  the  rest 
iinly  raw  militia.     The  British  were  about 
,400  strong,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  veteran 
Idiers.     Greene  had  chosen  a  strong  position 
the  declivity  of  a  hill,  and  drew  up  his  army 
three  lines.     The  battle  began  shortly  after 
.  o'clock  with  a  brisk  cannonade  on  both  sides, 
uring  which  the  British  advanced  upon  the 
Forth  Carolina  militia,  posted  across  the  road, 
rho  after  a  discharge  of  musketry  threw  away 
}ir  arms  and  accoutrements  and  fled  through 
woods.    The  Virginians  of  the  second  line, 
>wever,  who  were  in  a  wood  300  yards  in 
sir  rear,  poured  a  galling  fire  upon  the  ad- 
icing  troops ;  but  their  right  finally  retreated 
jfore  the  bayonet  and  fell  back  to  the  court 
)use,  and  the  left  soon  followed  their  example, 
le  whole  British  infantry  was  now  engaged, 
rhile  the  flower  of  the  American  army  was 
in  reserve.     The  British  pressed  forward 
the  third  line,  composed  of  regulars  under 
fnger  and  Williams,  posted  near  the  court 
>use.     The  first  regiment  of  Maryland  conti- 
itals  received  them  with  a  well  directed  fire, 
id  before  they  recovered  from  the  shock  rout- 
them  with  the  bayonet.     The  second  regi- 
mt  of  Marylanders,  however,  fled  at  the  first 
it,  leaving  two  field  pieces  in  the  hands  of 
le  enemy ;  but  the  pursuers  were  repulsed  by 
le  victorious  first  regiment,  and  driven  back 
confusion  by  Lieut.  Cols.  Howard  and  Wash- 
igton.     To  check  the  pursuit,  Cornwallis  or- 
his  artillery  to  play  upon  the  Americans, 
le  expedient  was  successful,  but  he  was  forced 
fire  full  in  the  face  of  his  retreating  guards, 
id  only  half  the  battalion  was  extricated, 
"le  British  line  was  now  formed  anew,  and 
rreene,  convinced  by  the  flight  of  his  militia- 
m  and  the  Maryland  continentals  that  a  fresh 
iflict  would  result  in  the  annihilation  of  his 
my,  ordered  a  retreat.    The  British  lost  more 
lan  600  in  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Arneri- 
is  lost  about  400  killed  and  wounded  and  850 
lissing.     Notwithstanding  his  victory,  Corn- 
wallis was  so  much  crippled  that  he  retreated 
the  18th  with  the  Americans  in  full  pursuit. 
GUILLEMOT,  an  arctic  web-footed   bird,  of 
le  family  alcid,c&,  and  subfamily  urince,  inclu- 
ling  the  genera  uria  (Mohring),  brachyrham- 
phus  (Brandt),  and  mergulus  (Ray).    The  last, 
which  the  little  guillemot  belongs,  has  been 
lescribed  under  AUK.    The  genus  uria  is  char- 
acterized by  a  moderate  head ;   rather  long, 
straight,  and  pointed  bill,  with  a  distinct  angle 
the  under  mandible ;  wings  short  and  point- 


ed, with  the  first  quill  longest ;  tail  very  short ; 
tarsi  shorter  than  middle  toe ;  legs  short  and 
robust ;  toes  rather  long,  fully  webbed ;  claws 
strong  and  curved ;  bind  toe  wanting.  The 
general  form  is  short  and  robust,  the  size  never 
large,  and  the  prevailing  colors  black  and  white. 
There  are  about  seven  species,  inhabiting  the 
arctic  seas  between  America  and  Asia,  migra- 


Guillemot  (Uria  grylle)— Summer  Plumage 
a.  Head.    &.  Foot. 

ting  to  temperate  regions  during  winter.  The 
flight  is  rapid,  with  short  flaps,  near  the  surface 
of  the  water ;  they  are  excellent  swimmers  and 
divers,  but  poor  walkers  from  the  shortness 
and  posterior  position  of  their  legs ;  they  feed 
on  fish  and  other  products  of  the  sea;  they 
deposit  usually  a  single  egg,  of  large  size,  on 
rocks  overhanging  the  water,  breeding  in  large 
companies.  The  black  guillemot  (U.  grylle. 


Guillemot  and  Young— Winter  Plumage. 

Lath.)  is  14  in.  long,  and  22  in.  in  extent  of 
wings;  the  general  color  in  summer  is  black 
tinged  with  green ;  a  large  transverse  oval  spot 
on  the  wing,  under  wing  coverts,  and  axillaries, 


310 


GUILLEMOT 


white ;  bill  black,  and  feet  red ;  in  winter  and 
in  the  young  plumage,  the  under  parts,  neck, 
and  rump  are  white,  the  head  above  and  back 
dark  brown.  This  species  is  found  breeding, 
about  June,  from  the  arctic  regions  to  the  bay 
of  Fundy ;  according  to  Audubon,  it  lays  three 
eggs,  in  a  nest  composed  of  pebbles ;  the  eggs 
are  about  2£  by  H  in.,  of  an  earthy  white  color, 
blotched  with  dark  purplish  black  toward  the 
larger  end;  they  are  delicate  and  nutritious 
articles  of  food,  and  even  the  black  and  tough 
flesh  has  proved  palatable  to  many  an  arctic 
voyager.  There  is  a  variety  on  the  N.  W.  coast 
(U.  columba,  Pall.),  resembling  the  preceding, 
except  that  the  white  of  the  wing  is  divided 
by  a  diagonal  band  of  brownish  black.  The 
foolish  guillemot  (U.  troile,  Linn. ;  U.  lomvia, 
Brun.)  is  about  17  in.  long,  and  30  in  extent 
of  wings;  the  general  color  above  is  grayish 
black,  tinged  with  dark  brown  on  the  sides  of 
the  head  and  neck ;  a  bar  on  the  wings,  and  a 
line  encircling  and  behind  the  eye,  white  ;  un- 
der parts  white ;  feet  greenish  black.  It  is 
occasionally  found  as  far  south  as  New  York, 
but  breeds  in  numbers  on  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor ;  the  female  lays  a  single  egg  of  large  size, 
white  with  dark  blotches,  on  the  bare  rock, 
and,  like  the  other  species,  plucks  feathers  from 
the  abdomen  over  a  space  large  enough  to  cover 
the  egg ;  both  sexes  assist  in  incubation.  The 
plumage  is  exceedingly  dense,  and  admirably 
adapted  for  a  creature  exposed  to  severe  cold ; 
the  flesh  is  tough,  and  eaten  only  by  hungry 
seamen ;  the  eggs  are  highly  esteemed  as  food. 
They  are  rapid  fliers,  and  such  bold  swimmers 
and  divers  as  to  defy  the  highest  waves.  The 
thick-billed  guillemot  (U.  arra,  Pall.)  is  proba- 
bly a  mere  variety  of  the  last,  differing  only  in 
its  shorter  and  wider  bill.  The  guillemots  al- 
low man  to  invade  their  retreats  and  knock 
them  down  with  clubs ;  this  apparent  apathy 
is  owing  to  the  structure  of  the  bird,  which  is 
ill  calculated  for  progression  on  land,  but  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  a  life  on  the  water.  The 
above  described  species  are  found  also  on  the 
northern  shores  of  Europe. — The  genus  fira- 
chyrhampJius  includes  the  smaller  guillemots, 
with  a  larger  head,  shorter  bill  densely  covered 
with  feathers  at  the  base,  curved  upper  mandi- 
ble, and  in  other  respects  as  in  the  preceding 
genus.  The  marbled  guillemot  (B.  marmoratus, 
Gmel.)  is  about  10  in.  long,  brownish  black 
above,  tinged  with  ashy  on  the  back,  with  two 
white  spots  on  each  side  of  the  back ;  ring  round 
hind  neck,  and  under  parts,  white,  bill  black, 
and  feet  yellow;  the  young  have  the  upper 
feathers  with  reddish  edges,  and  the  under  parts 
spotted  and  marbled  with  brownish  black  and 
white.  Several  others  inhabit  the  North  Pa- 
cific, and  are  most  abundant  about  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  America.  The  name  of  guillemot  is 
given  to  the  horn-billed  auk  (cerorhina  mono- 
cerata,  Pall.)  of  N.  W.  America.  The  habits 
of  all  the  guillemots  are  the  same ;  their  num- 
bers, beauty,  activity,  and  useful  properties 
have  been  the  admiration  of  all  arctic  voyagers, 


GUILLOTINE 

many  of  whom  have  been  saved  from  starva- 
tion by  their  eggs  and  flesh. 

GUILLIM,  John,  an  English  writer  on  herald- 
ry, born  in  Herefordshire  about  1565,  died  in 
London,  May  7,  1621.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  subsequently  became  a  member  of 
the  society  of  the  college  of  arms  in  London, 
and  in  1617  was  appointed  rouge-croix  pursui- 
vant of  arms.  His  reputation  rests  upon  the 
work  entitled  "  The  Display  of  Heraldry,"  first 
published  in  1610,  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions ;  that  of  1724,  containing  in 
addition  "A  Treatise  of  Honor,  Civil  and 
Military,  by  Captain  John  Logan,"  is  con-  ' 
sidered  the  best.  The  book  was  published  in 
Guillim's  name,  but  is  said  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  John  Barkham. 

GU1LLOTIN,  Joseph  Ignace,  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Saintes,  May  28,  1738,  died  in  Paris, 
May  26,  1814.  He  studied  under  Antoine 
Petit,  graduated  as  doctor  in  medicine  in  1770 
at  Rheims,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy, 
pathology,  and  physiology  in  Paris.  He  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  experiments  of  Mesmer  in  animal  mag- 
netism, and  joined  with  Lavoisier,  Bailly,  and 
Franklin  in  their  celebrated  report  upon  that 
subject.  In  1788  he  increased  his  popularity 
by  a  pamphlet  in  favor  of  giving  the  tiers  etat 
a  representation  equal  to  that  of  the  two  other 
orders,  and  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  constit- 
uent assembly.  In  that  body  he  brought  for- 
ward various  sanitary  measures.  His  name, 
however,  is  principally  associated  with  the 
proposition  which  he  made  that  decapitation, 
a  mode  of  punishment  previously  reserved  for 
nobles  and  regarded  as  less  ignominious  than 
death  by  hanging,  should  be  adopted  for  crim- 
inals of  all  classes.  He  also  proposed  that  the 
decapitation  should  be  effected  by  machinery 
instead  of  by  the  axe  or  the  sword,  in  order 
that  the  suffering  might  be  less.  In  1791 
Guillotin's  motion  was  renewed  in  a  somewhat 
altered  form  by  Lepelletier  de  Saint-Fargeau ; 
and  on  March  20,  1792,  the  legislative  assem- 
bly, on  a  report  presented  by  Dr.  Antoine 
Louis,  the  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy 
of  surgery,  adopted  a  resolution  ordering  a 
machine  for  decapitation  described  by  the 
same  to  be  adopted.  This  machine,  in  the  in- 
vention and  construction  of  which  Guillotin 
had  no  share  whatever,  received  at  first  the 
name  of  louison  or  louisette,  which  was  soon 
superseded  by  that  of  guillotine,  first  used  in 
a  satirical  song  published  in  the  royalist  news- 
paper Les  actes  des  apotres.  Guillotin  was  im- 
prisoned during  the  reign  of  terror,  and  after- 
ward resumed  medical  practice. 

GUILLOTINE,  an  instrument  for  inflicting 
capital  punishment  by  decapitation.  It  con- 
sists of  an  oblique-edged  knife,  heavily  weight- 
ed, sliding  easily  between  two  upright  grooved 
posts,  and  descending  on  a  block  where  the 
head  of  the  sufferer  rests.  This  machine,  which 
was  brought  into  use  in  the  early  period  of 
the  French  revolution,  is  not  altogether  a 


GUILLOTINE 


GUINEA 


311 


aescr 
This 
parts 


lern  invention.  Similar  contrivances  were 
use  in  several  parts  of  Europe  during  the 
th  and  17th  centuries,  if  not  before.  Ac- 
cording to  Crusius,  in  his  Annales  Suevici 
(1595),  such  an  instrument  of  decapitation  ex- 
isted in  early  times  in  Germany,  but  was  su- 
perseded by  the  sword  ;  it  was  styled  Fallbeil, 
falling  hatchet.  A  representation  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  two  old  engravings,  the  one  by  Georg 
Penez,  who  died  in  1550,  the  other  by  Heinrich 
Aldegrever,  bearing  the  date  of  1553 ;  and  also 
in  an  old  picture  which,  according  to  Reiffem- 
berg,  is  still  preserved  in  the  city  hall  of  Augs- 
burg. Jean  d'Autun,  the  historiographer  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  narrating  an  execution 
which  he  witnessed  at  Genoa,  May  13,  1507, 
describes  a  machine  exactly  like  the  guillotine, 
is  the  mannaia,  which  was  used  in  all 
of  Italy  for  the  execution  of  men  of  rank, 
and  is  fully  described  by  Pere  Labat  in  his 
Voyage  en  Espagne  et  en  Italie  en  1730.  The 
same  had  been  introduced  into  southern  France, 
and  Puysegur  in  his  Memoires  makes  an  allu- 
sion to  it  on  occasion  of  the  execution  of  Mont- 
morency  in  1632.  A  similar  contrivance  ex- 
isted in  the  Netherlands.  The  "maiden"  of 
Scotland,  which  was  used  in  the  decapitation 
of  the  regent  Morton  in  1581,  and  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  museum  of  the  antiquarian  society 
at  Edinburgh,  was  an  instrument  akin  to  those 
above  mentioned,  and  either  it  or  at  least  the 
pattern  of  it  had  been  brought  from  abroad  by 
the  very  man  who  suffered  by  it.  The  decapi- 
tating machine,  therefore,  was  far  from  being 
a  novelty  when  Dr.  Guillotin  suggested  its  ap- 
plication in  1789.  The  scheme  being  submit- 
ted to  the  carpenter  employed  by  the  govern- 
ment, he  demanded  5,000  francs  for  making 
the  instrument ;  but  a  German  named  Schmidt 
iered  to  build  it  for  a  much  smaller  sum ; 
"  finally  a  bargain  was  struck  at  824  francs, 
shinidt  contracting  to  furnish  83  machines  of 
same  kind,  one  for  each  department.  The 
hine  was  first  tried,  April  18,  1792,  upon 
corpses  at  the  Bic^tre  hospital,  and 
ed  so  satisfactorily  that  seven  days  later  it 
as  used  publicly  for  the  decapitation  of  Pel- 
tier, a  highwayman  under  sentence.  Som- 
ering,  in  the  Moniteur  of  Nov.  9,  1795,  de- 
nounced it  as  too  rapid  in  its  operation,  and 
maintained  that  sensation  does  not  cease  im- 
mediately after  the  head  of  the  sufferer  has 
been  severed  from  the  body.  The  controversy 
was  kept  up  by  Sue,  Oelsner,  Oabanis,  and 
others.  In  the  same  year  appeared  S6dillot's 
Reflexions  historiques  et  pMlosophiques  sur  le 
mpplice  de  la  guillotine,  and  in  1796  the  Anec- 
dotes sur  les  decapites.  The  question  has  been 
renewed  at  different  times  and  in  various  forms, 
particularly  in  an  article  in  the  London  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December,  1846,  republish- 
ed  separately  in  1850  ;  Louis  Dubois's  Re- 
cherches  historiques  et  physiologiques  sur  la 
guillotine  (Paris,  1843);  and  Ludovic  La- 
lanne's  Curiosites  des  traditions,  des  mceurs  et 
des  legendes  (1847). 


GUILMETH,  Alexandra  Augnste,  a  French  archae- 
ologist, bora  at  Brionne,  Eure,  Dec.  2,  1807. 
He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Bernay,  and 
has  been  successively  master  of  studies  in  the 
college  of  Rouen,  inspector  general  in  that  of 
Amiens,  and  censor  and  superintendent  in  the 
colleges  of  Dieppe  and  Juilly.  He  early  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  the  archaeology 
of  Normandy,  and  has  published  many  histori- 
cal works  on  its  celebrated  localities  and  cities, 
including  Brionne,  Pont-Audemer,  Evreux, 
Dieppe,  Havre,  Yvetot,  and  Elbeuf,  all  of 
which  have  been  collected  under  the  title 
La  description  historique  de  la  Normandie  (12 
vols.  8vo,  1836-'50),  with  plans  and  engra- 
vings. A  Notice  Mographique  et  litteraire  sur 

A.  A.  Guilmeth  was  published  in  1860. 
GUIMARAENS  (Port.  Guimaraes),  a  town  of 

Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Minho,  between 
the  Ave  and  Vizella,  32  m.  N.  E.  of  Oporto ; 
pop.  about  8,000.  The  town  stands  on  a  gen^ 
tie  slope,  nearly  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  hills,  is  generally  well  built,  and  has  several 
good  streets  and  public  squares.  It  is  fortified, 
and  contains  an  ancient  castle,  with  square 
towers  at  the  angles  and  in  the  middle  of  each 
side.  The  keep,  which  is  in  the  centre,  is 
entered  at  mid-height  by  a  wooden  bridge. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  a  fine  collegi- 
ate church  called  the  cathedral,  a  Dominican 
convent  of  the  14th  century,  and  a  hospital. 
There  are  manufactories  of  cutlery,  iron  ware, 
paper,  leather,  cotton,  and  linen ;  and  large 
quantities  of  plums  and  figs  are  exported. 
Near  by  are  hot  sulphur  springs,  which  have 
been  frequented  for  centuries.  Guimaraens  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Celts  about  500 

B.  0.     Henry  of  Burgundy  made  it  the  capital 
of  Portugal  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury.    Here  began  the  reign  of  King  Wamba, 
which  is  the  proverbial  expression  for  chro- 
nological indefiniteness. 

GUI  IVAN  I),  a  Swiss  optician,  born  in  the  can- 
ton of  Neufchatel  about  1745,  died  in  1825. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  house  carpenter,  and  con- 
structed a  telescope  in  imitation  of  one  of  great 
value  in  the  possession  of  his  employer,  so  like 
the  model  that  it  was  difficult  to  decide  which 
of  the  two  was  better.  At  40  years  of  age  he 
commenced  the  manufacture  of  lenses  for  tele- 
scopes. Some  of  these  coming  under  the  ob- 
servation of  Fraunhofer,  the  well  known  in- 
strument maker  of  Bavaria,  he  engaged  the 
services  of  Guinand  for  a  number  of  years, 
solely  for  his  skill  in  this  manufacture.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  Guinand  was  occupied  in 
constructing  telescopes  of  great  size  and  power, 
every  part  of  which  was  the  work  of  his  own 
hands.  (See  GLASS,  and  LENS.) 

GUINEA,  an  English  gold  coin,  first  struck  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  of  gold  which  had  been 
brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  whence  its 
name.  Its  value  is  21  shillings,  or  about  $5  12. 
Guineas  have  not  been  coined  since  1817,  when 
they  were  superseded  by  the  sovereign,  and 
have  now  become  rare. 


312 


GUINEA 


GUINEA,  a  name  applied  to  all  the  W.  coast 
of  Africa  between  Cape  Verga,  lat.  10°  19'  N., 
and  Cape  Negro,  lat.  15°  41'  S. ;  that  part  N. 
of  Cape  Lopez,  about  lat.  1°  S.,  being  called 
Upper  Guinea,  and  that  S.  of  it  Lower  Guinea. 
Its  coast  line  exceeds  3,500  in. ;  its  breadth  is 
indefinite,  but  it  is  considered  to  extend  inland 
from  200  to  300  m.  Upper  Guinea,  or  Guinea 
proper,  comprises  the  district  of  Sierra  Leone, 
the  Grain  coast  (including  Liberia),  the  Ivory 
coast,  the  Gold  coast  (including  Ashantee), 
the  Slave  coast  (including  Dahomey),  Benin, 
Yoruba,  Biafra,  and  several  other  small  native 
kingdoms.  From  Cape  Lopez  the  coast  line 
runs  nearly  N.,  but  bends  gradually  W.  to 
Cape  Formosa,  forming  the  bight  of  Biafra,  in 
which  are  the  islands  of  Fernando  Po,  Prince, 
and  St.  Thomas.  From  Cape  Formosa  to  Cape 
Palmas  the  coast  trends  westward,  forming 
the  bight  of  Benin  in  its  course ;  and  beyond 
Cape  Palmas  it  has  a  general  N.  W.  direction 
to  Cape  Verga.  The  waters  between  Capes 
Lopez  and  Palmas  are  called  collectively  the 
gulf  of  Guinea.  Near  Sierra  Leone  are  high 
promontories  and  abrupt  headlands  clothed 
with  tropical  verdure.  Cape  Palmas  receives 
its  name  from  the  immense  palm  groves  which 
cover  the  undulating  plains  extending  from  it 
far  inland.  The  Gold  coast  is  rocky  and  bold, 
but  not  high,  and  at  Accra  becomes  flat  and 
sandy.  Along  the  Slave  coast  are  extensive 
salt  marshes  and  lagoons,  with  outlying  sand 
banks,  and  inland  grassy  plains  which  are  con- 
verted into  swamps  in  the  rainy  season.  Near 
the  equator,  where  the  hills  approach  the  sea, 
mountain  scenery  and  tropical  luxuriance  greet 
the  eye.  From  the  latitude  of  Sierra  Leone 
to  the  Quorra  river  extend  the  Kong  moun- 
tains, nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  and  at  a  dis- 
tance from  it  of  from  100  to  300  m. ;  and  from 
the  shores  of  the  bight  of  Biafra  rise  the 
Cameroons  mountains,  which  extend  far  east- 
ward. Numerous  rivers  drain  this  slope  into 
the  Atlantic,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Scar- 
cios,  Sierra  Leone,  Gallinas,  Cape  Mount,  St. 
Paul's,  Cavalla,  Assinie,  Tenda,  Bossum  Prah, 
Volta,  Quorra  or  Joliba  (ancient  Niger),  and 
its  affluent  the  Tchadda,  Old  Calabar,  Cam- 
eroons, Quaqua,  and  Gaboon.  The  climate  is 
hot,  oppressive,  and  insalubrious.  At  Cape 
Coast  Castle  the  mean  temperature  during 
the  hottest  months  is  from  85°  to  90°  F. ;  at 
the  Gaboon  it  is  84°.  The  heat  is  uniform 
and  debilitating,  and  malarious  fevers  prevail 
wherever  the  coast  is  low.  Tornadoes  are 
common,  and  in  December,  January,  and  Feb- 
ruary, a  dry  N.  E.  wind,  called  the  harmattan, 
fills  the  atmosphere  with  fine  sand.  The  most 
valuable  minerals  are  gold  and  iron,  which  are 
usually  found  in  granitic  or  schistose  rocks; 
gold  is  also  obtained  in  the  beds  of  some  of  the 
rivers.  The  interior  is  rich  in  virgin  mines  of 
the  latter  mineral.  The  forests,  which  cover 
a  large  proportion  of  the  surface,  abound  in 
magnificent  trees,  among  which  are  the  bao- 
bab and  the  palm.  Oranges,  lemons,  grapes, 


pepper,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  indigo,  tobacco, 
maize,  millet,  rice,  yams,  potatoes,  various 
gums  and  dye  woods,  and  ginger  are  among 
the  other  vegetable  productions.  The  ani- 
mals are  cattle,  of  tough  and  ill-flavored  flesh, 
sheep,  horses,  and  goats  (all  of  which  are 
of  poor  breeds),  elephants,  buffaloes,  jackals, 
tiger  cats,  hyaenas,  leopards,  deer,  hares,  por- 
cupines, sloths,  monkeys,  lizards,  rats,  and 
mice.  Cats  and  dogs  have  been  introduced 
from  Europe ;  the  latter  speedily  degenerate, 
but  are  valued  as  food  by  the  natives.  Pheas- 
ants, partridges,  snipes,  turtle  doves,  birds  of 
beautiful  plumage,  serpents,  scorpions,  centi- 
pedes, toads,  frogs,  locusts,  and  crocodiles  are 
numerous;  and  the  coasts  abound  with  excel- 
lent fish,  and  are  rich  in  coral  and  ambergris. 
The  natives  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Mandingoes, 
Fantees,  Ashantees,  Dahomans,  Egbas,  Benins, 
and  Fans.  The  Mandingoes  claim  to  be  Moham- 
medans; the  others  are  pagans.  All  have  a 
general  resemblance  in  physical  characteristics 
and  customs.  When  the  slave  trade  was  the 
most  flourishing  branch  of  commerce  on  the 
coast,  -the  chief  occupation  of  most  of  these 
tribes  was  war  for  the  sake  of  procuring  cap- 
tives to  sell  to  the  traders.  The  principal 
European  settlements  are  Sierra  Leone,  the 
American  colony  of  Liberia,  the  British  Gold 
Coast  colony,  and  the  British  settlement  of 
Lagos  and  its  dependencies.  The  French  tra- 
ding stations  have  recently  been  abandoned, 
and  the  Danish  and  Dutch  forts  on  the  Gold 
coast  have  been  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  The 
French  settlement  at  the  Gaboon  is  now  re- 
duced to  a  mere  coaling  station.  St.  Thomas 
and  Prince  islands,  in  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  be- 
long to  Portugal;  Fernando  Po,  Corisco,  and 
Annabon  to  Spain.  The  most  important  arti- 
cles of  barter  imported  into  Upper  Guinea  are 
lead,  iron,  firearms,  gunpowder,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  brass  vessels,  salt,  spirits,  to- 
bacco, and  beads,  which  are  exchanged  for 
valuable  woods,  ginger,  pepper,  gums,  rice, 
gold,  palm  oil  and  kernels,  ground  nuts,  ivory, 
and  wax. — Lower  Guinea,  extending  from 
Cape  Lopez  to  Cape  Negro,  comprises  Loango, 
Congo,  Angola,  and  Benguela.  Its  coast  line 
follows  a  general  N.  N.  W.  direction,  and  is 
unbroken  by  any  important  indentation.  It  is 
traversed  from  N.  to.  S.  by  a  range  of  moun- 
tains, called  by  the  Portuguese  the  Crystal  or 
Salt  mountains,  which  are  covered  with  dense 
forests.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Okanda 
or  Ogobai,  Zaire  or  Congo,  Coanza,  and  Cuvo. 
Congo,  Angola,  and  Benguela  are  claimed  by 
the  Portuguese,  who  have  their  capital  at  St. 
Paul  de  Loanda. — The  Guinea  coast  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  in  1487.  A  tribe 
called  Genahoa,  N.  of  the  Senegal,  are  said  to 
have  been  the  first  blacks  encountered  by 
them;  and  afterward  the  name  was  applied  in- 
discriminately to  all  the  peoples  further  south. 
— For  a  fuller  description  of  the  country,  see 
the  articles  on  its  various  divisions. 


GUINEA  (GULF  OF) 


GUINEA,  Gulf  of,  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 

which  washes  the  shores  of  Upper  Guinea  be- 
tween Capes  Palmas  and  Lopez,  including  the 
bights  of  Benin  and  Biafra.  It  receives  the 
rivers  Assinie,  Tenda,  Bossum  Prah,  Volta, 
Quorra  or  Niger,  Old  Calabar,  Cameroons, 
Quaqua,  Gaboon,  and  many  smaller  streams, 
and  contains  Fernando  Po,  Prince,  and  St. 
Thomas  islands.  It  has  two  currents,  one  set- 
ting eastward  from  Cape  Palmas  and  the  other 
coming  from  the  south  ;  they  meet  in  the  bight 
of  Biafra  and  unite  in  one  gradually  expanding 
stream,  which  flows  thence  N.  W.,  W.,  and  S.  W. 
GUINEA  FOWL,  or  Pintado,  a  gallinaceous 
bird,  of  the  turkey  family,  and  genus  numida 
(Linn.),  characterized  by  a  moderate  bill,  with 
arched  culmeu  and  upper  mandible  overhang- 
ing the  lower,  and  lateral  margins  smooth  and 
curved  ;  nostrils  large,  oval,  and  partly  covered 
by  a  membrane;  wings  moderate,  with  the 
ifth  quill  longest;  tail  short  and  pendent;  tarsi 
onger  than  middle  toe,  without  spurs,  covered 
in  front  with  broad  divided  scales ;  toes  mod- 
the  anterior  united  at  their  base  by  a 


GUINEA  PIG 


313 


Guinea  Fowl  (Numida  meleagris). 

lembrane,  the  hind  toe  short  and  elevated ; 
claws  short  and  very  slightly  curved.  There 
are  five  species  described  by  Gray,  all  of  which 
have  the  head  more  or  less  naked,  with  fleshy 
caruncles  below  the  bill,  and  some  with  a  cal- 
lous crest ;  the  neck  is  long  and  slender,  the 
body  stout,  and  the  feathers  of  the  rump  have 
an  inflated  appearance.  They  are  peculiar  to 
Africa,  where  they  frequent  woods  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  in  flocks  of  200  or  300,  scatter- 
'  ig  in  search  of  food,  which  consists  of  grains, 
rasshoppers,  ants,  and  other  insects ;  when 
larmed,  they  attempt  to  escape  by  running 
rather  than  flight ;  the  eggs  are  numerous,  and 
laid  in  a  slight  nest  in  a  bush  or  thicket.  The 
common  Guinea  or  pea  fowl  {N.  meleagris, 
Linn.)  is  slate-colored,  covered  all  over  with 
rounded  white  spots,  and  is  about  the  size  of 
the  domestic  cock.  It  was  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  by  whom  it  was  domesticated  for  the 
sake  of  its  flesh,  and  who  named  it  meleagris. 
Guinea  fowls  are  very  noisy  and  troublesome, 
always  quarrelling  with  the  other  inmates  of 
the  poultry  yard  ;  they  are  hard  to  raise,  from 
the  delicacy  of  the  young  and  their  liability  to 


disease  ;  their  flesh  is  of  fine  flavor,  and  their 
eggs  are  excellent.  They  are  not  profitable  to 
the  farmer,  are  great  eaters,  requiring  to  be 
fed  beyond  what  they  can  pick  up  by  them- 
selves, and  are  apt  to  injure  tender  buds  and 
flowers.  One  male  suffices  for  10  females; 
they  lay  in  May  or  June  16  to  24  eggs,  with  a 
hard  shell,  of  a  yellowish  white  color  with 
small  brown  points ;  they  are  poor  sitters  and 
not  very  tender  mothers ;  incubation  lasts  three 
weeks,  and  is  best  performed  by  the  common 
hen.  The  crested  pintado  (N.  cristata,  Pall.) 
has  a  crest  of  black  feathers,  and  the  body 
black  with  blue  spots ;  the  mitred  pintado  (N. 
mitrata,  Pall.)  has  the  head  surmounted  by 
a  conical  helmet,  and  is  black,  white  spotted. 
Both  these  species  have  the  same  habits  as  the 
first,  and  could  be  as  easily  domesticated. 

GUINEA  GRASS,  a  name  which,  as  well  as 
Guinea  corn,  is  applied  in  the  southern  states 
to  sorghum  cernuum,  a  grass  closely  related  to 
broom  corn ;  but  instead  of  having  an  erect 
panicle  like  that,  its  flower  clusters  are  nod- 
ding. Like  many  other  plants  that  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation  and  abandoned 
when  found  valueless,  this  remains,  where  the 
climate  is  favorable  to  it,  as  a  weed.  It  gives  an 
acceptable  forage  in  the  West  Indies  and  parts 
of  Florida,  where  better  grasses  do  not  succeed. 

GUINEA  PIG,  a  South  American  rodent,  of 
the  subfamily  caviina,  and  genus  cavia  (Klein). 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  common  name  conveys 
two  erroneous  impressions,  as  the  animal  is  not 
found  in  Guinea,  nor  is  it  a  pig ;  the  term  Guinea 
is  doubtless  a  corruption  of  Guiana,  and  the 
name  pig  derived  from  the  grunting  noise  made 
by  it  when  hungry.  The  wild  Guinea  pig,  or 
restless  cavy  (G.  aperea,  Linn.),  is  about  10  in. 
long,  with  a  thick  heavy  body ;  short,  wide, 
erect,  and  transparent  ears ;  large,  prominent 
eyes ;  head  and  snout  like  those  of  a  rabbit, 
with  white  incisors ;  short  neck  and  legs ;  four 
toes  before,  and  three  behind,  unconnected  by 
any  membrane ;  and  a  long,  rather  coarse  fur. 
The  colors  are  black  and  dirty  yellow  above 
and  on  the  sides  in  distinct  pencils,  the  former 
prevailing  on  the  back  and  upper  surface  of  the 
head,  the  general  tint  being  a  dark  grayish 
brown ;  the  throat  and  abdomen  a  dirty  yel- 
low. The  characters  in  the  subfamily  have 
been  given  in  the  article  CAVY.  The  distin- 
guishing characters  from  the  subgenus  cerodon 
are  the  larger  size  of  the  hind  lobes  of  the  mo- 
lars, these  lobes  in  the  upper  teeth  having  an 
indenting  fold  of  enamel  on  the  outer  side,  and 
the  corresponding  half  of  the  lower  with  its 
deep  fold  on  the  inner  side.  It  is  found  from 
about  lat.  35°  S.  through  Paraguay,  Bolivia, 
Brazil,  and  perhaps  as  far  N.  as  Guiana.  Its 
food  is  entirely  vegetable,  and  its  time  of  feed- 
ing toward  evening ;  it  prefers  marshy  places 
covered  with  aquatic  plants ;  it  generally  lives 
in  societies  of  from  6  to  15  individuals,  and  its 
presence  may  often  be  detected  by  the  beaten 
paths  among  the  plants ;  it  breeds  only  once  a 
year,  and  has  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth.  The 


314 


GUINEA  WORM 


GUISCARD 


restless  cavy  is  generally  believed  to  be  the 
animal  from  which  the  domestic  Guinea  pig 
(C.  eobaya)  originated;  but  Mr.  Waterhouse 
thinks  it  more  probable  that  a  pretty  variety, 
such  as  may  occur  in  all  wild  animals,  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Europeans,  who  captured 
and  domesticated  it  for  its  harmless  disposition 
as  well  as  its  beauty,  and  by  care  perpetuated 
the  race  of  the  common  Guinea  pig.  The  ani- 
mal is  known  by  its  black,  white,  and  fulvous 
patches,  irregularly  distributed,  and  its  short, 
close,  and  shining  hair.  It  is  exceedingly  gen- 
tle in  disposition,  never  attempting  to  defend 
itself  by  teeth  or  nails,  simply  making  very 
slight  efforts  to  escape,  and  uttering  a  sharp 
cry.  Its  remarkable  fecundity  alone  preserves 
it  from  extinction ;  it  is  capable  of  fecundation 
at  the  age  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  and  brings 
forth  after  three  weeks'  gestation  from  four  to 
twelve  at  a  birth,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
mother,  who  reaches  her  full  development  in 
nine  months;  lactation  lasts  about  15 days,  and 
the  female  is  ready  for  another  fecundation; 


Guinea  Pig  (Cavia  cobaya).    a.  Teeth.    6.  Skull 

the  young  are  born  covered  with  fur,  and  with 
the  eyes  open.  They  are  very  sensitive  to 
cold  and  damp ;  the  flesh  is  not  eaten,  and  the 
skin  is  useless,  the  only  reasons  for  keeping 
them  being  their  gentleness  and  beauty  ;  there 
is  a  popular  belief  that  their  odor  drives  away 
rats.  Their  food  is  entirely  vegetable,  and 
they  drink  but  seldom  and  by  lapping ;  they 
will  eat  the  usual  green  food  of  rabbits,  but 
prefer  parsley  and  carrot  tops  to  the  bread, 
milk,  and  meal  upon  which  they  are  generally 
fed ;  they  are  fond  of  apples  and  other  fruits, 
and  remarkably  so  of  tea  leaves.  Though 
cleanly  in  their  habits,  they  have  a  disagree- 
able odor;  like  hares,  they  sleep  with  their 
eyes  half  open.  Scarcely  any  two  animals  can 
be  found  with  the  same  markings ;  the  dark 
tortoise-shell  ones  are  the  most  highly  prized. 

U  INEA  WORM.  See  ENTOZOA,  genus  fila- 
rta,  vol.  vi.,  p.  670. 

GUlPflZCOA,  one  of  the  Basque  provinces  of 
Spain,  bordering  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  France, 
and  the  provinces  of  Navarre,  Alava,  and  Bis- 
cay; area,  728  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  180,748. 


The  coast  is  indented  with  numerous  harbors. 
The  principal  rivers,  all  of  which  are  small, 
are  the  Deva,  Urola,  Oria,  and  Bidassoa.  The 
surface  is  an  alternation  of  mountain,  hill,  and 
valley,  and  the  scenery  is  highly  romantic  and 
picturesque.  The  climate  is  humid,  mild, 
agreeable,  and  healthful.  From  the  mountain- 
ous nature  of  the  country,  however,  agricul- 
ture is  prosecuted  with  difficulty.  The  chief 
minerals  are  iron,  argentiferous  lead,  copper, 
marble,  and  gypsum.  The  province  is  traversed 
by  a  railway  which  passes  through  Tolosa. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  of  iron.  The 
inhabitants  are  honest,  industrious,  and  brave. 
(See  BASQUES.)  The  chief  towns  are  St.  Se- 
bastian, the  capital,  Irun,  Tolosa,  and  Fuenter- 
rabia.  The  Pheasants1  island  in  the  Bidassoa 
is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  the  peace  of 
the  Pyrenees  was  concluded  in  1659  between 
France  and  Spain. 

GUISCARD,  Robert,  the  founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  born  about  1015,  died  July  17,  1085. 
His  father,  Tancred  de  Hauteville,  a  petty  Nor- 
man baron,  had  twelve  sons,  of  whom  Robert 
was  the  sixth.  As  the  paternal  estate  was  in- 
sufficient to  support  so  large  a  family,  the  three 
eldest  sons  went  to  Italy,  where  they  secured 
rich  possessions  in  the  Norman  colony  of  Apu- 
lia, of  which  they  eventually  became  the  lead- 
ing nobles.  Attracted  by  their  success,  the 
younger  brothers  also  went  to  Italy,  and  Rob- 
ert, who  was  surnamed  Guiscard,  the  prudent 
or  adroit,  showed  so  much  valor  and  address 
that  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Humphrey  in 
1057  he  was  proclaimed  count  of  Apulia,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  young  son  of  the  latter. 
He  soon  after  overran  Calabria,  and  received 
from  Pope  Nicholas  II.  the  title  of  duke  of 
both  provinces,  with  the  additional  grant  of 
whatever  portions  of  Italy  or  Sicily  he  could 
wrest  from  the  Greek  schismatics  or  the  Sara- 
cens. With  the  aid  of  his  younger  brother 
Roger  he  conquered  Sicily,  and  ejected  the 
Saracens  from  their  remaining  possessions  in 
southern  Italy.  The  kingdom  of  Naples  had 
its  origin  in  these  conquests.  Robert,  having 
subsequently  undertaken  to  annex  the  duchy 
of  Benevento  to  his  dominions,  was  brought 
into  collision  with  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who 
claimed  the  territory  as  a  grant  from  the  em- 
peror of  Germany.  The  pope  excommunica- 
ted him,  but  a  reconciliation  was  soon  effected. 
In  1081,  under  the  pretext  of  sustaining  the 
rights  of  Constantine,  son  of  the  dethroned 
emperor  Michael  VII.,  who  had  married  his 
daughter,  he  invaded  Epirus  and  other  prov- 
inces of  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  after  a 
series  of  victories  was  in  full  march  for  Con- 
stantinople, when  he  was  recalled  to  Italy  to 
relieve  the  pope,  who  was  besieged  by  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV.  in  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo. 
At  Guiscard's  approach  Henry  drew  off  his 
forces;  but  the  populace  having  refused  to  re- 
ceive the  Normans,  Rome  was  sacked  by  them, 
and  a  large  portion  of  it  burned.  The  pope, 
fearing  to  remain  in  the  city,  followed  his 


ss 


GUISCHARD 

rator  to  Salerno,  where  he  died  soon  after. 
Guiscard  immediately  sailed  with  a  large  fleet 
for  the  Grecian  archipelago,  but  died  of  an 
epidemic  disease  at  Cephalonia  on  the  eve  of 
his  departure  for  Constantinople. 

GUISCHARD,   or    Guischardt,   Karl    Gottlieb,   a 
German  writer,  born  in  Magdeburg  in  1724, 
died  in  Berlin,  May  15,  1775.     He  studied  at 
alle,  Marburg,  and  Leyden,  with  the  inten- 
>n  of  becoming  a  clergyman;  but  changing 
is  mind,  he  entered  the  military  service  of 
Holland.     After  a  single  campaign,  in  which 
he  served  as  ensign  in  an  infantry  regiment, 
ce  having  been  restored  by  the  treaty  of 
ix-la-Chapelle,   he  devoted    himself   to  re- 
search upon  military  art  in  ancient  times,  and 
published  in  1758  at  the  Hague  his  Memoires 
.ilitaires  sur  les  Grecs  et  les  Romains.     Fred- 
ick  the  Great  summoned  the  author  to  Bres- 
,  bestowed  upon  him  the  name  of  Quintus 
ilius  by  which  he  was  afterward   known, 
d  gave  him  a  major's  commission.     In  this 
pacity  Guischard  was  called  into  service  in 
:ony,  where  he  was  charged  with  extortion, 
e  king  nevertheless  promoted  him  to  a  colo- 
Icy  in  1763,  and  continued  to  treat  him  with 
,vor.     In  1773  he  published  at  Berlin  his  Me- 
es  historiques  et  critiques  sur  plusieurs 
ints  d'art  militaire,  which  he  dedicated  to 
rederick.     This  work  is  written  with  clearness 
d  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
GUISE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
Aisne,  on  the  Oise,  23  m.  N.  of  Laon ;  pop. 
1866,  5,099.     It  is  a  fortified  place  of  the 
ird  class ;  has  various  manufactures  and  a  pha- 
itery  designed  for  400  families.     It  is  the 
hplace  of  Camille  Desmoulins.     It  is  first 
entioned  in  the  llth  century.     From  it  the 

es  of  Guise  derived  their  title. 
GUISE,  House  of,  a  branch  of  the  ducal  fam- 
of  Lorraine,  which  played  a  conspicuous 
in  the  religious  and  civil  wars  of  France 
the  16th  century.  Its  most  celebrated  mem- 
rs  were  the  following.  I.  Claude  de  Lorraine, 
duke  of  Guise,  born  Oct.  20,  1496,  died  in 
pril,  1550.  He  was  a  younger  son  of  Eene, 
ke  of  Lorraine,  whom  he  succeeded  as  count 
Aumale.  He  established  himself  in  France, 
here  he  rendered  distinguished  service  to 
•ancis  L,  who  erected  the  former  countship 
Guise  into  a  duchy,  which  he  bestowed  upon 
m,  together  with  the  government  of  Cham- 
pie.  His  daughter  Marie  married  James  V. 
Scotland,  and  was  mother  of  Mary  queen 
Scots.  II.  Francois  de  Lorraine,  second  duke 
Guise,  born  at  the  castle  of  Bar,  Feb.  17, 
519,  died  Feb.  24,  1563.  Almost  from  the 
tset  of  his  career  he  was  distinguished  as 
good  general  and  a  brave  soldier;  and  by 
3  successful  defence  of  the  city  of  Metz 
552-'3),  when  he  obliged  Charles  V.  to  raise 
e  siege  after  having  lost  30,000  men,  he  be- 
me  renowned  throughout  Europe.  He  also 
Dualized  himself  at  the  battle  of  Eenti  in 
554.  At  the  request  of  Pope  Paul  IV.  he  was 
t  to  Naples  at  the  head  of  a  French  army 


GUISE 


315 


in  1556;  but  he  failed  in  this  undertaking. 
Montmorency  having  lost  the  battle  of  St. 
Quentin  (1557),  the  kingdom  was  in  imminent 
danger ;  but  Guise  repelled  the  imperial  troops, 
and  retook  Calais  from  the  English,  who  had 
held  it  since  1347.  On  the  accession  of  Francis 
II.,  in  1559,  Guise  seized  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, and  caused  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  king  of 
Navarre,  and  the  prince  of  Conde  to  be  ar- 
rested, and  the  latter  placed  on  trial  for  high 
treason ;  but  the  death  of  the  king  (1560)  de- 
prived him  of  his  ascendancy.  With  the  consta- 
ble Montmorency  and  Marshal  Saint-Andre  he 
then  formed  a  kind  of  triumvirate  in  order  to 
control  the  course  of  the  government  and  to 
oppose  the  Protestants.  An  assault  in  1562  on 
a  body  of  Huguenots  by  some  of  his  servants 
and  followers  gave  the  signal  for  the  wars 
which  continued  for  more  than  30  years.  At 
the  head  of  the  Catholics,  Guise  took  Kouen, 
and  a  little  later  won  the  victory  of  Dreux, 
where  Montmorenpy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Protestants,  and  Saint- Andre  was  killed.  He 
had  reached  the  height  of  his  power  when, 
during  the  siege  of  Orleans,  he  was  treacher- 
ously shot,  Feb.  18,  1563,  by  a  Protestant, 
Poltrot  de  Merey,  and  died  a  week  after. 
He  left  a  diary,  which  was  printed  in  Michaud 
and  Poujoulat's  Nouvelle  collection  de  memoires 
pour  sermr  d  Vhistoire  de  France.  HI.  Henri 
I.  de  Lorraine,  third  duke  of  Guise,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  Dec.  31,  1550,  assassinated  in 
Blois,  Dec.  23, 1588.  He  witnessed  his  father's 
death,  and  swore  vengeance  against  the  Prot- 
estants, and  especially  Admiral  Coligni,  who 
he  thought  had  instigated  the  deed.  When 
1 6  years  old  he  went  to  Hungary  aud  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks. 
After  his  return  to  France  he  fought  at  Jarnac 
and  Moncontour,  and  forced  Coligni  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Poitiers  in  1569.  He  was  an  abet- 
tor of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day 
(1572),  and  was  present  when  Coligni  was 
killed.  In  1575,  having  been  wounded  in  the 
face  in  a  successful  encounter  in  the  vicinity  of 
Chateau-Thierry,  he  received  the  surname  of  le 
Balafr6,  the  scarred,  by  which  he  was  afterward 
commonly  known.  The  following  year  he  was 
instrumental  in  the  formation  of  the  "holy 
league  "  for  the  protection  of  the  Catholics,  of 
which  till  his  death  he  was  the  head.  After  the 
death  of  the  duke  of  Anjou,  in  1584,  he  covertly 
aspired  to  the  throne ;  and  being  supported  by 
the  pope  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  he  excited  the 
nation  against  Henry  III.  and  his  heir  appa- 
rent Henry  of  Navarre.  During  the  "  war  of 
the  three  Henries  "  he  twice  defeated,  at  Vi- 
mory  and  Aulneau,  the  German  troops  which 
had  been  enlisted  in  aid  of  the  Huguenots.  Not- 
withstanding the  prohibition  of  Henry  III.,  he 
entered  Paris  in  triumph,  besieged  the  king  in 
the  Louvre,  May  12,  1588,  during  the  popular 
rebellion  known  as  the  "  day  of  the  barri- 
cades," and  remained  the  undisputed  master  of 
the  capital.  At  the  end  of  the  same  year  he 
was  present  at  the  meeting  of  the  states  gen- 


316 


GUISE 


GUIZOT 


oral  at  Blois,  and  demanded  to  be  appointed 
high  constable  and  general-in-chief  of  the  king- 
dom. The  royal  authority  was  placed  in  the 
utmost  danger,  when  Henry  caused  Guise  to 
be  assassinated  by  some  of  the  royal  body 
guard.  The  duke's  brother,  the  cardinal  of 
Guise,  who  had  participated  in  all  his  plans, 
was  privately  despatched  in  the  following 
night.  IV.  Charles  de  Lorraine,  fourth  duke 
of  Guise,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1571, 
died  in  1640.  After  the  assassination  of  his 
father  he  was  imprisoned  at  Tours,  whence  he 
escaped  in  1591,  and  went  to  Paris.  In  the 
intrigues  of  the  league  he  took  part  against 
the  duke  of  Mayenne.  The  estates  of  Paris 
were  at  one  time  disposed  to  marry  him  to  a 
Spanish  infanta,  and  raise  him  to  the  throne. 
Subsequently  he  went  over  to  Henry  IV.,  who 
made  him  governor  of  Provence.  Under  Louis 
XIII.  he  joined  the  party  of  Maria  de'  Medici, 
and  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Italy,  where 
he  died.  V.  Henri  II.  de  Lorraine,  fifth  duke  of 
Guise,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Blois, 
April  4,  1614,  died  June  2,  1664.  Being  a 
younger  son,  he  first  entered  the  church ;  at 
12  he  possessed  nine  abbeys;  at  15  he  was 
promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  Rheims ;  but 
on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  he  gave  up  a 
profession  ill  suited  to  his  character,  and  when 
his  father  died  in  1640  he  was  put  in  posses- 
sion of  the  title  of  duke  of  Guise.  His  many 
follies  and  love  adventures  gave  him  notoriety. 
He  meanwhile  took  part  with  the  opponents 
of  Richelieu,  was  sentenced  to  death  in  1641, 
and  fled  to  Belgium,  where  he  married  the 
countess  of  Bossut.  After  the  death  of  Louis 
XIII.  he  returned  to  France,  and  indulged  in 
every  excess,  distinguishing  himself  occasionally 
in  battle  by  his  bravery.  About  this  time  he 
fell  in  love  with  a  Mile,  de  Pons,  and  in  order 
to  bring  about  his  union  with  her  he  went  to 
Rome  to  solicit  the  dissolution  of  his  former 
marriage.  While  there,  hearing  of  the  revolt  in 
Naples  under  Masaniello,  he  resolved  to  conquer 
a  throne  which  he  could  offer  to  his  mistress. 
At  the  head  of  20  followers,  he  left  Rome  Dec. 
13, 1647,  embarked  on  a  felucca,  and  landed  at 
Naples  amid  the  applause  of  the  population; 
but  his  overbearing  manner  soon  disgusted  the 
Neapolitans,  who  deserted  him  and  delivered 
their  city  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  He 
was  taken  prisoner,  April  6,  1648,  carried  to 
Spain,  and  kept  in  confinement  till  1652.  In 
1(>54,  with  the  help  of  the  French  government, 
he  sailed  again  for  Naples,  but  entirely  failed 
in  his  enterprise.  Returning  to  France,  he 
was  appointed  grand  chamberlain,  and  passed 
the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  court.  A  narra- 
tive of  his  first  expedition  to  Naples  was  pub- 
,  lished  by  his  secretary,  Sainctyon,  under  the 
title  of  Memoires  de  feu  M,  le  due  de  Guise, 
nontenant  son  entreprise  sur  le  royaume  de 
Naples  jusgu^d  sa  prison  (4to,  1668).  VI. 
Louis  Joseph  de  Lorraine,  sixth  and  last  duke  of 
Guise,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1630, 
died  in  1671.  He  succeeded  his  uncle  in  1664, 


and  married  the  daughter  of  Gaston,  duke  of 
Orleans.  He  died  childless,  and  the  title  and 
estates  of  Guise  passed  to  Marie  de  Lorraine, 

j  daughter  of  the  fourth  duke,  who  died  in  1688 
without  having  been  married.  VII.  Louis  de 
Lorraine,  cardinal  de  Guise,  brother  of  le  Bala- 

i  fr6,  born  at  Dampierre  in  1555,  assassinated  at 
Blois,  Dec.  24,  1588.  He  became  archbishop 
of  Rheims  in  1574,  and  cardinal  in  1578.  He 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  intrigues  of  the 
league,  and  made  himself  especially  odious  to 
Henry  III.  At  the  states  general  of  Blois,  in 
1588,  he  presided  over  the  clergy,  found  fault 
with  the  king's  speech,  and  forced  him  to  alter 
several  passages.  He  was  assassinated  by  order 
of  the  king.  VIII.  Louis  de  Lorraine,  cardinal 
de  Guise,  nephew  of  the  fifth  duke,  born  about 
1580,  died  in  1621.  He  entered  the  church, 
although  his  inclination  was  for  a  military 
career,  and  in  1615  became  archbishop  of 
Rheims  and  cardinal.  In  1621  he  accompa- 
nied the  king  in  an  expedition  to  Poitou,  where 
he  died.  By  Charlotte  des  Essarts,  one.  of  the 
mistresses  of  Henry  IV.,  he  had  five  children. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  secretly  married  to  her, 
and  that  among  his  papers  was  found  a  dis- 
pensation from  the  pope  granting  permission 
for  the  marriage. 

GUITAR  (Gr.  Kt66.pa\  Span,  guitarra),  a  musi- 
cal stringed  instrument,  chiefly  used  to  accom- 
pany the  voice.  It  was  known  to  the  Egyp- 
tians in  a  form  somewhat  similar  to  that  in 
present  use  for  more  than  15  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  was  probably  introduced 
into  Europe  in  modern  times  by  the  Spaniards, 
who  derived  it  from  the  Moors.  The  Spanish 
guitar  consists  of  a  hollow  wooden  body  of  a 
somewhat  oval  form,  about  18  in.  in  length  by 
4  in  depth,  and  of  a  neck  of  16  in.,  having  a 
finger  board  with  17  frets.  The  strings,  six  in 
number,  generally  tuned  E,  A,  D,  G,  B,  E,  are 
distended  along  the  instrument,  passing  over  a 
bridge  at  the  lower  end  of  the  body,  and  being 
regulated  by  pegs  at  the  upper  end  of  the  neck. 
They  are  set  in  vibration  by  the  fingers  of  the 
right  hand,  while  the  left  is  employed  to 
produce  the  modulations  of  tone  by  pressing 
against  the  frets  on  the  finger  board. 

GUIZOT.  I.  Francois  Pierre  Gnillaume,  a  French 
statesman  and  historian,  born  in  Nimes,  Oct. 
4,  1787.  His  father,  a  Calvinist  and  a  distin- 
guished lawyer,  having  died  on  the  scaffold  in 
1794,  he  was  taken  by  his  mother  to  Geneva, 
where  he  received  a  classical  education.  In 
1805  he  went  to  Paris  with  a  view  to  the 
study  of  law,  but  soon  became  engrossed  in 
literary  pursuits.  He  began  to  contribute 
largely  to  journals  and  periodicals,  and  ex- 
hibited a  strength  and  maturity  of  intellect 
which  soon  brought  him  into  notice.  In  1809 
he  published  his  first  work,  entitled  Nouveau 
dictionnaire  des  synonymes  francais  (2  vols. 
8vo),  which  was  followed  by  Annales  de  Vedu- 
cation,  De  Vetat  des  beaux  arts  en  France  et 
du  salon  de  1810,  an  annotated  translation 
(from  various  pens)  of  Gibbon's  "  Decline  and 


GUIZOT 


317 


of  the  Roman  Empire,"   Vies  des  poete* 
incais  du  siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  &c.      In 
[812  he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of 
lodern  history  in  the  Sorbonne.     In  the  same 
year  he   married  Mile.  Pauline  de    Meulan, 
whose  relations  with  the  royalist  party  opened 
him  a  political  career,  on  which  he  entered 
the  fall  of  Napoleon.     He  was  appointed 
iretary  general  of  the  department  of  the  in- 
rior  in  1814,  of  justice  in  1815,  master  of  re- 
lests  in  1816,  and  councillor  of  state  in  1817. 
[e  upheld  the  principles  of  the  constitutional 
irty  by  his  political  essay  Du  gouvernement 
>presentatif  et  de  Vetat  actuel  de  la  France 
1816),  and  thus  became  the  mouthpiece  of 
lose  who  at  a  later  period  were  known  under 
name  of  doctrinaires.     Under  the  semi- 
jral  Decazes  ministry  he  was  director  gen- 
of  the  communal  and  departmental  ad- 
inistration,  which  post  he  resigned  in  Febru- 
•y,  1820,  on  the  fall  of  that  cabinet.     He  now 
iblished  his  political  pamphlet,  Du  gouverne- 
de  la  France  depuis  la  restauration  et  du 
stere  actuel ;  and  the  following  year,  Des 
fens  de  gouvernement  et  d1  opposition  dans 
it  actuel  de  la  France  (1821).   His  strictures 
the  government  were  followed  by  his  re- 
)val  from  the  council  of  state,  and  ultimately 
was  ordered  to  discontinue  his  lectures  in 
le  Sorbonne,  which  he  had  published  previ- 
sly  under  the  title  of  Histoire  du  gouver- 
lent  representatif  (1821-'2).     He  then  de- 
)ted  his  time  to  literary  pursuits,  producing 
succession  a  remarkable  introduction  to  a 
wised  French  translation  of  the  works  of 
f espeare ;  Essais  sur  Vhistoire  de  France 
ieme  au  dixi&me  siecle  (1823),  an  ap- 
idix  to  Mably's  Observations ;  biographical 
vetches  and  historical  notes  to  the  Collection 
memoires  relatifs  a   la  revolution  d^An- 
(26  vols.,  1823  et  seq.\  translated  from 
English  by  various  writers,  and   to  the 
Election  des  memoires  relatifs  a  Vhistoire  de 
%  from  its  origin  to  the  13th  century  (31 
3.,  1823  et  seq.} ;  the  first  two  volumes  of 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  d"1  Angleterre,  to 
accession  of  Charles  II.  (1827-'8);    and 
jveral  essays  and  papers  in  periodicals.     In 
inuary,  1828,  he  established  the  Revue  Fran- 
eaise,  which  was  published  every  two  months, 
nearly  on  the  plan  of  the  English  quarterlies. 
In  1827  he  lost  his  wife,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  married  her  niece,  Mile.  Elisa  Dillon, 
who  lived  only  till  1833.     In  1828  the  Marti- 
gnac  ministry  restored  to  him  his  chair  at  the 
Sorbonne  and  his  seat  in  the  council  of  state  ; 
and  his  eloquent  lectures,  which  were  deliv- 
ered in  conjunction  with  those  of  Cousin  and 
Villemain,  raised  him  to  the  highest  popular- 
ity.    They  were  published  under  the  titles 
Histoire  generale  de  la  civilisation  en  Europe 
depuis  la  chute  de   I1  empire  romain  jusqu'd 
la  revolution  francaise  (1828),  and   Histoire 
generale  de  la  civilisation  en  France  depuis 
la  chute  de  Vempire  romain  (1830).     He  en- 
tered the   chamber  of  deputies  in  January, 


1830,  taking  his  place  among  the  opposition, 
bore  a  part  in  the  parliamentary  proceedings 
which  brought  about  the  revolution  of  July, 
and  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  first 
cabinet  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  resumed  his 
seat  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  on  Nov.  3,  op- 
posed the  Lafitte  cabinet,  and  supported  that 
headed  by  Casimir  Perier.  After  the  death  of 
the  latter  he  entered  the  coalition  ministry 
formed  Oct.  11,  1832,  under  the  presidency  of 
Marshal  Soult,  in  which  he  was  minister  of 
public  instruction.  After  the  dissolution  .of 
that  ministry,  Feb.  22,  1836,  Guizot  remained 
in  comparative  retirement  for  a  few  months. 
He  resumed  his  post  in  the  Mole  cabinet,  but 
soon  quarrelled  with  his  colleagues,  resigned 
office,  and  joined  the  opposition.  After  the 
fall  of  Mole  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain,  Feb.  9,  1840,  being  the  first 
Protestant  ambassador  sent  to  that  country  by 
France  since  the  time  of  Sully.  He  was  re- 
called in  October  to  succeed  M.  Thiers  in  the 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  in  the  last  cabinet 
of  Louis  Philippe's  reign.  For  more  than  seven 
years,  in  concert  with  the  king,  he  upheld  the 
system  of  peace  at  any  price  abroad,  and  of 
opposition  to  democratic  reform  at  home,  which 
eventually  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the 
Orleans  dynasty.  He  succeeded  in  restoring 
the  French  government  to  a  participation  in 
the  settlement  of  the  eastern  question,  but  the 
subordinate  position  in  which  England  and 
Russia  held  France,  and  which  the  latter  ap- 
parently did  not  resent,  aroused  a  discontent 
that  was  not  allayed  by  victories  won  in  Algeria. 
Meanwhile  the  agitation  for  electoral  reform 
was  beginning  in  Paris,  and  propagating  itself 
over  the  country.  Guizot,  who  in  1847  had  suc- 
ceeded Soult  as  head  of  the  ministry,  evinced 
his  contempt  for  what  he  considered  a  trifling 
matter,  and  reluctantly  consented  to  resign  his 
office,  Feb.  23,  1848,  when  the  revolution  had 
actually  commenced.  He  fled  to  England, 
where  he  published,  in  January,  1849,  a 
pamphlet  entitled  De  la  democratic  en  France. 
He  returned  after  an  absence  of  about  a  year, 
and  was  defeated  in  Calvados  as  a  candidate 
for  the  chamber  of  deputies.  In  1861  he  de- 
clared himself  in  favor  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  which  gave 
rise  to  much  discussion  both  in  France  and  in 
England.  In  1870  he  supported  the  ministry 
of  Ollivier,  and  declared  himself  in  favor  of  an 
affirmative  vote  on  the  plebiscite.  Guizot  is  a 
member  of  three  departments  of  the  French 
institute,  having  been  elected  to  the  academy 
of  moral  and  political  sciences  in  1832,  to  that 
of  inscriptions  and  belles-lettres  in  1833,  and 
to  the  French  academy  in  1836.  In  1872  he 
received  from  the  academy  the  biennial  prize 
of  20,000  francs.  In  the  same  year  he  resigned 
his  membership  in  the  Protestant  synod.  In 
March,  1874,  he  objected  to  Oilivier's  pane- 
gyric of  Napoleon  III.  in  the  academy ;  and 
subsequently  hearing  that  the  latter  had  paid 
his  son's  debts,  he  insisted  upon  refunding  the 


318 


GUIZOT 


amount,  and  for  that  purpose  sold  for  120,000 
francs  ft  famous  picture  of  Murillo  which  the 
queen  of  Spain  had  given  him.  His  principal 
works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are : 
Monk:  Chute  de  la  republique  et  retallisse- 
ment  de  la  monarchie  en  Angleterre  en  1660 
(1850) ;  Corneille  et  son  temps,  and  ShaTcspeare 
et  son  temps  (1852) ;  Histoire  de  la  republique 
d1  Angleterre  et  du  protectorat  de  Cromwell 
(2  vols.,  1854);  Histoire  du  protectorat  de 
Richard  Cromwell  et  du  retablissement  des 
Stuarts  (2  vols.,  1856);  Sir  Robert  Peel: 
Etude  d'histbire  contemporaine  (1856);  Me- 
moir es  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  de  mon  temps 
(8  vols.,  1858-'68);  UEglise  et  la  societe  chre- 
tienne  en  1861  (1861);  Discours  academiques 
(1861) ;  Histoire  parlementaire  de  France,  &c. 
(a  collection  of  his  speeches,  5  vols.,  1863) ; 
Meditations  sur  Tessence  de  la  religion  chre- 
tienne  (1864) ;  Meditations  sur  Tetat  actuel  de 
la  religion  chretienne  (1865) ;  Melanges  liogra- 
phiques  et  litteraires  (1868) ;  La  France  et  la 
Prusse  responsal)les  devant  V  Europe  (1868) ; 
Histoire  de  France  depuis  les  temps  les  plus 
recules  jusqu'en  1789,  racontee  d  mes  petits-en- 
fants  (1870  et  seq.) ;  Histoire  de  quatre  grands 
Chretiens  francais  (2  vols.,  1873-'4).  For 
many  years  he  has  been  writing  a  history  of 
Spain,  to  be  completed  in  10  vols.,  of  which  5 
are  now  (1874)  finished.  He  began  to  learn 
Spanish  for  this  work  at  the  age  of  72.  Among 
his  editorial  prefaces  and  memoirs,  his  ad- 
mirable Etude  sur  Washington,  prefixed  origi- 
nally to  the  Vie,  correspondance  et  ecrits  de 
Washington,  is  particularly  worthy  of  men- 
tion. Almost  all  his  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  all  the  more  impor- 
tant ones  into  several  other  languages.  II. 
KlisalM-tli  Charlotte  Pauline  de  Menlan,  a  French 
authoress,  first  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris,  Nov.  2,  1773,  died  there,  Aug.  1,  1827. 
Her  family  was  left  in  reduced  circumstances 
by  the  death  of  her  father  in  1790,  and  she 
devoted  herself  to  literature  for  support.  In 
1800  she  published  Les  contradictions,  a  novel, 
and  soon  after  La  chapelle  d1  Ay  ton,  partly  an 
adaptation  from  the  English.  In  1801  she  un- 
dertook the  literary  and  artistic  editorship 
of  Le  Publiciste,  a  periodical  established  by 
Suard.  In  1807,  being  compelled  to  abandon 
her  labors  by  ill  health,  she  accepted  the  aid 
of  an  anonymous  writer,  who  proved  to  be 
Guizot,  then  young  and  unknown.  The  inti- 
macy arising  from  this  incident  ripened  into 
love  and  ended  in  their  marriage,  April  12, 
1812.  Thenceforth  she  devoted  herself  princi- 
pally to  works  for  the  moral  improvement  of 
the  young,  and  published  successively  Les  en- 
fants  (1812);  Le  journal  d'une  mere  (1813); 
VEcolier,  ou  Raoul  et  Victor  (1821),  to  which 
the  academy  awarded  the  Montyon  prize ;  Nou- 
veaux  contes  d  r usage  de  la  jeunesse  (1823) ; 
and  Lettres  de  famille  sur  Veducation  (1826), 
which  also  gained  a  prize.  Several  volumes 
of  her  essays  and  tales  were  published  by  her 
husband  after  her  death.  III.  Marguerite  An- 


GULL 

dree  Elisa  (DILLON),  niece  of  the  preceding  and 
second  wife  of  Francois  Guizot,  born  in  Paris 
in  1804,  died  in  1833.  She  also  cultivated  let- 
ters, and  furnished  to  the  Revue  Francaise  a 
number  of  articles  and  tales,  which  were  col- 
lected in  a  volume  and  published  in  1834.  Of 
her  children,  HENEIETTE,  born  in  1829,  wife 
of  Conrad  de  Witt,  has  published  Edouard 
III.  et  les  bourgeois  de  Calais,  ou  les  Anglais 
en  France  (1854),  Une  famille  d  Paris  (1863), 
and  several  books  for  children,  and  has  trans- 
lated a  number  of  English  works,  including  the 
life  of  Prince  Albert,  attributed  to  Queen  Victo- 
ria, "  China  and  Japan,"  by  Laurence  Oliphant, 
and  "William  Pitt  and  his  Times,"  by  Lord 
Stanhope.  PAULINE,  born  in  1831,  wife  of  Cor- 
nelius de  Witt,  brother  of  her  sister's  husband, 
wrote  Guillaume  le  Conquerant,  ou  V Angle- 
terre sous  les  Normands  (1854),  and  made  trans- 
lations from  the  English,  including  novels  by 
Dickens  and  Miss  Mulock,  and,  in  collaboration 
with  her  sister,  Motley's  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic."  She  died  at  Cannes,  Feb.  28, 1874. 
MAURICE  GUILLAUME,  the  only  son,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  11,  1833,  received  a  prize  from  the 
French  academy  in  1853,  for  a  work  entitled 
Menandre,  etude  historique  et  litteraire  sur  la 
comedie  et  la  societe  grecques  (1855).  In  1866 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  French  lan- 
guage and  literature  in  the  college  de  France. 
He  has  also  published  Alfred  le  Grand,  ou 
V Angleterre  sous  les  Anglo-Saxons  (1856),  and 
translations  of  Macaulay's  essays. 

GUJERAT.     See  GUZERAT. 

GULF  WEED.     See  ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  vol.  ii., 
p.  79. 

GULL,  a  web-footed  bird,  comprising  several 
genera  of  the  family  laridce,  of  which  the  typ- 
ical genus  larus  (Linn.)  is  found  over  the  ma- 
rine portions  of  the  entire  world.  The  bill 
varies  considerably  in  form  and  strength, 
though  it  is  generally  straight,  with  com- 
pressed sides,  and  curved  at  the  end ;  nostrils 
lateral  and  oblong ;  wings  long  and  pointed ; 
tail  usually  even ;  tarsi  robust ;  anterior  toes 
united  by  a  full  web,  and  the  hind  toe  short 
and  elevated.  The  genus  larus  contains  the 
largest  and  best  known  of  the  gulls,  character- 
ized by  a  strong  hooked  bill,  nearly  even  tail, 
light-colored  mantle,  and  white  head.  The 
largest  of  the  gulls  is  the  glaucous  or  burgo- 
master (L.  glaucus,  Briinnich),  30  in.  long, 
with  an  alar  extent  of  5  ft. ;  the  bill  about  3 
in.,  very  stout,  gamboge  yellow,  with  a  reddish 
orange  patch  near  the  end  of  the  lower  mandi- 
ble ;  the  general  color  is  pure  white,  with  a 
light  grayish  blue  tinge  on  the  back  and  wings. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  arctic  seas,  coming 
down  in  winter  as  far  as  New  York.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly shy,  and  notoriously  voracious,  eat- 
ing fish,  small  birds,  and  carrion;  it  is 
noisy  than  most  other  species.  The  eggs 
pale  purplish  gray,  with  spots  of  brown 
purple.  The  young,  as  in  gulls  generally,  are 
pale  yellowish  brown,  with  spots  and  bars  of 
dusky.  The  black-backed  gull  (L.  marinuB, 


GULL 


319 


inn.)  is  about  the  size  of  the  last,  from  which 
may  be   distinguished  by  the   dark    slate 
lor  of  its  back  and  wings,  the  black  white- 
ipped  primaries,  and  the  yellow  legs  and  feet. 
It  is  found  from  the  entrance  of  Baffin  bay  to 
[aine,  its  favorite  breeding  places  being  on 


Black-backed  Gull  (Larus  marinus). 

ie  coast  of  Labrador ;  in  winter  it  goes  as  far 
as  Florida.     It  is  a  high,  powerful,  and 
ijestic  flier,  resembling  in  this  respect,  as 
as  in  its  voracious  habits,  the  vultures ; 
breasts  the  fiercest  gales,  skimming  along 
ie  tops  of  the  waves ;  it  is  a  good  walker,  a 
but  slow   swimmer,  and  no   diver.      It 
upon  fish,  young  birds,  eggs,  and  any 
ting  carrion ;  in  fact,  upon  everything  ex- 
vegetable  food ;  tyrannical  and  strong,  it 


Silvery  Gull  (Larns  argentatus). 
1.  Adult.    2.  Young.     3.  Bill. 

also  very  cowardly,  flying  off  when  the  bold 
ttle  skuas  or  jagers  (stercorarius)  attack  or 
pproach  it.  It  is  exceedingly  shy,  and  very 
loisy  in  the  breeding  season ;  in  captivity  it  is 
rery  long-lived.  The  breeding  season  is  from 
~ie  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June,  and 
381  VOL.  viii.— 21 


only  one  brood  is  raised  in  a  year ;  the  nest, 
composed  of  weeds  and  grasses,  is  placed  upon 
rocky  shelves,  and  the  eggs,  usually  three, 
are  about  3  by  2  in.,  of  a  pale  greenish  gray, 
with  dark  spots  and  blotches ;  both  sexes  take 
part  in  incubation,  and  the  young  are  fed  at 
first  by  regurgitation.  The  eggs,  like  those  of 
gulls  generally,  are  good  eating;  great  num- 
bers of  the  young,  when  nearly  able  to  fly,  are 
killed  and  salted  as  food  for  the  fishermen 
of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland ;  the  old  birds 
are  tough  and  unfit  for  food.  The  plumage  is 
soft  and  thick,  and  is  esteemed  for  pillows  and 
similar  articles.  The  herring  or  silvery  gull 
(L.  argentatus,  Brunn.)  is  about  23  in.  long, 
and  53  in  alar  extent;  it  resembles  a  small 
glaucous  gull,  except  that  the  first  six  primaries 
are  marked  with  black.  This  is  a  very  shy 
species,  with  a  powerful  and  graceful  flight ; 
it  feeds  principally  on  herring,  and  on  the  usual 
food  of  gulls.  It  is  found  from  Newfoundland 
to  Texas,  and  goes  inland  to  the  western  rivers 
and  northern  lakes ;  it  breeds  from  Labrador 
to  Maine,  nesting,  when  persecuted  by  man, 
on  high  trees ;  the  eggs,  about  3  by  2  in.,  are 
usually  three,  of  a  dull  yellow  color  with  spots 
and  blotches  of  umber  brown,  and  are  excel- 
lent as  food. — In  the  genus  chroicocephalus 
(Eyton)  the  bill  is  moderate,  slender,  and  much 
compressed ;  the  size  is  small,  and  the  head  in 
the  spring  plumage  has  a  dark  hood,  becoming 
white  in  winter;  the  contrast  of  black  and 
white  makes  them  very  handsome  birds.  The 
laughing  gull  (C.  atricilla,  Linn.),  17  in.  long, 
has  the  mantle  and  wings  bluish  gray,  the 
hood  dark  leaden  gray,  and  white  lines  on  the 
lids  ;  found  from  Massachusetts  to  Texas.  Bo- 
naparte's gull  (G.  JBonapartei,  Eich.),  about  15 
in.  long,  has  a  light  mantle,  grayish  black  hood, 
and  a  white  band  divided  by  a  narrow  black 
line  around  the  posterior  part  of  the  eye ;  it  is 
found  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Texas,  on  the  west- 
ern rivers  and  lakes,  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in 
the  fur  countries ;"  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pu- 
get's  sound  it  is  eaten  by  some  Indian  tribes. 
— In  the  genus  rissa  (Leach),  including  the 
kittiwakes,  the  bill  is  long  but  strong,  and  the 
hind  toe  rudimentary  or  very  small.  The 
three-toed  gull,  or  kittiwake  (R.  tridactylus, 
Linn.),  17  in.  long,  has  a  pearl-gray  mantle, 
the  ends  of  the  outer  primaries  black,  and  a 
general  white  plum  age  ;  it  is  found  from  Labra- 
dor and  the  fur  countries  to  the  southern  coast 
in  winter.  There  are  three  other  species  on 
the  N.  W.  coast. — The  ivory  gull  (pagophila 
eburnea,  Gmel.),  about  19  in.  long,  has  an  en- 
tirely white  plumage,  with  an  ivory  yellow 
bill,  dusky  at  the  base ;  all  the  species  of  the 
genus  are  found  far  at  sea  in  high  northern 
latitudes,  where  they  feed  principally  on  the 
flesh  and  fat  of  cetacean  animals.  The  larger 
and  the  arctic  species,  the  former  called  goe- 
lands,  are  found  also  on  the  European  continent. 
The  common  gull  of  Europe  is  the  L.  canus 
(Linn.).  The  larger  terns,  of  similar  appearance 
and  habits  but  smaller  size,  are  often  called  gulls. 


320 


GULL 


GULL,  Sir  William  Withy,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Thorpe-le-Soken,  Essex,  Dec.  31,  1816. 
He  graduated  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Lon- 
don in  1840,  was  Fullerian  professor  of  physi- 
ology at  the  royal  institution  in  1847-'9,  and 
afterward  physician  to  Guy's  hospital  till  about 
1867.  He  was  knighted  after  his  successful  at- 
tendance during  a  severe  illness  of  the  prince 
of  Wales  in  1871,  and  appointed  physician 
extraordinary.  He  is  president  of  the  clinical 
society.  His  publications  include  a  lecture  on 
paralysis  and  treatises  on  hypochondriasis  and 
on  abscess  of  the  brain. 

GUM,  an  exudation  from  certain  trees,  distin- 
guished by  its  either  softening  or  dissolving  in 
water,  and  not  yielding  to  alcohol ;  also  by  af- 
fording mucic  acid,  when  acted  upon  by  nitric 
acid.  The  resins,  which  resemble  the  gums  in 
origin  and  appearance,  are  insoluble  in  water, 
but  dissolve  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  the  essential 
oils,  and  are  moreover  distinguished  from  the 
gums  by  their  inflammability.  The  gums,  as 
they  issue  through  the  punctured  bark  of  trees, 
are  held  in  solution  in  the  vegetable  juices; 
and  as  these  evaporate  on  exposure  they  form 
a  thick  adhesive  substance,  which  by  further 
exsiccation  may  become  dry,  hard,  and  pulver- 
izable.  They  are  mixtures  of  the  calcium  and 
potassium  salts  of  a  feeble  vegetable  acid  term- 
ed gummic  or  arabic.  By  boiling  down  the 
juices  or  the  infusions  of  many  plants,  a  sub- 
stance of  this  nature  is  often  obtained,  even 
when  the  plants  are  not  known  to  produce  it 
naturally.  Flaxseed  may  thus  yield  a  product, 
called  bassorine,  which  when  dried  is  like  gum 
arabic.  The  gummy  substances  obtained  in 
this  way  are  generally  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  mucilage.  Though  the  gums  differ  in 
their  chemical  reactions  from  amylaceous  mat- 
ter, their  elementary  composition  is  usually 
considered  the  same,  and  like  that  of  starch  is 
represented  by  the  formula  CeHioOs.  Starch 
acquires  the  properties  of  gum  when  dried  at 
a  temperature  of  266°  F.  (See  DEXTRINE.) 
Gums  possess  little  if  any  dietetic  value,  since 
experiment  has  shown  that  they  merely  dis- 
solve or  swell  up  in  the  intestinal  fluids,  with- 
out being  changed  to  sugar,  and  are  absorbed, 
if  at  all,  only  in  an  exceedingly  small  quantity. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  gum  arabic  is  used  as 
food  by  some  savage  and  semi-barbarous  tribes ; 
but  reports  of  this  character  are  hardly  suffi- 
cient to  set  aside  the  data  of  exact  experiment. 
Mucilaginous  fluids  are  given  to  invalids  as 
agreeable  drinks,  and  are  of  benefit  in  sheath- 
ing inflamed  surfaces  and  protecting  them  from 
irritation.  It  appears,  however,  from  Dr.  Ham- 
mond's experiments,  that  the  insertion  of  large 
quantities  of  gum  may  irritate  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  bowels,  and  therefore  it 
should  not  be  administered  too  freely,  especial- 
ly to  infants.  Properly  given,  it  is  of  use  in  dys- 
entery, diarrhoea,  and  inflammation  of  the  bow- 
els, chest,  and  bladder.  It  may  be  advantage- 
ously added  to  diuretics. — Several  varieties  of 
gum  are  recognized,  most  of  which  may  be  re- 


GUM 

ferred  to  one  or  other  of  three  divisions.  Those 
of  the  first,  distinguished  by  their  solubility  in 
water,  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  peculiar 
principle  arabine,  and  are  represented  by  gum 
arabic,  the  purest  of  the  gums.  The  second 
division  comprises  those  which  soften  and  swell 
in  water  without  dissolving,  as  gum  tragacanth, 
Bassorah  gum,  &c.  They  are  in  great  part 
composed  of  arabine,  but  also  contain  the  prin- 
ciple bassorine.  The  third  division  includes 
those  that  are  partially  soluble  in  water,  and 
are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  the  prin- 
ciple cerasine.  The  gums  of  the  cherry  and 
many  other  fruit  trees  belong  to  this  group.— 
GUM  ARABIC  may  be  used  as  a  generic  name 
for  the  various  gums  produced  by  the  several 
species  of  acacia,  many  of  which  are  particu- 
larly designated  by  their  localities,  as  the  Tur- 
key or  Arabic  gum,  the  Barbary  or  Morocco 
gum,  Cape  gum,  East  India  gum,  gum  Senegal, 
&c.  The  first  named  is  the  product  principally 
of  the  acacia  vera  and  A.  Arabica  ;  it  is  col- 
lected mostly  in  Upper  Egypt,  Nubia,  Kordo- 
fan,  and  Darfoor,  and  is  brought  from  different 
ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  second  is 
supposed  to  be  obtained  from  the  A.  gummife- 
ra,  and  is  brought  from  Mogadore  and  Maza- 
gan.  The  Cape  gum  is  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  product  of  a  species  of  acacia  resem- 
bling the  vera,  and  named  by  Burchell  the 
capensis.  The  East  India  gum,  mostly  from 
Bombay,  is  the  product  of  different  species  of 
acacia.  Gum  Senegal,  from  Senegambia,  is 
supposed  to  be  obtained  from  A.  Senegal,  A. 
vera,  A.  Seyal,  and  A.  Adansonii.  The  first 
named  of  these  is  a  small  tree  which  forms 
vast  forests  in  the  hottest  regions  of  Africa. 
These  varieties  of  gum  arabic  differ  somewhat 
in  purity,  hardness,  and  color.  The  best  real 
gum  arabic  is  in  rounded  or  amorphous  tears, 
some  of  which  are  as  large  as  nutmegs,  some 
transparent,  and  some  opaque,  of  light  shades 
of  yellow,  sometimes  re*d,  also  white,  and  of 
glassy  lustre.  The  gum  has  a  sweetish  taste, 
but  no  decided  odor.  Its  specific  gravity  va- 
ries from  1-3  to  about  1'5.  It  is  readily  dis- 
solved in  boiling  water ;  but  the  solution  more 
slowly  effected  in  cold  water  keeps  better.  '. 
has  an  acid  reaction,  and  alcohol  added  to  it 
causes  the  gum  to  fall  as  a  white  precipitate. 
Gum  arabic  is  used  in  the  arts  for  producing 
a  glazed  surface  upon  fabrics,  as  also  for  stiffen- 
ing or  giving  to  them  a  body,  answering  the 
same  purpose  as  starch.  By  increasing  the 
density  of  liquids  in  which  it  dissolves,  these 
are  made  to  retain  substances  in  suspension 
which  would  otherwise  subside.  It  is  for  this 
purpose  introduced  into  writing  ink  and  vari- 
ous preparations  of  pigments  and  of  medicines. 
It  is  also  administered  for  its  own  medicinal 
qualities,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  demulcent 
character.  It  is  not  susceptible  of  fermenta- 
tion under  the  influence  of  yeast,  but  if  digest- 
ed with  cheese  and  chalk  it  may  be  made  to 
furnish  alcohol.  Its  nutritive  property  has  al- 
ready been  noticed.  The  gum  is  often  adulte- 


GUM 


GUM  RESINS 


321 


ited  with  inferior  gums,  and  also  with  starch 
id  flour.     Iodine  readily  detects  the  presence 
starch  or  of  flour  in  solutions  of  gum  con- 
lining  them  by  the  blue  color  produced. — 
TRAGAOANTH,  also  called  GUM  DEAGON,  is 
ie  product  of  various  species  of  astragalus, 
jecially  the  A.  verus  of  the  north  of  Persia, 
rmenia,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  the  A.  gummi- 
fer  of  Arabia,  Mt.  Lebanon,  &c.    It  is  collect- 
in  the  months  of  July  and  August  from  the 
itural   exudations  of  the  shrubs,  and  from 
lose  resulting  from  incisions  made  in  the  stem 
ir  the  root.     It  is  a  hard,  tough  substance, 
lore  or  less  white  according  to  its  purity,  in 
3ry  irregular  flattened  shapes,  and  in  tortu- 
is  vermicular  filaments.     It  may  be  pulver- 
after  drying  at  a  temperature  of  212°.     It 
no  taste  or  smell.     Its  specific  gravity  is 
I '384.     It  swells  slowly  in  water,  partially  dis- 
Iving,  and  forms  a  thick  adhesive  paste.     By 
)iling    with  sufficient   water,   a    solution  is 
ained  of  similar  appearance,   and  Brande 
inks  of  the  composition,  of  that  of  gum  ara- 
Different  analyses  are  given  of  it,  but  that 
Guerin-Varry  is  generally  adopted  ;  it  is  as 
Hows  :  arabine,  53*3  per  cent. ;  bassorine  or 
racanthine,   33'1 ;    water,  11 -1 ;    inorganic 
tter,  2'5.     Starch  is  detected  in  very  small 
rnntity  in  the  bassorine.     From  the  ultimate 
lalysis  the  same  chemist  deduced  the  formula 
s.     The  uses  of  gum  tragacanth  are 
imilar  to  those  of  gum  arabic.    Apothecaries 
iploy  it  to  give  adhesiveness  to  the  ingredi- 
its  of  pills,  and  confectioners  apply  it  with  a 
lilar  object  to  the  materials  of  lozenges, 
rum  of  Bassorah,  from  Bassorah  near  the  head 
the  Persian  gulf,  is  of  this  class  of  gums,  and 
irnishes  the  name  for  the  peculiar  principle 
ley  contain. — CHERRY-TREE  GUM,  including  in 
lis  name  the  exudations  of  the  peach,  plum, 
id  other  kindred  trees,  is  an  inferior  quality 
gum,  somewhat  like  gum  arabic,  and  con- 
istingof  a  portion  soluble  in  cold  water,  which 
arabine,  and  a  portion  insoluble,  which  is  the 
rinciple  named  by  M.  Gu6rin-Varry  cerasine. 
?or  gum  kino,  see  KINO.) — GUM  MEZQUITE 
the  product  of  the  mezquite  tree  (prosopis 
mdulosci)  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  brought 
notice   in  1854  by  Dr.   Shumard  of  the 
Inited  States  army.     It  is  described  as  sim- 
ir  in  its  properties  to  gum   arabic,  exuding 
rataneously  from   the  tree,  and  concreting 
tears  and  lumps  of  variable  sizes,  semi- 
msparent,    and    of   lemon    white    to    dark 
iber    shades    of   color.      It    is   brittle  and 
sily  pulverized,  and  the  fractured   surfaces 
brilliant.      From  an  ounce  to  3  Ibs.  has 
3n  obtained  from  a  single  tree,  and  more,  no 
)ubt,  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark.     The 
)ranches    furnish    a  purer   quality  than  the 
runk.     The  best  time  for  collecting  it  is  the 
itter  part  of  August.     The  trees  abound  upon 
'ie  plains  over  regions  thousands  of  miles  in 
jxtent,  and  flourish  luxuriantly  in  dry  and  ele- 
vated situations.     If  the  gum  could  be  easily 
>btained  in  large  quantities,  it  would  become 


an  important  commercial  article ;  but  an  abun- 
dant exudation  takes  place  only  in  unusually 
dry  seasons  after  an  interval  of  several  years. 
Specimens  have  been  analyzed  by  Dr.  Camp- 
bell Morfit  with  the  following  results :  arabine, 
84-967";  bassorine,  0-206 ;  water,  11-640;  inor- 
ganic matter,  3-000 ;  impurities,  0-236 ;  total, 
100-049.  Elementary  composition:  carbon, 
44-706  per  cent. ;  oxygen,  48794 ;  hydrogen, 
6-500.  It  thus  shows  a  close  resemblance  to 
gum  arabic  and  gum  Senegal  in  composition  as 
well  as  in  its  physical  and  chemical  properties. 
It  is  kept  in  the  drug  stores  of  the  Mexican 
cities,  and  considerable  quantities  have  been 
sent  to  San  Francisco  from  the  Mexican  ports 
on  the  Pacific. — This  country  receives  its  sup- 
plies of  gums  in  great  part  through  England. 

GUMBIMEff,  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province 
of  East  Prussia,  on  the  Pissa,  68  m.  E.  of  Ko- 
nigsberg;  pop.  in  1871,  9,085.  The  town, 
lying  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  is  regularly 
built,  and  contains  three  Protestant  churches, 
a  public  library,  a  school  of  midwifery,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  two  hospitals.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  woollen  and  linen  cloth  and  hosiery, 
beer,  and  liquors,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
corn  and  cattle.  Gumbinnen  owes  its  pros- 
perity largely  to  the  fact  that  it  gave  asylum 
to  Protestants,  chiefly  from  Salzburg,  who  fled 
thither  from  persecution  about  the  year  1732. 
Previously  it  was  but  an  insignificant  village. 

GUMBO,  a  southern  name,  probably  derived 
from  the  negroes,  of  a  stew  or  soup,  usually 
made  of  chicken,  and  thickened  with  the  mu- 
cilaginous pods  of  the  okra.  When  these  can- 
not be  obtained,  sassafras  pith  or  tapioca  is  used 
as  a  substitute.  (See  OKRA.) 

GUM  RESINS,  inspissated  juices  of  certain 
plants,  obtained  by  spontaneous  exudation  or 
from  incisions  purposely  made.  They  consist 
of  resin  and  gum,  the  proportions  varying  in  the 
different  varieties,  and  with  these  are  com- 
monly associated  essential  oil,  and  other  vege- 
table substances,  as  starch,  bassorine,  extrac- 
tive, &c.  They  are  most  of  them  hard  and 
dry  substances,  brittle  and  opaque,  rarely  trans- 
lucent like  the  resins.  Some  that  are  semi- 
liquid  and  viscid,  as  the  sagapenum  and  galba- 
num,  become  hard  in  very  cold  weather,  and 
may  then  be  pulverized.  At  a  moderate  heat 
these  are  sufficiently  fluid  to  be  strained  through 
a  cloth ;  and  all  the  gum  resins  may  be  thus 
strained  and  purified  by  first  boiling  them  in 
water.  They  are  partially  soluble  in  water  or 
in  alcohol,  and  wholly  so  in  a  mixture  of  these. 
In  water  alone  the  gum  dissolved  holds  for  a 
time  the  finely  divided  resinous  portion  sus- 
pended, and  thus  emulsions  are  prepared  for 
administering  the  substances  in  medicine,  which 
is  their  principal  use.  Balsams  are  distinguished 
from  gum  resins  by  containing  benzoic  acid. 
The  most  important  gum  resins  are  described 
in  separate  articles,  as  aloes,  ammoniac,  asa- 
foetida,  bdellium,  euphorbium,  galbanum,  gam- 
boge, myrrh,  sagapenum,  scammony,  &c. 


322 


GUM  TREE 


GUN  COTTON 


GUM  TREE.    See  BLACK  GITM. 

GUJf.     See  CANNON,  MTJBKET,  and  RIFLE. 

GFN  COTTON,  an  explosive  substance  obtained 
by  subjecting  common  cotton  to  the  action  of 
strong  nitric  acid,  first  brought  to  public  no- 
tice in  1846  by  Prof.  Schonbein  of  Basel,  Switz- 
erland. Several  products  are  known  under 
this  name,  possessing  distinct  properties,  though 
differing  slightly  in  constitution.  Cotton  fibre 
is  nearly  pure  cellulose,  Ci8H3oOi6,  and  by  the 
action  of  the  acid  a  number  of  equivalents  of 
nitric  oxide,  N2O4,  or  NO2,  are  substituted  for 
an  equal  number  of  hydrogen.  The  number 
of  equivalents  substituted  varies  from  6  to  9, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  acid.  Thus, 
the  substitution  of  9  equivalents  would  give 
C,8Ha,(NO2)9Oi6,  or  more  simply,  C6H7(N02)3 
04.  Water  is  also  generated  in  the  reaction, 
by  the  union  of  hydrogen  with  the  oxygen 
set  free  hi  reducing  nitric  acid  to  oxide.  In 
preparing  the  gun  cotton,  two  or  three  parts 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid  are  mixed  with  one 
part  of  nitric  acid,  to  absorb  this  water  and 
thus  prevent  further  hydration  of  the  nitric 
acid.  The  following  formulas  show  the  consti- 
tution of  the  products  obtained  by  using  two 
or  three  parts  of  sulphuric  and  one  of  nitric 
acid,  while  the  quantity  of  water  is  varied  :  1. 
With  monohydrated  acids :  C18H3oOi6  +  9(HN- 
O3)=C18Hai(N03)fl015  +  9H3O.  2.  With  3  to 
4  parts  water:  C18H3oO,6-i-8(HN03)=Ci8H22 
(N02)8016  +  8H20.  3.  With  4  to  5  parts  water : 
C18H9o016  +  7(HN03)=C18H23(NOa)701B7H20. 
4.  With  5  to  6  parts  water:  Ci8H3oO16  +  6(H 
NO»)=C18H24(N02)aOi6  +  6H3O.  The  first  va- 
riety is  the  well  known  detonating  gun  cotton. 
It  is  insoluble  in  common  ether  and  alcohol, 
and  is  not  attacked  by  acetic  acid,  but  is  solu- 
ble in  acetic  ether.  The  second  is  a  less  explo- 
sive variety,  soluble  in  common  ether  with  one 
eighth  of  alcohol  added,  but  insoluble  in  acetic 
acid.  The  third  is  inflammable,  but  not  ordi- 
narily explosive,  and  is  soluble  both  in  ether 
and  in  glacial  acetic  acid.  This  variety  is  used 
for  collodion.  The  fourth  is  always  dissolved 
in  the  acid,  from  which  hitherto  it  has  not  been 
isolated.  In  the  manufacture  of  gun  cotton 
the  substitutions  are  never  exactly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  foregoing  formulas,  but  most 
probably  different  degrees  of  substitution  take 
place  in  the  different  molecules  of  the  same 
mass  of  cotton ;  and  a  careful  analysis  shows 
invariably  an  intermediate  constitution,  though 
in  many  cases  one  of  the  typical  constitutions 
is  very  closely  approached.  Gun  cotton  is  not 
readily  distinguishable  in  appearance  from  the 
unaltered  cotton  ;  but  it  is  slightly  harsher  to 
the  touch  and  the  compression  of  the  fingers. 
When  moistened  with  a  solution  of  iodine  in 
potassium  iodide,  and  touched  with  a  drop  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  it  turns  yellow,  while 
unchanged  cotton  under  the  same  test  turns 
blue.  The  variety  here  to  be  considered  is  the 
detonating  product,  C0n7(NOa)sO6.  To  pre- 
pare it  the  strongest  commercial  acids  are  re- 
quired, the  nitric  acid  having  a  density  of  near 


1-50,  and  the  sulphuric  a  density  of  1-847.    An 
immersion  of  the  cotton  for  a  few  seconds  yields 
an  explosive  material ;  but  to  insure  the  highest 
degree  of  explosiveness  the  immersion  should 
be  prolonged.     Baron  Lenk  protracted  it  to  48 
hours.     On  withdrawing  it  from  the  bath,  as 
much  acid  as  possible  is  squeezed  out  between 
porcelain  plates,  and  the  cotton  is  repeatedly 
and  thoroughly  washed  in  water.     The  fibres 
are  capillary,  and  during  the  immersion  the 
tubes  absorb  acid,  which  it  is  difficult  to  re- 
move entirely.     As  the  so-called  spontaneous 
ignition  of  gun  cotton  has  been  frequently  at- 
tributed to  the  retention  of  acid,  the  original 
method  of  washing  the  unbroken  fibre  in  water 
has  been  abandoned,  and  a  new  mode  of  treat- 
ment, devised  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Abel,  has  been 
extensively  applied  in  England.     The  fibre  is 
first  subjected  to  two  or  three  rinsings  in  a 
large  volume  of  water,  and  is  freed  from  water 
as  far  as  possible  after  each  rinsing,  by  a  cen- 
trifugal drying  machine.     It  is  then  reduced 
to  pulp  by  an  engine  similar  to  that  used  in 
reducing  paper  pulp.     The  access  of  water  to 
the  capillary  tubes  is  thus  greatly  facilitated, 
and  to  insure  the  most  searching  purification, 
the  pulp  is  transferred  to  a  "  poaching  ma- 
chine," where  it  is  beaten  about,  and  kept  sus- 
pended in  a  large  volume  of  warm  water,  con- 
tinuously renewed,  and  rendered  slightly  alka- 
line at  the  close  of  the  operation.     This  opera- 
tion lasts  about  48  hours,  and  the  quantity 
treated  is  half  a  ton.     In  this  way  a  thorough 
intermixture  of  the  products  of  many  dippings 
is  obtained,  and  the  average  constitution  is  ren- 
dered uniform.     The  pulp  is  then  compacted 
into  the  desired  forms  by  a  preliminary  mould- 
ing and  a  subsequent  pressing  by  hydraulic 
power,  ranging  from  four  to  six  tons  per  square 
inch.     On  leaving  the  press  the  slab  contains 
about  20  per  cent,  of  water,  in  which  condi- 
tion it  may  be  safely  cut  with  circular  or  band 
saws,  and  even  hot  iron  may  be  used  without 
danger  to  burn   holes  in  it.     When  wet  it 
may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  period  without 
change,  and,  whether  wet  or  dry,  it  is  affected 
by  very  few  reagents.     Its  stability  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  gunpowder  in  every  respect 
save  the  all-important  one  of  immunity  from 
inexplicable  explosion.      Repeated    accidents 
have  destroyed  the  confidence  of  all  but  the 
most  sanguine  in  its  safety.     It  was  for  a  time 
supposed  that  the  ingenious  process  of  Mr. 
Abel  had  removed  the  causes  of  distrust ;  but 
a  terrible  and  unexplained  explosion  at  Stow- 
market  in  1871  revived  the  feeling,  which  still 
prevails.     How  far  the  repeated  disasters  at- 
tending the  use  and  storage  of  gun  cotton  are 
due  to  the  carelessness  of  those  who  have  it  in 
charge,  is  unknown,  for  it  leaves  no  witnesses 
to  testify  to  the  origin  of  the  explosions,  and 
the  very  mystery  which  surrounds  them,  and 
our  frequent  inability  even  to  conjecture  a 
probable  cause,  are  sufficient  reasons  for  re- 
garding it  as  a  treacherous  servant.    If  massive 
gun  cotton  be  ignited  by  a  coal  or  flame  of  low 


GUN  COTTON 


323 


itensity,  it  burns  in  the  open  air  inexplosively. 
If  ignited  by  a  powerful  flame,  it  flashes  like 
gunpowder;  but  if  ignited  by  a  fulminate,  it 
detonates  with  tremendous  violence.  This 
"  sympathetic  "  quality,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
total  combustion  seems  to  follow  the  character 
of  the  ignition,  is  difficult  to  explain,  and  also 
presents  some  anomalies.  According  to  Mr. 
Abel,  about  five  grains  of  fulminate  of  mercury 
is  required  to  produce  detonation ;  but  ten 
times  that  quantity  of  chloride  of  nitrogen, 
rongly  confined,  is  required  to  produce  the 
ime  result,  while  350  grains  of  nitro-glyce- 
le,  exploded  in  contact  with  massive  gun 
cotton,  fails  to  produce  any  other  result  than 
the  mechanical  disintegration  of  the  mass.  The 
rate  at  which  detonation  is  propagated  along  a 
>w  of  gun-cotton  disks  has  been  investigated 
>y  Mr.  Abel  and  Capt.  A.  Noble,  who  found  it 
be  about  18,000  feet  a  second.  A  sound  wave 
would  travel  through  such  a  mass  with  less 
than  one  fourth  of  this  velocity,  and  such 
rapidity  of  transmission  seems  explicable  only 
on  the  assumption  that  ignition  is  carried  along 
le  surface  by  the  expanding  gases,  driven  by 
their  tension.  The  products  of  combustion  of 
cotton  vary  with  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  exploded.  They  consist  of  varying 
>roportions  of  carbonic  oxide,  carbonic  acid, 
gas,  nitric  oxide,  nitrogen,  and  water, 
analyses  by  Lieut.  Von  Karolyi  of  the 
sian  army  gave,  by  volume : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

I. 

II. 

Carbonic  oxide 

28-55 

28-95 

Carbonic  acid    .            

19-11 

20-82 

Marsh  gas  

11-17 

7-24 

Nitric  oxide  

8-83 

8-56 

12-67 

CarkTn        .               

1-85 

1-82 

Aqueous  vapor  

21-93 

25-34 

8-16 

Total... 

100-00 

100-00 

The  first  analysis  is  that  of  gases  obtained  by 
exploding  the  cotton  in  vacuo,  and  the  second 
~)y  exploding  it  in  strong  iron  tubes  placed  in 
mortar. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
ibstitute  gun  cotton  for  gunpowder  in  mili- 
tary operations.  A  brief  examination  of  the 
jhenomena  of  explosions  will  show  that  it  can 
lever  be  advantageously  used  as  an  agent  for 
the  propulsion  of  projectiles.  In  the  explosion 
of  all  detonating  compounds  the  conversion  of 
the  solid  or  liquid  material  into  elastic  gases  is 
so  rapid  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  practically, 
though  not  strictly,  instantaneous.  The  sub- 
sequent expansion  of  these  gases  by  their  elas- 
tic force  must  be  the  motive  power  of  the  shot; 
and  at  the  instant  of  concussion  this  is  so  great, 
in  the  case  of  gun  cotton  confined  in  a  small 
receptacle,  that  no  material  can  withstand  it, 
unless  the  chamber  be  much  larger  than  the 
bulk  of  the  gun  cotton.  If  the  explosive  en- 
ergy be  reduced  by  using  a  large  chamber,  or 
by  mixing  the  compound  with  some  inert  ma- 
terial, then  the  total  elastic  effort  is  no  greater 


than  that  of  gunpowder.  It  can  be  rendered 
serviceable  in  this  relation  only  by  depriving  it 
of  the  very  excess  of  energy  which  can  alone 
give  greater  velocity  to  a  projectile ;  and  there 
is  no  probability  that  any  means  can  be  em- 
ployed to  compensate  for  this  loss  of  energy,  as 
may  be  done  with  gunpowder.  As  a  bursting 
charge  for  hollow  projectiles,  the  destructive 
efficiency  of  gun  cotton  is  very  great;  but  ex- 
perience has  shown  its  extreme  liability  to  ex- 
plode prematurely  by  the  shock  of  the  dis- 
charge. Its  detonation  in  contact  with  hard 
materials  shatters  or  disintegrates  them.  Wood 
and  rock  are  completely  pulverized  by  it,  while 
hollow  projectiles  are  often  blown  into  innu- 
merable fragments.  But  these  effects  extend 
to  a  small  distance  only  from  the  centre  of  ex- 
plosion, and  at  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  the 
effect  is  no  greater  than  that  obtained  from 
gunpowder. — The  use  of  gun  cotton  in  blasting 
is  favored  by  its  indifference  to  water,  and  by 
its  great  explosive  effect,  estimated  by  Combes 
and  Flandin  to  be  fourfold,  by  S6guier  sixfold, 
and  b.y  Tamper  double  that  of  gunpowder. 
These  estimates  are  based  upon  practical  ex- 
periment. They  indicate  a  saving  in  practice 
by  the  use  of  shallower  bore  holes.  But  the 
relative  costliness  of  gun  cotton,  the  danger  of 
premature  explosions  in  charging  holes,  its 
varying  quality,  its  liability  to  spontaneous  de- 
composition, and  its  too  rapid  combustion,  which 
gives  it  a  tendency  to  shatter  or  pulverize  ra- 
ther than  lift  and  loosen  the  rock,  have  proved 
great  obstacles  to  its  use.  Many  of  these  ob- 
jections have  been  obviated,  it  is  asserted, 
by  the  manufacture  of  compound  gun  cotton 
above  described,  and  by  the  admixture  of  less 
explosive  or  non-explosive  substances,  such  as 
common  cotton.  Extensive  and  successful  use 
was  made  of  gun  cotton  in  the  quarries  of  Co- 
morn  and  in  the  removal  of  the  ancient  walls 
of  Vienna.  In  the  former  case,  the  cotton  was 
wound  in  solid  cylinders;  in  the  latter  the 
cylinders  were  hollow.  Punshon,  an  English 
manufacturer,  claims  that  he  makes  an  article 
of  definite  explosive  power  in  grades,  suited  to 
any  use,  the  quality  of  each  grade  being  uni- 
form. He  also  asserts  that  his  gun  cotton  prep- 
arations will  not  explode  or  decompose  spon- 
taneously, and  can  be  stored  or  transported 
without  danger.  In  these  preparations,  the 
gun  cotton  is  coated  with  a  powder  of  sugar, 
or  potash  or  other  salts,  which  separates  the 
fibres.  By  changing  the  quality  of  this  pow- 
der the  desired  grade  of  exploding  force  is  ob- 
tained.— Bleekrode  found  that  gun  cotton,  when 
moistened  with  an  inflammable  liquid,  like 
carbon  sulphide,  ether,  benzine,  or  alcohol, 
and  ignited  by  the  electric  spark  or  otherwise, 
does  not  explode,  but  burns  slowly.  Hence  he 
recommends  that  when  stored  it  should  be 
covered  with  such  a  liquid,  which  could  be  re- 
moved by  evaporation.  A  new  variety  of  gun 
cotton  is  made  by  immersing  cotton  for  15 
minutes  in  a  saturated  solution  of  chlorate  of 
potassa.  It  is  chemically  more  allied  appaj 


321 


GtfNDERODE 


rently  to  the  chlorate  of  potassa  powders. 
Little  is  known  of  its  application.  A  new 
gun  cotton,  known  as  gadoxyline,  is  manufac- 
tured in  Wolverhampton,  England.  Its  com- 
position is  unknown.  Gun  cotton  has  been 
manufactured  into  an  explosive  paper,  to  re- 
duce the  danger  of  handling  and  charging. 

G&NDERODE,  Karoline  TOD,  a  German  poetess, 
born  in  Carlsruhe,  Feb.  11,  1780,  committed 
suicide  July  26,  1806.  She  became  canoness  of 
a  chapter  in  Frankfort,  and  under  the  name  of 
"Tian  "  wrote  a  number  of  poems  remarkable 
for  passionate  feeling.  She  formed  an  attach- 
ment for  the  philologist  Creuzer,  which  termi- 
nated unhappily,  and  led  to  her  suicide.  She 
was  intimate  with  Bettina  von  Arnim,  who 
published  their  correspondence  under  the  title 
of  Die  Gunderode  (2  vols.,  Grilnberg,  1840; 
translated  by  Margaret  Fuller,  Boston,  1842). 
Her  literary  remains  consist  of  Gediehte  und 
Phantasien  (Hamburg,  1804),  PoetiscJie  Frag- 
mente  (Frankfort,  1805),  and  Gesammelte  Dich- 
tungen  (Mannheim,  1857). 

GUNDUK,ariver  of  Hindostan,  which  rises  N. 
of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  and  flows  through 
that  chain  in  a  S.  E.  direction  to  Hajeepoor, 
where  it  falls  into  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25°  39' 
N.,  Ion.  85°  16'  E.  Its  course  is  estimated  at 
400  m.  The  scenery  where  it  emerges  from 
the  Himalaya  range  is  magnificent.  In  the 
upper  part  of  its  course  it  is  called  Salgrami, 
from  a  singular  species  of  stones  found  in  its 
channel ;  they  are  mostly  round,  and  are  gen- 
erally perforated  in  one  or  more  places. 

CUNDWANA.     See  GONDS. 

GUNNEL.    See  BLENNY. 

GUNNERY,  the  art  of  using  guns,  gunpowder, 
and  projectiles.  The  forces  which  are  of  mo- 
ment in  gunnery  as  affecting  the  course  of 
projectiles  are  terrestrial  gravitation  and  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  The  former  is  so  nearly 
uniform,  both  in  amount  and  direction,  that 
it  may  be  so  regarded.  But  the  difficulties 
which  appear  when  we  investigate  the  resis- 
tance of  air  are  so  formidable,  that  hitherto 
mathematicians  have  utterly  failed  to  find  a 
general  formula,  and  have  been  obliged  to  re- 
sort to  purely  empirical  methods.  The  first 
quantity  to  be  sought  is  a  unit  of  resistance 
with  which  all  other  degrees  of  resistance  may 
be  compared  ;  and  this  is  usually  taken  as  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  air  to  a  body  having  a 
front  1  foot  square,  moving  1  foot  in  1  second. 
This  quantity  cannot  be  determined  theoreti- 
cally, but  it  is  found  by  careful  trial  that  the 
value  of  this  unit  depends  upon  the  form  of 
the  front,  as  well  as  its  area.  It  is  also  consid- 
erably influenced  by  the  shape  of  the  rear. 
Hutton  has  given  the  following  ratios  between 
the  values  of  the  resistance: 


Hemisphere,  convex  side  foremost 119 

Spli.-n-    124 

Cone,  point  foremost,  with  a  vertical  angle  of  25°  42'.  126 

Disk 285 

1  [emfephere,  flat  surface  foremost 288 

Cone,  base  foremost 291 


GUNNERY 

In  these  ratios  it  appears  that  the  resistance 
to  the  cone  is  about  the  same  as  that  to  a 
sphere,  notwithstanding  the  sharp  point  of  the 
former.  From  recent  experiments  by  Prof. 
Bashforth  of  "Woolwich,  it  also  appears  that 
the  resistance  to  an  elongated  shot  with  a 
hemispherical  front  is  less  than  that  to  a 
spherical  shot  of  equal  diameter,  in  the  ratio 
of  1*345  to  1*531.  NWton,  in  his  Principia, 
gives  as  the  front  of  least  resistance  a  figure 
having  nearly  the  section  of  a  pointed  Gothic 
arch.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  that  the 
"  pointed  ogive  "  or  pointed  Gothic  arch  gives 
less  resistance  than  any  other  front  hitherto  ex- 
perimented with.  Investigators  have  therefore 
been  compelled  to  determine  the  values  of  the 
unit  independently  for  every  kind  of  projectile 
in  use.  The  dependence  of  resistance  of  air 
upon  velocity  is  also  determined  experimentally. 
The  latest  and  most  trustworthy  researches, 
by  Prof.  Francis  Bashforth  of  the  Woolwich 
artillery  school,  show  that  for  velocities  rang- 
ing from  1,400  to  1,700  ft.  a  second  the  re- 
sistance varies  nearly  as  the  square  of  the  ve- 
locity ;  for  those  between  1,100  and  1,400  ft.  it 
varies  more  nearly  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity ; 
while  for  still  lower  velocities  the  ratio  is  in 
some  power  higher  than  the  cube.  Thus  a 
15-inch  shot,  moving  1,500  ft.  a  second,  en- 
counters a  resistance  amounting  to  nearly  a  ton 
and  a  half,  while  a  10-inch  shot  encounters 
about  three  fourths  of  a  ton  at  the  same  velocity. 
The  amount  of  resistance  offered  by  the  air, 
and  many  other  important  data  in  gunnery,  are 
ascertained  by  measuring  the  velocity  of  a  pro- 
jectile in  different  parts  of  its  path.  This  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  an  electro-veloci- 
meter.  The  projectile  is  made  to  break  a  series 
of  electric  circuits  at  several  points,  separated 
by  equal  intervals.  The  electric  circuit  passes 
through  a  machine,  which  contains  a  cylinder 
revolving  at  a  known  rate,  and  by  appropriate 
devices  the  ruptures  of  the  circuit  make  visible 
marks  upon  this  cylinder.  By  measuring  the 
distance  between  these  marks,  and  multiplying 
it  by  the  rate  of  revolution,  the  time  which 
elapsed  between  any  two  instants  of  rupture 
becomes  known. — Besides  retardation,  projec- 
tiles moving  in  air  are  subject  to  deviations  re- 
sulting from  their  rotary  motions  about  their 
axes.  Spherical  shot  are  always  made  of 
smaller  diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  gun  from 
which  they  are  fired;  the  difference  in  the  two 
diameters  being  termed  windage.  One  of  its 
consequences  is,  that  spherical  shot  are  subject 
to  a  series  of  rebounds  from  side  to  side  or 
from  top  to  bottom  of  the  bore,  which  is  called 
balloting,  and  which  causes  them  to  leave  the 
bore  with  a  rotary  motion.  Let  us  suppose, 
for  instance,  that  at  the  last  ballot  (rebound) 
the  shot  strikes  the  right  side  of  the  bore,  as 
in  fig.  1,  receiving  a  rotary  motion  in  the  di- 
rection indicated  by  the  arrows.  This  motion, 
combined  with  the  motion  of  translation,  tends 
to  augment  the  pressure  of  the  opposing  air  in 
the  direction  A  Z,  and  to  diminish  it  in  the  di- 


GUNNERY 


325 


ion  Ar;  and  the  result  is  the  deflection  of 
le  path  of  the  shot  to  the  right.     Hence  the 
feet  of  the  last  ballot  in  the  case  supposed  is, 
irst,  to  throw  the  shot  to  the  left,  while  the 
lequal  pressure  of  the  air  gradually  deflects  it 
3k  again  to  the  right.      If  the  final  ballot 


,"'  i 


Fio.  1. 

,rere  on  the  left  side,  the  deflections  would  be 
sversed ;  if  upon  the  top,  the  range  would  be 
lightly  increased ;  and  if  upon  the  bottom,  the 
ige  would  be  diminished.    These  eifects  were 
ivestigated,  and  the  results  demonstrated  ex- 
jrimentally,  by  Magnus.     They  are  much  ag- 
ivated  when,  by  reason  of  irregular  density, 
centre  of  gravity  of  a  ball  does  not  coincide 
rith  its  centre  of  figure.     They  are  greater  in 
lall  than  in  large  projectiles  for  three  reasons : 
L  The  actual  amount  of  windage  is  very  nearly 
same  for  all  calibres,  and  hence  is  relatively 
for  larger  calibres  than  for  small  ones; 
lerefore  the  balloting  and  consequent  rotation 
nil  be  less.     2.  Large  projectiles  can  be  made 
lore  nearly  isotropic  than  small  ones,  and  the 
Bntres  of  figure  and  of  gravity  are  more  nearly 
)incident.     3.  The  effects  of  resistance  of  air 
very  nearly  proportional  to  the  surface  ex- 
sed,  i.  e.,  to  the  square  of  the  calibre;  while 
le  inertia  of  the  shot  and  its  consequent  power 
>  resist  these  eifects  is  proportional  to  its  mass, 
£.,  to  the  cube  of  the  calibre.     No  projectiles 
ive  less  lateral  deviation  than   the  largest 
>und  shot,  whether  the  range  be  long  or  short; 
it  the  deviations  of  small  spherical  shot  are 
)toriously  great.     In  using  elongated  projec- 
les,  the  purpose  is  to  reduce  the  total  resis- 
ice  encountered  in  passing  through  the  air 
id  through  the  target.     This  is  attained  by 
lucing  the  area  of  resistance,  while  the  mass 
not  reduced.     Less  velocity  is  lost  by  them 
consequence  of  the  smaller  front  they  offer 
atmospheric  resistance,  as  compared  with 
)herical  shot  of  equal  weight.    After  reaching 
le  target  they  are  required,  in  order  to  pene- 
ite  it,  to  make  smaller  holes  than  spherical 
ojectiles  of  equal  weight,  and  hence,  with  an 
mal  striking  velocity,  will  penetrate  further. 
Co  secure  these  advantages,  the  elongated  shot 


FIG.  2. 


lust  always  move  with  its  axis  as  nearly  as 
ossible  tangent  to  its  path.  But  there  are 
3veral  causes  which  tend  to  make  it  rotate 
ibout  its  shortest  axis,  or  tumble.  To  prevent 
this,  and  to  give  stability  to  the  position  of  the 
long  axis,  a  rotary  motion  about  this  axis  is 


given  to  the  projectile.  This  motion  is  totally 
distinct  from  the  rotation  of  spherical  projec- 
tiles just  described,  and  the  resulting  effect  of 
resistance  of  air  is  altogether  peculiar.  By 
reference  to  fig.  2  it  will  be  seen  that  if  the 
axis  of  the  projectile  were  always  parallel  to 
its  initial  position,  the  curvature  of  the  path 
|  would  cause  the  resistance  of  air  to  act  more 
and  more  upon  the  lower  side,  while  the  air 
upon  the  upper  side  would  be  rarefied  in  the 
wake  of  the  projectile.  The  rotation  upon  the 
.condensed  air  beneath  causes  it  to  roll  to  the 
right  or  left,  according  to  the  original  direction 
of  rotation ;  to  which  deflection  the  name  drift 
is  given.  But  in  reality  the  axis  does  not  con- 
tinue parallel  to  its  initial  position.  It  describes 
very  slowly  a  conical  surface,  the  apex  of  which 
is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  shot ;  and  what 
is  most  singular,  the  direction  of  this  axial 
motion  in  pointed  projectiles  is  opposite  to  that 
of  flat-fronted  projectiles.  .The  conical  rota- 
tion (or  precession)  of  the  axis  causes  an  in- 
creased drift,  the  amount  of  which  is  even 
greater  than  the  rolling  drift  already  described. 
With  pointed  shot  this  deviation  is  to  the  right, 
but  with  flat-fronted  shot  to  the  left.  The 
point  of  the  former  also  droops,  turning  ob- 
liquely downward  and  to  the  right;  the  flat 
front  turns  obliquely  upward  and  to  the  left. 
During  the  flight  the  former  is  more  nearly 
tangent  to  the  path  than  the  latter.  For  uni- 
form projectiles,  the  drift  at  moderate  ranges 
is  tolerably  constant,  and  may  be  allowed  for 
in  sighting ;  but  for  round  shot  it  is  hopeless- 
ly irregular,  sometimes  to  the  right  and  some- 
times to  the  left.  At  long  ranges  the  drift  of 
the  elongated  shot  also  becomes  irregular,  and 
often  excessive,  amounting  sometimes  to  200 
or  300  yards  to  the  right  of  the  object  sighted. 
There  are  also  vertical  deviations,  causing  over- 
or  under-shooting.  In  many  cases  these  errors 
are  more  serious  than  lateral  drift ;  for  in- 
stance, against  a  battalion  of  troops,  the  hull 
of  a  vessel,  the  crest  of  a  parapet,  or  the  body 
of  a  deer,  where  the  object  is  more  extended 
laterally  than  vertically,  and  is  more  liable  to  be 
missed  by  vertical  than  by  lateral  error.  There 
is  another  kind  of  error  which  may  be  called 
longitudinal  deviation,  or  variation  in  range. 
A  series  of  projectiles  fired  under  conditions  as 
nearly  alike  as  practicable  will  differ  in  range ; 
partly  because  no  two  charges  of  powder  can 
be  made  to  give  exactly  the  same  initial  velo- 
city, and  partly  because  slight  differences  in 
the  forms  of  the  projectiles  occasion  marked 
differences  in  the  amount  of  vertical  drift. 
Hence  the  form  of  the  trajectory  is  of  great 
importance.  To  avoid  vertical  errors  as  much 
as  practicable,  it  is  desirable  to  give  a  high 
velocity  to  the  shot ;  since  the  swifter  its  mo- 
tion, the  less  curvature  will  gravitation  pro- 
duce in  its  path.  It  is  evident  that  a  low  or 
flat  trajectory  is  more  dangerous  to  an  enemy 
than  a  high  one;  but  the  former  requires  a 
higher  velocity  in  the  projectile  than  the  lat- 
ter. The  trajectories  of  spherical  shot  are  at 


326 


GUNNERY 


first  less  curved  than  those  of  elongated  shot ; 
bat  in  the  latter  part  of  the  flight,  at  consider- 
able ranges,  this  relation  is  reversed.  This  is 
because  the  initial  velocity  of  round  shot  is 
almost  always  greater,  and  the  terminal  velo- 
city less,  than  that  of  elongated  shot ;  the  cur- 
vature everywhere  being  very  nearly  propor- 
tional to  the  velocity.  The  so-called  "dan- 
gerous space  "  is  that  part  of  a  projectile's  path 
which  is  not  higher  above  the  earth  than  5  ft. 
10  in.,  or  the  stature  of  a  man.  The  danger- 
ous space  is  evidently  greater  at  short  than  at 
long  ranges,  since  it  depends  upon  the  angle 
which  the  descending  branch  of  the  trajectory 
makes  with  the  earth,  being  greater  the  less 
the  angle  of  descent ;  and  the  longer  the  range 
the  greater  is  the  angle  of  descent ;  for,  to  ob- 
tain the  longer  range,  the  muzzle  of  the  gun 
must  be  more  elevated,  and  the  descending 
branch,  owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  air,  al- 
ways makes  a  larger  angle  with  the  earth  than 
the  ascending  branch. — The  force  of  a  pro- 
jectile is  measured  by  the  product  of  its  mass 
into  the  square  of  its  velocity.  The  force, 
although  a  prime  factor  in  the  efficiency  of  a 
projectile,  is  not  the  only  one ;  for  cases  may 
arise  in  which  the  energy  is  too  great.  Thus 
in  firing  at  a  wooden  vessel,  a  shot  with  a  slow 
motion,  making  a  large  irregular  hole,  and 
hurling  splinters,  will  be  more  destructive  than 
a  swift  shot,  cutting  cleanly  through,  with  com- 
paratively little  injury.  In  curved  fire  from  mor- 
tars and  howitzers,  a  low  velocity  is  not  only 
necessary,  but  desirable.  Most  of  the  effects  of 
projectiles  are  accomplished  by  penetrating  the 
objects  against  which  they  are  directed,  and 
their  work  will  generally  be  most  effectively 
accomplished  when  their  energy  is  moderately 
in  excess  of  that  required  for  complete  pene- 
tration. In  this  connection  the  penetration  of 
iron  vessels  becomes  of  great  interest  and  im- 
portance.— The  most  systematic  experiments 
to  ascertain  the  effect  of  shot  on  iron  targets 
have  been  summarized  by  Capt.  W.  H.  Noble 
of  the  English  artillery,  who  deduces  the  fol- 
lowing rules:  1.  If  two  shot,  having  the  same 
diameter  and  form  of  head,  strike  with  equal 
energy,  the  penetration  will  be  the  same,  though 
one  may  be  a  light  round  shot,  striking  with  a 
high  velocity,  and  the  other  a  long  heavy  shot, 
with  a  low  velocity.  2.  A  plate  will  be  equal- 
ly penetrated  by  shot  of  different  diameters, 
provided  the  energy  on  striking  is  proportional 
to  the  diameter.  Thus,  a  12-inch  shot  must 
have  twice  as  much  energy  as  a  6-inch  shot, 
in  order  to  penetrate  the  same  plate.  3.  The 
resistance  of  plates  to  penetration  varies  as 
the^  square  of  the  thickness.  These  rules  are 
subject  to  certain  qualifications,  depending 
upon  the  shape  of  the  head  of  the  shot.  A 
hemispherical  head  is  disadvantageous,  because 
it  tends  to  bulge  laterally,  and  the  same  is  par- 
tially true  of  a  flat-fronted  shot.  The  best 
form  is  the  pointed  ogive,  which  passes  through 
without  materially  bulging,  and  makes  a  hole 
no  larger  than  it's  true  diameter.  The  flat- 


fronted  shot  usually  rips  out  a  piece,  called  a 
button,  in  the  shape  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
the  larger  base  being  detached  from  the  back 
of  the  plate.  This  is  carried  into  the  wooden 
backing,  giving  an  increased  resistance  as  com- 
pared with  the  ogive.  Spherical  projectiles 
are  liabte  to  flatten  against  the  target  and 
break  in  pieces.  It  is  apparent  that  when  flat- 
tening occurs  the  increased  diameter  involves 
the  necessity  of  making  a  larger  hole  in  order 
to  penetrate.  The  striking  velocity  may  be  so 
great  that  the  projectile  will  be  dashed  to 
pieces  by  its  impact,  and  its  energy  partially 
absorbed  in  its  own  destruction,  instead  of  that 
of  the  target.  This  is  especially  true  of  spher- 
ical shot,  fired  with  heavy  charges  at  short 
range  against  thick  plates.  In  comparing  the 
effects  of  spherical  and  elongated  projectiles 
against  iron  plates,  many  quantities  must  be 
considered,  some  favoring  one  form  and  some 
the  other;  but  the  final  result  is  strongly  in 
favor  of  the  elongated  form.  For  penetrating 
earth  and  battering  masonry,  similar  consider- 
ations are  applicable. — Concerning  the  effec- 
tive range  of  guns,  there  is  much  popular  mis- 
apprehension. To  the  scientific  gunner  the 
maximum  range  is  of  so  little  moment  that  its 
extent  for  common  infantry  bullets  or  for  the 
heaviest  seacoast  projectiles  is  unknown.  The 
longest  range  known  to  us  was  attained  by 
one  of  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth's  projectiles,  viz., 
about  11,100  yards,  not  quite  6£  miles.  The 
efficiency  is  greatest  near  the  muzzle,  and  di- 
minishes as  the  range  increases.  A  range  may 
be  considered  effective  at  which  there  is  a  rea- 
son able  probability  of  doing  inj  ury .  For  bullets 
the  effective  range  will  depend  upon  the  way 
in  which  the  enemy's  troops  are  deployed. 
Against  a  skirmish  line  it  cannot  much  exceed 
500  yards,  but  against  massed  troops  it  may  be 
as  great  as  1,500  yards.  With  field  projectiles 
an  enemy  may  be  harassed  at  2,500  yards,  or 
even  3,000.  In  the  bombardment  of  cities 
the  extreme  range  is  sometimes  resorted  to, 
on  the  assumption  that  a  projectile  falling  any- 
where within  the  line  of  fortification  may 
work  damage.  Effective  range  turns  upon 
the  higher  question  of  probabilities  of  fire.— 
Thus  far  we  have  discussed  projectiles  only, 
since  their  properties  constitute  the  basis  of 
gunnery.  Gunpowder  is  merely  the  agent  for 
giving  them  energy,  and  the  gun  for  giving 
them  direction.  When  we  examine  the  rela- 
tions among  the  three  elements,  the  problem 
is  highly  complicated.  We  have  two  forces : 
the  inertia  of  the  shot,  and  the  elastic  force 
of  the  gases  evolved  by  the  powder.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  metal  contained  in  a  given 
projectile  is  cast  into  a  solid  cylinder,  having 
the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  the  gun.  Its 
length  is  called  the  column  of  metal  of  the 
projectile,  and  constitutes  a  measure  of  its  in- 
ertia. Equal  velocities  will  be  imparted  to 
different  projectiles  when  the  mean  intensity 
of  the  forces  acting  upon  them  during  a  given 
time  is  proportional  to  their  respective  columns 


GUNNERY 

metal.  But  the  intensity  of  the  force  of 
gunpowder  is  highly  variable  at  different  por- 
tions of  the  path  along  the  bore,  being  very 
great  near  the  seat  of  the  shot,  and  rapidly  de- 
clining toward  the  muzzle  ;  hence  equal  velo- 
cities will  be  imparted  only  when,  at  different 
points  in  the  path  along  the  bore,  the  respec- 
tive intensities  are  proportional  to  the  columns 
of  metal.  A  complete  analysis  of  the  relations 
existing  between  the  force  of  gunpowder  and 
the  motion  of  the  shot  in  the  gun,  in  terms  of 
time,  space,  and  mass,  has  never  been  attempt- 
ed ;  it  is  a  very  formidable  problem,  and  its 
chief  difficulty  is  our  ignorance  of  the  rate  at 
which  the  gases  are  developed  and  the  quantity 
of  heat  evolved.  But  the  greater  the  resistance 
opposed  to  the  expansion  of  the  gases  of  gun- 
>wder,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  powder  burn 
develop  gases,  and  the  higher  will  be  their 
iperature.  Such  an  increased  resistance  is 
offered  by  an  increased  column  of  metal ;  and 
ice  the  conclusion  that  a  longer  column  of 
3tal  carries  with  it  the  power  of  developing 
we  force  from  a  given  quantity  of  powder 
a  shorter  one.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
>rter  column  of  metal  will  still  have  the 
jher  velocity,  though  the  longer  will  have 
greater  energy  (mass  multiplied  into  square 
velocity) ;  the  difference  in  energy  in  favor 
the  latter  being  due  to  its  greater  mass, 
rhich  more  than  compensates  for  its  lower 
velocity.  But  if  the  quantity  of  powder  is 
proportional  to  the  column  of  metal,  a  larger 
charge  will  develop  at  every  moment  more 
gas  than  a  smaller  charge,  and  give  a  more 
intense  force.  But  a  larger  charge  occupies 
more  space  in  the  bore,  and  robs  the  projectile 
of  a  part  of  its  travel,  and  hence  of  a  part  of 
the  time  in  which  it  can  receive  acceleration. 
Increasing  the  charge  will  increase  velocity  up 
to  a  certain  point,  but  beyond  that  point  will 
diminish  it.  In  small  cannon  the  maximum 
pressure  is  probably  reached  before  the  shot 
has  travelled  three  inches,  and  in  large  guns 
before  it  has  travelled  a  foot.  The  time  occu- 
ied  by  the  shot  in  traversing  the  bore  prob- 
ly  ranges  from  -^  to  TWG  of  a  second,  and 
spends  mainly  upon  the  length  of  the  bore  and 
10  quantity  of  powder.  A  bold  attempt  was 
le  by  Rodman  in  1858  to  measure  the  dis- 
ribution  of  the  forces  of  gunpowder,  by  pla- 
ig  pressure  gauges  along  the  bore  to  register 
pressure  at  different  points ;  and  to  mea- 
ire  the  time  of  passing  over  different  parts 
"  the  bore,  by  a  series  of  ruptures  of  electric 
suits.  (For  a  description  of  the  pressure 
and  the  electric  velocimeter,  see  GUN- 
HVDER,  and  VELOCIMETER.)  It  is  obvious 
lat  an  increase  either  in  the  column  of  metal 
in  the  charge  involves  an  increase  in  the 
itensity  of  the  pressure  of  the  gases,  and 
3nce  an  increased  strain  upon  the  gun.  As 
e  strength  of  a  gun  is  limited,  both  the  col- 
m  of  metal  and  the  charge  must  be  regula- 
1  accordingly.  It  is  the  maximum  pressure 
rliich  is  danerous.  In  large  guns  this  diffi- 


GUNPOWDER 


327 


culty  is  serious.  Not  only  is  a  higher  pressure 
produced  by  the  longer  column  of  metal,  but 
the  pressure  is  distributed  over  a  larger  area 
of  bore,  and  the  bursting  tendency  is  in  the 
ratio  of  the  product  of  these  two  quantities. 
The  greater  thickness  of  walls  gives  increased 
resistance,  but  this  increase  is  in  a  lower  ratio 
than  that  of  the  bursting  tendency,  and  hence 
large  guns  are  relatively  weaker  than  small 
ones.  To  compensate  for  this  difficulty,  con- 
structors have  resorted  to  metals  of  great- 
er strength,  and  especially  have  modified  the 
action  of  the  powder,  so  that  the  maximum 
pressures  have  been  reduced,  and  the  subse- 
quent lower  pressures  have  been  increased. 
Thus  the  total  effort  of  the  powder  upon  the 
shot  is  undiminished.  (See  GUNPOWDER.)  The 
column  of  metal  of  a  spherical  shot  is  two 
thirds  its  calibre  ;  that  of  an  elongated  shot  is 
usually  between  one  and  three  fourths  and 
twice  its  calibre.  The  latter  limit  has  been 
found  to  be  about  as  great  as  the  strength  of 
the  gun  will  permit  in  large  calibres.  It  is 
sometimes  exceeded  with  very  little  advantage 
in  the  smaller  and  intermediate  calibres.  The 
charge  of  powder  varies  from  one  fourth  to 
one  tenth  the  weight  of  the  projectile.  With 
round  shot  it  is  sometimes  as  high  as  one 
third ;  but  it  is  found  that  the  velocity  is  not 
much  increased  when  the  charge  is  greater 
than  one  fourth.  The  velocities  imparted  to 
round  shot  vary  from  1,400  to  1,750  ft.  per 
second,  and  those  of  elongated  shot  from  1,150 
to  1,500  ft. — For  a  good  introduction  to  the 
science  of  gunnery,  see  "  Ordnance  and  Gun- 
nery,"' by  Major  J.  G.  Benton,  TJ.  S.  A.,  and 
"Treatise  on  Artillery,"  by  Lt.  Col.  C.  H. 
Owen,  R.  A. 

GUMY,  a  coarse  cloth  made  in  India  of  the 
fibres  of  two  species  of  corchorus,  and  used  for 
the  sacks  in  which  saltpetre,  pepper,  and  other 
articles  are  packed  for  exportation.  The  bag- 
ging itself  is  also  exported.  The  export  of 
gunny  bags  and  cloth  from  Calcutta  is  chiefly 
to  the  United  States,  and  they  are  mainly  used 
at  the  south  for  cotton  bagging.  For  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1872,  the  imports  of  gunny 
cloth  and  bags  were  as  follows: 


PORTS. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

641,262 

$44,207 

Boston  and  Charlestown  

3,340,723 

81,148 

133,859 
4,996 

New  York                        

7,850,394 

810,829 

21  8  068 

11,240 

8,765 

277 

Other  ports  

2,244 

58 

Total 

12,137,603 

$505,566 

There  were  reexported  654,139  Ibs.  of  gunny 
cloth  and  bags,  valued  at  $34,929,  chiefly  to 
England  and  Turkey.  (See  JUTE.) 

GUNPOWDER,  a  compound  of  nitre,  charcoal, 
and  sulphur,  employed  as  an  explosive.  Its 
composition  is  described  in  the  article  EXPLO- 
SIVES. The  date  and  the  author  of  the  inven- 


328 


GUNPOWDER 


tion  are  buried  in  obscurity.  Sebastian  Miin- 
ster  (1544)  wrote  concerning  it  that  tradition 
and  literature  generally  ascribed  the  discovery 
of  "  the  dreadful  cannon  "  to  the  year  1380, 
and  that  the  majority  believed  the  inventor  to 
have  been  a  monk ;  adding  that  "  the  villain 
who  brought  into  the  world  so  mischievous  a 
thing  is  not  worthy  that  his  name  should  re- 
main in  the  memory  of  men."  This  allusion 
refers  to  "the  black  Barthel,"  or  Berthold 
Schwarz,  a  monk  of  the  Hartz  or  the  Rhine- 
land,  concerning  whom  there  is  much  dispute. 
The  following  condensed  extract  from  a  long 
chronological  statement,  compiled  by  Rziha, 
shows  the  controversy  about  Schwarz  to  be 
of  subordinate  importance : 


SO.  The  Chinese  (according  to  tradition)  had  already  ob- 

tained from  India  a  knowledge  of  gunpowder. 
215.  Julius  Africanus  (according  to  Meyer)  described  its 

preparation. 

663.  Callinicus  of  Hcliopolis  introduced  Greek  fire  to  the 
Byzantines.  This  was  probably  a  mixture  like  gun- 
powder, with  resin  and  petroleum  ;  it  was  certainly 
no  fluid,  and  according  to  one  author  was  used  to 
project  stone  balls  from  pipes.  It  may  nevertheless 
nave  been  a  rocket  mixture  or  a  bomb  filling. 
690.  The  Arabs  used  firearms  against  Mecca,  bringing  the 

.  knowledge  of  them  from  India. 
811.  The  emperor  Leo  employed  firearms. 
846.  Marcus  Gracchus,  a  Greek  author  (MS.  said  to  be  at 
Oxford),  described  a  mixture  of  1  Ib.  of  sulphur,  2  Ibs. 
of  charcoal,  and  6  Ibs.  of  saltpetre. 
830.  Leo  the  Philosopher  made  rockets  for  the  army  of  the 

eastern  empire. 
1078.  King  Solomon  of  Hungary  bombarded  Belgrade  with 

cannon. 
1086.  In  a  naval  battle  near  Toledo,  the  ships  of  Tunis  shot 

"  fiery  thunder." 

1098.  The  Greek  ships  used  artillery  against  the  Pisans. 
1282.  The  Tartars  employed  "  fire  pipes"  against  the  Chinese. 
1288.  Don  Jaime  threw  into  Valencia  fiery  balls  which  burst. 
1247.  Seville  was  bombarded  with  artillery. 

1249.  Damietta  was  defended  against  St.  Louis  with  bombs, 

which  on  this  and  other  occasions  were  much  dreaded 
by  the  crusaders. 

1250.  Death  at  Cologne  of  Albertns  Magnus,  a  preaching 

monk,  said  by  some  ancient  writers  to  have  invent- 
ed "  bombardam,  bombardulam  et  scolpum  ma- 
nunlem.'1'' 

1-294.  Death  of  Roger  Bacon,  in  whose  works  the  destructive 
qualities  of  saltpetre,  and  the  production  of  terrible 
thunder  and  lightning  from  its  compounds,  are  al- 
luded to  as  well  known. 

1803.  Reported  date  on  an  ancient  cannon,  now  in  the  arsenal 
of  Amberg,  Bavaria. 

1303.  The  Spaniards  had  artillery  before  Gibraltar. 

1811.  Henry  VII.  bombarded  Brescia  with  "thunder  guns." 

l:il-J.  The  Arabs  had  cannon  before  Baza. 

1  '.-''i.  Martos  was  attacked  with  artillery. 

1380.  Berthold  Schwarz  is  said  to  have  discovered  gunpowder 
Different  authors  say  1320,  1864,  and  18SO.  MSS.  in 
the  monasteries  perhaps  informed  him. 


From  this  time  on,  the  allusions  to  the  use  of 
gunpowder  become  far  more  numerous  and  au- 
thentic. Plainly,  its  military  use  was  revived 
in  Germany,  and  carried  thence  to  Italy.  There 
is  record  of  a  powder  mill  at  Augsburg  in  1340  • 
and  in  1344  (or  1357,  or  1366)  Petrarch  de- 
scribed the  terrible  effects  of  the  newly  invent- 
ed but  already  widely  used  powder  and  can- 
non. They  are  said  to  have  been  employed  at 
Alicante  in  1331,  at  Pui  Guillaume  in  1338,  at 
Salado  in  1340,  at  Algeciras  in  1342,  and  at 
Crecy  in  1346.  In  1378  the  English  had  400 
cannon  before  St.  Malo.  In  1397  mines  were 
exploded  with  powder  before  Herat  ;  and  the 
same  tactics  were  employed  on  a  larger  scale 


at  Belgrade  in  1441,  at  Milan  in  1523  (with 
poor  success),  and  by  the  Turks  in  1529  at  Vi- 
enna, and  in  1565  at  Malta.  England  import- 
ed gunpowder  from  Sweden  and  elsewhere 
until  1560,  when  its  domestic  manufacture  be- 
gan.— The  employment  of  gunpowder  for  blast- 
ing rocks  is  far  more  recent  than  its  military 
use.  The  following  dates  and  memoranda  will 
convey  an  epitome  of  its  history  in  this  re- 
spect: In  1613  Martin  Weigel,  chief  superin- 
tendent at  Freiberg,  proposed  boring  and  blast- 
ing in  the  mines.  Traditions  of  an  earlier  use 
in  Germany  have  probably  arisen  from  con- 
founding the  ancient  method  of  building  fires 
in  the  mines,  to  crack  the  hard  rocks,  with 
that  of  blasting.  It  was  about  14  years  before 
the  new  method  was  successfully  introduced 
in  Germany.  Reckoning  from  1613,  the  pro- 
cess was  carried  to  England  by  German  mi- 
ners after  57  years,  to  Sweden  after  111  years. 
For  72  years  the  bore  holes  were  closed  with 
solid  plugs,  instead  of  clay  tamping;  for  83 
years  the  practicability  and  advantage  of  small 
holes  were  unknown ;  and  for  more  than  a 
century  the  operation  of  blasting  was  consid- 
ered as  merely  auxiliary  to  the  work  of  the 
pick,  gad,  hammer,  and  chisel.  (See  BLAST- 
ING.)— The  manufacture  of  gunpowder  has 
been  greatly  improved  from  time  to  time  in 
mechanical  details,  affecting  both  the  safety 
of  the  process  and  the  quality  of  the  product. 
The  first  step  is  the  preparation  of  the  ingre- 
dients. The  original  impurities  in  a  solution 
obtained  by  leaching  saltpetre  earth  are  nitrates 
of  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia ;  chlorides  of  po- 
tassium, sodium,  calcium,  and  magnesium; 
sulphate  of  lime,  various  salts  of  ammonia,  and 
organic  substances  (humus)  partly  held  in  solu- 
tion by  carbonate  of  ammonia.  By  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  saltpetre  manufacture  these  im- 
purities are  reduced  to  two  principal  ones,  the 
chlorides  of  potassium  and  sodium,  which  are 
still  contained  in  the  commercial  saltpetre. 
These  salts,  which  if  allowed  to  remain  would 
attract  moisture  and  deteriorate  the  powder, 
are  removed  by  a  simple  process  of  refining, 
based  upon  their  relative  solubility  at  different 
temperatures.  The  proportions  that  will  be 
dissolved  by  100  parts  of  water  at  various  tem- 
peratures (centigrade)  are  as  follows : 


SALTS. 

0* 

12° 

16° 

18° 

45° 

97° 

100* 

400 
67-6 

:«»•'.! 

Saltpetre  
Chloride  of  potassium  
Chloride  of  sodium  

18-8 

29-3 
85-5 

34:5 
36-0 

85:6 

29-0 

74-6 

286 



It  will  be  seen  that  the  solubility  of  chloride 
of  sodium  does  not  greatly  increase  with  tem- 
perature. If  desirable,  the  chloride  of  potas- 
sium can  be  altogether  transformed  into  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  by  the  addition  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  which  by  a  double  decomposition  yields 
both  chloride  of  sodium  and  additional  salt- 
petre. A  crude  material,  containing  say  4.800 
Ibs.  of  saltpetre,  360  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  potas- 


GUNPOWDER 


329 


siura,  and  840  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  sodium,  would 
be  refined  by  simple  recrystallization,  some- 
what as  follows :  Half  the  mass  would  be  dis- 
solved in  1,200  Ibs.  of  water,  and  heated  to 
100°  C.,  while  the  remainder  was  added.  This 
would  dissolve  also  all  the  chloride  of  potas- 
sium, but  leave  a  large  part  (516  Ibs.)  of  the 
chloride  of  sodium.  From  the  solution  the  or- 
ganic impurities  are  removed  by  adding  a  little 
glue,  boiling,  and  skimming,  after  which  the 
temperature  is  allowed  to  fall  to  18°  0.,  at 
which  point  about  4,452  Ibs.  of  saltpetre  will 
be  precipitated,  6  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
and  no  chloride  of  potassium.  A  further  re- 
crystallization  will  reduce  still  more  the  amount 
of  impurity.  This  is  the  outline  of  the  process 
adopted.  It  is  modified  by  operations  intend- 
ed to  hinder  the  formation  of  large  crystals  of 
saltpetre,  which  always  contain  enclosed  por- 
tions of  the  mother  liquor.  The  final  product 
should  never  contain  more  than  T$¥  of  1  per 
cent,  of  chlorides.  In  fine  sporting  powders 
the  proportion  of  chlorides  is  usually  not  more 
than  yfoi  or  sometimes  T-oVo?  of  1  Per  cent- 
After  a  thorough  drying  by  heat,  the  saltpetre 
is  ground  to  the  finest  possible  state,  either 
with  millstones  or  in  mills  specially  construct- 
ed.— Charcoal  is  the  principal  form  of  carbon 
capable  of  giving  an  explosive  gunpowder. 
Graphite  or  anthracite,  when  substituted, 
yields  a  compound  which  burns  with  some 
vigor,  but  not  explosively.  The  causes  of  this 
peculiarity  are  not  known  with  .certainty. 
The  wood  selected  for  the  charcoal  is  usually 
the  young  shoots  of  alder  and  willow.  The 
bark  being  removed,  they  are  placed  -in  iron 
retorts  and  subjected  to  distillation,  expelling 
the  greater  part,  sometimes  nearly  the  whole, 
of  the  hydrocarbons.  Three  grades  of  char- 
coal are  recognized:  red  charcoal,  containing 
about  8  or  9  per  cent,  of  hydrocarbons,  and 
having  a  strong  red  tinge;  brown  charcoal, 
containing  4  to  5  per  cent,  of  hydrocarbons; 
and  black  charcoal,  containing  about  1  to  2 
per  cent.  The  red  charcoal  makes  the  strong- 
est powder,  and  is  generally  used  for  the  sport- 
ing variety ;  the  black,  and  sometimes  the 
brown,  is  preferred  for  heavy  ordnance.  The 
sulphur  selected  is  refined  brimstone ;  flowers 
of  sulphur  is  objectionable  because  it  contains 
sulphuric  acid.  The  mixture  is  commenced 
by  pulverizing  the  charcoal  and  sulphur  to- 
gether. They  are  rolled  in  barrels  with  small 
iron  balls  for  about  six  hours,  and  are  ultimate- 
ly reduced  to  extreme  minuteness.  The  salt- 
petre is  then  added,  and  another  rolling  with 
zinc  or  copper  balls  is  given.  The  mixture  is 
then  carried  to  the  mill,  where  it  is  moistened 
with  water,  and  placed  in  a  large  circular  pan 
or  trough,  in  which  iron  wheels,  weighing  sev- 
eral tons  and  having  broad  treads,  are  rolled 
by  machinery,  triturating  and  kneading  the 
powder  into  the  most  intimate  mechanical 
union.  The  milling  is  the  dangerous  part  of 
the  process,  and  a  year  seldom  passes  at  a  pow- 
der manufactory  without'  one  or  more  explo- 


der 


sions  at  the  wheel  mills,  though  the  precautions 
are  such  that  these  accidents  are  seldom  dis- 
astrous. The  powder  withdrawn  from  the 
wheel  trough  is  very  lumpy  and  irregular  ;  it 
is  therefore  reduced  by  a  breaker  to  a  fine 
meal,  in  which  condition  it  is  transferred  to  a 
very  powerful  press.  The  meal  is  stacked  into 
the  form  of  a  cheese,  2  or  2£  ft.  square  and  3 
or  4  ft.  high,  consisting  of  layers  of  powder  1 
to  2  in.  thick,  separated  by  plates  of  copper  or 
vulcanite.  The  press  reduces  the  bulk  of  the 
powder  nearly  one  half,  and  delivers  it  in 
sheets  five  eighths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  thick, 
which,  in  hardness,  lustre,  and  fracture,  re- 
semble thick  slates.  The  degree  of  pressure  to 
be  given  is  one  of  the  most  important  consid- 
erations in  the  process  of  manufacture ;  since 
the  ultimate  density  of  the  powder  is  deter- 
mined by  it,  and  this  in  turn  determines  the 
rate  of  combustion.  By  merely  varying  the 
degree  of  pressure,  the  powder  may  be  made 
either  violently  and  destructively  explosive,  or 
mild  and  easy  in  its  action.  The  press  cakes 
are  broken  into  grains  bypassing  them  through 
corning  rolls,  and  the  different  sizes  of  grains 
are  separated  by  passing  the  whole  over  a  suc- 
cession of  sieves,  with  varying  mesh.  The 
grains  thus  obtained  are  sharply  angular,  and 
require  rounding  and  smoothing  to  prevent 
their  thin  edges  from  being  ground  into  dust 
by  the  wear  of  transportation  and  handling. 
While  still  moist,  the  powder  (now  granulated) 
is  put  into  rolling-barrels,  slowly  revolved  from 
6  to  24  hours,  and  then  withdrawn  smooth, 
lustrous,  and  free  from  angularity.  Sometimes 
the  glazing  is  heightened  by  the  addition  of  a 
minute  quantity  of  graphite.  A  single  table- 
spoonful  of  this  substance  will  impart  its  pecu- 
liar lustre  to  half  a  ton  of  fine  powder.  Its 
presence  has  no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  ac- 
tion of  the  powder,  nor  upon  its  preservation. 
The  last  operation,  drying,  takes  place  in  a 
room  heated  by  steam  to  130°  or  140°  F. — 
Much  progress  has  been  made  in  the  past  20 
years  in  diminishing  the  destructive  effects  of 
gunpowder  upon  large  cannon.  A  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  relations  between  the  pressure 
of  a  body  of  gas  and  the  volume  it  occupies 
will  readily  indicate  that  the  elastic  force  of 
gases  generated  by  the  combustion  of  gunpow- 
der in  a  gun  must  be  many  times  greater  at  the 
breech  than  at  the  muzzle  ;  that  is,  greater  in 
the  earlier  than  in  the  latter  stages  of  discharge. 
It  is  the  maximum  pressure  which  involves 
danger  to  the  gun;  and  the  principle  upon 
which  this  progress  has  been  based  consists  in 
keeping  the  maximum  pressure  well  within 
the  limit  of  safety,  and  increasing  as  far  as  pos- 
sible all  pressures  below  that  limit.  To  ac- 
complish this,  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the 
following  properties :  The  combustion  of  a  car- 
tridge is  not  instantaneous,  but  progressive. 
It  must  first  be  ignited  throughout,  by  flame 
from  the  vent,  which  diffuses  itself  through  the 
interstices  between  grains,  enveloping  progres- 
sively the  whole.  Secondly,  each  grain  must 


330 


GUNPOWDER 


burn  progressively  from  its  surface  to  its  cen- 
tre. It  is  obvious  that  the  pressure  due  to  any 
particular  position  of  the  shot  will  depend  upon 
the  total  amount  of  gas  developed ;  and  hence, 
if  we  can  retard  the  combustion  in  the  initial 
and  accelerate  it  in  the  terminal  stages,  we 
can,  in  part  at  least,  accomplish  the  desired 
end.  At  all  events,  we  can  reduce  the  initial 
gas  development  in  two  ways :  first,  by  dimin- 
ishing the  amount  of  surface  presented  for  igni- 
tion by  a  given  weight  of  powder,  which  is 
done  simply  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  grain ; 
secondly,  by  decreasing  the  rate  at  which  com- 
bustion progresses  into  each  grain,  which  is 
done  by  increasing  the  density  of  the  grains, 
and  thus  closing  more  tightly  the  pores  through 
which  ignition  penetrates  their  mass.  The 
effect  of  diminishing  the  initial  pressure  with- 
out a  compensating  increase  of  the  terminal 
pressures  would  be  a  reduction  of  the  velocity 
of  the  shot.  This  may  be  restored  by  an  in- 
crease of  the  charge,  which  augments  again 
the  initial  pressure,  but  not  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  carry  it  beyond  the  limit  of  safety.  By 
increasing  the  size  and  density  of  the  grains 


American 
Lenticular.  Hexagonal. 


FIG.  1. — Forms  of  Gunpowder. 


while  increasing  the  charge,  artillerists  have 
retained  control  of  the  energy  of  gunpowder, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  actually  increased 
the  velocities  of  even  the  largest  projectiles. 
For  instance,  in  1864  the  American  15-inch 
gun,  when  using  50  Ibs.  of  powder  and  a  shot 
of  450  Ibs.,  showed  a  pressure  of  about  15,000 
Ibs.  and  an  initial  velocity  of  1,100  ft.  per  sec- 
ond. At  present  (1874)  the  same  gun  and 
shot,  with  120  Ibs.  of  powder,  give  about  22,- 
000  Ibs.  pressure  and  1,730  ft.  initial  velocity. 
Another  improvement  consists  in  giving  to  the 
grains  definite  geometrical  forms.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  modification  results  not  so  much 
from  the  form  itself,  as  from  the  fact  that  the 
action  of  the  individual  grains  is  much  more 
likely  to  be  uniform.  In  the  process  of  press- 
ing the  powder,  by  the  methods  which  have 
been  in  use  for  many  years,  great  irregularities 
of  density  always  occur ;  and  as  the  explosive 
property  is  more  influenced  by  the  density 
than  by  any  other  quality,  the  advantage  of 
securing  uniformity  in  this  respect  is  manifest. 
Geometrical  or  "pellet"  powder  requires  a 
mould  for  each  grain,  whereby  the  density  can 
be  regulated  with  far  more  precision  than  by 


the  old  method.  A  leading  variety  of  these 
geometrical  forms  is  the  prismatic,  in  which 
the  grains  are  hexagonal  prisms,  about  an  inch 
in  length  and  diameter.  Each  prism  is  perfo- 
rated with  seven  holes,  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  parallel  to  the  axis.  They  are  sym- 
metrically packed  into  a  cartridge,  of  very 
small  bulk  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  This 
form  of  powder  is  used  for  large  rifled  (Krupp) 
guns  in  the  Russian,  Prussian,  and  Austrian 
service,  and  its  performance  is  excellent.  Short 
cylinders  have  been  used  by  the  English,  but 
they  have  been  supplanted  recently  by  pebble 
powder.  Lenticular  powder  (grains  in  the  form 
of  lenses)  has  been  tried  in  this  country,  but 
with  indifferent  results.  The  central  portions, 
as  a  necessary  result  of  the  mode  of  pressing, 
were  much  less  dense  than  the  peripheral,  and 
therefore  burned  too  rapidly.  Grains  which 
had  been  ignited  in  the  gun  and  extinguished 
in  the  air,  and  collected  afterward,  showed 
that  the  middle  portions  only  had  been  con- 
sumed, leaving  a  ring  of  the  denser  portions. 
Ritter  prismatic  powder  is  simply  the  prismatic 
form  just  described,  but  without  the  perfora- 
tions ;  it  has  been  used  in  Belgium  only.  In 
recent  experiments  under  the  United  States 
government,  pellets  in  the  form  of  two  trunca- 
ted pyramids,  having  a  common  hexagonal  base, 
have  been  employed ;  and  the  results  appear 
to  be  better  than  those  obtained  by  any  other 
nation.  The  irregular,  large-grained  powder, 
used  in  heavy  guns,  receives  the  name  mam- 
moth powder  in  this  country,  and  pebble  pow- 
der in  England;  but  these  titles  indicate  no 
essential  difference. — Gunpowder  is  classified, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  meshes  through 
which  the  grain  is  sifted,  into  11  numbers,  from 
0  to  10,  the  latter  being  the  finest  rifle  powder, 
and  the  former  the  mammoth.  In  classifying 
it  according  to  quality,  each  maker  has  his 
own  method  and  nomenclature.  In  the  United 
States  government  service  it  is  classified  into : 
1,  musket ;  2,  mortar ;  3,  cannon ;  4,  mam- 
moth powder.  Two  sieves  are  used  for  sepa- 
rating the  grains  of  each  class,  all  the  grains  be- 
ing required  to  pass  through  the  larger,  and 
none  through  the  smaller.  The  sizes  of  the 
meshes  in  decimal  parts  of  an  inch  are : 


CLASS. 

Large.   . 

SmalL 

Musket  

•06" 

•08" 

Mortar  

•10 

•06 

Cannon 

•86 

•25 

Mammoth 

•90 

•60 

The  density  of  granular  powder  is  either  the 
absolute  density,  which  is  that  of  the  grains 
themselves,  or  the  gravimetric  density,  which 
is  that  of  a  quantity  of  grains  with  their  inter- 
stices. The  absolute  density  ranges  from  1'60 
to  1'80,  the  most  common  figure  being  about 
1*75.  The  gravimetric  density  is  generally 
about  equal  to  that  of  water. — Sporting  pow- 
der is  made  with  especial  care,  of  the  purest 
saltpetre  and  sulphur,  and  the  most  carefully 


GUNPOWDER 


331 


acted  charcoal.  The  article  is  usually  judged 
by  the  velocity  it  gives  to  a  projectile,  and  the 
amount  of  fouling.  In  both  respects  erroneous 
judgments  are  likely  to  be  formed,  since  the 
mode  of  charging  is  more  frequently  the  cause 
of  a  poor  performance  than  any  defect  in  the 
quality  of  the  powder.  If  a  given  brand  is 
found  to  give  a  lower  velocity  than  desired,  it 
is  better  to  increase  the  charge  than  to  resort 
to  a  more  violent  kind ;  for  the  smaller  charge 
is  more  apt  to  strain  and  erode  the  gun  than 
the  larger  charge  of  milder  powder.  There  is 
seldom  any  sufficient  reason  for  excessive  foul- 
ing, since  this  may  generally  be  corrected  by 
the  use  of  a  patch  and  lubricant. — The  force 
of  gunpowder  is  measured  by  an  instrument 
called  a  pressure  gauge.  Three  forms  have 
been  used,  two  of  which  were  invented  by  Gen. 
Rodman  of  the  United  States  ordnance  depart- 
ment. One  of  these  is  applied  to  the  exterior 


FIG.  2.— Rodman's  Internal  Gunpowder  Gauge, 
cylindrical  steel  box  ;  b  b,  cover  ;  c,  steel  piston  rod ; 
d,  steel  disk,  carrying  e,  the  indenting  knife ,  /,  disk  of 
soft  copper ;  g,  copper  cup  for  gas  check ;  h  h,  copper 
washer. — The  smaller  figures  show  the  parts  e,  d,  e,  and  /, 
enlarged,  and  viewed  from  the  side,  and  the  indentation 
made  on  the  copper  disk. 

of  a  gun,  and  communicates  with  the  chamber 
by  a  narrow  passage.  The  other  is  inserted  in 
the  cartridge  bag  at  the  base  of  the  charge, 
and  remains  in  the  gun  after  the  discharge. 
The  internal  gauge  consists  of  a  cylindrical  box 
of  steel,  with  a  cover  screwed  on.  Through 
the  axis  of  the  cover  is  a  cylindrical  hole,  in 
which  a  steel  rod  is  fitted.  Within  the  box  is 
a  thick  disk  of  steel,  having  a  knife  edge  pro- 
truding from  its  lower  face.  This  knife  has  a 
double  shear,  the  edges  of  the  two  shears  meet- 
ing at  the  centre  in  a  very  obtuse  angle.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  box  the  apex  of  the  knife 
rests  upon  a  disk  of  soft,  annealed  copper. 
The  inner  end  of  the  steel  rod  is  stepped  into 
the  steel  knife  disk,  and  its  outer  end  is  a  little 
below  the  top  of  the  cover.  A  copper  cup 
rests  upon  the  top  of  the  rod,  to  serve  as  a  gas 
check.  The  pressure  of  the  explosion  is  re- 
ceived by  the  rod,  which  communicates  it  to 


the  knife,  the  apex  of  which  sinks  into  the 
copper,  giving  a  cut,  the  length  of  which  serves 
as  the  measure  of  the  pressure!  The  working 
parts  of  the  external  gauge  are  quite  similar  to 
the  foregoing,  but  the  manner  of  housing  them 
is  different.  Another  form  of  gauge,  invented 
by  Capt.  Noble  of  the  English  artillery,  substi- 
tutes for  the  copper  disk  a  short  cylinder  of 
copper,  which  is  crushed  by  the  pressure,  the 
amount  of  crushing  being  employed  to  measure 
the  pressure.  This  gauge  is  screwed  into  the 
wall  of  the  gun  in  such  a  manner  that  the  end 
of  the  rod  receiving  the  pressure  is  very  near 
the  surface  of  the  bore.  Both  forms  of  gauge 
are  liable  to  grave  objections,  since  the  measure 
obtained  is  essentially  dynamical,  while  the 
quantity  to  be  measured  is  statical.  The  Eng- 
lish gauge  is  much  inferior  to  the  American, 
and  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  give  even  approx- 
imate indications  of  pressure  when  violent 
powder  is  used. — In  the  composition  of  blast- 
ing powder,  nitrate  of  soda  (Chili  saltpetre.)  has 
of  late  years  been  chiefly  used  in  the  United 
States,  instead  of  nitrate  of  potassa ;  the  latter 
being  subject  to  a  high  duty,  while  the  former 
is  duty-free.  So  far  as  explosive  properties 
are  concerned,  the  difference  between  the  two 
is  not  very  great ;  but  the  former  absorbs  mois- 
ture from  the  air  and  deliquesces,  while  the  lat- 
ter does  not,  unless  the  air  be  very  damp  and 
the  exposure  long  continued.  Hence  nitrate  of 
soda  rapidly  deteriorates,  a  matter  of  compara- 
tively little  importance  in  blasting  powder, 
which  is  commonly  used  soon  after  manufac- 
ture. (For  the  constitution  of  other  blasting 
powders,  see  EXPLOSIVES.)  But  as  war  mate- 
rial is  frequently  accumulated  and  stored,  or 
transported  long  distances  and  more  or  less 
exposed,  military  powder  must  be  made  with 
nitrate  of  potassa.  Powder  for  blasting  differs 
essentially  from  military  or  sporting  powder  in 
the  formation- of  CO  instead  of  C02,  yielding 
the  same  volume  of  gaseous  product  for  the 
same  temperature,  but  less  heat;  hence  a  low- 
er temperature  of  products,  and  consequently  a 
lower  immediate  explosive  energy.  The  com- 
bustion is  also  slower.  The  theory  of  its  use 
has  been  to  loosen  the  surrounding  rocks  to  as 
great  a  distance  as  possible  from  the  bore  hole, 
and  to  waste  as  little  force  as  possible  in  the 
hurling  of  fragments  or  the  production  of  very 
small  pieces,  or  dust.  Usually  a  good  deal  of 
work  with  the  pick  and  bar,  and  of  subsequent 
breaking  or  blasting  of  large  fragments,  has  ac- 
companied the  main  blasting  operations.  The 
introduction  of  nitro-glycerine  compounds  has 
led  to  a  change  of  practice ;  and  many  engi- 
neers now  find  a  gain  in  the  more  complete 
shattering  of  the  rocks  by  quick  explosion, 
which  permits  an  easier  handling  and  a  more 
rapid  progress,  besides,  what  is  economically 
most  important,  the  substitution  of  single-hand 
drills  and  small  holes.-  Even  rifle  powder  is 
now  used  in  this  way,  it  is  said,  with  good  re- 
sults. The  most  judicious  authorities  appear 
to  agree,  however,  that  the  nature  of  the  rock 


332 


GUNPOWDER 


to  be  removed  is  an  important  element  in  the 
pi-.ihlrm,  and  that  the  system  which  answers 
Wi-ll  in  one  mine  is  not  necessarily  the  best  in 
all.  For  quarries  in  which  stones  of  certain 
shape  and  size  are  to  be  obtained,  and  for  such 
coal  mines  as  employ  blasting,  of  course  the 
shattering  effects  of  charges  are  specially  unde- 
sirabK' ;  and  either  small  charges  or  slow-burn- 
ing explosives  must  be  preferred.  The  amount 
of  ordinary  blasting  powder  required  to  remove 
a  cubic  yard  of  rock  in  mining  is  exceedingly 
variable,  depending  upon  the  nature,  structure, 
and  tension  of  the  rock,  as  well  as  the  quality  of 
the  powder  and  the  skill  of  the  workman.  This 
variety  is  illustrated  by  the  following  data, 
chiefly  selected  from  the  records  of  European 
experiments,  as  to  the  amount  of  powder  re- 
quired to  remove  one  cubic  yard  of  material : 


SUBSTANCES. 

LoaOttM. 

Powder, 
Ibi. 

Rock  salt 

Wieliczka  Austria 

0'05 

Dieuze   France  ... 

0-59 

Coal                     

Waldenburg,  Prussia  .  . 

0-02 

Copper  schist  

Silesia,  Prussia.  
ilurtz,       "      

0-17 
0-26 

Gypsum  

12-43 

3'3t 

Marble       

Fr  nee  

8-61 

1-62 

4  -52 

1-92 

2'40 

3-28 

(rothliegendes)  . 

Ha  tz,  Prussia  

4-17 

4  -SO 

Galenite 



6-49 
8-93 
1-31 

Clay  slate 

ti 

8'51 

Quartz 

H 

1-78 

(Juartzite 

Ireland 

1-85 

Norway  . 

2-34 

Gneiss 

France  

12-30 
1-37 

4-85 

"     (firm)  

France 

8'88 

Granite 

Tunnel  near  New  York. 

14-97 
0'65 

An  inspection  of  this  table  shows  how  greatly 
experience  varies.  It  also  appears  that  hard- 
ness is  not  the  only  quality  involved  in  the 
resistance  offered  by  rocks.  Thus  gypsum, 
which  is  one  of  the  softest  rocks,  resists  blasting 
by  virtue  of  its  lack  of  firmness  and  its  elasti- 
city. Native  copper  can  scarcely  be  blasted  at 
all,  on  account  of  its  tenacity.  (See  BLASTING.) 
— The  amount  of  capital  and  annual  product 
of  the  gunpowder  manufacture  in  the  United 
States  is  reported  by  the  ninth  census  (1870) 
as  follows : 


STATES. 

Capital. 

Value  of  product. 

California  

$573000 

$526  427 

Connecticut 

6861,000 

751  000 

Delaware 

1  400000 

7''7  SOO 

Massachusetts.  . 

r»/  r.'tD 

109  000 

New  York  .  .  . 

270  000 

547  519 

Ohio 

150  000 

275  000 

Pennsylvania 

7;,-'  » 

873  033 

Tennessee  .... 

20000 

60  000 

Wisconsin  

20000 

82000 

Total.  . 

$4020400 

$3  991  779 

GUN-SHOT  WOUNDS 

GUNS  (Hung.  K6szeg\  a  town  of  Hungary,  in 
the  county  of  Vas,  on  a  river  of  its  name,  57 
m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Presburg;  pop.  in  1870,  6,915. 
It  contains  a  palace  of  Prince  Esterha/y,  a 
Benedictine  monastery,  and  several  churches 
and  educational  establishments.  Wool  is  large- 
ly manufactured,  and  there  is  considerable  trade 
in  wine  and  fruits,  especially  cherries.  In  1532 
it  was  besieged  by  Sultan  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent, with  60,000  men,  who  made  thirteen 
assaults  on  the  fortifications,  all  of  which  were 
repulsed  by  a  small  Hungarian  garrison,  com- 
manded by  Nicholas  Jurisich. 

GUN-SHOT  WOUNDS,  injuries  caused  by  the 
discharge  or  bursting  of  firearms.  They  are 
of  two  classes,  according  as  the  explosion  of 
the  powder  does  or  does  not  carry  solid  pro- 
jectiles. Slight  wounds  from  powder  alone 
are  properly  burns ;  but  if  the  quantity  of 
powder  be  large  or  in  a  confined  space,  serious 
contusions  and  lacerations  may  ensue.  Not 
only  the  expansion  of  the  liberated  gases,  but 
the  unburned  portions  of  powder,  and  the  con- 
tact of  surrounding  bodies  put  in  motion  by 
the  explosion,  are  to  be  considered  in  these 
complicated  wounds,  though  their  treatment  is 
ordinarily  the  same  as  for  burns,  lacerations, 
and  contusions  from  other  causes.  These 
wounds  are  purely  mechanical,  and  are  more 
dangerous  in  proportion  to  the  contiguity  to 
vital  organs ;  an  explosion  from  a  pistol  intro- 
duced into  the  mouth  or  near  the  thoracic  or 
abdominal  cavity  might  prove  fatal,  while  the 
same  on  the  back  or  limbs  would  be  trifling. 
A  wound  from  a  musket  ball  in  a  fleshy  part 
presents  an  opening  of  entrance  smaller  than 
the  ball  in  most  cases,  and  with  livid  and  in- 
verted edges,  and  the  opening  of  exit,  if  there 
be  such,  larger,  more  ragged,  and  with  everted 
edges ;  if  the  ball  was  fired  very  near,  the  en- 
trance is  larger  than  the  exit.  These  facts 
often  enable  an  expert  to  tell  the  direction  and 
the  distance  from  which  a  wound  was  received. 
The  diminished  velocity  of  the  ball,  its  more 
rapid  rotation  on  its  axis,  and  its  consequent 
more  lacerating  progress,  explain  the  larger 
and  more  irregular  opening  of  its  exit.  A 
slight  obstacle  is  sufficient  to  divert  a  ball 
from  its  original  direction,  causing  singular  ec- 
centricities in  its  course;  a  trifling  obliquity 
of  surface,  or  difference  of  density  in  the  parts 
struck,  may  produce  the  most  circuitous  pas- 
sage. A  ball  may  enter  on  one  side  of  the 
head,  neck,  chest,  abdomen,  or  limb,  and  pass 
out  on  the  other,  having  apparently  passed  di- 
rectly through,  whereas  it  has  really  passed 
entirely  round.  Spent  balls  cause  injuries  of 
great  violence  and  with  little  apparent  exter- 
nal wound.  These  cases  were  formerly  attrib- 
uted to  the  wind  of  the  ball,  from  compression 
or  displacement  of  air  in  its  course ;  but  it  is 
now  known  that  a  ball  after  a  certain  period 
of  its  course  acquires  a  rotary  motion  on  its 
axis,  the  more  rapid  as  its  progress  is  nearly 
ended.  If  a  ball  with  such  a  motion  strike  a 
part  of  the  body,  it  does  not  pierce  or  carry  it 


GUN-SHOT  WOUNDS 


GUNTER 


333 


ray,  but  simply  rolls  over  it  like  a  wheel, 
crushing  the  unyielding  and  resisting  tissues, 
without  necessarily  lacerating  the  skin ;  con- 
tusing the  viscera,  for  instance,  without  open- 
ing the  abdominal  cavity.  A  ball  in  its  course 
may  meet  and  force  into  the  body  pieces  of 
clothing,  bone,  or  other  foreign  bodies,  more 
mischievous  than  the  original  projectile.  The 
pain  of  a  gun-shot  wound  is  dull  and  heavy, 
though  in  the  excitement  of  battle  it  would  be 
less  noticed  than  a  sabre  or  bayonet  wound. 
The  bleeding  is  generally  less  externally  than 
would  be  supposed,  unless  a  large  artery  be 
severed.  The  constitutional  disturbance  is 
great  and  peculiar.  Paleness  and  coldness  of 
surface,  trembling  and  weakness  of  limbs,  faint- 
ness,  alarm,  and  confusion  of  mind,  are  more 
marked  than  in  other  kinds  of  wounds  of 
equal  severity.  In  common  cases,  inflammation 
comes  on  in  the  course  of  24  hours,  with  swell- 
ing and  stiffness,  and  pain ;  pus  forms  on  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
next  five  days  more  or  less  of  the  parts  torn 
by  the  ball  slough  away;  this  over,  granula- 
tions form,  the  wound  contracts,  and  heals  in 
six  or  eight  weeks,  the  lower  opening  closing 
first.  In  healthy  persons  the  constitutional 
disturbance  is  neither  great  nor  of  long  dura- 
tion. In  unhealthy  constitutions  inflammation 
runs  high,  the  suppuration  is  profuse  and  ob- 
stinate, and  the  patient  recovers  with  a  dis- 
abled limb  or  an  enfeebled  body.  If  the  ball 
or  a  foreign  body  carried  with  it  enters  a  sen- 
sitive or  vital  part,  there  will  be  no  safety  until 
it  comes  away;  but  if  it  enters  parts  without 
much  sensibility  and  presses  upon  no  nerve,  it 
may  remain  for  years  without  inconvenience. 
Mortification  of  a  limb  after  a  gun-shot  wound 
may  arise  from  the  severity  of  the  wound,  the 
excess  of  inflammation,  or  division  of  the  large 
blood  vessels.  Another  dangerous  complication 
of  these  wounds  is  secondary  haemorrhage 
from  excess  of  arterial  action,  separation  of 
sloughs  from  arteries,  ulceration  of  their  coats, 
or  general  inflammatory  exudation ;  this  is 
most  likely  to  occur  in  persons  of  sanguine 
temperament,  when  exposed  to  the  depressing 
influences  of  hospital  life.  The  prognosis  in 
these  wounds  should  be  given  with  much  re- 
serve, as  it  is  impossible  in  most  cases  to  pre- 
dict the  exact  result.  If  the  thoracic  and  ab- 
dominal cavities  or  the  joints  are  penetrated, 
or  any  important  organ  is  wounded,  with  in- 
jury of  large  vessels  or  nerves,  or  comminuted 
fracture  of  bones,  the  danger  of  a  fatal  termina- 
tion is  great.  But,  apart  from  the  battle  field, 
there  are  instances  of  survival  after  great  in- 
juries of  vital  organs.  Perhaps  the  most  no- 
table case  is  that  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  recorded 
by  Dr.  Beaumont.  (See  BEAUMONT,  WILLIAM.) 
Among  other  cases  are  those  of  William  Poole, 
a  New  York  rough,  who  lived  for  some  time 
with  a  ball  lodged  in  the  substance  of  the  heart, 
and  of  Virginia  Stewart,  a  woman  of  the  town 
in  the  same  city,  who  lingered  for  several  days 
after  a  pistol  bullet  had  passed  through  her 


brain.  The  wounds  made  by  conical  rifle  balls 
are  attended  with  much  laceration  of  soft  parts 
and  _  splintering  of  the  bones. — The  treatment 
of  simple  gun-shot  wounds  does  not  materially 
differ  from  that  of  lacerations  and  deep  punc- 
tures. Cleansing  of  the  openings,  the  arrest 
of  haemorrhage,  stimulants  and  opiates,  anti- 
phlogistic and  soothing  applications,  free  exit 
of  pus,  and  rest  of  the  part,  are  the  princi- 
pal points  to  be  attended  to;  if  there  is  but 
one  opening,  search  should  be  made,  by  dilata- 
tion if  necessary,  for  the  ball  or  other  foreign 
body,  which  should  be  extracted  if  it  is  likely 
to  prove  inconvenient  or  dangerous;  seconda- 
ry haemorrhage  will  require  compression,  cold, 
caustic,  or  the  ligature,  according  to  circum- 
stances^ In  cases  of  severe  laceration  with 
splintering  of  bones,  the  question  of  primary 
or  secondary  amputation  becomes  one  of  the 
most  difficult  the  surgeon  has  to  decide. — In  the 
"  Medical  and  Surgical  History  of  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion,"  published  by  the  United  States 
government  in  1870,  will  be  found  the  best 
collection  of  cases  and  illustrations  of  gun-shot 
wounds  in  any  language. 

GUNTER,  Ednmnd,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  Hertfordshire  about  1581,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  10, 1626.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  at  Christchurch  college, 
Oxford,  where  he  gave  his  attention  principally 
to  mathematics,  and  in  1606  invented  the  sec- 
tor. Subsequently  he  took  orders;  but  his 
tastes  being  altogether  mathematical,  he  pro- 
cured in  1619  the  professorship  of  astronomy 
in  Gresham  college,  which  he  filled  until  his 
death.  His  works,  consisting  of  the  Canon  Tri- 
angulorum,  "  The  Sector  and  Cross  Staff,"  &c., 
have  been  several  times  printed  in  a  collec- 
tive form,  the  best  edition  being  that  of  1673 
(4to,  London).  His  inventive  faculty  was  very 
usefully  exercised  in  the  production  of  the 
chain,  the  logarithmic  line,  the  quadrant, 
and  the  scale  bearing  his  name,  of  which  de- 
scriptions are  subjoined. — GUNTEE'S  CHAIN,  the 
chain  employed  in  land  surveying,  is  66  feet  or 
4  rods  in  length,  and  is  divided  into  100  links, 
which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  one, 
two,  or  three  rings.  The  length  of  each  link, 
together  with  half  the  length  of  the  rings  con- 
necting it  with  the  adjoining  links,  is  7'92  inch- 
es; every  10th  link  is  marked  by  a  tally  of 
brass,  for  convenience  in  measuring,  and  part 
of  the  first  link  at  each  end  is  formed  into  a 
large  ring  for  the  purpose  of  holding  it  with 
the  hand.  Ten  square  chains,  or  100,000 
square  links,  make  one  acre. — GUNTEE'S  LINE, 
a  logarithmic  line,  sometimes  termed  the  line 
of  lines  or  line  of  numbers,  and  usually  gradu- 
ated upon  scales,  sectors,  &c.,  consists  simply 
of  logarithms  graduated  upon  a  ruler,  thus 
serving  to  solve  problems  instrumentally,  as 
logarithms  do  arithmetically.  It  is  generally 
divided  into  100  parts,  every  10th  division 
being  numbered  from  1  to  10.  By  means  of 
this  line  the  following  problems  can  be  solved  : 
1.  To  find  the  product  of  two  numbers:  the 


334 


GUNTHER 


space  between  division  1  and  the  multiplier  is 
equal  to  the  space  between  the  multiplicand 
and  the  product,  the  distance  in  each  case  being 
laid  off  in  the  same  direction.  2.  To  divide 
one  number  by  another :  the  extent  from  the 
divisor  to  unity  equals  that  from  the  dividend 
to  the  quotient.  3.  To  find  a  fourth  propor- 
tional to  three  given  numbers:  the  space  be- 
tween the  first  two  numbers  equals  the  dis- 
tance from  the  third  number  to  the  required 
fourth  proportional.  4.  To  find  a  mean  propor- 
tional between  any  two  given  numbers :  one 
half  the  distance  between  the  lesser  number  in 
the  left-hand  part  of  the  line,  and  the  greater 
number  in  the  right-hand  part,  will  extend  to 
the  mean  proportional  sought,  if  applied  for- 
ward from  the  lesser  number,  or  backward 
from  the  greater.  5.  To  extract  the  square  root 
of  a  number :  one  half  of  the  distance  between 
unity  and  the  given  number,  if  laid  off  from 
unity,  will  give  the  point  representing  the 
desired  root.  Similarly,  the  cube  root  or  that 
of  any  higher  power  can  be  found,  by  dividing 
the  distance  between  unity  and  the  given  num- 
ber by  the  index  of  the  root,  the  quotient  giv- 
ing the  distance  between  unity  and  the  point 
representing  the  root  required.  —  GTJNTER'S 
QUADRANT  is  usually  made  of  wood  or  brass, 
and  contains  a  kind  of  stereographic  projec- 
tion on  the  plane  of  the  equinoctial,  the  eye 
being  supposed  in  one  of  the  poles.  The  trop- 
ic, ecliptic,  and  horizon  form  arcs  of  circles, 
but  the  hoar  circles  are  curves,  delineated  by 
means  of  several  altitudes  of  the  sun  for  some 
particular  latitude  every  year.  It  can  be  used 
for  the  determination  of  time,  the  sun's  azimuth, 
&c.,  and  also  for  taking  altitudes  of  any  ob- 
ject in  degrees. — GUNTER'S  SCALE,  generally 
termed  by  seamen  the  Gunter,  is  a  large  plain 
scale,  generally  2  ft.  long  by  about  1|  in.  broad, 
and  used  in  solving  problems  in  navigation, 
trigonometry,  &c.  On  one  side  of  the  scale 
are  natural  lines,  and  on  the  other  the  artificial 
or  logarithmic  ones ;  the  former  side  contains 
a  scale  of  inches  and  tenths,  two  plain  diago- 
nal scales,  and  various  lines  relating  to  trigo- 
nometry as  performed  by  natural  numbers. 

<;i  VI IIKK,  Anton,  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Lindenau,  Bohemia,  about  1785,  died  in  Vi- 
enna, Feb.  24,  1863.  Ho  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague,  and,  after  passing  several 
years  as  tutor,  devoted  himself  to  theology  at 
the  college  of  Raab,  and  in  1820  was  ordained 
priest.  He  passed  two  years  at  a  novitiate  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  then  took  up  his  residence  at 
Vienna,  iwhere  he  was  vice  director  in  the 
university  and  imperial  censor.  He  became 
eminent  as  a  writer  on  philosophical  subjects. 
But  while  he  combated  the  views  of  Hegel 
and  Herbart,  and  endeavored  to  reconcile  the 
doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church  with  the 
teachings  of  modern  philosophy,  he  blamed 
the  fathers  of  the  church  for  having  employed 
pagan  conceptions  in  seeking  to  impress  the 
truths  of  religion.  He  incurred  the  disappro- 
bation of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  summoned  to 


GURNARD 

Rome,  but  was  prevented  by  ill  health  from 
attending  in  person.  All  his  works  were  placed 
upon  the  Index  Expurgatorius  in  1857.  They 
include  Vorschule  zur  speculatwen  Theologie 
(2  vols.,  1828);  Peregrins  Gastmahl  (1830); 
Thomas  a  Scrupulis  (1835) ;  Die  Jwte-Miliew 
in  der  deutschen  Philosophic  gegenwdrtiger 
Zeit  (1838)  ;  Der  letzte  Symbolilcer  (1844) ; 
and  Grundriss  der  Metaphysilc  (1848). 

GURLEY,  Ralph  Randolph,  an  American  cler- 
gyman and  philanthropist,  born  at  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  May  26,  1797,  died  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  July  30,  1872.  He  graduated  at  Yale  col- 
lege in  1818,  and  soon  after  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Washington.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Baltimore,  but 
was  never  ordained.  In  1822  he  became  agent 
of  the  American  colonization  society,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  retained  until  his  death.  He 
visited  Africa  in  behalf  of  colonization  three 
times,  under  appointment  of  the  society  or  of 
the  United  States  government,  and  aided  in 
the  organization  of  the  Liberian  government. 
He  also  visited  England  for  the  purpose  of  se- 
curing English  aid  for  African  colonization. 
During  the  first  ten  years  of  his  agency  the 
annual  income  of  the  colonization  society  in- 
creased from  $778  to  $40,000.  He  delivered 
speeches  in  its  behalf  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, edited  the  "African  Repository,"  and  be- 
sides many  reports  wrote  "  The  Life  of  J.  Ash- 
mun  "  (Washington,  1835),  "  Mission  to  Eng- 
land for  the  American  Colonization  Society  " 
(1841),  and  "Life  and  Eloquence  of  Rev.  S. 
Lamed  "  (New  York,  1844). 

GURNARD,  an  acanthopterous  fish  belonging  to 
the  family  of  sclerogenida  or  "  mailed  cheeks," 
characterized  by  a  prolongation  of  the  subor- 
bital  bones  forward  across  the  cheek,  and  im- 
movably articulated  behind  with  the  pre-oper- 
culum ;  the  muzzle  is  also  formed  by  a  firm 
union  of  the  frontal  and  other  bones ;  and  all 
these  parts  present  a  hard  granulated  appear- 
ance, often  armed  with  spines.  The  gurnards 
belong  to  the  genera  trigla  (Linn.)  and  priono- 
tus  (Cuv.),  the  latter  being  peculiar  to  Amer- 
ica. In  the  genus  trigla,  in  addition  to  the 
family  characters,  the  body  is  scaly  ;  there  are 
two  dorsal  fins,  the  first  spinous,  the  second 
flexible ;  the  pectorals  are  moderate,  and  be- 
neath them  and  at  the  base  are  three  detached 
articulated  rays  on  each  side;  branchiostegal 
rays  seven ;  head  of  a  parallelopiped  form  ; 
teeth  small  and  villiform  on  the  jaws  and 
pharyngeals ;  lateral  line  straight  to  the  caudal, 
where  it  forks,  variously  armed  with  spiny 
scales.  The  gray  gurnard  or  grunter  (T.  gur- 
nardm,  Linn.)  grows  to  a  length  of  15  to  20 
in.,  and  rarely  to  2  ft. ;  the  body  is  more  elon- 
gated and  the  snout  longer  than  in  most  other 
species;  the  descending  line  of  the  profile  is 
nearly  straight;  the  snout  is  shovel -shaped, 
slightly  emarginated,  having  on  the  top  i-itrht 
hard  bony  points;  the  head  and  shoulders 
granulated,  and  armed  with  spines;  lateral 
line  sharply  serrated,  and  the  dorsal  scales 


GURNARD 


GURNET 


335 


igh.     The  color  above  is  gray  clouded  with 
>rown,  more  or  less  spotted  with  black  and 
yellowish  white;    below  silvery.      It  is  com- 
lon  on  the  English  coasts,  and  is  found  from 
Torway  to  the  Mediterranean ;  it  keeps  near 
bottom,  and  feeds  on  crustaceans  and  mol- 
Sj  spawning  in  May  and  June ;  when  taken 


Gray  Gurnard  (Trigla  gurnardus). 

in  the  water  it  makes  a  kind  of  grunting 
md  (whence  one  of  its   common  names), 
rhich  cannot  proceed  from  the  air  bladder,  as 
iis  has  no  duct   communicating  externally, 
rotwithstanding  its  hideous   appearance,  its 
is   white,  firm,    and  wholesome;    it  is 
ight  in  deep  water,  biting  at  almost  every- 
ling,  even  a  red  rag.     The  habits  of  this  fish 
easily  studied  in  the  aquarium.     They  may 
seen  with  their  pectorals  close  to  the  sides, 
"  with  no  motion  of  the  tail,  crawling  along 
bottom  by  means  of  the  free  pectoral  rays, 
rhich  are  placed  successively  on  the  ground 
so  many  feet ;  their  light  weight,  rendered 
by  their   capacious   air  bladder,  is  thus 
>ved   with   considerable    rapidity  forward, 
3kward,   or  sideways    in   search  of   food, 
lese  free  rays   are  moved   by  a  muscular 
>paratus  independent  of  that  supplying  the 
imon  fin  ;  to  these  rays  are  also  distributed 
nervous  filaments,  arising  from  a  marked 
mansion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord, 
licating  that  these  organs  are  endowed  with 
delicate  sense  of  touch.     It  stirs  up  the  mud 
sand  with  its  shovel-shaped  nose,  and  is 
ibled  to  detect  its  prey  in  the  turbid  water 
means  of  these  pectoral  feelers.     The  large 


Web-fingered  Gurnard  (Prionotus  palmipes). 

res,  on  the  top  of  the  head  so  as  to  catch  all 
rays  of  light,  indicate  an  animal  organized 
>r  living  in  comparative  darkness. — The  Amer- 
ican gurnards  of  the  genus  prionotus  are  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  the  preceding  genus 
382  VOL.  vin. — 22 


by  the  larger  pectoral  fins,  and  by  the  villiform 
teeth  on  the  palate  bones.  The  banded  gurnard 
(P.  lineatus,  Mitch.)  grows  to  a  length  of  12 
to  18  in.  ;  it  is  reddish  brown  above,  covered 
with  numerous  black  dots,  and  the  abdomen 
white;  the  color  of  the  dead  fish  above  the 
lateral  line  is  slaty,  and  beneath  there  are  sev- 
eral brownish  bands,  whence  its  name ;  the 
head  is  covered  with  bony  plates,  rough,  and 
armed  with  spines ;  the  upper  jaw  the  longer. 
It  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  and 
the  middle  states.  It  is  called  also  grunter  and 
sea  robin.  The  web-fingered  gurnard  (P.  pal- 
mipes, Storer),  a  much  rarer  species,  grows  to 
the  length  of  about  18  in.,  and  may  be  known 
by  the  dilated  ends  of  the  pectoral  processes ; 
the  color  is  reddish  brown  above,  with  irregu- 
lar darker  shadings,  and  nearly  white  below. 
When  alarmed,  it  buries  itself  in  the  sand  by  a 
rapid  lateral  movement  of  the  body,  leaving 
only  the  eyes  and  top  of  the  head  exposed ; 
the  flesh  is  occasionally  eaten  ;  it  feeds  princi- 
pally on  crustaceans.  It  is  found  from  Massa- 
chusetts as  far  south  as  the  Carolinas,  and  per- 
haps further.  Other  species  are  described. 

GURNET,  Sir  Goldworthy,  an  English  inventor, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1793.  He  was  educated 
for  a  physician,  but  gave  his  attention  to  chem- 
istry, and  in  1822  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
at  the  Surrey  institution  on  chemical  science, 
which  were  published  in  1823.  He  invented 
the  Bude,  oil  vapor,  lime,  and  magnesium  lights, 
and  claims  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  oxyhy- 
drogen  blowpipe,  and  to  have  first  produced 
the  startings  of  the  magnetic  needle  by  cross 
currents  from  the  voltaic  battery,  which  form 
the  basis  of  the  electric  telegraph.  He  also 
invented  the  high-pressure  steam  jet  and  the 
tubular  boiler,  and  in  July,  1829,  drove  a  steam 
carriage  on  the  turnpike  from  London  to  Bath 
at  the  rate  of  14  m.  an  hour.  His  high-pres- 
sure steam  jet,  being  applied  to  locomotives  in 
October,  1830,  increased  the  speed  from  12  m. 
an  hour  to  30.  It  has  since  been  used  for  the 
ventilation  of  coal  mines  and  for  extinguishing 
fires  in  them.  In  1849  he  applied  it  to  the 
consumption  of  poisonous  gases  from  a  sewer 
in  London.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  to  su- 
perintend the  lighting  and  ventilating  of  the 
new  houses  of  parliament,  for  which  he  had 
invented  a  new  method.  In  1863  he  became 
paralyzed.  He  resides  at  Reeds,  Cornwall. 

GURNET,  Joseph  John,  an  English  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  Earlham  hall,  near  Norwich,  Aug. 
2, 1788,  died  there,  Jan.  4,  1847.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  under  a  private  tutor,  without 
becoming  connected  with  the  university,  and 
in  1818  became  a  minister  of  the  society  of 
Friends.  At  different  times  he  travelled  through 
Ireland,  the  United  States  and  Canada  (1837), 
and  most  of  the  countries  of  central  Europe, 
to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  prisons.  In 
these  tours  he  was  generally  accompanied  by 
his  sister  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Fry,  and  with  her  la- 
bored for  the  improvement  of  prison  discipline. 
Much  of  his  ample  fortune  was  devoted  to  be- 


336 


GUROWSKI 


nevolent  purposes.  He  published  "Notes  on 
I'1-is..n  Discipline"  (1819);  "Observations  on 
the  Religious  Peculiarities  of  the  Society  of 
Friends"  (1824);  "Essays  on  the  Evidences, 
Doctrines,  and  Practical  Operations  of  Chris- 
tianity" (1827) ;  "Biblical  Notes  to  confirm  the 
Deity  of  Christ "  (1830) ;  "  Accordance  of  Geo- 
logical Discovery  with  Natural  and  Revealed 
Religion"  (1835);  "Sabbatical Verses"  (1837); 
"Familiar  Sketch  of  William  Wilberforce " 
(1840);  "A  Winter  in  the  West  Indies,  de- 
scribed in  Familiar  Letters  to  Henry  Clay  of 
Kentucky"  (1840);  and  " Thoughts  on  Habit 
and  Discipline"  (2d  ed.,  1844).  His  memoirs, 
edited  by  Joseph  Be  van  Braithwaite,  with  se- 
lections from  his  journal  and  correspondence, 
were  published  in  1854  (2  vols.  8vo). 

GUROWSKI,  Adam,  count,  a  Polish  author  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Rusocice  in  the  palati- 
nate of  Kalisz,  Sept.  10,  1805,  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  0.,  May  4,  1806.  Having  been  ex- 
pelled in  1818,  and  again  in  1819,  from  the 
gymnasia  of  Warsaw  and  Kalisz  for  revolution- 
ary Demonstrations,  he  continued  his  studies 
at  different  universities  in  Germany.  He  re- 
turned to  Warsaw  in  1825,  and  took  part  in  the 
Polish  insurrection  of  1830.  At  its  termina- 
tion he  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where 
he  was  a  member  of  the  national  Polish  com- 
mittee, and  became  conspicuous  in  political 
and  literary  circles.  His  estates  had  been  con- 
fiscated by  the  Russian  government,  and  he 
had  been  condemned  to  death ;  but  in  1835  he 
published  a  work  entitled  La  verite  sur  la 
Russie,  in  which  he  advocated  a  union  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  Slavic  race.  The 
idea  was  regarded  favorably  by  the  Russian 
government,  and  Gurowski  was  recalled ;  and 
although  his  estates  were  not  restored  to  him,  he 
was  employed  in  the  civil  service.  In  1844  he 
became  involved  in  a  quarrel,  and  left  Russia. 
He  spent  some  time  in  Germany,  and  afterward 
in  Switzerland,  an^  for  two  years  lectured  on 

Political  economy  in  the  university  of  Bern, 
[e  then  went  to  Italy,  and  in  1849  came  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  engaged  in  literary 
pursuits,  and  became  deeply  interested  in  Amer- 
ican politics.  From  1861  to  1863  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  department  of  state  at  Washing- 
ton. Before  coming  to  America  he  had  publish- 
ed La  civilisation  et  la  Russie  (St.  Petersburg, 
1840)  ;  Pensees  sur  Vavenir  des  Polonais  (Ber- 
lin, 1841);  Aus  meinem  Gedankeribuche  (Bres- 
lau,  1843);  Eine  Tour  durch  Belgien  (Heidel- 
berg, 1845);  Impressions  et  souvenirs  (Lausanne, 
1846)  ;  Die  letztcn  Ereignisse  in  den  drei 
Theilen  des  alten  Polen  (Munich,  1846);  and 
Le  Pawlavisme  (Florence,  1848).  During  his 
residence  in  the  United  States  he  published 
"Russia  as  It  Is"  (New  York,  1854);  "The 
Turkish  Question"  (1854);  "A  Year  of  the 
War  "  (1855) ;  "  America  and  Europe  "  (1857) ; 
"Slavery  in  History  "  (1860) ;  and  "  My  Diary," 
notes  on  the  civil  war  (3  vols.,  1862-'6). 

GURWHAL,  Gnrhwal,  or  Gnrwal,  a  N.  W.  dis- 
trict of  British  India,  in  the  Northwest  Prov- 


GURYEV 

inces,  between  lat.  30°  and  31°  20'  N.,  and 
Ion.  78°  and  79°  20'  E.,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  the  Himalayas,  which  separate  it  from 
Thibet ;  area,  about  4,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  309,947.  It  occupies  the  S.  W.  slope  of 
the  Himalayas,  and  includes  some  of  the  lofti- 
est peaks  of  that  range.  Its  surface  presents 
little  else  than  a  succession  of  mountains  and 
deep  narrow  valleys,  among  which  rise  several 
head  streams  of  the  Ganges.  Only  a  small 
part  of  the  country  is  cultivated  or  inhabited. 
Many  of  the  hills  are  totally  destitute  of  vege- 
tation, and  others  are  covered  with  low  forests. 
The  chief  crop  in  the  low  regions  is  rice. 
Wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  battu  or  amaran- 
thus,  pulse  of  various  kinds,  oil  seeds,  the  pop- 
py, cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  tea  are  also  culti- 
vated. Field  labor  is  performed  by  women. 
Horses  are  rare,  asses  are  unknown,  but  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  goats  are  carefully  reared.  The 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindoos, 
the  remainder  being  of  Thibetan  or  of  mixed 
Thibetan  and  Hindoo  origin.  They  are  below 
the  middle  size,  have  dark  hair  and  beards, 
and  a  lighter  complexion  than  the  Hindoos  of 
the  plains.  Their  houses  are  built  of  layers  of 
stone  and  squared  beams,  and  are  usually  three 
stories  high,  the  ground  floor  being  occupied 
by  the  cattle. — Gurwhal  was  dependent  on 
some  of  the  more  powerful  hill  states  until  the 
reign  of  Mohiput  Shah,  who  declared  himself 
independent  and  built  Serinagur  for  his  capi- 
tal. Under  the  sovereigns  of  this  dynasty  the 
state  embraced  the  district  of  the  Dehra  Doon, 
and  about  one  half  of  Kumaon.  In  1803  it 
was  overrun  and  devastated  by  the  Gorkhas, 
and  in  1814  was  wrested  from  the  conquerors 
by  the  British  and  restored  to  the  family  of 
the  former  rajah. 

GURWOOD,  John,  an  English  soldier,  born  in 
1791,  died  by  his  own  hand  in  Brighton,  Dec. 
25,  1845.  He  entered  the  British  army  as  en- 
sign in  1808.  At  the  storming  of  Ciudad  Ro- 
drigo,  in  1812,  he  led  the  forlorn  hope,  and  re- 
ceived the  sword  of  the  governor  on  the  sur- 
render of  the  fortress.  He  served  through- 
out the  whole  of  that  war,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Waterloo.  In  1831  he  became 
private  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
and  in  1841  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel. 
In  1834  he  commenced  the  publication  of 
"The  Despatches  of  Field  Marshal  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  during  his  various  Campaigns 
in  India,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Spain,  the  Low 
Countries,  and  France,  from  1799  to  1818," 
which  extended  to  13  vols.  8vo.  In  return  for 
his  services  Col.  Gurwood  received  from  the 
duke  the  appointment  of  deputy  governor  of 
the  tower  of  London.  He  committed  suicide 
in  a  fit  of  insanity  from  the  effects  of  a  wound 
in  the  head  received  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

GURYEV,  or  Goriev,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  and  188  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Astrakhan,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
name,  on  an  island  of  the  Ural,  not  far  from 
the  Caspian  sea;  pop.  in  1867,  2,838.  It  has 


GUSTAVUS  I. 


337 


a  jail,  a  river  port,  manufactories  of  cotton  and 
linen,  distilleries,  and  fisheries.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  Cossacks  of  the  Ural. 

GUSTAVUS  L,  known  as  GUSTAVUS  VASA, 
king  of  Sweden,  born  at  the  castle  of  Lind- 
holm,  May  12,  1496,  died  in  Stockholm,  Sept. 
29,  1560.  He  was  the  son  of  Eric  Johansson, 
a  Swedish  senator  of  the  noble  house  of  Vasa, 
and  before  his  accession  to  the  throne  bore  the 
surname  of  Ericsson.  Both  his  parents  were 
descendants  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Sweden. 
After  having  studied  at  the  university  of  Upsal 
he  entered  the  service  of  his  kinsman  the  re- 
gent Sture  in  1514,  at  a  period  of  intense  civil 
commotion.  Sweden,  which  by  the  compact 
of  Calmar  in  1397  became  a  dependency  of 
Denmark,  had  declared  her  independence  ;  but 
the  nobility  and  clergy  were  much  divided, 
and  the  young  Gustavus  was  soon  called  on 
to  bear  arms  with  his  patron  against  the 
archbishop  Troll6,  the  leader  of  the  Danish 
party.  In  1517  a  Danish  army  was  sent  to 
the  archbishop's  assistance ;  but  the  Swedes 
defeated  it,  and  Gustavus  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  battle.  In  the  following  year  King 
Christian  II.  of  Denmark  took  the  field  in  per- 
son. After  the  Swedish  victory  of  Brann- 
kyrka,  Gustavus  and  five  other  nobles  were 
given  up  as  hostages  for  the  king's  safety  du- 
ring a  proposed  interview  with  the  regent; 
but  having  got  them  in  his  power,  Christian 
carried  them  in  chains  to  Copenhagen.  Af- 
ter a  year's  detention  Gustavus  escaped,  and 
spent  eight  months  in  Liibeck.  While  there 
he  heard  of  the  regent's  defeat  and  death  in 
battle,  and  the  subjugation  by  the  Danes  of  all 
Sweden,  except  the  fortresses  of  Calmar  and 
Stockholm.  Bent  upon  the  liberation  of  his 
country,  he  hastened  to  Calmar ;  but  the  gar- 
rison, composed  of  foreign  mercenaries,  had  re- 
solved to  surrender,  and  he  narrowly  escaped 
with  life.  He  then  visited  some  of  the  south- 
ern provinces,  and  endeavored  to  rouse  the 
peasants,  but  met  with  only  threats  and  in- 
sults, and  was  many  times  in  danger  of  being 
arrested.  Meanwhile  Christian  had  been  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Swedes,  and  was  crowned 
at  Stockholm,  Nov.  4,  1520.  Four  days  after- 
ward he  caused  a  massacre  of  the  nobles  and 
populace,  including  the  father  of  Gustavus.  A 
price  was  set  on  the  head  of  the  latter,  and 
death  was  threatened  to  whoever  should  assist 
him.  Disguised  in  rags,  he  worked  for  some 
time  as  a  miner  and  woodcutter  in  Dalecarlia, 
until,  deeming  the  time  ripe  for  his  enterprise, 
he  threw  otf  concealment,  and  harangued  the 
inhabitants.  His  eloquence,  the  sturdy  patriot- 
ism of  the  Dalesmen,  and  their  hatred  for 
Christian,  led  600  men  to  take  up  arms  and 
proclaim  him  "lord  and  chieftain  of  the 
realm  ;"  and  in  February,  1521,  he  made  him- 
self master  of  Kopparberg.  The  people  of  the 
coasts  declared  in  his  favor ;  the  insurrection 
spread  rapidly,  and  having  defeated  the  Danes 
in  the  battle  of  Westerns,  April  29,  and  taken 
several  fortresses,  he  called  an  assembly  of  the 


states  at  Wadstena  in  August,  and  received 
from  the  deputies  an  offer  of  the  crown,  which 
he  refused  for  the  title  of  administrator.  His 
success  from  this  time  was  almost  uninter- 
rupted, and  he  was  soon  acknowledged  by 
most  of  the  nobles  and  people.  Christian 
threatened  him  with  the  death  of  his  mother 
and  two  sisters,  who  were  held  prisoners  at 
Copenhagen,  if  he  did  not  disperse  his  follow- 
ers; Gustavus  refused,  and  the  threat  was 
carried  into  execution.  At  length  Christian 
was  deposed  by  his  Danish  subjects  (April, 
1523),  and  his  partisans  in  Sweden  gave  in 
their  adhesion  to  Vasa,  who  accepted  the  title 
of  king  at  the  diet  of  Strengnas,  June  7,  and 
entered  Stockholm  in  triumph  two  weeks  after- 
ward. While  at  Ltibeck  Gustavus  had  listened 
to  Martin  Luther ;  he  had  since  corresponded 
with  the  reformer,  and  although  he  durst  not 
begin  his  reign  with  an  open  profession  of  the 
new  doctrines,  his  first  measures  were  directed 
against  the  Eoman  Catholic  clergy.  Several  in- 
surrections were  thus  excited,  which  were  easily 
put  down.  In  1527,  at  a  meeting  of  the  states 
at  Westerns,  the  king  obtained  the  exclusion 
of  bishops  from  the  senate  and  their  formal 
subjection  to  the  civil  power.  The  ceremony 
of  coronation,  which  he  had  deferred  until  now 
rather  than  take  the  oath  tojsupport  the  church, 
was  performed  at  Upsal,  Jan.  12,  1528,  by  the 
Lutheran  archbishop  Lars  Petri.  The  refor- 
mation now  made  rapid  progress  in  ..Sweden; 
and  at  a  national  council  held  at  Orebro  in 
1529  Lutheranism  was  adopted  as  the  state  re- 
ligion. Having  thus,  as  he  said,  "  conquered 
his  kingdom  a  second  time,"  Gustavus  formed 
an  alliance  with  Frederick  I.  of  Denmark  against 
the  deposed  Christian  II.,  who,  having  secured 
the  assistance  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  en- 
tered Norway  with  an  army  in  1531,  and  was 
joined  by  a  number  of  Swedish  malcontents. 
The  troops  of  Gustavus  and  Frederick  soon 
forced  him  to  surrender,  and  the  ex-king  passed 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  confinement.  Meanwhile 
the  domestic  affairs  of  the  kingdom  called  for 
the  attention  of  Gustavus.  The  exactions  of 
the  nobles  aroused  an  insurrection  of  the  peas- 
ants (1537),  who  declared  their  intention  "  to 
destroy  the  nobility,  root  and  branch."  In 
1542  the  rising  became  general  under  the  lead 
of  Nils  Dacke,  an  escaped  criminal,  who  took 
the  field  with  10,000  men.  Avoiding  a  pitched 
battle,  and  encouraged  by  the  count  palatine 
Frederick,  who  gave  him  a  patent  of  nobility, 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  by  the  duke  of 
Mecklenburg,  Dacke  held  his  ground  till  1543, 
when  he  was  killed  and  his  followers  dispersed. 
The  disorders  caused  by  the  imprudence  of  the 
Lutheran  pastors  were  checked,  and  Gustavus, 
having  at  last  secured  peace  at  home  and  abroad, 
and  caused  the  crown  to  be  declared  hereditary 
in  his  family,  devoted  himself  to  administrative 
reform.  In  1555  a  war  broke  out  with  Russia, 
and  was  continued  with  varying  success  until 
the  peace  of  Moscow,  in  April,  1557.  The  last 
years  of  the  king's  life  were  embittered  by 


338 


GUSTAVU8  II. 


domestic  troubles,  arising  chiefly  from  the  evil 
propensities  of  his  son  Eric.  Gustavus  was 
thrice  married :  first  to  Catharine  of  Saxe-Lau- 
enburg,  the  mother  of  his  son  and  successor 
Eric ;  secondly  to  Margaret  do  Laholm,  the 
daughter  of  a  Swedish  noble ;  and  thirdly  to 
Catharine  Stenbock,  niece  of  Margaret. 

GCSTAVUS  IL,  Adolphns,  king  of  Sweden,  sixth 
of  the  line  of  Vasa,  son  of  Charles  IX.  and  Chris- 
tina of  Schleswig-Holstein,  born  in  Stockholm, 
Dec.  9, 1594,  killed  at  Ltitzen,  Nov.  6  (new  style 
16),  1632.  His  father  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  had  been  called  to  the 
throne  on  the  exclusion  of  his  nephew  Sigis- 
mund,  king  of  Poland,  who  was  the  rightful 
heir,  but  had  given  umbrage  to  the  states  by 
professing  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  (See 
CHARLES  IX.  of  Sweden.)  Sigismund  had  made 
an  alliance  with  Russia  for  the  recovery  of  the 
Swedish  crown,  and  Gustavus  Adolphus,  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  Oct.  30,  1611,  inherited  a 
war  with  the  Poles  and  Russians,  besides  a  long 
standing  hostility  with  the  Danes.  Securing 
the  assistance  of  his  nobles  by  confirming  their 
privileges,  he  made  a  peace  with  Denmark  on 
favorable  terms,  and  then,  turning  his  arms 
against  the  Russians,  drove  them  from  Ingria, 
Karelia,  and  part  of  Livonia.  He  made  a 
treaty  with  the  czar  at  Stolbova  in  1617,  by 
which  he  retained  inuch  of  the  conquered  ter- 
ritory, and  was  then  in  a  condition  to  pros- 
ecule  the  Polish  war  with  greater  advantage. 
He  overran  the  Baltic  coast  from  Riga  to  Dant- 
zic,  made  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  Po- 
lish Prussia,  defeated  the  Poles  in  several  en- 
gagements, but  was  repulsed  and  wounded 
before  Dantzic,  and  on  Sept.  30,  1627,  fought 
a  bloody  but  indecisive  battle.  The  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  now  took  part  in  the  contest, 
placed  Gustavus  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
and  sent  10,000  men  under  Wallenstein  into 
Pomerania.  The  Swedes,  however,  continued 
victorious,  and  by  the  mediation  of  France  and 
England  a  truce  for  six  years  was  concluded  in 
September,  1 629,  on  terms  highly  favorable  to 
Gustavus.  Meanwhile  the  expense  of  the  war 
had  raised  several  seditions  at  home,  which  the 
king  put  down  by  alternate  mildness  and  se- 
verity. Leaving  the  care  of  his  kingdom  to 
the  chancellor  Oxenstiern,  Gustavus  now  turn- 
ed his  attention  to  fresh  foreign  conquests.  The 
growing  power  of  Austria  on  the  Baltic,  the 
affront  put  upon  him  by  Ferdinand  in  the  late 
war,  and  the  danger  that  threatened  the  Prot- 
estant cause  in  the  great  religious  contest  which 
then  divided  Germany,  joined  to  an  ambition 
to  aggrandize  his  country,  induced  him  to  de- 
clare war  against  the  emperor ;  and  having 
presented  to  the  states  assembled  at  Stockholm 
his  daughter  Christina  as  the  heiress  of  his 
throne,  he  set  sail  with  about  20,000  men,  and 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  June  24, 1630. 
By  July  10  he  had  seized  almost  the  whole  of 
Pomerania.  He  levied  a  heavy  contribution 
in  this  province,  disciplined  his  troops,  taught 
them  a  new  system  of  tactics,  and  then,  having 


received  an  accession  of  six  Scottish  regiments 
under  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  led  a  division  ol 
his  army  into  Mecklenburg.  Ferdinand,  who 
at  first  looked  with  contempt  upon  the  move 
ments  of  this  "  king  of  snow,"  now  proposed  a 
truce;  but  Gustavus  preferred  to  follow  up  hi 
successes,  and  in  eight  months  from  the  time  ot 
his  landing  he  had  taken  80  fortified  places.  The 
imperialists  under  Tilly  and  Pappenheim  gaine< 
several  successes,  but  many  of  the  Austrian 
magazines  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes 
and  Gustavus,  having  first  carried  Frankfort-on 
the-Oder  by  assault,  pushed  on  toward  Mag 
deburg,  which  Tilly  was  then  investing.  Be 
fore  he  could  reach  it  the  city  was  stormed, 
and  more  than  25,000  of  the  inhabitants  were 
massacred.  In  September,  1631,  Gustavus  was 
joined  by  the  elector  of  Saxony,  with  whom 
he  at  once  gave  battle  to  Tilly,  and  defeated 
him  at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipsic,  Sept.  7.  This 
signal  victory  over  a  general  never  vanquished 
before,  which  displayed  the  superiority  of  the 
king's  mode  of  fighting,  based  on  boldness  of 
attack  and  celerity  of  movement,  at  once  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  a  general.  The  Prot- 
estant states  now  hailed  him  as  their  leader. 
The  elector  of  Saxony  carried  the  war  into 
Bohemia,  while  Gustavus  marched  into  Fran- 
conia  and  the  Palatinate,  defeated  Tilly  again 
at  Wurzburg,  and  wintered  at  Mentz.  Oxen- 
stiern would  have  had  him  attack  Vienna,  but 
Gustavus,  anxious  to  appear  not  as  a  conqueror, 
but  as  the  liberator  of  the  Protestants,  had  re- 
solved to  confine  the  operations  of  his  armies 
to  the  N.  and  W.  provinces.  Ferdinand  now 
determined  to  recall  Wallenstein,  who  had  been 
dismissed  about  the  time  of  the  Swedish  land- 
ing; but  before  he  could  obey  the  summons 
Gustavus  had  attacked  the  Austrians  at  the 
river  Lech  (April,  1632),  and  had  driven  them 
into  Ingoldstadt.  Tilly  was  mortally  wounded 
in  the  action.  Munich  surrendered  to  the 
Swedes  in  May  ;  almost  the  whole  of  Bavaria 
was  in  their  hands,  and  the  elector  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  Ratisbon.  The  Lutheran 
peasants  of  Upper  Austria  took  up  arms ;  the 
Swiss  granted  permission  to  the  king  to  raise 
levies  in  their  territory,  and  the  Swedish  stan- 
dard was  carried  triumphantly  by  Bernhard 
of  Saxe-Weimar  to  Lake  Constance  and  the 
Tyrolese  mountains.  At  this  juncture  Wallen- 
stein appeared  at  the  head  of  40,000  men, 
drove  the  Saxons  from  Bohemia,  entered 
Prague  on  May  4,  effected  a  junction  with  the 
elector  of  Bavaria  at  Eger  on  June  11,  and 
thence  advanced  toward  Nuremberg,  where  he 
found  Gustavus  intrenched.  The  hostile  ar- 
mies remained  in  sight  of  each  other  for  three 
months,  each  endeavoring  to  conquer  by  famine 
and  disease.  At  last  Gustavus,  having  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  storm  the  position 
of  the  enemy,  retired  toward  the  upper  Danube, 
and  in  November  entered  Saxony,  where  Wal- 
lenstein was  spreading  carnage  and  desolation. 
On  the  5th  he  found  himself  face  to  face  with 
the  enemy  at  Lutzen,  with  12,000  foot  and 


GUSTAVUS  III. 


339 


6,500  horse  under  his  command ;  Wallenstein's 
army  is  believed  by  good  authorities  to  have 
been  considerably  superior  in  numbers.  The 
night  was  spent  in  preparation  for  battle. 
The  morning  of  the  6th  broke  foggy,  and 
when  the  mists  rose,  about  10  o'clock,  the 
Swedes  were  seen  kneeling  in  their  ranks. 
They  sang  Luther's  hymn,  Eiri1  feste  Burg  ist 
unser  Gott,  and  a  hymn  composed  by  the  king, 
and  then  charged  the  enemy,  Gustavus  leading 
the  right  wing  and  Bernhard  of  Weimar  the 
left.  The  imperialists  were  driven  from  their 
strong  intrenchments,  but  meanwhile  Pappen- 
heim  arrived  with  a  body  of  cavalry  from 
Halle,  and  the  Swedes  were  turned  back  in 
confusion.  Gustavus  rallied  them,  and  with  a 
small  body  of  horse  rode  forward  to  support 
the  infantry  in  a  fresh  attack  ;  but  approach- 
ing too  near  a  squadron  of  imperial  cuirassiers, 
he  received  a  shot  in  the  arm,  and  as  he  turned 
to  be  led  away  another  in  the  back  which 
caused  him  to  fall  from  the  saddle.  His  horse, 
which  had  been  wounded  in  the  neck,  dragged 
him  some  distance  by  the  stirrup,  and  gallop- 
ing riderless  back  to  the  ranks  roused  the 
Swedes  to  fury.  Led  by  Bernhard  of  Weimar, 
they  rushed  forward  with  an  impetuosity  which 
nothing  could  resist.  Pappenheim  fell  mortal- 
ly wounded,  and  Wallenstein  at  last  ordered  a 
retreat.  The  dead  body  of  the  king  was  found 
covered  with  wounds.  After  having  been  em- 
balmed at  Weissenfels,  it  was  carried  to  Stock- 
holm, and  there  interred  in  the  church  of  Rid- 
darholms.  It  was  believed  that  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Lauenburg,  the  king's  cousin,  who  was 
with  him  when  he  fell,  and  a  few  days  after- 
ward went  over  to  the  Austrians,  inflicted 
the  wound  in  the  back  of  which  Gustavus 
died. — Gustavus  inherited  the  commanding 
presence,  eloquence,  and  accomplishments  of 
his  grandfather.  He  aimed  at  great  conquests, 
but  the  extent  of  his  ambition  can  hardly  be 
conjectured.  He  owed  his  success  in  battle  to 
strict  discipline  and  the  ardor  with  which  he 
inspired  his  soldiers.  His  magnanimity,  clem- 
ency to  the  vanquished,  and  respect  for  the 
religious  opinions  of  others,  compelled  the  es- 
teem of  his  enemies.  Though  eminently  a 
warlike  king,  he  devoted  much  time  to  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  Sweden  ;  he  encouraged  com- 
merce and  manufactures,  made  excellent  regu- 
lations for  the  mines,  and  endowed  the  uni- 
versity of  Upsal.  He  is  regarded  as  the  Prot- 
estant hero  of  Germany,  and  in  1832,  on  the 
200th  anniversary  of  his  death,  was  founded 
the  "  Gustavus  Adolphus  union."  Up  to  the 
close  of  1868  this  society  had  expended  about 
2,325,000  thalers  in  the  support  of  new  and 
poor  Protestant  congregations.  Gustavus  was 
married  in  1620  to  Maria  Eleonore  of  Branden- 
burg, whose  court  he  had  visited  in  disguise 
for  the  purpose  of  choosing  a  wife.  Their 
daughter  Christina  was  his  successor. 

Gl'STAVUS  III.,  king  of  Sweden,  eldest  son 
and  successor  of  King  Adolphus  Frederick  and 
Ulrica  Louisa,  princess  of  Prussia,  born  in 


Stockholm,  Jan.  24, 1746,  died  there,  March  29, 
1792.  He  was  educated  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  Counts  Tessin  and  Scheffer.  His  am- 
bitious tendencies  early  awakened  the  anxiety 
of  these  noblemen,  who  vainly  attempted  to 
restrain  and  correct  his  disposition.  On  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  Feb.  12,  1771,  the 
state  was  divided  between  two  sordid  and  cor- 
rupt factions.  They  were  the  "Hats"  and 
"Caps,"  or  "France  and  Commerce,"  against 
"Agriculture  and  Russia."  Under  Adolphus  the 
Hats  had  obtained  the  predominance,  and  pro- 
posed to  subvert  the  constitution  by  force,  and 
to  rescue  the  country  from  the  domination  of 
the  nobles.  Gustavus,  who  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  death  was  travelling  on  the  continent, 
procured  from  the  French  government  a  prom- 
ise of  aid  and  support  against  the  aristocratic 
party.  Hastening  to  Sweden,  he  labored  to 
obtain  popularity,  while  his  emissaries  propa- 
gated disaffection  to  the  diet.  Having  matured 
his  scheme,  Gustavus  confided  the  secret  to  a 
favorite  officer,  Hellichius,  who  shut  the  city 
gates  of  Christianstad,  and  published  a  mani- 
festo against  the  diet.  The  place  was  imme- 
diately invested  by  government  troops,  while 
Stockholm  was  declared  under  martial  law. 
Gustavus,  having  secured  the  support  of  the 
troops,  posted  a  guard  over  the  assembled  sen- 
ators, harangued  the  people  on  the  great  square, 
entered  the  hall  with  a  strong  guard,  and  pro- 
duced a  new  constitution,  which  was  imme- 
diately approved  and  confirmed  by  subscription 
and  oath.  The  diet  acquiesced ;  and  thus,  on 
Aug.  21,  1772,  without  the  loss  of  a  single 
life,  a  revolution  was  accomplished.  The  gov- 
ernment he  created  was  better  than  that  of 
the  oligarchy  he  had  overthrown,  though  the 
royal  power  was  increased.  In  1783  he  went 
abroad  again,  visited  Italy,  and  passed  some 
time  in  Paris.  During  his  absence  a  famine 
made  great  havoc,  the  people  were  disturbed, 
the  nobility  rose  against  him,  and  the  diet 
forced  him  to  make  concessions.  The  king, 
who  in  1772  was  the  idol  of  the  nation,  had 
become  in  1787  an  object  of  detestation.  Wai- 
was  now  employed  to  stimulate  loyalty.  Gus- 
tavus secretly  ordered  a  march  upon  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, and,  having  quelled  an  uprising  of 
the  nobles,  secured  extraordinary  powers,  and 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Dalecarlian  peasants 
repulsed  the  Danes  who  menaced  Gothenburg, 
he  began  in  person  a  vigorous  campaign  against 
Russia.  The  war  continued  with  varying  suc- 
cess for  upward  of  two  years,  and  was  termina- 
ted by  a  peace  on  terms  honorable  to  Gustavus 
after  the  Swedish  naval  victory  of  Swenkasund, 
July  9-10,  1790.  Dissatisfied,  however,  with 
the  result  of  the  war,  he  resolved  to  take  part  in 
restoring  the  power  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  aimed 
at  heading  a  Swedish,  Russian,  Prussian,  and 
Austrian  coalition  for  the  invasion  of  France. 
He  went  to  Spa  and  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  concert 
measures,  but  before  his  plans  were  matured 
he  was  shot  at  a  bal  masque  in  Stockholm  by 
Anckarstroem,  the  instrument  of  a  conspiracy 


340 


GUSTAVUS  IV. 


of  nobles.  Gustavus  lingered  13  days  after  re- 
ceiving the  fatal  shot.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
ability,  but  capricious  and  insincere.  He  was 
the  author  of  dramatic  works  and  lyric  poems, 
published  in  Swedish  in  Stockholm  in  1806-'12 
in  6  vols.,  and  also  in  French.  On  June  23, 
1788,  before  his  departure  for  the  Finnish  war, 
he  deposited  two  boxes  in  the  library  of  Upsal, 
requesting  that  they  should  only  be  opened  50 
years  after  his  death.  They  were  opened 
March  29,  1842,  and  found  to  contain  histori- 
cal and  literary  essays  and  letters,  which  were 
published  by  Geijer  (3  vols.,  Upsal,  1843-'6), 
and  translated  into  German. 

GPSTAVUS  IV.,  Adolphns,  king  of  Sweden,  only 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  Nov.  1,  1778,  pro- 
claimed king  March  29,  1792,  died  Feb.  7, 
1837.  He  was  declared  of  age  on  completing 
his  18th  year,  Nov.  1,  1796.  He  had  been  be- 
trothed at  an  early  age  to  a  princess  of  Meck- 
lenburg, but  Catharine  II.  of  Kussia  planned 
a  marriage  for  him  with  her  granddaughter 
Alexandra.  Gustavus  accepted  an  invitation 
to  visit  the  imperial  court,  and  was  received 
with  splendid  hospitality.  The  princess  pos- 
sessed great  beauty  and  wit,  and  he  fell  in 
love  with  her.  The  marriage  was  about  to  be 
solemnized,  and  the  empress  upon  her  throne, 
the  court  collected  in  state,  and  the  young 
bride  all  awaited  the  appearance  of  the  groom. 
At  the  latest  hour  he  had  been  permitted  to 
examine  the  marriage  contract,  and  found  that 
it  pledged  him  to  declare  war  against  France, 
and  to  permit  his  queen  to  remain  in  the  Greek 
church.  He  forthwith  rejected  the  alliance, 
returned  immediately  to  Stockholm,  and  be- 
came next  year  the  husband  of  the  princess 
Friederike  of  Baden,  from  whom  he  was  di- 
vorced in  1812.  With  the  czar  Paul,  who  suc- 
ceeded Catharine,  he  negotiated  the  renewal 
of  the  armed  neutrality.  After  the  murder 
of  Paul,  his  successor  Alexander  lost  no  time 
in  making  peace  with  England.  Gustavus  and 
Alexander  alone  among  the  sovereigns  of  Eu- 
rope protested  against  the  execution  of  the 
duke  d'Enghien;  and  in  the  Germanic  diet, 
in  which  Gustavus  as  duke  of  Pomerania  had  a 
voice,  he  inveighed  boldly  against  the  French 
emperor.  Napoleon  replied  in  the  Honiteur, 
reproaching  Gustavus  with  having  deserted 
the  Danes,  and  satirizing  the  young  king  as 
the  heir  of  Charles  XII.  only  in  "jack  boots 
and  audacity  of  tongue."  Gustavus  had  early 
assumed  the  dress  and  professed  to  imitate 
the  spirit  of  Charles.  The  French  minister 
was  peremptorily  dismissed  from  Stockholm, 
and  French  newspapers  were  forbidden  the 
kingdom.  The  king  soon  after  took  the  field 
in  person  against  Bernadotte,  who  occupied 
Hanover  with  30,000  troops.  Austerlitz  and 
the  peace  of  Presburg  obliged  him  to  retreat, 
and  the  campaign  was  confined  to  unimportant 
skirmishes  in  Prussia.  The  peace  of  Tilsit 
was  forced  upon  Russia  and  Prussia  ;  and  Gus- 
tavus alone  upon  the  continent  of  Europe  held 
out  against  the  French  empire.  Napoleon  at- 


tempted to  dazzle  the  young  king  with  visions 
of  Norway ;  but  his  overtures  were  rejected, 
and  Gustavus  was  driven  across  the  Baltic. 
Robbed  of  Pomerania,  he  was  now  to  be  de- 
spoiled of  Finland.  Napoleon  and  Alexander 
having  come  to  an  understanding  at  Erfurt 
for  the  partition  of  Sweden,  Caulaincourt  an- 
nounced to  his  diplomatic  colleagues  at  St. 
Petersburg  that  "  Gustavus  IV.  had  ceased  to 
reign.1'  Supported  by  England  with  a  subsidy 
for  one  year  of  £1,200,000,  and  the  assurance 
of  auxiliary  troops,  Sweden  presented  a  bold 
front.  A  Russian  army  overran  Finland  ;  but 
Gustavus  quarrelled  with  Sir  John  Moore,  who 
had  come  to  his  assistance  with  10,000  Eng- 
lish troops ;  he  forbade  their  landing,  and  the 
English  general  returned  home  in  disgust. 
With  more  than  100,000  Swedes  under  arms, 
Gustavus  managed  never  to  have  10,000  to- 
gether ;  and  these  he  exhausted  in  continued 
forced  marches,  now  threatening  a  descent 
upon  Denmark,  now  upon  Norway,  and  again 
hurrying  across  the  whole  breadth  of  Sweden 
to  renew  the  war  in  Finland.  The  English 
minister  was  instructed  to  release  Sweden  from 
her  English  obligations,  if  she  should  find  her 
necessities  such  as  to  render  concessions  inevi- 
table. In  return,  Gustavus,  without  consult- 
ing his  cabinet,  sent  a  despatch  to  Gothenburg 
subjecting  the  British  shipping  in  that  harbor 
to  an  embargo.  Next  morning  he  recalled  the 
order,  and  offered  a  renewal  of  alliance  with 
England  on  the  same  subsidiary  basis.  His  mis- 
management was  long  attributed  by  the  peo- 
ple to  the  incapacity  of  his  council ;  but  the 
truth  could  not  be  always  concealed;  his  insan- 
ity was  apparent,  and  his  deposition  was  evi- 
dently necessary.  A  plot  soon  took  form  and 
order,  and  it  was  resolved  by  a  band  of  reso- 
lute nobles  to  offer  the  crown  to  the  English 
duke  of  Gloucester.  The  offer  was  made,  but 
not  accepted.  A  body  of  troops  marched  upon 
Stockholm,  and  Baron  Adlercreutz  accepted 
the  charge  of  arresting  the  king,  who  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  castle  of  Gripsholm,  while  his 
uncle,  the  former  regent,  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  affairs,  with  the  title  of  protector,  but 
was  soon  after  elected  king  as  Charles  XIII. 
Gustavus  in  the  mean  while  resolved  to  antici- 
pate the  decree  of  dethronement  by  abdication, 
which  he  did  in  a  document  dated  March  29, 
1809.  The  diet  assembled,  solemnly  renounced 
allegiance,  and  declared  the  heirs  of  his  body 
for  ever  excluded  from  the  throne.  The  exiled 
family  proceeded,  about  eight  months  after  the 
king's  arrest,  in  a  Swedish  frigate  to  Germa- 
ny, Gustavus  having  assumed  thje  title  of  count 
of  Gottorp.  The  Swedish  government  settled 
upon  him  a  pension  equivalent  to  $26,000. 
Charles  XIV.  (Bernadotte)  subsequently  ob' 
tainedfrom  the  diet  authority  to  adjust  equita-1 
bly  all  money  affairs  between  Sweden  and  the' 
exiled  Vasa  family,  and  paid  over  to  the  Russian- 
emperor,  the  brother-in-law  of  Gustavus  and 
the  guardian  of  his  children  (the  father  having 
separated  himself  from  his  wife  and  family), 


GtJSTKOW 


GUTENBERG 


341 


le  value  of  his  private  estates,  about  $600,000, 
rhich  was  transmitted   as  a  private  fortune. 
1810  Gustavus  visited  England,  where  he 
red  at  Hampton  Court,  and  found  companion- 
lip   among  the  royal  exiles  of  France.     In 
1812  he  went  to  Denmark,  where  he  assumed 
a  time  the  title  of  duke  of  Holstein.     He 
ibsequently  wandered  about  Europe,  often  in 
need,  for  he  proudly  refused  the  Swedish 
jnsion.     His  wife  and  children  often  devised 
ins  of  secretly  placing  in  his  way  what  ap- 
jared  to  be  necessary  for  his  support.     During 
le  later  years  of  his  life  he  appeared  in  thread- 
ire  garments,  seeming  to  glory  in  privations 
id  poverty.     He  became  a  resident  of  the 
iton  of  Basel,  and  died  at  length  in  a  hum- 
ble abode  at  St.  Gall.     In  1828  his  son  Gus- 
ivus  (born  Nov.  9,  1799)  ineffectually  inemo- 
alized  the  courts  of  Europe  in  support  of  his 
lim  to  the  title  of  prince  of  Sweden,  and, 
the  death  of  his  father,  to  the  style  and 
lity  of  king.     The  claim  was  again  publicly 
snewed  in  1859,  on  the  death  of  King  Oscar. 
GUSTROW,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
ichy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  on  the  Nebel, 
id  on  a  branch  of  the  Schwerin  and  Rostock 
lilway,  22  m.  S.  of  Rostock;   pop.  in  1871, 
10,575.     It  has  several  churches,  among  them 
cathedral  built  in  the  13th  century,  a  former 
stle  which  is  now  a  state  workhouse,  a  gym- 
dum  and  other  literary  institutions,  a  hospital, 
anufactories  of  tobacco  and  machines,  iron 
mnderies,  tanneries,  and   breweries.      Horse 

and  cattle  shows  are  held  annually. 
GUTENBERG,  Johann,  or  Henne,  the  reputed 
iventor  of  printing,  born  in  Mentz,  Germany, 
'    it  1400,  died  there,  Feb.  24,   1468.     His 
ither's  name  was  Gensfleisch  or  Gansfleisch, 
rutenberg  being  the  name  of  his  mother,  or 
iat  of  an  estate  which  belonged  to  the  family, 
[is  family  was  of  noble  lineage,  and  he  occu- 
3d  a  respectable  position  in  his  native  city, 
which,  however,  civic  dissensions  caused 
lim  with  many  others  to  migrate  in  1420.     He 
ame  a  citizen  of  Strasburg,  where  he  ap- 
jars  to  have  devoted  many  years  to  mechan- 
experiments  of  various  kinds.     In  1436  he 
itered  into  a  contract  with  Andrew  Dritzehn 
id  others  of  that  city  for  the  purpose  of  prac- 
"  ig  in  partnership,  and  for  the  common  ben- 
it,  all  his  secret  and  wonderful  arts.     Three 
jars  later  he  was  sued  by  the  brother  of  Drit- 
jhn,  who  had  died  in  the  interval,  for  money 
le  the  latter  by  the  terms  of  his  contract; 
id  in  the  course  of  the  trial  it  was  shown 
iat  among  the  wonderful  arts  which  Guten- 
>erg  was  to  reveal  to  his  associates  was  print- 
ing, and  that  as  early  as  1438  he  was  in  posses- 
ion  of  a  press,  movable  types,  forms,  and  other 
ippliances  of  the  art.     As  he  never  affixed  his 
lame  to  the  title  pages  of  his  books,  it  is  not 
3rtain  that  he  produced  any  printed  works  at 
Hrasburg.    After  1444  all  trace  of  him  is  lost  till 
L448,  when  he  was  again  in  Mentz.    In  August, 
L450,  he  entered  into  a  partnership  with  Johann 
Taust  of  Mentz  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 


the  business  of  printing,  the  latter  undertaking 
to  furnish  the  funds.  The  partnership  termi- 
nated at  the  end  of  five  years,  Faust  having  in 
a  suit  for  moneys  advanced  obtained  possession 
of  most  of  the  materials  of  the  business.  With 
such  as  remained  to  him  Gutenberg  established 
himself  in  the  house  sum  Gutenberg,  belong- 
ing to  his  mother,  where  he  appears  to  have 
carried  on  printing  with  considerable  activity, 
and  to  have  associated  himself  with  a  Doctor 
Conrad  Homery,  who  afterward  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  stock.  In  1465  Gutenberg  aban- 
doned printing,  and  entered  the  service  of  the 
elector  Adolphus  of  Nassau  as  a  gentleman  of 
the  court,  with  a  suitable  compensation.  The 
number  and  character  of  the  works  printed  by 
him,  or  with  his  cooperation,  have  afforded  a 
fruitful  subject  of  controversy,  and  by  many  it 
has  been  maintained  that  his  merit  was  alto- 
gether that  of  an  experimenter.  In  his  own 
and  in  modern  times  he  has  to  a  certain  extent 
been  obliged  to  share  with  Faust  and  Peter 
Schoffer  the  credit  of  his  invention;  and  so 
obscure  are  many  passages  of  his  history  that 
his  name  has  almost  been  considered  a  myth. 
Schoffer  in  several  instances  publicly  claimed 
the  invention  for  himself,  and  also  for  his 
father-in-law  Faust;  but  in  the  preface  to  a 
German  translation  of  Livy,  published  in 
Mentz  in  1505,  it  is  distinctly  stated  by  his 
son  Johann  Schoffer' that  the  "admirable  art 
of  printing  was  invented  in  Mentz  in  1450  by 
the  ingenious  Johann  Gutenberg,  and  was  sub- 
sequently improved  and  handed  down  to  pos- 
terity by  the  capital  and  labor  of  Johann  Faust 
and  Peter  Schoffer."  The  testimony  of  his 
contemporaries  and  the  opinion  of  most  mod- 
ern writers  seem  to  agree,  however,  that  Gu- 
tenberg not  merely  invented  the  art,  but  prac- 
tised it  for  many  years  previous  to  his  death, 
and  long  before  he  became  associated  with 
Faust.  Zell,  a  contemporary  writer,  mentions 
a  Catholicon,  and  one  or  more  editions  of  the 
Donatus,  possibly  printed  at  Strasburg,  of  the 
former  of  which  no  copy  remains.  Another 
Catholicon,  called  the  Catholicon  Joannis  Ja- 
nuensis,  was  published  by  Gutenberg  in  Mentz 
in  1460.  During  the  partnership  with  Faust 
appeared  the  "Letters  of  Indulgence,"  the 
"Appeal  against  the  Turks,"  and  the  well 
known  Mazarin  Bible,  their  joint  production; 
and  of  the  celebrated  Psalter,  published  by 
Faust  and  Schoffer  in  August,  1457,  within  18 
months  after  the  separation  from  Gutenberg, 
and  containing  their  imprint,  much  of  the  work 
was  undoubtedly  done  by  the  latter.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  "  Calendar  for  1457,"  the 
Hermanni  de  Saldis  Speculum  Sacerdotis,  pub- 
lished about  1457,  and  the  Celebratio  Missa- 
rum,  have  been  ascribed  to  him,  although  Dr. 
Dibdin  thinks  very  doubtfully  of  the  two  latter, 
as  well  as  of  the  Donatuses,  and  is  inclined  to 
consider  the  Catholicon  of  1460  and  the  "Vo- 
cabularies" of  1467-'9  more  genuine  specimens 
of  his  press  or  of  the  types  used  by  him.  The 
other  works  sometimes  ascribed  to  Gutenberg 


342 


GUTHRIE 


are  of  very  doubtful  authenticity.  In  1540,  a 
century  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
city  of  Wittenberg  first  publicly  celebrated  the 
event.  The  example  was  followed  in  the  suc- 
ceeding century  by  Strasburg,  Breslau,  and 
Jena,  and  many  cities  of  Germany  have  since 
held  centennial  jubilees  in  honor  of  Gutenberg 
and  his  invention.  In  1837  a  statue  of  him  in 
bronze  by  Thorwaldsen  was  erected  in  his  na- 
tive place,  and  in  1840  Strasburg,  the  birth- 
place of  the  art,  inaugurated  with  great  pomp 
one  by  David  d' Angers. — The  chief  authorities 
on  the  life  of  Gutenberg  are :  Essai  d'annales 
de  la  tie  de  Gutenberg,  by  J.  G.  Oberlin  (Stras- 
burg, 1801) ;  Essai  sur  les  monuments  typo- 
graphiques  de  Gutenberg  (Mentz,  ,1802),  and 
other  works,  by  M.  G.  Fischer;  Eloge  histo- 
rique  de  Jean  Gutenberg,  by  Nee  de  la  Rochelle 
(Paris,  1811) ;  De  Vorigine  et  des  debuts  de  Vim- 
primerie  en  Europe,  by  Auguste  Bernard  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1853);  Essai  historique  de  Guten- 
berg, by  J.  P.  Gama  (Paris,  1857);  and  Lamar- 
tine's  memoir,  Gutenberg  Vinventeur  de  Vim- 
primerie  (12mo,  Paris,  1853).  See  also  an 
article  giving  a  summary  of  the  facts  and  the 
arguments  which  the  life  and  works  of  Guten- 
berg have  evolved,  by  Ambroise  Firmin-Didot, 
in  the  Nouvelle  biographic  generate. 

GUTHRIE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Iowa,  drained 
by  the  middle  fork  of  Raccoon  river;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,061.  The  soil  is 
fertile.  The  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific 
railroad  intersects  the  S.  part.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  164,012  bushels  of  wheat, 
447,380  of  Indian  corn,  73,827.  of  oats,  12,873 
of  potatoes,  120,390  Ibs.  of  butter,  35,180  of 
wool,  and  10,405  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
2,692  horses,  2,077  milch  cows,  3,552  other  cat- 
tle, 9,480  sheep,  and  8,599  swine ;  3  saw  mills, 
and  2  woollen  factories.  Capital,  Panora. 

GUTHRIE,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born 
at  Brechin,  Forfarshire,  July  12,  1803,  died 
at  St.  Leonards,  Fifeshire,  Feb.  24,  1873.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1825.  He  afterward  studied  medi- 
cine in  Paris,  and  on  his  return  to  Scotland 
was  for  a  time  employed  in  his  father's  bank- 
ing house.  In  1830  he  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Arbirlot  near  Arbroath,  and  in  1837  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  old  Greyfriars  church,  Edinburgh. 
Here  he  became  very  popular  among  all  class- 
es, exerted  himself  to  reach  the  masses  of  the 
people,  and  opened  the  old  Magdalene  chapel 
in  the  Cowgate,  giving  the  poor  residents  of 
the  neighborhood  the  preference  in  seats. 
Greyfriars  was  a  collegiate  church,  and  in  1840 
the  separate  parish  of  St.  John's  was  erected 
for  him.  The  new  building  was  arranged  with 
especial  reference  to  the  wants  of  the  poor, 
but  was  hardly  occupied  when  in  1843  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  church  of  Scotland  took  place. 
In  the  discussions  which  led  to  that  event  Dr. 
Guthrie  had  taken  a  prominent  part,  and  he 
now  cooperated  with  Chalmers,  Candlish,  and 
Cunningham  in  the  organization  of  the  Free 
church.  In  1845  the  work  of  building  manses 


GUTS-MUTHS 

throughout  the  church  was  put  under  his  care. 
For  some  time  after  the  disruption  his  congre- 
gation met  in  a  Methodist  chapel,  but  subse- 
quently St.  John's  Free  church  was  built  for 
him.  He  sought  to  open  in  the  basement  of 
his  church  a  ragged  school,  but  being  opposed 
by  the  elders  of  the  congregation  he  undertook  a 
larger  work,  apart  from  the  supervision  of  any 
particular  church  or  denomination.  About 
this  time  he  published  his  "  Plea  for  Ragged 
Schools,"  which  was  many  times  republished, 
and  his  ragged  school  became  the  pioneer  of 
many  like  schools.  He  was  also  active  in  the 
temperance  reform.  In  1848  he  was  obliged 
on  account  of  impaired  health  to  have  a  col- 
league, and  Dr.  William  Hanna  was  chosen  to 
the  place.  In  1864  Dr.  Guthrie  was  forced  to 
give  up  public  speaking,  retired  from  the  pas- 
torate, and  became  editor  of  the  "Sunday 
Magazine,"  then  just  starting.  In  October, 
1872,  he  was  again  prostrated  by  sickness,  and 
in  February,  1873,  went  to  St.  Leonards  in  the 
hope  of  relief,  but  a  fatal  attack  almost  immedi- 
ately ensued.  Dr.  Guthrie  was  remarkably  elo- 
quent both  as  a  pulpit  and  platform  speaker. 
He  published  about  20  volumes,  mostly  collec- 
tions from  his  sermons,  or  republications  from 
"  Good  Words  "  and  the  "  Sunday  Magazine." 
Among  the  most  famous  of  these  are  "  The  Gos- 
pel in  Ezekiel,"  "The  Saint's  Inheritance," 
"  The  Way  to  Life,"  "  On  the  Parables,"  "  Out 
of  Harness,"  "  Speaking  to  the  Heart,"  "  Studies 
of  Character,"  "  The  City  and  Ragged  Schools," 
"  Man  and  the  Gospel,"  and  "  Our  Father's 
Business."  His  works  have  been  republished 
in  America,  including  his  "  Autobiography  and 
Memoir,"  by  his  sons  (1874). 

GUTHRIE,  William,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Brechin  about  1708,  died  in  London  in  1770. 
He  studied  at  Aberdeen,  and  for  some  time 
was  a  schoolmaster,  then  went  to  London  and 
became  an  author  and  compiler,  and  from  1746 
was  pensioned  by  government.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are :  "  General  History  of  Eng- 
land" (3  vols.  fol.,  London,  1744-'50);  "Gen- 
eral History  of  Scotland"  (10  vols.  8vo,  1767 
-'8);  "General  History  of  the  World"  (12 
vols.  8vo,  1764-7) ;  a  "  Peerage ;"  and  a  "  Geo- 
graphical, Historical,  and  Commercial  Gram- 
mar," of  which  numerous  editions  in  all  sizes 
appeared,  the  1st  in  1770,  the  24th  in  1827, 4to. 
Among  his  other  works  is  "  The  Friends,  a 
Sentimental  History  "  (2  vols.  12mo,  1754). 

GUTS-MUTHS,  Jobann  Christoph  Friedricb,  foun- 
der of  the  German  system  of  gymnastics  (Turn- 
weseri),  born  in  Quedlinburg,  Aug.  9, 1759,  died 
at  Schnepfenthal,  May  21,  1839.  In  1779  he 
entered  the  university  of  Halle,  where  he 
passed  three  years  in  the  study  of  theology. 
In  1786  he  was  employed  to  superintend  the 
gymnastic  exercises  of  the  Schnepfenthal  insti- 
tute. He  published  Gymnastik  far  die  Ju- 
gend  (Schnepfenthal,  1793)  ;  Spiele  zur  Uebung 
und  Erholung  des  Korpers  und  Geistesfur  die 
Jugend  (1796) ;  Khines  Lehrbuch  der  Schwimm- 
Icumt  (Weimar,  1798);  Turnbuch  far  die 


GUTTA  PERCHA 


343 


Saline  des  Vaterlands  (Frankfort,  1817);  Hand- 
buch  der  Geographiefur  Lehrer  (Leipsic,  1810) ; 
and  Methodik  der  Geographic  (1835). 

GUTTA  PERCHA  (Malay,  gutta,  gum,  and  per- 
cha, the  name  of  a  tree),  an  inspissated  juice 
called  gutta  taban  by  the  Malays,  the  name  be- 
ing misapplied  by  the  English.  The  tree  which 
produces  the  gum  was  referred  by  Sir  W.  J. 
Hooker  in  1847  to  the  natural  order  sapotacece 
and  Dr.  Wight's  new  genus  iaonandra,  and 
named  the  isonandra  gutta.  It  was  formerly 
abundant  in  the  forests  along  the  foot  of  the 
hills  in  the  Malayan  peninsula,  but  the  natives 
by  cutting  down  the  trees  to  procure  the  juice 
exterminated  the  plant,  and  the  supply  now 
comes  from  Borneo  and  other  islands  of  the  In- 
dian archipelago.  It  is  a  large  tree,  commonly 
3  to  4,  but  sometimes  6  ft.  in  diameter,  with  a 
straight  trunk  and  reaching  the  height  of  60  or 
70  ft.  The  branches  are  numerous  and  ascend- 
and  crowded  with  leaves  at  their  extremi- 


Gutta  Percha  (Isonandra  gutta). 

ties;  these  are  petiolate,  oblong,  4  or  5  in.  long 
and  2  wide,  of  bright  green  above  and  brown- 
ish beneath.  The  flowers  are  small  and  white. 
The  wood  is  peculiarly  soft,  fibrous,  and  spongy, 
pale  colored,  and  traversed  by  longitudinal  re- 
ceptacles filled  with  the  gum,  forming  ebony- 
black  lines.  To  the  Malays  the  valuable  prop- 
erties of  the  juice  of  the  tree  were  known  long 
before  the  Europeans  became  acquainted  with 
the  article.  The  natives  found  that  the  gum 
would  become  soft  and  plastic  in  fcot  water, 
and,  being  then  moulded  into  any  form,  would 
retain  this  when  cold.  They  made  it  into  ba- 
sins, vases,  shoes,  elastic  sticks,  whips,  handles 
for  parangs  or  axes,  &c.  The  attention  of 
Europeans  was  first  called  to  it  in  1842  by 
Dr.  William  Montgomerie,  assistant  surgeon  to 
the  residency  at  Singapore;  and  in  1843  Dr. 
D' Almeida  of  the  same  place  brought  specimens 
of  the  gum  to  England  and  laid  them  before 
the  royal  Asiatic  society.  They  attracted  little 


attention  till  further  communications  from  Dr. 
Montgomerie  established  the  importance  of  the 
article  by  showing  its  applicability  to  the  same 
uses  as  caoutchouc,  and  to  others  besides,  and 
also  the  low  cost  at  which  the  material  could 
be  procured  in  the  greatest  abundance.  In 
1844  a  shipment  of  2  cwt.  was  made  from 
Singapore  as  an  experiment,  and  soon  after 
the  product  suddenly  became  a  commercial 
article  of  importance.  In  1847  Dr.  Oxley 
published  an  interesting  account  of  the  tree 
and  its  product  in  a  Singapore  journal,  de- 
scribing the  uses  to  which  he  had  applied  the 
gum  for  surgical  instruments.  He  stated  that 
the  large  trees  which  were  formerly  very  abun- 
dant on  the  island  of  Singapore  had  been  near- 
ly all  cut  down  by  the  natives,  who  adopted 
this  destructive  method  of  obtaining  the  juice, 
and  who  had  sacrificed  by  his  estimation  69,- 
180  trees  to  procure  one  tenth  this  number  of 
piculs,  which  was  the  exportation  from  Jan.  1, 
1845,  to  July,  1847.  The  custom  of  tapping 
has  since  been  introduced.  The  sap  soon  co- 
agulates after  it  is  collected,  or  it  is  made  to  do 
so  by  boiling,  and  is  then  kneaded  by  hand 
into  oblong  masses,  7  to  12  in.  long  and  4  or  5 
broad.  Its  dark  reddish  brown  color  is  de- 
rived from  the  impurities,  as  bits  of  the  bark, 
that  have  accidentally  fallen  into  the  juice,  or 
from  sawdust  and  other  substances  introduced 
as  adulterants. — Purified  gutta  percha  has  a 
brownish  red  color  and  a  density  of  0*979.  It 
is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  by  friction 
with  almost  any  other  substance  (gun  cotton 
and  collodion  are  exceptions)  it  develops  nega- 
tive electricity.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it 
has  considerable  tenacity,  being  nearly  as  strong 
as  leather,  but  much  less  flexible.  When  heated 
to  115°  F.  it  becomes  pasty,  and  between  this 
and  140°  or  150°  it  may  be  moulded  into  vari: 
ous  shapes  or  drawn  out  into  wires  or  tubes. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  slightly  soluble  in 
anhydrous  alcohol  and  anhydrous  ether,  but 
soluble  in  boiling  olive  oil,  from  which  it  is  de- 
posited on  cooling.  Benzine,  sulphide  of  car- 
bon, chloroform,  and  oil  of  turpentine  dissolve 
it  with  the  aid  of  heat.  It  is  insoluble  in  alka- 
line solutions  or  hydrochloric  and  hydrofluoric 
acids,  and  therefore  may  be  advantageously 
used  as  a  material  for  vessels  to  contain  these 
liquids.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  carbonizes  it, 
and  nitric  acid  oxidizes  it,  converting  it  to  a 
yellow  resin.  Gutta  percha  is  remarkably  po- 
rous. If  a  thin  film  be  deposited  upon  a  plate 
of  glass  or  porcelain  from  its  solution  in  sul- 
phide of  carbqn,  when  examined  with  the  mi- 
croscope it  will  be  found  full  of  minute  pores. 
When  subjected  to  traction  it  becomes  fibrous, 
and  will  then  resist  a  much  greater  force  with- 
out extension.  Pure  gutta  percha  is  a  hydro- 
carbon, having  the  formula  C20H32.  When  ex- 
posed to  light  and  air  it  slowly  absorbs  oxygen, 
and  is  converted  into  a  white  resin,  having  the 
composition  C2oH32O2,  and  a  yellow,  C2oH320, 
both  of  which  are  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol. 
The  purified  commercial  article  usually  con- 


GUTTA  PERCHA 


tains  from  75  to  82  per  cent,  of  pure  gutta,  the 
remainder  being  composed  of  the  two  resins 
just  mentioned. — The  treatment  of  gutta  per- 
cha  is  similar  to  that  already  described  under 
CAOUTCHOUC.  The  first  process  is  to  purify  it 
of  the  foreign  substances,  as  earth,  stones,  and 
sticks,  with  which  it  is  contaminated.  For 
this  purpose  the  blocks  are  sliced,  by  knives 
attached  to  powerful  wheels,  into  shavings. 
These  are  introduced  into  a  large  tank  of 
water  heated  by  escape  steam  to  boiling.  The 
gum  softens  and  runs  together,  and  by  the  boil- 
ing most  of  the  impurities  separate  and  sub- 
side. The  mass  is  then  removed  to  a  machine 
called  a  teaser,  which  is  a  large  box  containing 
a  drum  armed  with  rows  of  crooked  teeth. 
This,  revolving  rapidly,  tears  the  gum  into 
shreds,  which  fall  into  a  vessel  of  water,  in 
which  it  floats,  and  the  remaining  impurities 
subside.  The  purified  fragments  are  again 
boiled ;  they  again  run  into  a  soft  mass,  and 
this  is  taken  into  the  kneading  or  masticating 
machine,  which  is  a  strong  cast-iron  box  con- 
taining a  revolving  cast-iron  drum  armed  with 
strong  iron  teeth ;  or  instead  of  the  drum,  two 
parallel  rollers  with  screws  on  their  surface  are 
employed.  Steam  is  let  into  the  machine,  and 
the  gutta  percha,  kept  soft  by  its  heat,  is  thor- 
oughly kneaded  and  brought  to  uniform  con- 
sistency without  air  or  water  in  the  mass.  It 
is  then  ready  to  be  rolled  into  sheets  or  pressed 
into  tubes;  the  former  in  their  various  sizes 
and  thicknesses  furnish  the  article  in  shapes 
convenient  of  application  to  most  of  the  uses 
to  which  it  is  adapted.  Tubes  are  produced 
by  forcing  the  kneaded  mass  through  a  steel 
cylinder  which  terminates  in  a  mould  with  a 
circular  metallic  core.  Passing  through  this, 
the  soft  substance  is  prevented  from  col- 
lapsing by  being  drawn  through  a  long  chan- 
nel of  water  by  the  revolution  of  a  drum 
at  the  other  extremity  of  the  canal.  By 
continually  supplying  the  material  the  tubes 
are  made  without  interruption ;  and  in  this 
way  a  single  length  has  been  produced  of  1,000 
ft.  These  tubes  by  their  remarkable  strength 
are  well  adapted  for  resisting  great  pressures ; 
they  are  used  for  aqueducts,  for  feed  pipes  of 
steam  engines,  for  hose,  pump  barrels,  and  va- 
rious other  purposes  connected  with  the  con- 
veyance of  water,  gases,  and  vapors.  The  first 
machinery  built  for  the  coating  of  telegraph 
wire  with  gutta  percha  was  in  the  autumn  of 
1848,  at  the  works  of  the  American  gutta  per- 
cha company  in  Brooklyn.  The  first  order  for 
the  prepared  wire  was  for  the  Morse  telegraph 
company,  and  it  was  laid  across  the  Hud- 
son river  at  Fort  Lee  in  August,  1849.  The 
gutta  percha  employed  was  prepared  with  the 
greatest  care  to  insure  its  purity.  The  rasp- 
ings, rolled  and  then  macerated  in  hot  water, 
were  washed  in  cold  water,  and  then,  being 
softened  by  boiling  water,  were  driven  by  hy- 
draulic apparatus  through  cylinders,  in  the  end 
of  which  were  wire-gauze  sieves.  After  this 
the  substance  was  thoroughly  masticated  and 


kneaded,  by  which  it  was  entirely  deprived  of 
moisture  and  rendered  homogeneous  and  com- 
pact ;  and  it  was  then  introduced  into  the  long 
horizontal  cylinders  kept  hot  by  steam,  and 
powerfully  compressed  by  screw  pistons  worked 
by  machinery.  As  it  was  forced  out  at  the 
extremity  the  gutta  percha  was  made  to  pass 
through  a  die,  in  which  the  strand  of  copper 
wires  was  introduced,  and  the  whole  was 
drawn  along  by  a  revolving  drum  upon  which 
it  was  wound.  A  second  and  third  layer  of 
gutta  percha  were  added  to  the  core  by  repe- 
titions of  the  process.  Mr.  Charles  Goodyear 
applied  the  same  process  to  moulding  various 
articles  in  gutta  percha,  attaching  the  moulds, 
which  were  of  metal  in  several  pieces  securely 
bolted  together,  to  the  end  of  the  cylinder, 
through  which  the  plastic  gum  was  forced. 
Holes  were  left  for  the  escape  of  the  air  in  the 
moulds,  and  the  appearance  of  the  gutta  per- 
cha at  these  indicated  the  completion  of  the 
filling. — Gutta  percha  is  often  used  in  combi- 
nation with  caoutchouc,  the  latter  serving  to 
soften  and  render  the  material  more  pliable 
and  elastic,  and  less  liable  to  be  affected  by 
changes  of  temperature.  Both  are  alike  affect- 
ed by  the  treatment  called  vulcanizing,  which 
is  thoroughly  mixing  the  gum  with  sulphur  or 
some  of  its  compounds,  and  then  subjecting  the 
mixture  to  an  elevated  temperature  in  close 
vessels.  (See  CAOUTCHOUC.)  The  methods  and 
materials  employed  for  vulcanizing  gutta  per- 
cha are  numerous,  and  the  object  desired  is 
not  always  the  same.  A  hard  horny  material 
is  produced  under  the  patent  of  Mr.  Stephen 
Moulton,  by  mixing  the  gum  with  hyposulphite 
of  lead  and  adding  more  or  less  of  calcined 
magnesia,  and  then  subjecting  the  compound 
to  a  temperature  of  250°  to  300°  for  some 
hours.  Mr.  Hancock  in  his  patent  of  1847  em- 
ployed a  mixture  of  48  parts  of  gutta  percha 
with  6  parts  of  sulphuret  of  antimony,  sulphu- 
ret  of  calcium,  or  some  other  similar  sulphu- 
ret, and  1  part  of  sulphur.  Mr.  Emory  Rider 
of  London  in  1856  patented  an  improvement 
which  consisted  in  the  addition  of  1  part  of 
litharge  to  66  parts  of  gutta  percha,  together 
with  1  part  of  sulphur,  or  its  equivalent  in 
some  of  its  compounds.  These  substances  are 
mixed  and  well  incorporated  into  the  plastic 
gum  by  the  action  of  heated  rollers,  which,  re- 
volving at  different  speeds,  powerfully  wear 
and  grind  the  material ;  after  which,  in  a  close 
metallic  vessel  one  third  filled,  it  is  subjected 
to  the  vulcanizing  temperature  for  a  few  hours. 
The  patents  for  mixing  gutta  percha  with  other 
substances  are  too  numerous  to  be  particularly 
noticed  ;  even  these  substances  are  almost  in- 
numerable. The  object  of  these  various  mix- 
tures is  to  produce  materials  of  different  de- 
grees of  hardness  and  of  different  capacities  of 
resistance  to  changes  of  temperature  and  other 
causes  of  change,  but  which  may  still  be  mould- 
ed into  and  retain  the  form  of  useful  articles. 
The  principal  use  of  gutta  percha  is  for  cover- 
ing telegraph  cables.  It  is  also  used  by  den- 


GUTZKOW 


GUY 


345 


BVH. 

C, 



for  taking  impressions  of  the  teeth  and 

0  ms,  and  sometimes  for  a  temporary  filling  for 
cavities.    Baths  and  other  articles  for  chemical 
laboratories,  as  funnels  and  tubing,  may  also 
be  advantageously  made  of  it.     Many  articles 
sold  under  the  name  of  gutta  percha  are  com- 

itions  of  caoutchouc  with  other  substances. 
GUTZKOW,  Karl  Ferdinand,  a  German  author, 
orn  in  Berlin,  March  17,  1811.     While  study- 
ing theology  and  philosophy  at  the  university, 

1  e  published  in  1831  Forum  der  Journallitera- 

r.  His  next  work  was  a  novel,  Maha  Guru, 
hichte  eines  Gottes  (1833).  He  became 
ciated  as  a  journalist  with  W.  Menzel  at 
.ittgart,  and  published  Novellen  (2  vols., 
B4),  and  Soireen  and  Oeffentliche  Charalctere 
835).  His  drama  Nero,  his  preface  to  Schlei- 
her's  letters  on  Friedrich  von  Schlegel, 
his  novel  Watty,  die  Zweiflerin,  all  ap- 
ing in  1835,  confirmed  his  reputation  as 
head  of  "  Young  Germany."  For  the  last 
ed  work  (which  was  reprinted  in  1852  un- 
T  the  title  Vergangene  Tage)  he  was  impris- 
for  three  months  at  Mannheim,  his  for- 
friend  Menzel  and  other  influential  wri- 
•s  denouncing  the  tendency  of  his  writings 
inimical  to  religion  and  society.  While  in 
>n  he  wrote  Zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte 
836),  in  opposition  to  Hegelianism,  and  next 
ent  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  married.  To 
.de  the  censorship,  he  published  Die  Zeit- 
n  (2  vols.,  1837,  subsequently  included 
his  works  under  the  title  Sakularbilder) 
er  the  name  of  Bulwer ;  and  in  order  to 
oy  greater  literary  freedom  he  removed  to 
amburg  in  1838.  Here  he  wrote,  besides 
"  .ers,  one  of  his  most  characteristic  humor- 
s  and  satirical  novels  in  the  vein  of  Jean 
ul  Richter,  Blasedow  und  seine  Sohne  (3 
Is.,  1838-'9)  and  BornJs  Leben  (1840).  Here 
also  opened  a  new  era  in  the  German  drama 
his  tragedy  Richard  Savage  (1840)  and  by 
ny  other  plays,  including  his  most  popular 
edies,  Zopf  und  Schwerdt  (1844)  and  Das 
rrbild  des  Tartufe  (1847),  and  his  most  ad- 
red  tragedy,  Uriel  Acosta  (1847).  He  ed- 
~  the  Telegraph  fur  Deutschland  till  1842, 
hen,  after  a  visit  to  Paris,  which  he  described 
his  Brief  e  aus  Paris  (2  vols.,  1842),  he  left 
burg  to  supervise  at  Frankfort  a  complete 
ition  of  his  works  (12  vols.,  1845-'6).  In 
7  he  succeeded  Tieck  as  dramatist  at  the 
en  theatre,  and  from  1852  to  1862  he 
ited  at  Frankfort  the  weekly  journal  Unter- 
n  am  hauslichen  Herd.  His  fame  as 
e  foremost  German  novelist  of  his  day  was 
,blished  by  Die  Sitter  vom  Geiste  (9  vols., 
0-'52),  Die  Dialconissin  (1855),  Der  Zaube- 
wn  Rom  (9  vols.,  1859-'61),  and  Die  Icleine 
rarrenwelt  (3  vols.,  1856).  In  1862  he  became 
ef  secretary  of  the  Schiller  institution  at 
eimar.  In  1864  he  made  an  attempt  on  his 
at  Friedberg,  near  Giessen,  in  a  fit  of  in- 
ky, from  which  he  recovered  after  a  time, 
d  resumed  his  literary  activity  by  the  publi- 
ion  of  various  works,  including  the  novel 


Hohenschwangau  (3  vols.,  1868).  After  ta- 
king up  his  residence  in  Berlin  in  1870  he 
published  Lelensbilder  (3  vols.,  1870-'72) ;  Die 
Sohne  Pestalozzis  (3  vols.,  1870),  the  plot  of 
which  is  connected  with  the  story  of  Kaspar 
Hauser;  and  Fritz  Ellrodt  (3  vols.,  1872). 

GUTZLAFF,  Karl,  a  German  missionary,  born 
in  Pyritz,  Pomerania,  July  8,  1803,  died  in 
Victoria,  Hong  Kong,  Aug.  9,  1851.  He  was 
born  of  poor  parents,  and  was  apprenticed  to 
a  belt  maker  at  Stettin.  A  sonnet  which  he 
addressed  to  the  king  of  Prussia  led  to  his 
being  admitted  as  a  student  into  the  mission- 
ary institute  at  Berlin.  His  first  appointment 
was  from  the  Dutch  missionary  society  at  Rot- 
terdam, which  sent  him  to  Batavia  in  1826. 
There  he  married  a  rich  English  lady,  and 
during  the  two  years  that  he  remained  in  Java 
he  mastered  the  Chinese  language.  He  then 
determined  to  go  on  his  own  account  to  China. 
Happening  in  the  summer  of  1828  to  fall  in 
with  an  English  missionary  named  Tomlin, 
stationed  in  Siam,  he  went  with  him  to  Bang- 
kok, where  he  stayed  three  years  learning  the 
Siamese  language,  and  assisting  Tomlin  to 
translate  the  New  Testament  into  that  tongue. 
Proceeding  thence  to  China,  he  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Macao,  where  he  cooperated  with 
Morrison,  Medhurst,  and  others,  in  their  mis- 
sionary labors,  he  being  now  in  communion 
with  the  Anglican  church.  In  1831-'3  he 
made  extensive  observations  along  the  coasts 
of  China,  Siam,  Corea,  and  the  Loo  Choo 
islands,  first  in  the  disguise  of  a  Chinaman, 
and  afterward  as  interpreter  and  surgeon  on 
board  the  British  ship  Lord  Amherst.  On  the 
death  of  Dr.  Morrison,  in  1834,  Giitzlaff  was 
invited  to  succeed  him  as  interpreter  to  the 
British  superintendency.  The  difficulties  that 
had  grown  up  between  the  Chinese  and  Brit- 
ish had  obstructed  the  progress  of  the  missions. 
The  circulation  of  works  in  the  Chinese  charac- 
ter was  forbidden,  and  the  missionaries  were 
compelled  to  remove  their  presses  to  Singapore. 
Afterward  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
British  plenipotentiary,  and  finally  superinten- 
dent of  trade,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death.  In  1844  he  originated  a  society,  os- 
tensibly Chinese,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
Christianity  into  the  interior  through  the  me- 
dium of  native  agents,  and  in  1849  visited 
Europe  in  behalf  of  the  project.  Besides  his 
translation  of  Biblical  works  into  various  Asiatic 
languages,  he  wrote  in  English,  "History  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  "  (London,  1834),  "  China 
Opened  "  (1838),  a  "  Journal  of  three  Voyages 
along  the  Coast  of  China  "  (1831-'3),  and  a 
"Life  of  Tao-Kuang"  (1851);  and  in  Chinese, 
"  Pro  and  Contra."  Among  his  German  works 
are  Allgemeine  Lander-  und  VoUcerkunde 
(Ningpo,  1843),  Geschichte  des  chinesischen 
Seiches  (Stuttgart,  1847). 

GUT,  Thomas,  an  English  philanthropist,  born 
at  Horsleydown  in  1643,  died  in  London,  Dec. 
17,  1724.  In  1660  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
bookseller  in  London,  and  after  his  apprentice- 


34.6 


GUYON 


ship  commenced  business  with  a  capital  of 
£200.  Being  very  parsimonious,  he  rapidly 
accumulated  a  fortune.  He  farmed  the  privi- 
lege of  printing  Bibles  from  Oxford  university, 
and  during  Queen  Anne's  wars  bought  gov- 
ernment securities  at  a  depreciated  rate.  He 
also  made  large  sums  by  buying  South  sea 
stock.  He  had  engaged  to  marry  a  favorite 
servant  maid,  but  for  some  trifling  offence  he 
broke  his  engagement  and  repudiated  her. 
From  this  period  he  determined  to  lead  a  life 
of  celibacy,  and  to  devote  his  property  to 
eleemosynary  purposes.  The  erection  of  the 
hospital  at  Southwark  which  bears  his  name 
cost  £18,793,  and  the  sum  which  he  left  for  its 
endowment  amounted  to  £219,499.  He  also 
built  an  almshouse  at  Tamworth  in  Stafford- 
shire, for  14  poor  men  and  women,  and  be- 
queathed to  it  £125  a  year ;  while  to  Christ's 
hospital,  London,  he  left  an  annuity  of  £400 
for  ever.  Esteemed  an  avaricious  and  selfish 
man  by  his  contemporaries,  he  yet  dedicated 
more  money  to  charitable  objects  than  any 
other  private  individual  on  record  in  England. 
He  also  left  £80,000  to  be  divided  among  those 
proving  any  degree  of  relationship  to  him. 

(.MOV  Jeanne  Marie  Homier  de  la  Motto,  a 
French  mystical  writer,  born  in  Montargis, 
April  13,  1648,  died  in  Blois,  June  9,  1717. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Claude  Bouvier, 
seigneur  de  La  Motte  Vergouville,  and  early 
displayed  a  religious  turn  of  mind,  which  was 
fostered  by  her  parents,  although  they  would 
not  permit  her  to  enter  a  convent.  In  1664 
she  was  married  to  Jacques  Guyon,  a  man  of 
uncongenial  temper  and  22  years  her  senior ; 
but  she  succeeded  at  length  in  converting  him 
to  her  religious  views.  Five  children  were 
born  of  this  union,  two  of  whom  died  young. 
M.  Guyon  died  in  1676;  and  in  1680  Mme. 
Guyon  removed  to  Paris,  where  she  devoted 
herself  to  the  education  of  her  children  and  to 
charitable  labors.  She  went  to  Geneva  for 
religious  work,  and  later  to  Gex.  Here  she  be- 
came intimately  acquainted  with  a  priest  named 
Lacombe,  who  restored  her  cheerfulness  at  a 
time  of  religious  depression,  and  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop  to  be  her  spiritual  direc- 
tor, but  was  in  fact  wholly  subjected  to  her  in- 
fluence. The  peculiar  views  on  sanctification 
and  other  doctrines  advanced  by  them  soon 
brought  them  under  suspicion  of  heresy,  and 
in  1684  both  she  and  Lacombe  were  ordered 
by  the  bishop  to  leave  his  diocese.  She  went 
then  successively  to  Turin,  Grenoble,  Mar- 
seilles, Nice,  Genoa,  Vercelli,  and  Grenoble 
again,  where  her  instructions  proved  very  at- 
tractive, but  exposed  her  to  persecution.  Du- 
ring these  journeys  she  composed  her  "  Spirit- 
ual Torrents  "  and  "  Short  and  Easy  Method  of 
Prayer,"  and  began  her  commentaries  on  the 
Bible.  In  1686  she  returned  to  Paris,  where 
she  spent  some  time  in  comparative  retirement. 
She  was  sought  out,  however,  by  multitudes 
of  persons,  among  whom  were  many  of  high 
rank.  With  the  duchess  de  Beauvilliers,  the 


duchess  de  Bethune,  and  the  countess  de 
Guiche,  she  organized  meetings  of  ladies  of 
rank  for  prayer  and  religious  conversation. 
The  duke  de  Beauvilliers  and  the  duke  and 
duchess  de  Chevreuse  were  among  her  dis- 
ciples. Shortly  before  this  the  writings  of 
Miguel  de  Molinos,  the  originator  of  the  party 
called  "  quietists,"  had  been  condemned  at 
Rome  as  heretical,  and  it  was  soon  perceived 
that  the  teachings  of  Mme.  Guyon  were  but 
little  different  from  his.  A  vigorous  movement 
was  begun  for  their  suppression,  under  the 
leadership  of  Mme.  Guyon's  half  brother  La 
Motte,  a  Barnabite  priest.  The  first  step  was 
the  imprisonment  in  the  Bastile  of  Lacombe, 
whose  preaching  was  producing  extraordinary 
effect,  and  this  was  soon  followed  by  the  ar- 
rest of  Mme.  Guyon  herself  by  royal  order,  and 
her  confinement  in  the  convent  of  Ste.  Marie 
(January,  1688);  but  at  the  end  of  eight 
months  she  was  released  through  the  inter- 
cession of  Mme.  de  Maintenon.  Soon  after 
this  she  met  Fenelon,  who  became  deeply  en- 
gaged in  her  instructions,  while  she  was  equal- 
ly interested  that  he  might  be  brought  to  her 
own  views.  Mme.  de  Maintenon  was  likewise 
fascinated  with  her,  and  permitted  her  to  dis- 
seminate her  opinions  at  the  female  seminary 
of  St.  Cyr.  At  the  suggestion  of  a  brother  of 
Boileau  she  wrote  an  apology  for  the  "Method 
of  Prayer,"  which  renewed  the  outcry  against 
her.  A  royal  commission,  of  which  Bossuet 
and  Fenelon  were  both  members,  examined  her 
writings,  and  a  few  passages  were  marked  out 
as  erroneous.  To  this  decision  Mme.  Guyon 
submitted;  but  Bossuet  wrote  a  treatise 
against  her  u  Method  of  Prayer,"  which  em- 
bodied severe  reflections  upon  her  character 
and  conduct.  It  was  the  refusal  of  Fenelon 
to  lend  his  signature  to  this  Avork  which  led 
to  the  rupture  between  the  two  illustrious 
prelates.  (See  F^NELON.)  Meanwhile  Mme. 
Guyon  was  imprisoned  at  Vincennes,  in  the 
Bastile,  and  subsequently  at  Vaugirard.  In  or- 
der, it  is  said,  to  prejudice  the  court  of  Rome 
against  Fenelon,  whose  "  Maxims  of  the 
Saints,"  a  treatise  designed  to  favor  Mme. 
Guyon's  doctrines,  was  then  under  examina- 
tion by  the  pope,  a  letter  was  obtained  from 
Lacombe,  imprisoned  at  Vincennes,  in  which 
he  exhorted  Mme.  Guyon  to  repent  of  their 
criminal  intimacy.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
intellect  of  the  enthusiast  had  been  impaired 
by  his  confinement,  and  in  fact  he  died  insane 
not  long  afterward.  Nevertheless,  Mme. 
Guyon  was  sent  back  to  the  Bastile,  her  son 
was  dismissed  from  the  army,  and  some  of  her 
friends  were  banished.  Her  virtue,  however, 
was  acknowledged  in  the  assembly  of  the 
French  clergy  at  St.  Germain  in  1700,  and  in 
1702  she  was  released  from  prison  and  ban- 
ished to  Diziers,  where  and  in  the  neighboring 
city  of  Blois  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life  in 
perfect  retirement,  professing  on  her  deathbed 
an  unhesitating  faith  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  all  its  dogmas.  The  heresies  of 


GUYOT 


Ihich  she  was  suspected  consisted  mainly  in 
jr  doctrine  of  sanctification  by  faith,  and  of 
that  complete  identification  of  the  will  with 
the  will  of  God  which  quietists  call  the 
"fixed"  or  "continuous  state,"  and  which  is 
fully  described  in  the  "  Spiritual  Guide  "  of 
Molinos.  She  charged  her  opponents  with 
having  interpolated  passages  in  her  works  and 
>rged  several  writings  which  bore  her  name, 
er  principal  works  are  :  Moyen  court  et  tres- 
7acile  pour  Voraison  (Lyons,  1688-'90);  Les 
'ents  spirituels,  first  printed  in  an  edition 
her  Opuscules  spirituels  (Cologne,  1704) ; 
litres  de  VAncien  et  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
t,  traduits  en  fran$ais,  avec  des  explica- 
ns  et  des  reflexions  qui  regardent  la  me 
'  ieure  (20  vols.  8vo,  Cologne,  1713-'15) ; 
urs  Chretiens  et  spirituels  (1716)  ;  Lettres 
'etiennes,  &c.  (4  vols.  8vo,  1717)  ;  collections 
hymns,  &c. ;  and  her  autobiography,  written 
ring  her  imprisonment,  and  published  after 
r  death  (  Vie  de  Madame  Guy  on,  ecrite  par 
meme,  3  vols.  12mo,  Cologne,  1720).  This 
ork  is  silent  upon  some  of  the  most  important 
cidents  of  her  life,  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  it  was  written  by  Poiret  from  her  papers. 
~  "any  of  her  hymns  were  translated  by  Cow- 
. — See  Upham's  "Life  and  Eeligious  Opin- 
s  and  Experience  of  Madame  de  la  Motte 
uyon"  (2  vols.  12mo,  New  York,  1847). 
€ITOT,  Arnold  Henry,  an  American  geogra- 
r,  born  near  Neufchatel,  Switzerland,  Sept. 
;,  1807.  He  studied  at  Neufchatel,  Stuttgart, 
d  Carlsruhe,  where  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Agassiz,  and  began  with  him 
the  study  of  natural  science.  He  afterward 
studied  theology  for  three  years  at  Neufchatel 
and  Berlin ;  but  he  was  gradually  led  to  de- 
vote himself  to  physics,  meteorology,  chemis- 
try, mineralogy,  zoology,  and  botany.  In  1835 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  resided  five  years, 
passing  the  winters  in  study  and  the  sum- 
mers in  scientific  excursions  through  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Italy.  In  a  tour  of 
Switzerland  in  1838,  he  first  discovered  the 
inated  structure  of  the  ice  in  glaciers,  the 
otion  of  the  central  portion  being  more  rapid 
that  of  the  borders,  as  in  streams  of.  water, 
e  showed  that  the  motion  of  the  glacier  is 
to  the  displacement  of  its  molecules.  These 
veries  were  fully  confirmed  and  illustrated 
the  investigations  of  Agassiz,  Forbes,  and 
ers,  several  years  afterward.  He  next  in- 
igated  the  distribution  of  erratic  bowlders, 
order  to  solve  the  question  of  the  mode  of 
eir  transportation.  De  Saussure,  Von  Buch, 
lier,  and  Charpentier  had  made  numerous 
ervations  on  this  subject,  but  the  extent  and 
e  limits  of  these  great  outpourings  of  rocks 
the  bosom  of  the  Alps  were  not  accurate- 
known.  During  seven  successive  summers 
uyot  traced  them  on  both  sides  of  the  central 
Ips,  in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  over  a  surface 
*"  m.  long  and  200  m.  wide',  and  delineated 
ven  different  regions  of  rocks.  Their  verti- 
limits  and  the  laws  of  their  descent  were 


GUYSBOEOUGH 


347 


determined  by  means  of  more  than  3,000  baro- 
metrical observations;  and  the  characteristic 
species  of  rock  of  each  basin  were  tracked  step 
by  step  to  their  source.  The  full  details  of 
these  investigations  were  announced  to  form 
the  second  volume  of  the  Systeme  glaciaire  by 
Agassiz,  Guyot,  and  Desor,  the  first  volume 
of  which  was  printed  in  Paris  in  1848 ;  but  po- 
litical disturbances  and  the  removal  of  Guyot 
to  the  United  States  prevented  its  publication. 
A  topographical  map  of  the  subaqueous  basin  of 
the  lake  of  Neufchatel,  believed  to  be  the  first 
of  the  kind  ever  published,  was  his  next  work. 
Guyot  was  professor  of  history  and  physical 
geography  in  the  academy  of  Neufchatel  from 
1839  to  1848.  He  then  removed  to  the  United 
States,  and  resided  for  several  years  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  occasionally  delivering  lectures 
on  his  favorite  subjects.  He  delivered  in  Bos- 
ton in  the  winter  of  1848-'9,  in  the  French 
language,  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  relations 
between  physical  geography  and  history,  after- 
ward translated  and  collected  into  a  volume 
under  the  title  of  "Earth  and  Man."  He  was 
now  employed  by  the  Massachusetts  board  of 
education  to  deliver  lectures  in  the  normal 
schools  of  the  state  and  before  the  teachers' 
institutes,  and  by  the  Smithsonian  institution 
to  organize  a  system  of  meteorological  obser- 
vations, for  which  he  prepared  an  extensive 
series  of  practical  tables.  He  was  the  first  to 
determine  the  true  height  of  Mt.  Washington, 
in  1851 ;  of  the  Black  mountains  of  North  Caro- 
lina, in  1856;  and  of  the  Green  mountains  of 
Vermont,  in  1857.  By  these  investigations  he 
ascertained  that  there  are  more  than  20  peaks 
in  the  Black  and  Smoky  ranges  higher  than 
Mt.  Washington.  In  1855  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  physical  geography  in'  the  college 
of  New  Jersey  at  Princeton,  which  post  he  still 
retains.  In  1873  the  Vienna  international  ex- 
hibition gave  him  a  medal  of  progress  for  his 
geographical  works.  He  read  a  paper  on 
"Cosmogony  and  the  Bible"  before  the  meet- 
ing of  the  evangelical  alliance  in  New  York  in 
1873,  embodying  the  substance  of  a  course  of 
lectures  previously  delivered  in  the  Union  the- 
ological seminary  in  New  York.  He  has  also 
published  "Directions  for  Meteorological  Ta- 
bles" (Washington,  1850);  "  Geographical  Se- 
ries, Primary  Geography  "  (New  York,  1866  ; 
almost  immediately  republished  under  the  title 
"Introduction  to  Geography");  "Intermedi- 
ate Geography"  (1870);  and  "Physical  Geog- 
raphy," with  a  set  of  wall  maps  (1873).  He 
has  delivered  lectures  on  "  The  Unity  of  the 
System  of  Life,  the  true  Foundation  of  the  Clas- 
sification of  Plants  and  Animals,"  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  before  the  Smithsonian  institution 
in  Washington,  and  on  "Man  Primeval,"  in 
the  Union  theological  seminary  in  New  York. 

GH  SBOROl  Gil,  an  E.  county  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  bordering  N.  E.  on  the  gut  of  Canso 
and  Chedabucto  bay,  and  S.  E.  on  the  Atlan- 
tic; area,  1,656  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  16,555, 
of  whom  5,348  were  of  Scotch,  4,000  of  Irish, 


348       GUYTON  DE  MORVEAU 

3,575  of  English,  and  1,190  of  French  origin. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  St.  Mary's  and  other 
rivers,  and  the  coast  is  indented  by  numerous 
inlets.  The  fisheries  are  important,  and  gold 
raining  is  carried  on  at  several  points.  Along 
the  coast  the  land  is  rocky  and  barren,  but  in 
the  interior  there  are  some  excellent  farming 
tracts.  Capital,  Guysborough. 

GUYTON  DE  MORVEAl,  Louis  Bernard,  a 
French  chemist,  born  in  Dijon,  Jan.  4,  1737, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  2, 1816.  While  yet  a  minor 
he  was  appointed  deputy  attorney  general  at 
the  parliament  of  Dijon,  which  post  he  held 
till  1782.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  scientific 
pursuits,  and  procured  the  establishment  at  the 
academy  of  Dijon  in  1774  of  public  lectures 
upon  various  branches  of  natural  philosophy, 
and  himself  undertook  the  professorship  of 
chemistry.  In  conjunction  with  Maret  and 
Durande,  he  published  in  1777  Elements  de 
chimie  theorique  et  pratique,  and  also  publish- 
ed annotated  translations  of  several  treatises 
of  Bergman,  Scheele,  and  Black.  As  Dearly  as 
1773  he  had  used  chlorine  as  a  general  disin- 
fecting agent,  and  made  the  results  of  his  ex- 
perience known  in  his  Traite  des  moyens  de 
desinfecter  Vair  (1801).  He  suggested  in  1782 
the  plan  of  a  new  chemical  nomenclature, 
which  was  at  once  adopted  by  Lavoisier  and 
others,  who,  in  conjunction  with  him,  per- 
fected the  original  idea  and  reduced  it  to 
the  shape  it  still  retains.  Meanwhile  Guyton 
wrote  the  Dictionnaire  de  chimie  for  the  Ency- 
clopedie  methodique.  In  1791  he  was  elected 
deputy  to  the  legislative  assembly,  and  after- 
ward to  the  convention,  where  he  voted  for 
the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was  among  the 
promoters  of  the  polytechnic  school,  in  which 
lie  was  subsequently  professor  and  director. 
He  was  administrator  of  the  mint  from  1800 
to  1814,  and  favored  the  decimal  system. 

GUZERAT,  or  Gnjerat  (Hindoo,  Gurjara  Rash- 
tra\  a  large  district  of  India,  in  the  province 
of  Bombay,  between  lat.  20°  45' and  24°  45'  N., 
and  Ion.  69°  and  74°  20'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  the 
gulf  of  Outch  and  Rajpootana,  E.  by  Candeish 
and  Malvva,  S.  by  several  British  collectorates, 
the  gulf  of  Canibay,  and  the  Arabian  sea,  and 
W.  by  Cutch  and  the  sea;  area,  41,536  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  estimated  at  3,000,000.  It  comprehends 
the  peninsula  of  Cattywar,  the  dominions  of 
the  guicowar,  and  several  petty  native  states. 
The  Western  Ghauts  form  its  E.  boundary  as 
far  N.  as  lat.  21°  28',  when  they  turn  eastward. 
The  W.  extremities  of  the  Sautpoora  and  Vin- 
dhya  mountains  extend  a  short  distance  into  the 
province.  The  central  regions  are  level  and 
open.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Snbbermnt- 
tee,  Mhyee,  Nerbudda,  Taptee,  and  western  Bu- 
nass.  The  mineral  resources  are  small,  and 
confined  chiefly  to  iron  and  fine  carnelians. 
The  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  wolf,  hyfena,  antelope, 
deer,  nylgau,  camel,  and  buffalo  are  common. 
The  staple  crop  is  cotton,  which  occupies  about 
one  half  of  the  tilled  land.  Rice  is  much  cul- 
tivated, and  wheat,  barley,  bajra  (the  princi- 


GWALIOR 

pal  food  of  the  poorer  classes),  gram,  &c.,  are 
abundant.  The  inhabitants  comprise  Hindoos, 
Mahrattas,  Rajpoots,  Parsees,  Coolies,  Koon- 
bies  (an  agricultural  tribe),  Dunjas  (who  sub- 
sist chiefly  by  the  chase  and  fishing),  Catties 
(who  predominate  in  Cattywar),  Jains,  Bheels, 
Charuns,  and  Bhats.  Among  the  principal 
towns  are  Baroda,  Dongurpoor,  and'Cambay. 
— Guzerat  formed  part  of  the  Mohammedan 
empire  of  Delhi,  and,  after  having  been  sep- 
arated from  it  during  the  Toghluk  dynasty, 
was  reannexed  by  Akbar  in  1572,  and  re- 
mained a  dependency  till  1724.  The  Mahratta 
peishwa  and  the  guicowar  held  large  posses- 
sions  in  Guzerat,  but  the  authority  of  the  latter 
only  is  now  recognized,  the  peishwa's  territory 
having  been  ceded  to  the  British. 

GWALIOR,  or  Guallor.  I.  A  part  of  India  un- 
til lately  nominally  independent,  but  now  sub- 
sidiary to  the  British,  bordering  on  the  North- 
west Provinces,  Bombay,  &c.  It  stretches  very 
irregularly  between  lat.  21°  and  26°  40'  N., 
and  Ion.  73°  40'  and  77°  E.;  area,  33,119  sq. 
m.;  pop.  about  3,250,000.  The  surface  of 
the  country  in  the  north  is  level,  in  the  centre 
hilly,  and  in  the  south  rises  into  the  Vindhya 
and  Satpoora  mountains.  The  Chumbul  river 
bounds  it  on  the  N.  W. ;  other  rivers  are  the 
Sinde,  Betwah,  and  Dussam,  flowing  general- 
ly K.  into  the  Jumna.  S.  of  the  mountains 
the  Nerbudda  and  Taptee  flow  W.  The  soil 
is  generally  very  fertile.  The  climate  in  the 
elevated  S.  part  is  mild  and  healthful.  In  Jan- 
uary and  February  the  thermometer  falls  three 
or  four  degrees  below  the  freezing  point ;  in  the 
summer  it  sometimes  rises  to  100°.  The  most 
important  product  of  the  country  is  opium, 
which  is  delivered  by  treaty  at  a  certain  price 
to  the  British  authorities.  Burhanpoor  in  the 
south  is  the  chief  manufacturing  town,  where 
fine  muslin  scarfs,  gold  thread,  glass,  and  paper 
are  made.  Other  chief  places  are  Gwalior, 
Oojein,  Mundisoor,  Hindia,  and  Clmnderee. — 
This  state  was  founded  after  the  successes  ob- 
tained by  the  Mahrattas  over  the  Mogul  forces 
in  1738  by  Ranojee  Sindia,  a  chief  who  raised 
himself  from  obscurity  to  eminence.  His  nat- 
ural son  Madhaji  Sindia,  who  succeeded  him, 
was  an  able  and  ambitious  man,  who  greatly 
enlarged  the  possessions  of  the  family,  and  in 
1782,  by  the  treaty  of  Salbye,  concluded  be- 
tween the  East  India  company  and  the  peishwa, 
\vas  recognized  as  a  sovereign  prince  (maha- 
rajah).  He  maintained  a  large  and  well  ap- 
pointed army,  organized  and  disciplined  by 
French  officers ;  and  possessed  himself  of  Delhi, 
Agra,  and  the  person  of  the  Mogul  emperor, 
in  whose  name  he  subsequently  acted.  His 
dominions  extended  to  the  river  Taptee  on  the 
south,  and  from  the  Ganges  on  the  east  to  the 
gulf  of  Cambay  on  the  west.  His  successor, 
Dowlut  Row,  became  involved  in  war  with 
the  British,  by  whom  his  armies  were  totally 
defeated  in  1803,  and  a  considerable  part  of 
his  territories  taken  from  him,  and  he  ceased 
to  control  the  person  of  the  Great  Mogul.  He 


GWALIOR 


GWINNETT 


349 


died  in  182T,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mugut 
Bow,  on  whose  death  without  children  in  1843 
the  country  fell  into  confusion  and  anarchy, 
which  led  to  the  interposition  of  the  British ; 
they  restored  order,  and  established  the  author- 
ity of  the  legitimate  sovereign,  Bhagerut  Row 
Sindia,  a  boy  eight  years  of  age,  who  attained 
his  majority  in  1853.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
Jan.  13,  1844,  it  was  stipulated  that  Sindia 
might  maintain  a  military  force  not  exceeding 
9,000  men.  Besides  this,  he  was  bound  to 
maintain  and  pay  about  an  equal  number  of  the 
sepoys  organized  and  commanded  by  Brit- 
ish officers*.  The  last  body  was  termed  the 
Gwalior  contingent,  and  was  mainly  stationed 
at  the  fortress  of  Gwalior.  During  the  sepoy 
mutiny  in  1857  it  joined  in  the  revolt,  mur- 
dered or  put  to  flight  its  European  officers, 
and  demanded  that  Sindia  should  lead  them 
against  the  British  at  Agra.  The  maharajah, 
however,  remained  faithful  to  the  British,  and 


Gwalior. 

exerted  himself  to  prevent  the  contingent  from 
taking  the  field ;  but  in  May,  1858,  the  muti- 
neers commanded  by  Tantia  Topee  and  Row 
Sahib,  nephew  of  Nana  Sahib,  having  been  de- 
feated and  hard  pressed  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose  at 
Calpee,  suddenly  marched  upon  Gwalior,  in- 
tending to  make  it  a  place  of  refuge.  Sindia 
met  them  with  his  native  troops  a  few  miles 
from  Gwalior,  and  gave  them  battle,  June  1, 
but  was  deserted,  and  fled  to  Agra.  The  mu- 
tineers made  Row  Sahib  maharajah  of  Gwa- 
lior. Sir  Hugh  Rose,  however,  shortly  after 
reinstated  Sindia.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
district,  in  lat.  26°  13'  K,  Ion.  78°  15'  E.,  65  m. 
S.  of  Agra,  and  175  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Delhi;  pop. 
about  30,000.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  high 
rock  crowned  by  the  fortress,  and  contains  the 
tomb  of  Mohammed  Ghous,  a  famous  saint  of 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Akbar,  a  very  beauti- 
ful building  of  white  sandstone,  with  a  cupola 


covered  with  blue  porcelain  tiles.  Gunpowder 
and  fireworks  are  made  here,  and  there  are 
cannon  founderies.  The  rock,  on  the  summit 
of  which  the  fortress  is  built,  is  of  sandstone, 
capped  in  some  places  with  basalt.  The  face 
is  perpendicular,  and  in  some  places  the  upper 
part  overhangs  the  lower.  The  greatest  length 
of  the  rock  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  is  1£  m.,  the 
greatest  breadth  300  yards.  The  height  where 
it  is  greatest  at  the  N.  end  is  342  ft.  On  the 
E.  face  several  colossal  figures  are  sculptured 
in  bold  relief.  The  entrance  to  the  fortress 
is  toward  the  1ST.  end  of  the  E.  side :  first,  by 
means  of  a  steep  road,  and  higher  up  by  steps 
cut  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  of  such  a  size  and 
inclination  that  elephants  can  ascend  them. 
This  staircase  is  protected  on  the  outer  side  by 
a  massive  stone  wall,  and  is  swept  by  several 
cannon  pointing  down  it.  The  passage  to  the 
interior  is  through  a  succession  of  seven  gates. 
The  fort  contains  a  palace  and  two  remarkable 
pyramidal  buildings  of 
red  stone  in  the  most 
ancient  style  of  Hindoo 
architecture.  The  for- 
tress of  Gwalior  was 
built  in  773  by  Surya 
Sena,  rajah  of  the  ad- 
jacent territory.  •  In 
1023  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  Mah- 
moud  of  Ghuznee.  Af- 
ter many  sieges  and 
passing  through  vari- 
ous hands,  it  was  taken 
by  stratagem  by  Baber 
in  1526.  Subsequent- 
ly Akbar  made  it  a 
state  prison.  After  the 
dismemberment  of  the 
empire  of  Delhi  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the 
Sindia  family,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1780. 
It  was  recovered  by 

Sindia  in  1784,  was  again  taken  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1803,  and  again  restored  in  1805,  and 
from  1844  garrisoned  by  the  Gwalior  contin- 
gent under  British  officers. 

GWILT,  Joseph,  an  English  architect,  born  in 
Southwark,  Jan.  11,  1784,  died  at  Henley,  Sept. 
14,  1863.  His  principal  architectural  works 
are  Markham  castle  near  Sligo,  and  Charlton 
church,  near  Woolwich.  He  published  Notitia 
ArcJiitectonica  Italiana  (1818),  a  translation  of 
Vitruvius  (1826),  and  an  "  Encyclopasdia  of 
Architecture  "  (1842),  and  edited  Nicholson's 
"  Principles  of  Architecture  "  (1848). 

GWIMETT,  a  N.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded 
N.  W.  by  the  Chattahoochee  river,  and  drained 
by  head  streams  of  the  Appalachee,  Yellow, 
and  Ulcofauhachee  ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  12,431,  of  whom  2,159  were  colored. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond 
Air-Line  railroad.  It  is  rich  in  minerals,  in- 


350 


GWINNETT 


GYMNASIUM 


eluding  gold,  which  is  found  on  the  Chatta- 
hoochee,  iron,  antimony,  and  superior  granite. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  of  the  river 
bottoms  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  55,102  bushels  of  wheat,  206,210  of  In- 
dian corn,  31,707  of  oats,  16,964  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 65,787  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,391  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,058  horses,  1,855 
milch  cows,  2,789  other  cattle,  6,115  sheep, 
and  8,496  swine.  Capital,  Lawrenceville. 

GWINNETT,  Button,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  England 
about  1732,  died  in  Georgia,  May  27,  1777. 
He  emigrated  from  Bristol  to  America  in  1770, 
engaged  for  two  years  in  trade  in  Charleston, 
and  then  purchased  a  tract  of  land  on  St. 
Catharine's  island,  Georgia,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  agriculture.  He  became  conspicuous  in 
1775  as  an  advocate  of  colonial  rights,  was 
elected  a  representative  to  congress  in  Febru- 
ary, 1776,  and  in  1777  became  president  of  the 
provincial  council  of  Georgia.  He  planned  a 
military  expedition  against  East  Florida,  which 
he  refused  to  intrust  to  his  rival  Gen.  Mcln- 
tesh,  whose  official  rank  entitled  him  to  com- 
mand it,  and  which  resulted  disastrously.  This 
event  led  to  a  duel  between  him  and  Gen.  Mc- 
Intosh,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

GWYNN,  or  Gwinn,  Eleanor,  one  of  the  mis- 
tresses of  Charles  II.,  born  in  London  about 
1650,  died  there  about  1690.  It  is  said  that 
her  father,  Capt.  Thomas  Gwynn  of  the  army, 
was  a  member  of  an  ancient  Welsh  family ; 
but  that  she  was  born  in  a  night  cellar  in  the 
Coal  Yard,  Drury  Lane,  and  was  reared  in  the 
lowest  haunts  of  vice.  She  was  an  orange 
vender,  and  wandered  from  tavern  to  tavern, 
entertaining  the  company  with  her  songs.  Af- 
ter being  the  mistress  successively  of  the  ac- 
tors Hart  and  Lacy,  she  went  in  her  16th  year 
upon  the  stage,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  actresses  of  the  time  in  light,  humor- 
ous parts,  especially  where  singing  and  dancing 
were  introduced.  About  1667  she  became  the 
mistress  of  Lord  Buckhurst,  who,  it  is  said,  for 
a  political  reward,  surrendered  her  to  his  royal 
master.  She  remained  on  the  stage  till  1671, 
although  her  intimacy  with  Charles,  which 
lasted  till  his  death,  commenced  in  1669. 
Upon  becoming  his  acknowledged  mistress 
she  was  called  Madam  Ellen,  had  an  establish- 
ment of  her  own,  and  was  even  made  a  lady 
of  the  privy  chamber  to  Queen  Catharine, 
and  admitted  to  the  best  society  of  the  period. 
The  king  at  first  refused  her  demand  of  £500  a 
year,  although  she  is  said  subsequently  to  have 
cost  him  upward  of  £60,000  in  four  years. 
Of  all  his  mistresses  Nell  was  the  only  one 
who  remained  faithful  to  him,  and  the  only 
one  perhaps  who  has  won  any  sympathy  or 
forgiveness  from  posterity.  Her  frailty  and  a 
tendency  to  hard  swearing  seem  to  have  been 
her  chief  faults.  She  was  merry  and  open- 
hearted,  generous  to  profusion,  and  in  her 
prosperity  ever  mindful  of  her  old  friends, 
particularly  those  of  the  theatrical  profession. 


Dryden,  Lee,  Otway,  and  Butler  are  reported 
to  have  been  liberally  aided  by  her.  She  in- 
stigated Charles  to  erect  Chelsea  hospital  for 
disabled  soldiers,  presenting  the  land  on  which 
the  building  stands,  and  her  health  used  regu- 
larly to  be  drunk  by  the  pensioners  on  the  an- 
niversary of  Charles's  birthday.  She  was  even 
popular  with  the  public,  as  the  supposed  rep- 
resentative at  court  of  Protestant  interests. 
Charles  appreciated  her  good  qualities,  and 
among  his  last  words  were,  "  Let  not  poor 
Nelly  starve."  She  bore  him  two  sons,  one  of 
whom  died  in  childhood,  and  the  other  was  suc- 
cessively created  a  baron,  an  earl,' and  finally 
duke  of  St.  Albans.  She  is  believed  to  have  led 
a  virtuous  life  after  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
her  funeral  sermon  was  preached  by  Dr.  Teni- 
son,  afterward  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Nell  Gwinn,  Mistress 
to  K.  Charles  II.,  by  John  Seymour,  Comedian  " 
(1752),  is  a  panegyric.  Another  memoir,  by 
Peter  Cunningham,  was  published  in  1850. 

GYGES,  the  first  Lydian  king  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Mermnadae.  He  was  originally  a  chief 
officer  at  the  court  of  his  predecessor  Can- 
daules.  According  to  Herodotus,  Candaules 
was  proud  of  the  beauty  of  his  queen,  and  in- 
sisted that  Gyges  should  conceal  himself  in  her 
chamber  in  order  to  see  her  naked.  Gyges 
reluctantly  obeyed,  and  was  seen  by  the  queen 
as  he  glided  from  her  apartment.  She  was 
indignant  at  this  insult,  and  sending  for  Gyges 
gave  him  the  choice  of  being  immediately  put  to 
death  or  of  killing  her  husband.  Gyges  chose 
the  latter  alternative,  and  after  slaying  his  sov- 
ereign he  shared  the  Lydian  throne  with  his 
former  mistress.  His  reign  commenced  about 
716  B.  C.,  and  lasted  38  years.  The  wealth 
of  Gyges,  like  that  of  his  successor  Croesus,  was 
proverbial.  He  sent  magnificent  presents  to 
Delphi,  and  carried  on  wars  with  Miletus, 
Smyrna,  Colophon,  Magnesia,  and  other  cities 
of  Asia  Minor. — According  to  a  story  record- 
ed by  Plato,  Gyges  was  the  shepherd  of  Can- 
daules, and  found  in  an  earthquake  gap  a  great 
brazen  horse  containing  a  corpse  with  a  gold- 
en ring,  by  means  of  which  he  could  render 
himself  invisible  at  will.  With  this  power  he 
destroyed  Candaules  and  usurped  his  throne. 

GYMNASIUM  (Gr.  -yv^s,  naked),  a  term  ap- 
plied anciently  in  Greece  and  Italy,  and  now 
in  continental  Europe,  and  especially  in  Ger- 
many, to  schools  of  a  higher  class,  but  in 
England  and  America  to  places  for  physi- 
cal exercise.  The  Greek  gymnasium  was  so 
called  because  of  the  preeminence  given  in 
Greece  to  physical  culture.  The  education  of 
a  Greek  youth  was  divided  into  three  parts, 
grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics;  to  which 
Aristotle  added  a  fourth,  drawing  or  painting. 
Gymnastics,  however,  occupied  as  much  time 
as  all  the  others  together,  and  were  continued 
after  the  mental  education  was  finished.  There 
was  no  Greek  town  of  importance  without  its 
gymnasium,  and  Athens  had  three :  the  acad- 
emy, famous  for  the  instructions  of  Plato; 


GYMNASTICS 


351 


lyceum,  where  Aristotle  taught;  and  the 
cynosarges.  A  gymnasium  is  described  by 
Vitruvius,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  at 
Naples,  and  which  illustrates  the  general  con- 
struction of  gymnasia  in  Greece  and  Italy.  It 
consisted  of  four  porticos  placed  in  a  square 
1,200  ft.  in  circumference ;  three  of  them  ar- 
ranged with  seats  for  philosophical  and  rhetori- 
cal conversation,  while  the  fourth,  a  double 
portico,  contained  a  large  hall  in  the  centre 
.and  rooms  for  the  bath,  anointing,  and  other 
purposes.  In  the  winter  gymnastic  exercises 
were  carried  on  in  the  shelter  of  the  portico, 
And  there  were  also  sheltered  and  covered 
walks  for  study.  The  laws  of  Solon  regulated 
the  use  of  the  gymnasium  with  great  strictness, 
and  a  gymnasiarch  or  governor  of  the  gymna- 
sium was  appointed  with  power  to  remove 
any  teacher,  philosopher,  or  sophist  whom  he 
thought  injurious  to  the  youth.  The  teacher 
of  gymnastics  was  expected  to  know  the  phys- 
iological effect  of  the  different  exercises,  and 
to  assign  to  each  pupil  such  as  were  suitable 
for  him.  The  gymnasia  were  dedicated  to 
Apollo,  the  god  of  physicians,  because  of  their 
relation  to  health  and  disease. — In  Germany 
the  gymnasia  occupy  a  middle  place  between 
elementary  schools  and  the  universities.  The 
sics,  mathematics,  physics,  and  German  lit- 
iture  are  taught  in  them. 
iTMNASTICS  (Gr.  -yv/nvaariK^  gymnastic  art), 

tern  of  exercises  which  develop  and  in- 
>rate  the  body,  particularly  the  muscular 
3m.  If  properly  directed,  gymnastics  will 
enlarge  and  strengthen  the  various  muscles  of 
the  trunk,  neck,  arms,  and  legs,  will  expand 
the  chest  so  as  to  facilitate  the  play  of  the 
lungs,  will  render  the  joints  supple,  and  will 
impart  to  the  person  grace,  ease,  and  steadi- 
ness of  carriage,  combined  with  strength,  elas- 
ticity, and  quickness  of  movement ;  but  an  in- 
judicious mode  of  exercise  will  frequently  con- 
firm and  aggravate  those  physical  imperfections 
for  which  a  remedy  is  sought,  by  developing 
the  muscular  system  unequally.  Though  ath- 
letic feats  were  at  first  performed  by  each  in- 
dividual according  to  his  own  notions,  and 
were  encouraged  among  the  youth  as  com- 
bining amusement  with  exercise,  they  were  at 
length  reduced  to  a  system,  which  in  Greece 
formed  a  prominent  feature  in  the  state  regu- 
lations for  education;  and  as  the  nature  of 
the  warlike  weapons  rendered  the  develop- 
ment of  physical  force  a  subject  of  the  highest 
military  importance,  athletic  sports  were  con- 
tinued during  manhood.  Public  games  were 
also  consecrated  to  the  gods,  and  were  con- 
ducted with  the  greatest  ceremony.  The  ear- 
liest mention  we  can  find  of  gymnastic  sports 
is  in  Homer's  Iliad,  book  ii.,  where  the  Greeks 
are  described  as  contending  at  javelin  throw- 
ing and  quoits  ;  and  again  in  book  xxiii.,  when 
Achilles  instituted  games  in  honor  of  Patro- 
clus,  and  distributed  prizes  to  the  victors  for 
boxing,  wrestling,  throwing  the  quoit,  char- 
iot racing,  &c.  Plato  tells  us  that  just  before 

383  VOL.  vm.— 23 


the  time  of  Hippocrates  gymnastics  were  made 
a  part  of  medical  study,  as  being  suitable  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  indolence  and  luxu- 
rious feeding,  and  that  at  length  they  became 
a  state  matter,  reduced  to  a  system  and  super- 
intended by  state  officers.  The  first  public 
gymnasia  were  built  by  the  Lacedaemonians. 
These  were  imitated  at  Athens ;  where,  in  the 
walks  belonging  to  one  of  them  called  the 
Academia,  Plato  instructed  his  pupils,  and  in 
another,  named  the  Lyceum,  Aristotle  taught. 
At  Athens  a  chief  officer  (yvfivaaiapxye)  super- 
intended the  whole  establishment ;  the  j-wrr&p- 
xm  superintended  only  the  most  athletic  exer- 
cises; medical  officers  were  in  attendance, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  prescribe  the  kind  and 
extent  of  the  exercise ;  the  natSoTpipw  assisted 
and  instructed  the  pupils,  who  commenced 
with  easy  exercises,  from  which  they  were 
gradually  advanced  to  the  more  violent,  till 
they  reached  the  highest  degree  of  agility  and 
strength.  Baths  were  attached  to  the  gym- 
nasia ;  the  system  most  recommended  was  to 
take  first  a  hot  bath,  and  then  to  plunge  imme- 
diately into  cold  water.  Plato  and  Aristotle 
considered  that  no  republic  could  be  deem- 
ed perfect  in  which  gymnasia,  as  part  of  the 
national  establishments,  were  neglected.  The 
Spartans  were  the  most  rigid  in  exacting  for 
the  youth  a  gymnastic  training ;  even  the  girls 
were  expected  to  be  good  gymnasts,  and  no 
young  woman  could  be  married  till  she  had 
publicly  exhibited  her  proficiency  in  various 
exercises.  Honorable  rewards  and  civic  dis- 
tinctions were  publicly  bestowed  on  the  vic- 
tors in  the  games;  the  rewards  were  styled 
d$la,  wherefore  those  who  contended  for  them 
were  termed  <z0/l^rat,  or  athletes.  The  exercises 
for  the  pupils  in  the  gymnasia  consisted  of  a 
sort  of  tumbling,  and  war  dances;  running, 
much  recommended  for  both  sexes;  leaping, 
and  sometimes  springing  from  the  knees  having 
weights  attached  to  the  body;  retaining  the 
equilibrium  while  jumping  on  slippery  skins 
full  of  wine,  the  feet  being  naked;  wrestling 
for  the  throw,  or  to  keep  the  other  undermost 
after  the  throw ;  boxing,  confined  nearly  exclu- 
sively to  the  military  and  athletes.  The  boxer 
either  held  the  hands  open,  or  he  clenched 
brazen  or  stone  spheres,  or  wore  the  ccestus  or 
leathern  band  studded  with  metal  knobs  bound 
round  his  hands  and  wrists ;  there  was  also  a 
mixed  practice  of  boxing  and  wrestling  called 
TrayKpartov.  The  pitching  of  the  quoit  was 
much  practised ;  a  variation  of  the  quoit  was 
found  in  the  dfofipef,  not  unlike  a  dumb-bell, 
which  was  thrown  by  one  to  another,  who 
caught  it  and  then  pitched  it  to  a  third,  and  so 
on ;  it  was  also  adopted  in  extension  motions, 
and  was  held  in  the  hand  with  the  arm  ex- 
tended. Javelin  throwing  was  practised  by 
both  sexes;  also  throwing  the  bar.  Riding, ^ 
driving,  swimming,  rowing,  swinging,  climb-' 
ing  ropes,  standing  erect  for  a  long  time  in 
one  position,  holding  the  breath,  shouting, 
shooting  the  arrow,  &c.,  were  also  taught.— 


352 


GYMNASTICS 


Modern  gymnastics  differ  considerably  from 
the  exercises  of  the  ancients.  During  the 
middle  ages  the  knightly  amusement  of  the 
tournament  absorbed  nearly  every  other  sport, 
except  the  use  of  the  quarterstaff,  archery, 
foot  racing,  and  wrestling,  which  were  prac- 
tised in  a  few  places ;  so  that  gymnastics  fell 
nearly  into  disuse  till  Basedow,  in  1776,  at  his 
institution  in  Dessau,  united  bodily  exercises 
with  other  instruction,  which  example  was 
subsequently  followed  by  Salzmann  at  his  in- 
stitute, and  from  this  small  commencement  the 
practice  gradually  extended.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century  gymnastics  were  exten- 
sively introduced  into  Prussian  schools  by  Guts- 
Muths,  who  wrote  several  works  on  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  about  1810  the  system  was  still  more 
widely  spread  by  Jahn,  who  may  be  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  present  Turnvereine. 
Prussia  being  at  that  time  impatient  under  Na- 
poleonic rule,  Jahn  conceived  the  project  of 
bringing  together  the  young  men  for  the  prac- 
tice of  gymnastic  exercises,  and  at  the  same 
time  of  indoctrinating  them  with  patriotic  sen- 
timents which  might  be  made  available  to  expel 
the  French  from  Germany.  The  Prussian  gov- 
ernment favored  the  plan,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1811  a  public  gymnastic  school  or  Tumplatz 
was  opened  at  Berlin,  which  was  quickly  imi- 
tated all  over  the  country.  On  Feb.  3,  1813, 
the  king  of  Prussia  called  the  citizens  to  arms 
against  the  French,  when  all  those  old  enough 
to  enter  the  military  service  joined  the  nation- 
al cause,  and  performed  signal  service.  Jahn 
himself  commanded  a  battalion  of  Lutzow's 
volunteers,  and  after  the  peace  returned  to 
his  gymnastic  schools.  When,  however,  there 
was  no  longer  any  reason  to  dread  French  in- 
vasion, the  government  of  Prussia,  regarding 
the  meeting  of  patriotic  young  men  as  a  means 
of  spreading  liberal  ideas,  closed  the  gymnastic 
schools,  and  Jahn  was  imprisoned.  In  some 
other  countries,  however,  the  system  intro- 
duced by  Jahn  was  eminently  successful,  espe- 
cially in  England,  Switzerland,  Portugal,  and 
Denmark.  It  was  first  introduced  into  female 
education  under  the  name  of  callisthenics,  when 
systematic  exercises  were  added  to  hoop  trun- 
dling, skipping  ropes,  dumb-bells,  &c.,  already 
usual  among  the  girls,  and  to  riding,  archery, 
and  other  healthy  outdoor  exercises  among  the 
women.  The  masculine  sports  of  cricket,  foot- 
ball, quoits,  boxing,  wrestling,  base  ball,  leap- 
frog, foot  racing,  &c.,  have  been  for  centuries 
enjoyed  by  the  boys  of  England,  in  the  play 
grounds  attached  to  the  schools.  In  1848  the 
political  condition  of  Europe  enabled  the  turn- 
vereins  to  be  reorganized,  and  the  German  emi- 
gration to  the  United  States  has  brought  these 
institutions  with  it.  The  first  society  was  form- 
ed in  New  York,  but  similar  associations  soon 
spread  all  over  the  United  States.  The  organi- 
zation, as  first  established,  was  confined  to  the 
practice  of  bodily  exercises  conducive  to  physi- 
cal development ;  but  it  soon  assumed  a  higher 
scope,  without  neglecting  its  original  object; 


libraries  were  collected,  schools  were  estab- 
lished, a  newspaper  ( Turmeitung)  was  founded, 
and  various  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
diffusion  of  useful  knowledge  and  for  mental 
culture.  Thus  the  turnvereins  of  the  United 
States  tread  closely  in  the  track  of  the  acade- 
my of  Athens ;  and  when  we  consider  the  in- 
timate connection  between  mind  and  body — 
how  the  suffering  and  the  well-being  of  the 
one  are  affected  by  the  condition  of  the  other — 
too  much  attention  can  scarcely  be  paid  to  the 
combination  of  physical  with  mental  improve- 
ment. The  several  local  organizations  of  the 
turnverein  hold  annually  a  general  meeting,  by 
means  of  delegates,  for  the  consideration  of 
matters  of  common  interest;  they  also  have 
an  annual  festival,  attended  by  representatives 
of  the  several  organizations,  wherein  are  ex- 
hibited feats  of  strength  and  agility,  swimming, 
military  manoeuvres,  rifle  shooting,  sword  exer- 
cise, &c.  There  are,  moreover,  several  local 
festivals  every  year  in  the  respective  districts. 
— There  are  many  forms  of  exercise  which  re- 
quire no  special  skill  or  practice,  and  which 
consequently  may  be  employed  with  advantage 
by  all.  Excluding  various  games,  such  as  base 
ball,  cricket,  and  racket,  and  certain  special 
exercises,  as  rowing,  boxing,  and  fencing,  the 
most  available  ordinary  exercises  are  walking 
and  horseback  riding.  Unless  one  walks  at  a 
rapid  rate,  little  benefit  is  to  be  derived  from 
this  as  an  exercise.  Two  or  three  miles  of 
walking,  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  or  more  an 
hour,  are  more  beneficial  than  a  much  longer 
walk  when  the  movements  are  slow  and  indo- 
lent. In  the  former  instance,  the  method  of 
walking  is  necessarily  more  natural  and  more 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  laid  down  by  ath- 
letes, and  the  respiratory  function  is  brought 
into  more  vigorous  action.  Horseback  exer- 
cise, particularly  the  trot,  is  also  beneficial, 
gives  a  free  use  of  the  arms  and  legs,  strength- 
ens the  back  and  loins,  and  is  generally  exhil- 
arating. Outdoor  sports,  such  as  leaping,  the 
long  and  high  jump,  leaping  with  the  pole, 
"putting  the  stone,"  throwing  the  hammer, 
running,  fast  and  long  walking,  &c.,  are  much 
cultivated  in  England  and  Scotland.  The  Cale- 
donian games  are  exhilarating,  produce  fine 
and  uniform  muscular  development,  and  ex- 
perts in  these  exercises  are  almost  always 
models  of  health  and  vigor.  There  are  also 
many  valuable  methods  of  exercise  that  may 
be  profitably  employed  at  home,  without  ne- 
cessarily having  recourse  to  a  regularly  or- 
ganized gymnasium.  The  best  of  these  are 
the  following.  Swinging  Indian  clubs  is  an  ex- 
ercise in  which  there  are  many  different  move- 
ments, most  of  which  are  described  in  books  on 
gymnastics.  This  exercise  is  a  good  one  for  the 
joints,  especially  the  wrists,  but  does  not  pro- 
duce great  muscular  development,  or  much  im- 
provement of  the  "  wind."  Exercise  with  light 
dumb-bells,  five  pounds  or  even  less,  making  a 
great  variety  of  movements,  will  develop  and 
harden  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoulders, 


GYMNASTICS 


353 


5times  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  par- 
ilarly  when  combined  with  more  severe 
gymnastics.  This  exercise  may  be  continued 
with  advantage  almost  uninterruptedly  for  an 
hour,  or  even  longer.  A  great  variety  of 
movements  may  be  performed  with  an  arrange- 
ment of  elastic  bands  with  handles,  made  to 
imitate  the  pulley  weights  of  a -gymnasium. 
Most  of  the  other  exercises  of  the  arms,  legs, 
and  body,  called  the  free  exercises,  come  under 
the  head  of  callisthenics.  Some  of  the  more 
simple  forms  of  gymnastic  apparatus  may  with 
advantage  be  erected  in  the  open  air,  and  con- 
stitute a  useful  recreation  for  school  boys.  Ex- 
ercises on  the  single  or  horizontal  bar,  and  the 
high  jump,  standing  or  running,  come  under 
this  head.  A  well  organized  gymnasium  is 
provided  with  a  great  variety  of  apparatus,  by 
which  nearly  every  muscle  in  the  body  may  be 
brought  into  play.  In  a  complete  gymnasium, 
an  instructor  is  necessary  at  first,  particularly 
for  the  young,  who  might  otherwise,  by  care- 
lessness or  ignorance,  produce  injuries  which 
would  defeat  the  objects  of  the  exercise.  For 
the  adult,  exercise  within  proper  limits  in  a 
gymnasium,  particularly  when  taken  in  classes, 
not  only  develops  the  whole  system  and  regu- 
lates the  most  important  functions  of  the  or- 
ganism, but  the  feeling  of  emulation  excites  in- 
terest, and  the  exercise  is  valuable  as  a  relief 
from  mental  strain.  This  is  particularly  useful 
for  those  of  sedentary  pursuits.  The  most 
simple  gymnastic  exercises  are  the  following : 
the  upright  bars,  or  chest  bars,  which  render 
the  shoulder  joints  supple  and  expand  the 
chest;  the  leg  weights,  pushing  weights  with 
the  feet  while  in  a  sitting  posture ;  the  pulley 
weights,  which  strengthen  the  arms  and  shoul- 
ders; the  rowing  weights,  an  apparatus  in- 
tended to  imitate  the  movements  in  rowing; 
light  dumb-bells,  and  club  swinging.  The  more 
severe  exercises  are :  the  horizontal  bar,  upon 
which  a  great  variety  of  feats  of  strength  and 
dexterity  may  be  performed,  many  of  which 
require  address  that  can  only  be  acquired  by 
long  practice ;  horizontal  and  inclined  ladders, 
which  are  climbed  with  the  hands;  climbing 
the  rope ;  climbing  the  peg  pole,  an  exercise 
requiring  great  strength  in  the  arms,  in  which 
those  with  light  bodies  are  usually  most  pro- 
ficient ;  drawing  the  body  up  with  one  or  both 
hands ;  holding  the  body,  suspended  by  the 
hands,  horizontally,  with  the  face  up  or  down, 
called  the  front  and  back  horizontals,  requir- 
ing great  strength  in  nearly  all  the  muscles ; 
one-arm  horizontals,  requiring  even  greater 
strength  ;  and  holding  the  body  extended  hori- 
zontally from  a  perpendicular  bar,  the  "flag," 
requiring  considerable  strength  and  practice. 
The  various  free  exercises  known  as  tumbling, 
human  pyramids,  &c.,  demand  much  strength, 
practice,  agility,  and  confidence.  The  most 
common  of  these  are  front  hand  springs,  "flip- 
flaps  "  or  back  hand  springs,  turning,  twisting, 
&c.,  on  the  ground,  springing  from  a  lying 
posture  on  the  ground  to  the  erect  position, 


back  and  front  somersaults  from  feet  to  feet, 
battoute  leaping  from  an  inclined  plane,  and 
many  other  feats,  even  more  difficult,  that  are 
performed  chiefly  by  professional  gymnasts. 
Vaulting  is  a  very  useful  and  a  simple  exercise, 
which  gives  agility  and  develops  strength  in 
the  arms  as  well  as  in  the  legs.  Balancing  the 
body  upon  the  hands,  walking  on  the  hands, 
&c.,  give  command  of  equilibrium.  The  Japa- 
nese gymnasts  particularly  excel  in  these  feats. 
A  good  "hand  balance"  is  considered  very 
difficult  to  acquire,  and  its  practice  is  usually 
begun  at  an  early  age  by  professional  gym- 
nasts. Some  of  the  most  useful  exercises  for 
an  expert  gymnast  are  performed  in  great 
variety  upon  the  parallel  bars.  The  parallel 
bars  constitute  perhaps  the  most  useful  appa- 
ratus in  the  gymnasium  for  developing  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulders,  the  chest,  and  the 
back.  The  single  and  the  double  trapeze  are 
now  much  in  vogue  with  gymnastic  experts. 
The  flying  trapeze  is  not  much  used  by  ama- 
teurs, as  this  exercise  is  by  no  means  devoid  of 
danger,  and  almost  all  professionals  acquire 
their  skill  in  this  at  the  expense  of  many  severe 
falls.  A  great  variety  of  difficult  feats  may  be 
performed  with  the  swinging  rings.  These  are 
not  so  dangerous  as  the  feats  on  the  flying  tra- 
peze ;  they  develop  strength  in  the  muscles  of 
the  arms,  shoulders,  and  body,  and  the  grip, 
and  are  entertaining  and  agreeable  exercises. 
Among  what  are  called  the  heavy  exercises 
are  prominent  the  "  putting  up "  of  heavy 
dumb-bells,  with  one  or  both  hands,  and  the 
lifting  of  heavy  weights  with  the  hands  or  in 
a  harness.  Putting  up  two  100-pound  dumb- 
bells, one  in  either  hand,  is  justly  considered 
a  great  feat  of  strength ;  it  requires  enormous 
power  in  the  arms  and  shoulders,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  back.  Putting  up  a  single  dumb- 
bell of  100  Ibs.  or  more  requires  great  strength 
and  practice.  In  putting  up  heavy  dumb- 
bells with  one  hand,  the  weight  is  carried  to 
the  shoulder  with  both  hands,  and  is  then 
raised  from  the  shoulder  with  one  hand  until 
the  arm  and  the  body  are  straight.  A  single 
dumb-bell  weighing  200  Ibs.  has  been  put  up 
in  this  way  with  one  hand,  which  is  a  Hercu- 
lean feat.  In  exercises  of  this  kind,  the  mus- 
cles should  be  trained  gradually  and  carefully, 
otherwise  severe  strains  are  likely  to  occur ; 
but  heavy  dumb-bells  develop  the  muscles  of 
the  back,  loins,  thighs,  and  legs,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  arms  and  shoulders.  Holding  out 
weights  horizontally  at  arm's  length  is  a  fa- 
vorite heavy  exercise,  particularly  with  those 
who  have  very  short  and  muscular  arms.  Lift- 
ing heavy  weights  with  the  hands,  or  with  a 
harness  of  straps  and  a  yoke  over  the  shoul- 
ders, is  an  exercise  now  very  much  in  use.  In 
lifting  with  the  hands  alone,  the  lifter  stands 
upon  a  platform  beneath  which  the  weight 
is  suspended  ;  connected  with  the  weight  are 
two  handles  of  convenient  shape,  at  a  proper 
height;  the  handles  are  grasped,  the  legs  are 
slightly  bent,  the  back  is  hollowed,  the  arms 


354 


GYMNASTICS 


are  straight,  the  shoulders  are  in  a  line  with 
the  feet,  and  when  the  lift  is  made  the  whole 
body  is  straightened.  With  a  heavy  weight,  an 
instantaneous  lift  even  of  an  inch  is  sufficient. 
The  first  effort  is  usually  aided  by  a  strong 
spring,  which  is  compressed  by  the  weight ;  but 
the  lift  must  be  made  to  clear  the  spring  com- 
pletely. Between  1,300  and  1,400  Ibs.  have  been 
thus  lifted.  A  heavy  lift  of  this  kind  brings 
nearly  every  muscle  of  the  body  into  action, 
but  it  strains  particularly  the  grip,  the  muscles 
of  the  neck  and  the  top  of  the  shoulders,  the 
thighs,  and  the  small  of  the  back.  Heavy  lifts 
are  liable  to  produce  severe  strains,  unless  the 
lifting  position  be  perfect.  Lifters  should  pro- 
ceed gradually  from  light  to  heavy  weights, 
and  should  not  attempt  heavy  lifts  except  under 
competent  instruction.  The  so-called  lift  cures 
are  undoubtedly  useful,  as  they  condense  a 
great  amount  of  muscular  exercise  into  a  very 
short  time.  Lifting  is  sometimes  done  with  a 
bar  between  the  legs,  grasped  with  both  hands; 
but  this  position  is  not  so  favorable  as  that  with 
handles  by  the  sides.  In  lifting  with  harness, 
the  great  strain  is  taken  from  the  hands  and 
transferred  to  the  shoulders;  3,000  Ibs.  have 
been  lifted  in  this  way.  Expert  lifters  usually 
lift  every  day  a  weight  that  they  can  raise  with 
comparative  ease,  and  make  a  maximum  lift 
only  once  in  two  or  three  weeks.  Besides  the 
above,  which  comprise  most  of  the  exercises 
of  the  modern  gymnasium,  a  number  of  oth- 
ers are  sometimes  practised,  as  evolutions  on 
the  wooden  horse,  exercises  with  wands,  &c. — 
Callisthenics  (Gr.  /cd/Uof,  beauty,  and  adivo^ 
strength)  constitute  a  system  of  exercises  re- 
quiring less  violence  of  muscular  action  than 
the  ordinary  gymnastics.  This  system  is  con- 
sidered to  be  better  adapted  to  the  more  delicate 
organization  of  females,  and  is  generally  con- 
fined hi  its  application  to  that  sex.  Its  purpose 
is  to  give  equal  development  to  all  the  muscles, 
and  thus  produce  that  harmony  of  action  on 
which  depends  not  only  health,  but  regularity 
of  proportion  and  grace  of  movement.  Callis- 
thenics may  be  practised  mediately  or  immedi- 
ately, with  or  without  apparatus.  All  the  ap- 
paratus required,  when  used,  is  a  strong  chair, 
a  short  roller  fixed  in  sockets  near  the  top  of 
an  open  doorway,  a  light  wooden  staff,  about 
4£  ft.  in  length  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
a  pair  of  light  dumb-bells,  a  hair  mattress,  a 
pair  of  square  weights,  and  two  parallel  bars. 
The  exercises  with  these  are  simple,  and  can 
be  readily  learned  in  a  lesson  or  two  from  a 
teacher,  or  from  any  of  the  numerous  manuals 
published  on  the  subject.  In  the  chair  exer- 
cise, the  pupil  plants  the  feet  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance from  the  chair,  and  then  leans  forward 
on  tiptoe,  and  rests  the  hands  upon  the  back 
of  the  chair.  The  exercise  consists  in  moving 
the  body  slowly  backward  and  forward  be- 
tween the  two  fixed  points  of  the  toes  on  the 
floor  and  the  hands  on  the  back  of  the  chair. 
This  simple  manoeuvre  is  admirably  adapted 
for  the  expansion  of  the  chest  and  the  develop- 


ment of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  In  the 
roller  exercise,  the  pupil  is  suspended  by  the 
hands  a  few  inches  above  the  floor,  and  swings 
in  this  position,  or  moves  the  grasp  alternately 
from  side  to  side.  A  great  number  of  grace- 
ful and  strengthening  movements  may  be  made 
with  the  staff.  One  of  the  best  is  to  hold  it  in 
both  hands,  and  pass  it  successively  over  the 
head  to  the  right  and  left,  bringing  it  down 
each  time  below  the  middle  of  the  person,  hi 
front  or  behind.  The  dumb-bells,  being  grasped 
by  the  hands,  are  to  be  moved  forward  and 
backward  horizontally  from  the  chest,  or,  with 
the  arms  below  the  hips,  to  be  moved  circu- 
larly about  the  body,  until  they  meet  before 
and  behind.  The  exercise  on  the  mattress  i 
consists  merely  in  raising  the  person  from  a 
horizontal  to  a  sitting  posture,  with  the  arms 
and  legs  extended  and  not  used  to  aid  in  the 
movement.  The  square  weights  may  be  used 
hi  most  cases  like  the  dumb-bells.  They  have, 
however,  the  peculiar  advantage  of  a  form 
which  allows  of  their  being  placed  upon  the 
head.  This  is  one  of  the  best  possible  means 
of  giving  uprightness  to  the  figure,  as  in  thus 
balancing  a  weight  the  spine  is  necessarily 
brought  by  the  muscles  of  the  back  into  a 
straight  position.  The  negro  women  of  the 
south,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  carrying  heavy 
burdens  on  their  head,  are  remarkable  for 
erectness  of  the  body.  The  parallel  bars  are 
two  poles  fastened  by  their  ends  to  the  floor 
and  the  ceiling,  at  a  proper  distance  apart,  and 
of  a  thickness  to  be  readily  grasped  by  the 
hands  of  the  pupil,  which  being  done,  the 
body  is  moved  backward  and  forward  be- 
tween them.  Every  necessary  exercise,  how- 
ever, can  be  practised  without  the  use  of  ap- 
paratus of  any  kind,  and  the  system  of  callis- 
thenics founded  on  this  basis  is  probably  best 
for  general  adoption,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  abuse 
from  the  intemperate  zeal  of  the  pupil,  and 
more  calculated  to  preserve  the  beautiful, 
which  few  women  will  be  persuaded  to  ex- 
change for  any  acquisition  of  strength.  When 
apparatus  is  used,  the  effort  is  more  violent, 
and  the  muscles  may  become  so  prominently 
developed  as  to  cause  the  absorption  of  the 
soft  cellular  tissue  which  cushions  the  human 
frame,  and  which,  by  its  abundance  in  the  fe- 
male, gives  roundness  and  fulness  to  the  form. 
The  constant  handling  of  the  hard  material  of 
the  apparatus,  also,  is  apt  to  produce  a  dispro- 
portionate enlargement  of  the  hand  and  harden 
its  texture.  The  callisthenic  exercises  without 
apparatus  consist  in  regular  and  systematic 
movements  of  the  entire  body.  The  head  and 
the  trunk  are  moved  up  and  down,  forward 
and  backward,  to  the  right  and  left ;  the  arms 
and  legs,  and  hands  and  feet,  are  also  exer- 
cised so  that  every  voluntary  muscle  is  brought 
into  action.  The  object  being  to  give  an  equal 
muscular  development  to  the  whole  frame,  the 
exercises  are  so  arranged  that  all  parts  of 
the  body  are  successively  brought  into  action. 
None  of  the  movements  are  complicated,  and 


GYMNASTICS 


355 


ey  are  in  fact  no  more  than  those  usual 
in  the  ordinary  exercise  of  the  limbs.  Callis- 
thenics, however,  by  reducing  these  to  a  sys- 
tem, insures  an  equal  and  regular  action  of  the 
muscles,  while  the  occupations  or  amusements 
of  females  are  apt  to  effect  the  reverse.  It  is 
essential  that  all  these  exercises  should  be 
practised,  if  indoors,  in  well  ventilated  halls 
or  apartments.  The  practical  utility  of  all 
gymnastics  is  frequently  diminished  by  monot- 
ony, the  pupil  becoming  wearied  with  the  uni- 
formity of  the  movements.  Without  the  dis- 
cipline of  a  teacher,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a 
long  persistence  in  their  use.  It  is  well  there- 
fore to  vary  them,  or  to  associate  with  them 
as  much  as  possible  the  idea  of  amusement. 
In  fact,  there  is  no  better  callisthenic  appa- 
ratus than  many  of  the  ordinary  playthings, 
such  as  the  battledore  and  shuttlecock,  the  cup 
and  ball,  and  the  "  graces."  In  modern  callis- 
thenics, regulating  the  movements  to  the  time 
of  music  is  much  employed,  and  is  useful,  as 
it  relieves  their  monotony.  Ling,  the  Swedish 
writer  on  gymnastics  and  callisthenics,  has 
written  enthusiastically  upon  the  advantage  of 
systematic  muscular  exercise  in  the  cure  of 
disease.  Numerous  ailments  to  which  females 
are  peculiarly  liable  are  due  to  the  neglect  of 

rper  physical  training,  and  may  doubtless 
relieved  in  many  instances  by  the  proper 
application  of  callisthenics.  Most  of  these 
female  disorders  may  be  justly  attributed  to 
the  weakness  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  and 
a  proper  strengthening  of  these  by  exercise 
would  no  doubt  remove  the  cause.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  callisthenics,  so  called,  are  almost 
identical  with  the  lighter  forms  of  regular 
gymnastic  exercise,  and  are  adapted  to  the 
male  as  well  as  to  the  female.  Exhibitions  of 
large  classes,  the  movements  being  simultane- 
ous and  performed  to  the  time  of  appropriate 
music,  are  often  quite  graceful  and  entertain- 
ing.—Systematic  gymnastic  or  callisthenic  ex- 
ercises are  rarely  if  ever  useful  before  the  age 
of  12  or  14  years.  Professional  gymnasts,  many 
of  whom  begin  their  training  at  a  very  early 
age,  are  seldom  well  formed  men,  frequently 
presenting  extraordinary  development  of  cer- 
tain muscles  at  the  expense  of  others,  which 
amounts  almost  to  deformity.  Before  the  age 
of  12  the  games  and  pastimes  of  childhood  gen- 
erally afford  sufficient  exercise ;  at  that  age, 
however,  the  lighter  gymnastics  or  callisthenics, 
under  competent  instruction,  may  be  the  first 
step  in  the  full  development  of  a  muscular  sys- 
tem, which  moderate  exercise  will  preserve  in  a 
robust  condition  throughout  adult  life.  After 
the  age  of  35  even  practised  gymnasts  should 
be  careful  in  making  extraordinary  muscular 
efforts.  At  that  time  the  ligaments  are  com- 
paratively stiff,  and  strains  of  the  joints  are  apt 
to  become  troublesome  and  persistent.  By  per- 
sons of  sedentary  habits,  gymnastic  exercise  is 
to  be  employed  to  secure  health,  and  it  is  not 
desirable  to  carry  training  to  the  extent  of  re- 
ducing the  adipose  tissue  to  the  minimum.  A 


fair  development  of  fat  is  normal  in  the  adult, 
and  the  system  is  apt  to  become  exhausted  if 
kept  too  long  at  a  high  standard  of  muscular 
development.  Persons  who  have  an  unusual 
tendency  to  fat  should  combine  with  other  ex- 
ercise running,  jumping  on  the  spring-board, 
and  movements  which  shake  the  body.  These 
favor  the  absorption  of  unnecessary  adipose 
tissue,  especially  in  the  covering  of  the  ab- 
dominal organs,  allow  the  diaphragm  to  play 
more  freely,  and  give  respiratory  power  or 
"wind."  It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  adult  to 
use  moderate  exercise,  which  develops  the 
muscular  system  generally,  and  to  make  one 
vigorous  effort  each  day,  such  as  lifting  a  heavy 
weight  or  raising  a  large  dumb-bell.  This 
gives  nervous  power,  and  enables  one  to  easily 
put  forth  nearly  all  his  strength  in  a  single 
powerful  effort,  when  this  is  required.  It  is 
not  necessary  for  an  adult,  exercising  simply 
for  health,  to  cultivate  excessive  hardness  of 
muscle ;  and  indeed  the  greatest  strength  is 
often  found  in  muscles  that  are  comparatively 
soft.  One  hour's  honest  exercise,  followed 
by  ablution,  will  usually  suffice  for  the  brain- 
worker;  and  this  should  produce  prompt  re- 
action, without  a  sense  of  exhaustion.  Persons 
who  take  this  amount  of  judicious  exercise  are 
often  more  powerful  and  have  more  endu- 
rance than  the  hard-worked  laborer.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  judicious  and  habitual  exercise 
favors  the  elimination  of  effete  matters  from 
the  organism,  particularly  by  the  lungs,  skin, 
and  kidneys,  increases  the  activity  of  the 
nutrition  of  the  muscular  system,  rendering 
the  food  more  relishing,  more  easily  digested, 
and  better  assimilated,  and  develops  what  is 
known  as  nerve  power.  When  it  is  remember- 
ed that  the  muscles  constitute  the  great  bulk 
of  the  organism,  it  is  evident  that  perfect 
health  can  only  exist  when  they  are  properly 
developed.  Active  nutrition  of  the  muscles, 
also,  is  unfavorable  to  the  deposition  of  mor- 
bid matters,  such  as  are  found  in  tubercu- 
lous, cancerous,  or  scrofulous  constitutions;  and 
when  exercise  is  combined  with  amusement 
and  mental  relaxation,  the  system  is  in  the 
best  condition  to  derive  its  full  benefit. — 
Ancient  gymnastics  are  treated  of  in  a  few 
works:  Plato,  "Politics,"  book  in.,  and 
"Laws,"  book  viii. ;  Galen,  "On  Preserving 
Health;"  and  Hieronymus Mercurialis,  DeArte 
Gymnastica,  book  vi.  (Venice,  1587).  On 
modern  gymnastics  there  are  numerous  trea- 
tises. Many  German  physicians  have  labored 
to  raise  gymnastics  to  the  importance _  of  a 
science,  especially  Dr.  Schreber  of  Leipsic  ; 
see  his  Kinesiatrilc  (Leipsic,  1852)  and  Aerzt- 
licJie  Zimmergymnastilc  (5th  ed.,  1858).  The 
more  recent  works  published  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  England  are  the  following: 
Arthur  and  Charles  Nahl,  "Instructions  in 
Gymnastics "  (San  Francisco,  1863);  Watson, 
"Callisthenics  and  Gymnastics"  (New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  1864);  William  Wood,  "Man- 
ual of  Physical  Exercises"  (New  York,  1867); 


356 


GYMNOSOPHISTS 


GYPSIES 


Ravenstein  and  Hulley,  "  Gymnastics  and  Ath- 
letics "  (London,  1867). 

GYMNOSOPIIISTS  (Gr.  yv/ivdf,  naked,  and 
oo<j>taTfc,  a  philosopher),  a  sect  of  ancient  In- 
dian philosophers,  so  called  by  the  Greeks  be- 
cause they  went  naked,  or  almost  naked. 
They  were  also  called  ppaxpavai,  Brahmans. 
They  dwelt  in  the  woods,  and  lived  on  the 
wild  products  of  the  earth.  They  were  re- 
markable for  their  contempt  of  death,  and 
practised  suicide  by  burning.  In  this  way 
Calanus  sacrificed  himself  at  Babylon,  in  the 
presence  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  Xari- 
marus  at  Athens,  in  that  of  Augustus.  The 
gymnosophists  had  a  great  reputation  for  wis- 
dom and  learning.  Their  most  prominent 
tenet  was  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  and 
transmigration  of  the  soul. 

GYMHTOTUS.    See  ELECTRIC  FISHES. 

GYONGYOS,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county 
of  Heves,  44  m.  N.  E.  of  Pesth ;  pop.  in  1869, 
15,830.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Matra 
range,  contains  a  fine  castle  in  which  is  an  in- 
teresting collection  of  armor,  four  Catholic 
churches,  a  Franciscan  monastery,  town  house, 
and  gymnasium.  It  has  extensive  manufacto- 
ries of  woollen  stuffs,  several  tanneries  and 
mills,  an  active  trade  in  cattle  and  cheese,  a 
weekly  market,  and  numerous  well  frequented 
fairs.  Near  it  are  silver  and  copper  mines. 

GYPSIES,  Gipsies,  or  Gipseys  (a  corruption  of 
the  word  Egyptians),  a  vagabond  people  now 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The  names 
given  to  them  by  other  nations  are :  Zingari 
in  Italy,  Gitanos  in  Spam,  Zigeuner  in  Ger- 
many, Cziganyok  in  Hungary,  Tzigani  in  Slavic 
countries,  Tchinganeh  in  Turkey,  Bohemienrs 
in  France  (as  they  pretended  to  come  from  Bo- 
hemia), &c.  They  are  also  nicknamed  Mattois, 
Gueux,  Cagoux,  and  their  language  Blesquin 
in  France;  Zieh-Gauner  (wandering  rogues)  in 
Germany,  heathens  in  Holland,  Tartars  in 
Sweden,  &c.  They  call  themselves  Kale  or 
Mellele  (the  black),  Mellelitchel  (black  people), 
Sinde  or  Sinte  (probably  from  the  Sanskrit 
Saindhanas,  people  of  the  Indies),  but  more 
commonly  by  some  word  signifying  "  people" 
in  the  various  gypsy  dialects,  as  Manush, 
Rom,  feminine  Romni.  As  they  are  ignorant 
of  their  origin,  and  as  history  has  failed  to 
record  their  migrations,  there  are  very  many 
opinions  on  the  subject.  Hasse  and  Schirak 
attempted  to  connect  them  with  the  Siybvvat 
of  Herodotus,  north  of  the  lower  Ister  (Dan- 
ube), reported  to  be  of  Median  origin.  Butt- 
ner,  Rudiger,  Bacmeister,  Pallas,  and  Grell- 
niann  consider  them  to  have  come  from  India, 
whence  they  were  driven  by  the  ravages  of 
Tamerlane  (1398),  and  where  they  belonged 
to  the  Soodra  caste,  or  to  the  Pariahs.  Hiob 
Ludolf  (Commentariu*  ad  Historiam  jfithi- 
opicam,  1691)  gave  a  list  of  words  supposed 
to  be  Egyptian,  but  which  are  rather  Slavic. 
There  are  many  roving  tribes  in  India  and 
Persia  which  resemble  the  gypsies.  In  north- 
ern Persia  they  are  known  as  Karatchi,  and  in 


Kermanshah  and  Kurdistan  as  Kauli  and  Sus- 
mani.  The  Zingarro  or  Chungur  of  the  Pun- 
jaub  are  also  a  wandering  race.  Vigne  holds 
that  modern  gypsies  are  descendants  of  Cash- 
mere Hindoos  who  fled  from  persecution  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  14th  century.  Arab 
Shah,  who  lived  at  Samarcand  in  1422,  says  hi 
his  "Life  of  Timour"  that  the  gypsies  were 
probably  descendants  of  Buddhists  who  emigra- 
ted about  300  B.  C.,  when  persecuted  by  Nara. 
In  a  paraphrase  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  writ- 
ten by  an  Austrian  monk  in  1122,  similar 
vagrants  were  noticed  as  being  Ishmaelites; 
but  organized  bands  of  gypsies  first  appeared 
in  the  Danubian  provinces  in  1417.  They 
numbered  about  14,000  in  Italy  as  early  as 
1422.  On  Aug.  17,  1427,  arrived  at  Paris  a 
band  of  120  strangers,  claiming  to  be  Chris- 
tians of  Lower  Egypt  who  had  been  expelled 


Bohemian  Gypsies. 

by  the  Saracens.  They  said  they  had  last 
come  from  Bohemia.  They  professed  the 
gifts  of  fortune-telling  and  palmistry,  and  were 
great  thieves.  They  were  expelled  from  Paris, 
but  continued  to  wander  in  France,  and  other 
bands  succeeded  them.  They  appeared  in 
Spain  in  1447,  in  England  about  1506,  and  in 
Sweden  in  1514.  Wherever  they  came  they 
practised  the  arts  of  thieving  and  deception. 
Severe  laws  were  passed  against  them,  but 
these  measures,  not  being  simultaneous  in  the 
various  states,  failed  of  their  effect.  Spain 
exiled  them  in  1492,  and  about  a  century  later 
renewed  the  decree  of  banishment.  In  Eng- 
land, Henry  VIII.  issued  in  1530  a  procla- 
mation, subsequently  renewed  by  Elizabeth, 
which  made  their  stay  in  England  for  ovef 
a  month  a  capital  felony.  The  Scottish  kings 
pursued  a  different  policy,  and  seem  to  have 


GYPSIES 


35T 


them  a  sort  of  protection.  Italy,  Den- 
,rk,  Sweden,  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany 
k  measures  against  them.  In  the  first  half 
the  16th  century  they  probably  received  an 
accession  of  numbers  from  Egypt,  for  in  1517 
a  revolt  against  the  conquest  of  Sultan  Selim 
place  under  one  Zinganeus,  whose  follow- 
being  banished,  took  to  wandering  through- 
t  the  world  in  small  companies.  The  sover- 
.s  of  Germany  made  efforts  to  reclaim  and 
tie  the  gypsies.  Maria  Theresa  in  1768  or- 
red  that  the  numerous  bands  throughout  her 
minions  should  be  gathered  in  settled  habi- 
ions,  practise  some  trade,  have  their  chil- 
in  educated,  and  be  called  Neubauern,  new 
ants.  As  they  failed  to  obey,  severer 
ures  were  enforced  by  Joseph  II.  in  1782, 
d  at  present  the  gypsies  of  Hungary,  Tran- 
sylvania, and  Roumania,  together  about  250,- 
000,  lead  a  more  settled  life  than  their  brethren 
anywhere  else.  In  Transylvania  they  are  un- 
der the  rule  of  a  waywode  of  their  own  race, 
elected  by  themselves.  They  are  likewise  nu- 
merous in  the  southern  provinces  of  Russia  and 
in  Turkey  generally.  Spain  contains  about  40,- 
000,  some  of  whom  follow  a  mixed  occupation, 
as  keepers  of  wine  shops  and  horse  dealers.  A 
considerable  number  are  in  Norway ;  in  France 
there  are  few  or  none ;  and  in  England  their 
numbers  have  decreased  to  about  10,000.  Es- 
timates of  the  total  number  of  gypsies  in  Eu- 
rope are  variously  given  from  500,000  to  700,- 
000.  The  laws  against  them  have  in  most 
countries  fallen  into  desuetude,  they  having  to 
contend  with  a  stronger  force  than  legal  pro- 
hibitions in  the  increase  of  intelligence  among 
the  rural  population,  who  were  formerly  their 
patrons  and  victims.  In  England  the  oppres- 
sive statutes  against  them  were  repealed  in 
1783,  1820,  and  1856.— The  gypsy  physiog- 
nomy is  Asiatic  in  type,  with  tawny  complex- 
ion, quick  black  eyes,  black  hair,  high  cheek 
es,  slightly  projecting  lower  jaw,  narrow 
uth  with  fine  white  teeth,  which,  with 
eir  lithe  and  agile  figure,  causes  some  of 
eir  young  women  to  be  considered  beauties, 
eir  habits  are,  however,  so  squalid  and  de- 
praved as  to  cause  them  before  they  are  past 
middle  age  to  fall  into  decrepitude.  The  gyp- 
sies have  few  redeeming  characteristics.  They 
are  treacherous,  cowardly,  revengeful,  and 
cruel.  They  have  little  or  no  religious  belief, 
d  no  words  in  their  language  to  signify 
the  soul,  or  immortality.  Velasquez 
ys,  "  The  gypsies'  church  was  built  of  lard, 
d  the  dogs  ate  it."  Marriage  is  a  tempo- 
form  with  them,  and  the  limits  of  con- 
inity  are  not  respected.  They  pretend 
at  their  skill  in  palmistry  is  the  lore  of  the 
ptians.  Their  industry  reaches  no  higher 
the  tinkering  of  hardware  and  turning 
all  articles  in  wood,  with  occasionally  some 
listance  reluctantly  given  in  farm  labor.  In 
Transylvania  they  do  a  little  in  washing  gold. 
y  frequently  act  as  musicians,  as  they  have 
remarkable  quickness  in  acquiring  tunes  by 


ear.  Some  of  them,  as  Kecskemeti,  Kalozdy, 
and  Bunko,  have  been  celebrated  violinists. 
The  young  persons  of  both  sexes  are  fond  of 
dancing,  and  exhibit  their  skill  for  money,  es- 
pecially in  Spain.  The  men  wear  no  distin- 
guishing dress  from  other  similar  vagabonds, 
but  the  women  indulge  their  passion  for  gay 
colors  and  trinkets.  In  England  the  recognized 
gypsy  woman's  apparel  is  a  red  cloak  with  a 
hood,  and  a  handkerchief  tied  over  the  head. 
Their  huts  are  mere  kennels  of  earth  and 
boughs.  It  has  been  a  question  whether  a 
band  of  genuine  gypsies  has  ever  been  in 
America ;  but  many  English  authorities  main- 
tain that  the  decrease  of  their  number  in  the 
British  isles  is  in  a  great  measure  due  to  their 
having  emigrated  to  the  United  States. — The 
language  of  the  gypsies,  though  everywhere 
preserving  forms  of  an  unmistakably  Indian 
origin,  differs  greatly  in  the  various  countries 
in  which  it  is  spoken.  The  best  known  are 
the  English,  German,  Hungarian,  and  Spanish 
gypsy  dialects.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to 
the  English  dialect,  and  follow  the  statements 
made  in  regard  to  it  by  Bath  0.  Smart  before 
the  English  philological  society  in  London. 
The  English  gypsies  generally  use  the  English 
article,  and  but  seldom  their  own  forms,  o  for 
the  masculine  and  y  for  the  feminine.  Nouns 
generally  terminate  in  a  consonant,  or  else  in 
o  when  masculine,  and  in  i  or  y  when  feminine. 
The  genitive  is  formed  by  adding  esJco  or  esto  ; 
the  plural  by  yor  or  or,  and  sometimes  with 
an  additional  s,  taken  from  English ;  as  slcam- 
min,  a  chair,  sTcamminyors,  chairs.  Adjec- 
tives have  invariably  a  final  o  or  y,  added  even 
to  English  words.  The  comparative  is  formed 
by  adding  dair  or  dairo  when  there  are  no 
special  forms,  like  cooslco,  good,  fetterdairo, 
better.  There  seems  to  be  no  superlative  ter- 
mination. The  pronouns  are  in  many  cases 
preserved  in  their  original  form,  as  yov,  he ; 
lesty,  his;  yoi,  she;  latty,  her.  Instead  of 
"I,"  they  use  "me,"  but  for  "of  me"  they 
return  to  their  own  mandy.  The  numerals 
are :  yek,  one ;  dooey,  two ;  tring,  three ;  star, 
four ;  panch,  five ;  shov,  six  ;  a/to,  seven ;  oitoo, 
eight;  enneah,  nine;  and  desh,  ten.  Afta, 
oitoo,  and  enneah  are,  however,  of  rare  occur- 
rence. Verbs  are  generally  inflected  as  in 
English,  but  av  is  sometimes  added  as  a  sign 
of  the  first,  and  ella  or  I  of  the  third  person 
singular.  Prepositions  are  :  agal,  before ;  ad- 
rey,  within  ;  aprey,  upon  ;  taley,  down ;  paw- 
del,  over.  The  ease  with  which  the  gypsies 
introduce  foreign  words  into  their  own  speech 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  proverbs  given 
by  Charles  G.  Leland  in  his  book  "  The  English 
Gypsies  and  their  Language  "  (London,  1873)  • 

A  cloudy    sala     often  purabens  to  a  Jmo  dimus. 
A  cloudy  morning  often    changes    to  a  fine    day. 

IPs  sim  to  a  choomer,  kushti  for     kek       till    it's 
It's     like    a      kiss,       good    for  nothing  until  it  i* 

pordered  atwe&n  dm,. 
divided   between  two. 


358 


GYPSUM 


Works  on  the  gypsies  and  their  dialects  are : 

Valentge's  "  Description  of  the  East  Indies  " 
(Amsterdam,  1724-'6) ;  Peyssonel,  Sur  les  peu- 
ples  ~barbares  qui  ant  Jidbite  sur  les  bords  du 
Danube  (1765) ;  Pray,  Annales  Regum  Hun- 
garm  (5  vole,  fol.,  Vienna,  1764-70) ;  Grell- 
mann,  Historische  Versuche  uber  die  Zigeuner 
(Gottingen,  2d  ed.,  1787) ;  Molnar,  Specimen 
Lingua  Gingariccs  (Debreczin,  1798);  Gardi- 
ner, "Essays,  Literary,  Political,"  &c.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1803);  Hasse,  Zigeuner  im  Herodot 
(Konigsberg,  1803);  Bischoff,  Deutsch-Zigeu- 
nerisches  Worterluch  (Ilmenau,  1827);  John 
Staples  Harriot,  in  the  "Transactions  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  "  for  1831 ;  Cogalniceano,  En- 
quisse  sur  Vhittoire,  les  mwurs  et  la  langue  des 
Cigains  (Berlin,  1837);  Predari,  Origine  e  m- 
cende  dei  Zingari  (Milan,  1841) ;  George  Bor- 
row, "  The  Zincali,  or  an  Account  of  the  Gyp- 
sies of  Spain"  (2  vols.,  London,  1841);  Von 
Heister,  Ethnographie  und  geschichtliche  Noti- 
zen  uber  die  Zigeuner  (Konigsberg,  1842) ;  Pott, 
Die  Zigeuner  in  Europa  und  Asien  (Halle, 
1844-'5);  Bataillard,  De  V apparition  et  de  la 
dispersion  des  Bohemiens  en  Europe  (in  the  6th 
vol.  of  the  Biblioth&que  de  Vecole  de  Chartres, 
1844);  Bohtlingk,  Die  Sprache  der  Zigeuner 
in  Rusdand  (St.  Petersburg,  1852) ;  Jimenez, 
Vocdbulario  del  dialecto  jitano  (Madrid,  1854) ; 
Liebich,  Die  Zigeuner  in  ihrem  Wesen  und 
in  Hirer  Sprache  (Leipsic,  1863) ;  Ascoli,  Zi- 
guenerisches  (Halle,  1865) ;  Simson,  "  History 
of  the  Gypsies  "  (London,  1865)  ;  Kivasnikoff, 
"  Collection  of  Songs  of  the  Russian  Gypsies," 
in  Russian  (Moscow,  1869);  Borrow,  "Lavo- 
Lil :  Word  Book  of  the  Romany  or  English 
Gypsy  Language"  (London,  1874);  and  nu- 
merous articles  in  the  publications  of  philolo- 
gical societies. 

GYPSUM,  a  common  mineral,  frequently  crys- 
tallized, oftener  amorphous,  and  sometimes 
forming  rock  masses.  Its  crystallization  is 
monoclinic ;  hardness,  1*5  to  2 ;  specific  gravity, 
2-2  to  2*4 ;  transparent  or  translucent,  vitreous ; 
on  cleavage,  pearly  or  silky ;  colorless  and  snow- 
white,  but  often  red,  yellow,  or  brown  from  en- 
closed coloring  matters.  Its  transparent  va- 
riety, called  selenite,  sometimes  occurs  in  large 
plates,  which  have  been  used  for  windows.  It 
also  frequently  occurs  in  aggregated  needle-like 
crystals,  and  is  then  called  fibrous  gypsum.  In 
its  amorphous  condition,  when  compact  and 
translucent,  it  is  named  alabaster.  More  com- 
monly it  is  white,  opaque,  and  soft,  and  is  then 
called  snowy  gypsum.  Its  chemical  composi- 
tion is  expressed  by  the  formula  CaSO4,  2H2O ; 
».  e.,  it  is  a  hydrated  sulphate  of  lime.  Gypsum 
occurs  in  nearly  all  geological  formations  and 
countries.  In  clay  and  shale  it  is  frequently 
found  in  beautifully  defined  detached  crystals, 
apparently  derived  from  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid,  liberated  by  the  decomposition  of  iron 
pyrites  on  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  also  formed 
where  sulphuric  acid  is  generated  or  discharged 
from  volcanic  or  other  subterranean  sources 
and  corae§  'in  contact  with  calcareous  matter, 


as  about  sulphur  springs  and  craters  of  volca- 
noes. The  great  repository  of  gypsum,  how- 
ever, is  the  water  of  the  ocean,  which  always 
holds  it  in  solution,  and  from  which  it  has  been 
precipitated  by  evaporation  to  form  all  the 
great  masses  of  this  substance.  It  is  also  solu- 
ble in  fresh  water  in  the  proportion  of  1  part 
to  400  or  500  of  water.  The  most  important 
deposits  known  are  those  of  the  Paris  basin  at 
Montmartre,  which  are  of  eocene  age,  and  from 
which  it  has  taken  the  common  name  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris ;  those  of  Nova  Scotia,  Virginia, 
and  Michigan,  of  carboniferous  age  ;  of  central 
New  York,  Ohio,  and  Canada  West,  in  the 
upper  Silurian ;  and  in  the  triassic  strata  of 
the  far  west.  It  also  occurs  in  the  trias  at 
Bex  in  Switzerland,  Vic  and  Dieuze  in  France, 
Cheshire  in  England,  and  Stasfurt  in  Germany. 
In  all  these,  as  in  the  most  important  Amer- 
ican localities,  it  is  associated  with  rock  salt. 
Gypsum  is  known  to  exist  in  large  quantities 
in  Mexico,  South  America,  Africa,  India,  Aus- 
tralia, and  China. — The  origin  of  the  great 
masses  and  strata  of  gypsum  found  in  many 
countries  has  been  a  subject  of  much  discussion. 
By  most  writers  they  are  represented  to  have 
been  produced  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid 
contained  in  the  water  of  acid  springs  acting 
upon  strata  of  limestone.  This  theory  is,  how- 
ever, inapplicable  to  all  the  most  important 
deposits,  which  are  undoubtedly  derived  from 
the  precipitation  of  gypsum  by  evaporation 
from  its  solution  in  circumscribed  basins  of 
salt  water,  like  the  Dead  sea  and  Great  Salt 
lake.  This  is  apparent  in  the  structure  of  the 
gypsum  beds,  which  are  generally  accurately 
stratified,  and  not  unfrequently  alternate  with 
sheets  of  limestone.  Gypsum  is  also  usually 
associated  with  greater  or  less  quantities  of 
the  salts  which  are  found  in  sea  water,  viz., 
the  chlorides  of  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
the  sulphate  of  soda,  &c.  Of  all  the  solid  mat- 
ter contained  in  sea  water,  gypsum  is  the  least 
soluble,  and  therefore  is  the  first  precipitated. 
It  is  thus  deposited  by  itself,  and  forms  con- 
tinuous and  regular  strata  many  miles  in  ex- 
tent and  of  great  thickness.  The  next  ingre- 
dient which  would  be  thrown  down  in  the 
evaporation  of  sea  water  is  the  chloride  of  so- 
dium ;  and  this  we  find  in  the  strata  of  rock 
salt  which  accompany  beds  of  gypsum.  The 
other  salts  mentioned  have  such  an  affinity  for 
water  that  they  are  not  found  solid,  but  com- 
pose the  bitterns  of  the  brines  of  wells  and 
springs.  In  New  York,  Canada,  and  Ohio, 
gypsum  occurs  chiefly  in  the  Salina  or  Onon- 
daga  salt  group.  This  formation  is  made  up 
of  a  series  of  earthy  sediments  interstratified 
with  salt  and  gypsum,  and  is  plainly  the  de- 
posit which  accumulated  at  the  bottom  of  a 
great  salt  lake,  which  in  the  Silurian  age 
reached  from  eastern  New  York  to  the  Cincin- 
nati axis.  In  the  western  part  of  this  basin, 
at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  the  Salina  group  contains 
sheets  of  regularly  bedded  strata  of  gypsum, 
divided  horizontally  by  thin  sheets  of  carbo- 


GYPSUM 

of  lime.    In  the  carboniferous  age  evapo- 
rating pans  where  salt  water  precipitated  its 
solid  contents  existed  in  Nova  Scotia,  Michigan, 
Virginia,  and  Arizona,  and  later  in  the  triassic 
in  the  region  now  occupied  by  the  Llano 
Sstacado  and  in  the  Indian  territory.     In  all 
lese  localities  proof  is  abundant  that  the  stra- 
of  gypsum  are  precipitated  sediments,  and 
mt  the  theory  which  attributes  the  formation 
the  action  of  acid  springs  is  a  fallacy. — The 
of  gypsum  in  the  arts  are  varied  and  im- 
>rtant.     When  calcined,  its  combined  water 
driven  off.     If  now  ground  to  powder  and 
lin  mixed  with  water,  this  water  recombines 
nlth  it,  and  the  mass  becomes  first  plastic,  then 
and  takes  the  form  of  any  model  into 
rhich  it  may  have  been  poured.     This  prop- 
ty  of  gypsum  has  many  applications  in  the 
It  makes  the  most  convenient  of  mortars, 
id  was  extensively  used  by  the  ancient  in- 
ibitants  of  Mexico  as  well  as  those  of  Egypt 
their  masonry.     The  use  of  gypsum  in  the 
>rmation  of  plaster  casts  is  too  common  and 
rell    understood    to   require   special    notice. 
rhen  mixed  with  glue  water,  plaster  of  Paris 
converted  into  stucco.      If  mixed  with  a 
jlution  of  borax,  alum,  or  sulphate  of  pot- 
and  subsequently  rebaked  and  powdered, 
again  mixed  with  a  solution  of  alum,  it 
>rms  a  hard  cast  which  takes  a  high  polish. 
"ds  composition   is    called   Keene's  cement 
made  with  alum,  Parian  if  with  borax,  and 
[artin's  if  with  potash.     In  the  preparation 
}f  plaster  of  Paris,  the  gypsum  rock  is  ground 
between  buhr  stones  until  it  is  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder.     This  is  calcined  by  being  heated 
in  kettles  or  stills,  the  escaping  water  produ- 
cing a  movement  like  ebullition.    As  calcined 
plaster  absorbs  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
it  should  be  prepared  as  wanted,  or  carefully 
protected  from  dampness.     Gypsum  is  some- 
times used  for  the  glazing  of  porcelain.     But 
the  principal  consumption  of  it  is  as  a  fertilizer 
">r  soils.     Sulphate  of  lime  enters  into  the  com- 
sition  of  grasses,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.,  and 
lese  cannot  flourish  in  soils  entirely  free  from 
Its  potency,  however,  is  probably  due  in 
a  far  greater  degree  to  its  action  in  fixing  vola- 
tile and  escaping  carbonate  of  ammonia.   When 
this  comes  in  contact  with  sulphate  of  lime, 
double  decomposition  takes  place,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  sulphate  of  ammonia  being  formed. 
Its  value  as  a  fertilizer  may  be  readily  tested 
by  distributing  a  quantity  of  it  in  a  narrow 
line  across  a  meadow.     Where  the  plaster  has 
fallen,  the  grass  will  frequently  be  so  much 
stronger  and  greener,  that  the  difference  may 
be  seen  even  at  a  considerable  distance.     Gyp- 
sum is  not  unfrequently  mingled  with,  and  some- 
times shades  into,  anhydrite,  the  anhydrous 
sulphate  of  lime.     Both  pass  under  the  name 
of  plaster,  the  anhydrite  being  called  hard  and 
gypsum  soft  plaster.     The  uses  to  which  they 
are  applied  are  the  same. — The  commerce  in 
gypsum  in  the  United  States  amounts  to  about 
$1,000,000  per  annum,  almost  equally  divided 


GYROSCOPE 


359 


between  the  miner  and  manufacturer,  and  be- 
tween three  districts :  the  Atlantic  coast,  where 
the  material  is  derived  from  Nova  Scotia,  and 
the  states  of  New  York  and  Michigan,  where 
it  is  indigenous  and  abundant.  The  importation 
of  gypsum  into  the  United  States  from  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  in  1873  was  118,280 
tons,  valued  at  $117,828.  The  annual  produc- 
tion of  gypsum  in  New  York  and  Michigan 
may  be  estimated  at  about  100,000  tons  each. 

GYROSCOPE  (Gr.  yvp6<;,  a  ring,  and  o-/co7mv,  to 
examine),  a  name  applied  to  various  instruments 
designed  to  illustrate  the  phenomena  of  rota- 
tion. The  most  curious  and  generally  interest- 
ing form  of  gyroscope,  rightly  named*  "me- 
chanical paradox,"  although  its  principle  was 
discovered  long  before  its  first  construction, 
consists  essentially  of  a  disk  revolving  on  pivots 
within  a  ring,  having  on  the  line  of  prolonga- 
tion of  its  axis,  on  one  side,  a  bar  or  spur  with 
a  smooth  notch  beneath  to  receive  the  hard 
smooth  point  of  an  upright  support.  Thus 
placed,  when  the  disk  is  not  turning,  the  whole 
falls,  of  course,  like  any  heavy  body  unsupport- 


\ 


Gyroscope. 

ed.  Rotate  rapidly  by  unwinding  a  string,  set 
on  the  support,  but  uphold  the  opposite  side 
of  the  ring ;  no  peculiar  movement  then  occurs. 
But  if  while  the  disk  is  rapidly  turning,  the 
bar  being  on  the  support,  the  opposite  side  be 
set  free,  the  whole,  instead  of  falling,  as  would 
be  expected,  commences  a  steady  revolution  in 
a  horizontal  circuit  about  the  point  of  support, 
moving  more  rapidly  as  the  primary  rotation  is 
expended,  and  sinking,  at  first  imperceptibly, 
then  more  rapidly,  until  in  from  one  to  three 
minutes  it  comes  to  rest.  Mathematical  analy- 
sis shows  that  when  set  free,  it  continually  falls 
and  rises,  but  this  motion  is  not  visible.  The 
disk  started  with  its  axis  in  or  below  the  horizon- 
tal never  rises,  without  aid,  above  its  first  posi- 
tion. Started  with  high  speed  above  the  hori- 
zontal, it  may  rise,  and  if  its  connection  with  the 
support  allow,  as  when  this  is  by  a  ball  and  sock- 
et, it  may  even  ascend  to  a  vertical  position,  and 
spin  as  a  top.  Arrested  in  its  travelling  move- 
ment, it  always  descends ;  hastened,  it  rises. 
Checked  in  any  part,  it  inclines  in  the  direc- 
tion of  that  part.  In  the  form  now  given,  the 
travelling  or  orbital  movement  is  always  in  the 


360 


GYROSCOPE 


direction  in  which  the  bottom  of  the  disk  i8 
going.  But  if  the  axis  be  prolonged  beyond 
the  support,  and  the  disk  and  ring  slightly 
overpoised  by  a  weight  on  the  other  side,  then 
the  disk  always  travels  in  the  direction  in  which 
its  top  is  going,  and  nearly  all  the  phenomena 
are  reversed.  Many  other  curious  results  may 
be  obtained ;  it  will  here  be  added  further  only 
that  the  disk  below  the  horizontal  is  always, 
and  above  it  usually,  slowly  falling ;  and  that 
the  orbital  motion  invariably  takes  place  toward 
that  side  of  the  disk  in  which  the  force  of  the 
rotation  about  its  own  axis  is  most  resisted  or 
checked.  For  proof  of  this  latter  principle,  let 
any  small  wheel  be  rotated,  and  while  turning 
rub  or  seize  it  upon  any  side ;  the  rotation  in 
this  side  being  thus  checked,  and  actually  or 
in  effect  subtracted  from,  that  in  the  opposite 
side  preponderates,  and  the  wheel  is  urged  to- 
ward the  side  in  which  the  checking  occurs. — 
Perhaps  no  completely  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  phenomena  can  be  given  without  employ- 
ing the  language  and  processes  of  the  higher 
mathematics.  This  has  been  done  in  a  very 
complete  manner  by  Gen.  J.  G.  Barnard  in  a 
paper  published  in  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Education  "  for  June,  1857,  and  also  published 
separately  under  the  title  "  Analysis  of  Rotary 
Motion  as  applied  to  the  Gyroscope "  (New 
York,  1857).  The  following  explanation  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  Levi  Reuben  of  New  York  is 
perhaps  as  satisfactory  as  it  is  possible  to  give 
without  the  aid  of  mathematics.  There  are 
two  facts  to  be  explained  :  support,  and  orbital 
movement,  or  travelling  about  the  supporting 
point.  For  the  first,  suppose  the  disk  composed 
of  1,000  equally  heavy  particles.  "When  it  is 
set  rotating  and  released,  each  of  these  parti- 
cles is,  as  a  separate  ball,  acted  on  by  two 
moving  forces,  that  giving  the  rotation,  and 
that  of  gravity ;  but  the  whole  is  also  held 
together  by  the  constraining  action  of  cohesion. 
Suppose  that,  when  released,  the  axis  points 
below  the  horizontal:  gravity  acts  in  vertical 
lines  and  equally  on  all  the  particles.  Its  di- 
rection and  amount  may  be  represented  by 
equal  short  pendent  threads  dropping  down 
from  all  the  particles.  If  the  particles  be  also 
supposed  in  a  single  plane,  the  extremities  will 
all  lie  in  a  new  plane,  slightly  without  and  be- 
low the  plane  of  the  disk,  and  parallel  with  it. 
The  forces  impressed  in  giving  rotation  upon 
the  several  particles  of  the  disk  will  all  point 
in  its  plane,  being  represented  at  any  moment 
by  tangents  to  the  circles  in  which  the  several 
particles  move,  pointing  in  all  directions,  and 
varying  in  length  from  the  axis,  where  this  is 
zero,  to  the  periphery,  where  it  is  a  maximum. 
But  the  resultant  movements  or  tendencies  of 
the  particles  must  all  terminate  in  the  exact 
plane  in  which  the  gravitative  components  were 
seen  to  terminate.  Every  particle  thus  acted 
upon,  then,  tends  to  go  outward  or  forward 
into  the  new  plane  already  referred  to.  The 
several  pressures  are  to  points  scattered  some- 
what widely  in  that  plane ;  but  owing  to  the 


cohesion  of  all  the  particles,  they  are  con- 
strained to  move  or  press  forward  in  a  body. 
The  effect  is  as  if  the  whole  disk  were  pulled 
outward  and  very  slightly  downward,  while  the 
pivot  in  the  notch  reacts  or  pulls  in  the  oppo- 
site direction ;  and  the  wheel  is  supported,  in 
part,  as  if  slung  up  by  strings  attached  to  its 
two  faces  and  pulled  in  opposite  directions. 
When  the  disk  is  above  the  horizontal,  the  new 
plane  is  behind  or  within  it;  it  then  pushes 
against  the  pivot,  and  this  reacting,  there  oc- 
curs support  by  opposite  pressures,  instead  of 
tractions.  Thus  we  discover  one  reason  why 
no  material  support  is  needed  for  the  remote 
end  of  the  axis ;  while  as  a  consequence  of  this 
view,  if  the  axis  be  horizontal  it  must  first  sink 
slightly,  yet  it  may  be  only  imperceptibly,  be- 
fore support  can  occur.  This  agrees  entirely 
with  the  results  of  mathematical  analysis.  In 
the  second  place,  why  does  the  disk  travel 
around  the  supporting  point  ?  When  not  over- 
poised, gravitation  acting  downward,  and  rota- 
tion, in  the  ascending  side  of  the  disk,  upward, 
the  latter  is  in  effect  decomposed  into  a  hori- 
zontal and  a  vertical  component,  the  horizontal 
expressing  itself  in  the  pressure  already  referred 
to,  the  vertical  being  resisted  or  antagonized 
by  the  force  of  gravity;  the  result  for  each 
particle  being  the  sum  which  the  latter  as  a 
negative  quantity  would  form  with  the  former. 
In  the  ascending  side,  therefore,  gravity  over- 
balances, equals,  or  diminishes,  according  to 
the  place  of  each  particle,  the  rotative  force 
of  ascent  acting  upon  it ;  but  to  the  vertical 
component  of  the  rotative  force  of  all  the  par- 
ticles in  the  descending  side  it  adds  alike  a 
quantity  of  action  equal  to  its  own  amount. 
Hence,  the  whole  rotative  force  in  the  descend- 
ing half  may  be  considered  as  increased,  that 
in  the  ascending  as  diminished.  There  will  be 
some  point  in  the  ascending  half  at  which  the 
vertical  component  of  rotation  equals  gravity ; 
this  will  become  in  effect  a  point  of  rest,  or  of 
no  action.  This  is  then  the  point  pierced  by 
the  resultant  axis — the  point  about  which  all 
the  particles  under  the  combined  forces  will 
tend  to  revolve:  those  in  the  ascending  half 
starting  with  less  radii  to  sweep  round  this 
point  as  a  centre ;  those  in  the  descending  start- 
ing with  longer  radii,  and  sweeping  in  longer 
curves  about  the  same  point.  Thus  the  disk 
is  continually  carried  to  the  side  in  which  the 
action  is  most  checked;  and  this  constitutes 
the  travelling  movement.  When  overpoised 
on  the  opposite  side,  the  action  of  gravity  on 
the  disk  itself  is  upward,  the  axis  acting  as  a 
lever,  the  support  on  which  it  rests  as  a  ful- 
crum ;  the  rotative  force  of  the  descending  par- 
ticles is  now  resisted  by  it ;  and  for  a  like  rea- 
son the  disk  now  moves  toward  its  descend- 
ing side.  When  not  overpoised,  the  travelling 
movement  of  the  disk  itself  introduces  a  new 
element  into  the  case,  by  resisting  the  rotating 
of  particles  in  the  upper  half  backward  in  the 
course  of  movement.  This  checks  and  dimin- 
ishes the  action  in  the  upper  half  of  the  disk, 


GYROWETZ 


d  constitutes  a  new  source  of  support  by 
generating  a  tendency  upward ;  and  it  is  doubt- 
less this  part  of  the  action  that  raises  the  disk 
at  times  to  an  erect  position.  The  principles 
thus  arrived  at  explain  also  why  the  disk  trav- 
els faster  as  its  axial  rotation  lessens,  and  also 
when  weights  are  added  to  it ;  why  in  the  or- 
dinary form  it  rises  if  its  motion  is  hastened 
ith  the  hand ;  why,  if  overpoised,  it  descends 
y  being  hastened,  and  rises  on  being  de- 
,yed  in  its  orbital  movement ;  and  in  fact,  it 
ay  safely  be  said,  every  phenomenon  which 
e  instrument  can  be  made  to  present.  The 
me  explanation,  in  effect,  applies  if  the  rota- 
body  be  a  sphere,  or  of  any  other  form, 
e  facts  of  support  and  orbital  movement, 
ough  separately  considered,  are  really  but 
wo  different  expressions  of  the  same  phenom- 
;  the  two  actions,  here  for  convenience 
parated,  really  conspire  in  one  movement, 
d  that  is  the  composition  of  a  rotation  caused 
gravity  with  another  imparted  by  the  hand, 
e  reason  why  the  rotating  body  does  not  fall 
that  in  such  a  body,  whenever  its  plane  is 
blique  to  the  vertical,  gravity  is  no  longer  al- 
wed  to  act  singly,  but  must  in  every  instant 
ter  into  composition  with  another  force, 
ence  the  body  in  such  case  cannot  simply  fall, 
must  move  toward  such  new  place  in  space 
the  combined  actions  shall  determine ;  and 
ence,  again,  the  same  force  which  ordinarily 
reduces  a  vertical  fall,  here  carries  a  body 
und  in  a  horizontal  circle,  or  secondarily 
etimes  even  causes  it  to  ascend.  The  weight 


II 


361 


of  the  rotating  disk,  however,  is  in  all  positions 
sustained  by  the  support  and  base  on  which  the 
apparatus  rests.  In  this  explanation,  the  dis- 
tance through  which  the  gravitative  force  acts 
has  been  taken  as  very  short,  because  by  ex- 
periment and  calculation  it  can  be  proved  that, 
unless  the  weight  of  the  ring  is  very  great,  the 
whole  downward  action  of  gravity  on  the  disk 
is  very  slight  compared  with  that  of  the  rota- 
tion first  imparted  by  the  hand,  sometimes  as 
small  as  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  40  or  60. 

GYROWETZ,  Adalbert,  a  Bohemian  composer, 
born  in  Budweis,  Feb.  19, 1753,  died  in  Vienna 
in  1850.  He  studied  counterpoint  under  Sala, 
and  was  as  well  skilled  on  the  violin  as  on  the 
piano.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  orchestra  of  the  imperial  theatre  in  Vienna. 
Among  his  operas  are  "Semiramis,"  "Agnes 
Sorel,"  "  The  Oculist,"  and  "  The  Blind  Harp- 
ist." He  also  composed  melodramas,  ballets, 
numerous  instrumental  works  and  vocal  pieces, 
but  excelled  most  in  symphonies.  His  auto- 
biography appeared  in  Vienna  in  1848. 

GYULA,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of 
the  county  of  Bekes,  30  m.  N.  of  Arad ;  pop. 
in  1870,  18,495.  It  is  divided  by  the  White 
Koros  river  into  two  distinct  villages,  surnamed 
Magyar  and  Nemet  (German),  in  one  of  which 
Hungarian  and  in  the  other  German  is  princi- 
pally spoken.  It  has  a  Greek  united,  a  Greek 
non-united,  and  a  Protestant  church,  a  castle, 
a  court  house,  and  several  oil  mills.  The  vine 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  there  is  a  trade  in  wine,  salt,  and  cattle. 


H 


THE  eighth  letter  in  the  Latin  alpha- 
.  bet,  and  in  others  derived  directly 
3m  it,  as  English,  French,.  German,  and 
Italian.  It  was  also  the  eighth  letter  in  the 
original  Greek  alphabet,  where  it  was  repre- 
ited  by  the  character  H,  and  so  appears  in  in- 
riptions ;  but  the  letter  was  in  time  dropped, 
and  the  character  was  used  for  the  new  let- 
ter eta ;  and  the  two  halves  (\-  and  -|),  subse- 
quently modified  into  '  and  ',  designated  as  the 
"rough"  and  "smooth"  breathings,  were  su- 
perscribed over  the  initial  vowel  of  a  word; 
the  initial  v  always  having  the  rough  breathing 
(v),  while  the  other  vowels  may  have  either. 
The  initial  p  is  always  aspirated,  and  when 
this  letter  is  doubled  in  the  middle  of  a  word, 
the  first  has  the  rough  and  the  second  the 
smooth  breathing  (p/>).  H  in  English,  when 
sounded,  is  a  mere  emission  of  the  unvocalized 
breath ;  but  in  producing  it  the  vocal  organs 
are  placed  in  position  to  form  the  succeeding 
vowel ;  thus  in  uttering  he,  ha,  or  ho,  the  lips 
and  tongue  are  in  different  positions.  H  is 
sometimes  silent,  as  in  hour,  heir,  honor ;  that 
is,  the  breath  is  emitted  so  gently  as  to  be  in- 
audible ;  in  a  few  words,  such  as  humble  and 


humor,  the  usage  varies;  but  when  audible  it 
has  but  one  sound,  as  in  hat.  There  is  a  vul- 
garism not  uncommon  in  England  of  reversing 
the  proper  usage  at  the  beginning  of  a  word ; 
as  ouse  for  house,  happle  for  apple.  At  the 
end  of  a  word  it  is  silent,  or  at  most  gives  ad- 
ditional force  to  the  preceding  vowel.  H  en- 
ters into  combination  with  other  letters,  usual- 
ly modifying  their  sound.  Ch,  as  in  church,  is 
properly  a  distinct  letter  (and  is  so  regarded  in 
Spanish,  the  only  language  in  which  it  is  the 
same  as  in  English),  the  sound  of  which  is 
only  approximately  represented  by  tsh;  in 
some  words  of  French  origin,  as  chaise  and.  ma- 
chine, it  is  equivalent  to  sh;  when  it  is  the 
representative  of  the  Greek  *,  it  is  usually 
sounded  like  Tc,  as  in  chorus,  but  occasionally, 
as  in  archbishop,  it  assumes  the  normal  English 
sound.  In  gh,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  the 
h  is  silent,  as  in  ghost;  in  other  positions 
both  letters  are  usually  silent,  as  in  light, 
bough,  but  occasionally,  as  in  laughter,  they 
sound  like  /.  Ph  is  merely  the  representative 
of  the  Greek  0,  and  sounds  like/.  Rh  is  only 
used  to  represent  the  Greek  />.  Th  has  two 
sounds,  as  in  thin  and  in  that.  In  wh,  the 


362 


HAARLEM 


HAARLEM  MEER 


sound  of  h  precedes  that  of  w,  as  in  what 
(hwaf)\  in  who,  whom,  whose,  whole,  the  w  is 
silent.  Many  persons  drop  the  h  in  this  com- 
bination, pronouncing  wig  for  whig,  wip  for 
whip,  &c. — In  German  music,  II  denotes  the 
7th  diatonic  interval,  or  the  12th  string  of 
the  chromatic  scale.  This  note  was  anciently 
B,  and  is  so  yet  in  Dutch  and  English  music ; 
but  after  the  introduction  of  the  chromatics, 
both  itself  and  its  flat  (which  was  first  con- 
trived) being  named  B,  in  order  to  distinguish 
them,  one  was  made  of  square  shape.  From 
this  B  quadratum  was  formed  the  pj  (French 
be  carre)  and  the  German  H,  while  its  flat  be- 
came &,  whence  the  sign  [,  (French  "be  mol). 

HAARLEM,  Haerlem,  or  Harlem,  a  city  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  North  Holland, 
on  the  navigable  river  Spaarne,  3  m.  from  the 
sea,  10  m.  W.  of  Amsterdam,  and  17  m.  N.  N.  E. 
of  Leyden,  with  both  which  cities  it  communi- 
cates by  canals  and  railways ;  pop.  in  1872,  32,- 


Quay  of  the  Grain  Market,  with  St.  Bavon's  Church 


156.  The  city  is  well  built,  clean,  and  intersect- 
ed by  canals.  A  picturesque  gateway  on  the 
high  road  to  Amsterdam  is  a  part  of  the  old 
fortifications ;  the  ramparts  have  been  convert- 
ed into  public  promenades.  Most  of  the  public 
edifices  are  built  around  a  handsome  square, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  bronze  statue  to 
Laurens  Coster,  whom  the  Dutch  regard  as 
the  inventor  of  printing.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  town  hall,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  counts  of  Holland,  the  palace  of  the  states 
general  containing  a  gallery  of  paintings,  12 
Protestant  and  three  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
and  one  Old  Catholic  (Jansenist)  church.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  and  an  Old  Catholic 
bishop.  St.  Bavon's  church,  erected  in  the 
15th  century,  is  the  largest  ecclesiastical  edifice 
in  Holland,  and  is  celebrated  as  containing  the 
great  organ  constructed  in  1738,  and  which 
until  lately  was  the  largest  in  the  world.  The 
city  has  a  botanical  garden,  numerous  public 


schools,  a  gymnasium,  an  academy  of  arts  found- 
ed in  1752,  and  the  Teyler  institute;  and  in 
the  S.  outskirts  are  many  nursery  gardens,  re- 
nowned for  tulips,  hyacinths,  and  other  bulbous 
plants,  in  which  an  extensive  trade  is  carried 
on.  It  possesses  manufactories  of  cotton,  silk, 
linens,  velvets,  ribbons,  damasks,  lace,  jewelry, 
sail  cloth,  and  soap,  and  has  refineries  of  salt, 
tanneries,  and  dye  works.  Prior  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  art  of  bleaching  by  chlorine, 
Haarlem  enjoyed  celebrity  for  its  bleacheries. 
Large  quantities  of  linen  were  supplied  to  Eng- 
land, and  hence  came  to  be  called  hollands. — 
Haarlem  was  a  flourishing  town  in  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  and  figured  in  the  wars 
between  the  Dutch  and  West  Frisians.  The 
revolted  peasants  seized  it  in  1492,  but  lost  it 
the  same  year.  Having  joined  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands  against  the  Spaniards  it  was  be- 
sieged by  the  troops  of  Alva  in  1572-'3.  The 
citizens  made  one  of  the  most  heroic  defences 
on  record.  After  seven 
months'  siege,  during 
which  the  Spaniards  lost 
10,000  men,  and  twice 
breached  the  walls,  but 
were  unable  to  obtain 
entrance,  they  turned 
the  siege  into  a  block- 
ade, and  placed  a  fleet 
on  the  lake  to  cut  off 
supplies.  The  defend- 
ers, who  originally  num- 
bered 4,000,  including 
some  German  auxilia- 
ries and  a  corps  of  300 
women,  being  reduced 
to  1,800,  and  the  last 
mouthful  of  food  eaten, 
proposed  to  place  the 
women  and  children  in 
their  centre,  fire  the 
city,  and  cut  their  way 
through  the  besiegers. 
The  Spaniards  now  of- 
fered terms  if  they  would  surrender.  The  pro- 
posal was  accepted.  Alva's  troops  marched 
in,  disarmed  the  inhabitants,  and  the  57  hos- 
tages were  put  to  death ;  and  four  execution- 
ers were  kept  constantly  busy  until  they  ceased 
from  fatigue  after  2,000  persons  had  been 
butchered,  when  300  remaining  victims  were 
tied  in  twos,  back  to  back,  and  cast  into  the  lake. 
William  of  Orange  retook  the  city  in  1577. 

HAARLEM  MEER,  or  Lake  of  Haarlem,  a  former 
lake  14  m.  long  and  10  m.  broad,  covering  70 
sq.  m.,  communicating  N.  with  the  Zuyder  Zee 
by  the  inlet  called  the  Y,  and  S.  with  the  Old 
Rhine,  and  occupying,  with  an  average  depth 
of  water  of  13  ft.,  the  area  between  the  cities 
of  Haarlem,  Leyden,  and  Amsterdam.  This 
sheet  of  water  was  formed  in  the  16th  century 
by  an  inundation  which  united  four  ponds  into 
one,  and  destroyed  several  villages.  It  grad- 
ually encroached  on  the  land,  till  in  the  pres- 
ent century  it  covered  45,000  acres.  It  was 


HABAKKUK 


HABEAS  CORPUS 


363 


Irained  between  1839  and  1852,  and  almost 
whole  of  it  was  reclaimed.  It  forms  now 
a  commune  with  a  population  of  about  10,000. 
(See  DRAINAGE.) 

HABAKKIJK,  one  of  the  twelve  minor  proph- 
of  whose  birth  or  death  we  know  with  cer- 
dnty  neither  the  time  nor  the  place.  His 
jrophecy  is  variously  dated  by  different  scholars 
from  about  630  to  590  B.  C.  It  relates  chiefly 
the  threatened  invasion  of  Judea  by  the 
Jhaldeans.  The  style  is  highly  poetical^  and 
,_ie  ode  or  prayer  of  the  3d  chapter  is  proba- 
jly  unrivalled,  not  only  for  splendor  of  diction 
n  subject,  but  for  sublimity,  simplicity,  and 
>wer.  See  Delitzsch,  Der  Prophet  Habakuk, 
degt  (Leipsic,  1843),  and  De  Habacuci 

cB  Vita  atque  JEtate  (2d  ed.,  1844). 
HABEAS  CORPUS,  an  ancient  English  writ, 
for  a  variety  of  purposes  from  the  remo- 
time.     It  is  addressed  to  a  sheriff  or  other 
icer,  and  commands  him  to  have  the  body 
the  person  named  at  a  certain  place  and 
"When  all  writs  were  in  Latin,  the  charac- 
jrizing  words  of  this  writ  were  ut  habeas  cor- 
and  the  name  has  long  survived  the  use 
these  words  in  the  writ.     One  of  the  pur- 
ges for  which  it  was  used  was  to  recover  free- 
lorn  which  had  been  wrongfully  taken  away. 
Arsenal  liberty  was  always  asserted  by  the 
ion  law  from  its  earliest  ages;   and  it 
ras  always  assailed  by  kings  who  would  be 
tyrants,  and  with  an  earnestness  proportioned 
their  tyranny.     Hence  it  became  necessary 
to  declare  this  principle  in  the  most  solemn 
lanner  in  Magna  Charta.    It  is  there  said  that 
no  man  shall  be  taken  or  imprisoned  but  by 
le  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law 
of  the  land;"  and  this  clause,  more  than  any 
ler,  has  given  to  that  instrument  the  name 
the  palladium  of  English  liberty,  a  name 
rhich  is  deserved  rather  by  the  writ  of  habeas 
>us.    For,  on  the  one  hand,  the  great  char- 
ter did  not  enact  this  as  a  new  rule  of  law,  but 
only  declared  it  to  be  the  law  of  the  land ;  and, 
on  the  other,  its  force  and  influence  gradually 
faded,  in  despite  of  repeated  formal  confirma- 
tions ;  and  this  law  became  actual  and  opera- 
tive only  by  means  of  the  habeas  corpus.    This 
writ  was  issuable  from  the  king's  bench ;  and 
was  used  to  protect  or  restore  liberty,  by 
ringing  the  prisoner  before  the  court,  whose 
luty  it  was  to  order  his  immediate  discharge 
if  he  were  not  restrained  of  his  liberty  accord- 
ig  to  law.     But  it  was  evaded  by  courts  and 
leriffs,  who  were  disposed  to  support  royal  or 
linisterial  usurpations ;  and  it  became  so  pow- 
erless that  early  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the 
3urt  of  king's  bench  formally  decided  that 
ley  had  no  power  to  release  any  person  im- 
prisoned without  any  cause  assigned,  if  he  were 
imprisoned  by  the  express  command  of  the 
king,  or  by  the  lords  of  the  privy  council.    The 
petition  of  right,  passed  in  1628,  asserted  the 
illegality .  of  this  decision,  and  declared  that 
u  no  freeman  should  be  imprisoned  or  detained 
without  cause  shown,  to  which  he  may  make 


answer  according  to  law."  But  the  means  of 
enforcing  this  rule  were  still  imperfect,  and 
personal  liberty  was  still  violated ;  and  by  16 
Charles  I.,  ch.  10,  various  provisions  were  enact- 
ed, intended  to  make  the  writ  more  effectual. 
But  this  was  not  enough.  The  judges  still  con- 
tinued to  refuse  the  writ  at  their  pleasure,  or 
to  insist  that  it  could  be  issued  only  in  term 
time ;  and  prisoners  were  sent  to  distant  jails, 
and  sheriffs  and  jailers  refused  to  obey  it;  or 
if  the  party  imprisoned  were  brought  before  an 
examining  court,  his  liberty  was  still  withheld 
on  frivolous  pretences.  At  length,  in  the  31st 
year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1679),  what  is 
now  always  understood  by  the  habeas  corpus 
act  was  enacted.  It  consisted  of  a  variety  of 
provisions,  devised  with  so  much  skill,  and  so 
well  adapted  to  give  each  other  mutual  support, 
that  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  personal 
liberty  will  be  safe  in  England  and  the  United 
States  so  long  as  this  law  remains  in  force. 
Evasion  of  it  is  almost  impossible ;  and  it  can 
be  made  ineffectual  only  by  a  positive  and  open 
violation  of  its  essential  provisions,  or  by  a  dis- 
tinct denial  of  its  interposition.  The  English 
statute  has  been  copied  in  the  United  States, 
without  essential  change ;  the  variations  from 
it  being  only  such  as  would,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  various  legislatures,  make  its  provisions 
more  stringent,  and  the  security  it  gives  to 
liberty  more  certain  and  available. — The  pro- 
visions of  the  statutes  of  habeas  corpus,  now  in 
force  in  the  different  states,  may  be  stated  gen- 
erally thus:  1.  The  writ  commands  the  sheriff, 
or  other  person  to  whom  it  is  directed,  to  have 
the  body  of  the  person  who  is  said  to  be  re- 
strained of  his  liberty  forthwith  before  the 
justice  issuing  it,  or  some  other  tribunal  com- 
petent to  try  the  questions  the  case  may  pre- 
sent; and  to  summon  the  person  restraining 
the  alleged  prisoner  to  be  there  also,  and  bring 
with  him  the  cause  of  the  restraint;  that  all 
parties  may  then  and  there  submit  themselves 
to  whatever  may  be  lawfully  adjudged  and 
ordered  in  their  behalf.  The  language  varies 
in  the  different  statutes  which  give  the  form 
of  the  writ ;  but  it  is  always  substantially  as 
above.  2.  The  writ  must  be  granted,  as  of 
right,  by  any  of  the  justices  of  the  higher 
courts,  and,  in  their  absence  or  inaccessibility, 
by  any  of  those  of  a  lower  court,  down  to 
justices  of  the  quorum ;  the  law  covering  in 
this  respect  a  wide  range,  so  as  to  insure  to 
every  applicant  some  one  from  whom  this  re- 
dress or  remedy  may  come.  3.  It  must  be 
granted  at  any  time  when  it  is  prayed  for, 
whether  a  court  be  sitting  or  not.  4.  It-must 
be  granted  either  to  the  party  himself  restrain- 
ed of  his  liberty,  or  to  any  one  applying  for 
him ;  and  if  his  name  be  unknown,  the  best 
description  which  can  readily  be  given  is  suf- 
ficient. 5.  The  application  must  be  in  writing, 
and  must  be  verified  by  the  oath  of  the  appli- 
cant. 6.  The  sheriff  or  other  officer  to  whom 
it  is  directed  must  render  prompt  obedience, 
and  make  immediate  service,  and  return  the 


364 


HABEAS  CORPUS 


writ  forthwith  with  a  full  statement  of  his  do- 
ings. 7.  It  must  be  returned  before  the  proper 
magistrate  at  chambers,  if  a  court  to  which  it 
is  made  returnable  be  not  then  in  session.  8. 
Upon  the  return,  the  alleged  prisoner  being 
present,  the  case  is  tried ;  and  unless  sufficient 
cause  for  his  imprisonment  is  shown,  he  is 
ordered  to  be  discharged  at  once.  9.  If  not 
wholly  discharged,  the  court  or  magistrate  may 
order  him  to  be  discharged  on  giving  reason- 
able bail,  if  he  be  held  for  any  bailable  offence 
or  cause.  10.  In  some  of  the  states  it  is  pro- 
vided that  the  writ  may  not  issue  if  the  party 
restrained  be  imprisoned  for  crime,  or  in  exe- 
cution civil  or  criminal,  and  by  lawful  warrant. 
In  others  these  exceptions  are  not  made,  but  if 
facts  like  these  appear  on  trial,  the  prisoner  is 
remanded.  11.  In  general,  after  a  party  has 
been  discharged  on  habeas  corpus,  he  cannot 
be  again  imprisoned  or  restrained  of  his  liber- 
ty for  the  same  cause.  12.  The  issuing  of  the 
writ  by  the  magistrate  applied  to,  and  prompt 
and  full  obedience  to  it  by  the  officer  or  other 
person  to  whom  it  is  directed,  are  secured  by 
very  heavy  penalties ;  and  also  by  the  fact  that 
any  applicant  to  whom  the  writ  is  refused  by 
one  magistrate  may  apply  to  another,  and  the 
number  of  those  to  whom  he  may  thus  resort 
is  so  large  that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  them 
all  to  be  corrupted,  or  for  any  reason  indis- 
posed to  render  due  obedience  to  the  law. — 
The  vast  importance  of  this  law  can  be  appreci- 
ated only  by  those  who  have  studied  the  his- 
tory of  despotism ;  although  it  discloses  only 
what  might  have  been  inferred  with  almost 
equal  certainty  from  the  reason  of  the  thing. 
Whether  the  ruling  authority  of  a  nation  (be  it 
in  the  hands  of  one  or  of  many)  shall  be  abso- 
lute or  subordinated  to  law  must  depend,  in 
the  last  result,  upon  its  power  over  the  persons 
of  those  who  are  subject  to  it.  Whatever  be 
the  law,  if  there  be  a  sovereign  who  may  dis- 
regard it,  and  put  in  strict  imprisonment  those 
who  would  resist  him;  if  he  may  substitute 
his  own  commands  for  law,  and  take  away 
from  society  and  from  all  power  of  resort  to 
law  those  who  do  not  obey  him;  it  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  there  can  be  no  disobedience  and 
no  resistance  which  is  not  rebellion  if  it  be  put 
down,  or  revolution  if  it  succeed.  The  histo- 
ries of  France  and  of  England  offer  the  most 
perfect  illustration  of  this.  Beginning  from  the 
feudal  ages,  they  stood  then  about  upon  an 
equality  in  respect  to  the  power  of  the  sover- 
eign and  the  personal  rights  of  the  subject. 
Under  some  of  her  monarchs,  of  the  Plantage- 
net  and  Tudor  families,  England  seemed  to  be 
yielding  herself  np  to  a  more  absolute  tyranny 
than  was  known  to  her  neighbor.  But  as  the 
ages  went  on,  it  became  apparent  in  France 
that  the  subjection  of  the  citizen  to  the  sover- 
eign became  with  every  generation  more  com- 
plete. By  insidious  rather  than  open  increase, 
the  power  of  the  king,  or  rather  the  power  of 
ministers  who  acted  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
to  imprison  at  their  pleasure  whom  they  would, 


for  political  or  personal,  public  or  private  rea- 
sons, became  so  entirely  established,  that  every 
minister  of  the  crown  had,  it  is  said,  a  large 
number  of  blank  lettres  de  cachet  (or  letters 
under  the  privy  seal  of  the  king)  which  he 
could  fill  with  names  at  his  pleasure,  and  by 
which  the  police  were  authorized  and  com- 
manded to  imprison  the  party  named  and  hold 
him  in  prison  at  the  pleasure  of  the  minister. 
The  Bastile  became  a  recognized  instrument 
of  state ;  and  in  its  cells  lay  those  who  were 
placed  there  only  at  the  suspicion  or  the  caprice 
of  some  minister,  and  who  remained  there  only 
because  they  were  forgotten.  Of  course  this 
state  of  things  could  not  last ;  for  no  one  ac- 
quainted with  human  nature  could  doubt  that 
such  irresponsible  and  enormous  power  would 
be  enormously  abused,  and  lead  its  possessors 
into  folly  and  insanity.  Therefore  the  French 
revolution  came  to  do  the  work  which  must 
be  done,  and  only  revolution  could  do,  and 
therefore  the  reign  of  terror  almost  necessarily 
replaced  the  despotism  which  had  been  its  pa- 
rent. If  we  now  turn  to  England,  we  shall  see 
that  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  times  despotism  was 
rarely  attempted,  and  never  successful;  that 
the  laws  and  institutions  of  those  days  are  all 
founded  on  the  presumption  of  personal  liberty 
and  rights;  that  this  element  of  character 
might  for  a  time  be  suppressed  or  enfeebled, 
but  that  it  could  never  be  annihilated ;  that  it 
rose  from  time  to  time  into  prominence  and 
activity,  and,  as  opportunity  offered  or  could 
be  made,  gradually  asserted  itself:  first  in  the 
fact  of  a  common  law,  which  the  courts  re- 
garded as  binding  upon  them ;  then  in  the  rec- 
ognition of  personal  liberty  and  right  as  an  un- 
questionable principle  of  common  law;  then 
by  such  timely  assertions  as  in  Magna  Charta, 
in  the  petition  of  right,  and  finally  in  the  act 
of  habeas  corpus. — That  this  act  is  sufficiently 
valued  in  the  United  States  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  the  federal  constitution  (art. 
I.,  sec.  9,  No.  2)  provides  that  "  the  provisions 
of  the  act  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when 
in  case  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it ;"  and  there  is  a  provision 
to  the  same  effect  in  some  of  the  state  consti- 
tutions. Everywhere  the  statute  itself  is  en- 
acted, and,  so  far  as  words  can  have  the  effect, 
made  stringent  and  effectual.  By  various  acts 
of  congress  jurisdiction  is  conferred  upon  the 
federal  courts  to  issue  the  writ  of  habeas  cor- 
pus in  cases  of  confinement  by  federal  or  un- 
der pretence  of  federal  authority,  and  also  in 
other  cases  where  it  may  be  necessary  to  the 
enforcement  of  federal  jurisdiction.  How  far 
the  state  courts  have  the  right  to  inquire  into 
unlawful  restraints  upon  personal  liberty  under 
claim  of  federal  authority  has  been  the  subject 
of  no  little  discussion  and  conflict  of  decision. 
The  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  has 
finally  determined  that  though  the  state  courts 
may  issue  the  writ  in  all  cases,  yet  when  it 
appears  by  the  return  that  the  restraint  is  un- 
der a  claim  of  federal  authority,  they  can  pro- 


HABENECK 


HACKBERRY 


,u  no  further,  but  must  leave  the  validity  of 
s  claim  to  be  determined  by  the  federal  courts. 
-The  technical  name  of  this  writ  is  habeas 
ins  ad  subjiciendum,  from  the  requirement 
jntained  in  it  that  the  alleged  prisoner  and 
le  persons  restraining  him  should  "submit 
jmselves  to  the  order  of  the  court."    It  is 
letimes  called  also  habeas  corpus  cum  causa, 
corpus  ad  testificandum  was  formerly 
to  compel  witnesses  to  testify  in  certain 
and  habeas  corpus  ad  satisfaciendum  was 
iployed  to  obtain  satisfaction  of  certain  judg- 
ants.    But  these  are  now  obsolete.    This  writ 
now  frequently  resorted  to  by  parents  of 
linors  who  have  enlisted  without  their  per- 
lission,  by  parents  who  wish  to  obtain  posses- 
of  children  withheld  from  them,  and  for 
lilar  purposes.     It  has  been  solemnly  de- 
led that  the  habeas  corpus  act  can  be  sus- 
led  only  by  the  legislature ;  and  that  the 
lation  of  martial  law  by  a  military  offi- 
is  not  sufficient. 
HABENECK,  Antoine   Francois,  a  French  mu- 
jian,  of  German  parentage,  born  in  Mezieres, 
1,  1781,  died  in  Paris  in  February,  1849. 
father,  a  musician  of  a  French  regiment, 
ive  him  lessons  on  the  violin,  of  which  instru- 
it  he  became  a  distinguished  master  under 
tuition  of  Baillot.     The  empress  Josephine 
gave  him  a  pension  of  1,200  francs,  and  he  be- 
came adjunct  and  successor  of  Kreutzer  as  solo 
player,  and  from  1806  to  1815  he  presided  over 
the  orchestra  at  the  conservatoire  ,-  and  he  was 
the  first  to  produce  there  the  music  of  Beetho- 
ven, which  through  his  perseverance  and  en- 
thusiasm gradually  acquired  universal  popular- 
ity.   From  1821  to  1824  he  was  director  of  the 
opera ;  and  he  was  leader  of  the  orchestra  till 
1846,  and  in  this  capacity  and  as  a  violinist  he 
was  without  a  rival,  though  he  composed  little, 
lis  younger  brothers  COEENTIN  and  JOSEPH 

ime  also  known  as  excellent  violinists. 
HABERSHAM,   a  N.  E.   county  of  Georgia, 
lering  on  South  Carolina,  and  containing 
sources  of  the  Chattahoochee,  Broad,  and 
jr  rivers ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,322,  of  whom  949  were  colored.     It  is 
iversed  by  branches  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  be- 
reen  which  are  fertile  valleys.     Iron  is  abun- 
it ;  rubies,  carnelians,  and  occasionally  dia- 
>nds  have  been  found ;  and  the  gold  mines 
rere  formerly  among  the  richest  in  the  state. 
~ie  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,409  bush- 
Is  of  wheat,  4,795  of  rye,  132,824  of  Indian 
>rn,  5,915  of  oats,  16,297  of  sweet  potatoes, 
",127  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  83,241  of  butter,  and  79 
of  cotton.     There  were  695  horses,  1,354 
lilch  cows,  2,244  other  cattle,  4,729  sheep, 
id  7,370  swine.     Capital,  Clarkesville. 
HABINGTON,  William,  an  English  poet,  born 
Hindlip,  Worcestershire,  Nov.  5,  1605,  died 
lere,  Nov.  13, 1645.    He  was  educated  at  the 
Fesuit  college  of  St.  Omer,  and  at  Paris ;  but 
le  showed  no  inclination  for  a  life  of  celiba- 
cy, and  married  Lucy  Herbert,  the  daughter 
"  Lord  Powis.     He  lived  mostly  in  the  coun- 


try,  and  his  life  passed  quietly.  His  works, 
marked  by  nice  fancy  and  moral  elevation,  are : 
"Castara,"  a  collection  of  poems  addressed 
to  his  wife  (4to,  London,  1634;  with  a  preface 
and  notes  by  Charles  A.  Elton,  12mo,  Bristol, 
1812) ;  "  The  Queene  of  Aragon,  a  Tragi-com- 
edie"  (fol.,  1640),  revived  in  1666  with  a  pro- 
logue and  epilogue  by  Samuel  Butler,  author 
of  "  Hudibras ;"  "  The  Historie  of  Edward  IV." 
(1640),  said  to  have  been  partly  written  by  the 
poet's  father ;  and  "  Observations  upon  the  His- 
torie of  Henry  the  Second's  Association  of  his 
eldest  Sonne  to  the  Regal  Throne"  (8vo,  1641). 

HACHETTE,  Jean  Nicolas  Pierre,  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Mezieres,  May  6, 1769, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  16,  1834.  At  the  age  of  19 
he  was  made  designer  to  the  professors  of 
physics  and  chemistry  at  the  engineering  school 
of  M6zieres.  In  1792  he  became  professor  of 
hydrography  at  Collioure,  in  1794  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  descriptive  geometry  in  the  polytech- 
nic school  in  Paris,  and  in  1810  adjunct  pro- 
fessor in  the  Parisian  faculty  of  sciences  and 
the  normal  school.  On  the  restoration  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  polytechnic  school  on  ac- 
count of  his  political  sentiments,  and  although 
elected  a  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
in  1823,  he  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat 
until  after  the  revolution  of  1830.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  mathematics  and  physies. 

HACKBERRY  (celtis  occidentalism  the  popular 
name  of  a  tree  belonging  to  the  nettle  family 
(urticace(E\  and  the  elm  suborder  (ulmacece). 
In  different  parts  of  the  country  it  is  also 
known  as  sugarberry,  nettle  tree,  sweetgum, 
false  elm,  beaverwood,  and  hoop  ash.  The  ge- 


Hackberry  (Celtis  occidentalis). 

neric  name  celtis  is  the  Greek  for  the  lotus,  the 
berries  of  C.  australis,  of  southern  Europe,  be- 
ing supposed  to  have  been  the  food  of  the  loto- 
phagi.  The  hackberry  is  found  as  a  small 
straggling  bush,  and  as  a  medium- sized  or  a 
large  tree.  It  has  a  very  close  resemblance  in 


HACKEE 


HACKETT 


general  appearance  to  the  elm,  except  that  its 
branches  are  more  horizontal,  and  instead  of  a 
winged  fruit  it  bears  singly  or  in  pairs  a  globu- 
lar drupe,  about  the  size  of  a  wild  cherry,  dark 
purple  when  ripe,  and  sweet  and  edible.  The 
wood,  though  tine-grained  and  compact,  is  not 
heavy,  and  when  exposed  to  the  weather  is  not 
durable ;  it  splits  readily  and  is  sometimes  used 
for  rails  and  even  for  baskets;  it  is  said  to 
make  excellent  charcoal.  The  tree  extends 
from  New  England  to  the  Pacific,  and  south- 
ward to  Texas ;  and  being  found  in  widely  dif- 
ferent situations,  it  presents  great  variation  in 
the  size,  form,  and  thickness  of  the  leaves.  At 
least  a  dozen  forms  have  from  time  to  time 
been  described  by  botanists  as  species ;  but  as 
every  intermediate  state  can  be  found  between 
these  nominal  species,  the  best  authorities 
unite  them  all  under  G.  occidentals.  This  tree 
in  the  northern  states  is  rarely  found  growing 
in  great  numbers  in  any  one  locality,  and  is 
perhaps  the  least  known  of  any  of  our  forest 
trees;  at  the  south  it  is  more  abundant,  and 
attains  a  large  size  on  the  coast  as  well  as  on 
the  river  banks,  where  specimens  60  to  80  ft. 
high,  with  a  trunk  3  to  5  ft.  in  diameter,  are 
not  rare.  Tree  planters  seem  to  overlook  the 
merits  of  the  hackberry  as  an  ornamental  tree, 
and  it  is  better  appreciated  in  Europe  than 
with  us;  as  a  lawn  tree  it  presents  an  elegant 
form,  and  is  remarkably  free  from  the  attacks 
of  insects ;  it  holds  its  leaves  until  late  in  au- 
tumn, when  they  turn  yellow  and  fall  all  at 
once.  A  dwarf  hackberry  is  found  in  western 
Texas,  which  seems  to  be  a  distinct  species ;  it 
is  a  crooked  shrub  of  a  few  feet  in  height,  and 
was  called  by  Torrey  C.  palllda.  The  wood 
of  the  European  C.  australis  is  valued  for  ma- 
king furniture,  and  especially  for  carving ;  the 
very  strong  and  flexible  shoots  serve  for  ma- 
king hay  forks,  whip  handles,  and  the  like. 

HACKEE.     See  CHIPMUNK. 

HACRERT,  Philipp,  a  German  artist,  born  at 
Prenzlau,  Prussia,  Sept.  15,  1737,  died  near 
Florence,  April  28,  1807.  He  studied  painting 
with  his  father,  and  afterward  at  Berlin,  and 
went  to  Paris  in  1765,  and  to  Italy  in  1768. 
In  Rome  the  empress  Catharine  of  Russia  or- 
dered of  him  two  pictures  to  represent  the  na- 
val battle  of  Tchesme,  July  5,  1770,  and  the 
burning  of  the  Turkish  fleet.  In  order  that  he 
might  understand  the  appearance  of  the  ex- 
plosion of  a  ship,  Count  Orloff  blew  up  on6  of 
his  frigates  before  him.  After  the  task  was 
finished  the  empress  ordered  six  pictures  of  the 
victories  of  the  Russians  in  the  Mediterranean. 
He  resided  for  some  time  in  Naples,  but  was 
compelled  by  the  revolution  of  1799  to  go  to 
Florence ;  and  he  purchased  a  villa  near  that 
city,  in  which  he  resided  until  his  death.  His 
contemporary  reputation  was  beyond  his  mer- 
its. He  engraved  many  of  his  own  paintings, 
and  wrote  SulF  uso  delta  vernice  nella  pittura 
(1788),  and  Theoretisch-praTctische  Anleitung 
zum  Landschaftszeichnen  (1803).  Goethe  wrote 
a  biographical  sketch  of  Hackert  (1811). 


HACRETT,  Horatio  Balch,  an  American  Biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Salisbury,  Mass.,  Dec.  27,  1808. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in  1830,  and 
studied  theology  at  Andover,  and  afterward  at 
Halle  and  Berlin.  He  spent  a  year  as  tutor  at 
Amherst  college,  and  four  years  as  professor 
of  ancient  languages  at  Brown  university,  and 
in  1839  became  professor  of  Biblical  literature 
in  the  Newton  theological  institution.  In 
1851-'2  he  travelled  in  Italy,  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  other  countries.  In  1858-'9  he  resided 
several  months  in  Athens,  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  modern  Greek,  as  auxiliary  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  New  Testament,  and  visit- 
ed places  in  and  near  Greece  possessing  a  Bib- 
lical interest.  In  1869  he  resigned  his  pro- 
fessorship at  Newton,  and  in  1870  became  pro- 
fessor of  New  Testament  Greek  in  the  Roches- 
ter theological  seminary,  He  has  published 
Plutarch's  De  Sera  Numinis  Vindicta,  with 
notes  (Andover,  1844);  a  translation  of  Wi- 
ner's Chaldee  grammar,  with  additions  (1845); 
"Hebrew  Grammar"  and  "Hebrew  Reader" 
(1847);  a  "Commentary  on  the  Acts"  (Bos- 
ton, 1851;  new  ed.  greatly  extended,  1858); 
"  Illustrations  of  Scripture  suggested  by  a  Tour 
through  the  Holy  Land"  (1855)  ;  translation  of 
the  "  Epistle  to  Philemon,  with  Notes"  (1860); 
"Memorials  of  Christian  Men  in  the  War" 
(1864)  ;  translation  of  Van  Oosterzee's  "  Com- 
mentary on  Philemon,"  for  Lange's  "  Com- 
mentary" (1868);  and  translation  of  Braune's 
"  Commentary  on  Philippians,"  with  additions, 
for  Lange's  "  Commentary  "  (1870).  He  con- 
tributed to  the  English  edition  of  Smith's 
"Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  and  with  Dr.  Ezra 
Abbot  edited  the  American  edition.  He  also 
edited  the  American  edition  of  Rawlinson's 
"  Historical  Illustrations  of  the  Old  Testament," 
with  notes  and  appendix  (1873).  He  is  one  of 
the  American  revisers  of  the  English  Bible. 

HACRETT,  James  Henry,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  New  York,  March  15,  1800,  died  at 
Jamaica,  L.  I.,  Dec.  28,  1871.  He  entered 
Columbia  college  in  1815,  but  remained  only  a 
year.  In  1817  he  began  the  study  of  law,  and 
in  the  following  year  became  a  clerk  in  a  gro- 
cery store.  In  1819  he  married  an  actress  of 
the  Park  theatre.  He  was  in  mercantile  busi- 
ness in  Utica  and  in  New  York  from  1820  to 
1825,  but  failed,  and  then  devoted  himself  to 
the  stage,  making  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Park  theatre,  March  1,  1826,  as  Justice  Wood- 
cock. On  March  10  he  made  a  decided  suc- 
cess as  Sylvester  Daggerwood.  He  went  to 
England  the  same  year,  and  also  made  success- 
ful professional  visits  there  in  1832,  1840,  1845, 
and  1851.  Upon  his  return  from  his  first  visit 
to  England  he  appeared  as  Rip  Van  Winkle, 
and  subsequently  as  Monsieur  Mallet  and  Fal- 
staff.  In  1829-'30  he  was  associated  in  the 
management  of  the  Bowery  and  Chatham  thea- 
tres in  New  York.  In  1837  he  managed  the 
National  theatre,  and  in  1849  he  was  lessee 
and  manager  of  the  Astor  place  opera  house, 
and  lost  more  than  $4,000  by  the  Forrest  and 


IIACKLlNDER 

ady  riots.     In  1854  he  engaged  Grisi  and 
•io,  and  gave  successfully  a  series  of  Italian 
ras  throughout  the  United  States.     Until 
869,  when  he  withdrew  from  the  stage,  he  con- 
tinued to  act  at  intervals.     His  Falstaff  was 
thought  to  be  his  best  character,  and  in  it  he 
made  his  last  appearance  in  New  York,  Dec. 
25, 1869.    He  projected  the  plan  for  the  Shake- 
are  monument  in  the  Central  Park,  and  the 
r  stone  was  laid  under  his  auspices  at  the 
akespeare  tercentenary,  April  23,  1864.     He 
blished  "Notes,  Criticisms,  and  Correspon- 
e  upon  Shakespeare's  Plays  and  Actors  " 
ew  York,  1863). 
HACKLANDER,  Friedrlch  Wilhclm  Ton,  a  Ger- 
author,  born  at  Burtscheid,  near  Aix-la- 
apelle,  Nov.  1,  1816.     He  qualified  himself 
mercantile  pursuits  at  Elberfeld,  to  which 
returned  after  serving  for  a  short  time  in  the 
y.    Becoming  dissatisfied  with  commercial 
life,  he  removed  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  pub- 
"ished  in  1841  Bilder  aw  dem  Soldatenleben  in 
nszeit  and  Wachtstubenabenteuer,  which 
e  him  famous.     In  the  same  year  he  ac- 
panied  Baron  Taubenheim,  the  grand  mas- 
of  the  horse,  to  the  East  for  the  selection 
Arabian  horses  for  King  William  of  Wur- 
temberg.      After    his    return    he    published 
tches  of  oriental  life  (Daguerreotypen,  2 
,  1842),  and  Pilgerzug  nacJi  MeTclca  (1847). 
e  king  gave  him   employment  in  the  ex- 
quer,  and  in  1843  he  became  secretary  and 
.veiling  companion  of  the  crown  prince,  the 
iresent  King  Charles.     His  active  duties  ter- 
minated in  1849,  though  he  retained  a  salary. 
He  then  joined  the  suite  of  the  Austrian  general 
Radetzky  during  the  war  with  Sardinia,  and 
published  Soldatenleben  im  Kriege  (2  vols., 
1849-'5p).     His  visit  to  Spain  in  1854  he  de- 
scribed in  Ein  Winter  in  Spanien  (2  vols.,  1855). 
1859  he  went  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
.ustrian  army  at  the  request  of  the  emperor 
ncis  Joseph,  who  afterward  conferred  upon 
a  patent  of  hereditary  nobility.     In  the 
ne  year  he  was  appointed  director  of  royal 
ildings  and  gardens  at  Stuttgart,  and  con- 
buted  greatly  to  the  embellishment  of  that 
He  lost  his  office  on  the  death  of  King 
illiarn  in  1864,  but  continued  to  reside  in 
'tuttgart.      His  complete    works   were  pub- 
lished in  48  vols.  in  1863-'6,  but  now  (1874) 
number  about  70  vols.,   include,  besides  his 
popular  military  sketches  and  books  of  travel, 
a  number  of  comedies,  of  which  J)er  geheime 
1 0850)  was  the  most  successful ;  delinea- 
s  of  his  early  mercantile  experiences  (Han- 
und  Wandel,  2  vols.,  1850;  translated  into 
glisli  by  Mary  llowitt,  "Behind  the  Coun- 
r,"  18f>8);  and  stories,  tales,  and  novels,  which 
;e  him  in  the  front  rank  of  humorous  and 
thetic  writers.     Many   of  them   have  been 
nslated  into  French,  and  Mrs.  Wister  trans- 
ted  one  of  them  into  English  under  the  title 
Enchanting  and  Enchanted"  (Philadelphia, 
870).     The   following   are    among  his  most 
aborate  novels:   Europaischen  Sklavenleben  (4 
384  VOL.  viri. — 24 


HADDOCK 


3C7 


vols.,  1854);  Der  neue  Don  Quixote  (5  vols., 
1858);  Kunstlerroman  (5  vols.,  1866);  Das  Ge- 
heimniss  der  Stadt  (3  vols.,  1868) ;  Der  letzte 
Bombardier  (4  vols.,  1870);  GescJiichten  im 
Zick-Zaclc  (4  vols.,  1870-'71);  Der  Sturmvogel 
(6  vols.,  1871-'2);  and  Kaimeichen  (1874). 

HACKMATACK.    See  LARCH. 

HADDINGTONSHIRE,  or  East  Lothian,  a  county 
of  Scotland,  bordering  on  the  frith  of  Forth, 
the  North  sea,  Berwickshire,  and  Edinburgh- 
shire,  or  Mid-Lothian ;  area,  280  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  37,770.  The  surface  rises  gradually, 
though  with  slight  undulations,  from  the  coast 
toward  the  Lammermuir  hills.  It  is  divided  by 
the  river  Tyne  into  two  nearly  equal  portions. 
The  climate  is  heathful,  but  variable.  The  soil 
is  in  general  fertile.  The  low  lands  of  the 
north  and  west  are  extremely  productive,  and 
the  districts  adjoining  the  Lammermuir  range 
are  adapted  to  pasturage.  The  principal  crops 
are  wheat,  potatoes,  and  turnips.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  reared  in  the  hill  districts.  There 
are  no  manufactures  of  any  importance.  Capi- 
tal, Haddington,  on  the  Tyne,  1.7  m.  E.  by  N. 
of  Edinburgh ;  pop.  about  4,000. 

HADDOCK.  I.  A  soft-rayed  fish  of  the  cod 
family,  and  genus  morrhua  (Cuv.).  This  well 
known  species  varies  in  length  from  1  to  2  ft., 
and  in  weight  from  2  to  6  Ibs.,  though  some 
have  been  taken  weighing  17  Ibs.  The  color  is 
dark  gray  above  and  silvery  gray  below,  with 
a  jet-black  lateral  line,  and  an  oblong  dark 
blotch  on  each  side,  on  a  line  with  and  just 
above  the  pectorals.  The  body  is  stout  in  the 
anterior  half,  tapering  backward ;  the  head  is 
large,  flattened  between  the  eyes,  and  the  snout 
prominent ;  the  eyes  large,  with  bluish  iris ;  the 
upper  jaw  the  longer,  with  several  rows  of 
sharp-pointed  teeth,  and  a  single  row  in  the 
lower;  a  very  minute  barbule  suspended  from 
the  chin.  There  are  three  dorsals,  the  first 
high  and  triangular,  whence  its  name  of  M. 
mglefinus  (Linn.) ;  the  pectorals  are  triangular, 
and  the  ventrals  are  in  front  of  them,  under 
the  throat;  there  are  two  anals,  and  the  caudal 
is  emarginated.  The  haddock  is  found  every- 
where on  the  American  coast  from  New  York 
to  the  arctic  regions;  they  occur  in  immense 


Haddock  (Morrhua  regleflnus). 

shoals,  often  changing  ground  as  their  food 
becomes  exhausted;  they  are  found  on  our 
coast  from  spring  to  autumn,  at  the  season 
when  cod  are  scarce.  It  is  an  excellent  fish 
when  eaten  fresh.  The  spawning  time  is  in 
early  spring;  its  food  consists  of  small  fish, 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  marine  worms; 


368 


HADERSLEBEN 


HADLEY 


from  its  voracity  it  is  a  ready  biter,  and  is 
easily  caught ;  the  fishery  is  valuable  to  New 
England  and  the  British  provinces,  and  is  pur- 
sued in  the  same  manner  as  for  cod,  and  in 
deep  water.  The  haddock  is  equally  abundant 
on  the  coast  of  northern  Europe,  and  is  very 
common  in  the  English  markets ;  it  is  found  in 
the  arctic  seas,  supplying  food  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Greenland,  and  to  the  seals  and  other 
aquatic  mammals  of  the  northern  regions.  The 
name  "young  haddock"  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  pollack,  a  gadoid  fish  of  the  genus  mer- 
langus  (Guv.).  II.  The  Norway  haddock  is 
the  sebastes  Norvegicus  (Guv.),  an  acanthopte- 
rous  marine  fish  of  the  family  sclerogenidce  or 
"  mailed  cheeks."  It  attains  a  length  of  from 
1  to  2  ft. ;  the  body  and  the  upper  parts  of 
the  head  are  covered  with  scales ;  the  gill  cov- 
ers are  spiny ;  the  teeth  are  numerous,  small, 
equal,  in  both  jaws,  and  on  the  vomer  and 
palate  bones ;  the  single  dorsal  is  partly  spinous, 
as  are  the  anal  and  ventrals.  The  color  of  the 
living  fish  is  bright  red,  with  a  black  blotch  on 
the  posterior  part  of  the  gill  covers;  after 
death  the  lower  parts  become  white ;  the  iris 
is  yellow.  It  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  on  the  American  coast  from  New 
York  to  the  far  north ;  it  is  called  here  rose 
fish,  red  perch,  and  snapper.  It  is  abundant 
in  Newfoundland,  where  it  feeds  on  small  fish. 
The  spines  of  the  dorsal  are  used  as  needles  by 
the  Greenlanders  and  Esquimaux. 

HADERSLEBEN  (Danish,  Haderslev),  a  city  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  and  52  m.  N.  of  the 
city  of  Schleswig,  on  the  Hadersleben  fiord,  a 
small  arm  of  the  sea  connecting  with  the  Little 
Belt;  pop.  in  1870,  8,259.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  a  new  town,  and  has  a  normal  school, 
gymnasium,  hospital,  and  a  monument  to  Lu- 
ther. There  are  several  breweries  and  distil- 
leries, and  a  glove  factory.  The  harbor  is  only 
adapted  for  small  vessels,  The  outer  harbor  is 
at  the  custom  house  of  Stevelt.  Hadersleben 
was  formerly  an  imperial  city,  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  before  the  reformation,  and  had  a  strong 
castle.  In  the  first  Schleswig-Holstein  war  the 
city  was  occupied  by  the  Germans  April  9, 1849, 
and  in  the  second,  Feb.  14,  1864. 

HADES  (Gr.  *Ai(tyf),  in  Grecian  mythology,  a 
name  originally  given  to  the  king  of  the  low- 
er or  invisible  world,  but  afterward  applied  to 
the  infernal  regions,  while  the  king  came  to  be 
known  as  Pluto.  Hades  was  a  place  of  dark- 
ness, the  residence  of  Pluto  and  Proserpine, 
and  the  abode  of  the  dead.  Its  gates  were 
kept  closed,  that  no  shade  might  escape  to  the 
world  of  light,  and  were  guarded  by  the  ter- 
rible many-headed  dog  Cerberus. 

HADJI,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  pilgrim, 
hadj  being  the  term  used  by  Mohammedans 
for  the  sacred  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  A  certain 
part  of  the  ceremony  which  takes  place  at 
Mecca  on  the  arrival  of  the  pilgrims  is  also  called 
hadj.  The  Mohammedan  theologians  define 
the  original  meaning  of  hadj  to  be  "aspira- 
tion," and  they  consider  it  expressive  of  the 


sentiment  that  man  is  but  a  wayfarer  on  earth 
travelling  toward  another  and  a  better  world. 
Every  Mohammedan  is  bound  once  in  his  life 
to  visit  the  holy  city  Mecca,  and  a  Mohamme- 
dan who  has  made  the  pilgrimage  afterward 
bears  the  title  Hadji  prefixed  to  his  name ;  as 
Hadji  Ibrahim,  Hadji  Mohammed. 

HADJI  KHALFA,  the  surname  of  MUSTAPHA 
BEN  ABDALLAH,  also  known  under  the  title 
of  Katib  Tchelebi  (noble  secretary),  a  Turkish 
historian,  born  at  Constantinople,  died  there 
in  1658.  His  father  was  employed  in  the  min- 
istry of  finance,  and  he  entered  the  service  in 
1622.  In  1626  he  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Erzerum.  In  1629  he  made  the  campaign  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  in  1633  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca.  Having  returned  to  Constantinople, 
he  undertook  his  great  bibliographical  work. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  1642,  but  in  1648  was 
appointed  khalfa  (minister  of  finance).  He 
wrote  in  Turkish,  Arabic,  and  Persian.  His 
most  important  work  is  Keshf  ul-tzuntin,  a 
bibliographical  lexicon  in  Arabic,  in  which 
are  titles  of  more  than  18,000  Arabic,  Per- 
sian, and  Turkish  books,  with  brief  notices  of 
the  authors.  A  complete  edition  of  the  text, 
with  a  Latin  translation,  was  published  by 
Flugel,  under  the  title  Lexicon  BibliograpM- 
cum  et  EncyclopoBdicum  (7  vols.,  London,  1835- 
'58).  He  also  wrote  some  historical  works,  of 
which  the  most  important  are,  TaTcwim  at- 
tewarikh  ("Chronological  Tables,"  Constan- 
tinople, 1733;  Latin  translation  by  Reiske, 
Leipsic,  1766);  Jihdn  numd  ("Mirror  of  the 
World,"  Constantinople,  1732 ;  Latin  transla- 
tion by  Norberg,  Lund,  1818);  and  Tohfet  al- 
Icobar  fi  asfar  al-behar  (Constantinople,  1728; 
English  translation  by  Mitchell,  "  History  of 
the  Maritime  Wars  of  the  Turks,"  London, 
1830).  His  autobiography  is  appended  to  the 
Takwim  at-tewarikh,  and  has  been  translated 
into  German  by  Von  Hammer. 

HADLEY,  James,  an  American  scholar,  born 
in  Fairfield,  Herkimer  co.,  N.  Y.,  March  30, 
1821,  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  14, 
1872.  When  nine  years  old  he  was  acciden- 
tally lamed  for  life,  and  devoted  himself  to 
study,  soon  acquiring  a  mastery  of  ancient  lan- 
guages. He  graduated  at  Yale  college,  at  the 
head  of  his  class,  in  1842,  was  for  a  short  time 
tutor  in  Middlebury  college,  Vermont,  where 
he  displayed  remarkable  mathematical  ability, 
and  graduated  at  the  theological  seminary  in 
New  Haven  in  1845.  In  that  year  also  he  be- 
came tutor,  in  1848  assistant  professor,  and  in 
1851  professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  college,  hold- 
ing the  chair  until  his  death.  He  was  familiar 
with  Sanskrit,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Greek,  Latin, 
Armenian,  Gothic,  and  many  modern  lan- 
guages, including  Swedish  and  Welsh,  and  had 
given  special  attention  to  early  forms  of  Eng- 
lish ;  and  he  was  master  of  the  methods  and 
main  results  of  comparative  philology.  He  was 
a  leading  member  of  the  American  oriental  so- 
ciety, and  during  the  last  two  years  of  his  life 
its  president.  He  was  vice  president  of  the 


HADLEY 


HADRAMAUT 


philological  association,  before  which  he  read 
a  number  of  papers  of  value.  He  was  one  of 
the  American  committee  for  the  revision  of 
the  New  Testament  now  in  progress.  His 
acquisitions  were  all  made  during  the  regular 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  a  teacher,  in  which 
position  he  was  most  successful.  He  wrote  the 
"History  of  the  English  Language"  in  the  in- 
troduction to  Webster's  Dictionary,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  "Greek  Grammar"  (1860); 
"Elements  of  the  Greek  Language  "  (1869); 
an  essay  on  the  Greek  accent,  republished  in 
German  in  Curtius's  Studien  zur  griechischen 
und  lateinischen  Grammatik  ;  an  article  on  the 
"Language  of  the  New  Testament,"  in  the 
American  edition  of  Smith's  "  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible ;"  "  Lectures  on  Roman  Law  "  (1873) ; 
and  "Essays  Philological  and  Critical,"  edited 
by  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney  (1873). 

HADLEY,  John,  an  English  astronomer,  died 
Feb.  15,  1744.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth, 
as  well  as  the  particulars  of  his  life,  are  un- 
known. He  became  a  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety in  1717,  and  is  chiefly  known  as  the  re- 
puted inventor  of  the  instrument  commonly 
called  Hadley's  quadrant,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished an  account  in  the  "Transactions"  for 
1731.  It  is  now  believed,  however,  that  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  and  Thomas  Godfrey  are  entitled 
to  the  honor  of  the  invention.  The  claims  of 
Godfrey  and  Hadley  were  investigated  by  the 
royal  society,  and  it  was  decided  that  both 
were  original  inventors,  and  a  prize  of  £200 
was  awarded  to  each.  (See  GODFREY,  THOMAS.) 

HADRAMAUT,  a  district  of  S.  Arabia,  lying 
along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean.  Its  lim- 
its are  not  well  defined,  but  it  is  bounded  gen- 
erally N.  by  the  Dahna  or  great  desert,  N.  E. 
by  Oman,  S.  by  the  sea,  and  W.  by  Yemen. 
Its  coast  line  extends  in  a  N.  E.  direction 
from  Ion.  45°  to  56°  30'  E.,  but  some  author- 
ities limit  it  to  less  than  200  m.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  extend  inland  about  120  m.  The 
coast  is  low,  excepting  where  some  spur  from 
the  mountains  inland  forms  a  projecting  cape. 
Back  of  the  lowlands  a  range  of  mountains, 
which  stretches  from  Yemen  to  the  regions 
bordering  on  Oman,  rises  in  terraces  to  a 
considerable  height,  and  behind  it  an  eleva- 
ted plateau,  diversified  by  occasional  peaks 
and  numerous  valleys,  descends  gradually  into 
the  desert.  But  little  was  known  of  the  in- 
terior until  the  explorations  of  the  baron 
von  Wrede,  who  visited  the  wady  Doan  in 
1843.  He  describes  this  valley  as  a  deep  gap 
which  bisects  the  table  land,  beginning  about 
80  m.  N.  W.  of  Makallah  and  ending  120  m. 
E.  of  it  on  the  Tehama  or  lowland  near  the 
sea.  Its  length  is  about  150  m.,  and  its  breadth 
in  its  widest  part  from  25  to  35  m.  It  has 
many  branches,  and  is  studded  with  towns 
and  villages  throughout  its  extent.  The  slopes 
of  the  hills  and  most  of  the  level  tracts  are 
well  cultivated,  the  fields  being  irrigated  from 
a  small  stream  which  runs  through  it.  This 
river,  though  sometimes  a  raging  flood,  is 


369 


frequently  dry.  In  1870  the  W.  part  of  Ha- 
dramaut  was  visited  by  Capt.  S.  B.  Miles  of 
the  British  army,  in  company  with  Werner 
Munzinger,  the  German  traveller,  who  landed 
at  Ilisu  Ghorab,  about  Ion.  48°  30',  and  passed 
through  the  country  between  that  point  and 
Aden.  The  lowland  about  Hisu  Ghorab  con- 
sists of  barren  sand  and  rocks  to  the  hills, 
about  10  m.  inland.  In  the  uplands  anthracite 
is  found,  with  bitumen  in  abundance  and  signs 
of  copper.  Dates  are  the  chief  product,  and 
a  little  indigo  is  raised,  but  no  coffee.  No 
game  was  seen,  excepting  a  few  gazelles,  but 
singing  birds  were  numerous. — The  coast  be- 
tween there  and  Aden  is  peopled  by  four  tribes, 
settled  in  towns  and  villages  and  not  nomadic, 
who  have  been  independent  about  100  years, 
having  been  previously  subjects  of  the  imam 
of  Sana.  The  most  easterly  tribe,  the  Wa- 
hidi,  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  wady 
Maifah,  in  a  sand  and  limestone  region,  which 
is  very  productive.  They  are  the  least  aggres- 
sive of  any  of  the  tribes,  and  are  mostly  settled 
down  as  peaceful  tillers  of  the  soil.  Their 
chief  towns  are  Hota,  with  8,000  inhabitants, 
and  Habban,  with  3,000.  No  coffee  or  cotton 
is  cultivated,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are 
scarce  and  dear.  They  are  divided  into  three 
sections,  each  under  the  rule  of  a  sultan,  who 
has  little  more  than  patriarchal  authority. 
Their  founder  was  Abdul  Wahid,  a  Koreish 
chief  who  conquered  the  territory.  Next  W. 
of  them  are  the  Deaybi,  who  are  called  by 
their  neighbors  Himyars,  and  claim  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Himyarites.  Their 
language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Sabaean.  They  oc- 
cupy a  portion  of  the  wady  Maifah  and  apart  of 
the  coast  to  about  50  m.  inland.  Each  of  their 
seven  divisions  is  ruled  by  an  abu  (father). 
They  are  said  to  be  rapacious  and  marauding 
in  their  habits.  The  Owlaki  hold  about  60  m. 
of  the  coast  from  the  Deaybi  to  Mugatein.  They 
have  two  divisions,  the  Owlaki  Ali  Nasir  and 
the  Owlaki  el-Nisab,  each  having  a  sultan. 
The  former,  who  number  about  15,000,  hold 
the  coast;  the  latter  the  interior.  Their  coun- 
try is  w.ell  cultivated,  and  they  own  numer- 
ous flocks  of  sheep,  goats,  and  camels.  They 
are  the  only  tribe  possessing  horses,  of  which 
they  have  a  fine  breed.  From  Mugatein  to 
Iwad,  near  Aden,  about  100  in.,  the  coast  is 
possessed  by  the  Fudthli,  a  restless,  warlike, 
and  ambitious  tribe,  numbering  about  17,000. 
Their  country  is  intersected  by  two  wadies,  the 
Hassan  and  the  Bunna,  which  are  well  wa- 
tered. Along  the  sea  is  a  thick  forest  of  mimo- 
sas, and  beyond,  toward  the  hills,  are  fields 
of  grass  and  corn.  Ambergris  is  sometimes 
found  on  the  coast.  The  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  sesamum,  and 
cotton.  No  coffee  is  cultivated,  but  it  might 
easily  be  raised  with  proper  irrigation.  In- 
digo is  grown,  but  not  to  any  extent.  Myrrh 
trees  abound,  and  frankincense  trees  are  found 
in  the  Himyar  hills,  but  the  gum  is  scarcely 
known  to  the  Arabs.  The  E.  part  of  the  coast, 


370 


HADRIAN 


HADROSAURUS 


next  to  Oman,  is  occupied  by  the  Mahra  tribe. 

The  principal  seaport  of  Hadramaut  is  Ma- 

kallah,  which  has  a  considerable  trade  with 
India  and  Yemen,  exporting  to  the  former 
vegetable  products,  and  to  the  latter  carpets, 
silk  shawls,  linen,  and  yambeas  or  girdle  knives. 
The  people  of  the  coast  are  fond  of  going 
abroad,  and  many  of  them  are  seen  in  India 
and  Egypt,  serving  as  soldiers  or  sailors ;  but 
they  usually  return  to  their  country  when  they 
have  acquired  a  competence. — Hadramaut,  in 
the  narrower  sense,  constituted  a  part  of  the 
ancient  Arabia  Felix.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  Adramitse,  an  Arabian  tribe,  who 
were  actively  engaged  in  the  drug,  spice,  and 
silk  trade,  of  which  their  capital  Sabatha  was 
the  emporium. 

HADRIAN,  or  Adrian  (PuBLius  ^LITJS  HADRI- 
ANUS),  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Rome,  Jan. 
24,  A.  D.  76,  died  July  10,  138.  His  father,  a 
Roman  senator,  married  the  aunt  of  Trajan ; 
and  when  he  died,  Trajan,  who  had  not  yet  suc- 
ceeded to  the  empire,  became  one  of  Hadrian's 
guardians.  The  emperor  Nerva  adopted  Tra- 
jan, and  the  next  year  died,  and  Hadrian  trav- 
elled from  upper  to  lower  Germany,  and  was 
the  first  to  announce  the  event  to  the  new  em- 
peror. He  next  married  Julia  Sabina,  grand- 
daughter of  Trajan's  sister;  and  through  this 
new  connection,  joined  to  the  favor  of  the  em- 
peror's wife  Plotina,  he  rose  rapidly  to  vari- 
ous high  offices  at  Rome,  being  qurestor  in  101, 
tribune  of  the  people  in  105,  praetor  in  107,  and 
legatus  prcetorius  of  Lower  Pannonia  in  108. 
He  accompanied  Trajan  in  most  of  his  expedi- 
tions, and  distinguished  himself  in  the  second 
war  against  the  Dacians  (104-106).  Trajan 
made  him  his  private  secretary,  and  probably 
selected  him  as  his  heir.  When  Trajan  died, 
Hadrian  was  in  command  of  the  armies  of  the 
East,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Antioch, 
Aug.  11,  117.  He  immediately  wrote  to  the 
senate  apologizing  for  this  haste,  and  asking 
their  sanction  of  his  election,  which  they  at 
once  gave.  Hadrian's  policy  was  pacific.  He 
renounced  the  conquests  made  by  Trajan  east 
of  the  Euphrates,  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
Parthians,  and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he 
celebrated  a  triumph  in  honor  of  his  predeces- 
sor (118).  Some  warlike  movements  of  the 
Sarmatians  now  drew  him  toward  Dacia,  but 
his  progress  was  checked  by  intelligence  of  the 
discovery  of  a  conspiracy  at  Rome,  led  by  men 
of  high  rank.  He  directed  the  chief  conspira- 
tors to  be  put  to  death,  a  severity  which  offend- 
ed many.  To  recover  his  popularity  he  can- 
celled the  arrears  of  taxes  for  the  last  15  years, 
and  assured  the  senate  that  he  would  never 
again  put  to  death  a  senator  without  their  con- 
sent. In  119  he  began  his  tour  through  the  Ro- 
man empire,  visited  Gaul  and  Germany,  and  in 
Britain  built  a  rampart  of  earth  about  60  m. 
long  for  the  defence  of  the  Roman  province, 
extending  from  Sol  way  frith  to  the  North  sea 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne.  He  then  re- 
turned through  Gaul,  spent  a  winter  in  Spain, 


crossed  into  Mauritania,  visited  Egypt  and 
western  Asia,  and  finally  paused  at  Athens  for 
three  years,  where  he  was  initiated  into  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  and  presided  at  the  pub- 
lic games.  In  this  journey  he  won  the  favor 
of  the  provincials  by  his  liberality,  and  by  va- 
rious public  works  which  he  planned  and  exe- 
cuted for  their  benefit.  The  Jews  having  re- 
volted in  131,  he  punished  them  with  great 
severity.  Judea  was  desolated  and  reduced 
almost  to  a  wilderness ;  the  Jews  were  ex- 
pelled from  Jerusalem,  and  were  forbidden  to 
return  thither,  a  Roman  colony  being  planted 
in  their  place.  His  health  declining,  he  chose 
Titus  Aurelius,  afterward  known  as  Antoninus 
Pius,  his  heir,  but  obliged  him  to  adopt  the  son 
of  ^Elius  Verus,  and  also  M.  Annius  Verus,  the 
future  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  had  built  a  mag- 
nificent villa  near  Tibur,  where  he  now  passed 
much  of  his  time.  As  death  approached,  his 
mind  became  affected,  and  he  grew  suspicious 
and  cruel.  He  was  an  able  and  generally  a  wise 
ruler.  His  literary  attainments  were  consid- 
erable ;  he  wrote  and  spoke  with  eloquence, 
and  left  numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse,  all 
of  which  are  lost  except  a  few  epigrams. 

HADROSAURUS,  a  gigantic  extinct  dinosaurian 
reptile,  living  on  the  shores  and  in  the  forests 
of  the  cretaceous  epoch,  abundant  in  the  re- 


Hadrosaurus. 

gion  of  New  Jersey,  where  its  remains  have 
been  found.  It  attained  a  length  of  30  ft.,  its 
femur  having  been  found  5  ft.  lon<r,  considera- 
bly longer  than  that  of  the  great  iguanodon  of 


HADKUMETUM 


England ;  the  fore  limbs  were  less  than  half 
the  size  of  the  hind,  but  the  tail  was  of  im- 
mense strength.  It  was  evidently  a  land  ani- 
mal, and  its  grinding  teeth  indicate  the  vegeta- 
ble character  of  its  food.  Its  favorite  attitude 
must  have  been  to  support  itself  upon  the  very 
strong  hind  limbs  and  tail,  after  the  manner 
of  the  megatherioids,  reaching  to  the  foliage 
on  which  it  fed  by  its  smaller  and  freely  mova- 
ble anterior  limbs.  As  the  iguanodon  seems 
to  have  been  the  prophetic  type  of  the  great 
pachyderms  of  the  tertiary  age,  the  hadrosau- 
rus  seems  to  point  to  the  coming  of  the  huge 
edentates  like  megatherium  and  mylodon.  A 
fine  restoration  of  this  animal  (hadrosaurus 
FoulM,  Leidy)  is  in  the  museum  of  the  acade- 
my of  natural  sciences  at  Philadelphia. 

HADRUMETUM ,  or  Adrnmetnm,  an  ancient  city 
in  northern  Africa,  on  the  seacoast,  in  the  si- 
nus Neapolitanus  (gulf  of  Hammamet).  It  was 
founded  by  the  Phrenicians,  and  became  one 
of  the  chief  ports  for  the  corn-producing  prov- 
ince of  Byzacena,  of  which  it  was  the  capital 
under  the  Romans.  It  figured  in  the  Punic 
and  civil  wars,  was  devastated  by  the  Vandals, 
and  was  restored  by  Justinian  under  the  name 
of  Justinianopolis.  Its  remains  are  identified 
at  the  modern  Susa,  70  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Tunis. 

HADZIEWICZ,  Rafael,  a  Polish  painter,  born 
at  Zamek,  near  Lublin,  in  1806.  He  exhibit- 
ed in  1829  "  Marius  on  the  Ruins  of  Carthage" 
and  "St.  Stanislas,"  and  perfected  his  art  in 
Paris  and  in  Italy.  On  returning  to  Poland  he 
executed  pictures  for  the  cathedral  of  "Warsaw, 
and  became  professor  in  that  city  after  having 
held  for  five  years  a  chair  at  the  university  of 
Moscow.  He  excels  in  religious  and  historical 
subjects. 

HAECKEL,  Ernst  Heinrkh,  a  German  natural- 
ist, born  in  Potsdam,  Feb.  16,  1834.  His  early 
predilections  were  for  botanical  studies,  and 
while  still  at  the  gymnasium  he  prepared  for 
publication  a  Flora  Merseburgensis.  He  stud- 
ied anatomy  and  histology  in  Wurzburg  un- 
der Kolliker  and  Leydig,  and  in  Berlin  under 
Johannes  Mtiller.  Returning  to  Wurzburg, 
he  became  the  assistant  of  Rudolf  Virchow. 
Having  studied  medicine,  he  settled  in  Berlin 
in  1858  as  a  practising  physician.  In  1854 
and  1856  he  had  made  with  Kolliker  and  H. 
Muller  scientific  excursions  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, some  of  the  results  of  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1857  in  an  essay  on  the  tissues  of  the 
river  crab.  A  15  months'  residence  in  Italy 
during  1859-'60,  which  he  employed  in  zoolo- 
gical researches,  finally  withdrew  him  from 
the  practice  of  medicine  and  made  him  a  pro- 
fessed zoologist.  On  March  4,  1861,  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  university  of  Jena  his  thesis  De 
RUzopodum  Finibuset  Ordinibus  ;  and  in  1862 
he  was  made  extraordinary  professor.  In  the 
same  year  he  wrote  an  essay  on  radiolaria  or 
radiary  rhizopods,  with  an  atlas  of  35  plates, 
to  which  the  Cothenius  gold  medal  was  award- 
ed. This  work  contains  not  only  a  complete 
collection,  systematic  arrangement,  and  critical 


HAECKEL 


371 


examination  of  all  the  genera  and  species  of 
radiolaria  previously  observed,  but  the  names, 
description,  and  figures  of  46  new  genera  and 
144  new  species,  nearly  three  times  as  many 
as  were  before  known.  In  this  essay  Haeckel 
avowed  his  conviction  "of  the  mutability  of 
species,  and  of  the  actual  genealogical  relation- 
ship of  all  organisms."  Without  subscribing 
to  all  the  views  and  hypotheses  of  Darwin  as 
to  natural  selection,  he  recognized  the  great 
merits  of  the  Darwinian  theory,  and  pointed 
out  its  logical  consequences.  At  that  time 
Darwinism  was  generally  looked  upon  with 
great  disfavor  in  German  scientific  circles ;  and 
when  on  Sept.  19,  1863,  Haeckel  appeared  be- 
fore the  convention  of  German  physicians  and 
naturalists  held  in  Stettin  as  its  enthusiastic 
advocate,  he  stood  almost  alone.  Thenceforth 
he  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the  exten- 
sion, establishment,  and  promulgation  of  the 
doctrine  of  evolution.  By  continued  special 
investigations  he  has  become  an  authority 
among  the  gatherers  of  facts  in  many  depart- 
ments of  zoology.  In  1864  he  published,  with 
illustrations,  "  Contributions  to  the  Knowledge 
of  Corycaeide  Crustacea,"  in  the  Jenaische  Zeit- 
sckrift  fur  Medicin  und  Naturwissenschaft ; 
and  in  1865  an  illustrated  monograph  on  gery- 
onide  medusae,  which  had  previously  appeared 
in  the  same  periodical.  In  the  latter  year  the 
university  of  Jena  created  a  regular  chair  of 
zoology  especially  for  him,  and  he  began  to  form 
by  personal  collection  a  museum  which  has 
since  become  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  exist- 
ence for  instruction,  and  as  illustrating  points 
of  ontogeny  and  morphology.  From  that  time 
his  lectures,  together  with  those  of  Gegenbaur, 
have  made  the  small  university  of  Jena  unri- 
valled as  a  school  for  zoology  and  comparative 
anatomy.  He  has  refused  very  advantageous 
appointments  to  other  universities,  mainly  be- 
cause he  would  not  be  separated  from  his 
friend  and  colaborer  Gegenbaur.  In  1866  he 
completed  a  work  which,  though  eclipsed  in 
popularity  by  two  of  his  later  works,  the  Na- 
turliche  ScMpfungsgescTiichte  and  Die  KalTc- 
schwdmme,  must  be  considered  one  of  the  land- 
marks of  biological  science ;  this  is  the  Oene- 
relle  Morphologie  der  Organismen  (2  vols.  8vo). 
Its  purpose  was  to  trace  for  anatomy  and  em- 
bryology "  immutable  natural  law  in  all  events 
and  forms."  The  amount  of  positive  informa- 
tion which  this  work  contains  is  very  remark- 
able. We  are  told  in  the  preface  that  20  years 
previously  (that  is,  when  he  was  only  12  years 
old)  he  had  two  herbariums :  "  the  official 
one,"  containing  typical  forms,  all  carefully 
labelled  as  separate  and  distinct  species;  the 
other  a  secret  one,  in  which  were  placed  the 
"bad  kinds"  of  rubus,  rosa,  salix,  &c.,  pre- 
senting a  long  series  of  individuals  transitional 
from  one  good  species  to  another.  These  were 
at  that  time  the  forbidden  fruits  of  knowledge, 
which  in  leisure  hours  were  his  secret  delight. 
He  had  later  in  life  greeted  Darwin's  revival 
of  the  transmutation  theory  with  enthusiasm. 


372 


HAECKEL 


Now  he  could  maintain  that  the  boundary  lines 
between  different  organic  forms  were  not  par- 
titions existing  in  nature,  but  the  expression 
on  our  part  of  the  differences  which  result 
from  divergent  development,  and  which  for 
practical  reasons  are  defined  more  sharply  in 
our  apprehension  than  the  connecting  links. 
He  endeavored  to  bring  out  the  connections 
and  transitions,  and  to  represent  them  in  sys- 
tematic arrangement  in  the  form  of  genealogi- 
cal trees.  He  propounded  as  a  fundamental 
biogenetic  law  that  "the  ontogeny  of  every  or- 
ganism repeats  in  brief  time  and  in  general 
outline  its  phylogeny;"  i.  e.,  that  the  indi- 
vidual development  of  every  organism,  or  the 
series  of  forms  through  which  it  passes  from 
germ  to  completed  form,  repeats  approximate- 
ly the  development  of  its  race,  or  the  series 
of  forms  through  which  its  ancestors  have 
passed.  Moreover,  all  organic  beings  hitherto 
had  been  classified  into  the  two  kingdoms,  ani- 
mal and  vegetable;  but  a  number  of  creatures 
were  found  to  present  in  external  form,  in  in- 
ternal structure,  and  in  all  vital  phenomena, 
so  remarkable  a  mixture  or  combination  of  dis- 
tinguishing animal  and  vegetable  characteris- 
tics, that  it  was  impossible,  except  arbitrarily, 
to  assign  them  to  either  realm;  he  assigned 
these  doubtful  beings  to  a  kingdom  by  them- 
selves, below  and  yet  between  the  two  other 
organic  kingdoms,  and  this  he  called  protistic. 
Again  and  again  in  existing  forms  he  traced  de- 
velopment from  preexisting  ones.  Many  biol- 
ogists, among  them  Prof.  Huxley,  have  pro- 
nounced this  the  most  important  work  of  the 
kind  ever  published.  During  the  winter  of  1866 
Haeckel  made  a  zoological  excursion  to  the  Ca- 
nary islands,  remaining  three  months  at  Are- 
cife,  the  harbor  town  of  the  island  of  Lanza- 
rote.  His  report  of  the  trip,  and  of  the  marine 
fauna  met  with,  appeared  in  the  Jenaische  Zeit- 
schrift for  September,  1867.  During  the  fol- 
lowing winter  he  delivered  a  series  of  popular 
lectures  on  the  evolution  doctrine  in  general, 
and  the  views  of  Kant,  Lamarck,  Goethe,  and 
Darwin  in  particular,  the  stenographic  report 
of  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  Natar- 
liche  Schdpfungsgeschichte,  which  has  made  him 
known  to  the  German  reading  public  at  large. 
Many  editions  of  this  book  have  been  pub- 
lished, and  it  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  Darwin  says  of  it  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  his  "  Descent  of  Man  "  (1871) :  "  If  this 
work  had  appeared  before  my  essay  had  been 
written,  I  should  probably  never  have  com- 
pleted it.  Almost  all  the  conclusions  at  which 
I  have 'arrived  I  find  confirmed  by  this  natural- 
ist, whose  knowledge  on  many  points  is  much 
fuller  than  mine."  His  Biologische  Studien, 
erstes  Heft:  Studien  uber  Moneren  und  andere 
Protisten  (1870),  is  a  collection  of  papers  on 
moneres,  "  On  Catallacts,  a  new  Group  of  Pro- 
tists,"  &c.,  previously  published  in  the  Jenai- 
sche Zeitschrift.  In  1869  a  gold  medal  was 
awarded  him  at  Utrecht  for  an  essay  on  the 
development  of  siphonophores.  He  spent  the 


months  of  August  and  September  of  that  year 
on  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  March  and  April, 
1871,  on  the  Dalmatian  coast,  at  Lesina,  and 
in  Trieste;  while  in  1873  he  made  a  more  ex- 
tended excursion  in  the  East.  During  the  last 
three  or  four  years  he  has  delivered  popular 
scientific  lectures  at  Jena  and  at  Berlin,  of 
which  he  has  published  Ueber  Arbeitstheilung 
in  Natur-  und  Menschenleben  (1869),  Das  Leben 
in  den  grossten  Meerestiefen  (1870),  and  Ueber 
die  Entstehung  und  den  Stamrribaum  des  Men- 
schengeschlechts  (2d  ed.,  1871);  and  has  writ- 
ten on  various  subjects  for  periodicals  lay  and 
scientific,  and  a  great  number  of  essays.  But 
in  September,  1869,  appeared  an  article  in  the 
Jenaische  Zeitschrift,  translated  for  the  "  An- 
nals and  Magazine  of  Natural  History,"  "  On 
the  Organization  of  Sponges  and  their  Rela- 
tionship to  Corals;"  this  was  followed  by  an- 
other entitled  "Prodromus  of  a  System  of  the 
Calcareous  Sponges"  (an  artificial  system),  and 
a  year  later  by  one  "  On  the  Sexual  Propagation 
and  the  Natural  System  of  Sponges."  These 
articles  were  the  forerunners  of  the  great 
work  on  calcareous  sponges  before  mentioned, 
viz.,  Die  Kalkschwamme :  Eine  Monographic  (2 
vols.,  with  an  atlas  of  60  plates  and  explana- 
tions, forming  vol.  iii.,  1872).  In  the  inves- 
tigation and  accurate  pictorial  representation 
of  new  genera  and  species,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  structure  and  functions  of  these 
comparatively  unknown  members  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  Haeckel  has  enriched  our  knowl- 
edge as  much  as  all  previous  investigators 
together;  yet  this  is  only  an  incidental  and 
secondary  object  of  his  work.  Its  aim  is  to 
prove  the  theory  of  descent  in  a  way  that  had 
never  before  been  attempted,  namely,  analyti- 
cally, by  showing  the  genealogical  connection 
in  a  complete  group  of  organisms  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  distinguished  from  each  other  as 
species,  genera,  &c.  What  Darwin  and  all 
others  had  attempted  was  to  solve  the  problem 
of  the  origin  of  species  synthetically,  i.  e.,  to 
prove  the  truth  of  the  transmutation  theory 
by  arguments  from  philosophy  and  biology, 
from  comparative  anatomy  and  palaeontology, 
by  considerations  of  the  mutual  affinities  of  or- 
ganic beings,  of  their  embryological  relations, 
their  geographical  distribution,  geological  suc- 
cession, &c.  To  such  considerations  Darwin  had 
added  the  theory  of  natural  selection.  Haeckel 
himself,  in  his  Generelle  Morphologic,  had  ap- 
plied the  synthetical  method  to  organic  forms, 
and  popularized  it  in  his  Naturliche  Schdp- 
fungsgeschichte. But  experience  had  shown 
that  the  synthetical  proof  alone  is  not  esteemed 
sufficient  by  all  biologists.  Many  have  asked 
for  analytical  proof;  and  such  proof  Haeckel 
has  undertaken.  He  has  selected  the  group 
of  calcareous  sponges,  and  has  shown  by 
thousands  of  examinations  the  gradual  tran- 
sitions from  the  most  simple  to  the  most  per- 
fect sponge  form.  This  is  the  first  attempt 
made  to  follow  up  the  bona  species  into  its  last 
and  darkest  nook,  to  bring  it  to  the  light,  and 


HEMOPTYSIS 


HEMORRHAGE 


373 


show  that  it  is  originally  always  a  mala  spe- 
In  the  preface  Haeckel  says :  "  Every 
thinking  and  candid  systematist  who  has  made 
limself  familiar  with  the  natural  and  artificial 
^sterns  in  the  second  volume  of  this  mono- 
raph  will  admit  that  there  are  here  no  true 
)ecies  in  the  dogmatic  sense  of  the  schools. 
;rove  to  me  among  the  species  of  calcareous 
)nges  of  which  numerous  individuals  have 
jen  examined,  any  bona  species  in  the  sense 
>f  the  schools,  and  I  will  give  up  the  whole 
leory  of  descent."     From  this  point  of  view 
lis  book,  though  treating  of  so  special  a  sub- 
set, is  of  universal  interest.     With  its  publi- 
tion  the  doctrine  of  evolution  entered  upon  a 
lew  phase.     Haeckel's  latest  work  is  an  essay 
HI  "The  Gastrsea  Theory,  the  Phylogenetic 
sification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  and  the 
lomology  of  the  Germ  Layers"  (1874).     The 
strsea  theory,  to  which  he  was  led  by  his 
esearches  on  the  development  of  calcareous 
>nges,  is  based  upon  the  consideration  that 
11  the  six  higher  animal   classes,  from  the 
>nges  to  the  lowest  of  the  vertebrates,  pass 
hrough  a  similar  stage  of  development,  which 
calls  the  gastrula  stage ;  it  is  found  that  in 
of  them  the  original  egg  cell  divides  itself  by 
characteristic  process  of  segmentation  or 
furrowing  into  at  first  2,  then  4,  then  8,  then 
16,  32,  64,  &c.,  divisions;  and  the  cellular  mass 
ms  formed  differentiates  itself  into  two  epi- 
lelial  layers,  from  the  inner  one  of  which 
digestive  canal  with  all  its  appendages  is 
leveloped,    while    from  the  outer  layer  are 
>rmed  the  skin,  nervous  system,  &c.     From 
le  fact  that  at  one  stage  of  their  existence  they 
11  essentially  consist  of  a  primitive  stomach  or 
ligestive  cavity  (whence  the  name  gastrula), 
are  at  that  stage  more  or  less  alike,  and 
mi  the  homology  of  the  primitive  epithelial 
lyers  of  the  germ  traceable  in  all  of  them,  he 
mcludes  that  they  must  have  been  derived 
rom  a  common  original  form.     This  form,  es- 
itially  corresponding  to  the  developmental 
of  gastrula,  he  proposes  to  call  gastrcea, 
:>mach  -  possessor.      The   infusoria  and  still 
lore  simple  animal  organisms  have  nothing 
ich  corresponds  to  the  gastrula  stage ;  and 
divides  the  animal  kingdom  into  the  two 
jat  groups  protozoa,  including  animal  mo- 
leres,  amoeba,  and  gregarina  (which  together 
le  calls  ovularia),  and  infusoria ;  and  metazoa, 
gastrozoa,  the  descendants  of  the  gastrcea, 
rhich  include  on  the  one  hand  the  zoophytes 
r  coelenterates,  and  on  the  other  the  worms, 
rith  the  four  higher  classes  (tnollusks,  echi- 
loderms,  arthropods,  and  vertebrates)  which 
lave  sprung  from  worms. 
HEMOPTYSIS  (Gr.  aifia,  blood,  and   Trrfor/f,  a 
itting),  the  spitting  or  raising  of  blood  from 
he  lungs.     Hemoptysis  may  be  a  simple  exu- 
lation  from  the  mucous  membrane  without  ap- 
)reciable  lesion%  or  may  be  caused  by  an  or- 
"nic  lesion  of  the  lungs;  it  is  most  common 
itween  the  ages  of  16  and  35,  in  the  female 
3X,  and  in   nervous   and   sanguine  tempera- 


ments ;  it  appears  to  be  often  hereditary,  and 
is  most  apt  to  attack  those  whose  professions 
require  prolonged  and  forced  use  of  the  voice ; 
other  causes  are  violent  muscular  efforts,  par- 
oxysms of  cough,  blows  or  pressure  on  the 
chest,  inspiration  of  irritating  vapors  or  of  the 
rarefied  air  on  high  mountains;  it  is  also  symp- 
tomatic of  the  suppression  of  various  natural 
and  morbid  secretions.  It  may  be  exuded  from 
the  bronchial  membranes,  or  may  proceed  from 
capillaries  communicating  with  the  air  pas- 
sages in  any  part  of  their  extent ;  the  amount 
varies  from  a  drachm  or  two  to  as  many  pints 
at  a  time,  and  is  florid  and  more  or  less  mixed 
with  air,  differing  from  the  dark  coagulated 
blood  which  comes  from  the  stomach.  An  at- 
tack of  haemoptysis  is  generally  announced  by 
a  feeling  of  heat  and  oppression  in  the  chest 
behind  the  sternum,  followed  by  a  cough  which 
brings  up  the  blood ;  when  the  quantity  is  very 
great,  it  pours  forth  wiftiout  cough,  with  con- 
siderable spasmodic  effort.  The  effect  of  pro- 
fuse hemoptysis  is  that  of  other  great  haem- 
orrhages, increased  by  the  terror  which  spit- 
ting of  blood  always  inspires.  It  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  the  suppressed  menstrual  or 
other  discharges,  and  with  the  same  relief  to 
the  system.  Though  spitting  of  blood  some- 
times occurs  after  the  violent  paroxysms  of 
whooping  cough,  asthma,  and  chronic  bronchial 
disease,  and  also  in  congestive  affections  of  the 
lungs,  it  is  more  peculiarly  the  sign  of  tubercu- 
lar phthisis  or  consumption,  in  the  earlier  as 
well  as  advanced  stages  of  the  disease.  In 
making  a  diagnosis  it  is  important  to  ascertain 
the  source  of  the  blood  which  escapes  from  the 
mouth,  and  if  determined  to  be  from  the  lungs, 
to  decide  whether  it  is  symptomatic  of  disease 
of  these  organs  or  merely  vicarious  in  its  char- 
acter. The  prognosis  in  hemoptysis,  chiefly 
on  account  of  this  tubercular  complication,  is 
generally  serious,  although  immediate  danger 
is  usually  not  great.  The  treatment  consists 
in  the  application  of  ice  to  the  chest,  swallow- 
ing lumps  of  ice,  and  the  administration  of  in- 
ternal remedies,  called  hemostatics,  the  mode 
of  whose  action  is  somewhat  obscure.  Among 
the  most  popular  and  efficient  is  common  salt, 
taken  dry,  or  with  very  little  water.  Tincture 
of  chloride  of  iron  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  given,  it  is  said,  with  benefit,  and  inhalation 
of  its  vapor  has  been  found  efficacious.  Wun- 
derlich  recommends  the  exhibition  of  ergot  in 
doses  of  from  5  to  10  grains  until  numbness 
of  the  fingers  is  produced.  Narcotics  may  be 
used  quite  freely,  tending  to  produce  calmness. 
In  all  cases  the  treatment  should  be  assisted  by 
tranquillity  of  mind,  rest,  cool  air,  and  loose- 
ness of  dress.  After  the  attack  has  ceased,  as- 
tringent tonics,  like  iron  and  quinine,  may  be 
given,  care  being  taken  not  to  produce  ple- 
thora. The  return  of  the  bleeding  should 
be  guarded  against  by  avoiding  the  exciting 
causes,  and  attending  to  the  rules  of  hygiene. 
HAEMORRHAGE  (Gr.  o^a,  blood,  and  ^wcBai, 
obs.  />ayeu>,  to  burst),  an  escape  of  blood  from 


374 


HEMORRHAGE 


the  vessels  of  the  living  body,  called  active  or 
passive  according  as  it  is  arterial  or  venous  in 
character.  Haemorrhage  may  be  natural,  as 
in  the  menstrual  discharge;  symptomatic  of 
disease,  as  in  scurvy,  typhoid  fever,  epistaxis, 
and  haemorrhoids ;  essential,  inasmuch  as  the 
bleeding  appears  to  constitute  the  principal 
disease,  arising  from  and  keeping  up  a  degen- 
eration of  the  vital  fluid ;  and  traumatic,  when 
the  blood  vessels  are  wounded.  Active  haem- 
orrhage, when  not  traumatic,  consists  in  an 
escape  of  blood  from  the  capillaries,  distended 
and  ruptured  by  inflammation  and  excitement, 
as  in  bleeding  from  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  lungs,  nose,  rectum,  urethra,  and  from 
granulating  wounds;  this  is  accompanied  by 
local  heat,  pain,  tension,  and  general  febrile 
condition.  In  passive  haemorrhage  the  blood 
is  venous,  as  in  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver, 
uterus,  and  rectum.  There  are  certain  persons 
called  "  bleeders,"  in  whom  a  haemorrhagic 
diathesis  exists,  a  peculiar  and  often  hereditary 
constitutional  defect  in  which  the  blood  seems 
to  have  no  power  of  coagulation  and  the  ves- 
sels none  of  contractility ;  in  such  the  most 
trifling  wounds  are  followed  by  profuse  and 
sometimes  uncontrollable  and  fatal  bleeding. 
The  symptoms  of  haemorrhage  vary  according 
to  its  seat,  whether  external  or  internal,  active 
or  passive ;  the  amount  of  blood  lost  is  almost 
always  greatly  overestimated  by  terrified  pa- 
tients and  bystanders.  In  most  acute  attacks 
there  are  premonitory  symptoms,  constituting 
the  so-called  molimen  hcemorrkagicum,  such 
as  chills  followed  by  heat  and  fulness  of  the 
vessels  of  the  part.  A  small  loss  of  blood  may 
produce  great  relief*  in  congestions  and  inflam- 
mations, but  haemorrhage  carried  beyond  this 
point  causes  paleness,  chilliness,  cold  sweats, 
nausea  and  vomiting,  hurried  respiration,  weak 
and  rapid  pulse,  dizziness,  fainting,  and  finally 
convulsions  and  death.  In  severe  wounds 
these  symptoms  may  in  a  few  moments  end 
fatally;  at  other  times  the  train  may  be  pro- 
longed for  years,  with  a  gradual  sinking  of 
the  vital  forces.  In  acute  inflammations  an 
amount  of  blood  may  be  taken  which  would  be 
seriously  felt  in  a  state  of  health.  Bouillaud 
and  his  disciples  of  the  French  school  applied 
the  lancet,  cups,  and  leeches  in  a  way  that  de- 
servedly excited  the  opposition  of  other  prac- 
titioners ;  Lisfranc,  in  a  case  of  tetanus,  bled 
a  patient  from  the  arm  19  days  in  succession, 
and  applied  nearly  800  leeches  along  the  spine. 
The  loss  to  the  system  from  profuse  bleeding 
is  very  soon  made  up,  and  the  sooner  in  pro- 
portion to  the  rapidity  of  the  abstraction,  in  a 
healthy  person  ;  while  the  feebleness  arising 
from  frequent  but  inconsiderable  haemorrhages 
may  require  years  for  its  removal.  Modern 
practitioners  generally  avoid  venesection  ex- 
cept in  inflammatory  and  congestive  diseases 
of  threatening  character,  as  where  the  brain, 
heart,  and  lungs  are  in  momentary  danger; 
arterial  sedatives  (like  digitalis  and  veratrum 
viride),  and  revulsives  to  the  skin  and  mucous 


HAEMORRHOIDS 

membranes,  have  nearly  taken  the  place  of 
the  lancet  and  the  leech.  Bleeding  from  the 
nose  is  most  frequent  in  the  young,  from  the 
lungs  between  the  time  of  puberty  and  adult 
age,  and  from  the  rectum,  bladder,  and  uterus 
later  in  life.  The  prognosis  of  haemorrhage 
varies  according  to  its  origin  and  amount,  and 
the  constitution  of  the  individual.  While  an 
effusion  of  blood  into  the  brain  or  the  peri- 
cardium would  be  very  dangerous,  a  bleeding 
from  the  nose  or  from  piles  would  be  generally 
of  little  importance;  blood  coming  from  the 
stomach  and  urinary  organs  is  a  graver  symp- 
tom than  that  from  the  air  passages ;  a  rapid 
is  more  dangerous  than  a  slow  loss  to  the  same 
amount,  and  a  passive  than  an  active  haemor- 
rhage.— The  treatment  of  haemorrhage,  ex- 
clusive of  strictly  surgical  means,  consists,  in 
the  active  forms,  of  general  and  local  de- 
pletion, cold  and  astringent  applications ;  the 
administration  of  digitalis  andveratrummride 
to  quiet  the  circulation ;  of  common  salt,  es- 
pecially in  bleeding  from  the  lungs;  of  the 
mineral  acids,  chloride  and  sulphate  of  iron, 
vegetable  astringents,  as  tannin,  and  sometimes 
ergot  of  rye ;  and  rest  and  elevated  position  of 
the  bleeding  part  when  practicable.  Arterial 
haemorrhage  maybe  known  by  the  florid  color, 
profuse  quantity,  and  pulsating  jet  of  the  blood. 
Nature's  processes  for  arresting  such  a  flow  are 
the  contraction  of  the  divided  orifice,  the  re- 
traction of  the  vessel  into  its  sheath,  the  coag- 
ulation of  the  blood  in  and  about  the  sheath, 
and  the  retardation  of  the  circulation  by  faint- 
ness  ;  and  these  will  generally  suffice  for  the 
wound  of  an  artery  of  the  size  of  the  temporal. 
When  art  interferes,  it  is  by  pressure,  torsion, 
the  ligature,  cold,  styptics,  and  caustics ;  a  par- 
tial is  more  dangerous  than  a  complete  division 
of  an  artery,  as  contraction  and  retraction  are 
prevented,  and  for  this  reason  a  small  vessel 
should  be  completely  divided.  A  lacerated 
artery  contracts  almost  immediately,  and  rarely 
bleeds;  hence  the  umbilical  cord  of  animals 
bitten  or  torn  by  the  mother  gives  forth  no 
blood,  and  hence  the  efficacy  of  torsion.  Haem- 
orrhage from  a  vein  is  continuous  and  darker 
colored,  and  rarely  dangerous,  unless  from  a 
large,  deep-seated,  or  varicose  vessel ;  pressure, 
elevated  position,  and  styptics  will  generally 
arrest  it,  and  as  a  last  resort  the  ligature. 
Bleeding  from  the  nose  may  be  either  arterial 
or  venous,  and  requires  nothing  special  beyond 
snuffing  up  astringents  and  plugging  the  nos- 
trils. In  each  case  the  treatment  must  depend 
upon  the  seat  of  the  lesion,  and  other  circum- 
stances, which  require  either  topical  or  gen  em  1 
remedies.  Whenever  topical  applications  are 
admissible,  they  are  the  most  efficient. — For 
haemorrhage  of  the  lungs  and  rectum,  see  IL«- 
MOPTYSIS,  and  HEMORRHOIDS.  Bleeding  from 
the  stomach  is  hcematemesis,  and  that  from  the 
uterus  metrorrhagia,  or  menorrhagia  when, 
connected  with  the  menstrual  discharge. 

II  1:11011111101  US  (Gr.  atfza,  blood,  and  ptetv, 
to  flow),   or  Piles,  tumors  situated  near  the 


HAEMORRHOIDS 


HA&Z 


375 


anus,  generally  commencing  by  a  varicose  en- 
largement of  the  hsemorr.hoidal  veins  of  the 
rectum,  and   frequently  complicated  with,  if 
not  arising  from,  erectile  tumors,  blood-filled 
cysts  in  the  submucous  areolar  tissues,  and  di- 
latation of  the  capillary  vessels.     By  whatever 
caused,  the  mucous  membrane  becomes  irri- 
tated, sensitive,  disposed  to  bleed,  thickened, 
and  more  or  less  obstructing  the  rectal  canal. 
They  have  been  divided  into  internal  or  exter- 
nal piles,  according  to  their  situation  within 
or  without  the  anus  ;  the  former  are  generally 
within  the  last  three  inches  of  the  rectum,  of 
firm  texture,  varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a 
walnut,  pale  when  indolent,  and  dark  red  when 
congested  or  inflamed ;  the  latter  are  found  on 
the  margin  of  the  anus,  of  firmer  texture,  often 
covered  half  with  skin  and  half  with  mucous 
membrane.      Haemorrhoids  are    also   divided 
into  open,  or  bleeding,  and  shut,  or  blind  piles. 
The  tumors  are  rarely  single,  generally  spheri- 
cal, with  a  large  base,  but  occasionally  pedun- 
late ;  their  surface  may  be  either  smooth  or 
regular,  rough,  and  ulcerated;    when  indo- 
it  and  internal,  they  produce  simply  the  in- 
ivenience  of  bulk  and  consequent  trouble  in 
jfecation;  when  irritated,  either  internal  or 
Eternal,  they  cause  a  sense  of  heat,  tension, 
id  itching,  pain  and  straining  during  evacua- 
tion of  the  bowel,  accompanied  by  more  or  less 
bleeding,    frequent    micturition,   and    weight 
"  pain  in  the  back  and  thighs.     When  ex- 
lal,  the  friction  of  the  clothes  often  renders 
inding,  sitting,  or  walking  exceedingly  pain- 
il;  when  just  on  the  verge  of  the  anus,  the 
)t  of  defecation  is  accompanied  by  tenesmus 
id  excruciating  pain,  rendered  more  intense 
3y  the  usually  present  constipation.     By  con- 
ant  efforts,  the  mucous  membrane  becomes 
lapsed,  adding  another  source  of  discomfort, 
lorrhoids,  though  generally  a  local  disease, 
lay  be  the  channel  by  which  a  periodical  flux 
a  constitutional  plethora  finds  relief;   in 
ch  cases  the  bleeding  is  preceded  by  the 
eneral  and  local  symptoms  of  excess  of  blood. 
Jl  ages  and  both  sexes  are  subject  to  this  dis- 
ise,  though  it  is  comparatively  rare  before 
iberty,  and  females  are  more  frequently  suf- 
fers from  it  than  males,  especially  during 
tation,  and  plethoric  persons  more  than  the 
ffimic.     The  predisposing  causes  are  such  as 
)roduce  fulness  of  the  ha3morrhoidal  veins  and 
3de  the  return  of  blood  from  them,  such  as 
lentary  habits,  city  life,  constipation,  preg- 
mcy,  the  use  of  corsets,  the  weight  of  heavy 
irments  suspended  from  the  hips,  and  dis- 
ises  of  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  organs  in- 
jrfering  with  the  circulation.     The  exciting 
auses  are  anything  which  irritates  the  lower 
>rtion  of  the  intestine,  as  the  presence  of  pin 
worms,  the  use  of  aloetic  medicines  and  injec- 
^'ns,  and,  in  warm  climates  especially,  the  use 
too  nourishing  food,  with  its  tendency  to 
^  Dduce  plethora,  and  its  accompanying  luxu- 
rious habits.     The  prognosis  is  generally  fa- 
vorable, unless  the  disease  be  of  long  standing, 


in  a  debilitated  constitution,  or  accompanied 
by  malignant  affection  of  the  rectum  ;  in  some 
cases  the  haemorrhoidal  flux  may  be  positively 
advantageous,  and  its  sudden  and  complete 
suppression  may  subject  the  patient  to  more 
grave  disease. — The  general  principles  of  treat- 
ment are,  according  to  the  evident  causes,  to 
diminish  the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  parts 
by  active  habits,  abstemious  living,  avoidance 
of  constipation,  and  attention  to  other  hygienic 
rules.  In  case  of  irritation,  leeches  or  cupping 
in  the  neighborhood,  fomentations,  poultices, 
enemata,  refrigerant  and  soothing  lotions,  are 
of  advantage.  Strict  observance  of  cleanliness, 
astringent  applications  like  tannin  ointment, 
pressure  by  bandage  and  pad,  ice,  and  anti- 
phlogistic measures  will  suffice  in  many  cases. 
A  surgical  operation  is  often  necessary  for  a 
radical  cure.  This  consists  in  excision,  either 
by  knife,  cautery,  or  ligature,  usually  the  last. 
It  is  excessively  painful,  unless  the  patient  is 
placed  under  the  influence  of  anaesthetics. 

HAFF  (Dan.  Hav,  sea),  a  word  used  in  con- 
nection with  adjectives  to  designate  three  large 
lagoon-like  estuaries  on  the  S.  shore  of  the 
Baltic,  communicating  with  it  by  one  or  more 
narrow  passages.  They  are  all  in  Prussia,  and 
are  called  Kurisches  Haff,  Frisches  Haff,  and 
Stettiner  or  Pommersches  Haff. 

II All/,  Mohammed  Shems  ed-Din,  a  Persian 
poet,  born  in  Shiraz  near  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century,  died  about  1390.  He  early  de- 
voted himself  to  Mohammedan  jurisprudence 
and  theology,  in  which  he  became  profoundly 
versed,  and  which  he  taught  publicly.  He 
then  lived  as  a  dervish,  in  luxurious  pleasure, 
in  the  quarter  of  Shiraz  called  Mosella,  un- 
der the  dynasty  of  the  Mosafferids,  whose 
eulogist  he  was.  The  sultan  Ahmed  Ilkhani 
vainly  invited  him  to  his  court  at  Bagdad. 
When  in  1387  Tamerlane  conquered  Shiraz,  he 
treated  the  poet  with  the  greatest  distinction. 
In  his  old  age  he  abandoned  luxury  for  aus- 
terities, and  employed  his  talents  in  cele- 
brating the  unity  of  God  and  the  praises  of 
the  prophet.  This  conversion  did  not  secure 
him  the  pardon  of  zealous  Mussulmans  for  his 
previous  songs  of  love  and  wine,  and  they  per- 
sisted in  deeming  him  an  infidel,  an  atheist,  or 
a  Christian,  and  after  his  death  denied  him  the 
honors  of  sepulture.  His  admirers,  however, 
maintained  his  orthodoxy,  and,  it  being  at 
length  agreed  to  leave  the  decision  to  chance, 
the  lot  fell  on  a  passage  from  his  odes  which 
avowed  his  faults,  but  at  the  same  time  affirmed 
that  he  was  predestined  to  paradise.  A  mag- 
nificent tomb  was  then  erected  to  his  memory ; 
it  stands  amid  scenery  described  in  his  poems, 
and  is  still  a  favorite  rendezvous  of  the  young 
men  of  Shiraz,  who  resort  thither  to  sing  his 
verses  and  to  drink  wine.  His  only  work  is 
the  Divan,  a  collection  made  after  his  death 
of  571  detached  odes,  called  gazels,  and  seven 
elegies.  His  most  licentious  and  passionate 
verses  are  regarded  by  the  Persians  as  inspired 
by  divine  love,  and  are  read  as  a  devotional 


376 


HAGAR 


HAG  FISH 


exercise  by  pious  Mussulmans ;  and  the  princi- 
pal oriental  commentators  occupy  themselves 
with  allegorizing  and  spiritualizing  his  expres- 
sions. A  Persian  edition  was  published  at 
Calcutta  in  1791 ;  and  later  eastern  editions 
are  those  of  Bombay  (1828  and  1850),  Cairo 
(1834),  and  Constantinople  (1840),  with  the 
commentary  of  Sudi.  Dr.  Thomas  Hyde,  the 
first  English 'orientalist  who  studied  the  poems 
of  Hafiz,  translated  into  Latin  his  first  gazel, 
with  the  Turkish  commentary  of  Feridun. 
Others  of  them  were  translated  into  Latin  by 
Rzewuski  and  Sir  William  Jones.  The  whole 
Divan  was  translated  into  German  by  Von 
Hammer  (2  vols.,  Tubingen,  1812-'15),  and  sev- 
eral of  the  gazels  into  English  by  Richardson 
(1774),  Nott  (1787),  and  Hindley  (1800). 

HAGAR,  an  Egyptian  servant  belonging  to 
Sarah,  who,  being  childless,  gave  her  to  her 
husband  Abraham,  that  by  her  as  a  substitute 
she  might  be  blessed  with  children.  Her  de- 
scendants are  called  in  the  Bible  Hagarites  or 
Hagarenes,  from  herself,  and  Ishmaelites,  from 
her  son  Isbmael.  The  Arabs,  who  claim  de- 
scent from  her  son,  regard  her  with  veneration, 
and  speak  of  her  as  Abraham's  lawful  wife. 

HAGEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Volme  and  Empe,  and 
on  the  Dortmund  and  Dusseldorf  railway,  24 
m.  W.  of  Arnsberg;  pop.  in  1871,  13,445.  It 
has  two  Catholic  churches,  a  Protestant  church, 
a  synagogue,  a  chamber  of  commerce,  and  a 
trade  school.  Iron  and  steel  ware,  tobacco, 
paper,  and  cloth  are  manufactured.  There  are 
also  wire-drawing  and  copper-rolling  works. 

HAGE1V,  Ernst  August,  a  German  author,  born 
in  Konigsberg,  April  12,  1797.  While  at  the 
university  of  his  native  city  he  wrote  a  ro- 
mance, Olfrid  und  Lisena  (1820).  In  1821  he 
visited  Rome,  and  in  1824  lectured  at  Konigs- 
berg on  the  history  of  art  and  literature ;  and 
in  1825  he  was  appointed  professor  in  this  de- 
partment. As  founder  of  the  Prussian  anti- 
quarian society  at  Konigsberg,  he  edited  (1846 
-'57)  the  Neue  preussische  Provinzialblatter. 
He  published  the  art  histories,  Norica  (Bres- 
lau,  1827;  English  translation,  London,  1851), 
Die  Chfonik  seiner  Vaterstadt  vom  Florentiner 
Ghiberti  (Leipsic,  1833),  and  Wunder  der  hei- 
ligen  Katharina  von  Siena,  and  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  in  Mailand  (1840).  Among  his  other 
works  are  Die  deutsche  Kunst  in  unserm  Jahr- 
hundert  (1857),  and  AchtJahre  aus  dem  Leben 
Michel  Angela  BuonarottPs  (1864). 

HAGEXAU  (Fr.  Haguenau),  a  city  of  Germany, 
in  Alsace,  on  the  Moder,  in  the  midst  of  a 
large  forest  called  the  Hagenauer  Wald,  16  m. 
N.  by  E.  of  Strasburg;  pop.  in  1871,  11,331.  It 
is  surrounded  by  ancient  walls  flanked  with 
towers.  There  are  five  churches,  of  which 
that  of  St.  Nicholas  was  built  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury and  St.  George's  in  the  12th,  a  commu- 
nal college,  manufactories  of  woollen  and  cot- 
ton, tanneries,  breweries,  and  hemp  mills,  and 
a  considerable  trade  in  timber,  wool,  madder, 
and  hops.  It  was  founded  about  the  middle 


of  the  12th  century,  and  fortified  by  the  em- 
peror Frederick  I.  In  1423  it  was  pawned  by 
the  emperor  Sigismund  to  the  elector  palatine, 
but  was  redeemed  by  Ferdinand  I.  in  1558, 
and  afterward  belonged  to  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  until  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  it 
came  to  France.  There  were  bloody  encoun- 
ters near  Hagenau,  between  the  French  and 
Austrians,  Oct.  17  and  Dec.  22,  1793;  but  it 
was  retained  by  the  French  until  the  war  of 
1870  gave  Alsace  to  Germany. 

HAGENBACH,  Karl  Rndolf,  a  German  histo- 
rian, born  in  Basel,  March  4,  1801,  died  there, 
June  7,  1874.  He  studied  at  Basel,  Bonn,  and 
Berlin,  adopted  the  views  of  Schleiermacher, 
and  in  1828  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Basel.  He  resigned  his  professorship  shortly 
before  his  death.  Among  his  works  are: 
Tdbellarische  Uebersicht  der  Dogme^geschichte 
(1828) ;  EncyTclopddie  und  Methodologie  der 
theologischen  Wissenschaften  (1833 ;  7th  ed., 
1864);  Vorlesungenuber  Wesenund  Geschichte 
der  Reformation  (6  vols.,  1834-'43 ;  2d  ed., 
1851-' 6) ;  Kirchengeschiehte  des  18.  und  19. 
Jahrhunderts  (2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1848-'9 ;  English 
translation,  "  History  of  the  Church  in  the 
Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,"  Lon- 
don, 1869);  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte 
(2  vols.,  1840-'41;  4th  ed.,  1857;  English 
translation,  "  History  of  Doctrines,"  3d  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1858);  Oeschichte  der  theologischen 
Schule  Basels  (1860) ;  Grundlinien  der  Homi- 
letiTc  und  Liturgik  (1863);  and  Vorlesungen 
uber  die  Kirchengeschiehte  von  der  dltesten 
Zeit  bis  sum  19.  Jahrhundert  (new  and  re- 
vised complete  ed.,  1868-72).  He  has  also 
published  a  poem,  Luther  und  seine  Zeit 
(1838),  and  Gedichte  (1846;  2d  ed.,  1863);  and 
since  1845  he  has  edited  the  Kirchenblatt  fur 
die  reformirte  Schweiz. 

HAGERSTOWN,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Wash- 
ington co.,  Maryland,  on  the  W.  bank  of  An- 
tietam  creek,  22  m.  above  its  entrance  into 
the  Potomac,  and  at  the  intersection  of  the 
Cumberland  Valley  and  Western  Maryland 
railroads  with  the  Washington  County  branch 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line,  60  m.  W.  N. 
W.  of  Baltimore;  pop.  in  1860,  4,132;  in 
1870,  5,779,  of  whom  869  were  colored.  It 
has  broad  streets,  is  built  mostly  of  brick  and 
stone,  and  contains  a  handsome  court  house, 
recently  erected  at  a  cost  of  $77,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  rich  agricultural  region,  and 
has  considerable  trade.  There  are  two  iron 
founderies,  a  manufactory  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, an  extensive  flour  mill,  two  sash 
and  door  factories,  an  extensive  bone  mill,  a 
tannery,  and  a  national  and  a  state  bank,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $250,000.  About  7  m. 
S.  of  Hagerstown  is  the  college  of  St.  James, 
an  Episcopal  institution.  The  city,  besides 
several  public  schools,  contains  a  female  semi- 
nary, an  academy  for  boys,  a  daily,  a  semi- 
weekly,  and  three  weekly  newspapers,  and  12 
churches,  of  which  two  are  for  colored  people* 

HAG  FISH.     See  MYXINOIDS. 


HAGGAI 


HAGGAI,  the  tenth  ot  the  minor  prophets, 
and  first  of  those  who  prophesied  after  the 
captivity,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Baby- 
lon, and  to  have  come  back  from  there  with 
Zerubbabel,  although  one  expression  (ii.  3) 
has  been  thought  to  imply  that  he  had  seen 
the  first  temple.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  his 
death,  though  Epiphanius  tells  us  he  was  buried 
at  Jerusalem  among  the  priests ;  if  so,  he  must 
have  been  of  the  family  of  Aaron.  He  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Apocrypha  as  Aggeus.  The 
prophecy  of  Haggai  was  delivered  about  520 
B.  C.,  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
land.  It  is  chiefly  occupied  with  keen  reproofs 
and  affecting  exhortations  respecting  the  build- 
ing of  the  second  temple. 

HAGIOGRAPHA  (Gr.  ayw?,  sacred,  and  ypfyeiv, 
to  write),  or  Holy  Writings  (in  Hebrew,  Ketu- 
Mm,  writings),  the  name  given  by  the  Jews  to 
their  third  division  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures. There  are  various  suppositions  con- 
cerning the  earliest  ar- 
rangement of  this  di- 
vision by  the  Jews, 
founded  on  contradic- 
tory statements  in  Jose- 
phus,  Philo,  Jerome,  the 
Talmud,  &c.,  including 
a  passage  of  Luke  (xxiv. 
44):  "the  things  writ- 
ten in  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  in  the  prophets, 
md  in  the  psalms." 
According  to  the  ar- 
rangement now  general 
among  the  Jews,  the 
Hagiographa  includes 
three  divisions :  1,  the 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  and 
Job;  2,  the  Song  of 
Songs,  Ruth,  Lamen- 
tations, Ecclesiastes, 
and  Esther ;  3,  Daniel, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and 
the  Chronicles.  These 

books  probably  received  the  name  of  "  Hagio- 
grapha," or  "  Holy  Writings,"  because,  though 
not  written  by  Moses,  or  any  of  the  prophets, 
strictly  so  called,  they  were  nevertheless  re- 
garded as  inspired. 

HAGUE,  The  (Dutch,  '«  Gravenhage ;  Fr.  La 
Haye  ;  Ger.  Der  Haag),  a  city  of  the  Nether- 
lands, capital  of  the  province  of  South  Hol- 
land, about  2  m.  from  the  sea,  31  m.  S.  W.  of 
Amsterdam  and  12  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Rotterdam ; 
pop.  in  1872,  92,785,  of  whom  one  third  are 
Roman  Catholics.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  court, 
the  government,  the  states  general  or  parlia- 
ment, and  of  the  foreign  ministers,  and  has  be- 
come since  1850  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Eu- 
rope, owing  to  the  erection  of  stately  houses 
and  the  laying  out  of  fine  parks.  The  streets 
are  regular  and  spacious,  and  many  of  them 
are  traversed  by  canals  and  lined  with  trees. 
The  most  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  royal 
palace  and  the  palace  of  the  prince  of  Orange ; 


HAGUE 


377 


and  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city  is  the  Huis  ten 
Bosch  (the  house  in  the  wood),  a  private  palace 
of  the  queen  of  Holland.  The  Binnenhof,  so 
called  because  it  formed  the  inner  court  of  the 
count's  palace,  contains  the  chambers  of  the 
states  general  and  other  public  offices,  and  its 
Gothic  hall  is  celebrated.  Barneveldt  was 
executed  in  this  building.  Among  other  nota- 
ble edifices  are:  the  state  prison  in  which 
Cornelius  de  Witt  was  confined,  and  from 
which  he  and  his  brother  John  were  dragged 
and  torn  to  pieces  by  the  populace ;  the  town 
hall;  three  Calvinistic,  a  French  Reformed, 
English  Presbyterian,  Evangelical  Lutheran, 
Remonstrant,  and  five  Roman  Catholic  church- 
es, two  synagogues,  and  a  fine  theatre.  The 
royal  library  contains  about  100,000  volumes. 
The  principal  artistic  attraction  of  the  Hague  is 
the  picture  gallery  and  museum,  situated  in 
the  building  called  the  Maurite  Huis  after 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  by  whom  it  was  built ;  it 


The  Maurits  Huis. 

contains  some  of  the  best  works  of  the  Dutch 
masters.  The  museum  abounds  with  rarities 
from  China  and  Japan,  and  contains  a  large 
collection  of  Japan  ware  and  Japanese  wea- 
pons, and  many  historical  relics.  The  Hague 
possesses  many  educational,  charitable,  artistic, 
scientific,  and  religious  institutions.  There  is  a 
brass  foundery,  but  little  trade  and  industry. 
Within  a  few  miles  of  the  city  is  the  fashion- 
able watering  place  Scheveningen,  and  the  en- 
virons are  dotted  with  elegant  villas. — The 
Hague  owes  its  origin  to  a  hunting  seat  built 
by  the  count  of  Holland  in  the  13th  century, 
and  the  name  is  traced  to  the  enclosure  (Jiage 
or  hedge)  which  surrounded  the  counts1  (gra- 
ven) park.  In  the  16th  century  it  became  the 
residence  of  the  states  general,  the  stadtholder, 
and  the  foreign  ambassadors ;  and  it  acquired, 
especially  in  the  17th  century,  great  historical 
interest  as  the  most  important  focus  of  Euro- 
pean diplomacy.  A  convention  was  held  here 


378 


HAGUE 


March  31,  1710,  in  which  Germany,  Russia, 
Prussia,  and  the  maritime  powers  took  part 
for  maintaining  the  neutrality  of  North  Ger- 
many against  France.  A  triple  alliance  be- 
tween France,  England,  and  the  Netherlands 
was  concluded  here  Jan.  4,  1717,  and  on  Feb. 
17  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Spain,  Savoy, 
and  Austria.  Yet  the  Hague  was  never  men- 
tioned in  all  these  great  transactions  excepting 
as  a  village,  and  it  was  certainly  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  remarkable  village  that  ever  exist- 
ed. The  revolution  of  1795  gave  a  great  shock 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  place,  and  a  final  blow 
was  given  to  it  by  King  Louis  Bonaparte  in 
removing  the  seat  of  government  to  Amster- 
dam and  of  the  law  courts  to  Utrecht.  Since 
the  restoration  in  1813-'14  of  the  house  of 
Orange,  the  Hague  has  rapidly  recovered  its 
former  prestige,  especially  as  it  once  more  be- 
came the  virtual  capital  of  the  nation,  although 
Amsterdam  remains  the  nominal  capital,  and 
retains  as  such  various  prerogatives. 

HAGUE,  William,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  New  York  about  1805.  He  graduated 
at  Hamilton  college  in  1826,  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry,  and  has  been  pastor  of  Baptist 
churches  in  Providence,  Boston,  Newark,  Al- 
bany, New  York,  Chicago,  and  Orange,  N.  J. 
Besides  many  occasional  addresses  and  minor 
works,  he  has  published  "  The  Baptist  Church 
Transplanted  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New  " 
(New  York,  1846) ;  "  Christianity  and  States- 
manship "  (1855) ;  and  "  Home  Life,"  a  series  of 
lectures  on  family  duties  and  relations  (1855). 

IIAIIV,  August,  a  German  theologian,  born 
near  Eisleben,  March  27,  1792,  died  in  Breslau, 
May  13,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Eisleben, 
Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg,  in  1819  was  appoint- 
ed extraordinary  professor  of  theology  at  Ko- 
nigsberg,  and  gained  distinction  by  his  wri- 
tings on  Bardesanes,  Marcion,  and  Ephraem. 
In  1827  he  was  called  to  the  ordinary  profes- 
sorship of  theology  at  Leipsic,  and  published 
De  Rationalism^  qui  dicitur,  Vera  Indole,  et 
qva  cum  Naturalismo  contineatur  Ratione. 
He  regarded  a  supranatural  revelation  as  the 
necessary  foundation  of  religion.  In  his  trea- 
tise entitled  Offene  ErTdarung  an  die  evange- 
lische  Kirche  zundchst  in  Sachsen  und  Preussen 
(1827)  he  maintained  that  the  rationalists  ought 
in  conscience  voluntarily  to  leave  the  evangel- 
ical church.  In  1833  he  was  called  as  consisto- 
rial  counsellor  and  ordinary  professor  to  Bres- 
lau, and  in  1844  he  was  made  general  superinten- 
dent for  Silesia.  He  also  published  Lehrbuch 
des  christlichen  Glaubem  (1828;  2d  ed.,  1858), 
and  an  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  (1831). 

imivimiv  Ida  Marie  Loise  Sophie  Friederike 
Cnstave,  countess,  a  German  authoress,  born  at 
Tressow,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  June  22, 1805. 
Her  father,  Count  Karl  Friedrich  von  Hahn- 
Neuhaus  (born  1782),  was  a  theatrical  enthu- 
siast, who,  after  devoting  his  whole  life  and 
fortune  to  the  stage,  was  compelled  in  his  old 
age  to  support  himself  by  managing  a  provin- 
cial company,  and  died  in  poverty  at  Altona, 


HAHNEMANN 

May  21,  1857.  At  the  age  of  21  she  was  mar- 
ried to  her  cousin,  Count  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Adolf  von  Hahn-Hahn,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  1829.  Between  1835  and  1837  she 
published  three  volumes  of  verse,  followed  by 
a  series  of  novels,  such  as  Grafin  Faustine, 
Ulrich,  Sigismund  Forster,  and  Cecil.  In 
1839  she  submitted  to  a  dangerous  operation 
on  the  eye,  which  for  a  time  threatened  to  de- 
prive her  of  sight ;  and  to  divert  her  mind  she 
went  to  the  East,  recording  her  adventures  in 
the  Orientalische  Brief e  (3  vols.,  1844).  In 
1850  she  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
giving  an  account  of  her  conversion  in  Von 
Babylon  nach  Jerusalem  (1851).  In  1852, 
wearied  with  the  world,  she  entered  the  mother 
house  of  the  order  of  the  Good  Shepherd  at 
Angers.  She  afterward  took  up  her  residence 
at  Mentz,  where  she  devoted  herself  to  the 
reformation  of  outcasts  of  her  own  sex,  and 
wrote  several  works,  among  which  are :  Bilder 
aus  der  GescMchte  der  Kirche  (3  vols.,  1856- 
"'Sty-^Peregrina  (1864);  and  Eudoxia  (1868). 

HAHNEL,  Ernst  Julius,  a  German  sculptor, 
born  in  Dresden,  March  9,  1811.  He  studied 
architecture  under  Rietschel  in  Dresden,  and 
under  Schwanthaler  in  Munich,  and  sculpture 
at  Rome  and  Florence.  In  1835  he  went  to 
Munich,  and  in  1848  became  professor  at  the 
academy  of  Dresden.  In  1855  he  was  invited 
to  the  academy  of  Vienna,  where  he  was  a 
successful  teacher.  Among  his  best  works  are 
a  statue  of  Beethoven  at  Rome,  and  a  Madonna. 
The  bass-reliefs  in  the  new  museum  at  Dresden 
are  also  his  work.  These  were  followed  by 
the  "  Four  Evangelists,"  and  the  "  Three  Holy 
Kings,"  of  colossal  size,  for  the  tower  at  Neu- 
stadt-Dresden  (1858),  and  the  tomb  of  King 
Frederick  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  (1866). 

HAHNEMANN,  Samuel  Christian  Friedrich,  the 
founder  of  the  homoeopathic  system  of  medi- 
cine, born  in  Meissen,  Saxony,  April  10,  1755, 
died  in  Paris,  July  2,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  the  high  school  of  his  native  town,  and  at 
the  age  of  20  went  to  Leipsic  to  study  medi- 
cine. Here  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  teaching 
languages,  and  to  translating  foreign  medical 
authors  into  German,  and  was  accustomed  to 
sleep  only  every  other  night,  a  habit  he  per- 
severed in  for  several  years.  In  1777  he  went 
to  Vienna,  where  he  came  under  the  notice  of 
Quarin,  physician  to  Joseph  II.  and  chief  phy- 
sician to  the  hospital  of  the  Leopoldstadt,  who 
intrusted  him  with  the  care  of  one  of  the  hos- 
pital wards,  and  subsequently  recommended 
him  to  Baron  von  Briickenthal,  the  governor 
of  Transylvania,  in  whose  family  at  Hermann- 
stadt  he  remained  as  librarian  and  physician 
for  nearly  two  years.  In  August,  1779,  he 
took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Erlangen.  After 
a  brief  residence  in  Hettstadt  and  Dessau, 
where  he  studied  chemistry  and  mineralogy, 
and  at  Gommern  near  Magdeburg,  where  in 
1785  he  was  married,  he  settled  in  1787  in 
Dresden.  Here  he  was  rapidly  acquiring  repu- 
tation as  a  physician  and  writer  on  medical 


HAHNEMANN 


science,  when  a  distrust  of  the  received  system 
of  therapeutics  caused  him  to  pause  in  his 
labors.  In  place  of  facts  and  laws,  he  com- 
plained that  lie  found  only  hypotheses  and 
theories.  Finding  that  he  could  no  longer  con- 
scientiously practise  his  profession,  he  returned 
in  1789  to  Leipsic,  where  he  resumed  his 
chemical  studies,  and  endeavored  to  support 
his  family  by  translating  English  and  French 
medical  authors.  At  first  he  was  obliged  to 
struggle  with  poverty,  and  his  children  experi- 
encing severe  attacks  of  illness,  he  could  only 
prescribe  for  them  according  to  a  system  in 
which  he  had  ceased  to  place  confidence.  This 
stimulated  his  desire  to  establish  a  new  system 
of  therapeutics.  In  1790,  while  engaged  upon 
a  translation  of  Cullen's  "  Materia  Medica,"  he 
was  struck  with  the  contradictory  properties 
ascribed  to  Peruvian  bark,  and  the  various  ex- 
planations given  of  its  operation  in  intermittent 
fever.  He  resolved  to  try  upon  himself  the 
effects  of  the  medicine,  and,  after  several  pow- 
erful doses,  discovered  symptoms  analogous  to 
those  of  intermittent  fever.  The  fact  that  a 
drug  had  produced  upon  a  man  in  health  the 
very  symptoms  which  it  was  required  to  cure 
in  a  sick  man  immediately  suggested  to  him 
the  law,  Similia  similibus  curantur  ("Like 
cures  like  "),  which  is  the  groundwork  of  the 
homoeopathic  system.  He  determined  to  test 
the  principle  fully  before  announcing  it  to  the 
world,  and  experimented  upon  himself  with  a 
variety  of  drugs.  Similar  results  having  been 
obtained  in  every  instance,  and  also  in  experi- 
ments tried  upon  others,  he  applied  the  new 
law  to  the  treatment  of  the  patients  in  the  in- 
sane asylum  at  Georgenthal  near  Gotha,  over 
which  the  duke  of  Saxe-Gotha  had  appointed 
him,  with  complete  success.  From  Georgen- 
thal he  proceeded  to  Pyrmont,  Brunswick,  and 
Konigslutter,  effecting  in  each  place  remark- 
able cures.  In  1796,  in  a  paper  published  in 
Hufeland's  Journal  der  pralctiscJien  Heilkunde, 
he  made  his  first  public  exposition  of  the  simi- 
lia  similibus  principle,  which,  if  not  its  dis- 
coverer, he  was  the  first  to  declare  to  be  the 
leading  principle  in  therapeutics.  His  sugges- 
tions were  received  with  indifference  or  ridi- 
cule, and  during  the  next  15  years  he  was  the 
object  of  ceaseless  attacks  from  those  whose 
interests  were  opposed  to  the  innovations  he 
sought  to  introduce  into  medical  practice.  Du- 
ring this  period  he  published  several  works, 
all  treating  of  the  new  theory ;  among  which 
was  Fragmenta  de  Viribus  Medicamentorum 
Positims  sive  Obviis  in  Corpore  Sana  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1805).  But  in  his  Organon  der  ra- 
tionellen  Heilkunde  (Dresden,  1810)  homoeopa- 
thy first  received  its  distinctive  name,  and  was 
first  reduced  to  a  system  and  methodically  il- 
lustrated. This  work  created  much  sensation 
in  Germany,  and  a  bitter  warfare  was  waged 
for  upward  of  12  years  between  the  old  and 
new  schools  of  therapeutics.  About  this  time 
he  fixed  his  residence  in  Leipsic,  where  he  en- 
tered upon  an  extensive  practice,  and  gathered 


HAIL 


379 


about  him  many  friends  and  disciples.  During 
the  prevalence  of  a  malignant  form  of  typhus 
in  1813,  caused  by  the  recent  presence  of  the 
allied  and  French  armies,  the  patients  became 
so  numerous  that  it  was  necessary  to  divide 
them  among  the  physicians  of  the  city.  Of 
the  73  allotted  to  Hahnemann,  and  treated  on 
the  homoeopathic  method,  all  recovered  except 
one  old  man.  But  this  only  increased  the  en- 
mity of  his  opponents,  and* an  old  law  was  re- 
vived which  prohibited  a  physician  from  dis- 
pensing his  own  medicines,  a  practice  Hahne- 
mann had  always  followed,  and  was  unwilling 
to  relinquish.  He  therefore  in  1820  removed 
to  Kothen,  where  for  a  time  he  encountered  the 
same  hostility  which  had  driven  him  from  Leip- 
sic. But  the  homoeopathic  system  was  mean- 
while making  its  way  silently  over  Europe,  and 
patients  repaired  from  all  sides  to  receive  the 
advice  of  its  founder.  The  importance  which 
the  petty  town  of  Kothen  thus  acquired  soon 
caused  a  reaction  in  his  favor,  and  when,  upon 
his  marriage  for  a  second  time  in  1835  with 
Mile.  d'Hervilly,  a  young  French  woman,  he 
took  his  departure,  it  was  deemed  necessary  to 
go  secretly  by  night  for  fear  the  populace  might 
insist  upon  detaining  him.  Repairing  with  his 
wife  to  Paris,  he  resided  there  in  the  active 
practice  of  his  profession  until  his  death.  A 
statue  of  Hahnemann  was  erected  in  Leipsic  in 
1851  by  the  homoeopathic  physicians  of  Ger- 
many, and  another  in  Berlin  in  1855.  Besides 
those  already  mentioned,  his  principal  works 
are  :  Heine  Arzneimittellehre  (6  vols.,  Dresden, 
1811-'20 ;  3d  ed.,  1830-'33) ;  Die  chronischen 
KrankJieiten  (4  vols.,  Dresden,  1828-'30;  2d 
ed.,  1835-'9) ;  and  Heilung  der  asiatischen 
Cholera  (Nuremberg,  1831).  A  collection  of 
his  minor  works  has  been  published  (2  vols., 
Dresden,  1829-'34).  Several  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  English  and  other  lan- 
guages. (See  HOMCEOPATHY.) 

HAIL,  the  aqueous  vapor  of  the  atmosphere 
congealed  in  icy  masses,  called  hailstones,  and 
precipitated  upon  the  earth.  Hailstones  vary 
in  size  and  internal  structure,  from  the  homo- 
geneous masses  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter forming  sleet,  to  the  larger  masses  3 
in.  in  diameter,  of  beautiful  crystalline  struc- 
ture, and  to  the  still  larger  accretions  of  these 
masses  sometimes  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter. 
The  crystalline  structure  of  most  hailstones  is 
remarkably  distinct.  The  centre  of  the  hail  is 
a  collection  of  semi-translucent  granules  or  a 
spongy  mass  of  snow  and  opaque  ice ;  sur- 
rounding this  nucleus  is  a  more  or  less  well 
defined  radiated  structure  of  crystals  of  ice  ;  a 
large  quantity  of  air  is  always  enclosed  within 
the  interstices  of  the  hailstone.  Occasionally 
the  stones  are  composed  of  concentric  rings  of 
ice  and  snow ;  when  they  consist  of  clear  ice 
without  the  snowy  nucleus,  there  is  almost  in- 
variably found  in  the  centre,  in  place  of  the 
nucleus,  a  cavity  filled  with  condensed  air; 
from  experiments  made  in  1871  it  has  been 
shown  that  this  bubble  of  enclosed  air  is  sub- 


380 


HAIL 


jected  to  a  pressure  of  many  atmospheres. 
Small  bits  of  dust,  leaves,  and  other  foreign 
particles  are  occasionally  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  mass  of  a  hailstone,  and  crystals  of  sul- 
phur as  well  as  ashes  are  particularly  observed 
when  the  hail  storm  occurs  in  a  volcanic  region. 


Different  Forms  of  Hail. 

The  small  hailstones  that  fall  in  storms  of  sleet 
are  generally  regarded  as  drops  of  water  that 
have  been  frozen  in  their  downward  passage 
through  layers  of  cold  air ;  and  their  formation 
is  therefore  believed  to  be  a  different  process 
from  that  attending  the  formation  of  larger 
hailstones.  These  latter  occur  in  connection 


Section  of  Hailstone,  magnified. 

with  a  class  of  storms  that  are  distinctively 
known  as  hail  storms. — The  velocity  with  which 
large  hailstones  fall  to  the  ground  is  often  so 
great  that,  taken  in  connection  with  their  mass, 
they  cause  very  serious  devastation  ;  instances 
are  recorded  of  animals  being  destroyed  in  large 


numbers,  and  damage  is  frequently  done  to 
houses,  forests,  and  crops.  It  is  believed  that 
the  velocity  is  indeed  usually  much  less  than 
is  due  to  bodies  of  their  size  and  density,  and 
several  theories  have  been  devised  to  account 
for  this.  Prof.  Olmsted  supposed  that  the  true 
reason  is  found  in  the  retardation  occasioned 
by  the  nucleus  continually  taking  up  in  its  de- 
scent accessions  of  vapor,  which  immediately 
before  was  in  a  state  of  rest ;  it  has  however 
not  yet  been  shown  that  there  is  any  necessi- 
ty for  such  an  explanation,  since  we  know  too 
little  concerning  the  altitude  above  the  earth's 
surface,  at  which  hail  is  formed.  Hail  storms 
occur  most  frequently  in  the  spring  and 
summer  months,  and  in  the  warmest  part 
of  the  day.  Kaemtz  has  shown  that  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland  50  per  cent,  of 
these  storms  occur  in  the  springtime.  Wes- 
selowski  shows  that  in  Russia  40  per  cent,  oc- 
cur in  summer,  and  30  per  cent,  in  spring.  In 
the  Netherlands  and  France  40  per  cent,  oc- 
cur in  spring.  It  is  comparatively  rare  that 
hail  storms  take  place  between  9  P.  M.  and  7 
A.  M. ;  60  per  cent,  of  the  storms  in  Germany 
occur  between  noon  and  6  P.  M.  As  regards 
the  frequency  of  hail  storms  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  globe,  it  is  generally  believed  that 
they  rarely  or  never  occur  in  the  polar  re- 
gions, and  but  little  more  frequently  in  those 
portions  of  the  tropical  regions  whose  climate 
is  controlled  by  the  neighboring  ocean ;  thus 
they  are  recorded  as  of  extreme  rarity  in  the 
islands  of  Martinique,  Mauritius,  and  in  the 
lowlands  of  Java  and  Borneo.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  higher  portions  of  Java,  Borneo, 
and  Santo  Domingo,  hail  is  by  no  means  infre- 
quent; in  the  island  of  Cuba,  according  to 
Poey,  over  40  hail  storms  have  been  recorded 
since  1784.  In  the  temperate  zone,  both  in 
rolling  and  mountainous  countries,  hail  storms 
are  far  more  frequent.  Of  these  countries, 
some,  such  as  France,  are  peculiarly  subject  to 
severe  hail  storms,  while  again  in  every  such 
land  many  localities  are  pointed  out  where  it 
never  hails.  In  general  these  latter  localities 
are  found  to  be  decidedly  higher  than  the  aver- 
age elevation  of  the  surrounding  country,  or 
else  decidedly  lower;  thus,  according  to  Sa- 
vigne,  a  mountain  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cler- 
mont  was  during  23  years  only  once  visited  by 
hail,  while  the  country  about  its  neighborhood 
was  frequently  devastated.  In  Lithuania  hail 
occurs  on  the  hills  more  frequently  than  on  the 
plains,  while  in  Poland  it  occurs  at  the  foot  of 
the  Carpathian  mountains  more  frequently  than 
in  the  lowlands.  Leopold  von  Buch  states 
that  it  never  hails  in  regions  where  cretins  are 
found ;  a  generalization,  however,  that  does  not 
seem  to  be  accepted  by  many,  and  the  cause  of 
which  must,  if  the  fact  be  granted,  be  looked 
for  in  some  peculiarity  common  to  the  regions 
in  question. — Among  the  special  phenomena  of 
hail  storms  may  be  mentioned  the  pauses  that 
j  occur  between  successive  falls  of  hail,  which 
I  are  well  described  by  Kaemtz  as  observed  by 


HAIL 


381 


m 

? 


him.     He  says  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  se- 
verest storm  that  he  ever  witnessed,  there  fell 
some  large  drops  of  rain;  these  soon  ceased, 
and  after  a  short  interval  there  fell  hailstones, 
shaped  like  beans,  of  one  or  two  tenths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter;  this  ceased,  and  there  fol- 
lowed rain,  and  after  another  pause  fresh  hail 
of  two  or  'three  tenths  of  an  inch  diameter ; 
again  another  pause,  and  a  new  fall  of  hail. 
Of  these  successive  falls  of  hailstones,  the  first 
possessed  only  a  slight  coating  of  ice  over  the 
snowy  nucleus ;   the  second  class   were  par- 
tially surrounded  with  a  thicker  layer  of  ice  ; 
and  the  last  hailstones  were  generally  rounded 
masses  one  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     In 
1  cases  he  found  the  kernel  not  transparent, 
hile  the  surrounding  ice  was  so  in  a  high 
degree.    Another  very  general  peculiarity  of 
hail  storms  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  central 
portion  of  the  region  passed  over  by  the  storm 
is  almost  entirely  free  from  the  fall  of  hail- 
.es,  which  on  the  other  hand  are  almost 
variably  found  in  two  or  more  belts  parallel 
the  track  of  the  storm  centre,  and  some  dis- 
ce  therefrom./    Thus  in  the  storm  of  July 
3, 1788,  which  passed  from  France  in  a  north- 
erly direction    into    Holland,   the   storm 
ck  was  about  500  m.  in  length,  and  was 
versed  in  less  than  nine  hours ;   over  the 
itral  track,  to  a  breadth  of  6  m.  on  either 
e,  no  hail  fell,  but  heavy  rain;  on  either 
e  of  this  region,  to  a  distance  of  5  or  10  m., 
country  was  visited  with  hail  of  the  most 
uctive  kind,  by  which  property  valued  at 
re  than  $5,000,000  was  destroyed  ;  rain  also 
over  a  district  stretching  far  beyond  the 
Its  of  hail. — Perhaps  the  most  frequent  ac- 
paniment  of  hail,  and  the  most  prominent 
.uliarity  of  the  hail  storm,  is  found  in  the 
charges  of  electricity,  which  are  usually  but 
t  always  remarkably  severe.     While  numer- 
s  thunder  storms  occur  without  attending 
il,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  generally  the  case 
,t  hail  storms  are  also  thunder  storms.     Or- 
ary  thunder  storms  of  a  moderate  degree 
severity,  as  well  as  tornadoes,  waterspouts, 
d  or    dust  storms,   whirlwinds,   and  hail 
rms,  have  many  points  of  similarity,   and 
y  be  said  to  pass  by  insensible   shadings 
one  to  the  other.      Peltier  enumerates 
16  tornadoes  or  trombes,  of  which  14  were 
;ompanied  by  hail.     Reye,  in  his  work  on 
'irbelsturme,  enumerates  33   tornadoes  that 
rred  in  America,  of  which  only  three  are 
oted  as  having  been  accompanied   by  hail. 
rail  storms,  and  indeed  all  that  class  of  dis- 
rbances  just  enumerated,  have  a  local  char- 
ter, and  it  is  believed  that  in  general  their 
'hs  are  related  to  the  larger  areas  of  low  ba- 
meter  that  move   over  the  surface  of  the 
rth  ;  they  are  more  numerous  and  more  in- 
at   those   times  when    the   barometric 
ressure  is  diminishing  in  advance  of  some  ex- 
msive  region  of  low  pressure;   they  may  in 
act  be  said  to  be  the  precursors  of,  or  to  ini- 
'  ,te,  some  more  general  atmospheric  disturb- 


ance.— Our  knowledge  of  the  operations  going 
on  in  the  interior  of  a  hail  storm  has  been  ma- 
terially increased  of  late  years,  though  still 
far  from  being  complete  ;  and  the  theories  of 
Volta,  Olmsted,  &c.,  may  be  said  to  possess 
now  only  a  historical  interest.  According  to 
Volta,  atmospheric  electricity  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  the  formation  of  hail,  the 
snowy  nucleus  being  alternately  attracted  and 
repelled  by  two  layers  of  clouds  charged  by 
opposite  electricities,  and  in  the  mean  time 
continually  adding  to  its  size,  until  its'  weight 
brings  it  down  to  the  earth.  This  theory  may 
be  regarded  as  distinct  from  the  earlier  elec- 
trical theories  of  Musschenbroek,  Monge,  &c. ; 
and  notwithstanding  its  many  defects,  it  seems 
to  have  been  very  widely  accepted,  especially 
in  France  and  Germany,  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century.  Montbeillard  was  led  in 
1776  by  its  consideration  to  propose  the  use 
of  Franklin's  lightning  rod  as  a  protection 
against  hail  storms;  a  proposition  that  has 
been  very  widely  adopted  in  France,,  but  it  is 
believed  without  producing  the  desired  effect, 
although  a  popular  and  almost  superstitious 
belief  prevails  in  that  country  in  regard  to 
its  efficiency.  Leopold  von  Buch  maintained 
that  the  water  was  frozen  by  very  rapid  evap- 
oration from  the  surface  of  each  drop ;  a  hy- 
pothesis concerning  which  Kaemtz  remarks 
that  even  if  it  were  possible  thus  to  convert 
rain  drops  into  hailstones,  this  method  of  for- 
mation would  not  accord  with  the  ordinary 
saturated  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  the 
cloud  region.  The  hypothesis  that  uprising 
currents  of  moist  warm  air,  by  their  mixture 
with  higher  currents  of  very  cold  dry  air, 
thereby  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  hail- 
stones, seems  to  have  been  first  propounded 
by  Muncke,  and  has,  in  a  more  or  less  modi- 
fied form,  been  favored  and  even  adopted  by 
prominent  meteorologists  in  Europe,  and  has 
been  developed  independently  by  Olmsted  in 
America.  More  recent  writers,  as  Peslin 
(1866)  and  Reye  (1864  and  1872),  have  devel- 
oped the  consequences  of  the  principle  first 
announced  in  meteorology  by  Espy,  that 
storms  (including  in  that  term  every  phase  of 
atmospheric  disturbance)  owe  their  energy  to 
the  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor  caused  by 
the  cooling  consequent  on  the  internal  work 
performed  in  the  ascension  of  moist  air  to  ele- 
vated regions  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  demon- 
strated by  these  writers  that  the  rapid  ascent 
of  the  moist  air  found  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  on  a  warm  summer's  day  is  attended 
with  such  a  rapid  cooling  that  a  portion  of 
the  vapor  must  necessarily  be  condensed,  either 
as  drops  of  water  or  flakes  of  snow  and  crys- 
tals of  ice.  According  to  Reye,  who  in  this 
respect  is  but  a  disciple  of  Espy,  the  phenom- 
ena of  cyclones  and  hurricanes,  of  waterspouts 
and  whirlwinds,  of  thunder  storms  and  hail 
storms,  can  all  be  developed  as  the  conse- 
quences of  a  single  simple  law  of  the  mechani- 
cal theory  of  heat,  namely,  the  condensation 


382 


HAILES 


of  atmospheric  aqueous  vapor  contained  in  up- 
rising currents  of  air. 

HAILES,  Lord.    See  DALBTMPLE,  Sir  DAVID. 

HAINAN,  an  island  of  China,  in  the  China  sea, 
between  lat.  18°  and  20°  N.,  and  Ion.  108° 
and  111°  E. ;  area,  about  12,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  1,500,000  Chinese,  besides  the  tribes  in 
the  interior.  It  forms  part  of  the  province  of 
Kwangtung,  and  lies  off  the  peninsula  of  Lien- 
chow,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  strait 
of  Hainan,  15m.  broad  and  of  difficult  naviga- 
tion. The  E.  coast  is  steep  and  rocky ;  the  N. 
W.  coast  is  unapproachable  because  of  sand 
banks;  but  the  S.  coast  is  indented  with  seve- 
ral commodious  and  safe  harbors.  The  interior 
of  the  island  is  mountainous  and  barren,  but 
the  low  lands  near  the  sea  are  fertile  and  well 
cultivated.  The  principal  productions  are  rice, 
sweet  potatoes,  sugar,  tobacco,  fruits,  medici- 
nal plants,  sandal  wood,  braziletto,  ebony,  dye 
woods,  and  wax,  the  last  obtained  from  the 
pehltih-chung  or  white  wax  insect.  There  are 
valuable  ^sheries,  and  great  quantities  of  dried 
and  salted  fish  are  shipped  to  Canton.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  maritime  districts  are  mostly 
the  descendants  of  Chinese  settlers,  but  the  in- 
terior is  occupied  by  a  distinct  race,  called  Li, 
who  claim  to  be  independent  of  the  Chinese 
government,  and  are  supposed  to  be  aborigines. 
These  people  are  described  as  inoffensive  and 
industrious.  Hainan  is  divided  into  13  dis- 
tricts. Kienchow,  the  residence  of  the  govern- 
or and  the  capital  of  the  whole  island,  on  the 
N.  coast,  has  a  population  estimated  at  200,000. 

IIAI \  \l,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Silesia,  on  the  Deichsel,  and  on  the  railway 
from  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  to  Breslau,  11  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Liegnitz ;  pop.  about  4,500.  It 
has  manufactories  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth, 
tile  works,  a  shoe  manufactory,  and  a  mar- 
ket for  horses.  Here  the  Prussian  cavalry  de- 
feated the  French  vanguard,  May  26,  1813. 

HAINAUT,  or  Hainanlt  (Flem.  Henegouwen ; 
Ger.  Hennegaii),  a  province  of  Belgium,  bor- 
dering on  France  and  the  provinces  of  West 
and  East  Flanders,  Brabant,  and  Namur  ;  area, 
1,437  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  896,285.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  rivers  Sambre,  Scheldt,  Dender, 
and  Haine  (from  which  last  the  province  re- 
ceived its  name),  and  several  canals.  It  is  very 
hilly  in  the  southeast,  but  in  other  parts  gen- 
erally level.  The  soil,  except  in  the  district  of 
Charleroi,  is  fertile.  The  mineral  productions 
are  coal,  iron,  lead,  slates,  marble,  building 
stones,  and  limestone.  The  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  coal  mines  at  the  end  of  1870 
was  68,831,  and  the  production  amounted  to 
10,196,530  tons.  The  chief*crops  are  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  rye,  flax,  beans,  hemp,  hops,  po- 
tatoes, tobacco,  and  chiccory.  Horned  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses  are  reared,  the  latter  valued 
as  draught  animals.  There  is  also  abundance 
of  poultry,  game,  and  bees.  Hardware,  glass, 
woollen  and  linen  goods,  porcelain,  pottery, 
bricks,  lace,  and  Brussels  carpets  are  the  prin- 
cipal manufactures.  The  most  important  ex- 


HAIR 

ports  are  coal,  iron,  and  lime.  The  province 
is  traversed  by  good  roads  and  railways,  the 
great  lines  being  the  Brussels  and  Namur  and 
the  Brussels  and  Valenciennes.  The  principal 
towns  are  Mons,  the  capital,  Tournay,  Ath, 
Soignies,  Charleroi,  and  Thuin. — The  territory 
of  Hainaut  was  known  in  ancient  times  as  Han- 
agadensis  Comitatus  and  Hannonia.  Among 
the  earliest  inhabitants  were  the  warlike  Ner- 
vii.  It  was  not  called  Hainaut  until  the  7th 
century,  and  it  was  long  governed  by  local 
counts.  It  passed  through  many  vicissitudes 
from  the  10th  to  the  15th  century,  and,  after 
having  successively  been  united  with  Flanders 
and  Burgundy,  in  1477  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  was 
ruled  by  the  Spanish  branch  of  that  line  from 
1555  to  1713,  and  subsequently  by  the  Aus- 
trian branch,  with  the  exception  of  S.  Hainaut, 
which  in  1659  became  part  of  France  by  the 
treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.  In  1793  the  French 
annexed  Austrian  Hainaut,  and  formed  of  it 
the  department  of  Jemmapes.  In  1815  other 
districts  were  added  to  it,  and  it  formed  a  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  until  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  in  1830. 
HAIR,  an  elongated,  more  or  less  cylindrical 
epidermic  appendage,  analogous  to  the  feathers 
of  birds  and  the  scales  of  reptiles.  Its  essential 
structure  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  epider- 
mic cells  at  the  bottom  of  a  flask-shaped  folli- 
cle in  the  substance  of  the  skin,  supplied  with 
blood  by  vessels  distributed  to  its  walls ;  it  is 
made  up  of  a  root,  from  which  the  hair  is  de- 
veloped, and  a  stem  or  shaft  continuous  with 
it.  The  root  exhibits  a  bulbous  enlargement, 
which,  with  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  is  en- 
closed in  an  inversion  of  the  epidermis,  having 
an  outer  or  cellular  and  an  inner  or  fibrous 
layer,  formed  of  granular  cells ;  each  hair  folli- 
cle is  implanted  in  a  depression  in  the  dermis, 
between  whose  epidermic  lining  and  the  stem 
is  a  space  into  which  the  canals  of  sebaceous 
follicles  frequently  open,  and  in  which  entozoa 
are  often  developed;  the  inspissated  sebaceous 
secretion  forms  the  scurf  at  the  roots  of  the 
hair;  the  follicle  penetrates  sometimes  T^  of 
an  inch,  reaching  on  the  head,  face,  and  pubis 
the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  but  generally 
is  imbedded  in  the  substance  of  the  true  skin. 
The  bottom  of  the  follicle  is  occupied  by  a  pa- 
pilla upon  which  the  hair  rests,  a  compound 
cellular  vesicle,  the  true  germ  of  the  hair.  The 
stem  is  composed  of  a  cortical  investing  horny 
layer  of  scales,  arranged  in  an  imbricated  man- 
ner, a  softer  medullary  or  pith-like  substance 
in  the  centre,  and  a  fibrous  intermediate  por- 
tion constituting  two  thirds  of  the  bulk  of  the 
hair;  the  last  two  are  by  Carpenter  considered 
as  forming  together  the  medullary  substance. 
The  growth  of  hair  takes  place  at  the  root  by 
the  development  of  new  cells  at  the  bulb,  the 
old  being  pressed  forward  by  the  new  or  be- 
coming elongated  in  the  stem.  Hairs  are  very 
rarely  cylindrical,  but  generally  elliptical  and 
flattened  in  proportion  to  the  curl  or  crispness; 


HAIR 


383 


the  size  ia  greatest  toward  the  lower  third,  the 
root  being  smaller  and  the  end  terminating  in 
a  point.    The  hairs  of  the  head  are  the  longest, 
those  of  the  beard  the  thickest,  and  those  of 
the  general  surface  the  finest ;  among  women 
the  hair  of  the  head  has  been  known  to  fall  be- 
low the  feet,  and  the  beard  of  man  occasionally 
reaches  to  the  waist ;  frequent  cutting  and  sha- 
ving of  hairs  increase  their  thickness,  but  not 
necessarily  their  number.     Hairs  are  observed 
in  the  foetus  as  early 
as  the  third  or  fourth 
month,  in  the  order  of 
follicle,  bulb,  and  hair. 
From  the  resemblance 
the    mucous   meni- 
es  to  the  skin,  it  is 
t  surprising  that  hairs 
sometimes    devel- 
onthe  conjunctiva 
of  the  eye,  in  the  intes- 
tines, ovaries,  &c. ;  they 
frequently  found  in 
lysted  tumors  and  in 
r  inversions  of  epi- 
rmic  structure.  Hairs 
ay    be   transplanted, 
and  will  contract  organ- 
ic adhesion  in  the  new 
ues  ;    according    to 
le,  a  hair  which  has 
bed  its  full  develop- 
ent  becomes  contract- 
just  above  the  bulb 
falls  off.     In  vigor- 
s  health  the  hairs  are 
ick  and  firmly  set  in 
e  skin ;  in  debilitated 
:rsons    they  fall    out 
ntaneously  or  with 
"ery  slight  force  ;    in 
e  latter  case  the  bulb 
nerally  alone  comes 
ay,  the  sheath  and 
remaining  behind, 
d  capable  of  reprodu- 
the    hairs   under 
per  treatment  or  fa- 
>rable  circumstances; 
when  the  entire 
licles    are    removed, 
is  possible  that  new 
es  with  their  germs 
ay  be  formed ;    new 
hafts  are  constantly  in 
cess  of  formation,  as 
shown  by  the  short 
d   pointed   hairs    on 
e  scalp  of  old  persons.     The  nutrition  of 
airs  is  effected  through  vessels  in  close  contact 
~ith  their  tissue,  without  entering  into  their 
cture ;    so  that  causes  affecting  the  gen- 
health,  and  especially  the  condition  of  the 
in,  act  powerfully  upon  the  nutrition  of  the 
ir ;  the  premature  baldness  and  grayness  of 
Americans  as  a  people  is  in  great  measure 
385  VOL.  vm.— 25 


A  Hair  in  its  Hair  Sac. 
shaft  of  hair  above  the 
skin ;  &,  cortical  substance 
of  the  shaft,  the  medulla 
not  being  visible ;  c,  new- 
est portion  of  hair  grow- 
ing on  the  papilla  (i) ;  <?, 
cuticle  of  hair;  e,  cavity 
of  hair  sac ;  ./,  epidermis 
(and  root  sheaths)  of  the 
hair  sac  corresponding  to 
that  of  the  integument 
(in) ;  (7,  diA'ision  between 
dermis  and  epidermis ;  h, 
dermis  of  hair  sac  corre- 
sponding to  dermis  of  in- 
tegument (T) ;  Jc,  mouths 
of  sebaceous  glands  ;  n, 
horny  epidermis  of  in- 
tegument. 


owing  to  the  non-observance  of  hygienic  rules, 
and  to  excess  of  mental  and  physical  labor  in  a 
climate  foreign  to  the  race.  Hairs  are  distrib- 
uted over  the  entire  surface  of  the  human  body 
except  the  palms,  soles,  and  terminal  joints  of 
the  fingers  and  toes ;  but  for  special  purposes 
most  abundantly  on  the  scalp,  brows,  edge  of 
the  lids,  pubis,  chin,  cheeks,  armpits,  chest, 
and  entrance  of  the  nose  and  ears.  In  these 
situations  the  number  varies  according  to  tem- 
perament, age,  health,  and  sex.  According  to 
Withof,  the  quarter  of  a  square  inch  contained 
293  hairs  on  the  head,  39  on  the  chin,  23  on 
the  forearm,  19  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  13 
on  the  front  of  the  thigh ;  in  the  same  extent 
he  counted  147  black,  162  brown,  and  182 
flaxen  hairs,  showing  the  comparative  fine- 
ness. Long  and  strong  hairs  are  often  found 
growing  from  moles  and  neevi  in  various  parts 
of  the  body.  The  hair  generally  grows  in 
an  oblique  direction  on  account  of  the  way 
in  which  the  follicles  are  placed ;  these  are 
sometimes  placed  wrongly  on  tlje  scalp, 
causing  much  trouble  to  anxious  mothers; 
perseverance  will  generally  bring  the  refrac- 
tory locks  into  the  desired  direction.  From 
contraction  or  corrugation  of  the  skin  from 
cold,  fear,  or  other  causes,  the  hair,  especially 
on  the  head,  becomes  partially  erect,  though  it 
can  never  stand  on  end  "like  quills  upon  the 
fretful  porcupine." — The  color  of  the  hair  de- 
pends partly  on  the  presence  of  pigment  gran- 
ules, and  partly  on  the  existence  of  numerous 
minute  air  spaces  which  cause  it  to  appear 
dark  by  transmitted  light ;  its  intensity  gener- 
ally bears  a  close  relation  to  the  color  of  the 
iris  and  the  skin ;  in  albinos  and  in  gray-haired 
persons  the  coloring  matter  is  deficient  or  ab- 
sent. Long  contact  with  chlorine  decolorizes 
hair;  and  the  undoubted  fact  that  hair  may 
turn  white  in  a  short  time  under  the  influence 
of  strong  emotions  is  doubtless  to  be  explained 
by  some  chemical  action  upon  the  oily  coloring 
matter,  as  suggested  by  Dr.  D.  F.  Weinland, 
and  more  fully  explained  in  the  article  FEATH- 
ERS. The  turning  gray  of  the  hair  is  no  sign 
of  its  loss  of  vitality,  as  hair  of  this  color  often 
grows  for  years  as  vigorously  as  the  darker 
hued.  Hair  is  remarkable  for  strength,  elas- 
ticity, and  durability,  the  first  depending  on 
its  fibrous  structure  and  the  last  two  on  its 
horny  nature ;  a  single  hair  will  bear  a  strain 
of  1,150  grains.  Hairs  will  endure  not  only 
during  a  long  life,  but  will  grow  after  death, 
and  last  for  centuries.  It  is  well  known  that 
hairs,  especially  of  cats  and  other  animals,  be- 
come electrical  by  rubbing;  the  hygroscopic 
property  of  hair  has  been  painfully  manifested 
to  many  a  beau  and  belle  whose  rebellious 
locks  have  refused  to  retain  their  artistic  curl 
on  the  sudden  occurrence  of  a  moist  atmos- 
phere. Nitrate  of  silver  blackens  hair,  form- 
ing a  sulphuret,  and  this  substance  and  sulphur 
form  the  bases  of  most  of  the  popular  hair 
dyes.  When  burned,  hair  emits  a  disagree- 
able odor  as  of  burning  horn. — The  uses  of 


384 


HAIR 


HAIZINGER 


hair  are  manifest.  On  the  head  of  man  it  is 
one  of  his  chief  ornaments,  as  well  as  a  pro- 
tection from  injury ;  on  the  face  it  gives  char- 
acter and  dignity;  on  the  brows  and  lids,  and 
at  the  entrance  of  the  nose  and  ears,  it  pre- 
vents the  contact  and  entrance  of  foreign 
bodies;  and,  even  in  man,  the  general  covering 
of  hairs  doubtless  contributes  to  the  warmth 
and  proper  electric  condition  of  the  skin ;  the 
object  of  the  hair  in  animals  is  obvious  to 
every  one. — The  two  essential  parts  of  cortex 
and  medulla  are  found  in  the  hairs  of  all  ani- 
mals, however  much  they  may  differ  in  ap- 
pearance. In  the  cats,  seals,  and  other  animals, 
the  whiskers  are  supplied  with  large  nerves, 
and  become  exquisite  organs  of  touch ;  in  the 
soft  hair  of  the  sable  there  is  very  little  fibrous 
portion;  in  the  musk  and  reindeer  the  entire 
substance  seems  to  be  composed  of  delicate 
polygonal  cells ;  in  the  smaller  rodents  the 
cortical  tubular  portion  is  crossed  by  trans- 
verse partitions,  partial  or  complete;  in  the 
bats  the  projections  of  the  cortical  scales  are 
often  arranged  in  whorls  around  the  stem ;  in 
the  peccary  the  cortical  substance  sends  in- 
ward radiating  processes  whose  interspaces  are 
filled  with  the  medullary  portion,  and  this  is 
essentially  the  structure  of  the  quills  of  the 
porcupine,  which,  as  Shakespeare  has  hinted, 
are  only  modified  hairs;  even  the  horn  of  the 
rhinoceros  is  only  an  assemblage  of  compact 
hairs,  and  does  not  differ  in  its  essential  struc- 
ture from  the  finest  wool.  In  proportion  to 
the  prominence  of  the  imbricated  scales  will 
the  hair  of  animals  have  the  property  of  be- 
coming felted. — In  most-  nations  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  hair  has  always  formed  one  of  the 
principal  duties  of  the  toilet,  and  the  caprices 
of  different  races  and  epochs  in  this  respect 
are  very  remarkable.  While  the  Hebrews  and 
Greeks  considered  long  hair  a  beautiful  object, 
the  Egyptians,  regarding  it  as  an  incurnbrance, 
removed  it,  and  substituted  light  wigs.  The 
Roman  ladies  used  artificial  hair,  dyed  their 
own,  sprinkled  it  with  gold  dust,  and  repre- 
sented in  it  various  fanciful  devices.  So  desi- 
rable was  a  fine  head  of  hair  considered,  that  it 
became  sacred,  and  was  often  dedicated  to  the 
gods  on  important  occasions  of  marriage,  vic- 
tory, escape  from  danger  and  death,  and  burial 
of  friends ;  plucking  it  out  or  neglecting  it  was 
a  token  of  affliction.  In  the  time  of  Francis  I. 
short  hair  became  the  fashion,  and  under  Louis 
XIII.  long  hair,  curls,  and  wigs;  then  came 
hair  powders,  periwigs,  and  perukes  of  mon- 
strous size,  which  were  banished  by  the  French 
revolution,  since  which  civilized  nations  have 
been  in  the  main  content  with  natural  heads 
of  hair. — Some  persons  are  born  without  hair  on 
any  part  of  the  body ;  on  the  head  it  falls  off 
after  many  febrile  diseases,  especially  typhoid 
fever,  and  after  erythematous  affections  of 
the  scalp  and  irritating  applications.  Tightly 
fitting  and  unyielding  hats  no  doubt  contribute 
largely  toward  the  premature  fall  and  grayness 
of  the  hair.  The  bulbs  are  often  diseased,  and 


in  plica  Polonica  the  hair,  generally  insensible, 
becomes  exceedingly  sensitive  at  the  roots  and 
liable  to  bleed.  For  the  various  diseases  of 
the  hair  tonic  and  stimulating  applications  are 
sometimes  beneficial ;  when  the  hair  is  thin 
and  falls  out  easily,  shaving  the  scalp  will  gen- 
erally produce  a  thicker,  firmer,  and  darker- 
colored  growth.  For  diseases  of  the  hair 
depending  on  parasites,  see  EPIPHYTES,  and 
EPIZOA. — Microscopic  examination  shows  that 
the  hair  of  the  negro  is  not  wool,  though  dif- 
fering considerably  in  form  from  that  of  Eu- 
ropeans; the  form  is  not  connected  with  the 
color ;  the  differences  in  the  form  of  the  hair, 
being  permanent,  are  considered  by  some  as 
of  the  same  specific  value  as  those  of  the  fur, 
feathers,  and  scales  of  lower  animals.  Straight 
hair  approximates  to  the  cylindrical  form,  but 
the  curled  or  crisp  varieties  are  flattened ;  the 
negro  hair  has  the  deepest  longitudinal  groove, 
and  a  transverse  section  like  that  of  a  bean, 
and  its  peculiar  twist  is  said  to  be  due  to  a 
greater  tension  of  the  fibres  along  this  groove ; 
the  closely  matted  hair  of  the  Bushman  is  very 
flat  and  ribbon-like,  four  or  five  times  broader 
than  thick. — Many  insects  are  provided  with 
hairs,  both  in  the  larval  and  perfect  states, 
which  afford  beautiful  microscopic  objects, 
from  their  branches,  tufts,  spines,  and  protu- 
berances. The  cuticle  of  plants  is  often  beset 
with  hairs,  made  up  of  a  linear  series  of  elon- 
gated cells,  attached  end  to  end;  they  some- 
times have  glandular  bodies  connected  with 
them,  as  those  which  secrete  the  viscidity  on 
the  leaf  of  the  sundew  (droserd),  or  the  irrita- 
ting liquid  of  the  nettle.  In  the  invertebrates 
and  in  plants  there  are  many  evident  connect- 
ing links  between  hairs  and  scales;  vegetable 
hairs  generally  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  ro- 
tating fluids,  or  circulation  of  currents. 

HAIR  WORM  (gordius),  the  type  of  the  long 
hair-like  annelids  of  the  order  (gordiacea)  of 
helminths  or  entozoa.  These  thread-like  para- 
sites in  their  larva  state  inhabit  the  bodies  of 
various  insects,  especially  beetles  and  grass- 
hoppers; they  have  a  mouth  and  alimentary 
canal,  but  no  anus ;  the  sexes  are  distinct,  and 
when  full  grown  they  leave  the  bodies  of  their 
hosts  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  long  chains  in 
water  or  in  moist  earth.  They  look  very  much 
like  long  horse  hairs,  and  have  been  popularly 
believed  to  be  -hairs  transformed  to  worms. 
They  often  attain  a  length  very  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  body  of  the  insect  they  infest, 
occupying  with  their  coils  the  larger  part  of 
its  body.  They  can  endure  a  great  amount  of 
dryness  without  perishing. 

HAIZIftGER.  I.  Anton,  a  German  vocalist, 
born  at  Wilfersdorf,  Austria,  in  1796,  died  in 
Carlsruhe,  Dec.  31,  1869.  He  acquired  celeb- 
rity as  a  tenor,  and  on  retiring  from  the  stage 
about  1840  he  became  director  at  Carlsruhe  of 
a  musical  school,  which  trained  many  fine 
artists.  II.  Amalie,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Carlsruhe  in  1800.  Her  family  name  was 
Morstadt,  and  after  the  death  of  her  first  hus- 


nr? 

£ 

era 


HAJE 

,nd,  the  actor  Neumann,  she  married  Hai- 
zinger.     She  became  known  as  a  comic  actress 
in  Carlsruhe,  and  since  1844  in  Vienna. 
HAJE*     See  ASP,  and  COBEA  DE  CAPELLO. 
HAKE,  a  name  properly  applied  to  fishes  of 
the  cod  family,  of  the  genus  merlucius  (Cuv.), 
and  improperly  in  New  England  to  gadoids  of 
the  genus  phycis  (Artedi).    There  is  great  con- 
fusion in  the  application  of  the  names  to  the 
first  genus  ;  the  European  merlucius,  properly 
led  hake,  is  styled  the  merlan  or  whiting  in 
e  Mediterranean ;  our  merlucius  is  also  gen- 
Tally  called  whiting,  but  the  true  whiting  is  a 
merlangus,»one  of  the    species  of  which  we 
name  pollack ;  the  American  hake,  or  phycis, 
is  styled  codling  by  De  Kay,  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion.    The  European  hake  (merlucius  vul- 
is,  Cuv.)  is  generically  distinguished  from 
cod  by  having  only  two  dorsal-  fins,  a  sin- 
e  long  anal,  and  no  barbule  on  the  chin ;  the 
.d  is  flattened,  the  body  elongated,  the  first 
rsal  short,  the  second  dorsal  and  the  anal 
g  and  deeply  emarginated.     The  color  on 
j  back  is  ashy  gray,  and  below  dirty  white, 
e  wide  mouth  is  provided  with  numerous 
ig,  sharp,  incurved  teeth  on  both  jaws,  on 
e  palate,  and  in  the  pharynx.    It  is  abundant 


HAKLUYT 


385 


European  Hake  (Merlucius  vulgaris). 

the  ocean  and  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
le  coasts  of  Ireland  and  Cornwall  in  immense 
loals  from  -June   to  September   during  the 
mckerel  and  herring  seasons;  it  grows  to  a 
mgth  of  1  or  2  ft.,  is  very  voracious,  and  feeds 
incipally  on  the  last  mentioned  fishes.     Its 
sh  is  white  and  flaky,  and  is  dried  in  north- 
countries  like  that  of  the  cod;  from  its  in- 
rior  quality  it  is  commonly   called    "  poor 
Fohn;"  the  liver  is  a  delicate  dish,  and  was 
ighly  esteemed  by  the  ancients.     The  Ameri- 
m  hake  (M.  aTbidus,  De  Kay),  very  generally 
called  whiting  in  New  England,  and  sometimes 
silver  hake,  is  1  or  2  ft.  long;  when  alive,  the 
upper  parts  of  the  body  and  sides  are  rusty 
brown  with  golden  reflections,  becoming  lead- 
en after  death ;    silvery  white   beneath ;    iris 
silvery ;    dorsals  and  caudal   rusty,  pectorals 
and  ventrals  sooty,  anal  colorless,  inside  of  the 
mouth  purple,  and  lateral  line  lighter  than  the 
upper  parts;  the  lower  jaw  is  the  longer,  and 
the  teeth  are  very  long  and  sharp.     It  is  found 


from  New  York  northward,  and  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  British  provinces;  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly voracious,  pursuing  the  smaller  fishes, 
and  is  caught  in  great  numbers  in  some  seasons 
both  in  nets  and  by  hooks;  its  flesh,  when 
fresh,  is  sweet  and  wholesome,  but  it  soon  be- 
comes soft  and  tasteless. — The  American  hakes 
of  the  genus  phycis  have  an  elongated  body ; 


White  Hake  (Phycis  Americanus). 

two  dorsals,  the  first  triangular  with  the  third 
ray  filamentous  and  prolonged,  the  second 
commencing  just  behind  the  first  and  extending 
nearly  to  the  caudal ;  the  ventrals  with  a  sin- 
gle ray  at  the  base,  afterward  divided ;  anal 
long  and  single ;  chin  with  one  barbule.  The 
white  or  common  hake  (P.  Americanm,  Storer) 
grows  to  a  length  of  from  1  to  3  ft.,  and  when 
alive  is  reddish  brown  above,  bronzed  upon 
the  sides,  and  beneath  whitish  with  minute 
black  dots ;  upper  edge  of  the  dorsal  black,  as 
is  the  edge  of  the  anal  and  end  of  the  caudal ; 
fins  also  dotted  with  black;  after  death  the 
back  becomes  grayish  brown,  and  the  abdo- 
men dirty  white ;  the  head  is  very  flat  above, 
broad,  strongly  convex  back  of  the  eyes,  with 
prominent  rounded  snout  and  large  eyes ;  up- 
per jaw  the  longer,  and  both  well  armed  with 
rows  of  sharp  incurved  teeth ;  teeth  also  on 
the  vomer.  It  is  found  from  the  New  Jersey 
coast  northward,  and  is  taken  in  large  num- 
bers, chiefly  on  muddy  bottoms,  and  generally 
at  night  or  on  cloudy  days ;  it  feeds  principally 
on  small  fish  and  crustaceans.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent fish  for  the  table,  fried  or  boiled ;  it  is  also 
valuable  when  salted,  and  in  this  condition  is 
largely  exported  from  the  British  provinces 
under  the  name  of  ling.  There  is  a  small  spe- 
cies (P.  filamentosus,  Storer),  called  squirrel 
hake  by  the  Massachusetts  fishermen,  which 
rarely  exceeds  a  length  of  18  in.  or  a  weight 
of  2^  Ibs. ;  the  head  is  longer  in  proportion, 
the  body  more  slender,  top  of  the  head  de- 
pressed in  its  whole  extent,  and  the  filamen- 
tous ray  of  the  first  dorsal  considerably  longer 
than  in  the  preceding  species;  there  are  no 
spots  upon  the  pure  white  of  the  lower  parts. 
Other  species  are  described  in  America,  on  the 
coast  of  Europe,  and  in  the  Mediterranean. — 
The  name  hake  is  also  erroneously  given  on 
the  coast  of  New  Jersey  to  the  king  fish,  a  sci- 
genoid  of  the  genus  umbrina  (Cuv.),  from  its 
having  a  barbule  on  the  chin. 

HAKLUYT,  Richard,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1553,  died  Oct.  23,  1616.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  school  and  at  Oxford 


386 


HAKODADI 


university,  where  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  cosmography  and  was  the  first  to  teach  the 
use  of  globes.  In  1582  he  published  "  Diuers 
Voyages  touching  the  Discouerie  of  America 
and  Islands  adjacent  unto  the  same  "  (new  ed., 
1850).  In  1584  he  accompanied  the  English 
ambassador  Sir  Edward  Stafford  to  Paris, 
probably  as  chaplain,  as  he  was  at  this  time 
professor  of  divinity.  While  there  he  publish- 
ed in  French  (1586)  the  narrative  of  the  voy- 
ages of  Loudonniere  and  others,  which  he  af- 
terward translated  and  published  under  the  ti- 
tle "  Foure  Voyages  unto  Florida,"  &c.  (1587). 
He  also  published  in  Paris  an  improved  edition 
of  Peter  Martyr's  De  Orbe  Novo  (1587),  which 
at  his  suggestion  was  translated  into  English 
by  Michael  Lok,  the  London  agent  of  the  Mus- 
covy company,  under  the  title  "  The  Historie 
of  the  West  Indies."  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land in  1589  he  was  appointed  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  a  member  of  the  company  of  gentle- 
men adventurers  and  merchants  for  colonizing 
Virginia;  and  in  the  same  year  he  published 
his  great  work,  "The  principal  Navigations, 
Voyages,  and  Discoveries  made  by  the  English 
Nation  "  (fol.,  London ;  enlarged  ed.,  3  vols. 
in  2,  fol.,  1598,  '99,  1600;  new  ed.  with  addi- 
tions, 5  vols.  4to,  London,  1809-'12).  Besides 
the  different  voyages,  this  work  contains  many 
curious  public  documents,  such  as  charters 


granted  by  the  czar,  the  sultan,  and  other 
monarchs,  to  English  merchants.  In  many 
copies  the  voyage  to  Cadiz  (pp.  607-' 19,  vol.  i., 
2d  ed.)  is  omitted,  having  been  suppressed  by 
order  of  Queen  Elizabeth  after  the  disgrace  of 
the  earl  of  Essex.  The  additions  to  the  last 
edition  comprise  all  the  voyages  and  travels 
printed  by  Hakluyt,  or  at  his  suggestion,  which 
were  not  included  in  his  collection.  In  1605 
Hakluyt  was  appointed  prebendary  of  West- 
minster, having  previously  been  prebendary  of 
Bristol;  and  he  received  afterward  the  rectory 
of  Wetheringset  in  Suffolk.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey.  His  unpublished  MSS. 
were  used  by  Purchas  in  his  "  Pilgrims."  His 
name  is  perpetuated  in  Hakluyt's  head,  a  prom- 
ontory on  the  N.  W.  end  of  Spitsbergen, 
named  by  Henry  Hudson  in  1608  ;  in  Hakluyt's 
island  in  Baffin  bay,  named  by  Bylot ;  and  in 
the  Hakluyt  society,  founded  in  1846  for  the 
republication  of  early  voyages  and  travels. 
For  an  analysis  of  the  contents  of  his  chief 
work,  see  Oldys's  "  British  Librarian." 

HAKODADI,  a  city  of  Japan,  in  the  province 
of  Matsmai,  near  the  S.  end  of  the  island  of 
Yesso,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  strait  of  Saugar 
about  42  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Matsmai,  and 
nearly  in  lat.  42°  N. ;  pop.  about  50,000,  in- 
cluding many  Chinese  and  some  Europeans 
and  Americans.  It  extends  about  3  m.  along 


Hakodadi. 


the  base  of  a  promontory  whose  peaks  rise 
more  than  1,100  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  foliage 
of  the  lower  slopes  partly  conceals  the  city, 
which  is  on  the  shore  of  a  beautiful  and  spa- 
cious bay,  forming  one  of  the  best  harbors  in 
the  world.  The  town  consists  of  rows  of  broad 
streets,  rising  one  above  the  other,  parallel  to 
the  beach.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  wood 
and  two  stories  high,  with  fronts  open  to  the 
street,  and  deep  projecting  eaves.  At  night 
the  fronts  are  closed  by  folding  doors  or  shut- 
ters. There  are  many  large  temples  in  the  city, 
some  of  the  Sintoo  and  others  of  the  Buddhist 
sect ;  some  of  the  latter  are  well  built  and  gor- 
geously decorated.  They  are  generally  in  the 
elevated  and  retired  parts  of  the  town,  and 


partially  encircled  by  trees.  A  bazaar  is  at- 
tached to  one  of  the  temples.  There  are  many 
fire-proof  stores,  strongly  built,  with  thick 
whitewashed  walls,  deep  window  gratings,  and 
massive  shutters.  The  principal  articles  of 
trade  are  seaweed  (fucus  saccharinus),  timber, 
dried  fish,  deer  skins,  horns,  potatoes,  coal,  fish 
oil,  tobacco,  salt,  and  silk.  The  harbor  is  con- 
stantly thronged  with  hundreds  of  junks,  and 
the  general  dulness  of  the  city  is  relieved  by 
droves  of  laden  pack  horses.  The  aggregate 
value  of  imports  and  exports  in  1870  exceeded 
$1,300,000.— Originally  a  small  fishing  village 
belonging  to  the  local  daimio,  Hakodadi  was 
sold  to  the  Japanese  government,  and  owing 
to  its  advantages  as  a  seaport  rapidly  rose  into 


HALAS 

nee.  It  was  opened  to  American  com- 
me'rce  by  the  treaty  negotiated  by  Commodore 
Perry  in  1854,  which  has  since  been  extended 
to  all  foreign  nations. 

HALAS,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  in  the 
district  of  Little  Cumania,  about  75  m.  S.  S.  E. 
of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  13,127.  It  has  a 
Keformed  gymnasium.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  breeding  of  cattle  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 

«  HALBERSTADT,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
the  district  and  28  m.  S.  "W.  of  the  city  of 
agdeburg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hol- 
zemme;  pop.  in  1871,  25,421.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  Dom  or  cathedral,  a 
Gothic  structure  restored  in  1850,  which  con- 
tains celebrated  collections  of  the  episcopal  and 
priestly  robes  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  Lieb- 
frauenkirche,  erected  in  the  llth  century,  in 
the  Byzantine  style,  with  singular  bass-reliefs 
and  wall  paintings.  Halberstadt  has  a  gym- 
nasium and  a  number  of  schools,  two  large  li- 
braries, and  good  collections  of  coins,  antiqui- 
ties, and  pictures,  many  of  the  last  in  the  so- 
called  "  temple  of  friendship."  The  chief 
manufactures  are  woollen  cloth,  gloves,  car- 
pets, refined  sugar,  leather,  tobacco,  cigars, 
and  chemical  products.  The  poet  Gleim  gath- 
ered around  him  in  this  town  a  large  circle 
of  authors,  which  was  called  the  poetical  union 
of  Halberstadt;  and  he  was  buried  here.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt 
formed  a  state  of  the  empire. 

*!ALBIG,  Johann,  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
nnersdorf,  Bavaria,  July  13,  1814.  He  was 
educated  in  the  academy  of  Munich,  and  became 
professor  of  statuary  there.  Since  1835  he  has 
executed  the  group  of  lions  for  the  old  Pina- 
kothek,  the  statues  of  Roma  and  Minerva  in 
the  royal  park,  and  many  other  important 
works  in  Munich  and  other  German  cities,  in 
Russia,  and  in  Belgium.  He  is  said  to  have 
modelled  since  1846  more  than  1,000  busts. 
His  most  celebrated  works  are  the  group  of 
lions  at  the  Munich  gate  of  Victory,  and  the 
18  figures  representing  the  principal  states  of 
Germany  in  the  hall  of  independence  at  Kel- 
heim ;  the  statue  of  Christ  on  the  cross  in  the 
Campo  Santo  of  Munich  (1853) ;  the  monu- 
ment in  honor  of  Maximilian  II.  in  the  town 
(1854),  and  that  at  the  port,  of  Lindau ;  and  an 
allegorical  group  representing  North  America 
for  a  gentleman  of  New  York.  In  1873  he 
was  commissioned  by  Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  to 
prepare  a  colossal  group  of  the  crucifixion  to 
be  erected  on  the  mountain  near  Oberammer- 
gau;  and  in  1874  he  designed  a  statue  of  the 
late  king  "William  of  Wtirtemberg  for  the  town 
of  Canstatt. 

HALDANE.  I.  Robert,  a  Scottish  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  1764,  died  Dec.  12,  1842.  Though 
heir  to  a  large  property,  he  had  a  passion  for 
a  seafaring  life,  and  in  1780  entered  the  royal 
navy,  in  which  he  served  with  honor  under 
Capt.  Jervis,  afterward  Earl  St.  Vincent.  He 
retired  from  the  navy  in  1783,  and  in  1785 


HALDEMAN 


387 


married  and  settled  upon  his  estate  of  Airthrey. 
He  welcomed  the  advent  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, and  was  consequently  exposed  to  much 
obloquy ;  but,  disappointed  by  the  revolutionary 
excesses,  and  convinced  of  the  divine  origin  of 
Christianity,  he  resolved  to  devote  his  life  to 
its  advancement.  He  conceived  the  idea  of 
organizing  a  vast  scheme  of  missionary  labor 
in  India,  including  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  a  printing  press,  all  the.  expenses  to  be 
borne  by  himself.  The  East  India  company, 
suspecting  some  hidden  design,  refused  to  sanc- 
tion the  scheme,  and  Haldane  was  forced  to 
abandon  it.  He  then  selected  Scotland  as  his 
field  of  work,  sold  his  estate,  and  devoted  his 
means  to  hiring  and  erecting  places  for  wor- 
ship, and  to  educating  young  men  for  the  min- 
istry. His  efforts  were  highly  successful  in 
this  respect.  Afterward  he  formed  a  plan  for 
the  evangelization  of  Africa,  and  imported  30 
children  from  Sierra  Leone  to  receive  Christian 
education,  giving  his  bond  for  £7,000  to  pay 
the  expenses.  At  the  commencement  of  his 
revival  labors  in  Scotland  he  seceded  from  the 
established  church  and  adopted  many  of  the 
tenets  of  Sandeman,  with  some  rigid  forms  of 
discipline;  and  he  afterward  joined  the  Bap- 
tists, but  gave  no  prominence  to  peculiar  secta- 
rian views.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "  Evi- 
dence and  Authority  of  Divine  Revelation" 
(Edinburgh,  1816),  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Romans  "  (London,  1835),  and  several 
minor  writings.  II.  James  Alexander,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dundee,  July  14, 1768, 
died  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  8,  1851.  In  1785  he 
went  to  sea  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
company,  and  in  1793  was  appointed  captain 
of  a  ship.  But  while  the  vessel  was  detained 
he  experienced  a  religious  change  like  that  of 
his  brother.  He  sold  his  commission  and  his 
share  of  the  ship's  property  for  £15,000,  re- 
tired to  Scotland,  and  devoted  himself  to  re- 
ligious labors.  He  made  journeys  through  the 
country,  gathering  large  congregations,  for 
which  churches  were  immediately  built  by  his 
brother  Robert.  In  1799  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Tabernacle  in  Leith  walk,  Edinburgh,  in 
which  office  he  continued  without  emolument 
for  more  than  50  years.  His  life,  with  that  of 
his  brother,  was  written  by  Alexander  Haldane 
(London,  1852). 

HALDEMAN,  S.  Stehman,  an  American  natu- 
ralist and  philologist,  born  near  Columbia,  Pa., 
in  1812.  He  was  educated  at  Dickinson  col- 
lege, and  in  1836  became  assistant  in  the  geolo- 
gical survey  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1837  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  discovered  the  scolithm  lineasis, 
the  oldest  fossil  then  known.  In  1851  he  be- 
came professor  of  natural  history  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1855  in  Delaware 
college,  and  also  of  geology  and  chemistry  to 
the  state  agricultural  society  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  has  made  numerous  contributions  to  en- 
tomology, conchology,  and  philology,  inclu- 
ding "  Monograph  of  the  Fresh-Water  Univalve 
Mollusca"  (Philadelphia,  1840-'45) ;  Mono- 


388 


HALDIMAND 


HALE 


graphic  du  genre  leptoxis  (in  Chenu's  Illustra- 
tions conchologiques,  Paris,  1847);  "On  some 
Points  in  Linguistic  Ethnology"  (in  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Academy,"  Boston, 
1849)  ;  "  Zoology  of  the  Invertebrate  Animals  " 
(in  the  "  Iconographic  Encyclopaedia,"  New 
York,  1850);  "On  the  Relations  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  Chinese  Languages  "  (in  "  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,"  1856) ;  and  "  Analytic  Or- 
thography," which  in  1858  gained  in  England 
a  prize  over  18  European  competitors. 

IIALDIMAND,  a  S.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bordering  on  Lake  Erie  near  its  E.  end ;  area, 
475  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  24,851,  of  whom 
7,792  were  of  English,  6,991  of  Irish,  4,768  of 
German,  and  3,078  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent. 
It  is  drained  by  Grand  river,  and  is  traversed 
by  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Great  Western,  Can- 
ada Southern,  and  Hamilton  and  Lake  Erie 
railways.  Capital,  Cayuga. 

HALE,  a  central  county  of  Alabama,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Black  Warrior  river,  and  drained 
by  its  affluents ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  21,792,  of  whom  16,990  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  moderately  uneven,  and  the  soil 
very  fertile.  The  Alabama  and  Chattanooga 
railroad  passes  through  the  N.  W.  corner ;  the 
Alabama  Central  skirts  the  S.  border;  the 
Selma,  Marion,  and  Memphis  line  runs  to  the 
county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  384,420  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  26,462  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  18,573  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,176  horses,  2,734  mules  and  asses, 
2,494  milch  cows,  4,435  other  cattle,  2,626 
sheep,  and  9,019  swine;  9  flour  mills,  and  1 
machine  shop.  Capital,  Greensboro. 

HALE,  Benjamin,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Nov.  23,  1797, 
died  there,  July  15,  1863.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college  in  1818,  studied  theology  at 
Andover,  and  in  1822  was  licensed  to  preach  as 
a  Congregationalist.  In  1823  he  became  tutor 
in  Bowdoin  college,  but  soon  after  established 
the  Gardiner  lyceum,  of  which  he  was  princi- 
pal for  four  years.  From  1827  to  1835  he  was 
professor  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  Dart- 
mouth college,  and  in  the  mean  while  took  or- 
ders in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church.  In 
1836  he  became  president  of  Hobart  college, 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  held  the  position  for  about 
20  years ;  he  then  resigned  on  account  of  im- 
paired health,  and  returned  to  his  native  town. 
Besides  sermons  and  pamphlets  on  education, 
he  published  "  Introduction  to  the  Mechanical 
Principles  of  Carpentry"  (1827),  and  "Scrip- 
tural Illustrations  of  the  Liturgy"  (1835). 

HALE,  David,  an  American  journalist,  born  at 
Lisbon,  Conn.,  April  25,  1791,  died  at  Frede- 
ricksburg,  Va.,  Jan.  20,  1849.  His  father  was 
a  clergyman,  from  whom  and  in  the  common 
school  he  received  his  education.  In  1809  he 
went  to  Boston,  where  he  entered  into  mer- 
cantile business,  and  also  contributed  to  news- 
papers. In  1827  he  removed  to  New  York  to 
become  commercial  editor  of  the  "Journal  of 


Commerce,"  of  Which  in  the  following  year  he 
became  one  of  the  proprietors.  The  "Journal " 
soon  acquired  an  influential  position,  and  af- 
forded a  large  income  to  its  owners.  Mr.  Hale 
contributed  largely  to  benevolent  and  religious 
enterprises,  and  for  many  years  supported  sev- 
eral missionaries  in  the  thinly  settled  parts  of 
the  country.  A  memoir  of  him  by  the  Rev.  J. 
P.  Thompson,  embracing  some  of  his  writings, 
was  published  in  1849. 

HALE,  Edward  Everett,  an  American  author, 
son  of  the  journalist  Nathan  Hale,  born  in  Bos- 
ton, April  3,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1839,  studied  theology,  and  was  pas- 
tor of  the  church  of  the  Unity,  Worcester,  Mu>s., 
from  1846  to  1856.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
called  to  the  South  Congregational  church  of 
Boston,  of  which  he  is  still  pastor  (1874).  Ho 
has  been  at  different  periods  editor  of  the 
"  Christian  Examiner  "  and  the  "  Sunday  School 
Gazette,"  besides  being  a  frequent  contributor 
to  other  literary  and  theological  journals.  In 
1869  he  founded  "  Old  and  New,"  a  literary  and 
critical  monthly,  mainly  devoted  to  social  re- 
form, to  which  he  has  been  the  principal  con- 
tributor. His  separate  works  are :  "  The  Ro- 
sary" (1848);  "Margaret  Percival  in  Amer- 
ica "  (1850)  ;  "  Sketches  of  Christian  History  " 
(1850)  ;  "  Letters  on  Irish  Emigration  "  (1852) ; 
"Kansas  and  Nebraska"  (1854);  "Ninety 
Days'  Worth  of  Europe  "  (1861) ;  "  The  Man 
without  a  Country  ;"  "  If,  Yes,  and  Perhaps  " 
(1868);  " The  Ingham  Papers "(1869);  "How 
to  Do  it;"  "His  Level  Best;"  "Ten  times  One 
is  Ten:  the  possible  Reformation"  (1870); 
"Ups  and  Downs;"  "Sybaris  and  Other 
Homes  "  (1870) ;  "  Christmas  Eve  and  Christ- 
mas Day  ;"  "  In  His  Name  ;"  "  Working  Men's 
Homes"  (1874);  and  many  historical  papers 
published  by  the  American  antiquarian  society. 

HALE,  John  Parker,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Rochester,  N.  II.,  March  31,  1806, 
died  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  Nov.  19,  1873.  He 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1827,  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Dover,  where  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830.  In  1832  he 
represented  that  town  in  the  state  legislature, 
and  in  1834  President  Jackson  appointed  him 
United  States  attorney  for  the  district  of  New 
Hampshire.  This  office  he  held  till  1841, 
when  President  Tyler  removed  him  on  politi- 
cal grounds.  In  1843  he  was  elected  as  a 
democrat  to  congress,  where  lie  sided  with 
the  opponents  of  slavery.  In  the  presidential 
canvass  of  1844  he  opposed  the  scheme  for  an- 
nexing Texas,  and  was  renominated  for  con- 
gress. The  New  Hampshire  legislature  having 
passed  a  resolution  instructing  the  congres- 
sional delegation  from  that  state  to  support  the 
annexation  measure,  Mr.  Hale  addressed  a  let- 
ter to  the  people  of  New  Hampshire,  in  which 
he  declared  that  the  annexation  of  Texas  was 
demanded  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening 
and  perpetuating  slavery,  and  that  if  the  peo- 
ple wished  their  representatives  to  support 
such  a  measure  they  must  choose  another  man 


HALE 


389 


tie  J 
tria 


an  himself  to  represent  them.      The  state 
nvention  struck  his  name  from  the  ticket 
and  placed  another  nominee  in  his  stead.     Mr. 
Hale  ran    as  an  independent  candidate,  sup- 
ported  chiefly  by  the    "independent    demo- 
crats," but  was  defeated.     In  June,  1845,  he 
attempted  to  make  a  speech  in  the  Old  North 
church   at  Concord,  vindicating  his  course ; 
but  frequent  interruptions  soon  turned  it  into 
a  sharp  debate  between  himself  and  Frank- 
lin Pierce,  which  lasted  from  2  P.  M.  till  sun- 
down, and  is  still  the  most  memorable  in  the 
history  of  New  Hampshire.     The  popular  ver- 
dict gave  the  victory  to  Hale.     In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature, 
.me  speaker  of  the  house,  and  before  the 
ose  of  the  session  was  chosen  United  States 
or  for  six  years  from  March,  1847.     In 
the  senate  he  steadily  maintained  the  position 
he  had  taken  on  the  slavery  question,  and  op- 
ed the  compromise  measures  of  Clay.     In 
1  he  was  counsel  for  the  defendants  in  the 
lals  which  grew  out  of  the  rescue  of  the  fugi- 
tive slave  Shadrach.    In  1847  the  liberty  party 
vention  at  Cleveland  gave  him  a  nomina- 
for  president,  which  he  declined,  and  sup- 
the  Van  Buren  and  Adams  ticket  in 
In  1852  he  was  nominated  at   Pitts- 
rgh  by  the  free-soil  party,  and  received  157,- 
85  votes.     From  1853  to  1855  he  practised 
law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  in  the  latter 
ear  was  again  elected  as  United  States  senator 
>m  New  Hampshire,  to  fill  the  unexpired 
of  Mr.  Atherton,  deceased.     In  1858  he 
was  reflected  for  a  full  term  of  six  years.     To 
the  administration   of   President  Lincoln  he 
gave  a  hearty  support,  speaking  frequently  on 
the  most  important  subjects  of  legislation  du- 
ring the  civil  war.    On  retiring  from  the  senate 
in  March,  18G5,  he  was  appointed  minister  to 
Spain.    He  had  discharged  the  duties  of  this 
office  for  about  three  years,  when  a  quarrel 
•ose  between  himself  and  Mr.  Perry,  his  sec- 
tary of  legation.    Mr.  Hale  was  charged  with 
ading  the  revenue  laws  of  Spain  by  importing, 
ider  his  privilege  as  a  minister,  goods  which 
ere  put  upon  the  market  and  sold  as  ordinary 
rchandise.     He  averred  that  the  secretary 
as  the  real  culprit,  and  that  he  had  used  the 
ature  of  the  minister  without  his  knowl- 
for  illegal  purposes.     The  result  was  that 
th  minister  and  secretary  were  recalled  by 
sident  Grant.     Returning  from  Europe  in 
70,  Mr.  Hale  was  prostrated   by  paralysis, 
d  in  the  summer  of  1873  his  hip  was  dis- 
ted  by  a  fall,  which  was  the  immediate 
,use  of  his  death. 

HALE,  Sir  Matthew,  an  English  jurist,  born  at 
Iderley,  Gloucestershire,  Nov.  1,  1609,  died 
here,  Dec.  25,  1676.  His  father,  originally  a 
wyer,  abandoned  his  profession  on  account 
f  conscientious  scruples.  The  son,  an  orphan 
an  early  age,  was  committed  to  the  care  of 
Puritan  relative,  who  placed  his  ward  in 
626  at  Magdalen  hall,  Oxford.  He  had  been 
signed  for  the  church,  but  becoming  involved 


in  a  lawsuit  with  a  person  who  laid  claim  to 
part  of  his  paternal  estate,  he  exhibited  such 
aptitude  for  legal  science  that  the  lawyer  who 
was  charged  with  the  defence  of  his  case  per- 
suaded him  to  study  law.  He  applied  himself 
with  remarkable  diligence,  reading,  it  is  _  said, 
for  several  years  at  the  rate  of  16  hours  a  day. 
The  variety  of  his  studies  was  remarkable. 
Philosophy,  anatomy,  and  physiology,  as  well 
as  theology,  are  mentioned  as  only  a  few  of  the 
subjects  which  received  his  attention.  He 
probably  began  practice  as  a  barrister  in  1636  ; 
and  he  was  employed  in  most  of  the  celebrated 
trials  growing  out  of  parliamentary  troubles  in 
1640.  Bishop  Burnet  states  that  Hale  was  as- 
signed as  counsel  for  Straflfbrd,  but  he  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  only  privately  retained  by 
that  nobleman  to  assist  in  his  defence.  In  1643, 
however,  he  was  expressly  assigned  by  parlia- 
ment as  counsel  for  Archbishop  Laud.  In  1647 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  counsel  for  the 
eleven  members  of  the  commons  whose  im- 
peachment was  demanded  by  the  army.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  retained  as  counsel  for  the 
defence  of  Charles  I. ;  but  as  the  king  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court, 
his  counsel  took  no  public  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  trial.  In  1643  Hale  had  taken  the 
covenant  as  prescribed  by  parliament ;  in  1651 
he  professed  allegiance  to  the  commonwealth, 
"  without  king  or  house  of  lords  ;"  and  in  the 
following  year  he  was  one  of  a  commission  for 
considering  the  expediency  of  reforming  the 
law.  He  was  raised  to  the  bench  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1654,  and  soon  afterward 
was  returned  to  Cromwell's  first  parliament 
for  his  native  county.  Several  instances  are 
related  of  his  resolute  rejection  of  the  arbitrary 
dictation  of  Cromwell  in  the  administration  of 
law.  On  one  occasion  he  discharged  a  jury 
which  he  discovered  had  been  packed  by  ex- 
press directions  of  the  protector.  Cromwell 
reprimanded  him  severely,  adding,  "You  are 
not  fit  to  be  a  judge."  "That,"  replied  Hale 
quietly,  "is  very  true;"  and  soon  after  he  de- 
clined to  serve  on  the  trial  of  a  person  who 
had  revolted  against  Cromwell's  authority.  In 
1659  he  represented  the  university  of  Oxford 
in  the  parliament  which  met  after  the  death 
of  Cromwell;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
sat  again  for  Gloucestershire  in  the  conven- 
tion which  recalled  the  Stuarts.  Soon  after 
the  restoration,  the  lord  chancellor  Claren- 
don with  some  difficulty  persuaded  him  to  ac- 
cept the  appointment  of  lord  chief  baron  of 
the  court  of  exchequer  (1660),  when  he  was 
knighted.  His  name  appears  among  the  com- 
missioners for  the  trial  of  the  regicides,  but 
it  is  supposed  that  he  was  not  present  at  the 
trials.  During  the  period  that  he  sat  in  the 
court  of  exchequer  two  women  were  indicted 
for  witchcraft.  Hale  is  reported  to  have  ad- 
mitted to  the  jury  that  he  did  not  doubt  the 
existence  of  "  such  creatures  as  witches."  The 
women  were  condemned  and  executed.  He 
was  the  last  English  judge  to  sanction  the  con- 


390 


HALE 


HALES 


viction  of  prisoners  charged  with  this  crime. 
After  the  great  fire  in  London  in  1666,  his  ex- 
ertions with  a  view  to  improvements  in  the  re- 
building of  the  city  obtained  for  him  the  high- 
est praise.  "  He  was,"  says  Baxter,  "  the  great 
instrument  for  rebuilding  London;  his  pru- 
dence and  justice  removing  multitudes  of  im- 
pediments." In  1671  Hale  was  made  chief 
justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench,  and  four 
years  later  he  was  attacked  by  inflammation 
of  the  diaphragm,  which  in  1676  compelled 
him  to  retire  upon  his  pension.  Withdrawing 
to  Acton,  he  amused  himself  principally  in  the 
study  of  mathematics  and  physics.  He  was 
twice  married ;  and  by  his  first  wife,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Henry  Moore,  he  had  ten  children. 
His  second  wife  was  a  servant  girl,  whom  he 
married  in  order  to  have  a  nurse  in  his  declining 
years,  and  whom  in  his  will  he  called  a  "  most 
dutiful,  faithful,  and  loving  wife."  She  was 
appointed  on«  of  his  executors,  and  to  her  he 
confided  the  education  of  his  grandchildren. 
After  his  death  were  published  several  works 
which  have  created  for  him  a  high  reputation  as 
a  legal  and  constitutional  writer.  His  Historia 
Placitorum  Corona  (1678,  several  times  edit- 
ed with  additions  by  various  hands),  a  work  of 
great  authority,  and  the  "History  of  the  Com- 
mon Law  "  (6th  ed.,  by  C.  Runnington,  8vo, 
London,  1820),  may  be  specially  cited.  The 
treatise  on  the  "Original  Institution,  Power, 
and  Jurisdiction  of  Parliament "  (1709),  which 
bears  his  name,  was  written,  according  to  Har- 
grave,  by  some  other  person.  Sir  Matthew 
Hale's  moral  and  religious  works,  with  his  life 
by  Bishop  Burnet,  were  published  by  the  Rev. 
T.  Thirlwall  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1805). 

HALE.  1.  Nathan,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Coventry,  Conn.,  June  6,  1755,  executed  in 
New  York,  Sept.  22,  1776.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1773,  and  became  a  teacher  at 
East  Haddum,  and  afterward  at  New  London. 
His  parents  intended  him  for  the  ministry;  but 
in  1775  he  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant,  and 
in  a  few  months  was  made  captain.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1776,  when  in  New  York,  he  with  an 
associate  captured  a  British  sloop  laden  with 
provisions,  taking  her  at  midnight  from  under 
the  guns  of  a  frigate,  and  distributing  her  prize 
goods  to  the  American  soldiers.  After  the  re- 
treat of  the  army  from  Long  Island,  Washing- 
ton applied  for  a  discreet  officer  to  enter  the 
enemy's  lines  and  procure  intelligence,  and 
Hale  volunteered  for  the  service.  He  passed 
in  disguise  to  the  British  camp,  and  made  full 
drawings  and  memoranda  of  all  the  desired  in- 
formation. On  his  return  he  was  captured  and 
taken  before  Sir  William  Howe,  by  whom  he 
was  ordered  to  be  executed  the  next  morning ; 
and  he  was  hanged  as  a  spy,  saying  with  his 
last  breath,  "  I  only  regret  that  I*  have  but  one 
life  to  lose  for  my  country."  Dwight  extolled 
him  in  prose  and  verse. — See  "  Life  of  Capt. 
Nathan  Hale,  the  Martyr  Spy,"  by  I.  W.  Stu- 
art (12mo,  Hartford,  1856).  II.  Nathan,  an 
American  journalist,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 


born  at  Westhampton,  Mass.,  Aug.  16,  1784, 
died  at  Brookline,  Feb.  9, 1863.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  college  in  1804,  studied  law,  and 
was  for  two  years  an  instructor  in  the  academy 
at  Exeter,  N.  II.  He  then  removed  to  Boston, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1810,  practised  for 
four  years,  and  was  also  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "Boston  Weekly  Messenger,"  the  first 
weekly  periodical  in  America  devoted  to  liter- 
ature and  politics.  In  1814  he  purchased  the 
Boston  "Daily  Advertiser,"  the  first  and  for 
many  years  the  only  daily  newspaper  in  New 
England.  This  journal,  of  federal  and  after- 
ward whig  politics,  for  many  years  under  his 
charge,  exercised  a  wide  influence.  It  opposed 
the  Missouri  bill  in  1820,  and  the  Nebraska  bill 
in  1854,  and  was  the  first  newspaper  to  urge 
the  immediate  free  colonization  of  Kansas. 
Mr.  Hale  served  several  terms  in  the  legislature 
of  Massachusetts,  occupied  other  public  offices, 
was  for  19  years  president  of  the  Boston  and 
Worcester  railroad,  the  first  in  New  Eng- 
land upon  which  steam  power  was  used,  and 
was  the  head  of  the  commission  which  intro- 
duced water  into  Boston  in  1848.  He  made 
many  improvements  in  printing,  and  was  among 
the  founders  of  the  "  North  American  Review  " 
and  the  "  Christian  Examiner."  He  published 
an  excellent  map  of  New  England  (1825),  a 
work  on  the  protective  policy  (1828),  and  a  se- 
ries of  stereotype  maps  on  a  plan  of  his  own 
invention  (1830).  His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Ed- 
ward Everett,  and  he  was  the  father  of  the 
Rev.  E.  E.  Hale. 

HALE,  Sarah  Josepha  (Bnell),  an  American  au- 
thoress, born  at  Newport,  N.  H.,  in  1795.  In 
1814  she  married  David  Hale,  a  prominent 
lawyer,  and  upon  his  death  in  1822  she  was 
left  with  five  young  children  dependent  upon 
her  for  support.  In  1828  she  became  editor 
of  the  Boston  "  Ladies'  Magazine,"  which  was 
in  1837  united  with  "  Godey's  Lady's  Book," 
Philadelphia,  Mrs.  Hale  continuing  to  be  one 
of  the  editors.  Besides  her  editorial  labors  she 
has  published  more  than  20  separate  works, 
among  which  are:  "The  Genius  of  Oblivion, 
and  other  Poems"  (1823);  "  North  wood,"  a 
novel  (1827);  "Traits  of  American  Life" 
(1835);  "Ladies'  New  Book  of  Cookery" 
(1852);  " Dictionary  of  Poetical  Quotations" 
(1852);  "New  Household  Receipt  Book" 
(1853) ;  "  Woman's  Record,  Sketches  of  Dis- 
tinguished Women"  (1853);  "Liberia,  or  Mr. 
Peyton's  Experiment  "  (1854) ;  "  Letters  of 
Madame  de  Sevigne","  and  "  Letters  of  Lady 
Mary  Wortley  Montagu  "  (1856). 

HALES,  Alexander  of.  See  ALEXANDER  OP 
HALES. 

HALES,  Stephen,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Beckesbourn,  Kent,  Sept.  7,  1677,  died  at 
Teddington,  Middlesex,  Jan.  4,  1761.  Ho 
studied  theology  at  Cambridge,  became  per- 
petual curate  of  Teddington,  and  received  seve- 
ral other  livings.  He  devoted  himself  to  sci- 
entific pursuits,  and  in  1717  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1753  a  foreign 


HALEVY 


HALIBURTON 


391 


associate  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences. 
He  acquired  eminence  by  his  "  Vegetable 
Staticks"  (1727-'31;  republished  under  the 
title  of  "Statical  Essays"  in  1733  and  1769), 
one  of  the  earliest  works  on  vegetable  physi- 
ology ;  it  has  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. He  wrote  other  works,  produced  some 
valuable  inventions,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  first  advocates  of  temperance  societies. 

HALEVY.  I.  Jacques  Francois  Fromcntal  Elie, 
a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris,  May  27, 
1799,  died  in  Nice,  March  17,  1862.  His  pa- 
rents were  Jews,  and  placed  their  son  under 
musical  instruction  at  the  conservatory  at  the 
age  of  10.  His  successive  teachers  were  Cazot, 
Lambert,  Berton,  Cherubini,  and  for  a  brief 
period  Mehul.  By  Cherubini,  who  always  re- 
mained his  friend,  he  was  taught  for  five  years. 
At  20  he  obtained  the  first  prize  for  composi- 
tion at  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  entitling  him 
to  a  pensionary  residence  of  two  years  at  Rome, 
of  which  he  availed  himself.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1822,  and  for  five  years  besought  the 
managers  in  vain  to  produce  either  his  grand 
opera  Pygmalion  or  his  comic  opera  Les  deux 
pavilions.  At  last  in  1827  his  one-act  opera 
L1  Artisan  was  brought  out  with  moderate  suc- 
cess at  the  Theatre  Feydeau.  In  1829  he  had 
better  fortune  at  the  Theatre  Italien  with  his 
three-act  opera  Clari,  since  Malibran  assumed 
the  principal  role.  In  1830  a  grand  ballet  in 
three  acts,  Manon  Lescaut,  the  text  written  by 
Scribe,  was  produced.  In  1835  La  Juive,  the 
opera  through  which  he  achieved  his  widest 
reputation,  was  represented  at  the  royal  acade- 
my of  music ;  and  it  has  since  been  heard  at 
most  of  the  principal  opera  houses  of  the  world. 
Of  his  many  subsequent  operas,  some  of  which 
obtained  a  celebrity  almost  equal  to  that  of 
La  Juive,  the  principal  are:  VEclair  (1835), 
La  reine  de  Chypre  (1841),  Charles  VI.  (1843), 
Les  m,ousquetaires  de  la  reine  (1846),  Le  val 
d^Andorre  (1848),  Le  Juif  errant  (1852),  Ja- 
quarita  (1855),  and  La  magicienne  (1857). 
Though  Halevy  won  the  esteem  of  all  mu- 
sicians and  considerable  popularity,  he  had  not 
sufficient  genius  to  place  himself  in  the  first 
rank  of  composers.  The  impression  left  by  the 
best  of  his  operas  is  that  they  are  the  work 
of  a  man  of  unquestionable  talent,  of  profound 
and  exact  learning,  of  industry,  and  of  consid- 
erable melodic  invention,  but  the  music  is  often 
elaborate  to  the  point  of  dulness.  He  wrote 
in  all  more  than  30  operas,  five  or  six  of  which 
still  keep  the  stage.  He  was  also  distinguished 
as  a  graceful  writer  on  musical  subjects,  and 
wrote  Lecons  de  lecture  musicale  (1857),  adopt- 
ed as  a  text  book  in  the  schools  of  Paris ;  Sou- 
venirs et  portraits,  etudes  sur  les  beaux-arts 
(1860) ;  and  Derniers  souvenirs  et  portraits 
(posthumous,  1863).  He  succeeded  Fetis  as 
professor  of  composition  at  the  conservatory, 
and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of  fine 
arts.  A  pension  of  5,000  francs  was  bestowed 
upon  his  widow  by  the  French  government. 
His  biography  was  written  by  his  brother  Leon 


(F.  Halevy,  sa  me  et  ses  auvres,  1862).  II. 
Leon,  a  French  author,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris,  Jan.  14,  1802.  He  left  the 
Charlemagne  lyceum  with  the  reputation  of  a 
distinguished  Greek  scholar  and  poet,  and  some 
of  his  metrical  translations  from  the  Greek 
were  published  in  1817.  He  became  a  disciple 
of  Saint-Simon  and  one  of  the  founders  of  Le 
Producteur,  and  wrote  the  introduction  to  his 
master's  Opinions  litteraires,  philosophiques  et 
industrielles  (1825).  From  1831  to  1834  he  was 
adjunct  professor  of  literature  at  the  polytech- 
nic school,  and  from  1837  to  1857  he  was  con- 
nected with,  and  for  some  years  chief  of,  the 
bureau  of  historical  monuments  in  the  minis- 
try of  the  interior.  His  Fables  (1843),  Fables 
nouvelles  (1855),  and  La  Orece  tragique  (3 
vols.,  1845-'61)  won  prizes  from  the  academy. 
Among  his  other  works  is  Resume  de  Vhistoire 
des  Juifs  (2  vols.,  1827-'8).  He  also  translated 
"  Macbeth,"  and  wrote  much  for  the  stage,  his 
tragedies  comprising  Electre  (1864),  and  Luther, 
ou  la  diete  de  Worms  (1865).  HI.  Lndovic,  a 
French  dramatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  1834.  He  was  employed  from  1852 
to  1858  in  the  ministry  of  state,  and  till  1861 
as  chief  of  bureau  in  the  ministry  for  Algeria 
and  the  colonies.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
libretti  for  the  louffe  operas  Orphee  aux  enfers 
(1861),  La  belle  Helene  (1865),  Barbe-Eleue 
(1866),  La  grande  duchesse  (1867),  La  Perichole 
(1868),  Froufrou  (1869),  and  for  other  operas 
by  Offenbach  and  various  composers.  Among 
his  recent  productions  are  the  comedy  Tricoche 
et  Cacolet  (1871),  the  vaudeville  Reveillon 
(1872),  and  a  collection  of  equivocal  sketches, 
including  Madame  et  Monsieur  Cardinal  (1872). 
His  father  and  other  writers  have  been  associ- 
ated with  him  in  various  works. 

HALFORD,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Leicester,  Oct.  2,  1766,  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  9,  1844.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr. 
James  Vaughan,  and  took  the  name  of  Halford 
in  1814,  upon  inheriting  a  large  estate  from 
Sir  Charles  Halford,  a  distant  relation  on  his 
mother's  side.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Oxford,  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  college 
of  physicians  in  1794,  and  almost  immediately 
embarked  in  a  large  practice  in  London.  He 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1809,  and  was  physician 
to  George  III.,  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and 
Victoria.  In  1824  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  college  of  physicians.  He  published  a 
volume  of  "Essays  and  Orations"  (1831;  3d 
ed.,  1842),  in  which  is  contained  an  account  of 
the  discovery  in  1813  of  the  head  of  Charles  I. 
in  the  vaults  of  St.  George's  chapel,  Windsor ; 
"  The  Death  of  some  Eminent  Persons  of  Mod- 
ern Times  "  (1835)  ;  and  Nug®  Metric®,  consist- 
ing of  Latin  poems  and  translations  (1842). 

HAL1BURTON,  Thomas  Chandler,  a  Canadian 
humorist,  known  by  the  nom  de  plume  of 
"Sam  Slick,"  born  at  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia, 
in  1796,  died  at  Isleworth,  England,  Aug.  27, 
1865.  He  studied  law,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1820,  became  chief  justice  of  common  pleas 


392 


HALIBUT 


HALICARNASSUS 


in  1829,  and  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Nova  Scotia  in  1840.  In  1842  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  England,  and  in  1859  was  return- 
ed to  parliament  for  Launceston,  holding  his 
seat  until  his  death.  In  1835  he  wrote  a  series 
of  newspaper  sketches  satirizing  the  Yankee 
character,  which  were  published  in  1837  under 
the  title  of  "  The  Clockmaker,  or  Sayings  and 
Doings  of  Samuel  Slick  of  Slickville,"  of  which 
subsequent  series  appeared  in  1838  and  1840.  He 
also  wrote  "  Historical  and  Statistical  Account 
of  Nova  Scotia  "  (1829) ;  "  Bubbles  of  Canada," 
"The  Old  Judge,  or  Life  in  a  Colony,"  and 
"Letter  Bag  of  the  Great  Western"  (1839); 
"  The  Attache,  or  Sam  Slick  in  England  "  (1843 ; 
2d  series,  1844);  "Kule  and  Misrule  of  the 
English  in  America"  (1851);  "Yankee  Sto- 
ries" and  "  Traits  of  American  Humor  "  (1852) ; 
and  "  Nature  and  Human  Nature  "  (1855). 

HALIBUT,  a  fish  of  the  family  planida  and 
genus  hippoglossus  (Cuv.).  The  genus  is  char- 
acterized by  a  flat  oblong  body,  compressed 
vertically;  the  eyes  and  colored  surface  are 
on  the  right  side ;  the  lips  large  and  fleshy, 
the  lower  jaw  the  longer;  both  jaws  and  the 
pharynx  armed  with  sharp  and  strong  teeth,  in 
some  portions  card-like.  The  common  species 
(H.  vulgaris,  Cuv.)  grows  to  a  length  of  from 
3  to  6  ft.,  varying  in  weight  from  100  to  500 


Halibut  (Hippoglossus  vulgaris). 

Ibs. ;  a  specimen  is  on  record,  taken  on  the  coast 
of  Maine,  which  weighed  more  than  600  Ibs. 
The  right  side  is  of  an  almost  uniform  dark 
brown,  and  the  left  or  under  surface  pure 
white;  in  rare  instances,  the  eyes  and  the 
colored  surface  are  on  the  left  side.  The  dor- 
sal fin  arises  over  the  anterior  third  of  the  eye, 
ending  at  the  fleshy  portion  of  the  caudal  fin ; 
the  pectorals  arise  just  back  of  the  operculum ; 
the  ventrals  are  small,  beneath  the  base  of  the 
pectorals ;  the  anal  extends  from  the  posterior 
half  of  the  pectorals  to  near  the  tail.  Of  two 
apertures  in  front  of  the  anal  fin,  the  anterior 
is  the  anus,  the  posterior  the  urinary  outlet. 
It  is  found  from  the  coast  of  New  York  to 
Greenland,  and  also  on  the  northern  shores  of 
Europe ;  the  Boston  market  is  supplied  prin- 
cipally from  George's  banks  and  Nantucket 
shoals;  in  summer  it  is  caught  by  hook  and 
line  in  shallow  water,  retiring  to  deeper  in  the 
winter;  it  is  abundant  in  the  bay  of  Fundy 
and  in  the  waters  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly voracious;  its  flesh  is  coarse  and 
dry,  but  much  esteemed  by  some,  when  boiled 
or  fried ;  the  fins  are  considered  a  delicacy ; 


large  quantities  of  the  flesh,  dried,  salted,  or 
smoked,  are  consumed  by  the  Greenlanders 
and  other  northern  nations.  In  the  United 
States  it  sells  for  a  higher  price  than  cod ;  in 
England  it  is  not  much  esteemed. — For  the 
characters  of  this  family,  see  FLOUNDEB. 

IIALHAKV  \ssrs  (originally  called  Zephyria), 
an  ancient  city  of  Caria  in  Asia  Minor,  on 
the  Ceramic  gulf.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by' 
the  town  of  Boodroom  or  Budrun,  96  m.  S.  of 
Smyrna  (pop.  about  10,000),  one  of  the  most 
miserable  of  Turkish  towns,  notable  only  for 
the  remains  of  the  ancient  city.  Halicarnassus 
was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Trcezen,  and 
was  one  of  the  six  cities  which  constituted  the 
Doric  hexapolis.  It  was  afterward  excluded 
from  that  confederacy,  and  was  conquered  by 
the  Persians  under  Darius,  who  permitted  Lyg- 
damis,  a  Greek,  to  rule  it  under  his  authority, 
with  the  title  of  dynast.  Under  Lygdamis  and 
his  successors  Halicarnassus  retained  its  Gre- 
cian character  and  language,  but  remained 
faithful  to  Persia ;  and  Artemisia,  his  daughter 
and  successor,  fought  in  the  fleet  of  Xerxes 
at  Salamis.  About  380  B.  C.  the  city  appears 
as  subject  to  independent  Carian  princes,  the 
most  famous  of  whom  was  Mausolus,  husband 
and  brother  of  the  younger  Artemisia,  who 
restored  and  fortified  it.  He  died  in  352,  and 
over  his  remains  Artemisia  caused  to  be  raised 
a  monument  so  beautiful  that  it  still  gives  a 
name  to  similar  structures.  Not  long  after- 
ward the  city  reverted  to  Persia  by  the  mar- 
riage of  one  of  its  queens  with  a  Persian  satrap, 
and  after  a  long  siege  it  was  taken  by  Alex- 
ander of  Macedon,  who  destroyed  most  of  it 
by  fire.  From  this  catastrophe  it  never  whol- 
ly recovered.  It  afterward  passed  under  the 
sway  of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt,  and  still  later 
of  the  Romans,  who  assigned  it  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Rhodes  after  their  victory  over  Anti- 
ochus  the  Great  of  Syria  (190  B.  C.);  it  was 
afterward  annexed  to  the  province  of  Asia. 
On  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  it  was 
laid  in  ruins,  and  after  the  knights  of  St.  John 
had  occupied  Rhodes  they  built  here  about 
1402  a  castle  called  the  "  tower  of  St.  Peter."  At 
the  final  siege  of  the  island  by  the  Turks  (1522) 
the  knights  caused  this  fortress  to  be  repaired 
with  stones  taken  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city.  The  place  was  known  at  this  time  by  the 
name  of  Mesy.  Halicarnassus  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  historians  Herodotus  and  Dionysius. 
— The  plan  of  the  city  was  grand  and  symmet- 
rical. From  the  edge  of  the  harbor  the  build- 
ings rose  on  terraces,  formed  partly  by  exca- 
vations from  the  rock  and  partly  by  walls  of 
masonry.  The  first  terrace  was  crowned  by 
the  Mausoleum,  the  second  by  the  temple  of 
Mars.  Two  citadels  occupied  volcanic  hills  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  city,  while  the  whole  was 
enclosed  by  a  wall  which  can  still  be  traced. 
The  palace  of  Mausolus  and  the  temple  of  Ve- 
nus and  Mercury  probably  stood  on  the  two 
points  of  the  harbor,  forming  the  extremities 
of  the  city.  The  fountain  of  Salmacis,  a  theatre 


HALICAKNASSUS 


393 


of  which  the  ruins  are  yet  prominent,  and  va- 
rious beautiful  temples,  were  among  the  other 
attractive  features  of  the  city.  The  most  cele- 
brated monument  was  the  Mausoleum,  which 
ranked  among  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
It  was  built  by  Pytheus  in  conjunction  with 
Satyrus,  and  the  sculptures  are  ascribed  to 
Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Timotheus,  and  Leochares. 
The  share  of  Timotheus,  however,  is  assigned 
by  some  Greek  writers  to  Praxiteles.  It/vvas 
still  standing  in  the  12th  century,  but  was  over- 
thrown either  by  an  earthquake  or  by  light- 
ning before  the  building  of  the  castle  by  the 
knights  of  St.  John ;  and  the  detritus  washed 
down  from  the  hills,  which  filled  the  lower  part 
of  the  city  in  some  places  to  the  depth  of  20  ft., 
and  concealed  parts  of 
the  terraces,  complete- 
ly covered  its  site.  In 
1522  the  knights,  in 
removing  some  half- 
buried  white  marble, 
discovered  a  richly  de- 
corated and  sculptured 
chamber,  leading  into 
a  smaller  apartment, 
where  they  found  a  sar- 
cophagus and  a  beau- 
tiful vase,  which  they 
left  untouched,  but  next 
morning  they  returned 
and  found  the  tomb  ri- 
fled. These  chambers 
were  undoubtedly  the 
interior  of  the  Mau- 
soleum. The  site  of 
the  ancient  town  was 
discovered  in  1839  by 
Lieut.  Brock,  and  in 
1846  the  English  am- 
bassador obtained  per- 
mission to  remove  a 
number  of  slabs,  which 
were  deposited  in  the 
British  museum.  Most 
of  them  had  suffered 
severely,  the  heads  of 
the  figures  being  nearly 
all  wanting,  but  a  few 
are  magnificent  speci- 
mens of  art.  All  attempts  to  rediscover  the 
Mausoleum  proved  futile,  until  in  1856  Mr. 
Newton,  the  British  vice  consul  at  Mitylene, 
undertook  a  more  thorough  search  than  had 
yet  been  made.  Three  ships  were  placed 
by  government  at  his  disposal,  and  most  of 
the  excavation  was  done  by  their  crews.  Sev- 
eral experiments  were  made  in  digging  be- 
fore the  site  of  the  Mausoleum  was  reached. 
On  Jan.  1,  1857,  Mr.  Newton  began  digging  at 
the  foot  of  the  highest  terrace,  on  the  spot 
which  he  had  himself  designated  in  1848  as 
the  probable  site  of  the  Mausoleum.  By  the 
beginning  of  April  he  had  cleared  the  entire 
rocky  platform  which  formed  the  foundation 
of  the  building.  It  is  almost  a  square,  measur- 


ing 472  ft.  in  circumference,  and  formed  by 
quarrying  into  the  solid  rock.  On  the  W.  side 
of  the  platform  there  was  a  flight  of  steps 
leading  to  the  upper  terrace.  The  entrance 
to  the  inner  tomb  was  probably  on  this  side, 
and  was  closed  after  the  corpse  had  been  car- 
ried in  by  a  huge  stone,  which  was  then  in  its 
place.  Behind  this  stone  was  found  an  alabas- 
ter vase  bearing  two  inscriptions,  one  in  Egyp- 
tian, the  other  in  cuneiform  characters,  signi- 
fying "  Xerxes  the  great  king."  In  the  rub- 
bish which  covered  the  foundation  were  im- 
bedded parts  of  friezes  and  colossal  statues,  and 
four  slabs,  representing  a  battle  of  Amazons, 
in  excellent  preservation.  Extending  his  exca- 
vations beyond  the  foundation  bed,  Mr.  New- 


The  Mausoleum,  as  restored  by  Fergusson. 


ton  unearthed  a  number  of  flat  blocks  of  white 
marble,  halves  of  two  colossal  horses,  and  por- 
tions of  a  chariot.  The  figures,  more  or  less 
complete,  of  several  lions,  a  leopard,  a  woman 
in  beautiful  drapery  without  head  or  arms, 
the  head  of  a  man  which  proved  to  be  that 
of  Mausolus,  and  some  ornamented  lions'  heads 
and  capitals  of  columns,  were  also  found  here, 
and  parts  of  a  chariot  wheel  on  the  other 
side.  The  relics  collected  from  various  quar- 
ters comprised  a  number  of  standing  or  sitting 
statues  from  8  to  12  ft.  high,  many  lions,  parts 
of  friezes,  and  a  multitude  of  fragments,  all 
which  were  removed  to  the  British  museum, 
where  the  statue  of  Mausolus  has  been  recon- 
structed out  of  03  pieces,  and  is  nearly  com- 


HALICORE 


plete.  A  female  figure,  wanting  the  head,  has 
also  been  restored,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  spe- 
cimens of  art  recovered  from  Halicarnassus. 
Like  all  the  architectural  and  sculptural  parts  of 
the  Mausoleum,  it  was  painted.  With  the  aid 
of  the  partial  measurements  afforded  by  Pliny, 


HALIFAX 

Mr.  Newton,  and  subsequently  Mr.  Fergusson 
(see  engraving),  attempted  to  reconstruct  the 
Mausoleum.  The  result  is  two  designs  widely 
differing  from  each  other.  Mr.  Newton  believes 
that  it  was  a  rectangular  building  surrounded  by 
an  Ionic  portico  of  36  columns,  and  surmount- 


Portions  of  the  Friezes  of  the  Mausoleum. 


ed  by  a  pyramid  rising  in  24  steps,  upon  the 
summit  of  which  was  a  colossal  marble  quadriga 
with  a  statue  of  Mausolus. — See  Newton  and 
Pullan's  "History  of  Discoveries  at  Halicar- 
nassus, Cnidus,  and  Branchida? "  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1862) ;  James  Fergusson's  "  The  Mauso- 
leum of  Halicarnassus,  restored  in  conformity 
with  the  Remains  recently  discovered  "  (with 
plates,  London,  1862);  and  Newton's  "Travels 
and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant"  (2  vols.,  1865). 

HALICORE.     See  DUGONO. 

HALIFAX.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Virginia,  bor- 
dering on  North  Carolina,  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  Staunton  river,  and  intersected  by  the  Dan ; 
area,  960  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  27,828,  of  whom 
16,266  .were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
the  soil  fertile ;  and  there  are  some  minerals, 
among  which  is  plumbago,  of  which  a  rich 
mine  was  formerly  worked.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Richmond,  Danville,  and  Piedmont  rail- 
road. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
123,763  bushels  of  wheat,  387,227  of  Indian 
corn,  168,970  of  oats,  5,950  of  Irish  potatoes, 
7,896  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  3,838,284  Ibs.  of 
tobacco.  There  were  1,939  horses,  987  mules 
and  asses,  2,713  milch  cows,  1,207  working 
oxen,  2,557  other  cattle,  3,832  sheep,  and  11,- 
157  swine  ;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Banister, 
or  Halifax  Court  House.  II.  A  N.  E.  county 
of  North  Carolina,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Ro- 
anoke  river;  area,  680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
20,408,  of  whom  13,990  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Wilmington  and  Weldon,  the  Richmond,  Fred- 
ericksburg,  and  Potomac,  the  Raleigh  and  Gas- 
ton,  and  the  Seaboard  and  Roanoke  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  .1870 
were  5,577  bushels  of  wheat,  353,808  of  Indian 
corn,  25,367  of  oats,  3,357  of  peas  and  beans, 
8,491  of  Irish  and  28,169  of  sweet  potatoes, 
2,321  tons  of  hay,  and  11,716  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,456  horses,  1,473  mules  and  asses, 
2,347  milch  cows,  5,300  other  cattle,  2,156 
sheep,  and  16,464  swine.  Capital,  Halifax. 

HALIFAX,  a  county  of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  and  drained  by 
Shubonacadie,  Musquidoboit,  and  other  rivers ; 


area,  2,450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  56,933,  of 
whom  17,433  were  of  Irish,  16,409  of  English, 
9,947  of  Scotch,  6,418  of  German,  3,044  of 
French,  and  2,188  of  African  origin  or  descent. 
The  surface,  with  the  exception  of  a  belt  of 
high  broken  land,  from  20  to  30  m.  wide, 
along  the  coast,  is  tolerably  level,  and  is  dotted 
over  with  lakes.  The  harbors  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  six  or  seven  are  spacious  enough 
for  ships  of  the  line.  A  small  part  of  the  soil 
is  fertile.  Lead  and  slate  are  the  most  valu- 
able minerals.  The  county  is  the  most  popu- 
lous in  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  chiefly  in  commerce,  ship  building, 
and  the  fisheries.  Capital,  Halifax. 

HALIFAX,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  and  of  Halifax 
co.,  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  the  province,  on  the  W.  side  of  a  deep  inlet 
of  the  Atlantic  called  Chebucto  bay  or  Hali- 
fax harbor ;  lat.  44°  39'  42"  N.,  Ion.  63°  35' 
30"  W. ;  pop.  in  1790,  4,000;  in  1828,  14,439; 
in  1861,  25,026  ;  in  1871,  29,582.  The  city  is 
built  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  rising  236  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  harbor,  and,  including 
its  suburbs,  is  about  2£  m.  long  and  1  m.  wide. 
Its  plan  is  regular,  most  of  the  streets  crossing 
one  another  at  right  angles ;  many  of  them  are 
spacious  and  handsome.  The  lower  part  of 
the  city  is  occupied  by  wharves  and  ware- 
houses, above  which  rise  the  dwelling  houses 
and  public  buildings,  while  the  summit  of  the 
eminence  is  crowned  by  an  edifice  in  which 
is  fixed  the  town  clock,  and  by  a  citadel 
strongly  built  of  granite.  There  is  little  uni- 
formity in  the  appearance  of  the  houses,  some 
of  them  being  handsomely  built  of  stone  or 
brick,  and  others,  equally  attractive,  of  wood 
neatly  painted,  while  many  are  stuccoed  or 
plastered.  The  province  building,  in  which  are 
the  government  offices,  the  legislative  cham- 
bers, and  the  city  library,  is  140  ft.  long  by 
70  ft.  broad,  with  an  Ionic  colonnade.  The 
government  house,  admiral's  residence,  Dal- 
housie  college,  military,  hospital,  lunatic  asy- 
lum, workhouse,  jail,  penitentiary,  city  mar- 
ket, post  office,  theatre,  assembly  rooms,  court 
house,  exchange,  and  some  of  the  public 


HALIFAX 


395 


schools,  are  the  other  most  prominent  struc- 
tures. Halifax  is  the  military  headquarters  of 
'the  Dominion  of  Canada;  the  troops  occupy 
extensive  and  handsome  barracks  at  the  N. 
end  overlooking  the  harbor.  It  is  also  the 
chief  naval  station  for  British  North  America, 
including  the  West  Indies,  and  has  a  govern- 
ment dockyard  covering  14  acres,  situated  in 
the  1ST.  portion  of  the  town,  which  is  thor- 
oughly equipped  and  said  to  be  inferior  to  few 
except  those  of  England.  By  means  of  the 
Intercolonial  and  the  Windsor  and  Annapolis 
railways,  it  has  communication  with  Annapo- 
lis, Pictou,  and  St.  John,  N.  B.  The  harbor 
of  Halifax  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  It 
extends  about  16m.  inland,  is  accessible  at  all 
times,  and  opposite  the  city,  where  vessels 
usually  anchor,  is  about  1  m.  wide.  Further 
up  it  contracts  to  J  m.,  and  finally  expands 
into  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  called  Bedford 
sin,  comprising  an  area  of  about  10  sq.  m. 


A  small  arm,  branching  off  from  the  harbor 
a  short  distance  below  the  city,  extends  in- 
land to  within  %  m-  °f  this  basin,  forming  a 
peninsula  on  which  the  city  is  built.  The 
harbor  contains  McNab's  and  three  or  four 
smaller  islands,  has  two  lighthouses,  and  is  de- 
fended by  several  fortifications  of  considerable 
strength.  There  are  two  passages  into  the 
harbor,  one  on  each  side  of  McNab's  island. 
The  western  is  commanded  by  Fort  George 
and  several  batteries ;  the  eastern,  which  has 
sufficient  depth  of  water  only  for  small  vessels, 
lies  under  the  guns  of  a  formidable  stone  fort 
called  Fort  Clarence.  Halifax  is  largely  inter- 
ested in  the  fisheries,  and  has  an  extensive  for- 
eign and  coasting  trade.  For  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1872,  the  entrances  were  1,387,  with 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  363,847;  clearances, 
1,024,  of  290,527  tons.  The  value  of  imports 
was  $10,055,579,  and  of  exports  $4,678,684; 
being  about  five  sixths  of  the  total  imports  and 


more  than  one  half  of  the  exports  of  the  prov- 
ince. Of  the  exports,  $2,426,980  represent 
the  product  of  the  fisheries.  There  were  55 
vessels  built,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  13,- 
157.  The  Cunard  line  of  steamers  from  Liver- 
pool to  Boston  touches  here,  and  steamers  run 
to  various  ports  of  Canada,  Newfoundland, 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  United  States.  The 
manufactures  are  of  considerable  importance, 
embracing  iron  castings,  machinery,  agricul- 
tural implements,  nails,  gunpowder,  cordage, 
boots  and  shoes,  soap  and  candles,  leather,  to- 
bacco, paper,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  wooden 
ware,  &c.  There  are  also  several  breweries 
and  distilleries,  a  sugar  refinery,  six  banks, 
two  branch  banks,  a  savings  institution,  and 
several  gold-mining  and  other  joint  stock  com- 
panies. The  streets  are  lighted  with  gas,  and 
water  is  distributed  through,  the  city.  The 
assessed  value  of  property  in  1870  was  $16,- 
753,872.  Halifax  is  the  seat  of  an  asylum  for 
the  blind,  a  deaf  and 
dumb  institution,  and  a 
hospital  for  the  insane, 
and  also  contains  a  dis- 
pensary, house  of  ref- 
uge, home  for  the  aged, 
two  orphan  asylums,  the 
provincial  and  city  hos- 
pital, a  naval  and  a  mili- 
tary hospital,  the  pro- 
vincial poor  asylum,  St. 
Paul's  almshouse  of  in- 
dustry for  girls,  and  two 
industrial  schools.  The 
educational  institutions 
are  numerous,  embra- 
cing, besides  12  schools, 
Dalhousie  college  and 
university,  with  7  pro- 
fessors in  the  classical 
and  12  in  the  medical 
department ;  St.  Mary's 
college  (Roman  Catho- 
lic), with  8  professors; 

and  the  theological  department  of  the  college 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  the  lower  prov- 
inces of  British  North  America.  There  are 
two  public  libraries,  a  museum,  4  daily,  5  tri- 
weekly, and  9  weekly  newspapers,  2  bi-weekly 
and  4  monthly  periodicals,  a  convent,  and  a 
young  men's  Christian  association.  Halifax  is 
the  seat  of  an  Episcopal  bishop  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  and  contains  24  churches. 
The  city  was  founded  in  1749  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  earl  of  Halifax.  In  1859  it  was 
visited  by  a  destructive  conflagration. 

HALIFAX,  a  town  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  England,  in  the  West  riding  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Hebble  near  its  junction  with  the  Cal- 
der,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point,  36  m.  S. 
W.  of  York ;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1871,  37,208 ; 
of  the  borough,  65,510.  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  contains  ten  churches  of  the  English 
establishment,  all  fine  structures,  All  Souls' 
church,  completed  in  1861,  being  among  tae 


396 


HALIFAX 


finest  in  England.  There  are  places  of  worship 
for  Independents,  Baptists,  Methodists,  Unita- 
rians, and  Friends;  assembly  rooms,  a  theatre, 
baths,  and  many  literary,  charitable,  and  edu- 
cational institutions.  The  town  hall,  opened 
in  1863,  was  designed  by  Sir  Charles  Barry, 
and  completed  by  his  son.  The  piece  hall 
covers  more  than  two  acres,  and  contains  315 
rooms  for  the  storage  and  sale  of  merchandise. 
The  people's  park  is  a  fine  pleasure  ground  given 
to  the  town  by  Sir  Francis  Crossley,  who  in 
1868  gave  6,000  guineas  for  its  maintenance. 
He  and  his  relatives  also  founded  several  be- 
nevolent institutions,  among  which  is  the 
Crossley  orphanage  for  400  children,  with  an 


Town  Hall,  Halifax. 

annual  income  of  £3,000.  An  equestrian  sta- 
tue of  Prince  Albert  was  erected  in  1864.  The 
town  is  favorably  situated  for  manufactures 
and  trade,  having  an  abundance  of  water  and 
coal,  and  water  communication  with  Hull  and 
Liverpool.  The  chief  manufactures  are  wool- 
len goods,  in  which  it  ranks  next  after  Leeds, 
Bradford,  and  Huddersfield,  and  especially  car- 
pets. There  are  also  extensive  manufactories 
of  cotton  goods,  machinery,  and  chemicals. 

HALIFAX,  Earl  of.     See  MONTAGUE,  CHARLES. 

HALIFAX,  Marqnis  of.    See  SAVILE,  GEORGE. 

HALIM  PASHA.     See  ABD-EL-HALIM. 

HALIOimE.     See  EAR  SHELL. 

HALL.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  inter- 
sected by  the  Chattahoochee  river,  and  drained 
by  the  sources  of  the  Oconee ;  area,  540  sq.  m. ; 


HALL 


pop.  in  1870,  9,607,  of  whom  1,200  were  col- 
ored. It  is  hilly,  and  not  remarkably  fertile, 
although  there  is  good  soil  in  the  river  bottoms. 
Gold,  silver,  lead,  diamonds,  rubies,  emeralds, 
and  amethysts  have  been  found.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air  Lino 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
39,665  bushels  of  wheat,  212,656  of  Indian 
corn,  20,081  of  oats,  3,315  of  Irish  and  15,315 
of  sweet  potatoes,  14,144  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  62,101 
of  butter,  110  tons  of  hay,  and  288  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  700  horses,  545  mules  and 
asses,  1,386  milch  cows,  2,511  other  cattle, 
5,935  sheep,  and  7,523  swine;  6  carriage  fac- 
tories, and  9  flour  mills.  Capital,  Gainesville. 
II.  A  S.  E.  central  county  of  Nebraska,  inter- 
sected by  Platte  river  and  Prairie  creek ;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,057.  The  soil  is 
fertile.  The  valley  of  the  Platte  is  well  wood- 
ed, and  is  said  to  contain  coal.  The  Union 
Pacific  railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  17,781  bushels  of 
wheat,  49,443  of  Indian  corn,  44,350  of  oats, 
12,669  of  barley,  8,355  of  potatoes,  and  3,753 
tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  live  stock  was 
$105,051.  There  were  4  flour  mills.  Capital, 
Grand  Island  City. 

HALL,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Tyrol,  on  the  Inn, 
10  m.  N.  E.  of  Innspruck;  pop.  in  1870,  5,022. 
It  has  celebrated  salt  works,  which  annually 
produce  about  300,000  cwt.  The  salt,  dis- 
solved in  water,  is  conducted  through  wooden 
pipes  to  the  works  from  Mount  Salzstock,  5,400 
ft.  high,  5  m.  N.  of  Hall.  There  are  manufac- 
tories of  sal  ammoniac  and  chemicals. 

HALL,  or  Schwiibiseh-Hall,  a  town  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  34  m.  N.  E.  of  Stuttgart,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Kocher;  pop.  in  1871,  7,793.  It  has  a 
fine  town  hall,  two  public  libraries,  an  ancient 
mint,  a  large  number  of  sugar  refineries,  and  a 
large  trade  in  salt  made  in  the  neighborhood. 
It  was  formerly  a  free  imperial  city. 

HALL,  Basil,  a  British  author,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1788,  died  near  Gosport,  England, 
Sept.  11,  1844.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1802, 
and  in  1816  commanded  the  brig  Lyra,  which 
accompanied  Lord  Amherst  to  China.  He  was 
made  post  captain  in  1817,  and  from  1820  to 
1822  was  stationed  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
America.  In  1827-'8  he  travelled  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  Canada,  and  afterward  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Europe.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  his  mind  became  impaired,  and  he  died  in 
an  insane  hospital.  Besides  contributions  to 
scientific  periodicals  and  to  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  and  minor  works  of  travel,  some 
written  in  conjunction  with  others,  he  pub- 
lished "A  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  Western 
Coast  of  Corea  and  the  Great  Loo  Choo  Isl- 
and" (1818);  "Extracts  from  a  Journal  writ- 
ten in  1820-'22  on  the  Coasts  of  Chili,  Peru, 
and  Mexico"  (2  vols.,  1823-'4);  "Travels  in 
North  America"  (3  vols.,  1829);  "Fragments 
of  Voyages  and  Travels"  (9  vols.,  1831-'40); 
"  Spain  and  the  Seat  of  War  in  Spain  "  (1837) ; 
and  "Patchwork,  Travels  in  Stories"  (1840). 


HALL 


89T 


e~i 

£ 


HALL,  Charles  Francis,  an  American  arctic  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  in  1821,  died 
in  Greenland,  Nov.  8,  1871.  <  A  blacksmith  by 
trade,  he  finally  became  a  journalist  in  Cin- 
cinnati. In  1859  he  went  to  New  York,  and 
at  a  meeting  of  the  geographical  society  offered 
to  ugo  in  search  of  the  bones  of  Franklin." 
Funds  amounting  t®  about  $1,200  were  raised 
for  this  purpose,  and  in  May,  1860,  he  set  out 
from  New  London  on  board  a  whaling  vessel 
commanded  by  Capt.  Buddington,  with  whom 
he  was  associated  in  his  subsequent  expedi- 
tions. The  whaler  having  become  blocked  up 
by  the  ice,  Hall  resolved  to  make  himself 
acquainted  with  Esquimaux  life.  He  fell  in 
with  two  natives,  Ebierbing  and  his  wife  Too- 
koolito,  who  had  some  years  before  visited 
England,  where  they  acquired  the  English  lan- 
guage. They  became  greatly  attached  to  him, 
were  his  constant  companions  to  the  close 
bis  life.  Hall  remained  with  the  Esquimaux 
re  than  two  years,  acquiring  their  language 
and  adopting  their  habits;  and  although  he 
learned  nothing  of  the  fate  of  Franklin's  men, 
he  believed  it  to  be  probable  that  some  of  them 
might  still  survive.  He  made  his  way  back  to 
the  United  States  in  September,  1862,  accompa- 
nied by  Ebierbing  and  Tookoolito,  and  devoted 
the  next  two  years  to  the  preparation  of  his 
book,  "Arctic  Researches,  and  Life  among  the 
Esquimaux  "  (New  York,  1864),  and  to  making 
gements  for  a  new  expedition.  He  set 
t  upon  this,  July  30,  1864,  on  board  a  vessel 
mmanded  by  Buddington,  expecting  to  be 
absent  about  two  or  three  years;  but  he  did 
not  return  until  late  in  1869.  He  kept  a  full 
journal,  with  the  intention  of  preparing  it  for 
the  press  after  he  had  made  one  more  voyage 
of  discovery ;  it  was  never  done,  and  of  this  ex- 
pedition only  a  few  fragmentary  accounts  have 
appeared.  By  this  time  it  was  clearly  ascer- 
tained that  none  of  Franklin's  men  could  be  liv- 
ing, and  Hall  labored  to  induce  the  government 
to  fit  out  an  adequate  expedition,  the  special  ob- 
ject of  which  should  be  to  reach  the  supposed 
open  polar  sea,  and  if  possible  to  go  to  the  north 
pole.  Congress  having  made  the  requisite  ap- 
propriation, a  steamer  was  purchased,  fitted  up 
for  the  purpose,  and  named  the  Polaris.  The 
expedition  was  placed  under  the  general  com- 
mand of  Hall,  Buddington  going  as  sailing  mas- 
ter. There  were  also  several  scientific  asso- 
ciates. The  Polaris  sailed  from  New  York  June 
29,  1871,  and  on  Aug.  22  reached  Tessuisak,  the 
most  northern  settlement  in  Greenland,  whence 
on  the  24th  she  steamed  up  Smith  sound,  and 
on  the  30th  reached  lat.  82°  16'  N.,  probably 
the  most  northern  point  yet  attained.  The  chan- 
nel was  blocked  up  by  ice,  and  the  Polaris,  by 
the  advice  of  Buddington  and  contrary  to  the 
judgment  of  Hall,  turned  back,  and  was  laid 
up  for  the  winter  in  a  sheltered  cove,  to  which 
the  name  of  Polaris  bay  was  given,  lat.  81°  38' 
N.  On  Oct.  10  Hall  with  three  others  started 
on  a  sledge  expedition,  which  went  within  a 
few  miles  as  far  north  as  the  Polaris  had 


reached.  He  returned  on  the  24th,  and  was 
immediately  seized  by  an  illness  from  which 
he  partially  recovered ;  but  a  relapse  took 
place,  and  he  died  in  a  few  days,  probably 
from  apoplexy.  There  were  some  suspicions 
that  he  had  been  poisoned,  but  these  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  well  founded.  The  command 
now  devolved  upon  Capt.  Buddington.  The 
Polaris  lay  in  winter  quarters  until  August, 
1872,  meantime  suffering  considerable  injury 
from  floating  ice.  It  was  then  determined  to 
return,  and  for  weeks  they  tried  to  work  their 
way  through  the  ice  pack.  On  Oct.  15  the 
Polaris  was  in  imminent  peril,  and  prepara- 
tions were  made  to  abandon  her.  The  boats 
were  put  on  the  ice,  with  many  stores  and  19 
of  the  crew;  but  before  the  rest  could  be 
landed  the  vessel  broke  loose  and  drifted  away, 
leaving  these  19  on  the  ice,  under  the  charge 
of  Capt.  Tyson.  They  drifted  back  and  forth 
for  195  days,  but  generally  southward,  and  were 
only  saved  from  starvation  by  the  skill  of  Ebi- 
erbing as  a  seal  hunter.  This  party  was  picked 
up,  April  30,  1873,  by  the  Tigress,  a  Nova  Sco- 
tian  whaling  steamer,  in  lat.  53°  35'  N.,  having 
drifted  helplessly  nearly  2,000  miles.  The  Po- 
laris meanwhile,  entirely  disabled,  found  a  ref- 
uge near  Littleton's  island,  and  those  who  re- 
mained built  a  hut  on  the  shore,  where  they 
passed  the  winter.  In  the  spring  they  built 
two  boats  from  the  boards  of  the  vessel,  in 
which,  early  in  June,  1873,  they  set  sail  south- 
ward. The  hulk  of  the  Polaris  was  given  to  a 
band  of  Esquimaux ;  but  she  afterward  drifted 
away  and  went  down  in  deep  water.  This 
party  was  picked  up,  June  23,  by  a  Scottish 
whaler,  and  conveyed  to  Dundee,  where  they 
arrived  Sept.  18,  whence  they  returned  to  the 
United  States. — See  "Arctic  Experiences," 
edited  by  E.  Vale  Blake  (New  York,  1874). 

HALL,  Dominick  Angnstine,  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1765,  died  in  New 
Orleans,  Dec.  19,  1820.  He  commenced  the 
practice  of  law  in  Charleston.  In  1806  he  was 
appointed  district  judge  for  Orleans  territory, 
which  was  formed  in  1812  into  the  state  of 
Louisiana,  Hall  continuing  as  a  United  States 
judge,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months  m 
1813,  until  his  death.  In  March,  1815,  New 
Orleans^ being  under  martial  law  by  a  procla- 
mation of  Gen.  Jackson,  Judge  Hall  granted  a 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  for  the  release  of  Louis 
Louiallier,  who  had  been  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  exciting  mutiny  among  the  troops  by  pub- 
lishing on  Feb.  10  a  statement  that  a  treaty  of 
peace  had  been  signed.  Jackson,  instead  of 
obeying  the  writ,  caused  the  judge  to  be  ar- 
rested. Peace  having  been  proclaimed,  Hall 
summoned  Jackson  to  appear  before  him  to 
answer  a  charge  of  contempt  of  court,  and 
fined  him  $1,000.  Jackson  paid  the  fine, 
which  by  act  of  congress  was  in  1844  refunded 
with  interest. 

HALL,  Gordon,  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  West  Granville  (now  Tolland),  Mass.,  April 
8,  1784,  died  in  India,  March  20,  1826.  He 


398 


HALL 


graduated  at  Williams  college  in  1808,  studied 
theology,  offered  himself  as  a  missionary  to  the 
American  hoard,  and  in  1812  sailed  for  India, 
where  he  passed  the  remainder  of.  his  life.  Be- 
sides ordinary  missionary  labor,  he  revised  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Mahratta  language,  and  published  several  ser- 
mons and  tracts,  of  which  the  "Appeal  in  be- 
half of  the  Heathen  "  excited  much  attention, 
and  in  conjunction  with  S.  Newell,  "  The  Con- 
version of  the  World  "  (2d  ed.,  1818). 

HILL.  !•  James,  an  American  judge  and 
author,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  19,  1793, 
died  near  Cincinnati,  July  5,  1868.  He  began 
the  study  of  law,  but  joined  the  army  in  1812, 
and  served  on  the  northern  frontier.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  went  with  Decatur  in  his 
expedition  to  Algiers.  In  1818  he  resigned  his 
commission,  and  resumed  the  study  of  the  law 
at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  in  1820  removed  to 
Shawneetown,  111.,  where  he  practised  at  the 
bar  and  edited  a  weekly  newspaper.  He  was 
soon  after  appointed  public  prosecutor  for  a 
circuit  which  included  ten  counties  and  was 
infested  by  organized  bands  of  counterfeiters, 
horse  thieves,  and  desperadoes.  He  held  this 
office  four  years,  when  he  was  elected  judge 
of  the  circuit  court,  an  office  which  was  abol- 
ished three  years  later.  He  then  became  state 
treasurer,  at  the  same  time  practising  law  and 
editing  a  newspaper  at  Vandalia.  In  1833  he 
removed  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  engaged  in 
financial  business  and  literary  labors.  Besides 
his  numerous  contributions  to  periodicals,  he 
published  "  Letters  from  the  West "  (originally 
published  in  the  "  Port  Folio,"  then  edited  by 
his  brother,  collected  and  published  in  London, 
1829) ;  "  Legends  of  the  West "  (1832) ;  "  The 
Soldier's  Bride,  and  other  Tales  "  (1832) ;  "  The 
Harpe's  Head,  a  Legend  of  Kentucky  "  (1833) ; 
"  Tales  of  the  Border  "  (1835) ;  "  Statistics  of 
the  West"  (1836;  reissued,  with  additions,  as 
"  Notes  on  the  Western  States,"  1839);  "  Life 
of  William  Henry  Harrison  "  (1836) ;  "  History 
of  the  Indian  Tribes"  (3  vols.  fol.,  1838-'44, 
written  in  conjunction  with  Thomas  L.  Mc- 
Kenney,  and  illustrated  with  120  portraits  of 
Indian  chiefs,  the  price  being  $120);  "The 
Wilderness  and  the  War  Path"  (1845);  "Life 
of  Thomas  Posey,  Governor  of  Indiana"  (in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  1846);  and 
"Romance  of  Western  History"  (1857).  A 
uniform  edition  of  his  works  has  been  publish- 
ed (4  vols.,  1853-' 6).  II.  John  E.,  an  American 
author,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  De- 
cember, 1783,  died  June  11,  1829.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  college,  studied  law,  and  in 
1805  commenced  practice  in  Baltimore,  but 
soon  after  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
belles-lettres  in  the  university  of  Maryland. 
He  was  severely  wounded  in  the  Baltimore 
riots  of  1811,  and  was  one  of  the  nine  thrown 
into  a  heap  as  dead.  He  edited  "  The  Practice 
and  Jurisprudence  of  the  Court  of  Admiralty  " 
(1809),  and  "The  American  Law  Journal" 
(1808-'17).  Having  removed  to  Philadelphia, 


he  was  editor  of  the  "Port  Folio"  from  1817 
to  1827,  edited  "The  Philadelphia  Souvenir" 
(1827),  and  published  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent 
Persons"  (1827). 

HALL,  James,  an  American  geologist  and 
palaeontologist,  born  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  of 
English  parents,  Sept.  12,  1811.  Destined  at 
first  for  the  medical  profession,  he  soon  turned 
his  attention  to  natural  history,  which  he  pur- 
sued from  1831  to  1836,  under  Amos  Eaton, 
in  the  Rensselaer  polytechnic  institute,  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  has  since  been  for  many  years 
professor  of  geology.  Being  appointed  one  of 
the  geologists  for  the  survey  of  New  York,  he 
began  in  1837  his  explorations  of  the  western 
district  of  the  state.  He  published  annual  re- 
ports from  1838  to  1841,  and  gave  in  1843  his 
final  report  in  a  large  quarto  volume,  which 
forms  one  of  the  series  of  works  on  the  natural 
history  of  New  York  published  by  the  legisla- 
ture. In  this  volume  he  described  in  a  very 
complete  and  exhaustive  manner  the  order  and 
succession  of  the  strata,  their  mineralogical  and 
lithological  characters,  and  the  organic  remains 
which  they  contain.  The  field  work  of  the 
survey  being  then  completed,  he  was  appointed 
palaeontologist  to  the  state,  and  charged  with 
the  work  of  studying  and  describing  the  or-, 
ganic  remains  of  the  rocks.  He  still  holds  this 
post  (1874),  and  has  embodied  the  results 
of  his  studies  in  the  "  Palasontology  of  New 
York,"  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
of  scientific  labor,  zeal,  and  industry  which 
this  country  has  produced.  It  is  as  yet  incom- 
plete, but  some  idea  of  its  extent  may  be  given 
by  an  account  of  the  volumes  already  published 
and  those  now  in  progress.  Beginning  with 
the  lowest  member  of  the  New  York  system 
of  palaeozoic  rocks,  the  first  volume  of  the 
"Palaeontology  "  (338  pp.  4to,  with  100  plates, 
1847)  contains  descriptions  of  all  the  organic 
remains,  both  of  plants  and  animals,  up  to  the 
summit  of  the  so-called  Champlain  division  of 
the  system,  which  terminates  in  the  Hudson 
river  group,  corresponding  to  the  Cambrian 
of  Sedgwick  or  the  Cambrian  and  lower  Silu- 
rian of  Murchison.  The  second  volume  (362 
pp.,  with  over  100  plates,  1852)  continues  the 
subject  up  to  the  base  of  the  Onondaga  or  Sa- 
lina  formation.  The  third  volume  (533  pp., 
with  128  plates,  1859)  includes  all  the  fossil 
remains  of  the  water  lime,  the  lower  Helder- 
berg,  and  Oriskany  divisions,  except  the  corals 
and  bryozoa.  The  fourth  (the  same,  1867)  in- 
cludes the  brachiopoda  of  the  divisions  known 
as  the  upper  Helderberg,  Hamilton,  Portage, 
and  Chemung,  making  together  the  Erian  or 
Devonian.  The  fifth  volume,  now  in  progress 
(1874),  will  contain  the  larnellibranchiates  of 
the  last  named  divisions,  besides  a  review  of 
all  the  lamellibranchiate  forms  from  the  lower 
formations.  The  drawings  and  descriptions  for 
two  more  volumes  are  also  far  advanced,  in- 
cluding the  gasteropoda,  cephalopoda,  and 
Crustacea  of  the  Erian,  with  the  crinoidea,  bry- 
ozoa, and  corals  of  the  same.  In  addition  to 


HALL 


399 


these,  Prof.  Hall  has  prepared  for  the  "  Palae- 
ontology "  a  complete  revision  of  the  palaeozoic 
brachiopoda  of  North  America,  with  about  50 
plates.  This  great  and  comprehensive  study 
of  onr  palaeozoic  fauna,  which  it  is  proposed  to 
terminate  with  the  base  of  the  coal  formation, 
has  demanded  researches  beyond  the  limits  of 
New  York ;  and  Prof.  Hall  has  extended  his 
investigations  westward  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, tracing  out  over  the  region  the  great  di- 
visions of  the  New  York  series.  It  is  these 
identifications  which  have  served  as  the  basis 
of  all  our  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the 
Mississippi  basin.  The  general  results  of  these 
comparative  studies  will  be  found  in  the  intro- 
duction to  the  third  volume  of  the  "Palaeon- 
tology," and  more  fully  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  "Report  on  the  Geology  of  Iowa."  Hav- 
ing been  in  1855  appointed  geologist  to  this 
state,  he  published  in  1858,  in  connection  with 
Whitney  and  Worthen,  a  report  in  two  volumes, 
to  which,  besides  the  geological  researches  just 
mentioned,  he  contributed  a  memoir  on  the 
palaeontology  of  the  state,  with  34  plates.  He 
subsequently  performed  for  Wisconsin  a  simi- 
lar service,  the  results  of  which  are  as  yet  but 
partly  published.  Prof.  Hall  was  about  this 
time  called  to  take  charge  of  the  palaeontology 
of  the  geological  survey  of  Canada  under  Sir 
William  Logan.  This  he  declined,  but  under- 
took the  study  of  the  graptolites  of  the  so-called 
Quebec  group  of  Canada,  which  appeared  in 
1865  as  an  exhaustive  monograph,  with  22  plates. 
This  work  was  subsequently  republished  by 
him,  with  additions,  in  the  20th  report  of  the 
New  York  state  cabinet  of  natural  history. 
Various  other  contributions  to  palaeontology 
him  will  be  found  in  most  of  the  reports  of 
state  cabinet  and  state  museum,  from  Fo. 
No.  25.  To  these  must  be  added  the  de- 
ription  of  the  organic  remains  given  in  the 
government  reports  of  various  western  sur- 
veys, including  the  reports  of  Fremont,  Stans- 
bury,  and  the  United  States  and  Mexico  boun- 
dary survey.  Besides  all  these  are  numerous 
communications  to  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science,"  and  to  various  scientific  societies  and 
academies  both  at  home  and  abroad,  including 
the  geological  society  of  London,  of  which  he 
is  one  of  the  foreign  members,  and  which  in 
1858  gave  him  the  Wollaston  medal.  Prof. 
Hall  has  also  devoted  much  time  to  the  study 
of  crystalline  stratified  rocks,  and  was  the  first 
to  point  out  the  persistence  and  the  significance 
of  mineralogical  character  as  a  guide  to  their 
classification,  in  the  manner  which  has  since 
been  developed  and  extended  by  Hunt.  (See 
GEOLOGY.)  While  devoting  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  minute  details  of  organic  struc- 
tures, and  discriminating  between  and  classify- 
ing these  with  the  utmost  precision,  Prof.  Hall 
has  also  successfully  traced  out  and  arranged 
in  their  true  order,  over  vast  areas  of  North 
America,  the  formations  to  which  they  be- 
long ;  thus  doing  for  the  stratigraphical  geolo- 
gy of  our  country  a  work  second  in  importance 
386  VOL.  vm. — 26 


Var 

£ 

scrii 


|  only  to  that  which  he  has  done  for  its  palaeon- 
tology. Carrying  his  investigations  still  fur- 
ther, he  has  attempted  the  solution  of  some  of 
the  most  difficult  questions  of  dynamical  geolo- 
gy, and  has  laid  the  grounds  for  a  rational 
theory  of  mountains  which  must  be  regarded 
as  one  of  his  most  important  contributions  to 
geological  science.  (See  MOUNTAIN.) — In  his 
earlier  palaeontological  publications  Prof.  Hall 
was  greatly  aided  by  his  wife,  who  drew  the 
figures  of  a  large  portion  of  the  fossils.  One 
of  his  sons,  CHARLES  EDWARD,  is  now  (1874) 
engaged  in  geological  investigations  in  Texas. 

HALL,  John,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  the  county  Armagh,  Ireland,  July  31,  1829. 
He  entered  Belfast  college  when  he  was  only 
13  years  old,  and,  notwithstanding  his  extreme 
youth,  was  repeatedly  Hebrew  prize  man.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  at  the  age  of  20,  and  at 
once  engaged  in  labor  as  a  missionary  in  the 
west  of  Ireland.  In  1852  he  was  installed  pas- 
tor of  the  first  Presbyterian  church  at  Armagh, 
and  in  1858  he  was  called  to  the  church  of 
Mary's  Abbey,  now  Rutland  square,  in  Dublin. 
He  was  an  earnest  friend  of  popular  educa- 
tion, and  received  from  the  queen  the  honorary 
appointment  of  commissioner  of  education  for 
Ireland.  In  1867  he  was  a  delegate  from  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
in  Ireland  to  the  Presbyterian  churches  of 
the  United  States.  After  his  return  to  Ire- 
land he  received  by  the  telegraph  cable  a  call 
to  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  church  in 
New  York,  which  he  accepted,  entering  upon 
his  labors  on  Nov.  3,  1867.  The  church  edi- 
fice having  become  insufficient  for  his  congre- 
gation, they  are  now  (1874)  building  for  him, 
at  a  cost  of  about  $900,000,  a  church  which 
when  completed  will  be  the  largest  Presbyte- 
rian church  in  New  York,  if  not  in  the  world. 
Dr.  Hall  is  often  called  to  preach  in  other 
cities  at  the  installation  of  clergymen,  the  dedi- 
cation of  churches,  &c. ;  and  he  was  selected 
to  preach  the  funeral  sermon  of  Chief  Justice 
Chase,  who  belonged  to  a  different  denomina- 
tion. He  has  published  "  Family  Prayers  for 
Four  Weeks"  (1868),  "  Papers  for  Home  Read- 
ing" (1871),  and  "Questions  of  the  Day" 
(1873).  Dr.  Hall  is  universally  regarded  as  an 
earnest  and  eloquent  preacher;  and  though 
he  speaks  extemporaneously,  his  sermons  bear 
marks  of  great  refinement  and  finish. 

HALL,  Joseph,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Ashby  de  la  Zouch,  July  1, 1574,  died  at  Higham, 
Sept.  8, 1656.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
took  orders,  and  became  dean  of  Worcester  in 
1617,  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1627,  and  bishop  of 
Norwich  in  1641.  In  the  latter  year  he  joined 
with  the  bishops  who  protested  against  the 
validity  of  laws  made  during  their  forced  ab- 
sence from  parliament,  and  was  committed  for 
a  time  to  the  tower.  In  1643  his  revenues 
were  sequestrated  and  his  personal  property 
was  pillaged.  From  1647  to  his  death  he  lived 
in  poverty  at  Higham,  near  Norwich.  Among 
his  prose  writings  are :  Mundw  alter  et  idem 


400 


HALL 


(1607;  translated  into  English  by  John  Healey 
under  the  title  "  Discovery  of  a  new  World, 
or  a  Description  of  South  Indies  hitherto  un- 
known," London,  without  date) ;  "  Contem- 
plations on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;" 
"  Paraphrases  on  Hard  Texts  ;"  "  Epistles," 
and  several  volumes  of  sermons  and  de- 
votional and  polemical  works.  His  satires, 
"  Virgidemiarum,  six  Bookes  "  (1597-'8),  have 
been  highly  praised  by  Pope,  Warton,  and 
Campbell,  and  disparaged  by  Hallam.  An 
edition  of  his  works  has  been  published,  with 
an  autobiography,  and  notes  by  Josiah  Pratt 
(10  vols.,  London,  1808),  and  a  later  and  better 
one  by  Peter  Hall  (12  vols.,  Oxford,  1837-'9). 

HALL,  Lyniiin,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  born  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1725,  died  in  Burke  co.,  Ga.,  Oct.  19, 
1790.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1747, 
studied  medicine,  and  removed  in  1752  to 
South  Carolina,  and  the  same  year  to  Sun- 
bury,  Ga.,  where  he  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  his  profession.  At  the  opening  of  the  rev- 
olution he  was  influential  in  inducing  Georgia 
to  join  the  confederacy.  In  1775  he  was  cho- 
sen a  member  of  congress,  and  was  annually 
reelected  till  1780.  Georgia  had  in  the  mean 
time  fallen  under  the  power  of  the  British, 
who  confiscated  all  his  property.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Georgia  in  1783,  and 
served  for  one  term;  after  which  he  retired 
from  public  life. 

HALL,  Marshall,  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Basford,  Nottinghamshire,  in  1790,  died  in 
Brighton,  Aug.  11,  1857.  At  the  age  of  19  he 
went  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh  and  stud- 
ied medicine  and  chemistry.  In  the  latter  de- 
partment he  pointed  out  the  distinction  be- 
tween .all  chemical  bodies,  which  ruled  their 
chemical  affinities,  caused  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  oxygen.  From  his  study  at  this 
time  of  morbid  anatomy  in  close  connection 
with  clinical  medicine  resulted  his  "Treatise 
on  Diagnosis."  Having  taken  his  degree  of 
M.  D.  in  1812,  he  was  for  two  years  house  phy- 
sician at  the  royal  infirmary  in  Edinburgh, 
then  visited  the  medical  schools  of  Paris,  Ber- 
lin, and  Gottingen,  and  settled  in  Nottingham 
in  1815.  He  soon  obtained  a  large  practice, 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  general  hospi- 
tal of  the  city,  and  became  a  valuable  contrib- 
utor to  the  literature  of  his  profession.  His 
"Treatise  on  Diagnosis"  (1817)  has  in  the 
main  stood  the  test  of  60  years'  trial.  "  Com- 
mentaries on  various  Diseases  peculiar  to 
Women"  (1827)  is  still  a  standard  book  of 
reference.  In  1826  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  prosecuted  his  researches.  In  1853- 
'4  he  visited  the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
Cuba,  and  published  "The  Twofold  Slavery  of 
the  United  States."  Among  his  most  impor- 
tant discoveries  is  the  method  now  known  by 
his  name  for  treating  asphyxia.  (See  DROWN- 
ING.) In  addition  to  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, he  published  "  Principles  of  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Medicine "  (London,  1837)  ; 


"Observations  and  Suggestions  in  Medicine" 
(2  vols.  8vo)  ;  and  several  important  treatises 
on  the  nervous  system. 

HALL,  Newman,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  1816.  He  studied  at  Totteridge  and  at 
Highbury  college,  and  took  the  degree  of  A.  B. 
at  the  London  university  ;  and  in  1855  he  took 
that  of  LL.  B.  and  won  the  law  scholarship. 
In  1842  he  became  minister  of  the  Albion  Con- 
gregational church,  Hull.  In  1854  he  removed 
to  London,  where  he  became  pastor  of  Surrey 
chapel,  Blackfriars  road,  known  as  Rowland 
Hill's  chapel.  In  1850  he  opposed  the  general 
cry  against  what  was  called  papal  aggression. 
After  the  close  of  the  American  civil  war,  du- 
ring which  he  had  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
Union,  he  visited  the  United  States,  spoke  fre- 
quently in  the  interest  of  international  friend- 
ship, and  preached  before  congress.  In  1866 
he  was  elected  chairman  of  the  Congregational 
union.  He  has  been  an  earnest  advocate  of 
total  abstinence,  and  has  established  at  his 
chapel  weekly  lectures  on  secular  subjects  for 
the  common  people.  Although  he  is  a  non- 
conformist, he  uses  the  liturgical  service  of  the 
church  of  England.  He  again  visited  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  1873,  and  lectured  in  several 
cities.  He  has  published  "  The  Christian  Phi- 
losopher," an  account  of  the  death  of  William 
Gordon  (London,  1849) ;  "  The  Land  of  the 
Forum  and  the  Vatican  "  (1853) ;  "  Lectures 
in  America"  (New  York,  1868);  "Sermons, 
and  History  of  Surrey  Chapel "  (1868)  ;  "  From 
Liverpool  to  St.  Louis  "  (London,  1869) ;  and 
"  Pilgrim  Songs,"  a  volume  of  devotional  poe- 
try (1871).  He  has  also  published  a  number 
of  tracts  on  temperance  and  religious  subjects, 
of  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Come  to  Jesus," 
more  than  1,500,000  copies  have  been  printed 
in  England,  and  it  has  been  translated  into 
about  30  languages.  Most  of  his  works  have 
been  republished  and  widely  circulated  in  the 
United  States.  He  has  also  edited  the  auto- 
biography of  his  father,  John  Vine  Hall. 

HALL,  Robert,  an  English  preacher,  born  at 
Arnsby,  Leicestershire,  May  2,  1764,  died  in 
Bristol,  Feb.  21,  1831.  While  still  a  boy  his 
favorite  works  were  Edwards  "  On  the  Will " 
and  Butler's  "Analogy,"  which  he  was  able 
to  analyze  and  intelligently  discuss  at  9  years 
of  age.  When  he  was  11  years  old  his  master 
informed  his  father  that  he  was  entirely  unable 
to  keep  up  with  his  young  pupil.  At  16  he 
entered  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  where  he 
became  the  friend  of  Mackintosh,  who  says  that 
he  was  "  fascinated  by  the  brilliancy  and  acu- 
men of  Hall,  in  love  with  his  cordiality  and 
ardor,  and  awe-struck  by  the  transparency  of 
his  conduct  and  the  purity  of  his  principles," 
and  that  "from  his  discussions  with  him  he 
learned  more  as  to  principle  than  from  all  the 
books  he  ever  read."  In  1783,  while  still  con- 
tinuing his  studies  at  Aberdeen,  he  became  as- 
sistant pastor  of  Broadmead  church  in  Bristol. 
In  1790  he  removed  to  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church,  and  rose 


HALL 


HALLAM 


401 


at  once  to  the  highest  rank  of  British  preach- 
ers. In  Cambridge  some  of  his  principal  pam- 
phlets were  published,  including  "  Christianity 
consistent  with  the  Love  of  Freedom  "  (1791), 
"  Apology  for  the  Freedom  of  the  Press " 
(1793),  his  far-famed  sermon  on.  "  Modern  Infi- 
delity" (1800),  "Reflections  on  War"  (1802), 
and  "  Sentiments  suitable  to  the  Present  Crisis  " 
(1803).  These  publications  were  called  forth 
by  the  French  revolution.  In  1804  he  became 
temporarily  insane,  and  was  obliged  to  resign 
his  charge  at  Cambridge.  Upon  his  recovery 
he  married,  and  in  1808  was  settled  at  Leices- 
ter, and  in  1826  was  recalled  to  the  church  in 
Bristol,  the  scene  of  his  early  labors,  where  he 
remained  until  compelled  by  disease  to  relin- 
quish his  post.  No  man  in  modern  tunes  has 
held  a  higher  rank  as  a  pulpit  orator.  For 
nearly  all  his  life  he  was  afflicted  with  a  mys- 
terious disease,  from  which  he  suffered  so  in- 
tensely that  for  more  than  20  years  he  was 
never  able  to  pass  an  entire  night  in  bed,  and 
was  often  obliged  in  a  single  night  to  take  1,000 
drops  of  laudanum.  On  examination  after 
death  it  was  found  that  the  source  of  his  suf- 
ferings was  a  rough-pointed  calculus  that  en- 
tirely filled  the  right  kidney.  His  physician 
said :  "  Probably  no  man  ever  went  through 
more  physical  suffering  than  Mr.  Hall ;  he  was 
a  fine  example  of  the  triumph  of  the  higher 
powers  of  mind,  enabled  by  religion,  over  the 
infirmities  of  the  body."  His  works,  edited, 
with  a  memoir,  by  Olinthus  Gregory,  have  been 
published  in  6  vols.  8vo  (London,  1831-'3  ;  sev- 
eral times  reprinted). 

HALL.  I.  Samuel  Carter,  an  English  author 
and  editor,  born  at  Topsham,  Devonshire,  in 
1800.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature,  was 
some  time  a  parliamentary  reporter,  succeeded 
Campbell  as  editor  of  the  "New  Monthly 
Magazine,"  and,  partly  in  conjunction  with 
Ms  wife,  wrote  and  edited  many  annuals  and 
other  illustrated  books.  In  1839  he  became 
editor  of  the  "Art  Journal."  Apart  from 
editorial  labor,  he  has  published  accounts  of 
the  industrial  exhibitions  of  London,  1851, 
and  of  Paris,  1867 ;  "A  Book  of  Memories  of 
Great  Men  and  Great  Women  of  the  Age" 
(London,  1870);  and  "The  Trial  of  Sir  Jas- 
per" (1873),  a  poem  on  the  evils  of  intemper- 
ance, which  had  a  great  success,  and  of  which 
a  drawing-room  edition,  beautifully  illustra- 
ted, was  issued  in  1874.  II.  Anna  Maria  Field- 
ing, wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dublin  in 
1805.  When  about  15  years  of  age  she  went 
to  London,  and  was  soon  after  married  to  Mr. 
Hall,  with  whom  she  entered  upon  a  long  ca- 
reer of  literary  labor.  The  illustrated  work 
on  "  Ireland  "  (3  vols.,  London,  1841-'3)  is  the 
best  of  their  joint  works,  the  larger  share  be- 
ing hers.  She  has  also  published  many  vol- 
umes of  novels,  tales,  and  sketches,  among 
which  are:  "Sketches  of  Irish  Character" 
(1829);  "The  Buccaneer"  (1832);  "Lights 
and  Shadows  of  Irish  Life"  (1838);  "Tales 


of  the  Irish  Peasantry"  (1840);  "Marian" 
(1840);  "Midsummer  Eve"  (1847);  "Pil- 
grimages to  English  Shrines"  (1850);  and 
"Popular  Tales  and  Sketches"  (1856).  Two 
of  her  dramas,  "  The  French  Refugee "  and 
"The  Groves  of  Blarney,"  have  been  success- 
ful on  the  stage. 

HALLAM.  I.  Henry,  an  English  historian,  born 
in  Windsor  hi  1777,  died  in  Penshurst,  Kent, 
Jan.  21,  1859.  His  father  was  dean  of  Bristol, 
and  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Oxford, 
and  studied  law,  but  did  not  practise.  He  en- 
gaged in  literary  pursuits  in  London,  and  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review " 
soon  brought  him  into  notice  and  gave  him  a 
position  among  the  best  writers  of  the  day.  In 
1818  he  published  his  "  View  of  the  State  of 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  "  (2  vols.  4to), 
in  which  he  presented  in  a  series  of  disserta- 
tions, remarkable  for  research  and  learning,  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  chief  subjects  of 
interest  in  those  times.  His  intention  was  to 
continue  this  work,  which  became  at  once  a 
standard  treatise,  down  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  ;  but  finding  that  it  would  be 
a  labor  beyonft  his  strength,  he  satisfied  himself 
with  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Brit- 
ish constitution  from  the  point  where  he  left  it 
in  the  eighth  chapter,  and  in  1827  published 
"  The  Constitutional  History  of  England  from 
the  Accession  of  Henry  VII.  to  the  Death  of 
George  II."  (2  vols.  4to).  This  work  possessed 
the  characteristic  merits  of  the  first,  patient  re- 
search, accuracy  of  statement,  impartiality,  and 
liberal  principles;  but  as  it  covered  a  period 
nearer  our  own  times  and  touched  the  roots  of 
existing  controversies,  it  did  not  command  the 
same  general  assent.  It  is  now  regarded  as  in 
the  main  an  accurate  deduction  and  a  fair  state- 
ment of  the  principles  of  the  British  constitu- 
tion. After  another  interval  he  published  his 
last  great  work,  the  "Introduction  to  the  Lit- 
erature of  Europe  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th 
Centuries  "  (4  vols.  8vo,  1837-'9).  The  preface 
contains  a  comprehensive  survey  of  what  had 
been  done  before  his  time  in  the  same  depart- 
ment, and  establishes  his  claim  to  have  led  the 
way  among  English  writers  in  a  general  survey 
of  literary  history.  In  1848  he  published  a 
supplemental  volume  to  his  work  on  the  mid- 
dle ages,  in  which  he  gave  in  a  series  of  anno- 
tations the  result  of  his  studies  during  the  30 
years  that  had  elapsed  since  the  original  pub- 
lication. These  works  have  passed  through  nu- 
merous editions,  and  have  been  translated  into 
the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  In  1852  he 
published  a  volume  entitled  "  Literary  Essays 
and  Characters."  II.  Arthur  Henry,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  London,  Feb.  1,  1811,  died 
in  Vienna,  Sept.  15, 1833.  He  studied  at  Eton 
and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  in  1832,  and  in  the  same  year  en- 
tered the  Inner  Temple.  In  August,  1833,  he 
accompanied  his  father  to  the  continent,  where 
he  contracted  a  fatal  illness.  He  left  a  number 
of  poems  and  essays,  which  were  collected  by 


402 


HALLE 


HALLECK 


his  father  and  printed  with  a  memoir  for  pri- 
vate circulation  (London,  1834).  His  "  Remains 
in  Verse  and  Prose"  was  published  in  1862. 
He  was  betrothed  to  a  sister  of  Tennyson,  who 
made  him  the  subject  of  his  "In  Memoriam." 
HALLE,  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Saale,  20  m.  N.  W.  of  Leip- 
sic ;  pop.  in  1871,  52,639.  It  consists  of  Halle 
proper  with  five  suburbs,  and  of  the  two  an- 
cient towns  of  Glaucha  and  Neumarkt.  The 
streets,  except  in  some  modern  parts,  are  gen- 
erally crooked,  narrow,  and  badly  paved.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
St.  Mary,  with  four  towers,  built  in  the  Gothic 
style  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  to 
which  belong  a  library  of  20,000  volumes  and 
the  so-called  red  tower  on  the  market  place ; 
that  of  St.  Maurice,  also  built  in  the  Gothic 
style,  and  that  of  St.  Ulrich  ;«the  cathedral,  the 
city  hall,  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Moritzburg, 
anciently  a  residence  of  the  archbishops  of 
Magdeburg,  the  university,  and  the  Francke 
institutions  in  the  suburb  of  Glaucha.  The 
university,  which  was  founded  in  1694  by  the 
elector  (afterward  king)  Frederick,  and  in  1815, 
after  having  been  closed  by  Napoleon  in  1806 
and  1813,  united  with  that  of  Wittenberg,  was 
most  nourishing  in  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, and  counted  many  eminent  men  among 
its  professors.  There  were  1,300  students  in 
1829,  but  subsequently  the  number  declined  to 
less  than  600.  In  1873,  however,  the  number 
had  again  increased  to  1,073.  Among  the  in- 
stitutions more  or  less  closely  connected  with 
the  university  are  a  normal,  philological,  and 
theological  seminary,  an  academy  of  the  natu- 


Unlversity  of  Hallo. 

ral  sciences,  a  medical  and  surgical  clinical  in- 
stitute, a  school  of  midwifery,  an  anatomical 
theatre,  a  botanical  garden,  an  observatory,  and 
a  library  of  100,000  volumes.  The  Francke  in- 
stitutions comprise  an  orphan  asylum,  several 
schools,  and  a  printing  press.  Halle  has  manu- 


factories of  woollen  and  linen  goods,  stockings, 
gloves,  silk  buttons,  hardware,  leather,  and 
starch,  and  an  active  commerce.  The  exten- 
sive salt  works  in  the  city  belong  to  a  company, 
and  those  outside  of  it  to  the  government.  The 
persons  employed  in  the  latter  are  known  as 
the  Halloren,  and  were  long  supposed  to  be  of 
Slavic  origin,  but  are  now  regarded  either  as 
Celts  or  as  descendants  of  the  earliest  Frankish 
settlers. — Halle  is  first  mentioned,  as  the  castle 
of  Halla,  under  Charlemagne.  Otho  the  Great 
gave  it  to  the  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and 
Otho  II.  erected  it  into  a  city  in  981.  It  be- 
came so  powerful  in  the  course  of  time  as  to 
contend  in  the  13th  century,  often  successfully, 
with  its  feudal  lords,  and  to  resist  in  1435  a 
large  army  under  the  elector  of  Saxony.  The 
reformation  was  introduced  here  in  its  earliest 
period.  The  city  suffered  greatly  during  the 
thirty  years'  war,  and  came  in  1648  into  the 
possession  of  the  house  of  Brandenburg  by  the 
peace  of  Westphalia.  Handel  was  born  here. 
HALLECK,  Fitz-  Greene,  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Guilford,  Conn.,  July  8,  1790,  died 
there,  Nov.  17,  1867.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town, 
and  became  clerk  in  a  store  at  Guilford.  In 
1811  he  entered  the  banking  house  of  Jacob 
Barker  in  New  York,  in  which  employment  he 
remained  for  many  years.  For  16  years  pre- 
vious to  the  death  of  John  Jacob  Astor  he  was 
engaged  in  his  business  affairs,  was  named  by 
him  as  one  of  the  original  trustees  of  the  Astor 
library,  and  by  his  will  received  an  annuity  of 
$200.  In  1849,  having  as  he  said  "  been  made 
rich  with  40  pounds  a  year,"  he  retired  to 
Guilford,  to  live  with  an 
unmarried  sister.  He 
wrote  verses  in  his  boy- 
hood, some  of  which 
appeared  anonymously 
in  contemporary  news- 
papers. The  lines  to 
"Twilight,"  the  first  in 
date  of  his  collected 
poems,  appeared  in  the 
"  New  York  Evening 
Post"  in  1818;  and  in 
March,  1819,  he  formed 
a  literary  partnership 
with  Joseph  Eodman 
Drake  to  write  the 
"  Croaker  "  papers, 
which  appeared  in  the 
same  journal  from 
March  to  June,  1819. 
Drake's  death  in  the 
summer  of  1820  was 
commemorated  by  Hal- 
leek  in  one  of  his  most 

touching  poems.  In  the  latter  part  of  1819  he 
wrote  his  longest  poem,  "  Fanny,"  a  satire  on 
the  fashions,  follies,  and  public  characters  of 
the  day.  It  was  completed  within  three  weeks 
of  its  commencement,  and  from  the  variety 
and  pungency  of  its  local  and  personal  allu- 


HALLECK 


HALLER 


403 


sions  enjoyed  a  great  popularity,  copies  having 
been  circulated  in  manuscript  after  the  original 
edition  had  been  exhausted.  In  1821  a  second 
edition  appeared,  enlarged  by  the  addition  of 
50  stanzas.  In  1822-'3  he  visited  Europe,  and 
in  1827  published  anonymously  an  edition  of  his 
poems,  including  "Am wick  Castle,"  "Burns," 
and  "Marco  Bozzaris."  In  January,  1864,  he 
published  in  the  "  New  York  Ledger  "  "  Young 
America,"  a  poem  of  about  300  lines.  En- 
larged editions  of  Halleck's  poems  appeared  in 
1836,  1842,  1849,  and  1858,  and  after  his  death 
a  complete  edition,  including  the  "  Croakers  " 
and  "Young  America,"  edited  with  very  full 
notes  by  James  Grant  Wilson,  who  has  also 
written  the  "  Life  of  Halleck."  In  1832  Hal- 
leek  prepared  an  edition  of  Byron,  containing 
notes  and  a  memoir;  and  in  1840  he  compiled 
two  volumes  of  "  Selections  from  the  British 
Poets."  A  handsome  obelisk  has  been  erected 
over  his  grave  at  Guilford,  and  a  full-length 
bronze  statue  is  to  be  erected  in  the  Central 
park,  New  York. 

HALLECK,  Henry  Wager,  an  American  soldier, 
born  at  Waterville,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  15,  1815,  died 
in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Jan.  9, 1872.  He  studied 
for  a  time  at  Union  college,  and  entered  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point,  where  he 
graduated  in  1839,  after  which  he  served  for  a 
year  as  assistant  professor  of  engineering,  and 
until  1845  as  assistant  engineer  upon  the  forti- 
fications in  the  harbor  of  New  York.  In  that 
year  he  was  sent  by  government  to  study  the 
principal  military  establishments  in  Europe. 
In  1846  he  was  ordered  to  California,  where 
he  served  in  various  military  and  civil  capaci- 
ties, and  was  also  director  general  of  the  New 
Almaden  quicksilver  mines.  He  resigned  his 
commission  in  August,  1854,  and  entered  upon 
the  practice  of  law  in  San  Francisco,  and  was 
also  president  of  a  railroad.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed  a  major  gen- 
eral in  the  United  States  army,  and  was  soon 
after  placed  in  command  of  the  military  depart- 
ment of  the  West,  his  headquarters  being  at  St. 
Louis.  He  directed  the  military  operations  in 
the  west,  and  took  the  command  in  the  field 
during  the  Corinth  campaign  in  the  spring  and 
early  summer  of  1862.  In  July,  1862,  he  was 
called  to  Washington  and  appointed  general- 
in-chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 
a  position  which  he  held  till  March  12,  1864. 
Grant  being  then  made  lieutenant  general, 
Halleck  received  the  appointment  of  chief  of 
staff  to  the  army,  which  he  held  till  April, 
1865,  when  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  military  division  of  the  James,  his  head- 
quarters being  at  Richmond.  In  the  following 
August  he  was  transferred  to  the  division  of 
the  Pacific,  and  in  March,  1869,  to  that  of  the 
South,  his  headquarters  being  at  Louisville. 
He  published  several  works  upon  military  and 
scientific  topics,  the  principal  of  which  are : 
"  Bitumen,  its  Varieties,  Properties,  and  Uses  " 
(1841);  "Elements  of  Military  Art  and  Sci- 
ence" (1846;  2d  ed.,  with  critical  notes  on 


the  Mexican  and  Crimean  wars,  1858)  ;  "  The 
Mining  Laws  of  Spain  and  Mexico"  (1859) ;  a 
translation,  with  an  introduction,  of  "De  Fooz 
on  the  Law  of  Mines  "  (1860)  ;  "International 
Law,  or  the  Rules  regulating  the  Intercourse  of 
States  in  Peace  and  War"  (1861);  a  transla- 
tion, with  notes,  of  Jomini's  "  Life  of  Napole- 
on" (1864);  and  "A  Treatise  on  International 
Law  and  the  Laws  of  War,  prepared  for  the 
Use  of  Schools  and  Colleges"  (1866). 

HALLEIN,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  duchy  of 
Salzburg,  near  the  Bavarian  frontier,  on  the 
Salzach,  9  m.  S.  of  Salzburg  ;  pop.  about  3,600. 
The  neighboring  mountains  are  rich  in  salt 
mines,  of  which  there  is  here  a  government 
inspection.  There  are  17  entrances  to  the 
mines,  which  are  very  extensive,  reaching  some 
distance  beyond  tbe  Bavarian  frontier,  the  right 
of  working  them  being  guaranteed  to  Austria 
by  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  The  mines  have  been 
worked  for  more  than  600  years,  and  still  pro- 
duce over  16,000  tons  of  salt  annually.  The 
town  contains  salt  baths  and  extensive  manu- 
factories of  cotton  goods  and  wooden  ware.  The 
Tyrolese,  under  Haspinger,  here  encountered  the 
French,  under  Lefebvre,  Oct.  3,  1809. 

HALLER,  Albreeht  TOO,  a  Swiss  physiologist, 
born  in  Bern,  Oct.  16,  1708,  died  there,  Dec. 
12,  1777.  He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen, 
and  medicine  and  natural  sciences  at  Leyden, 
where  he  graduated  in  1726.  After  having 
paid  a  prolonged  visit  to  England  and  France, 
he  studied  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics 
in  Basel  under  Bernoulli.  His  delicate  health 
induced  him  to  accompany  his  friend  Johann 
Gessner  to  the  Alps,  where  he  gathered  the 
materials  for  his  great  botanical  work  and  one 
of  his  poems.  In  1729  he  returned  to  Bern, 
where  he  founded  an  anatomical  theatre.  In 
1735  he  was  appointed  physician  of  the  city 
hospital  and  director  of  the  city  library,  and 
in  the  following  year  professor  of  botany,  medi- 
cine, surgery,  and  anatomy  at  the  newly  estab- 
lished university  of  Gottingen.  He  founded 
there  many  scientific  and  beneficent  institu- 
tions, and  in  1751  the  royal  academy  of  sciences, 
of  which  he  became  president  for  life.  He  was 
ennobled  by  the  emperor  Francis  I.,  received 
complimentary  invitations  from  Oxford,  Utrecht, 
Halle,  Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg,  was  appoint- 
ed royal  councillor  and  physician  by  the  king 
of  England,  and  member  of  the  grand  council 
of  Halle.  In  1753  he  relinquished  all  his  trusts, 
excepting  the  presidency  of  the  royal  academy, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Bern,  where 
he  became  chief  magistrate. — Haller  is  regarded 
as  the  father  of  modern  physiology.  He  estab- 
lished scientifically  a  new  law,  referring  the 
animal  functions  to  two  powers,  irritability  and 
sensibility.  He  had  evolved  this  idea  as  early 
as  1739,  and  announced  it  in  1747,  in  his  Primes 
Linece  Physiologies,  and  expounded  his  system 
in  its  entire  comprehensiveness  in  his  Elemen* 
ta  Physiologies  Corporis  Humani  (8  vols.,  Lau- 
sanne, l757-'66,  with  a  posthumous  supplement, 
1782).  Among  his  other  works  are  BiUiotheca 


404 


HALLEY 


JBotanica  (2  vote.,  Zurich,  1771-'2),  BibliotJieca 
Ghirurgica  (2  vols.,  1774-'5),  Bibliotheca  Ana- 
tomica  (2  vols.,  1774-'7),  and  the  first  part  of 
the  Bibliotheoa  Medicince  Practices  (4  vols.,  Ba- 
sel, l776-'87).  His  Icones  Anatomicce  (7  vols., 
Gottingen,  l743-'6),  which  he  himself  regarded 
as  one  of  his  best  works,  contains  46  drawings 
of  many  of  the  organs,  and  particularly  of  the 
arteries.  His  activity  was  prodigious.  Be- 
sides numerous  contributions  to  German  and 
French  scientific  periodicals,  he  wrote  12,000 
reviews  for  the  Commentarii  Societatis  Regice 
Scientiarum  Gottingensis,  and  many  novels. 
His  best  poems  are  "  The  Alps"  and  "  On  the 
Origin  of  Evil." 

HALLEY,  Edmund,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  at  Haggerston,  near  London,  Oct.  29, 
1656,  died  at  Lee,  near  Greenwich,  Jan.  14, 
1742.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  His  first 
published  essay  was  "A  Direct  and  Geomet- 
rical Method  of  finding  the  Aphelia  and  Ec- 
centricity of  Planets"  (1675).  In  November, 
1676,  he  sailed  for  St.  Helena,  to  form  a  cata- 
logue of  the  fixed  stars  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere; he  returned  in  1678,  and  the  next  year 
published  his  Gatalogus  Stellarum  Australium, 
containing  the  positions  of  360  stars,  and  numer- 
ous other  observations.  In  1678  he  was  elect- 
ed a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1679, 
at  the  request  of  that  society,  went  to  Dantzic 
to  settle  an  astronomical  controversy  between 
Hooke  and  Hevelius.  In  1681  he  set  out  on  a 
continental  tour,  and  in  December,  when  near 
Paris,  he  discovered  the  comet  known  by  his 
name ;  his  prediction  of  its  return  was  the  first 
of  the  kind  that  proved  correct.  In  1683  he 
published  his  "  Theory  of  the  Variation  of  the 
Magnetic  Compass,"  in  which  he  considers  the 
earth  as  a  vast  magnet,  having  four  magnetic 
poles,  two  near  its  N.  and  two  near  its  S.  pole, 
the  needle  always  being  governed  by  the  near- 
est. In  the  same  year  he  was  led  to  examine 
Kepler's  laws  of  the  planetary  motions,  and 
from  them  to  infer  that  the  centripetal  force 
always  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance.  Visiting  Newton  at  Cambridge,  to 
obtain  aid  in  proving  this  geometrically,  he 
was  delighted  to  find  that  the  latter  had  per- 
fectly demonstrated  the  laws  of  the  celestial 
motions.  He  soon  gave  to  the  royal  soci- 
ety an  account  of  Newton's  treatise  be  Motu, 
which  was  entered  on  their  register ;  and  at  a 
later  period  he  prevailed  on  the  great  philoso- 
pher to  complete  his  Principia,  the  first  vol- 
ume of  which  was  printed  by  Halley  at  his 
own  expense.  In  1686  he  published  an  ac- 
count of  the  trade  winds  and  monsoons  near 
the  tropics ;  and  among  other  valuable  papers 
were  one  in  1691  on  the  circulation  of  watery 
vapors  and  the  origin  of  springs,  and  another 
showing  the  importance  of  observing  the  con- 
junctions of  the  superior  planets,  as  a  means 
of  determining  the  sun's  parallax  and  distance 
from  the  earth.  In  the  same  year  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  Savilian  chair  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford,  but  failed  to  obtain  it  mainly  on 


HALLOWELL 

account  of  what  were  regarded  as  his  infidel 
opinions,  though  it  is  now  said  that  the  only 
ground  for  this  charge  was,  that  he  asserted 
the  existence  of  a  pre- Adamite  earth,  out  of 
the  ruins  of  which  our  present  earth  was 
made.  In  1692  he  published  his  modified 
theory  of  the  changes  in  the  magnetic  varia- 
tion, and  to  test  its  correctness  by  observation 
obtained  from  King  William  the  appointment 
of  captain  of  a  vessel,  in  which  in  two  succes- 
sive voyages  he  finished  his  experiments ;  re- 
turning home  in  1700,  he  published  his  chart 
of  the  compass  variations,  and  received  the 
title  of  captain  in  the  royal  navy,  with  half 
pay  for  life.  On  the  recommendation  of 
Queen  Anne,  and  at  the  request  of  the  empe- 
ror of  Germany,  he  went  twice  to  the  Adriatic 
to  plan  the  formation  of  a  harbor.  In  1703,  on 
the  death  of  Dr.  Wallis,  he  was  chosen  Savilian 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford.  Soon  after 
he  began,  with  Gregory,  the  publication  of  the 
works  of  the  ancient  geometers ;  and  several  of 
their  treatises,  translated  and  edited  by  them, 
appeared  in  1706-'10.  In  1720,  after  the  death 
of  Flamsteed,  he  was  appointed  astronomer 
royal;  and  though  now  64  years  of  age,  he 
continued  for  20  years,  without  an  assistant,  to 
carry  on  the  operations  of  the  Greenwich  ob- 
servatory. In  1721  he  published  his  method 
of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea;  and  in  1725 
drew  up  his  tables  for  computing  the  places  of 
the  planets,  which,  however,  as  he  delayed 
publishing  that  he  might  perfect  them,  did 
not  appear  till  1749,  after  his  death.  In  1737 
he  was  struck  with  paralysis. 

II ALLI  WELL,  James  Orchard,  an  English  archae- 
ologist, born  at  Chelsea,  June  21,  1820.  He  has 
edited  and  published  more  than  60  pamphlets 
relating  to  early  English  literature,  especially 
as  connected  with  Shakespeare.  Of  his  other 
works,  the  principal  are:  "Early  History  of 
Freemasonry  in  England  "  (1844) ;  "  Letters  of 
the  Kings  of  England  "  (1846) ;  "  Dictionary  of 
Archaic  and  Provincial  Words  "  (2  vols.,  1847) ; 
"  Life  of  William  Shakespeare  "  (1848) ;  "  Popu- 
lar Rhymes  and  Nursery  Ballads"  (1849); 
"Curiosities  of  Modern  Shakespearian  Criti- 
cism "  (1853) ;  "  Notes  of  Family  Excursions 
in  North  Wales"  (1860);  " Rambles  in  West- 
ern Cornwall"  (1861);  "The  Last  Days  of 
William  Shakespeare"  (1863);  "An  Account 
of  New  Place,  Stratford-on-Avon "  (1864) ;  and 
an  edition  of  Shakespeare,  published  for  sub- 
scribers, of  which  only  150  copies  were  printed 
(16  vols.  fol.,  completed  in  1865). 

HALLOWELL,  a  city  of  Kennebec  co..  Maine, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Kennebec  river^  and  on 
|  the  Augusta  division  of  the  Maine  Central  rail- 
road,  2  m.  below  Augusta,  and  4  m.  above 
Gardiner;  pop.  in  1860,  2,435;  in  1870,  3,007. 
It  is  built  on  rising  ground,  the  principal  ave- 
nues running  parallel  to  the  river,  and  the  cross 
streets  having  an  ascent  of  about  200  ft.  from 
the  water's  edge  to  the  crest  of  the  hill.  The 
upper  part  of  the  city  is  occupied  by  residences, 
the  lower  by  stores,  factories,  and  warehouses. 


HALLOW  EVE 


HALO 


405 


Hallowell  is  at  the  head  of  ocean  steamboat 
navigation,  and  the  wharves  are  accessible  by 
vessels  of  9   ft.   draught.     Excellent  granite 
is  obtained  in   the    neighborhood.      It    con- 
tains a  cotton  mill,  two  iron  founderies,  sev- 
eral granite  works,  marble  works,  three  tan- 
ning and  currying  establishments,  and  manufac- 
tories of  boots  and  shoes,  bricks,  cabinet  ware, 
dies,  carriages,  floor  oil  cloth,  lumber,  ma- 
inery,  putty  and  whiting,  soap  and  potash, 
inks,  &c.     There  are  two  halls,  including  the 
y  hall,  a  hotel,  two  national  banks,  a  sa- 
js  bank,  a  classical  school,  13  public  schools 
iluding  a  high   school),  a  free  library  of 
000  volumes,  and  six  churches. — Hallowell 
as  permanently  settled  soon  after  the  erection 
Fort  Western  in  1754  on  the  site  of  the  pres- 
t  city,  although  a  few  traders  or  colonists  re- 
.ed  there  a  century  earlier.      It  was  incor- 
>rated  as  a  town  in  1771,  at  which  time  it  in- 
.ed  Augustav  Chelsea,  the  greater  part  of 
Chester,  and  a  portion  of  Farmingdale  and 
iner.     A  city  charter  was  adopted  in  1 852. 
HALLOW  EVE,  Hallowmas  Eve,  or  in  Scotland 
illoween,  the  vigil  of  All  Hallows  or  All  Saints' 
,y,  Oct.  31.     It  has  always  been  the  occasion 
certain  popular  usages  in  Christian  coun- 
.es,  such  as  the  performance  of  spells  by 
•ung  people  to  discover  their  future  partners 
br  life,  and  certain  fireside  revelries,  as  crack- 
ing nuts  and  ducking  for  apples.      Hallow- 
een is  thought  to  be  a  night  when  witches, 
devils,  and  other  mischief-making  beings  are 
all  abroad  on  their  baneful  midnight  errands ; 
particularly  the  fairies  are  said  on  that  night 
to  hold  a  grand  anniversary.     Burns's  poem 
"Halloween"  describes  the  superstitious  cus- 
toms and  beliefs  of  the  Scottish  peasantry  con- 
cerning this  festival.     (See  ALL  SAINTS'  DAY.) 
HALO  (Gr.  aAwf,  a  threshing  floor,  originally 
f  a  round  shape),  a  term  commonly  used  in 
eteorology  to  include  all  those  phenomena  in 
hich  a  luminous  ring,  either  colored  or  un- 
'lored,  is  seen  around  the  disk  of  the  sun  or 
on.     There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  such 
enomena,  called  coronas  and  halos,  and  it  is 
y  for  convenience  that  the  latter  term  is 
iietimes  used  to  include  them  all.     Here  we 
shall  consider  them  under  their  several  heads. 
The  meteorologist  Kaemtz  includes  under  the 
term  coronas  all  cases  in  which,  when  the  sky 
is  covered  with  light  clouds,  colored  circles  are 
seen  surrounding  the  sun  or  moon;  also  when 
a  glory  is  seen  around  the  observer's  shadow 
on  a  cloud.     Under  the  head  "  halos  properly  so 
called,"  he  includes  the  great  circles  which  sur- 
round the  sun  or  moon,  the  diameter  of  which 
amounts  to  about  44°.     The  attendants  of  ha- 
los are :  1,  circles  having  a  double  diameter ; 
2,  parhelia  or  mock  suns ;  and  3,  various  other 
circles.     Coronse  are  distinguished  from  halos 
in  this  fundamental  respect,  that  the  former 
are*  due  to  particles  or  vesicles  of  water  in 
mist  or  cloud,  the  latter  to  minute  crystals  of 
ice. —  Corona.     All  clouds  which  are  not  too 
dense  to  prevent  the  light  of  the  sun  or  moon 


from  passing  through,  produce  coronas  of 
greater  or  less  intensity  and  regularity.  When 
the  clouds  are  irregular  in  outline,  the  coronas 
are  incomplete.  When  the  corona  is  complete, 
the  following  arrangement  of  colors  can  be 
recognized.  Close  by  the  sun  a  dark  blue  cir- 
cle can  be  perceived,  next  a  white  circle,  and 
then  a  red;  outside  the  series  there  can  be 
seen  under  favorable  conditions  a  second  se- 
ries, consisting  of  colored  circles  in  the  follow- 
ing order,  proceeding  eastward  from  the  sun : 
purple,  blue,  green,  pale  yellow,  and  red. 
"  More  frequently,"  says  Kaemtz,  *'  we  observe 
near  the  sun  blue  mingled  with  white,  then  a 
red  circle  clearly  limited  within,  but  confused 
outside  with  the  others.  If  a  second  red  cir- 
cle exists  outside  this,  then  green  is  observed 
in  the  interval  by  which  they  are  separated. 
The  distance  of  this  circle  from  the  centre 
of  the  sun  varies  according  to  the  state  of 
the  clouds  and  the  atmosphere ;  I  have  found 
it  from  1°  to  4°."  The  rings  of  coronas,  the 
colors  of  which  are  those  of  the  reflected  se- 
ries in  thin  plates,  are  fringes  due  to  interfe- 
rence of  rays  which  have  undergone  diffraction 
by  grazing  on  either  side  of  numerous  minute 
globules  of  cloud  or  fog,  that  have  for  the 
time  nearly  the  same  size.  An  illustrative  in- 
stance was  first  given  by  Necker  of  Geneva. 
When  the  sun  rises  behind  a  hill  covered  with 
trees  or  brushwood,  a  spectator  in  the  shadow 
of  the  hill  sees  all  the  small  branches  that  are 
nearly  in  the  line  of  the  solar  rays,  on  either 
side,  projected  on  the  sky,  not  black  and 
opaque,  but  white  and  brilliant,  as  if  of  silver ; 
the  effect  of  a  small  opaque  body  on  the  light 
being,  in  this  class  of  cases,  equivalent  to  that 
of  a  small  opening  in  a  dark  body  through 
which  the  rays  should  penetrate.  Coronas  ex- 
ist around  the  sun  more  frequently  than  would 
be  supposed ;  but  they  are  often  not  observed, 
on  account  of  the  brilliancy  of  that  orb.  At 
such  times  they  may  be  detected  by  looking 
at  the  reflection  of  the  sun  in  still  water,  or 
in  black  glass. — Anthelia.  When  the  sun  is 
near  the  horizon,  and  the  shadow  of  the  ob- 
server falls  on  any  surface  covered  with  dew, 
there  can  be  perceived  a  glory  especially  round 
the  head  of  the  shadow.  Anthelia  are  also 
seen,  and  more  perfectly,  when  the  observer's 
shadow  falls  on  or  near  clouds  that  lie  opposite 
the  sun;  or  in  polar  regions  when  the  shadow 
is  cast  horizontally  upon  a  fog.  Bouguer  was 
the  first  to  observe  the  phenomenon.  He  no- 
ticed that  the  shadow  of  his  head,  on  clouds 
among  the  Andes,  was  encircled  by  three  col- 
ored rings  having  diameters  of  5f-°,  11°,  and 
17°.  Scoresby,  who  observed  the  phenomenon 
in  polar  regions,  saw  four  concentric  circles 
round  the  shadow  of  his  head:  the  first  was 
white,  yellow,  red,  and  purple,  and  had  a  semi- 
diameter  of  1°  45' ;  the  second  was  blue,  green, 
yellow,  red,  and  purple,  and  had  a  semi-diam- 
eter of  4°  45' ;  the  third  was  green,  whitish, 
yellowish,  red,  and  purple,  and  had  a  semi-di- 
ameter of  6°  30' ;  the  fourth  was  greenish, 


406 


HALO 


white,  and  deeper  at  the  edges,  and  the  semi- 
diameter  of  its  internal  edge  was  36°  50',  that 
of  its  external  edge  being  from  41°  to  52° 
This  fourth  circle,  commonly  called  the  circle 
of  Ulloa,  or  the  white  rainbow,  is  very  seldom 
seen.  Anthelia  are  explained  upon  the  same 
principle  as  corona,  with  the  single  exception 
that  the  diffraction  in  this  instance  does  not  oc- 
cur during  the  direct  transmission  of  the  solar 
beams  through  the  cloud,  but  during  the  retro- 
grade transmission  of  rays  which,  having  pen- 
etrated to  considerable  depth  in  the  cloud,  un- 
dergo reflection,  and  are  then  diffracted  by 
nearer  globules  while  on  their  return  to  the 
eye. — Halo*  proper.  In  the  commoner  forms, 
one  or  two  rings,  formed  in  the  thin,  feathery 
cloud  overspreading  the  sky  at  a  great  height, 
extend  vertically  about  the  sun  or  moon.  The 
diameters  of  these  vary  somewhat,  and  some- 
times during  the  same  display  ;  but  when  one 
only  is  seen,  its  distance  from  the  sun  is  very 
near  22£°,  or  diameter  45° ;  the  latter  number 
being  also  the  radius  or  distance  of  the  second, 
when  seen.  Of  these  rings,  the  color  of  the 
inner  border,  when  obvious,  is  almost  invari- 
ably red ;  next  to  this  comes  green  or  blue ; 
the  outer  edge  is  one  of  the  latter  colors,  violet, 
or  white.  Very  rarely  the  outer  border  is  red. 
The  breadth  is  usually  slightly  less  than  that  of 
the  luminary  ;  sometimes  a  ring  appears  as  if 
made  up  of  two  lying  side  by  side,  and  crossing 
each  other  in  very  acute  angles  at  certain  points 
of  their  course.  As  in  the  rainbow,  the  red 
border  is  most  defined,  the  opposite  being  lost 
in  a  diffused  light;  and  the  sky  just  within 
these  rings  usually  appears  more  dark  than 
elsewhere.  The  third  and  largest  ring,  having 
a  radius  of  about  90°,  is  usually  white ;  but  it 
is  seldom  or  never  complete,  even  in  the  visible 
portion  of  sky.  The  same  obvious  atmospheric 
conditions  that  show  these  more  ordinary  forms, 
may  also  give  rise  to  a  white  circle  having  the 
breadth  of  the  solar  disk,  through  which  it 
passes,  and  extending  completely  around  the 
sky  in  a  plane  parallel  with  the  horizon.  A 
second  white  band  of  the  same  breadth  may 
pass  through  the  sun's  disk  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, while  at  the  points  in  which  this  inter- 
sects the  two  ordinary  rings  above,  tangent 
colored  arcs  may  be  seen  curving  away  from 
the  rings  respectively,  and  tending  to  include 
the  zenith. — Parhelia  and  Paraselenes.  A  par- 
helion is  an  attendant  image,  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct, of  the  sun's  disk,  which  may  appear  with 
any  halo,  at  one,  two,  or  more  points  near  the 
sun ;  but  which  is  more  frequently  formed  in 
the  course  of  the  horizontal  or  vertical  white 
bands,  or  in  both,  at  or  slightly  without  the  in- 
tersection of  these  with  the  ordinary  halos. 
Parhelia  show  the  usual  colors  of  halos,  in  the 
same  order,  but  more  brightly,  and  even  when 
the  latter  are  not  perceptibly  colored.  They 
seldom  appear  at  once  at  more  than  three  or 
four  of  the  intersections,  and  sometimes  pre- 
sent a  sort  of  tail  in  the  direction  opposite  the 
luminary.  Popularly,  they  are  known  as  sun 


dogs,  or  mock  suns.  The  corresponding  ap- 
pearances about  the  moon  are  termed  parase- 
lene. The  more  complicated  phenomenon, 
showing  both  the  halos  and  mock  luminaries, 
although  somewhat  rare,  is  still  much  varied  in 
form.  Among  the  earlier  clearly  recorded  ob- 
servations may  be  named  an  example  of  the 
solar  observed  by  Schemer  at  Rome  in  1629, 
and  of  the  lunar  by  Hevelius  of  Dantzic  in  1660. 
Very  brilliant  halos  were  seen  about  the  sun 
for  several  days  in  succession  at  Moscow  in 
1812,  during  its  occupancy  by  the  French  ;  the 
most  splendid  instance  on  record  occurred  at 
Gotha,  May  12,  1824.— In  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, halos  and  parhelia  are  very  frequent; 
Capt.  Parry  always  saw  the  former  about  the 
time  of  full  moon.  But  whether  in  higher  or 
lower  latitudes,  they  are  only  seen  when  there 
intervene  between  the  luminary  and  the  ob- 
server those  highest  thread-like  forms  of  cloud, 
the  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus.  The  cold  prevailing 
in  the  elevated  regions  occupied  by  these  clouds 
renders  it  quite  certain  that  their  particles  must 
be  in  the  frozen  condition — a  fine  ice  mist — 
such  as  we  experience  in  the  coldest  days  of 
winter,  and  which,  driven  against  the  face  by 
a  wind,  actually  prick  the  skin.  These  crys- 
tals incline  chiefly  to  the  form  of  hexagonal 
prisms ;  and  to  refraction  and  decomposition 
of  light  passing  through  certain  angles  of  these, 
Mariotte  was  led  to  ascribe  the  production  of 
halos.  For  any  refracting  angle  of  a  prism 
there  exists  a  minimum  angle  of  deviation,  de- 
pendent on  the  density  and  the  angle.  Now, 
the  minimum  deviation  of  a  decomposed  ray 
occurs  when  the  angle  of  refraction  is  just  half 
the  refracting  angle  of  the  prism  used.  The 
refracting  angle  of  the  ice  prisms  being  60°,  the 
angle,  of  refraction  giving  the  least  deviation 
for  the  red  ray  from  the  original  course  of  the 
light  must  be  30° ;  and,  the  refractive  index  of 
ice  being  1*31,  the  angle  of  incidence  must  be 
41°.  Then  the  deviation,  being  equal  to  twice 
this  angle  less  the  refracting  angle,  or  2x41° 
—60°,  is  22°,  a  result  very  closely  agreeing  with 
that  of  observation  for  the  smallest  and  most 
common  form  of  halo.  To  produce  this  ring, 
then,  it  is  only  necessary  to  imagine  the  mi- 
nute prisms  of  ice  floating  or  descending  through 
the  air  in  all  positions,  but,  owing  to  the  resis- 
tance presented  by  the  air  to  the  action  of  their 
weight,  taking  especially  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal directions ;  then,  near  to  the  position  giving 
a  minimum  deviation  of  the  transmitted  rays, 
a  considerable  turning  of  the  crystal  about  its 
axis  gives  only  an  insignificant  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  emergent  light ;  and  hence,  a 
far  larger  number  of  the  crystals  will  transmit 
red  rays  deviating  from  their  previous  recti- 
linear course  by  exactly  or  nearly  this  angle 
of  22°  than  by  any  other.  The  rays  from  the 
sun  or  moon  being  in  effect  parallel,  there 
should  therefore  be  seen,  at  nearly  this  angle 
with  the  luminary,  a  dim  circle,  red  and  de- 
fined within,  but  beyond  this  having  the  colors 
overlapping  one  another,  and  indistinctly  seen 


HALS 

resulting  in  white.     The  halo  of  90°  or  92° 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  refraction  occur- 
ring through  the  angles  of  90°  at  which  the 
sides  of  the  ice  prisms  meet  their  bases,  the 
minimum  deviation  for  red  in  this  case  being 
about  45°.    The  partial  polarization  of  the  light 
in  a  plane  tangent  to  the  ring  shows  it  to  be  re- 
fracted light ;  that  of  the  rainbow  being  polar- 
ized in  a  plane  normal  to  the  circle,  and  mainly 
lue  to  reflection.     Musschenbroek  saw  large 
>lored  halos   about   the    moon,   by  looking 
irough  plates  of  ice  formed  on  the  panes  of 
lis  window.     The  white  horizontal  and  verti- 
bands  can  be  explained  by  reflection  from 
the  vertical  faces  of  crystals,  descending  in  a 
1m  air  and  in  all  possible  azimuths.    The  par- 
iclia  may  be  considered  as  being  the  intensified 
Feet  at  certain  points  of  a  greater  condensa- 
ion  of  the  dispersed  rays  at  the  angles  of 
linimum  dispersion ;  so  that  they  are  to  the 
what  the  halo  itself  is  to  the  diffused  light 
irown  on  the  surrounding  cloud.     The  fact 
t  they  are  usually  a  little  without  the  rings 
been  supposed  due  to  the  greater  obliquity 
the  crystals,  at  the  points  where  they  ap- 
sar,  to  the  plane  of  refraction.     But  while  the 
cplanation  of  these  simpler  parts  is  quite  sat- 
3tory,  that  of  the  more  complicate  and  pe- 
iliar  phenomena  becomes  extremely  difficult ; 
id  we  can  only  in  a  general  way  refer  these 
the  variety  of  changes,  including  reflection 
id  simple  and  double  refraction,  of  which  light 
capable,  and  to  the  probable  effects  of  extra- 
inary  forms  and  combinations  of  the  crys- 
1s.    If  the  views  taken  of  the  phenomenon 
correct,  then,  by  consequence,  halos  prove 
rhat  is  the  temperature  of  the  highest  cloud 
ion,  and  the  condition  of  cloud  occupying 
Certain  it  is  that  they  are  closely  connect- 
with  peculiar  meteorological  changes ;  and 
lat,  occurring  in  summer,  they  indicate  rain, 
"  it  has  been  said  wind,  while  in  winter  they 
^recede  snow,  or  it  may  be  also  frosts. 
HALS,  Francis* us,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Cechlin  in  1584,  died  in  Haarlem,  Aug.  20, 
1666.     He  was  inferior  as  a  portrait  painter 
ily  to  Vandyke.     He  passed  his  whole  life  in 
Netherlands,  chiefly  at  Delft  or  Haarlem, 
le  left  a  great  number  of  paintings,  and  is  one 
"  the  best  representatives  of  that  school  of  the 
Tetherlands  which  made  no  effort  to  idealize, 
>ut  only  sought  accurate  representation. 
HALSTEAD,  Marat,  an  American  journalist, 
>rn  at  Ross,  Butler  co.,  Ohio,  Sept.  2,  1829. 
Fntil  the  age  of  19  he  passed  the  summers  in 
forking  on  his  father's  farm  and  the  winters 
school.      He  completed  his  education   at 
farmer's  college,  near  Cincinnati,  in  1851.     At 
18  years  of  age  he  became  a  contributor  to 
lewspapers,  and  before  leaving  college  had  ac- 
•uired  facility  as  a  writer  of  fiction  and  light 
liscellanies.      Abandoning   his   intention  of 
tudying  law,  he  established  himself  in  1851  in 
incinnati,  and  started  a  Sunday  newspaper, 
which  only  two  numbers  were  published, 
k-fter  finding  employment  on  the  "Enquirer," 


HAM 


407 


the  "Columbian  and  Great  West,"  and  other 
papers,  he  became  in  March,  1852,  city  editor 
of  the  "  Cincinnati  Commercial,"  and  a  few 
months  later  was  appointed  its  news  editor. 
In  May,  1854,  he  acquired  a  small  pecuniary 
interest  in  the  "  Commercial,"  and  upon  the 
death  of  the  principal  owner  in  1866  the  con- 
trol of  the  paper  passed  into  his  hands.  Du- 
ring the  12  years  preceding  this  event  its  good 
will  alone  had  increased  more  than  fourfold 
in  value,  and  it  had  become  through  Mr.  Hal- 
stead's  efforts  one  of  the  most  influential  papers 
of  the  west.  It  is  independent  in  politics. 

HALTON,  a  county  of  Ontario,  Canada,  bor- 
dering S.  E.  on  Lake  Ontario,  near  its  W.  ex- 
tremity;  area,  372  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1871,  22,606, 
of  whom  8,074  were  of  Irish,  6,993  of  English, 
and  5,108  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Great  West- 
ern railways.  Capital,  Milton. 

HALYBPRTON,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  theologian, 
born  at  Dupplin,  Dec.  25,  1674,  died  in  St.  An- 
drews, Sept.  23,  1712.  He  studied  at  St  An- 
drews, was  for  a  time  domestic  chaplain  in  the 
family  of  a  nobleman,  became  minister  of  the 
parish  of  Ceres  in  1700,  and  in  1711  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  divinity  at  St.  Andrews. 
His  principal  works  are:  "Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  of  Modern  Deists,"  "  The  Great  Con- 
cern of  Salvation,"  "  Natural  Religion  Insuffi- 
cient," "  Essay  on  the  Nature  of  Faith,"  and 
"  Inquiry  on  Justification."  These  have  been 
frequently  republished  (latest  ed.,  London, 
1835).  His  "  Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  with  an  in- 
troductory essay  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Young  (Glas- 
gow, 1824),  has  been  reprinted  in  America. 

HALTS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Kizil  Irmak 
(red  river),  the  largest  river  of  Asia  Minor. 
It  rises  in  the  mountains  which  in  antiquity 
formed  the  boundary  between  Armenia  Minor 
and  Pontus ;  pursues  mostly  a  S.  W.  course,  re- 
ceiving many  tributaries  on  its  way,  as  far  as 
the  vicinity  of  Kaisariyeh  (the  ancient  Caesarea 
Mazaca)  ;  then  turns  N.  W.,  and  gradually  N. 
E.,  and  discharges  itself  by  several  mouths 
into  the  Euxine  between  Sinope  and  Samsun 
(Amisus).  It  has  a  circuit  of  about  600  m. 
Its  ancient  importance  appears  from  the  fact 
that  Asia  was  often  divided  into  Asia  cis  Halyn 
and  Asia  trans  Halyn.  It  once  separated  the 
great  Lydian  empire  from  the  Medo-Persian, 
and  near  its  banks  was  fought  the  first  battle 
between  Croesus  and  Cyrus. 

HAM,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Somme,  67  m.  N.  E.  of  Paris;  pop.  about 
2,400.  Its  old  castle,  strengthened  by  modern 
works,  has  become  a  fortress  of  some  impor- 
tance, and  has  long  been  used  as  a  state  prison, 
for  which  it  is  well  adapted.  The  central 
round  tower  or  donjon  is  100  ft.  high  and  100 
ft.  wide,  and  the  walls  are  of  masonry  36  ft. 
thick.  It  was  built  in  1470  by  the  count  de 
St.  Pol,  who  was  afterward  beheaded  by  Louis 
XL  Among  the  numerous  eminent  persons 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Ham  have  been  Joan 
of  Arc,  who  was  kept  there  a  few  days  before 


408 


HAM 


being  surrendered  to  the  English,  Mirabeau, 
the  ministers  of  Charles  X.,  Louis  Napoleon 
(1840-'46),  Cavaignac,  Lamoriciere,  Changar- 


Fortreas  of  Ham. 

nier,  and  others.    It  was  surrendered  to  the 
Germans,  Nov.  21,  1870. 

HAM,  one  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  youngest.  The  name  signifies  in 
Hebrew  " hot"  or  " burnt,"  and  is  regarded  as 
indicative  of  the  regions  allotted  to  his  descen- 
dants, who,  according  to  G-en.  x.,  occupied  the 
southern  parts  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
foundation  of  the  empires  of  Assyria  and  Egypt 
is  attributed  to  them,  as  well  as  that  of  Sidon 
and  other  Phoenician  states.  Egypt,  in  par- 
ticular, is  designated  in  poetical  passages  of  the 
Scriptures  as  the  "land  of  Ham,"  which  an- 
swers to  the  Coptic  name  of  that  country,  Ke- 
mi  or  Khami,  the  ~S.rjfj.ia 
of  Plutarch,  and  the 
Chm&  of  the  Rosetta 
inscription,  according 
to  Champollion.  The 
Canaanites  formed  a 
branch  of  the  Biblical 
Hamitic  race. 

HAMADAN,  a  town  of 
Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Irak  Ajemi,  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Elwend,  175 
m.W.S.W.  of  Teheran, 
on  the  site,  it  is  gen- 
erally supposed,  of  an- 
cient Ecbatana,  but  ac- 
cording to  Rawlinson 
of  one  of  two  Median 
cities  of  that  name  ; 
pop.  about  40,000.  It 
occupies  a  large  surface 
on  sloping  ground,  and 
has  numerous  gardens, 
bazaars,  baths,  cara- 
vansaries, and  mosques, 
is  an  edifice  which  contains  the  tomb  of  Avi- 
cenna,  the  celebrated  Arabian  physician,  who 


HAMAH 

lived  there  in  the  first  half  of  the  llth  cen- 
tury; another  edifice  is  believed  by  the  in- 
habitants to  contain  the  tombs  of  Esther  and 
Mordecai.  There  are  also 
a  synagogue  and  an  Arme- 
nian church.  The  town  is 
mostly  decayed  and  unat- 
tractive ;  the  tomb  of  Avi- 
cenna,  however,  draws  nu- 
merous pilgrims.  It  has  a 
hot  mineral  spring,  some 
manufactures  in  silk  fabrics 
and  carpets,  and  a  large 
trade  with  Bagdad  and  oth- 
er cities  of  Persia.  Hama- 
dan  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabs  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Mohammed,  was 
destroyed  and  rebuilt,  and 
was  taken  by  the  Seljuks, 
and  by  the  Mongols  of  Gen- 
ghis Khan  and  Tamerlane. 
HAMAH,  or  Hamath  (Heb., 
fortress  or  citadel),  a  city 
of  northern  Syria,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Aasy  or  Orontes,  30  m.  N. 
of  Horns;  pop.  about  40,000,  of  whom  about 
10,000  are  Greeks  or  fellahs  belonging  to  the 
Greek  church,  about  300  Jacobites,  and  the  re- 
mainder Moslems,  the  Jews  having  entirely  dis- 
appeared. The  Christian  quarter  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  the  city  is  described  by  Burton  as  filthy 
and  miserable.  Four  bridges  span  the  river, 
and  several  huge  wheels  turned  by  the  current 
raise  the  water  to  the  level  of  the  houses  and 
fields.  Each  aqueduct  and  wheel  is  the  prop- 
erty of  a  limited  company.  There  are  24  min- 
arets. An  interesting  part  of  modern  Hamah 
is  the  castle  mound,  which,  like  that  of  Horns, 


Hamah. 


Near  one  of  the  last 


was  probably  the  site  of  an  ancient  temple. — It 
appears  from  Scripture  that  Hamath  was  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  at  the  period  of  the  exo- 


HAMAH 


HAMBACH 


409 


dus.  Its  king  Toi  yielded  allegiance  to  David. 
Hamath  was  called  great  by  Amos,  and  was 
ranked  by  the  Assyrians  among  their  most 
important  conquests.  According  to  Genesis, 
it  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Canaanites, 
and  it  is  frequently  mentioned  as  the  northern 
border  of  the  promised  land.  Under  the  name 
Epiphania  it  became  famous  in  the  days  of  the 
Seleucidse,  and  it  is  said  that  Seleucus  Nicator 
kept  there  his  stud  of  500  elephants  and  30,- 
000  brood  mares.  Under  the  Moslem  rule  it 


Characters  of  the  Hamath  Inscriptions. 

produced  the  celebrated  scholar  Abulfeda, 
prince  of  Hamah.  The  town  has  recently  at- 
tracted considerable  attention  from  the  number 
of  stones  bearing  inscriptions  which  have  been 
found  there.  Burckhardt  noticed  these  stones 
in  1812,  but  they  remained  in  obscurity  till 
1870,  when  J.  A.  Johnson,  consul  general  for 
the  United  States  at  Beyrout,  and  the  Rev.  S. 
Jessup  of  the  Syrian  mission,  rediscovered 
them  while  looking  through  the  bazaar  of  the 
old  town.  Copies  and  impressions  of  the  in- 
scriptions were  carried  to  England  by  Burton 


and  Tyrwhitt-Drake,  and  to  the  United  States 
by  Lieut.  Steever  and  Prof.  Paine.  Copies  of 
them  have  been  published  by  the  English  ex- 
ploration fund,  by  the  anthropological  society 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  by  the  Pal- 
estine exploration  society  of  New  York.  Those 
issued  by  the  last  named  in  September,  1873, 
are  absolute  facsimiles  prepared  by  W.  H. 
Ward  after  the  impressions  of  Steever  and 
Paine.  The  inscriptions  have  been  discussed 
by  many  eminent  scholars,  and  notices  of  them 
have  been  published  by  Burton,  Eisenlohr,  Pe- 
termann,  Hyde  Clark,  E.  Thomas,  Carter  Blake, 
Staniland  "Wake,  the  Rev.  Dunbar  J.  Heath, 
and  others.  The  stones  are  of  black  basalt, 
and  the  inscriptions  are  in  relief.  The  writing 
is  of  an  unknown  character.  Some  of  the  signs 
resemble  the  Cypriote  and  others  the  Him- 
yaritic.  Mr.  E.  Thomas  has  discovered  that 
some  small  clay  impressions  of  seals  in  the 
British  museum  are  in  the  Hamath  character ; 
they  had  been  attached  to  documents  in  the 
palace  of  Sennacherib  at  Nineveh,  and  date 
from  about  700  B.  0.  In  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions appear  a  few  notices  of  Hamath,  which 
tend  to  show  that  the  inhabitants  were  Semites, 
and  that  their  neighbors  to  the  north  were  a 
powerful  tribe,  called  the  Patina,  who  spoke  a 
non-Semitic  language.  As  the  stones  may  have 
been  removed  from  their  original  site  to  be  used 
for  building  purposes  in  Hamath,  it  is  possible 
that  the  inscriptions  belong  to  the  Patina.  The 
various  characters  found  in  the  Hamath  in- 
scriptions are  shown  in  the  preceding  column. 

HAMAN,  a  minister  of  the  Persian  king  Aha- 
suerus,  of  the  race  of  Agag,  who,  because  Mor- 
decai  the  Jew  refused  to  pay  him  homage,  re- 
solved on  the  destruction  of  all  the  Jews  in  the 
Persian  monarchy.  He  contrived  to  obtain  a 
decree  for  this  purpose ;  but  Esther,  the  Jew- 
ish wife  of  Ahasuerus,  interposed  for  their'de- 
liverance,  and  Haman  was  hanged  on  the  gib- 
bet he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai.  His  history 
is  contained  in  the  book  of  Esther. 

HAMAM,  Joliann  Georg,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Konigsberg,  Aug.  27,  1730,  died  in 
Munster,  June  21,  1788.  He  was  destined  for 
the  pulpit,  but  became  a  clerk  in  a  mercantile 
house,  and  afterward  held  many  small  public 
offices,  devoting  his  leisure  to  study.  He  wrote 
under  the  nom  de  plume  of  "  the  Magus  of  the 
North."  His  works  consist  of  small  essays, 
and  although  his  style  was  diffuse  and  obscure, 
their  merits  were  recognized  by  Lessing,  Men- 
delssohn, Herder,  and  Goethe.  Fragments  of 
his  writings  were  published  by  Cramer,  under 
the  title  of  SibylliniscJie  Blatter  des  Magus  am 
Norden  (1819),  and  a  complete  edition  by  Roth 
(7  vols.,  1821-'5,  with  a  volume  of  additions 
and  explanations  by  Wiener,  1843).  Hamanrfs 
des  Magus  in  Norden  Leben  und  Schriften,  ed- 
ited by  Gildemeister,  was  published  in  5  vols., 
1857-168,  and  a  new  edition  of  his  Schriften  und 
Briefen,  edited  by  Petri,  in  4  vols.,  1872- '4. 

HAMBACH,  a  village  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  near 
Neustadt,  15  m.  W.  of  Spire;  pop.  about  2,200. 


410 


HAMBLEN 


HAMBURG 


It  contains  a  castle  of  the  middle  ages  called 
Kastanienburg.  A  celebrated  political  gath- 
ering, known  as  the  Hambacher  Fest,  was  held 
here,  May  27,  1832,  by  30,000  persons,  for  the 
purpose  of  agitating  and  preparing  "the  re- 
generation of  Germany  as  a  free  country."  Sie- 
benpfeiffer,  Wirth,  and  other  leaders  were  in- 
dicted on  June  28;  and  a  sanguinary  conflict 
took  place  on  the  first  anniversary  of  the  gath- 
ering between  the  soldiery  and  the  citizens, 
the  Bavarian  government  having  prohibited  its 
celebration.  The  castle  was  presented  in  1842 
to  the  crown  prince,  the  late  king  of  Bavaria, 
and  called  after  him  Maxburg.  It  was  greatly 
damaged  during  the  revolution  of  1849. 

HAMBLEN,  an  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  formed 
since  the  census  of  1870,  bounded  N.  W.  by 
Holston  river  and  S.  E.  by  the  French  Broad ; 
area,  about  150  sq.  m.  It  is  traversed  by  high 
ridges  and  fertile  valleys,  belonging  to  the  Al- 
leghany  range.  Iron  ore  is  found.  The  East 
Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia,  and  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Cumberland  Gap,  and  Charleston  rail- 
roads cross  it.  The  assessed  value  of  property 
in  1871  was  $1,451,819.  Capital,  Morristown. 

HAMBURG.  I.  A  free  state  of  the  German 
empire,  comprising  the  city  of  Hamburg  with 
its  suburbs,  the  district  of  Geest,  and  the  baili- 


wicks of  Bergedorf  and  Ritzebiittel ;  area,  158 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  338,974,  of  whom  the 
greater  part  are  Lutherans,  with  7,748  Roman 
Catholics  and  13,796  Jews.  The  principal 
towns  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Hamburg 
are  Barmbeck,  Bergedorf,  Borgfelde,  Cuxha- 
ven,  Eilbeck,  Eimsbtittel,  Hamm,  Hohenfelde, 
Ritzebiittel,  and  Uhlenhorst.  The  state  has 
one  vote  in  the  federal  council,  and  sends  three 
deputies  to  the  German  Reichstag.  Its  army 
is  incorporated  with  the  Prussian  army,  and 
its  burgher  guard  no  longer  exists,  having  been 
disbanded  in  1868.  By  the  constitution  which 
went  into  force  Jan.  1,  1861,  the  government 
consists  of  a  senate  of  18  members  and  a  house 
of  burgesses  of  192  members.  The  members 
of  the  senate  are  elected  for  life,  though  a 
senator  may  retire  after  ten  years.  The  sena- 
tors elect  from  among  themselves  a  first  and  a 
second  burgomaster,  who  hold  their  office  for 
one  year.  Nine  senators  must  have  studied 
law,  and  the  other  nine  are  usually  merchants. 
Of  the  burgesses,  84  are  chosen  by  general 
election,  48  are  owners  of  real  estate  elected 
by  the  property  holders,  and  60  are  represen- 
tatives of  the  courts  and  the  administration ; 
their  term  is  six  years,  and  half  the  number 
are  elected  every  three  years.  The  revenue  is 


Hamburg. 


derived  mainly  from  direct  taxes,  principally 
the  income  tax,  and  the  disbursements  include 
the  maintenance  of  unobstructed  navigation 
of  the  Elbe,  over  which  from  the  port  to  the 
mouth  Hamburg  has  entire  jurisdiction.  The 
budget  for  1873  estimated  the  revenue  at  $4,- 
716,000,  the  expenditure  at  $4,924,000,  and  the 
public  debt  at  $9,051,000.  II.  One  of  the  three 
free  cities  of  Germany,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Alster,  60  m.  N.  E. 


of  Bremen,  and  33  m.  S.  W.  of  Liibeck ;  lat. 
53°  32'  51"  K,  Ion.  9°  58'  33"  E. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
240,251.  The  Alster,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe, 
flows  through  the  city  and  forms  two  basins, 
the  outer  and  the  inner  Alster,  and  numerous 
canals  intersect  the  city  and  communicate  with 
both  rivers.  A  magnificent  bridge,  begun  in 
1868  and  finished  in  1872,  crosses  the  Elbe, 
and  60  other  bridges  span  the  rivers  and  ca- 
nals. The  old  and  new  Jungfernstieg  "around 


HAMBURG 


HAMELN 


411 


the  inner  Alster,  the  Alsterdamm,  and  the  Wall 
are  the  fashionable  promenades,  and  the  envi- 
rons are  places  of  resort.  One  of  the  finest 
buildings  is  the  exchange,  which  contains  a 
mercantile  library  of  40,000  volumes.  Other 
important  edifices  are  the  government  house, 
with  its  great  hall  for  civic  feasts;  the  new 
museum,  with  a  collection  of  modern  pictures ; 
the  Johanneum  college,  containing  the  city 
library  of  200,000  volumes  and  5,000  manu- 
scripts ;  the  great  hospital  in  the  suburb  of  St. 
Georg,  with  accommodations  for  more  than 
4,000  patients ;  the  orphan  asylum,  educating 
and  providing  for  600  pupils  ;  the  Jewish  hos- 
pital, endowed  by  Salomon  Heine  in  1840,  and 
now  open  to  all  denominations ;  and  the  Eauhes 
Ham,  at  Horn,  near  the  city,  founded  in  1833 
by  Johann  Heinrich  Wichern,  for  the  care  and 
training  of  depraved  and  abandoned  children. 
There  are  numerous  other  charitable  and  ed- 
ucational institutions,  and  the  botanic  and 
zoological  gardens  are  among  the  most  exten- 
sive in  Germany.  The  church  of  St.  Catha- 
rine dates  from  the  14th  century ;  St.  Nicholas 
and  St.  Peter  are  both  modern  Gothic  edifices ; 
St.  James  has  a  tower  343  ft.  high ;  St.  Michael 
is  surmounted  by  a  steeple  428  ft.  high,  one  of 
the  loftiest  in  Europe ;  the  new  synagogue  for 
the  orthodox  Jews  was  opened  in  1859. — Ham- 
burg communicates  by  railway  with  the  lead- 
ing German  cities,  and  by  steamship  with  the 
principal  ports  of  Europe,  and  with  New  York, 
New  Orleans,  Havana,  and  Brazil.  The  port 
is  extensive;  vessels  drawing  14  ft.  come  up 
to  the  city,  and  their  cargoes,  discharged  into 
barges,  are  distributed  by  the  canals  to  the 
warehouses;  larger  ships  discharge  at  Cux- 
haven.  The  emigration,  mostly  to  the  United 
States,  amounted  in  1870  to  32,556,  in  1871  to 
42,224,  in  1872  to  74,406 ;  and  from  1846  to 
1872  the  total  was  740,874.  At  the  end  of 
1872  the  merchant  marine  comprised  402  ves- 
sels, including  62  steamers,  of  an  aggregate 
of  upward  of  200,000  tons;  the  entrances  of 
sea-going  vessels  were  5,913,  of  which  728 
were  in  ballast;  the  clearances  were  5,872,  of 
which  2,163  were  in  ballast;  the  number  of 
steamers  was  2,749.  The  imports  in  1871 
amounted  to  $442,000,000,  and  the  maritime 
exports  in  1872  (the  official  reports  giving 
weights  only)  amounted  to  13,448,000  cwt. 
The  principal  articles  of  import  are  cotton, 
wool,  woollen  and  worsted  stuffs,  yarn,  silk, 
hides,  hardware,  iron,  coffee,  sugar,  wine, 
brandy,  rum,  tobacco,  indigo,  dye  woods,  tea, 
pepper,  and  coal.  The  exports  consist  of  the 
same  articles,  except  coal,  Hamburg  being 
mainly  a  centre  of  distribution.  The  manufac- 
turing industry  is  important,  and  comprises 
ship  building,  sugar  refining,  distilling,  calico 
printing,  dyeing,  the  preserving  of  provisions, 
and  the  manufacture  of  sail  cloth,  ropes, 
leather,  woollen  goods,  cigars,  cutlery,  musical 
instruments,  carriages,  furniture,  hats,  soap, 
glue,  &c. ;  and  the  banking,  insurance,  and 
publishing  interests  are  enormous. — Hamburg 


is  a  very  ancient  city.  Charlemagne  built  a 
castle  here  about  809.  During  its  growth  from 
a  village  into  a  town  it  was  several  times  de- 
stroyed. The  emperor  Otho  IV.  (1215)  made  it 
an  imperial  city,  and  in  1241  a  commercial 
treaty  with  Liibeck  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Hanseatic  league.  The  reformation  was  for- 
mally introduced  about  1529.  During  the  ear- 
ly part  of  the  16th  century,  although  recog- 
nized as  a  state  of  the  empire,  it  was  without 
a  seat  or  vote  in  the  diet,  and  was  troubled 
by  the  kings  of  Denmark,  who  claimed  sov- 
ereignty over  it  as  counts  of  Holstein.  By 
convention  with  Denmark  in  1768  its  rights 
were  conceded,  and  in  1770  it  was  confirmed 
as  a  free  city  of  the  Germanic  empire.  In  1803 
it  fell  under  the  power  of  the  French,  who  after 
repeated  exactions  annexed  it  to  the  French 
empire  as  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Bouches  d'Elbe.  In  1813-'14  the  French,  un- 
der Marshal  Davoust,  sustained  in  it  that  ter- 
rible siege  in  which  upward  of  30,000  citizens 
were  driven  out  in  midwinter,  and  1,100,  whose 
monument  is  to  be  seen  near  Altona,  perished 
of  hunger.  On  June  8,  1815,  it  joined  the 
Germanic  confederation  as  a  free  Hanse  town. 
On  May  5,  1842,  a  conflagration  broke  out,  and 
continued  four  days,  destroying  one  third  of  the 
city ;  the  rebuilding  of  the  burnt  district  after 
a  general  plan  has  added  greatly  to  the  beauty 
of  many  of  its  streets  and  public  buildings. 
The  city  hall,  which  escaped  from  that  casualty, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1859,  but  has  since 
been  rebuilt.  The  constitution  of  the  North 
German  confederation,  and  likewise  that  of  the 
German  empire,  left  Hamburg  at  liberty  to  re- 
main outside  of  the  Zollverein  as  long  as  it 
wished.  When  Schleswig-Holstein  and  Meck- 
lenburg had  joined  that  league,  Hamburg  was 
on  all  sides  surrounded  by  the  territory  of  the 
Zollverein,  and  therefore  found  it  to  its  advan- 
tage to  join  it  for  one  portion  of  its  rural  dis- 
tricts, embracing  124  sq.  m.  and  32,792  inhabi- 
tants. The  remainder,  in  union  with  the 
neighboring  Prussian  city  Altona,  continues  a 
free  port  territory. 

HAMELN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
and  24  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Hanover,  on 
the  Hamel  and  the  Weser;  pop.  in  1871,  8,530. 
Over  the  Weser,  which  here  forms  an  island,  is 
a  suspension  bridge  more  than  800  ft.  long. 
The  town  has  a  gymnasium,  some  manufac- 
tures of  woollens  and  cottons,  distilleries,  and 
breweries.  It  was  formerly  fortified,  and  near 
it,  in  1633,  the  Swedes  obtained  a  victory  over 
the  imperial  troops.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene 
of  the  legend  of  the  piper  of  Hameln,  who 
offered  to  clear  the  town  of  rats  for  a  certain 
sum  of  money,  which  the  authorities  agreed  to 
pay.  The  vermin  followed  him  as  he  played 
on  his  pipe,  and  were  all  drowned  in  the  Weser. 
The  people,  released  from  their  torment,  re- 
fused to  pay  the  stipulated  sum,  and  the  piper 
vowed  vengeance.  On  June  26, 1284,  the  feast 
of  Saints  John  and  Paul,  he  reappeared  in  the 
streets  playing  his  pipe,  and  all  the  children, 


412 


HAMERLING 


charmed  by  his  music,  followed  him  into  a 
cavern  of  the  mountain,  where  they  disap- 
peared and  were  never  afterward  heard  from. 
For  a  long  time  the  town  dated  its  public  docu- 
ments from  this  calamity.  The  legend  is  the 
subject  of  a  poem  by  Robert  Browning. 

liAilIERLING,  Robert,  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Kirchberg,  Lower  Austria,  March  24,  1832. 
After  having  been  a  chorister,  he  studied  med- 
icine, philosophy,  and  philology.  From  1855 
till  about  1866  he  was  professor  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  Trieste,  and  has  since  resided  near  Gratz 
in  the  enjoyment  of  a  pension  from  the  govern- 
ment. His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  epic  poems 
Ahasverus  in  Rom  (Hamburg,  1866 ;  7th  ed., 
1871),  Sinnen  und  Minnen  (3d  ed.,  1870),  and 
Der  Konig  von  Sion  (1868 ;  5th  ed.,  1872).  A 
collection  of  his  smaller  poems  appeared  in 
Hamburg  in  1871,  and  in  the  same  year  he  pub- 
lished a  drama,  Danton  und  Robespierre. 

HAMERTON,  Philip  Gilbert,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Manchester,  Sept.  10, 1834.  His  moth- 
er died  when  he  was  a  fortnight  old,  and  his 
father  when  he  was  ten  years  old,  leaving  his 
early  education  to  be  superintended  by  a  pater- 
nal aunt,  who  put  him  in  school  at  Doncaster. 
He  went  afterward  to  Barnley  school,  where, 
principally  as  a  private  pupil,  he  was  fitted 
for  Oxford.  Becoming  interested  in  landscape 
painting,  he  studied  that  art  in  the  studio  of 
Mr.  Pettill  in  London,  and  then  went  back  to 
Lancashire,  where  he  passed  several  years,  de- 
voting himself  to  art  and  literature.  He  pub- 
lished anonymously  many  articles  in  periodi- 
cals, besides  "  Observations  on  Heraldry " 
(London,  1851),  and  "Isles  of  Loch  Awe,  and 
other  Poems"  (12mo,  1855).  In  1855  he  be- 
came a  student  of  William  Wyld  in  Paris,  re- 
maining two  or  three  years,  when  he  returned 
home  and  entered  upon  a  mode  of  life  in  Scot- 
land described  in  his  "  Painter's  Camp  in  the 
Highlands,  and  Thoughts  about  Art "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1862),  since  published  as  two  separate 
works.  For  three  years  he  was  the  art  critic 
of  the  "Saturday  Review,"  and  his  contribu- 
tions were  sought  by  other  publications.  In 
1859  he  married  a  daughter  of  M.  Frederic 
Gindriez,  and  after  living  for  a  while  in  Sens, 
where  he  painted  some  of  his  best  pictures,  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  Autun,  where  he  now 
lives  (1874).  He  has  invented  a  new  method 
of  etching,  which  he  calls  the  positive  process. 
(See  ENGRAVING.)  His  later  works,  several  of 
which  have  been  republished  in  the  United 
States,  comprise  "  Etching  and  Etchers  "  (1866) ; 
"Contemporary  French  Painters"  (1867); 
"The  Etcher's  Handbook"  (1868);  "Painting 
in  France  after  the  Decline  of  Classicism" 
(1868);  "  Wenderholme,  a  Story  of  Lancaster 
and  York  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1869) ;  "  The  Unknown 
River  "  (1870) ;  "  Chapters  on  Animals  "  (1873) ; 
and  "  The  Intellectual  Life  "  (1873).  Hamer- 
ton's  paintings  have  been  praised  by  some 
critics,  but  they  are  not  popular.  Among  the 
best  of  his  efforts  are  "  Kilchurn  Castle,"  "  Sens 
from  the  Vineyards,"  and  "The  River  Yonne." 


HAMILTON 

Mr.  Hamerton's  wife  has  published  "Jeanne 
Laraguay,"  a  novel  (London,  1864). 

HAMILCAR  BARCA,  or  Barcas,  a  Carthaginian 
general,  born  shortly  before  the  beginning  of 
the  first  Punic  war,  fell  in  a  battle  in  Spain, 
229  B.  C.  The  name  Barca,  which  he  had 
in  common  with  many  distinguished  Cartha- 
ginians, is  supposed  to  signify  lightning.  He 
first  appears  in  history  as  commander  of  a  Car- 
thaginian army  in  the  18th  year  of  the  first 
Punic  war,  247  B.  C.  The  Romans  then  had 
the  advantage.  Sicily,  the  main  scene  of  the 
war,  was  in  their  hands,  with  the  exception 
of  Drepanum  and  Lily  baa  um,  on  the  W.  coast, 
which  they  were  blockading  from  the  land  side. 
Hamilcar  seized  the  commanding  position  of 
Mount  Ercte  (now  Monte  Pellegrino),  near  Pa- 
normus  (Palermo),  where  he  encamped,  while 
the  bay  sheltered  the  Carthaginian  fleet.  From 
this  stronghold  he  made  successful  incursions 
into  the  interior  of  the  island  as  far  as  the  E. 
coast,  and  upon  the  S.  coast  of  Italy,  van- 
quished several  Roman  detachments,  and  took 
Eryx  near  the  N.  W.  angle  of  Sicily  (244). 
Holding  this  still  more  favorable  position,  he 
continued  his  incursions  over  the  island  and  the 
peninsula.  It  was  only  the  great  defeat  of  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  under  Hanno  by  the  newly 
formed  Roman  squadron  under  Lutatius  Catu- 
lus,  near  the  ^Egates  isles  (241),  which  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  the  struggle.  He  was 
then  commissioned  to  conclude  a  peace,  and 
with  his  army  embarked  at  Lilybseum  and 
returned  to  Carthage.  The  scene  of  war 
was  then  transferred  to  Spain,  whither  Ha- 
milcar was  eager  to  proceed ;  but  he  was  de- 
layed by  a  mutiny  of  some  mercenary  troops, 
which  soon  threatened  the  existence  of  the 
state.  After  the  defeat  of  Hanno  by  the  mer- 
cenaries, Hamilcar  took  the  field  against  them, 
and  finally  succeeded  in  crushing  the  rebellion, 
which  had  raged  for  more  than  three  years. 
He  now  entered  upon  his  Spanish  campaign, 
taking  with  him  his  young  son  Hannibal,  whom 
before  starting  (238)  he  made  to  swear  eternal 
enmity  to  Rome.  The  details  of  this  new 
campaign  are  little  known,  but  it  is  certain 
that  he  had  conquered  a  part  of  Spain  when 
he  was  overtaken  by  death.  His  conquests 
were  continued  by  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubal, 
and  afterward  by  Hannibal.  He  left  two  other 
sons,  Hasdrubal  and  Mago,  who  both  partook 
in  the  wars  of  their  brother. 

HAMILTON,  the  name  of  nine  counties  in  the 
United  States.  1.  A  N.  E.  county  of  New 
York,  drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Black, 
Hudson,  Raquette,  and  Sacondaga  rivers ;  area, 
1,711  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,960.  The  surface 
is  high,  hilly,  and  diversified  with  lakes;  the 
soil  is  poor,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  county, 
traversed  by  the  Adirondack  mountains,  is  still 
a  wilderness.  Timber  and  iron  are  abundant. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,781  bush- 
els of  Indian  corn,  21,980  of  oats,  6,392  of 
buckwheat,  46,317  of  potatoes,  78,312  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  7,358  tons  of  hay.  There  were 


HAMILTON 


413 


horses,  1,063  milch  cows,  1,879  other  cat- 
le,  3,748  sheep,  and  519  swine.    Capital,  Sage- 
ille.     II.   A  N.  county  of  Florida,  bordering 
Georgia,  bounded  E.  and  S.  by  the  Little 
Suwanee  and  W.  by  the  Withlacoochee  river, 
id  intersected  by  the  Allapaha;  area,  400  sq. 
i. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,749,  of  whom  2,363  were 
)lored.     The  surface  is  even,  and  the  soil  fer- 
The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  railroad  traverses 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  83,- 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,    6,185   of  oats, 
T,395  of  peas  and  beans,  2,235  of  sweet  pota- 
,  and  1,592  bales  of  cotton.     There  were 
horses,  333   mules  and  asses,  800   milch 
>ws,   2,351   other  cattle,   and    3,167  swine, 
apital,  Jasper.     III.  A  N.  central  county  of 
Texas,  intersected  by  Leon  river ;  area,  825  sq. 
;  pop.  in  1870,723,  of  whom  17  were  colored. 
>  surface  consists  mostly  of  rolling  prairies, 
ted  with  groves  of  timber.     There  are  nu- 
srous  streams,  the  banks  of  which  are  fringed 
ith  trees.     The  soil  is  fertile.     The  chief  pro- 
ictions  in  1870  were  3,330  bushels  of  wheat, 
T,150  of  Indian  corn,  18  bales  of  cotton,  and 
19,775  Ibs.  of  butter.     There  were  991  horses, 
,653  milch  cows,  9,703  other  cattle,  710  sheep, 
id  2,216  swine.     Capital,  Hamilton.     IV.  A 
E.    county    of   Tennessee,    bordering   on 
reorgia,  and  touching  Alabama  on  the  S.  W., 
itersected  by  the  Tennessee  river,  which  is 
navigable  by  steamboats;    area,  380  sq. 
i. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,241,  of  whom  4,188  were 
:>lored.    It  abounds  in  coal  and  iron.     The 
face  is  broken  by  high  ridges  connected 
ith  the  Cumberland  mountains,  and  the  soil 
fertile.     The  Nashville  and  Chattanooga,  the 
ilabama  and  Chattanooga,  and  the  East  Ten- 
jssee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  railroads  traverse 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  103,- 
ri6  bushels  of  wheat,  353,700  of  Indian  corn, 
t,963  of  oats,  12,912  Ibs.  of  wool,  79,214  of 
itter,  and  1,033  tons  of  hay.     There  were 
1,875  horses,  2,393  milch  cows,  5,040  other 
le,  6,741  sheep,  and  15,359  swine ;  1  manu- 
)ry  of  cars,  3  of  furniture,  2  of  iron,  2  of 
linery,  2  flour  mills,  1  tannery,  1  currying 
iblishment,  1  planing  mill,  and  2  saw  mills, 
ipital,  Chattanooga.     V.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
)hio,  bordering  on  Indiana,   separated  from 
lentucky  by  the  Ohio  river,  and  drained  by 
Jreat  and  Little  Miami  and  Whitewater  rivers ; 
}a,  390  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  260,370.     It 
ias  an  undulating  surface  and  a  rich  soil.    The 
;rape  is  extensively  cultivated  near  the  Ohio 
iver.    It  is  crossed  by  the  Miami  and  White- 
rater  canals,  and  by  several  railroads  cen- 
ring  in  Cincinnati.     The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  162,607  bushels  of  wheat,  1,226,726 
"Indian  corn,  268,089  of  oats,  96,979  of  bar- 
jy,  562,537  of  potatoes,  773,387  Ibs.  of  butter, 
126,400  of  cheese,  and  25,304  tons   of  hay. 
"lere  were  8,531  horses,  12,413  milch  cows, 
,254  other  cattle,  3,647   sheep,  and   21,165 
swine.     There  were  2,469  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, chiefly  in  Cincinnati,  the  county 
seat,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $42,646,152, 


and  an  annual  product  of  $78,905,980.  VI.  A 
central  county  of  Indiana,  drained  by  White 
river  and  several  smaller  streams ;  area,  400 
sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,882.  The  surface  is 
slightly  diversified  and  the  soil  extremely  rich. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Indianapolis,  Peru,  and 
Chicago  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  548,039  bushels  of  wheat,  972,660 
of  Indian  corn,  74,164  of  oats,  65,094  of  pota- 
toes, 62,206  Ibs.  of  wool,  336,215  of  butter, 
and  9,791  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,647 
horses,  5,630  milch  cows,  9,661  other  cattle, 
21,796  sheep,  and  33,555  swine;  13  manufac- 
tories of  carriages,  2  of  barrels  and  casks,  10  of 
bricks,  8  of  saddlery  and  harness,  6  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen  goods, 
11  flour  mills,  and  32  saw  mills.  Capital,  No- 
blesville.  VII.  A  S.  county  of  Illinois,  drained 
by  branches  of  Little  Wabash  river  and  Saline 
creek;  area,  395  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,993. 
It  has  a  well  wooded  surface,  diversified  with 
prairies  of  moderate  fertility,  and  a  great  deal 
of  swamp  land  in  the  north  part.  The  St. 
Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad  and  branch 
to  Shawneetown  traverse  it.  The  chief  .pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  92,476  bushels  of  wheat, 
735,252  of  Indian  corn,  203,464  of  oats,  28,402 
of  potatoes,  34,074  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses, 
471,860  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  42,776  of  wool,  195,- 
246  of  butter,  and  6,397  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,603  horses,  3,349  milch  cows,  4,974 
other  cattle,  20,117  sheep,  and  24,842  swine; 
15  carriage  factories,  2  woollen  factories,  9 
flour  mills,  and  9  saw  mills.  Capital,  McLeans- 
borough.  VIII.  A  central  county  of  Iowa,  in- 
tersected by  the  Boone,  and  containing  the 
head  waters  of  Skunk  river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,055.  The  surface  is  undulating 
and  the  soil  good.  Bituminous  coal  is  abun- 
dant. The  Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  railroad 
intersects  the  N.  part.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  126,978  bushels  of  wheat,  214,- 
818  of  Indian  corn,  80,206  of  oats,  26,323  of 
potatoes,  153,755  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  14,715  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  1,968  horses,  1,990  milch 
cows,  3,015  other  cattle,  and  2,920  swine; 
1  manufactory  of  agricultural  implements,  and 
3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Webster  City.  IX.  A 
S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  bounded  N.  W.  by 
the  Platte  river,  and  watered  by  branches  of 
the  Big  Blue;  area,  about  530  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  130.  The  value  of  farms  was  $43,400 ; 
of  farm  products,  $14,645;  of  live  stock,  $12,- 
111.  Capital,  Farmer's  Valley. 

HAMILTON,  a  town  and  village  of  Madison 
co.,  New  York,  on  the  Chenango  river,  90  m. 
W.  of  Albany  and  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Utica ;  pop.  of 
the  town  in  1870,  3,687;  of  the  village,  1,529. 
The  village  is  on  the  Utica  branch  of  the  New 
York  and  Oswego  Midland  railroad,  and  con- 
tains a  carriage  factory,  a  tannery,  a  cigar 
manufactory,  a  furnace,  a  cheese  factory,  a 
national  bank,  a  hotel,  a  female  seminary,  a 
union  school,  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  bi- 
weekly (published  by  the  college  students), 
and  five  churches.  Here  are  situated,  under 


414: 


HAMILTON 


the  control  of  a  common  board  of  trustees, 
Hamilton  theological  seminary  (Baptist),  Mad- 
ison university,  and  Colgate  academy.  These 
schools  were  developed  out  of  the  "  Hamilton 
Literary  and  Theological  Institution,"  founded 
in  1820.  Madison  university  was  chartered  in 
1846.  Its  faculty  in  1873-'4  consisted  of  10 
professors.  A  scientific  as  well  as  a  classical 
course  may  be  pursued.  The  number  of  vol- 
umes in  the  libraries  was  10,860.  The  faculty 
of  the  theological  seminary  consisted  of  four 
professors,  who  were  also  members  of  the  uni- 
versity faculty ;  and  Colgate  academy  has  a 
principal,  with  three  other  instructors.  The 
theological  seminary  had  43  students,  the  uni- 
versity 106,  and  the  academy  60.  The  acad- 
emy has  a  commodious  edifice.  The  university 
buildings  are  Alumni  hall,  East  college,  and 
West  college ;  besides  which  the  grounds  con- 
tain a  president's  house,  a  gymnasium,  a  board- 
ing hall,  and  professors'  houses.  The  town 
also  contains  the  villages  of  East  Hamilton, 
Hubbardsville,  Poolville,  and  part  of  Earlville, 
through  which  the  main  line  of  the  New  York 
and.Oswego  Midland  railroad  passes. 

HAMILTON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Butler 
co.,  Ohio,  on  both  sides  of  the  Miami  river  and 
on  the  Miami  canal,  at  the  intersection  of  the 
Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Dayton,  the  Cincin- 
nati, Richmond,  and  Chicago,  and  the  Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton,  and  Indianapolis  railroads,  20 
m.  N.  of  Cincinnati,  and  90  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Columbus;  pop.  in  1850,  3,210;  in  1860, 
7,223 ;  in  1870,  11,081,  of  whom  3,062  were 
foreigners.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  and 
populous  district,  and  is  extensively  engaged 
in  manufacturing.  The  principal  establish- 
ments are  machine  shops,  iron  founderies,  pa- 
per mills,  woollen  mills,  flour  mills,  distilleries, 
breweries,  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, boots  and  shoes,  railroad  supplies,  ploughs, 
saws,  rope,  pumps,  brooms,  candles,  boilers, 
<fec.  Abundant  water  power  is  supplied  by  a 
hydraulic  canal,  which  gives  a  fall  of  28  feet. 
There  are  eight  hotels,  and  two  national  banks 
with  $200,000  capital ;  valuation  of  property  in 
1873,  $5,836,065.  The  city  is  divided  into  four 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  coun- 
cil. It  has  five  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school,  having  in  1872  28  teachers  and  1,200  pu- 
pils ;  a  free  library  of  2,000  volumes,  four  week- 
ly newspapers  (one  German),  and  12  churches. 
The  quarter  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  river,  for- 
merly the  village  of  Rossville,  was  incorpora- 
ted with  Hamilton  when  the  municipal  charter 
was  granted  in  1853. 

HAMILTON,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
White  Pine  co.,  Nevada,  situated  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  the  county,  230  m.  E.  of  Carson  City 
and  215  m.  S.  W.  of  Salt  Lake  City ;  lat.  39° 
15'  N.,  Ion.  115°  27'  W. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,913, 
of  whom  160  were  Chinese.  It  is  built  at  the 
N.  base  of  Treasure  hill,  8,000  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  120  m.  S.  of  the  Central 
Pacific  railroad,  in  the  midst  of  the  White  Pine 
mining  district,  which  comprises  three  parallel 


mountains,  viz.  :  White  Pine,  11,000  ft.  high, 
and  Babylon  and  Treasure  hills,  each  9,000 
ft.  high.  Treasure  hill  contains  rich  chloride 
silver  ores,  while  the  other  two  yield  complex 
ores,  embracing  carbonates,  oxides,  and  sul- 
phites. All  the  valuable  minerals  abound  here 
except  tin  and  platinum,  and  the  ores  assay  as 
high  as  $1,500  a  ton  in  silver.  The  climate  of 
Hamilton  is  rigorous,  but  very  healthful.  In- 
sects and  reptiles  are  unknown.  Stages  run 
daily  to  Palisade  on  the  railroad  and  to  the 
mining  districts  S.  of  the  city,  and  there  is  a 
tri-weekly  line  to  the  east.  It  contains  a 
court  house,  an  Episcopal  and  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  a  public  school  with  two  depart- 
ments, a  weekly  newspaper,  a  bank,  two  ho- 
tels, and  a  brewery.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
nine  quartz  mills  with  155  stamps,  extensive 
smelting  works,  and  an  incomplete  refinery. 
The  streets  are  graded,  and  water  is  supplied 
by  works  erected  at  a  cost  of  $300,000. — Ham- 
ilton owes  its  origin  to  the  discovery  of  silver 
in  Treasure  hill  in  1868,  followed  by  a  great 
influx  of  population  and  extensive  operations. 
But  business  was  soon  paralyzed  by  litigation 
concerning  titles,  coupled  with  the  refusal  of 
speculators  to  work  their  claims,  and  by  the 
failure  of  the  smelting  works  through  igno- 
rance of  the  proper  treatment.  The  city  con- 
sequently dwindled,  until,  after  being  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  in  June,  1873,  it  contained 
only  600  inhabitants;  but  it  is  now  (1874)  re- 
covering. 

HAMILTON,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Wentworth  co.,  Ontario,  Canada, 
situated  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Burlington 
bay,  at  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  36  m.  S. 
S.  W.  of  Toronto,  and  42  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Ni- 
agara Falls;  pop.  in  1836,  2,846;  in  1846, 
6,822 ;  in  1851,  10,248 ;  in  1861,  19,096 ;  in 
1871,  26,716.  The  city  is  built  on  sloping 
ground,  extending  from  the  foot  of  a  hill 
about  1£  in.  to  the  shore  of  the  bay,  and  is  laid 
out  with  considerable  regularity.  The  prin- 
cipal thoroughfare,  King  street,  runs  E.  and 
W.  The  commercial  quarter  is  about  a  mile 
back  from  the  bay.  There  are  several  public 
squares,  on  which  the  government  buildings 
generally  front,  Court  House  square  and  Mar- 
ket square  being  among  the  finest.  The  city 
is  lighted  with  gas,  intersected  by  a  system  of 
sewers,  and  supplied  with  water  from  Lake 
Ontario  (6  m.  distant),  by  means  of  a  mag- 
nificent system  of  works,  which  cost  about 
$800,000.  The  public  and  private  buildings 
are  mostly  either  of  brick  or  of  freestone  or 
limestone,  brought  from  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  most  elevated  sites  are  occu- 
pied by  residences  and  gardens.  The  banks, 
public  offices,  churches,  hotels,  and  some  of 
the  stores,  are  good  specimens  of  architecture. 
The  Great  Western  and  Hamilton  and  Lake 
Erie  railways  furnish  communication  with  the 
principal  points  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  Its  situation  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion on  the  lake,  and  in  a  rich  and  populous 


HAMILTON" 


district,  affords  excellent  commercial  advan- 
tages. The  Desjardins  canal,  4  m.  in  length, 
connects  it  with  Dundas ;  and  the  Burlington 
Bay  canal,  which  cuts  through  the  beach  di- 
viding the  bay  from  the  lake,  shortens  its  com- 
munication with  Lake  Ontario.  The  imports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1872,  amounted^ 
to  $5,665,259;  exports,  $805,526,  of  which 
$597,820  was  the  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. The  number  of  entrances  from  the 
United  States  was  20.7,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  33,584 ;  clearances  for  American  ports, 
240,  of  39,621  tons.  Hamilton  is  the  second 
city  of  Ontario  in  population,  and  the  first  in 
manufacturing  industry.  The  manufactures 
embrace  iron  castings,  machinery,  agricultural 
implements,  sewing  machines,  musical  instru- 
ments, glassware,  wooden  ware,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  soap  and  candles,  boots  and 
shoes,  leather,  brooms,  brushes,  &c.  There 
are  also  several  saw  and  grist  mills,  a  bank, 
and  five  branch  banks.  The  city  is  divided 
into  five  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  a  board  of  15  aldermen.  It  contains  a 
deaf  and  dumb  institution,  two  orphan  asy- 
lums, a  house  of  refuge,  a  city  hospital,  a  con- 
vent, a  boys'  home,  home  for  the  friendless, 
and  an  industrial  school.  There  are  a  fe- 
male college,  a  business  college,  a  grammar 
school,  several  primary  schools,  a  mechanics' 
institute,  a  reading  room,  three  daily  and  six 
weekly  newspapers,  and  two  monthly  peri- 
odicals. The  Great  Western  railway  company 
has  a  library  of  2,000  volumes.  Hamilton  is 
the  seat  of  an  Episcopal  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  contains  23  churches.  The  city 
was  laid  out  in  1813. 

HAMILTON,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  near  the 
junction  of  the  Avon  with  the  Clyde,  10  m. 
S.  E.  of  Glasgow,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway;  pop.  in  1871,  11,299.  The  most 
important  public  buildings  are  two  fine  parish 
churches.  Manufactories  of  lace  and  muslins 
give  employment  to  several  thousand  hands. 
Separated  from  the  town  by  a  wall  and  park  is 
Hamilton  palace,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Ham- 
ilton. The  surrounding  grounds  between  the 
town  and  the  Clyde  comprise  1,460  acres,  and 
are  accessible  to  the  public.  A  portion  of  the 
palace  was  built  in  1591 ;  but  the  greater  part 
is  comparatively  modern.  The  interior  decora- 
tions are  magnificent,  and  the  picture  gallery 
is  unsurpassed  in  Scotland.  In  the  vicinity,  on 
a  rock  200  ft.  above  the  Avon,  are  the  ruins 
of  Cadzow  castle,  the  original  seat  of  the 
Hamiltons;  and  near  by  are  the  remains  of 
Cadzow  forest,  in  which  a  herd  of  the  original 
breed  of  wild  cattle  of  Britain  is  still  kept. 

HAMILTON,  Alexander,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  the  island  of  Nevis,  "West  Indies, 
Jan.  11, 1757,  died  in  New  York,  July  12, 1804. 
His  father  had  emigrated  from  Scotland  and 
established  himself  in  mercantile  business  in 
St.  Christopher's.  His  mother  was  of  French 
Huguenot  descent;  she  had  first  been  married 
387  VOL.  vin. — 27 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON        415 

to  a  Dane  named  Levine,  from  whom  she  ob- 
tained a  divorce.  Hamilton's  father  failed  in 
business,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  poverty.  His  mother  died  in  his  childhood, 
but  relatives  of  hers  who  resided  at  Santa 
Cruz  took  charge  of  the  orphan,  her  only  sur- 
viving child.  There  were  no  great  advantages 
of  education  at  Santa  Cruz ;  but,  possessing  the 
French  as  well  as  the  English  tongue,  young 
Hamilton  eagerly  read  such  books  in  both  lan- 
guages as  fell  in  his  way.  At  12  years  of  age 
he  was  placed  in  the  counting  house  of  a  mer- 
chant of  Santa  Cruz ;  but  this  occupation  was 
not  to  his  taste,  and  in  his  earliest  extant  letter, 
written  to  a  schoolfellow,  he  speaks  with  dis- 
gust of  the  "grovelling  condition  of  a  clerk," 
and  wishes  for  a  war.  But  though  he  did  not 
like  his  employment,  he  applied  himself  to  it 
with  characteristic  assiduity;  and  the  practical 
knowledge  thus  acquired  was  doubtless  a  step- 
ping stone  to  his  subsequent  reputation  as  a 
financier.  He  began  to  use  his  pen  early,  and 
among  other  things  he  wrote  a  description  of 
a  hurricane  by  which  St.  Christopher's  was 
visited  in  August,  1772.  This  description,  pub- 
lished in  a  newspaper  of  that  island,  attracted 
so  much  attention  as  to  induce  his  friends  to 
comply  with  his  wish  for  a  better  education 
than  could  be  had  at  home,  and  to  send  him  to 
New  York  for  that  purpose.  He  was  first  placed 
in  a  grammar  school  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
where  he  enjoyed  the  acquaintance  of  the  fam- 
ilies of  William  Livingston  and  Elias  Boudinot. 
After  a  few  months  he  entered  King's  (now 
Columbia)  college.  Besides  the  regular  studies 
of  an  undergraduate,  he  attended  lectures  on 
anatomy  with  the  idea  of  becoming  a  physi- 
cian. While  he  was  thus  engaged  the  quarrel 
with  the  mother  country  came  to  a  crisis. 
Some  differences  in  the  city  of  New  York  as 
to  the  selection  of  delegates  to  the  proposed 
continental  congress  led  to  a  public  meeting, 
July  6,  1774.  Hamilton  attended,  and  made  a 
speech  which  first  drew  attention  to  him.  Not 
long  after  he  became  a  correspondent  of  "  Holt's 
Journal,"  the  organ  of  the  New  York  patriots. 
A  pamphlet  having  appeared  attacking  the 
proceedings  of  the  continental  congress,  writ- 
ten by  Samuel  Seabury,  afterward  the  first 
bishop  of  the  American  branch  of  the  church 
of  England,  Hamilton  replied  to  it  in  another 
pamphlet,  written  with  so  much  ability  that  it 
was  ascribed  to  Jay.  This  reply  drew  out  an 
answer,  to  which  Hamilton  rejoined  in  a  sec- 
ond pamphlet.  These  pamphlets,  and  another 
which  he  published  in  June,  1775,  on  the 
"  Quebec  Bill,"  gave  him  standing  and  consid- 
eration among  the  popular  leaders.  Mean- 
while he  had  joined  a  volunteer  corps,  and 
applied  himself  to  obtain  information  and  in- 
struction as  an  artillerist.  In  March,  1776, 
though  yet  but  19  years  of  age,  he  obtained,  on 
the  recommendation  of  Gen.  Schuyler,  then  in 
command  of  the  northern  department,  a  com- 
mission as  captain  in  an  artillery  company 
raised  by  the  state  of  N"ew  York.  The  main 


416 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


body  of  the  continental  army,  lately  employed 
in  the  siege  of  Boston,  had  now  arrived  at  New 
York,  which  it  was  expected  would  be  the 
next  object  of  attack.  The  mind  of  the  young 
artillery  captain  was  not,  however,  wholly  ab- 
sorbed in  military  matters;  in  the  pay  book 
of  his  company,  which  still  exists,  are  notes 
which  show  that  he  was  revolving  in  his 
thoughts  the  subject  of  currency,  commerce, 
the  collection  of  taxes,  and  other  questions  of 
political  economy.  In  the  campaign  which 
followed,  Hamilton  bore  an  active  part.  It 
soon  became  necessary  to  abandon  New  York, 
and  Washington  retired  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  island  on  which  that  city  stands.  It  was 
here  that  Hamilton,  while  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  an  earthwork,  first  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  commander-in-chief,  who  in- 
vited him  to  his  quarters.  Hamilton's  artillery 
formed  a  part  of  the  detachment  of  1,600  men 
posted  at  Chatterton's  hill,  the  attack  upon 
which  by  the  British  is  commonly  known  as 
the  battle  of  White  Plains.  He  shared  in  the 
retreat  through  New  Jersey,  and  his  guns  helped 
to  check  the  advance  of  Cornwallis,  who  with 
greatly  superior  force  came  upon  the  retreating 
troops  as  they  were  crossing  the  Raritan.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and 
Princeton,  by  all  which  hard  service  his  com- 
pany was  reduced  to  25  men.  The  spirit  and 
ability  of  the  young  captain  of  artillery  had 
not  escaped  notice.  He  had  received  invita- 
tions from  two  major  generals  to  take  a  place 
in  their  staff.  These  he  declined ;  but  he  ac- 
cepted a  similar  offer  from  Washington,  and 
on  March  1,  1777,  was  announced  in  orders  as 
aide-de-camp  to  the  commander-in-chief  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  What  Wash- 
ington most  wanted  in  his  aides-de-camp  was 
competent  assistance  in  the  multifarious  corre- 
spondence which  he  was  obliged  to  carry  on 
with  congress,  the  governors  of  the  states,  the 
officers  on  detached  service,  and  in  regard  to 
the  exchange  of  prisoners  and  other  subjects 
with  the  British  commander-in-chief.  He  re- 
quired somebody  able  to  think  for  him,  as  well 
as  to  transcribe  and  to  execute  orders ;  and  so 
much  did  he  rely  on  Hamilton's  judgment  as 
to  employ  him,  young  as  he  was,  in  the  most 
delicate  and  confidential  duties.  After  the  bat- 
tles of  Brandy  wine  and  Germantown,  in  which 
Hamilton  took  an  active  part,  he  was  despatch- 
ed on  a  confidential  mission  to  Putnam  and 
Gates,  to  hasten  forward  the  reinforcements 
which  those  officers  after  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne's  army  had  been  directed  to  send  to 
Washington.  These  orders  they  had  been  in 
no  hurry  to  execute,  and  it  required  a  good  deal 
of  firmness  on  Hamilton's  part  to  accomplish 
the  object  of  his  mission.  He  spent  the  fol- 
lowing winter  in  the  camp  at  Valley  Forge. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth, 
June  28,  1778,  an  attack  which,  in  common 
with  Greene,  Wayne,  and  Lafayette,  he  had 
strongly  favored,  notwithstanding  the  opinion 
vof  Lee  to  the  contrary.  Of  the  challenge 


which  his  fellow  aide-de-camp  Laurens  sent  to 
Lee,  growing  out  of  the  incidents  of  that  day, 
Hamilton  was  the  bearer,  and  he  acted  as  sec- 
ond to  Laurens  in  the  duel  which  followed. 
When  Admiral  D'Estaing  arrived  at  Sandy 
Hook,  Hamilton  was  sent  by  Washington  to 
confer  with  him,  and  to  make  the  arrangement 
which  resulted  in  the  attack  on  Rhode  Island. 
His  courtesy  and  tact  made  a  very  favorable 
impression  on  the  French  admiral.  When  in  the 
autumn  of  the  next  year  D'Estaing  reappeared 
on  the  southern  coast,  Hamilton  was  again  sent 
to  express  to  him  the  views  and  wishes  of  Wash- 
ington. He  was  at  West  Point  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  Arnold's  treason,  and  strongly  urged 
a  compliance  with  Andre's  last  request  to  be 
shot.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1780  he  married 
Eliza,  the  second  daughter  of  Philip  Schuyler, 
and  by  this  alliance  with  a  wealthy  and  influ- 
ential family  established  for  himself  a  perma- 
nent hold  upon  the  state  of  New  York.  Short- 
ly afterward  he  resigned  his  position  as  a  mem- 
ber of  Washington's  staff.  A  rebuke  from 
Washington  which  he  thought  unmerited  was 
answered  on  the  spot  by  a  resignation,  which 
he  declined  to  withdraw,  though  Washington 
sent  him  an  apology.  But  this  separation  did 
not  interrupt  their  mutual  confidence  and  es- 
teem. He  subsequently  obtained  a  position  in 
the  line  of  the  army  as  commander  of  a  New 
York  battalion,  and  in  that  capacity  was  pres- 
ent at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  where  he  led  in 
the  attack  and  capture  of  one  of  the  British 
outworks,  Oct.  14,  1781.  The  rest  of  the  au- 
tumn and  the  winter  he  spent  with  his  father- 
in-law  at  Albany,  where  he  began  to  study  law. 
After  a  few  months'  study  he  obtained  at  the 
July  term  of  the  supreme  court,  1782,  a  license 
to  practise.  A  few  days  later  he  was  elected  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  a  delegate  to  the 
continental  congress,  and  took  his  seat  in  No- 
vember following.  During  the  year  that  he 
sat  in  this  body  Hamilton  bore  an  active  part 
in  the  proceedings  relating  to  the  settlement 
with  the  officers  of  the  army  as  to  their  half 
pay,  the  treaty  of  peace,  and  attempts  to  pro- 
vide means  of  meeting  the  public  debt.  He 
had  become  fully  satisfied  of  the  necessity  of 
giving  increased  authority  to  congress,  and  be- 
fore his  election  had  drafted  a  resolution  which 
the  New  York  legislature  adopted,  urging  an 
amendment  of  the  articles  of  confederation  hav- 
ing that  end  in  view.  The  city  of  New  York 
having  been  evacuated  by  the  British,  he  re- 
signed his  seat  in  congress,  removed  thither, 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  the  law.  An 
act  had  been  passed  by  the  New  York  legisla- 
ture just  before,  disqualifying  from  practice  all 
attorneys  and  councillors  who  could  not  pro- 
duce satisfactory  certificates  of  attachment  to 
whig  principles ;  most  or  all  the  old  city  law- 
yers fell  within  this  prohibition,  which  remain- 
ed in  force  for  three  or  four  years,  and  enabled 
Hamilton  and  other  young  advocates  to  enter 
immediately  on  a  run  of  practice  which  other- 
wise they  might  not  have  obtained  so  speedily. 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


There  existed  indeed  in  the  New  York  legis- 
lature a  very  bitter  feeling  against  the  tories. 
Another  act  levelled  against  them,  known  as 
the  "  Trespass  Act,"  gave  occasion  to  a  suit  in 
which  Hamilton  early  distinguished  himself. 
This  act  authorized  the  owners  of  buildings  in 
city  of  New  York,  who  had  abandoned 
lem  in  consequence  of  the  British  possession 
the  city,  to  maintain  suits  for  rent  against 
3  occupants,  notwithstanding  the  plea  on 
leir  part  that  the  -buildings  had  been  held 
ider  authority  from  the  British  commander, 
eing  retained  by  the  defendant  in  one  of  these 
lits,   Hamilton  made  an  elaborate  plea,   in 
rhich  he  maintained  that  whatever  right  might 
given  by  the  statute,  the  treaty  of  peace  and 
B  law  of  nations  extinguished  it.     Though 
popular  sentiment  was  strongly  against 
_,  he  prevailed  with  the  court,  whose  de- 
ion  was  of  the  more  consequence  as  there 
rere  many  other  cases  depending  on  the  same 
inciple.     The  decision*  was  denounced  by  a 
iblic  meeting  in  the  city ;  and  the  legislature, 
without  waiting  the  result  of  an  appeal,  passed 
)lutions  censuring  the  court.     Hamilton  de- 
mded  his  views  in  two  pamphlets,  and  the 
>irit  as  an  advocate  and  ability  as  a  lawyer 
rhich  he  displayed  in  this  case  secured  him  at 
ice  a  multitude  of  clients.     He  took  an  active 
in  establishing  the  bank  of  New  York,  the 
institution  of  the  kind  in  the  state  and 
second  in  the  Union,  and  was  appointed 
le  of  its  directors.     He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  manumission  society,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  abolition  of  slavery,  then  exist- 
ing in  the  state  of  New  York.     By  appoint- 
ment of  the  state  legislature  he  attended  in 
1786  the  convention  at  Annapolis,  and  as  a 
member  of  it  drafted  the  address  to  the  states 
which  led  to  the  convention  the  next  year  by 
which  the  federal  constitution  was  framed. 
Having  been  chosen  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  New  York,  he  vainly  urged  the  conces- 
sion to  congress  of  power  to  collect  a  5  per 
cent,  import  duty,  and  the  repeal  of  all  state 
laws  inconsistent  with  the  treaty  of  peace.    In 
the  settlement  of  the  long  pending  controversy 
between  New  York  and  Vermont,  and  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  independence  of  Vermont 
by  New  York,  he  was  more  successful.  Though 
the  prevailing  party  in  the  New  York  legisla- 
ture was  little  inclined  to  any  material  increase 
of  the  authority  of  the  federal  government, 
Hamilton  was  appointed  one  of  the  delegates 
to  the  convention  to  revise  the  articles  of  con- 
federation, which  met  at  Philadelphia,  May  14, 
1787.    He  had,  however,  two  colleagues,  Rob- 
ert Yates  and  John  Lansing,  who  together  con- 
trolled the  vote  of  the  state,  of  decidedly  op- 
posite opinions.     Two  projects  were  brought 
forward  in  that  body,  one  known  as  the  Virgi- 
nia plan,  which  contemplated  the  formation  of 
a  national  government  with  an  executive,  legis- 
lature, and  judiciary  of  its  own,  the  basis  of 
the  constitution  actually  adopted;  the  other 
known  as  the  New  Jersey  plan,  which  was 


little  more  than  an  amendment  in  a  few  par- 
ticulars of  the  existing  confederation.  In  the 
course  of  the  debate  on  these  two  plans,  Ham- 
ilton delivered  a  very  elaborate  speech.-  As 
between  the  two  plans,  he  preferred  that 
which  went  furthest,  though  he  doubted  if 
even  that  was  stringent  enough  to  secure  the 
object  in  view.  He  offered  a  written  sketch 
of  such  a  frame  of  government  as  he  would 
prefer,  not  for  discussion,  or  with  the  idea  that 
in  the  existing  state  of  public  sentiment  it 
could  ^be  adopted,  but  as  indicating  the  mark 
to  which  he  would  desire  to  approach  as  near 
as  possible.  This  scheme  included  an  assembly 
to  be  elected  by  the  people  for  three  years ;  a 
senate  to  be  chosen  by  electors  chosen  by  the 
people,  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior; 
and  a  governor  chosen  also  for  good  behavior 
by  a  similar  but  most  complicated  process. 
The  governor  was  to  have  an  absolute  negative 
on  all  laws,  and  the  appointment  of  all  officers, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  senate.  The 
governors  of  the  states  were  to  be  appointed 
by  the  general  government,  and  were  to  have 
a  negative  on  all  state  laws.  The  power  of  de- 
claring war  and  of  ratifying  treaties  was  to  be 
vested  in  the  senate.  He  insisted  on  the  ne- 
cessity of  establishing  a  national  government 
so  powerful  and  influential  as  to  create  an  in- 
terest in  its  support  extensive  and  strong 
enough  to  counterbalance  the  state  govern- 
ments, and  to  reduce  them  to  subordinate  im- 
portance. Upon  the  adoption  of  the  Virginia 
scheme  his  New  York  colleagues  abandoned 
the  convention  in  disgust.  He  too  was  absent 
for  some  time  on  business  in  New  York,  but 
returned  again  to  the  convention,  and,  though 
the  constitution  as  reported  by  the  committee 
of  detail  failed  to  come  up  to  his  ideas  of  ener- 
gy and  efficiency,  he  exerted  himself  to  per- 
fect it.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  for  re- 
vising its  style  and  arrangement,  and  warmly 
urged  its  signature  by  the  delegates  present  as 
the  best  that  could  be  had.  There  still  re- 
mained the  not  less  serious  and  doubtful  task 
of  procuring  for  the  constitution  the  consent 
and  ratification  of  the  states.  The  convention 
adjourned  Sept.  17.  On  Oct.  27  there  appeared 
in  a  New  York  journal  the  first  number  of  a 
series  of  papers  entitled  "  The  Federalist,"  in 
support  of  the  constitution  against  the  various 
objections  urged  to  it.  These  papers  continued 
till  the  following  June,  reaching  the  number 
of  85,  were  republished  throughout  the  states, 
and  made  a  strong  impression  in  favor  of  the 
new  scheme  of  government.  Five  of  them 
were  written  by  Jay,  fourteen  by  Madison, 
three  by  Madison  and  Hamilton  jointly,  and 
the  rest  by  Hamilton.  They  are  still  read  and 
quoted  as  a  standard  commentary  on  the  ends 
and  aims  of  the  federal  constitution  and  its  true 
interpretation.  In  the  convention  of  New  York, 
of  which  Hamilton  was  a  member,  he  sustained 
the  constitution  with  zeal  and  success.  The 
government  having  been  put  into  operation 
under  it,  and  congress  at  its  first  session  having 


418 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


passed  acts  reorganizing  the  executive  depart- 
ments, Washington  in  1789  selected  Hamilton 
as  secretary  of  the  treasury.  At  the  ensuing 
session  Hamilton  presented  an  elaborate  report 
on  the  public  debt  and  the  ree"stablishment  of 
the  public  credit.  That  debt  was  of  two  de- 
scriptions, loans  obtained  abroad,  and  certifi- 
cates issued  for  money  lent,  supplies  furnished, 
and  services  rendered  at  home.  As  to  the  for- 
eign debt,  all  agreed  that  it  must  be  met  in 
the  precise  terms  of  the  contract.  As  to  the 
domestic  debt,  the  certificates  of  which  had 
largely  changed  hands  at  a  great  depreciation, 
the  idea  had  been  suggested  of  paying  them  at 
the  rates  at  which  they  had  been  purchased  by 
the  present  holders.  The  report  of  the  secre- 
tary took  strong  ground  against  this  project. 
He  considered  it  essential  to  the  reestablish - 
ment  of  the  public  credit  that  the  assignees  of 
the  certificates  should  be  considered  as  stand- 
ing precisely  in  the  place  of  the  original  credi- 
tors ;  and  the  funding  system  which  he  pro- 
posed, and  which  was  carried  in  the  face  of 
a  strong  opposition,  was  based  on  this  idea. 
Another  part  of  the  system  not  less  warmly 
opposed  was  the  assumption  of  the  debts  con- 
tracted by  the  states  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
late  war.  At  the  next  session  he  proposed  two 
other  measures,  both  of  which  encountered  a 
not  less  earnest  resistance — an  excise  duty  on 
domestic  spirits,  and  a  national  bank  with  a 
capital  of  $10,000,000.  At  the  first  session 
of  the  second  congress  Hamilton  presented  an 
elaborate  report  on  the  policy  of  having  regard 
in  the  imposition  of  duties  on  imports  to  the 
protection  of  domestic  manufactures,  with  an 
answer  to  the  objections  made  against  it — a 
summary  of  the  arguments  on  that  side  of  the 
question  to  which  subsequent  discussion  has 
added  little.  The  success  of  the  funding  sys- 
tem and  the  bank  gave  Hamilton  a  strong  hold 
upon  the  moneyed  and  mercantile  classes,  but 
they  also  raised  against  him  a  very  bitter  opposi- 
tion, which  extended  even  to  the  cabinet,  Mr. 
Jefferson,  .the  secretary  of  state,  strongly  sym- 
pathizing with  it.  Both  the  funding  system 
and  the  bank  were  denounced  as  instruments 
of  corruption  dangerous  in  the  highest  degree 
to  the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  Hamilton  as 
designing  to  introduce  by  their  means  aristoc- 
racy and  monarchy.  Charges  of  this  sort,  con- 
stantly iterated  in  a  newspaper  edited  by  a  clerk 
in  the  state  department,  drew  out  from  Hamil- 
ton a  newspaper  article  under  the  signature  of 
"An  American,"  in  which  he  charged  upon 
Jefferson  the  instigation  of  these  attacks,  and 
urged  the  inconsistency  of  Jefferson's  holding 
a  place  in  an  administration  the  policy  of  which 
he  assailed.  At  the  next  session  of  congress 
a  violent  attack  was  made  by  Mr.  Giles  of  Vir- 
ginia upon  the  management  of  the  treasury  de- 
partment. He  moved  nine  resolutions  of  cen- 
sure, hut  Hamilton  sent  in  a  triumphant  reply, 
and  the  proceedings  proved  a  total  failure. 
The  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  England 
and  France  in  1793,  by  raising  new  questions 


as  to  the  policy  to  be  pursued  toward  the  bel- 
ligerents, aggravated  the  differences  between 
Hamilton  and  Jefferson.  Hamilton  favored 
the  policy  of  a  strict  and  exact  neutrality,  and 
the  right  of  the  president  to  assume  that  posi- 
tion ;  and  he  defended  his  views  in  print  under 
the  signature  of  "  Pacificus."  Jefferson,  find- 
ing Hamilton's  influence  predominant  in  Wash- 
ington's cabinet  on  this  question  as  on  others, 
finally  retired  from  it.  The  opposition  to  the 
excise  law  having  proceeded  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania to  the  extent  of  armed  resistance,  it 
became  necessary  to  call  out  a  force  to  repress 
it;  this  operation  was  successfully  conducted 
under  Hamilton's  eye  in  the  autumn  and  win- 
ter of  1794.  Having  procured  the  adoption  by 
congress  of  a  system  for  the  gradual  redemp- 
tion of  the  public  debt,  and  finding  his  salary 
insufficient  for  his  support,  after  six  years'  ser- 
vice, Hamilton  resigned  his  office,  Jan.  31, 
1795,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law  in 
New  York.  He  still  remained,  however,  a 
warm  supporter  of  Washington's  administra- 
tion. On  the  question  of  the  ratification  of 
Jay's  treaty,  by  which  the  country  was  soon 
after  greatly  shaken,  he  gave  effectual  aid  to 
the  president's  policy  of  ratifying  the  treaty  in 
a  series  of  essays  signed  "  Camillus."  In  the 
preparation  of  Washington's  "  Farewell  Ad- 
dress," Hamilton's  assistance  -was  asked  and 
given,  precisely  to  what  extent  has  been  and 
still  is  a  matter  of  controversy.  About  the 
time  of  Adams's  accession  to  the  presidency, 
the  charges  against  Hamilton  of  misbehavior 
as  secretary  of  the  treasury  were  renewed  in  a 
new  and  aggravated  shape.  While  Giles  was 
hunting  up  matter  for  his  abortive  resolutions 
some  opposition  members  of  congress,  of  whom 
Monroe  was  one,  had  fallen  in  with  two  per- 
sons named  Clingman  and  Reynolds,  who  inti- 
mated that  they  were  in  possession  of  secrets 
very  damaging  to  Hamilton's  character.  By 
way  of  confirmation  Reynolds  exhibited  some 
notes  in  Hamilton's  handwriting  as  proving 
a  confidential  correspondence  between  them. 
Under  the  idea  that  they  had  discovered  a 
connection  between  Reynolds  and  Hamilton 
for  speculation  in  public  securities,  in  which 
while  at  the  head  of  the  treasury  Hamilton 
could  not  legally  engage,  Monroe  and  his  com- 
panions waited  upon  Hamilton  to  ask  an  ex- 
planation. He  speedily  convinced  them,  by 
the  production  of  other  letters,  that  the  corre- 
spondence between  himself  and  Reynolds  had 
grown  entirely  out  of  an  intrigue  with  Rey- 
nolds's  wife,  into  which  he  had  been  entrapped. 
Though  Monroe  and  his  associates  admitted 
that  their  suspicions  of  official  misconduct  were 
wholly  removed,  Monroe  preserved  certain 
memoranda  of  their  interview  with  Reynolds, 
Clingman,  and  Hamilton;  and  these,  having 
come  by  some  unexplained  means  into  the 
hands  of  Callender,  a  pamphleteer  of  the 
opposition,  were  published,  with  the  intima- 
tion (based  on  an  opinion  expressed  by  Cling- 
man, in  a  conversation  with  Monroe  after 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


419 


interview  with  Hamilton,  Monroe's  memo- 
dum  of  which  was  not  communicated  to 
him)  that  the  alleged  intrigue  was  a  falsehood 
invented  by  Hamilton  and  sustained  by  forged 
letters  and  receipts  to  cover  up  his  illegal  stock 
speculations.  After  a  sharp  correspondence 
with  Monroe,  whose  explanations  as  to  his 
memorandum  and  the  credit  he  attached  to  it 
were  not  satisfactory,  Hamilton  published  a 
pamphlet  containing  not  only  the  correspon- 
dence with  Monroe,  but  that  also  which  he  had 
exhibited  to  Monroe  and  his  associates ;  a  step 
into  which  he  considered  himself  forced  by  the 
position  assumed  by  Monroe.  The  difficulties 
with  France  consequent  upon  the  ratification 
of  Jay's  treaty  soon  reached  a  point  little  short 
of  war.  A  French  invasion  was  apprehended. 
In  the  summer  of  1798  additions  were  made  to 
the  regular  army,  further  additions  were  pro- 
visionally authorized,  and  Washington  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  with  the  title  of 
lieutenant  general.  He  accepted  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  he  should  not  be  called  into 
active  service  except  in  the  event  of  hostilities, 
and  on  the  condition  that  Hamilton  should  be 
major  general,  thus  throwing  upon  him  the  de- 
tails of  the  organization  of  the  army.  While 
thus  engaged  Hamilton  wrote  in  defence  of  the 
policy  which  had  led  to  these  military  prepara- 
tions. On  the  death  of  Washington,  Dec.  14, 
1799,  Hamilton  succeeded  to  the  command  in 
ief;  but  satisfactory  arrangements  having 
n  made  with  France,  the  army  was  soon  dis- 
ded  and  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in 
New  York.  The  appointment  made  by  Adams, 
in  September,  1799,  of  a  new  embassy  to  France 
contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  cabinet,  was 
strongly  disapproved  by  the  more  ardent  fed- 
eralists, and  among  others  by  Hamilton.  This 
produced  a  breach  in  the  federal  party;  but 
Hamilton  and  his  friends,  considering  the  strong 
influence  of  Adams  in  New  England,  could  not 
venture  openly  to  oppose  his  reelection  as  presi- 
dent. The  most  they  could  do  was  to  endeavor 
by  a  secret  understanding  to  secure  a  greater 
number  of  votes  for  the  other  candidate  who 
might  be  placed  on  the  federal  ticket ;  candidates 
being  voted  for,  as  the  constitution  then  stood, 
without  designating  whether  for  president  or 
vice  president,  the  first  office  falling  to  him  who 
had  the  highest  vote.  Whether  the  federalists 
would  be  able  to  command  a  majority  of  the 
electoral  votes  seemed  likely  to  depend  on  the 
political  complexion  of  the  legislature  of  New 
York,  and  that  in  its  turn  on  the  character  of 
the  delegation  from  the  city  of  New  York. 
To  secure  that  delegation,  Hamilton  on  the  one 
side  and  Aaron  Burr  on  the  other  made  every 
possible  exertion.  Burr,  who  was  a  master  of 
the  arts  of  political  intrigue,  succeeded  in  car- 
rying the  day.  Shortly  after  this  election  the 
breach  in  the  federal  party  became  fully  ap- 
parent. Adams  dismissed  the  chief  members  of 
his  cabinet,  whom  he  accused  of  being  under 
Hamilton's  influence  and  belonging  with  him 
to  a  British  faction.  Hamilton  in  his  turn 


printed  a  severe  criticism  on  Adams's  politi- 
cal character,  intended  for  private  circulation 
among  the  leading  federalists,  but  of  which 
the  publication  became  necessary  in  conse- 
quence of  extracts  from  it  which  found  their 
way  into  some  of  the  opposition  newspapers. 
The  presidential  election  went  against  the  fed- 
eralists, but  the  result  showed  an  equal  vote  for 
Jefferson  and  Burr.  The  federalists  in  the 
house  of  representatives  (to  which  body  it  fell 
to  decide  between  them),  being  strong  enough 
to  control  or  neutralize  the  vote  of  half  the 
states,  favored  the  election  of  Burr ;  but  Ham- 
ilton, who  entertained  a  very  unfavorable  opin- 
ion of  Burr,  remonstrated  strongly  against  this 
attempt  to  make  him  president.  In  the  trial  in 
1803  of  Croswell  for  an  alleged  libel  on  Jeffer- 
son, he  supported  the  doctrine  that  to  publish 
the  truth  is  no  libel.  The  court  charged 
against  him,  and  the  jury  gave  an  adverse 
verdict ;  but  the  doctrine  which  he  maintained 
was  adopted  by  the  legislature  in  1805,  and 
has  since  prevailed  throughout  the  United 
States.  Burr,  having  lost  the  confidence  of 
his  party,  and  being  unable  to  obtain  a  renom- 
ination  as  vice  president,  sought  to  be  elected 
governor  of  New  York.  He  hoped  to  receive 
the  support  of  the  federalists,  then  in  a  mi- 
nority and  unable  to  elect  any  candidate  of 
their  own.  Hamilton's  opinion  of  Burr  had 
undergone  no  change,  and  at  a  federal  caucus 
he  warmly  opposed  the  project  of  supporting 
him  for  governor.  He  took  no  active  part  in 
the  election,  but  his  opinions  were  frequently 
quoted  by  those  who  did.  Burr  was  defeat- 
ed by  Morgan  Lewis,  as  he  believed,  through 
Hamilton's  instrumentality,  and  became  eager 
for  vengeance.  He  called  on  Hamilton  to  dis- 
avow having  used  pending  the  election  any 
expressions  derogatory  to  his  personal  honor, 
and  finally  challenged  him.  This  challenge 
was  accepted  by  Hamilton,  but  not  in  the  spirit 
of  a  professed  duellist.  The  practice  of  duel- 
ling he  utterly  condemned;  indeed,  he  had 
himself  already  been  a  victim  to  it  in  the  loss 
of  his  eldest  son,  a  boy  of  20,  in  a  political  duel 
in  1802.  This  condemnation  he  recorded  in  a 
paper  which  under  a  premonition  of  his  fate 
he  left  behind  him.  It  was  in  his  character  of 
a  public  man  that  he  accepted  the  challenge. 
"The  ability  to  be  in  future  useful,"  such  was 
his  own  statement  of  his  motives,  "whether  in 
resisting  mischief  or  affecting  good  in  those 
crises  of  our  public  affairs  which  seem  likely 
to  happen,  would  probably  be  inseparable  from 
a  conformity  with  prejudice  in  this  particular." 
The  meeting  took  place,  July  11, 1804,  at  Wee- 
hawken  on  the  Hudson  opposite  New  York, 
and  at  the  first  fire  Hamilton  received  a  wound 
of  which  he  died  the  next  day. — The  object 
alike  of  bitter  hatred  and  of  the  warmest  ad- 
miration, Hamilton  enjoyed  among  his  contem- 
poraries, both  friends  and  foes,  a  reputation  for 
extraordinary  ability,  which  he  still  retains. 
He  was  under  the  middle  size,  thin  in  person, 
and  very  erect,  courtly,  and  dignified  in  his 


420 


HAMILTON 


bearing.  His  figure,  though  slight,  was  well 
proportioned  and  graceful.  His  complexion 
was  very  delicate  and  fair,  his  cheeks  rosy,  and 
the  whole  expression  pleasing  and  cheerful. 
His  voice  was  musical,  his  manner  frank  and 
cordial.  He  excelled  equally  as  a  writer  and  a 
speaker.  His  widow  survived  him  50  years, 
having  died  in  1854  at  the  age  of  97.  His 
son  John  0.  Hamilton  wrote  his  life  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1834-'40),  edited  his  works  from  MSS. 
in  the  state  department  (7  vols.,  1851),  and 
also  compiled  an  elaborate  work  in  several 
volumes  under  the  title  of  "History  of  the 
Republic  of  the  United  States,  as  traced  in  the 
Writings  of  Alexander  Hamilton  and  his  Con- 
temporaries" (1850).  See  also  "A  Collection 
of  Facts  and  Documents  relative  to  the  Death 
of  Major  General  Hamilton,"  by  W.  Coleman 
(1804) ;  " Official  Reports"  (1810) ;  his  life  by 
James  Renwick  (1841);  "Official  and  other 
Papers,"  edited  by  Francis  L.  Hawks  (1842)  ; 
and  "Hamilton's  Conduct  as  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  Vindicated,"  by  J.  A.  Hamilton  (1870). 

HAMILTON,  Count  Anthony,  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Ireland  about  1646,  died  at  St.  Ger- 
main-en-Laye  in  1720.  He  belonged  to  an  il- 
lustrious Scotch  family,  and  on  the  death  of 
Charles  I.  was  taken  to  France,  where  he  re- 
ceived his  education.  On  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  he  returned  to  England,  and  was 
presented  at  court,  but,  being  a  Catholic,  re- 
ceived no  official  appointment.  James  II.  gave 
him  the  command  of  an  infantry  regiment  in 
Ireland  and  the  government  of  Limerick.  In 
1688  he  accompanied  the  exiled  king  to 
France,  and  remained  one  of  his  faithful  cour- 
tiers. During  this  period  he  wrote  his  spir- 
ited works,  which  still  hold  a  place  in  French 
literature.  The  best  known,  Les  memoires  du 
comte  de  Gramont  (1713),  is  a  narrative  of  the 
licentious  life  of  his  brother-in-law,  and  a  faith- 
ful picture  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land. He  left  also  a  series  of  tales,  written  to 
burlesque  the  then  recently  published  "Ara- 
bian Nights :"  •  Le  lelier,  Fleur  d'epine,  Les 
quatre  Facardins,  and  Zeneide,  first  published 
in  1749,  and  several  miscellaneous  light  poems. 
The  Memoires  have  been  frequently  translated 
in  England,  one  of  the  best  editions  being  that 
published  by  Bohn  with  notes  and  illustrations 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  including  the  per- 
sonal history  of  Charles  and  the  Boscobel  tracts 
(1853).  Hamilton's  tales,  under  the  title  of 
"  Fairy  Tales  and  Romances,"  have  also  been 
translated  into  English  (1849).  The  best  French 
edition  of  his  complete  works  is  by  Renouard 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1812). 

HAMILTON,  Elizabeth,  an  Irish  authoress,  born 
in  Belfast,  July  25,  1758,  died  at  Harrogate, 
England,  July  25,  1816.  She  spent  considera- 
ble time  in  Scotland,  as  governess  in  the  family 
of  a  Scottish  nobleman,  and  some  of  her  most 
interesting  works  sprang  from  the  friendships 
which  she  formed  and  the  observations  which 
she  made  in  that  country.  Among  these  are 
her  "Letters  on  the  Formation  of  Religious 


and  Moral  Principle"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1806),  addressed  to  the  eldest  of  her  pupils, 
and  her  "Cottagers  of  Glenburnie"  (1808),  a 
tale  illustrative  of  the  habits  of  the  Scottish 
peasantry  of  that  day.  The  most  important 
of  her  other  works  are  :  "  Letters  of  a  Hindoo 
Rajah,  written  previous  to  and  during  the  Pe- 
riod of  his  Residence  in  England "  (2  vols., 
1796),  a  fictitious  work  describing  English  man- 
ners; "Memoirs  of  Modern  Philosophers" 
(3  vols.,  Bath,  1800) ;  "  Letters  on  the  Ele- ' 
mentary  Principles  of  Education"  (2  vols., 
1801-'2) ;  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Agrippina 
the  Wife  of  Germanicus"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1811);  and  "Popular  Essays  on  the  Under- 
standing, Imagination,"  &c.  (2  vols.,  1845). 

HAMILTON,  Gavin,  a  Scottish  artist,  born  at 
Lanark  about  1730,  died  in  Rome  in  1797.  At 
an  early  age  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied 
painting.  He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
exploring  the  neighborhood  of  Rome  for  ancient 
monuments  and  statues,  which  he  bought  and 
sold,  and  of  which  he  made  a  large  and  valuable 
collection,  now  in  the  Towneley  gallery  of  mar- 
bles in  the  British  museum.  He  published 
"  The  Italian  School  of  Painting,"  with  40  su- 
perb plates  (fol.,  London,  1773). 

HAMILTON,  James,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  8, 1786,  drowned 
at  sea  near  the  coast  of  Texas,  Nov.  15,  1857. 
He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  entered  tho 
army  and  served  as  a  major  in  the  Canadian 
campaign  of  1812,  and  afterward  resumed  the 
practice  of  the  law.  For  several  successive 
years  he  was  mayor  of  Charleston,  and  he  was 
active  in  the  detection  of  a  formidable  con- 
spiracy in  1822  among  the  negro  population, 
led  by  Denmark  Vesey,  a  free  mulatto  from 
Hayti.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to 
the  state  legislature,  and  was  also  chosen  a  rep- 
resentative in  congress,  where  he  became  promi- 
nent by  his  opposition  to  the  protective  system. 
While  in  congress  he  acted  as  second  to  John 
Randolph  in  his  duel  with  Henry  Clay.  He 
was  also  second  to  Gov.  McDuffie  in  his  duel 
with  Col.  Cummings.  Jackson,  on  his  elec- 
tion as  president  in  1828,  offered  him  the  post 
of  secretary  of  war,  and  afterward  that  of 
minister  to  Mexico,  with  authority  to  nego- 
tiate the  annexation  of  Texas,  both  of  which 
he  declined.  In  1830-'32  he  was  governor  of 
South  Carolina,  and  recommended  to  the  le- 
gislature the  passage  of  the  nullification  act, 
which  he  supported  in  numerous  essciys  and 
speeches.  His  successor,  Gov.  Hayne,  ap- 
pointed him  to  the  command  of  the  state  mi- 
litia. Some  time  afterward  he  became  inter- 
ested in  the  affairs  of  the  republic  of  Texas, 
and  in  1841  was  her  minister  to  England  and 
France,  where  he  procured  the  recognition  of 
her  independence ;  and  in  1845  he  was  active 
in  aiding  her  admission  to  the  Union.  On  the 
death  of  Calhoun  in  1850,  he  was  appointed 
his  successor  in  the  United  States  senate,  but 
for  domestic  reasons  he  declined  the  office. 
He  had  expended  his  fortune  in  the  service  of 


HAMILTON 


421 


Texas,  and  was  on  his  way  thither  to  seek  in- 
demnification when  he  perished  in  a  collision 
of  steamboats.  With  his  usual  courtesy  and 
generosity  he  yielded  his  own  chance  of  safety 
to  a  lady  among  the  passengers,  to  whom  he 
was  a  stranger.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  United  States  senator  elect  from  Texas. 

HAMILTON,  Robert,  a  Scottish  mathematician 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1742,  died  in  Aber- 
deen, July  14,  1829.  In  1766  he  became  so 
vorably  known  as  a  mathematician  that,  al- 
ugh  but  23  years  of  age,  he  was  induced  to 
er  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  mathemati- 
professorship  of  Marischal  college,  Aber- 
i.  He  was  unsuccessful  in  this  instance, 
t  three  years  later  was  appointed  rector  of 
e  academy  at  Perth.  In  1779  the  chair  of 
atural  philosophy  in  Marischal  college  was 
presented  to  him,  and  the  year  after  he  ex- 
*  anged  it  for  the  professorship  of  mathemat- 
His  "Inquiry  concerning  the  Rise  and 
gress,  the  Redemption  and  Present  State, 
d  the  Management  of  the  National  Debt  of 
;t  Britain  "  (1813),  was  the  first  important 
mpt  to  overthrow  the  sinking  fund  sys- 
which  had  for  many  years  been  con- 
ered  an  axiom  in  financial  science.  Hamil- 
's  views  were  subsequently  adopted  by  the 
.inent  political  economists  of  the  day.  His 
aining  works  are:  "Introduction  to  Mer- 
ndise  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  Edinburgh  1777-'9) ; 
Arithmetic  and  Bookkeeping "  (London, 
8);  "The  Progress  of  Society,"  a  posthu- 
ous  work  (1830);  essays  on  "Peace  and 
War,"  "Rent,"  &c. 

HAMILTON,  William,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Bangour,  Ayrshire,  in   1704,  died  in  Lyons, 
France,  March  25,  1754.     He  was  living  a  life 
of  literary  leisure  when  the  young  pretender 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  1745.     He  at 
once  joined  the  cause,  and  celebrated  the  vic- 
tory of  Preston  Pans  in  his  stirring  ode  "  Glads- 
.uir."    After  the  battle  of  Culloden  he  fled  to 
e  highlands,  and  made  his  escape  to  France. 
s  friends  soon  procured  a  royal  pardon  for 
and  he  returned  to  Scotland ;  but  he  soon 
ent  to  southern  France  on  account  of  his 
th,  and  for  several  years  previous  to  his 
ath  he  resided  at  Lyons.     His  ballad  of  "  The 
aes  of  Yarrow  "   is  the  best  known  of  his 
sions.     A  pirated  edition  of  his  poems  first 
peared  in  Glasgow  (1748) ;  after  his  death  a 
mplete  edition  was  printed  from  his  own 
anuscripts  (Edinburgh,  1760). 
HAMILTON.     I.  Sir  William,  a  British  anti- 
ary,  born  in  Scotland  in  1730,  died  in  Lon- 
n,  April  6,  1803.     He  was  of  good  family, 
d  a  foster  brother  of  George  III.,  but  poor, 
ginning  life,  as  he  said,  with  £1,000.     In 
755  he  married  a  wealthy  lady,  and  was  en- 
"  'led  to  pursue  his  favorite  studies  in  art,  nat- 
'al  philosophy,  and  literature.     In  1764  he 
as  appointed  English  ambassador  to  Naples, 
id  from  his  arrival  in  that  country  applied 
imself  to  collecting  and  illustrating  the  art 
lies  with  which  it  abounds.    He  was  among 


the  first  of  those  to  whom  the  British  public 
are  indebted  for  a  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  Greek,  and  especially  Etruscan  antiquities, 
having  made  a  large  collection,  which  was  pur- 
chased for  the  British  museum.  He  lost  his 
wife  in  1782,  and  in  1784  made  a  voyage  to 
England,  to  hinder  his  nephew  from  marrying 
Emma  Harte;  he  himself,  however,  took  her 
back  to  Italy  and  privately  made  her  his  wife, 
but  did  not  publicly  present  her  as  such  till 
1791,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed  privy 
councillor.  In  1793  he  effected  a  treaty  of 
alliance  between  the  courts  of  St.  James's  and 
Naples,  but  much  of  the  political  management 
at  the  latter  court  in  those  eventful  times  is  at- 
tributed to  the  influence  of  his  wife  and  Lord 
Nelson.  He  contributed  largely  toward  aiding 
Father  Piaggi  in  unrolling  manuscripts  found 
in  Herculaneum.  He  was  recalled  to  England 
in  1800,  at  which  time  he  lost  by  shipwreck  a 
large  collection  of  antiques,  of  which  however 
drawings  were  preserved  and  published.  A 
claim  of  Sir  William  on  the  British  govern- 
ment for  special  services  was  disallowed,  and  he 
died  in  comparative  poverty.  His  works  are : 
Antiquites  etrusques,  grecques  et  romaines, 
tirees  du  cabinet  de  M.  Hamilton  (4  vols.  fol., 
Naples,  1766) ;  "  Observations  on  Mount  Vesu- 
vius, Mount  Etna,"  &c.  (London,  1772) ;  Campi 
PUegrcei  (2  vols.  fol.,  Naples,  1776-7,  with 
supplement  in  1779  giving  an  account  of  the 
eruption  of  Vesuvius);  and  Lettera  sul Monte 
Volture  (Naples,  1780).  Ten  of  his  papers 
upon  various  Italian  subjects  were  published  in 
the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  (l767-'95). 
Many  of  the  marbles  of  the  Towneley  gallery 
in  the  British  museum  were  collected  by  him. 
II.  Emma  Lyon,  alias  HARTE,  afterward  Lady 
Hamilton,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  accord- 
ing to  some  in  Wales,  according  to  others  in 
Cheshire,  about  1760,  died  near  Calais,  France, 
in  1815.  She  was  the  illegitimate  child  of  a 
servant  girl,  and  at  the  age  of  13  was  employed 
to  take  care  of  the  children  of  a  brother-in-law 
of  the  engraver  Boydell.  When  16  years  old 
she  was  shop  girl  for  a  mercer  in  London, 
and  afterward  chambermaid  to  a  lady  of  rank. 
She  then  became  waiter  in  a  tavern  frequented 
by  literary  men,  painters,  actors,  and  artists. 
While  here,  learning  that  a  young  sailor,  her 
cousin,  had  been  pressed  into  the  navy,  Emma 
went  to  his  captain,  John  Willett,  to  beg  for 
his  release.  The  captain  let  the  cousin  go,  but 
kept  the  girl  as  his  mistress.  This  illicit  union 
continued  for  several  years,  during  which  time 
she  acquired  an  excellent  education.  Willett, 
eventually  becoming  weary  of  the  connection, 
gave  her  to  a  friend,  who  however  quarrelled 
with  her  at  the  end  of  a  month  and  left  her  in 
extreme  poverty.  A  noted  quack  named  Gra- 
ham had  contrived  a  bed  of  Apollo,  or  "  celes- 
tial bed,"  on  which,  in  a  delicately  colored 
light,  an  exquisitely  beautiful  woman,  nearly 
naked,  was  gradually  unveiled  to  soft  music  as 
Hygiea,  the  goddess  of  health.  Graham  en- 
gaged Emma  for  the  part  of  the  goddess,  in 


422 


HAMILTON 


which  she  created  a  great  sensation.  Among 
her  many  conquests  she  soon  made  that  of 
Charles  Greville,  of  the  ancient  family  of  War- 
wick. By  him  she  had  three  children,  and  fas- 
cinated him  to  such  a  degree  that  he  deter- 
mined to  marry  her,  and  would  have  done  so 
but  for  the  opposition  of  his  uncle,  Sir  William 
Hamilton.  But  so  soon  as  the  latter  beheld 
her,  he  in  turn  was  fascinated.  A  contract  was 
now  made  between  uncle  and  nephew  by  which 
it  was  agreed  that  Emma  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  former,  and  that  he  should  pay 
the  debts  of  his  nephew.  At  first  his  mistress, 
she  soon  blinded  her  new  lover  so  completely 
as  to  become  his  wife,  and  was  presented  as 
such  by  him  to  Queen  Caroline  of  Naples  in 
1791,  by  whom  she  was  received  into  intimacy 
and  confidence.  Her  extraordinary  talents  for 
political  as  well  as  personal  intrigue  here  found 
a  wide  field  for  action.  She  soon  formed  an 
illicit  connection  with  Lord  Nelson,  which  her 
husband  for  expediency's  sake  tacitly  encour- 
aged. At  this  time  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
was  critically  situated,  a  French  invasion  being 
dreaded,  while  on  the  other  hand  fears  were 
entertained  lest  England  should  ruin  its  trade. 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain  having  written  to  his  bro- 
ther, the  king  of  Naples,  violently  accusing  the 
English,  this  letter  was  shown  by  the  queen  to 
Lady  Hamilton,  by  whom  it  was  sent  to  the 
British  cabinet.  The  result  was  that  England 
attacked  the  Spaniards,  and  a  vast  loss  of  lives 
and  of  treasure  to  the  latter  was  caused  by 
the  violated  confidence.  In  1798  the  arrival 
of  the  French  suddenly  interrupted  the  festiv- 
ities in  honor  of  Nelson's  victory  at  Aboukir. 
A  panic  ensued,  and  the  royal  family,  with 
Sir  William  and  Lady  Hamilton,  took  refuge 
in  Nelson's  ship,  which  conveyed  them  to  Pa- 
lermo. When  the  court  returned  to  Naples, 
merciless  vengeance  was  taken  on  revolution- 
ists and  liberals,  and  of  this  Lady  Hamilton 
availed  herself  to  punish  personal  enemies. 
Nelson's  violent  measures,  contrary  to  the 
articles  of  capitulation,  having  been  incited 
by  her.  Having  returned  with  her  husband 
to  England,  Lady  Hamilton  found  herself 
generally  despised  on  account  of  her  rela- 
tion to  Nelson,  who  had  resigned  his  com- 
mand to  enjoy  her  society.  In  England  she 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  whom  she  named 
Horatia  Nelson,  and  resided  at  a  country  seat 
which  Nelson  had  given  her.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband,  and  especially  after  that  of 
Nelson  in  1805,  she  was  destitute,  and  left 
England  for  France,  where  she  died  in  want 
and  misery.  Her  daughter  Horatia  married  a 
poor  clergyman,  and  some  funds  were  raised  by 
subscription  for  the  benefit  of  their  children. 

HAMILTON,  Sir  William,  a  Scottish  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Glasgow,  March  8,  1788,  died  in 
Edinburgh,  May  6,  1856.  At  the  university 
of  Glasgow  he  took  a  high  position  in  the 
classes,  and  carried  off  the  first  prizes  in  phi- 
losophy. From  Glasgow  he  went  to  Balliol 
college,  Oxford,  where  candidates  for  honors 


were  required  to  profess  a  certain  number  of 
books  in  history,  poetry,  and  science.  In  going 
up  for  his  degree,  he  not  only  took  with  him 
into  the  schools  far  more  than  the  usual  aver- 
age of  books  in  poetry  and  history,  but  in 
science  he  professed  all  the  works  extant  in 
Greek  and  Roman  philosophy,  including  the 
whole  of  Aristotle  and  all  the  works  of  his 
earlier  commentators,  all  of  Plato,  the  Neo- 
Platonists,  Proclus,  and  Plotinus,  and  the  frag- 
ments of  the  earlier  and  later  philosophical 
doctrines  preserved  by  Laertius,  Stobasus,  and 
the  other  collectors.  His  examination  in  phi- 
losophy occupied  two  days,  running  through 
six  hours  each  day.  In  14  of  his  books  on 
Greek  philosophy  he  was  not  questioned,  the 
greater  part  of  these  being  declared  by  the 
masters  to  be  too  abstrusely  metaphysical  for 
examination.  At  this  time  also  he  had  studied 
the  earlier  modern  philosophers  and  become 
interested  in  the  speculations  of  contemporary 
metaphysicians  on  the  continent.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  at  Edinburgh  in  1813,  and 
began  to  practise  as  an  advocate ;  but  his  time 
was  given  more  to  philosophical  studies  than 
to  his  profession.  In  1816  he  established  his 
claim  to  a  dormant  baronetcy.  In  1820  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  chair  of  moral  philoso- 
phy in  the  university  of  Edinburgh  ;  but  his 
competitor  John  Wilson,  being  a  tory,  was 
elected.  In  1821,  by  appointment  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  advocates,  Hamilton  delivered  in  the 
university  a  short  course  of  lectures  on  the 
character  and  history  of  the  classic  nations  of 
antiquity.  At  this  tune  phrenology  was  ex- 
citing especial  interest  in  Edinburgh.  For  the 
purpose  of  testing  its  pretensions  Sir  William 
went  through  a  laborious  course  of  compara- 
tive anatomy,  dissecting  with  his  own  hands 
several  hundred  different  brains.  He  sawed 
open  a  series  of  skulls  of  different  nations,  of 
both  sexes  and  all  ages,  to  ascertain  the  facts 
in  regard  to  the  frontal  sinus  on  which  the 
phrenologists  had  founded  so  much.  He  also 
instituted  a  series  of  experiments  for  ascer- 
taining the  relative  size  and  weight  of  brains. 
The  results  of  these  investigations  were  em- 
bodied in  two  papers  which  he  read  before 
the  royal  society  of  Edinburgh  in  1826,  main- 
taining that  the  assertions  of  fact  by  the 
phrenologists  were  utterly  false.  In  1829  he 
contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  a 
powerful  article  against  the  German  doctrine 
of  human  omniscience,  as  set  forth  after  Schel- 
ling  and  Hegel,  though  in  modified  form,  in  the 
lectures  of  Victor  Cousin.  This  was  followed 
by  other  contributions  to  the  same  review,  two 
of  which  are  particularly  celebrated,  "  On  the 
Philosophy  of  Perception"  and  "On  Recent 
Publications  in  Logical  Science."  Many  of 
these  articles  were  translated  into  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  in  1852  all  of  them  were  published 
collectively,  edited  by  their  author  with  notes 
and  appendices,  under  the  title  "Discussions 
in  Philosophy  and  Literature,  Education,  and 
University  Reform  "  (enlarged  ed.,  1854 ;  re- 


HAMILTON 


423 


published,  with  an  introductory  essay  by  Rob- 
ert Turnbull,  D.  D.,  New  York,  1855).  In 
1836  Sir  William  was  elected  professor  of 
logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  university  of  Ed- 
inbungli ;  and  then  began  a  new  era  in  his  life 
and  in  the  academical  life  of  Scotland.  He 
entered  upon  his  professorship  with  every  qual- 
ification. His  personal  appearance  was  the 
very  finest.  Above  the  middle  height,  of  a 
sinewy  and  well  compacted  frame,  with  a  mas- 
sive head,  decisive  and  finely  cut  features,  a 
dark,  calm,  piercing  eye,  perfect  self-possession 
and  reliance,  finished  courtesy  of  manners,  and 
a  voice  remarkably  distinct,  silvery,  and  melo- 
dious, he  stood  before  his  hearers  the  perfection 
of  a  man  in  every  physical  adornment.  "  What- 
ever," says  Mr.  Baynes,  his  class  assistant,  "  the 
previous  expectations  of  Sir  William's  appear- 
ance might  be,  they  were  certainly  realized"  if 
not  surpassed ;  and  however  familiar  one  might 
afterward  become  with  the  play  of  thought  and 
feeling  on  that  noble  countenance,  the  first  im- 
pression remained  the  strongest  and  the  last — 
that  it  was  perhaps  altogether  the  finest  head 
and  face  you  had  ever  seen,  strikingly  hand- 
some, and  full  of  intelligence  and  power.  When 
he  began  to  read,  Sir  William's  voice  confirmed 
the  impression  his  appearance  and  manner  had 
produced.  It  was  full,  clear,  and  resolute,  with 
a  swell  of  intellectual  ardor  in  the  more  mea- 

ured  cadences,  and  a  tone  that  grew  deep  and 
t  in  reading  any  striking  extracts  from 
vorite  author,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry 
m  Plato  or  Pascal,  Lucretius  or  Virgil, 
iger  or  Sir  John  Davies,  whose  quaint  and 

.ervous  lines  Sir  William  was  fond  of  quoting." 
He  had  methodized  all  his  views  on  logic  and 
metaphysics,  and  in  his  lectures  he  now  put 
them  into  an  admirable  form  for  academic 
instruction.  He  disciplined  his  pupils  by  se- 
vere examinations  and  in  the  writing  of  essays, 
which  excited  the  most  intense  mental  activ- 
ity. In  1846  Sir  William  published  his  edition 
of  Reid's  works,  which  was  undertaken  ten 
years  before,  as  a  book  for  the  use  of  his  class. 
It  made  a  profound  impression  in  Scotland, 
and  Lord  Jeffrey,  in  a  letter  to  the  editor  of 
the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  expressed  his  ad- 
miration of  "the  immensity  of  its  erudition, 
its  vigor,  completeness,  and  inexorable  march 
of  ratiocination."  His  last  literary  labor  was 
an  edition  of  the  works  of  Dugald  Stewart, 
in  nine  volumes,  with  a  life  of  Stewart  by 
Mr.  John  Veitch,  one  of  his  pupils.  For  ten 
years  he  had  been  enfeebled  by  a  severe  pa- 
ralysis, but  had  never  relaxed  his  labors  as 
a  teacher,  and  only  lessened  them  as  an  au- 
thor. He  finished  his  lectures  of  the  session 
of  1855  and  1856,  and  distributed  the  prizes 
to  his  class ;  and  after  an  illness  of  ten  days 
he  died  at  his  residence  in  Great  King  street. 
— As  a  metaphysician  Hamilton  stands  among 
the  greatest.  His  disquisition  on  the  Epis- 
tol(R  Obscurorum  Virorum  gave  an  example 
which  astonished  even  the  Germans ;  his  po- 
lemic against  phrenology,  in  the  several  papers 


appended  to  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Lectures," 
is  a  wonder  of  experimental  sagacity ;  and  his 
immense  erudition  has  quickened  the  scholar- 
ship of  the  world.  The  most  important  of  his 
writings,  next  to  those  on  philosophy,  are  his 
papers  on  educational  reform.  In  one  of  these 
he  made  a  powerful  attack  on  Whewell's  theory 
that  mathematics  is  a  better  logical  discipline 
than  logic  itself.  Sir  William  Hamilton's  phi- 
losophy, though  it  professes  to  be  little  more 
than  an  elucidation  and  elaboration  of  Reid's, 
is  universally  recognized  and  treated  as  his 
own.  It  accepts  consciousness  as  an  infallible 
witness,  and  therefore  declares,  in  opposition 
both  to  idealism  and  to  the  doctrine  of  repre- 
sentative perception,  that  there  is  in  reality  an 
external  world,  and  that  we  have  an  imme- 
diate perception  of  that  world  ;  it  teaches  also 
that  the  highest  speculation  is  within  the  com- 
prehension of  this  philosophy  of  common  sense, 
and  that  there  is  a  moral  universe,  known  to 
us  through  our  moral  nature,  which  implies  a 
moral  order  and  a  moral  governor  of  all. — 
Many  of  Hamilton's  notes  are  included  in  the 
abridgment  of  Reid's  "  Essays  on  the  Intel- 
lectual Powers  "  by  Dr.  James  Walker  (Cam- 
bridge, 1850).  A  selection  from  his  writings 
by  O.  W.  Wight,  entitled  "  The  Philosophy  of 
Sir  William  Hamilton,"  was  published  in  New 
York  in  1853,  and  "  Metaphysics  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton,"  edited  by  Prof.  Francis  Bo  wen,  in 
Cambridge  in  1861.  A  selection  of  his  aca- 
demical lectures,  edited  by  Mansel  and  Veitch, 
was  published  in  4  vols.  in  1859-'61. — See 
"Memoir  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,"  by  John 
Veitch  (Edinburgh,  1869),  and  "Examination 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,"  by 
John  Stuart  Mill  (2  vols.,  London,  1865). 

HAMILTON,  William  Gerard,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  January,  1729,  died 
there,  July  16,  1796.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  school  and  Oxford  university,  and 
in  1754  entered  parliament  as  member  from 
Petersfield,  Hampshire.  On  Nov.  13  of  the 
succeeding  year  he  delivered  the  famous  speech 
which  earned  him  his  well  known  sobriquet 
of  "  Single-Speech  Hamilton."  Of  this  speech 
no  copy  was  ever  taken.  Contrary  to  the 
belief  long  entertained  that  this  was  his  soli- 
tary oratorical  effort,  he  spoke  again  in  par- 
liament  in  the  succeeding  February,  and  after- 
ward at  least  twice  in  the  Irish  parliament. 
From  1761  to  1784  he  held  office  in  Ireland  as 
principal  secretary  of  the  lord  lieutenant  and 
as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  A  posthumous 
work  by  him  was  published  by  Malone,  en- 
titled "Parliamentary  Logic  "  (London,  1808). 

HAMILTON,  William  Richard,  an  English  ar- 
chgeologist,  born  Jan.  9,  1777,  died  July  11, 
1 85 9.  His  university  education  was  interrupted 
by  ill  health.  In  1799  he  became  secretary  to 
Lord  Elgin  in  the  embassy  to  Constantinople. 
He  secured  for  the  British  museum  the  cele- 
brated trilingual  Rosetta  stone,  whicfy  un- 
daunted by  the  plague  which  had  broken  out 
among  the  crew,  he  seized  on  board  of  the  ship 


424 


HAMILTON 


HAMILTON  COLLEGE 


where  the  French  had  concealed  it,  and  sent  to 
London  in  1802.  He  displayed  the  same  zeal 
in  regard  to  the  Elgin  marbles;  having  been 
on  board  of  the  vessel  on  which  part  of  them 
were  shipwrecked  near  Oerigo,  he  remained 
in  that  island  several  months,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  skilful  divers  succeeded  in  res- 
cuing those  famous  works  of  art  from  the  sea. 
Soon  after  his  return  to  England  he  published 
"  JEgyptiaca,  or  some  Account  of  the  Ancient 
and  Modern  State  of  Egypt  "  (royal  4to,  Lon- 
don, 1810).  From  1810  to  1822  ho  was  under 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  af- 
terward was  ambassador  at  Naples.  While  in 
Paris  with  Lord  Castlereagh  in  1815  he  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  about  the  restoration  to 
Italy  of  the  works  of  art  which  the  French 
had  seized  on  various  occasions. 

HAMILTON,  Sir  William  Rowan,  a  British  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Dublin,  Aug.  4,  1805,  died  at 
Dunsink,  near  Dublin,  Sept.  2, 1865.  He  gave 
early  indications  of  extraordinary  intellectual 
powers,  and  when  13  years  old  he  was  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  acquainted  with  13  languages, 
including  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  German, 
Syriac,  Persian,  Sanskrit,  Hindostanee,  and 
Malay.  At  14  years  of  age  he  addressed  a 
letter  of  greeting  in  the  Persian  language  to 
the  Persian  ambassador,  Mirza  Abu  Hassan 
Khan.  Falling  in  with  a  Latin  copy  of  Euclid 
when  10  years  old,  he  soon  became  interested 
in  geometry,  and  at  12  he  was  fully  confirmed 
in  his  taste  for  algebra.  He  studied  the  Arith- 
metica  Universalis  and  the  Principia  of  New- 
ton, and  the  Hecanique  celeste  of  Laplace, 
while  in  his  18th  year,  and  about  the  same 
time  entered  upon  his  investigations  in  optics. 
In  1823  he  entered  the  university  of  Dublin, 
where  he  at  once  gained  the  first  place,  and  at 
every  quarterly  examination  obtained  the  chief 
honor  in  science  and  the  classics.  In  1827, 
while  still  an  undergraduate,  he  was  appointed 
Andrews  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  univer- 
sity and  astronomer  royal  of  Ireland.  In  1837 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  royal  Irish 
academy.  The  honor  of  knighthood  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 
association  for  the  advancement  of  science 
at  Dublin  in  1835,  when  Hamilton  held  the 
post  of  secretary  and  delivered  the  annual 
address.  He  engaged  in  numerous  investiga- 
tions on  scientific  subjects,  published  in  the 
"Transactions"  and  "Proceedings"  of  the 
royal  Irish  academy  and  royal  society,  in  the 
"  Proceedings  "  of  the  British  association,  in 
the  "London  and  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
MiiLMzine,"  &c.  In  1828  he  published  in  the 
"Transactions"  of  the  royal  Irish  academy 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Theory  of  Systems  of  Rays," 
which  accomplished  for  optics  what  Des- 
cartes has  done  for  geometry  and  Lagrange 
for  mechanics ;  that  is,  the  application  of  alge- 
bra, including  the  differential  calculus,  to  those 
problems  in  the  science  of  optics  which  spring 
from  the  hypothesis  of  transverse  vibrations, 
or  what  is  more  generally  called  the  undula- 


tory  theory  of  light.  By  a  peculiar  analysis, 
developed  in  this  theory,  he  generalized  the 
most  complicated  cases  of  common  geometrical 
optics ;  and  his  prediction  of  the  most  singular 
and  critical  of  all  the  results  of  Fresnel's  theo- 
ry, the  conical  refraction  in  biaxal  crystals, 
amply  rewarded  his  labors.  Dr.  Lloyd,  of 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  verified  this  result  in 
the  case  of  aragonite,  which  is  a  biaxal  crystal; 
he  found  the  position,  dimensions,  and  condi- 
tions of  polarization  of  the  emerging  cone  of 
light  to  be  exactly  such  as  Hamilton's  predic- 
tion assigned.  Airy  has  designated  it  as  "per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  prediction  that  has 
ever  been  made."  For  this  discovery  Sir  Wil- 
liam received  the  Cunninghame  gold  medal 
from  the  royal  Irish  academy,  and  the  royal 
gold  medal  of  King  William  IV.  from  the  royal 
society  of  London.  In  1834  he  published  two 
papers  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions  "  of 
the  royal  society,  "  On  a  General  Method  in 
Dynamics,  by  which  the  study  of  the  motions 
of  all  free  systems  of  attracting  or  repelling 
points  is  reduced  to  the  search  and  differentia- 
tion of  one  central  relation  or  characteristic 
function."  The  most  elaborate  of  Hamilton's 
writings  is  his  "Method  or  Calculus  of  Qua- 
ternions" (8vo,  Dublin,  1853),  which  formed 
the  subject  of  successive  courses  of  lectures  de- 
livered in  1848  and  subsequent  years  at  Trinity 
college.  He  aimed  in  this  to  show  that  "ex- 
pressions which  seem,  according  to  common 
views,  to  be  merely  symbolical  and  quite  inca- 
pable of  being  interpreted,  may  pass  into  the 
world  of  thoughts,  and  acquire  reality  and  sig- 
nificance, if  algebra  be  viewed,  not  as  a  mere 
art  or  language,  but  as  the  science  of  pure 
time."  The  fundamental  geometrical  view, 
adopted  and  developed  in  the  "Lectures,"  is 
that  according  to  which  a  quaternion  is  con- 
sidered as  the  quotient  of  two  directed  lines  in 
tridimensional  space ;  and  the  motive  (in  this 
view)  for  calling  such  a  quotient  a  quaternion, 
or  the  ground  for  connecting  its  conception 
with  the  number  four,  is  derived  from  the  con- 
sideration, that  while  the  relative  length  of  the 
two  lines  compared  depends  only  on  one  num- 
ber, expressing  their  ratio,  their  relative  direc- 
tion depends  on  a  system  of  three  numbers — • 
one  denoting  the  angle  between  the  two  lines, 
and  the  two  others  determining  the  aspect  of 
the  plane  of  that  angle,  or  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  positive  rotation  in  that  plane.  His 
"Elements  of  Quaternions "  appeared  in  1866. 
HAMILTON  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  ream- 
ing at  Clinton,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.,  9  m.  S.  of 
Utica.  Its  origin  is  due  to  the  generosity  of 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Kirkland,  who  was  a  mission- 
ary for  more  than  40  years  among  the  Onei- 
da Indians,  and  died  in  1808.  In  1793  the 
"Hamilton  Oneida  Academy"  was  incorpo- 
rated through  the  influence  of  Mr.  Kirkland, 
who  presented  its  trustees  with  the  title  deed 
to  several  hundred  acres  of  land.  This  acad- 
emy existed  18  years,  and  was  very  prosperous. 
With  the  rapid  growth  of  settlements  in  its 


HAMLET 


neighborhood,  the  demand  grew  up  for  a  high- 
er institution,  and  Hamilton  college  was  char- 
tered in  1812.  Dr.  Azel  Backus,  a  Congrega- 
tional clergyman,  distinguished  in  Connecticut 
as  a  preacher  and  scholar,  was  chosen  the  first 
president.  He  died  in  1817,  and  his  successor, 
Dr.  Henry  Davis,  resigned  in  1833.  The  third 
president,  Dr.  Sereno  E.  D  wight,  a  son  of  Tim- 
othy Dwight,  president  of  Yale  college,  held 
the  office  two  years,  and  the  fourth,  Dr.  Joseph 

Csnney,  four  years.  Dr.  Simeon  North,  a  grad- 
te  of  Yale  college,  was  chosen  president  in 
39,  after  holding  the  classical  professorship 
ten  years.  He  was  succeeded  in  1858  by  Dr. 
Samuel  W.  Fisher,  also  of  Yale  college.  The 
seventh  president,  Dr.  Samuel  Gilman  Brown, 
an  alumnus  of  and  for  many  years  a  professor 
in  Dartmouth  college,  was  elected  in  1866. — 
The  course  comprises  four  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  is  con- 
ferred. The  academic  year  is  divided  into 
terms  of  about  13  weeks  each.  Appli- 
ts  for  admission  must  be  at  least  15  years 
age,  and  must  pass  an  examination  in  Greek, 
atin,  mathematics,  and  the  common  Eng- 
lish branches.  In  1873-'4  there  were  10  pro- 
sors  besides  the  president  and  college  pas- 
and  152  students.  There  are  between 
700  and  1,800  names  upon  the  triennial  cata- 
The  law  department  was  endowed  by 
lliamll.  Maynard,  and  has  recently  been  en- 
hed  by  the  valuable  law  library  bequeathed 
it  by  William  Curtis  Noyes.  The  agricultu- 
department  was  endowed  by  the  late  Silas 
.  Childs  of  Utica.  The  Litchfield  observa- 
ry,  endowed  by  E.  C.  Litchfield  of  Brook- 
lyn, ET.  Y.,  and  under  the  charge  of  Prof.  C. 
H.  F.  Peters,  who  has  discovered  20  asteroids 
here,  has  an  equatorial  telescope  with  an  ob- 
ject glass  13-5  inches  in  diameter  and  a  focal 
length  of  nearly  16  feet.  Geological  and  min- 
eral cabinets  and  collections  in  natural  his- 
tory are  connected  with  the  college,  embracing 
more  than  17,000  specimens.  There  is  also  an 
extensive  collection  of  North  American  plants 
made  by  the  late  Dr.  H.  P.  Sartwell.  The  col- 
lege library  contains  more  than  12,000  vol- 
umes. A  new  library  building,  capable  of 
holding  60,000  volumes,  has  recently  been 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $45,000.  Under  the  same 
roof  is  also  a  memorial  hall  and  art  gallery,  to 
contain  tablets,  portraits,  and  other  memorials 
of  the  friends  of  the  college.  The  college 
grounds  comprise  45  acres,  on  which  are 
grouped  three  four-story  stone  buildings  de- 
voted to  lodging  and  recitation  rooms,  chapel, 
boarding  house,  hall  for  collections  in  natural 
history,  gymnasium,  chemical  laboratory,  ob- 
servatory, library  hall,  and  president's  house. 
The  real  estate  and  collections  are  valued  at 
$300,000,  and  there  are  besides  productive 
funds  amounting  to  more  than  $250,000. 

HAMLET,  or  Amleth,  a  prince   of  Denmark, 
hose  name  occurs  in  the  mediaeval  histories, 
articularly  that  of  Saxo    Grammaticus,   al- 
though nothing  is  known  of  the  period  when 


HAMLINE 


425 


he  lived ;  some  place  it  as  early  as  five  centu- 
ries B.  C.,  others  as  late  as  A.  D.  700.  Accord- 
ing to  Saxo  Grammaticus,  in  his  Danorum  Re- 
gum  Heroumque  Historia,  published  in  1514, 
Hamlet  was  the  son  of  Horvendill,  hereditary 
prince  of  Jutland,  and  of  Gerutha,  daughter 
of  Roric,  15th  king  of  Denmark  after  Danus. 
His  story  was  republished  with  some  modifica- 
tions by  a  French  writer  named  Belleforest, 
whose  work,  translated  into  English  with  the 
title  of  "Historye  of  Hamblet,"  undoubtedly 
fell  under  the  eye  of  Shakespeare,  who  made  it 
the  basis  of  his  "Hamlet,"  though  with  many 
alterations  and  additions.  According  to  some 
historians,  Hamlet  was  king  of  Denmark  for 
several  years;  but  many  modern  authorities 
suppose  that  no  such  person  ever  existed. 

HAMLIN,  an  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently 
formed  and  not  included  in  the  census  of  1870 ; 
area,  720  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Big 
Sioux  river,  and  contains  several  lakes.  The 
surface  is  mostly  table  land. 

HA9ILIN,  Hannibal,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Paris,  Maine,  Aug.  27,  1809.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833,  and  continued  to 
practise  till  1848.  In  1836  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  legislature,  of  which  he  was 
speaker  from  1837  to  1840.  In  1842  he  was 
elected  to  congress  as  a  democrat,  and  reflected 
in  1844;  and  in  1848  he  was  chosen  to  fill  a 
vacancy  in  the  United  States  senate,  and  in 
1851  was  elected  for  a  full  term  of  six  years. 
In  1856  he  withdrew  from  the  democratic 
party,  and  was  elected  by  the  republicans  gov- 
ernor of  Maine ;  but  he  resigned  that  office  on 
being  reflected  senator.  In  1860  he  was  elected 
vice  president  of  the  United  States.  In  1865 
he  was  appointed  collector  of  the  port  of  Bos- 
ton, but  soon  resigned;  and  in  1869  he  was 
again  elected  United  States  senator  for  the 
term  expiring  March  4,  1875. 

HAMLINE,  Leonidas  Lent,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Burlington,  Conn.,  May  10,  1797, 
died  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  Iowa,  March  23,  1865. 
He  was  educated  for  the  ministry  of  the  Pres- 
byterian church,  but  subsequently  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
in  1827.  In  1830  he  joined  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church,  entered  the  ministry,  and  in  1840 
was  elected  by  the  general  conference  assistant 
editor  of  the  "  Western  Christian  Advocate  " 
(Cincinnati)  and  first  editor  of  the  "Ladies1 
Repository."  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  general 
conference  of  1844,  when  the  slavery  agita- 
tions resulted  in  the  division  of  the  church. 
Mr.  Hamline  was  one  of  the  committee  of  paci- 
fication or  conference,  and  also  was  appointed 
upon  the  committee  of  nine  to  whom  was  in- 
trusted the  preparation  of  a  plan  of  separation, 
and  was  himself  the  author  of  that  plan.  The 
argument  which  he  then  made  on  the  right  of 
the  general  conference  to  depose  a  bishop  from 
office,  for  such  good  and  sufficient  reasons  as 
it  may  determine,  embodied  the  constitutional 
principles  that  have  generally  been  accepted 
by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  from  that 


426 


IIAMM 


HAMMER 


time.  At  the  same  conference  he  was  elected 
bishop,  in  which  office  he  continued  till  1852, 
when  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health,  in 
accordance  with  a  principle  that  he  had  power- 
fully advocated  in  1844,  viz.,  that  the  episco- 
pacy of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  is  not 
an  order,  but  an  office.  From  1856  he  resided 
at  Mt.  Pleasant.  Bishop  Hamline's  writings  are 
largely  devoted  to  the  defence  and  illustration 
of  the  Wesleyan  doctrine  of  sanctification.  A 
collection  of  them  has  been  made  by  the  Rev. 
F.  G.  Hibbard,  D.  D.  ("  Works,"  &c.,  2  vols., 
New  York,  1871),  who  had  previously  edited 
a  volume  of  his  sermons  (Cincinnati,  1869). — 
See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  L.  L.  Hamline,  D.  D.," 
by  W.  C.  Palmer  (New  York,  1868). 

IIAMM,  a  city  of  Westphalia,  Prussia,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Ahse  with  the  Lippe,  20  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  Munster;  pop.  in  1871,  16,914.  As 
a  point  of  military  importance  it  suffered  much 
during  the  thirty  years'  war.  It  was  bombard- 
ed in  1761  and  1762  by  the  French,  and  dis- 
mantled in  1763.  The  old  walls  have  been 
levelled  and  a  promenade  constructed  in  their 
place.  It  contains  four  churches,  a  gymnasium, 
manufactories  of  linen  and  other  goods,  tanne- 
ries, and  a  considerable  trade.  It  is  a  central 
railway  station  between  Hanover  and  Cologne. 

HA9IME,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  East  Flanders,  on  the  Durme,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Scheldt,  17  m.  E.  by  N.  of 
Ghent;  pop.  in  1867,  10,142.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  engaged  in  rope  making  and  ship 
building,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
cloth  and  flax.  In  the  neighborhood  interest- 
ing antiquities  have  been  discovered. 

HAMMER,  a  tool  for  communicating  force  by 
impact.  There  are  three  varieties,  those  which 
are  moved  by  the  arm,  those  which  are  moved 
by  their  own  gravity,  and  those  which  are 
moved  by  compressed  steam  or  other  power. 
The  two  latter  kinds  are  called  power  ham- 
mers. The  first  kind  comprises  small  or  hand 
hammers,  and  sledges.  The  hand  hammer 
consists  of  a  head,  to  give  momentum,  and  a 
small  helve  or  handle  fitted  into  an  eye,  which 
is  usually  in  the  middle  of  the  head.  Their 
weight  varies  from  an  ounce  to  one  or  two 
pounds.  Sledges  are  large  hammers,  to  be 
wielded  by  both  arms,  and  vary  in  weight 
from  2  to  20  Ibs.  Large  wooden  hammers, 
bound  with  iron,  used  by  woodsmen  in  driving 
wedges,  are  called  beetles;  smaller  wooden 
hammers  are  called  mallets. — Power  hammers 
are  of  various  forms,  moved  by  water,  steam, 
and  sometimes  by  horse  power.  The  common 
forge  hammer  is  made  of  a  heavy  head  of  iron, 
5  to  10  tons  in  weight,  faced  with  steel,  and 
having  a  helve  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  or 
wood,  the  centre  of  motion  being  at  the  end 
of  the  helve.  The  hammer  is  raised  by  cams 
upon  a  wheel,  the  lifting  force  being  applied 
near  the  head.  The  force  of  the  blow  is  the 
momentum  attained  by  the  mass  in  falling 
through  a  height  of  from  16  to  24  in.  The 
speed  is  usually  from  50  to  100  strokes  per 


minute.  Tilt  hammers  have  much  the  same 
construction  as  the  common  forge  hammer, 
except  that  the  head  is  raised  by  depressing 
the  opposite  end  of  the  helve  by  a  cam  wheel, 
as  represented  in  fig.  1,  the  centre  of  motion 
being  between  the  head  and  the  point  of  appli- 
cation of  power.  They  are  lighter  and  move 
with  greater  rapidity,  and  are  used  for  lighter 
kinds  of  work.  Both  kinds  must  be  substan- 
tially supported  by  solid  foundations.  The 
steam  forge  hammer,  in  which  steam  is  used 
as  a  propelling  force  to  the  hammer,  patented 
by  Mr.  Nasmyth  of  England  in  1842,  and  also 
by  M.  Creusot  of  France  in  the  same  year,  is 
a  much  more  efficient  machine.  Nasmyth's 
hammer  is  the  one  generally  known.  The 
hammer  head  is  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  massive 
piston  rod  working  vertically  in  a  high-pres- 
sure steam  cylinder,  placed  above,  the  whole 
being  held  in  a  strong  iron  frame  having  two 
standards.  The  hammer  block  weighs  many 
tons,  and  must  rest  upon  very  strong  and  solid 
foundations,  common  to  the  whole.  The  lift 
or  stroke  of  the  hammer  is  from  5  to  9  ft.,  de- 
pending upon  the  size  of  the  machine.  The 
momentum  will  of  course  vary  with  the  steam 


FIG.  1. — Tilt  Hammer. 

pressure  and  length  of  stroke,  which,  from  the 
construction  of  the  cylinder,  may  be  varied  to 
suit  circumstances.  A  monster  steam  ham- 
mer of  a  construction  similar  to  Nasmyth's  is 
employed  in  Krupp's  cast-steel  works  at  Essen, 
Germany.  The  hammer  head  is  12  ft.  long, 
5J-  ft.  wide,  4  ft.  thick,  and  weighs  a  little 
over  50  tons,  and  has  a  stroke  of  9  ft.  The 
depth  of  the  foundation  is  100  ft.,  consisting  of 
three  parts,  masonry,  timber,  and  iron,  bolted  to- 
gether. Four  cranes,  each  capable  of  bearing  200 
tons,  serve  the  hammer  with  material.  Smaller 
steam  hammers  of  much  higher  speed  are  used 
in  forging  smaller  articles,  such  as  swords, 
scythes,  axes, -carpenters'  tools,  steel  bars,  &c. 
One  of  these,  exhibited  at  the  Vienna  exposi- 
tion in  1873  by  Gustav  Brinkmann  and  co.  of 
Westphalia,  is  represented  in  fig.  2.  While  the 
frames  of  the  large  hammers  have  two  stand- 
ards, this  has  only  one,  an  advantage  allowed 
by  its  smaller  size.  The  admission  of  the  steam 
is  effected  by  a  simple  slide  valve  worked  by 
a  hand  lever,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  In 
this  machine,  in  consequence  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  steam  is  admitted,  the  length  of 
stroke  is  constant ;  in  this  individual  case,  7i 
in.  The  weight  of  the -hammer  is  4  cwt.,  and 


HAMMER 


the  average  number  of  blows  when  worked 
^with  steam  at  a  pressure  of  45  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  is  360  per  minute.  The  piston  rod,  6^  in. 
in  diameter,  is  cast  steel,  forming  with  the  pis- 
ton one  piece.  The  hammer  head  is  fastened 
to  it  by  means  of  keys.  The  greatest  height 


HAMMER-PURG  STALL 


427 


FIG.  2. — High-Speed  Steam  Hammer. 

pieces  which  can  be  forged  under  the  ham- 
ler  is  4|  in.  The  bottom  of  the  frame  is  3  ft. 
luare,  and  its  total  height  to  the  flanges  of  the 
rlinder  is  5£  ft.  The  total  weight  of  the  ma- 
rine is  4|-  tons. 

HAMMER,  Julias,  a  German  author,  born  in 
jsden,  June  7,  1810,  died  at  Pilnitz,  Aug. 
i,  1862.     In  1831  he  began  the  study  of  law 
the  university  of  Leipsic,  but  gave  special 
mtion   to   philosophy   and   aesthetics.     In 
1834,  in  conjunction  with  Ludwig  Tieck  and 
"'ieodor  Hell,  he  produced  the  successful  play 
i  seltsame  Fruhstuclc,  and  thereafter  devoted 
rimself  to  literature.    He  wrote  dramas,  nov- 
els, and  poems,  and  gave  dramatic  readings. 
Among  his  novels  are  Adelig  und  Burgerlich 
(1838),  Leben  und  Traum  (1839),  Stadt-  und 
'  indgeschichten  (1845),  and  EiniceJir  und  Um- 
r  (1856).     His  principal  poems  are  Schau 
im  dicJi  und  Schau  in  dich  (1851),  Zu  alien 
iten  Stunden  (1854),   and  Lerne,  liebe,  lebe 
(1862).    In  his  later  years  he  devoted  himself 
oriental  study,  and  published   Unter  dem 
Halbmond  (I860),  and  Die  Psalmen  der  heili- 
m  Schriff  (1861). 


HAMMERFEST,  a  seaport  of  Norway,  in  the 
bailiwick  of  Finmark,  on  the  island  of  Kvalo, 
in  lat.  70°  40'  N.,  Ion.  23°  42'  E.,  57  m.  S.  W. 
of  the  North  cape ;  pop.  about  1,000.  It  is 
celebrated  as  the  most  northern  town  in  the 
world,  and  for  its  lively  trade  with  Russia, 
England,  and  other  countries.  The  cod  fish- 
ery in  the  Hammerfest  district  in  1871  yielded 
about  5,000,000  fish,  or  nearly  one  half  of  the 
cod  caught  in  Finmark'.  Over  200  fishing  boats 
and  100  large  vessels  frequent  the  bay  annually. 
Cod-liver  oil  is  largely  prepared,  and  various 
skins,  walrus  teeth,  and  other  articles  are  ex- 
ported. A  number  of  small  sloops  are  engaged 
in  the  trade  with  Spitzbergen,  where  reindeer, 
walrus,  and  white  bears  are  killed.  Although 
the  port  is  in  so  high  a  latitude,  navigation  is 
seldom  interrupted.  The  harbor  is  defended  by 
a  fort.  A  granite  pillar  in  the  rear  of  the  Eng- 
lish vice-consulate  marks  the  commencement 
of  the  great  European  arc  measured  by  Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Norway,  1816-'52. 

HAMMER-PURGSTALL,  Joseph  von,  a  German 
orientalist,  born  in  Gratz,  Styria,  June  9,  1774, 
died  in  Vienna,  Nov.  24, 1856.  He  studied  the 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  languages  at  the 
oriental  academy  of  Vienna,  and,  after  passing 
three  years  in  Dalmatia  and  in  travel,  went  in 
1799  to  Constantinople  as  interpreter  to  the 
internuncio.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
commissioned  to  prepare  a  report  upon  the 
condition  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  to  inspect 
the  consulates  in  the  Levant.  In  1801  he 
engaged  in  the  Egyptian  campaign  as  secre- 
tary-interpreter of  the  Anglo-Turkish  generals, 
taking  part  in  the  conference  at  Jaffa,  and  in 
the  surrender  of  Alexandria.  He  subsequently 
visited  England.  In  1802  he  was  again  sent 
to  Constantinople  as  secretary  of  legation,  and 
in  1806  was  appointed  diplomatic  agent  at 
Jassy  in  Moldavia.  He  returned  to  Vienna  in 
1807,  which  he  never  again  left  except  for  short 
journeys.  In  1815  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  re- 
ceive back  the  oriental  manuscripts  which  had 
been  carried  thither  after  the  occupation  of 
Vienna  in  1809,  and  on  his  return  was  oifered 
the  place  of  custodian  of  this  collection,  which 
he  declined.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  inter- 
preter to  the  court,  and  in  1817  aulic  council- 
lor. Inheriting  the  estate  of  the  counts  of 
Purgstall  in  1837,  he  added  that  name  to  his 
own,  and  was  created  a  baron.  In  1847  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  academy  of  Vienna, 
but  resigned  this  office  in  1849.  His  large  for- 
tune enabled  him  to  devote  himself  to  study. 
He  spoke  and  wrote  ten  languages,  and  though 
his  philological  learning  was  extensive  rather 
than  profound,  his  works  are  among  the  most 
valuable  authorities  upon  oriental  history  and 
literature.  His  care  in  the  references  to  his 
authorities  renders  it  easy  to  correct  the  errors 
into  which  he  has  fallen.  His  writings  in  sev- 
eral languages,  including  his  contributions  to  the 
journals  of  various  literary  and  scientific  bodies, 
would  make  more  than  100  octavo  volumes. 
Among  his  chief  works  are:  Geschichte  der 


4:28 


HAMMERSMITH 


HAMON 


schonen  Redekumte  Persiens  (Tubingen,  1818) ; 
Geschichte  des  osmanischen  JSeichs  (10  vols., 
Pestli,  1827-'34) ;  Geschichte  der  osmanischen 
Dichtkunst  (4  vols.,  1836-'8);  Geschichte  der 
Goldenen  Horde  im  Kiptechalc  (1840);  and 
Literaturgeschichte  der  Ardber  (7  vols.  4to, 
Vienna,  1850-'57).  A  posthumous  autobiog- 
raphy, Denkwurdiglceiten  aus  meinem  Leben, 
and  others  of  his  posthumous  writings,  were 
published  in  1858. 

HAMMERSMITH,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Thames,  3£  m.  W.  of  London ;  pop. 
in  1871, 24,520.  It  has  a  handsome  suspension 
bridge,  many  elegant  houses  and  villas,  a  gram- 
mar school  endowed  by  Bishop  Latimer,  with 
an  annual  revenue  of  £800,  several  church- 
es and  charitable  institutions,  and  a  Catholic 
school  and  nunnery  established  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  The  vicinity  is  chiefly  occupied 
by  nurseries  and  market  gardens,  which  sup- 
ply the  metropolis  with  flowers  and  vegetables. 

HAMMOND,  James  Hamilton,  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Newberry,  S.  C.,  Nov.  15, 
1807,  died  at  Beach  Island,  S.  C.,  Nov.  13, 
1864.  His  father,  Elisha  Hammond,  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  became  in  1802  professor 
of  languages  in  South  Carolina  college,  and 
afterward  president  of  that  institution.  The 
son  graduated  there  in  1825,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  in  1830  became  editor  of  the 
"Southern  Times"  at  Columbia.  He  married 
a  lady  of  large  fortune,  and  devoted  himself 
to  agriculture  and  politics.  He  wrote  much, 
made  many  public  addresses  in  behalf  of 
nullification,  and  took  an  active  part  in  or- 
ganizing the  military  force  which  South  Caro- 
lina raised  in  1833  to  resist  the  federal  govern- 
ment. In  1835-'7  he  was  a  member  of  con- 
gress/and  in  1842  governor  of  South  Carolina. 
In  1844  he  published  a  letter  to  the  Free  church 
of  Glasgow,  Scotland,  on  slavery  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  in  1845  two  others  in  reply  to 
an  anti-slavery  circular  by  Thomas  Clarkson ; 
these  with  other  essays  on  the  same  subject 
were  collected  in  a  volume,  "  The  Pro-Slavery 
Argument "  (Charleston,  1853).  Besides  essays 
on  agriculture,  manufactures,  railroads,  and 
finance,  he  published  an  elaborate  review  of 
the  life,  character,  and  public  services  of  John 
C.  Calhoun.  In  November,  1857,  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  senate  of  the  United  States  to  fill  the 
vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of  A.  P.  But- 
ler. In  March,  1858,  he  made  a  speech  in  the 
senate  in  which  he  called  the  laboring  classes 
"mudsills,"  a  phrase  which  provoked  much 
comment.  In  the  same  speech  he  said,  "  Cotton 
is  king,  and  no  power  upon  earth  dares  make 
war  upon  it."  On  the  secession  of  South 
Carolina  in  December,  1860,  he  withdrew  from 
the  senate,  but  during  the  civil  war  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  remain  quietly  at  home. 

HAMMOND,  Samuel,  an  officer  in  the  American 
revolution,  born  in  Richmond  co.,  Va.,  Sept. 
21,  1757,  died  at  Horse  Creek,  Ga.,  Sept.  11, 
1842.  In  his  boyhood  he  served  in  wars 
against  the  Indians.  In  1775  he  raised  a  com- 


and  in  1779  he  was  at  the  battle  of  Stono  Fer- 
ry, S.  C.  After  the  fall  of  Charleston  he  kept 
the  field  with  a  small  cavalry  force,  pursuing 
an  active  partisan  warfare.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  actions  at  Cedar  Springs,  Mus- 
grove's  Mill,  Ramsay's  Mills,  King's  Mountain, 
Blackstocks,  Cowpens,  Guilford  Court  House, 
and  Eutaw,  and  participated  in  the  siege  of 
Augusta  in  1781.  He  settled  in  Georgia,  and 
in  1793  led  a  volunteer  regiment  agaiust  the 
Creek  Indians;  in  1802  was  elected  to  con- 
gress ;  in  f805  was  appointed  by  Jefferson  to 
the  civil  and  military  command  of  upper  Lou- 
isiana; and  in  1824  removed  to  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  became  surveyor  general  of  the 
state  in  1827,  and  secretary  of  state  in  1831. 

HAMMOND,  William  Alexander,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  Aug.  28, 
1828.  He  graduated  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  New  York  university  in  1848,  and 
from  1849  to  1850  was  an  assistant  surgeon  in 
the  army.  In  October,  1860,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
university  of  Maryland.  He  was  reappointed 
assistant  surgeon  in  the  army,  May  28,  1861, 
and  was  surgeon  general  from  April,  1862,  to 
August,  1864,  when  he  was  dismissed  by  sen- 
tence of  a  court  martial.  He  then  removed  to 
New  York,  and  is  now  (1874)  professor  of  dis- 
eases of  the  mind  and  nervous  system,  and  of 
clinical  medicine,  in  the  Bellevue  hospital 
medical  college,  and  physician-in-chief  to  the 
New  York  state  hospital  for  diseases  of  the 
nervous  system.  He  has  published  "A  Trea- 
tise on  Hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the 
Military  Science"  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1863); 
"  Physiological  Memoirs  "  (1863) ;  Lectures  on 
Venereal  Diseases  "  (1864) ;  "  On  Wakefulness, 
with  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  Sleep" 
(1865);  "Insanity  in  its  Medico-Legal  Rela- 
tions "  <New  York,  1866) ;  "  Sleep  and  its 
Derangements"  (12mo,  Philadelphia,  1869); 
"  Physics  and  Physiology  of  Spiritualism " 
(12mo,  New  York,  1870);  "Treatise  on  Dis- 
eases of  the  Nervous  System"  (1871);  and 
"Insanity  in  its  Relations  to  Crime"  (1873). 
He  has  also  edited  "  Medical  and  Surgical  Es- 
says "  (1864) ;  and  translated  from  the  German 
Meyer's  "  Electricity  in  its  Relations  to  Practi- 
cal Medicine  "  (1869 ;  new  ed.,  1874). 

IIAMON,  Jean  Louis,  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Plouha,  May  5, 1821,  died  May  29, 1874.  He 
escaped  from  a  monastery  in  1840  to  study 
painting  under  Paul  Delaroche.  In  1848  he 
exhibited  two  paintings,  "Over  the  Gate"  and 
the  "Tomb  of  Christ,"  at  the  museum  of  Mar- 
seilles. After  1849  he  worked  at  the  paint- 
ing of  Sevres  china,  producing  some  specimens 
which  gained  him  a  medal  at  the  world's  fair 
in  London  in  1851.  In  1852  he  returned  to  oil 
painting,  and  exhibited  his  "  Comedy  of  Hu- 
manity "  and  Ma  sozur  n'y  est  pas  ;  the  latter 
was  purchased  by  the  government.  He  has 
since  produced  a  number  of  pictures,  several  of 
them  representing  scenes  in  the  East.  Among 


HAMPDEN 


429 


the  best  known  are  "  The  Maidens  of  Lesbos  " 
(1861)  and  "  The  Muses  at  Pompeii "  (1866). 

H1MPDEN,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Massachusetts, 
bordering  on  Connecticut,  intersected  by  the 
Connecticut  and  drained  by  Westfield  and  Chic- 
opee  rivers ;  area,  670  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  78,- 
409.  It  has  a  rough,  hilly  surface,  and  a  fertile 
soil,  the  river  valleys  being  particularly  rich. 
Small  steamboats  navigate  the  Connecticut  to 
Springfield,  and  the  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Tew  Haven,  Hartford,  and  Springfield,  the  Con- 
3ticut  River,  the  New  London  Northern  and 
Ware  branch,  the  Athol  and  Enfield,  the 
Tew  Haven  and  Northampton  and  the  Holyoke 
ich,  and  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroads, 
id  by  a  canal  which  is  not  now  in  use. 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  2,045 
ishels  of  wheat,  63,518  of  rye,  145,728  of  In- 
corn,  74,617  of  oats,  11,484  of  buckwheat, 
57,762  of  potatoes,  1,095,423  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
35,103  of  maple  sugar,  18,737  of  wool,  716,979 
~  butter,  242,046  of  cheese,  and  51,859  tons 
1  hay.  There  were  3,585  horses,  10,200  milch 
>ws,  2,718  working  oxen,  9,023  other  cattle, 
3,751  sheep,  and  4,210  swine.  The  county 
contained  687  manufacturing  establishments, 
chiefly  in  Springfield,  the  county  seat,  and  in 
Chicopee  and  Holyoke,  having  an  aggregate 
ipital  of  $16,942,490,  and  an  annual  product 
$30,008,006. 

HAMPDEN,  John,  an  English  statesman,  born 
London  in  1594,  died  at  Thame,  Oxfordshire, 
Tune  24,  1643.  He  was  the  son  of  William 
lampden,  a  member  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  par- 
liament, and  Elizabeth  Cromwell,  aunt  of  the 
protector.  His  father  left  him  large  estates, 
and  after  studying  at  Oxford  he  was  admitted 
a  student  of  the  Inner  Temple  in  1613.  In 
1619  he  married  Elizabeth  Symeon.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  freely  engaged  in  field  sports  and 
other  amusements,  "from  which,"  says  Claren- 
don, "he  suddenly  retired  to  extraordinary  so- 
briety and  strictness,  and  to  a  more  reserved 
and  melancholy  society."  On  Jan.  30,  1621, 
he  took  his  seat  in  parliament  as  member  for 
the  borough  of  Grampound,  Cornwall.  In  the 
first  parliament  of  Charles  I.  he  sat  for  Wen- 
do  ver.  He  had  not  hitherto  taken  any  promi- 
nent part  in  public  affairs ;  his  attention  had 
.been  given  mainly  to  the  details  of  parliamentary 
business  and  to  the  local  interests  of  his  own 
country.  But  when  the  king,  after  the  angry 
dissolution  of  two  parliaments  (1625  and  1627), 
attempted  to  raise  money  by  a  forced  loan,  ap- 
portioned among  the  people  according  to  a 
previous  rate  of  assessment,  Hampden  refused 
to  lend  a  farthing,  and  was  imprisoned.  His 
example  was  followed  by  76  other  landed  gen- 
"jmen,  who  were  also  arrested,  while  recu- 
its  of  a  lower  rank  were  pressed  into  the 
set  or  forced  to  serve  in  the  army.  A  new 
irliament  was  summoned  ;  and  Hampden, 
iving  been  liberated,  was  immediately  reelect- 
'  for  Wendover.  The  "  Petition  of  Rights  " 
id  other  important  concessions  having  been 
ttorted  from  the  king,  and  parliament  having 


been  again  dissolved  for  protesting  against  his 
violation  of  them,  Hampden  retired  to  rural 
life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
Eleven  years  passed  without  a  parliament ;  the 
royal  promises  were  unscrupulously  violated, 
and  the  Puritans  were  persecuted.  Among 
other  arbitrary  measures,  Charles  resorted  to 
"ship  money,"  a  tax  which  the  maritime 
counties  had  sometimes  paid  in  time  of  war 
instead*  of  furnishing  ships  for  the  navy,  but 
which  was  now,  in  time  of  peace,  demanded 
from  the  inland  counties.  Hampden,  the  first 
to  resist  the  forced  loan,  was  also  one  of  the 
first  to  resist  this  unjustifiable  proceeding,  and 
resolved  to  bring  to  a  solemn  hearing  the  great 
controversy  between  the  people  and  their  op- 
pressor. Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1636 
the  cause  came  on  in  the  exchequer  chamber 
before  the  twelve  judges,  seven  of  whom  pro- 
nounced against  the  disputant.  The  only  effect 
of  the  decision  of  this  small  majority  was  to 
exasperate  the  people.  Strafford  meanwhile 
declared  that  Hampden,  and  others  like  him, 
should  be  "  well  whipped  into  theif  right 
senses ;"  and  so  intense  became  the  hatred  of 
the  king's  counsellors,  that  the  person  of  Hamp- 
den was  scarcely  safe.  This  decision  of  the 
exchequer  chamber  placed  the  property  of 
every  individual  at  the  disposal  of  the  crown. 
The  persecuted  party  felt  that  there  was  no  al- 
ternative but  to  seek  their  homes  in  other 
countries ;  but  an  order  was  issued  by  Charles's 
council,  prohibiting  shipmasters  from  carrying 
passengers  from  the  kingdom  without  special 
license.  It  has  been  said  that  Hampden  and 
his  cousin  Oliver  Cromwell  had  taken  pas- 
sage in  a  ship  ready  to  sail  for  America,  and 
were  actually  on  board  when  they  were  stop- 
ped by  this  decree ;  seven  other  ships  crowded 
with  emigrants  were  stopped  at  the  same  time. 
The  Scottish  rebellion  followed,  and  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war  rendered  it  imperative  for 
the  king  to  obtain  larger  supplies.  A  parlia- 
ment was  summoned  to  meet  in  April,  1640; 
it  was  soon  dissolved,  and  another,  the  long 
parliament,  met  in  November.  Hampden  wTas 
at  this  time  the  most  popular  man  in  England, 
and  by  universal  consent  was  the  member  who 
exercised  a  paramount  influence  alike  over  le- 
gislature and  people.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee of  twelve  to  conduct  the  memorable 
trial  which  led  to  Strafford's  execution.  He 
was  one  of  the  five  members  accused  of  trea- 
son, whose  persons  were  demanded  by  Charles ; 
but  he  was  not  arrested,  in  spite  of  the  most 
strenuous  efforts  of  the  king.  Almost  the  en- 
tire people  were  ready  to  protect  and  con- 
ceal Hampden  and  his  confederates.  "From 
this  moment,"  says  Clarendon,  "his  nature  and 
carriage  seemed  fiercer  than  before."  He  was 
made  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  and  the  power  of  the  sword  being  at 
length  asserted,  he  prepared  to  take  the  field 
as  a  soldier.  The  king  raised  his  standard 
against  the  parliamentary  troops  at  Notting- 
ham, Aug.  22, 1642.  Hampden  commanded  a 


430 


HAMPDEN 


HAMPSHIRE 


regiment  of  volunteer  infantry,  which  he  had 
raised  in  his  native  county,  and  was  so  distin- 
guished by  his  intrepid  conduct  in  the  suc- 
ceeding movements,  that  a  wish  was  expressed 
that  he  should  take  command  of  the  whole 
army.  On  the  evening  of  June  17,  1643, 
Prince  Rupert  set  out  for  Oxford  with  2,000 
men,  on  one  of  his  expeditions.  Hampden 
hastened  with  a  body  of  volunteers  to  intercept 
his  return,  and  overtook  the  enemy  at  Chal- 
grove.  A  skirmish  ensued,  and  in  the  first 
charge  Hampden  was  struck  in  the  shoulder  by 
two  balls,  which  lodged  in  his  body.  After 
six  days  of  acute  suffering  he  expired,  uttering 
with  his  latest  breath  a  prayer  for  England. 

HAMPDEN,  Renn  Dickson,  an  English  bishop 
and  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Barbadoes 
in  1793,  died  in  London,  April  23,  1868.  He 
studied  at  Oriel  college,  Oxford,  graduated  in 
1813,  and  became  fellow  in  1814,  tutor  in  1828, 
and  public  examiner  in  classics  in  1830.  He 
preached  the  Hampton  lectures  in  1832,  his 
subject  being  "  The  Scholastic  Philosophy  con- 
sidered in  its  relation  to  Christianity."  These 
lectures  were  regarded  as  very  learned  and  pro- 
found, but  of  rather  suspicious  orthodoxy.  In 
1833  Dr.  Hampden  was  appointed  principal  of 
St.  Mary's  hall,  and  the  next  year  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  the  university.  Against 
much  opposition,  based  on  the  work  above 
named,  and  his  published  views  as  to  dissent 
in  England,  he  was  in  1836  appointed  regius 
professor  of  divinity ;  and  in  1847,  notwith- 
standing increased  opposition,  on  the  part  main- 
ly of  the  high  Anglican  or  tractarian  party,  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Hereford.  Besides  the 
Bampton  lectures,  and  the  articles  on  Aristotle, 
Plato,  and  Socrates  in  the  lt  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica"  (collected,  "The  Fathers  of  Greek 
Philosophy,"  Edinburgh,  1862),  his  principal 
works  are :  "  Philosophical  Evidence  of  Chris- 
tianity "  (1827)  ;  "  Lectures  on  Moral  Philoso- 
phy "  (1836) ;  "  Lecture  on  Tradition  "  (1841)  ; 
"Sermons  before  the  University "  (1836  and 
1847) ;  and  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas," in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana." 

HAMPDEN  SIDNEY  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of 
learning  in  Prince  Edward  co.,  Va.,  about  70 
m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Richmond,  under  the  charge  of 
the  Presbyterians.  It  was  founded  in  1775 
and  chartered  in  1783,  and  in  1873-'4  had  5 
professors,  86  students,  and  libraries  containing 
about  7,000  volumes.  The  Presbyterian  union 
theological  seminary  was  established  near  this 
college  in  1823  and  chartered  in  1866,  and  in 
1873-'4had  4  professors,  61  students,  a  library 
of  7,500  volumes,  and  an  endowment  of  more 
than  $100,000. 

HAMPSHIRE.  I.  A  W.  central  county  of 
Massachusetts,  intersected  by  the  Connecticut 
river,  and  drained  by  several  mill  streams, 
among  which  are  the  head  waters  of  Chicopee 
and  Westfield  rivers ;  area,  524  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  44,388.  Its  surface  is  irregular,  and 
in  some  parts  mountainous ;  the  soil,  especial- 
ly near  the  Connecticut,  is  very  fertile.  It  is 


traversed  by  the  New  London  Northern  and 
its  Ware  branch,  the  Athol  and  Enfield,  the 
New  Haven  and  Northampton,  and  the  Con- 
necticut River  railroads.  The  Boston  and 
Albany  railroad  touches  the  S.  W.  portion. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  4,847 
bushels  of  wheat,  36,706  of  rye,  157,939  of  In- 
dian corn,  64,572  of  oats,  274,608  of  potatoes, 
3,720,587  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  43,832  of  wool, 
1,003,427  of  butter,  136,086  of  cheese,  and 
61,734  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,478  horses, 
9,514  milch  cows,  2,034  working  oxen,  10,771 
other  cattle,  10,173  sheep,  and  5,062  swine. 
The  county  contained  433  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, having  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$7,053,085,  and  an  annual  product  of  $13,445,- 
772.  One  of  the  three  large  reservoirs  on  the 
upper  part  of  Mill  river  in  this  county  burst  on 
May  16,  1874,  and  the  waters  destroyed  the 
principal  factories  at  Williamsburg,  Leeds, 
Haydenville,  and  Skinnersville,  causing  the 
death  of  over  150  persons,  and  a  loss  of  prop- 
erty estimated  at  nearly  $2,000,000.  Capital, 
Northampton.  II.  A  N.  E.  county  of  West 
Virginia,  bordering  on  Maryland,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Potomac,  and  on  Vir- 
ginia, drained  by  Great  and  Little  Cacapon 
rivers,  and  by  the  S.  branch  of  the  Potomac; 
area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,643,  of  whom 
640  were  colored.  It  is  traversed  by  ranges 
of  the  Alleghany  chain,  has  numerous  fertile 
valleys,  and  abounds  in  coal  and  iron.  The 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  passes  along  the 
N.  boundary.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  76,832  bushels  of  wheat,  21,885  of  rye, 
120,325  of  Indian  corn,  46,769  of  oats,  13,800 
of  potatoes,  26,658  Ibs.  of  wool,  114,948  of  but- 
ter, and  4,587  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,380 
horses,  6,557  cattle,  8,317  sheep,  and  4,763 
swine.  Capital,  Romney. 

HAMPSHIRE,  Hants,  or  Southampton,  a  mari- 
time county  of  England,  including  the  isle  of 
Wight,  bordering  on  Berkshire,  Surrey,  Sus- 
sex, the  English  channel,  Dorsetshire,  and 
Wiltshire;  area,  1,667  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
543,387.  It  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  coun- 
ties in  England,  the  surface  being  a  beautiful 
alternation  of  hill  and  dale,  and  the  climate 
remarkably  mild  and  healthful.  The  soil  is  of 
various  quality.  The  N.  districts  are  hilly  and 
poor ;  the  S.  W.  portion  is  chiefly  occupied  by ' 
the  New  forest  and  extensive  heaths ;  but  in 
the  central  sections  the  land  is  fertile  and  pro- 
duces heavy  crops  of  hay  and  0orn.  The  prin- 
cipal vegetable  productions  are  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  beans,  turnips,  and  peas.  Sheep  are 
raised  on  the  light  lands ;  and  the  breeding 
and  fattening  of  pigs  is  an  important  part  of 
the  husbandry,  Hampshire  being  celebrated 
for  its  bacon.  Ringwood  is  noted  for  its  strong 
beer,  and  the  paper  mills  of  Romsey  and  Over- 
ton  have  supplied  the  bank  of  England  with 
note  paper  since  the  reign  of  George  I.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Itchen,  Avon,  and 
Anton.  There  are  two  canals,  the  Basingstoke 
and  the  Andover.  The  most  important  towns 


HAMPSTEAD 


are  Portsmouth,  Southampton,  and  Winches- 
ter. Aldershott,  on  the  borders  of  Surrey,  has 
become  a  place  of  some  note  from  the  forma- 
tion of  a  military  station  there. 

HAMPSTEAD,  a  suburb  of  London,  in  Middle- 
sex, situated  on  a  range  of  hills,  4  m.  N.  W. 
of  the  city;  pop.  in  1871,  32,281.  It  has  a 
pleasant  and  healthy  situation.  In  former 
times  Hampstead  was  renowned  for  its  mineral 
springs,  and  at  present  it  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  resorts  of  Londoners.  Hampstead 
'  heath,  on  the.  summit  of  the  principal  hill,  is 
crowded  with  people  on  fine  days,  and  particu- 
larly on  Sunday,  when  excursions  on  donkeys 
are  made  and  picnic  parties  assemble  there. 
The  village  proper  is  irregularly  built,  but  in 
its  vicinity  are  fine  villas,  and  there  are  many 
schools.  Hampstead  has  always  been  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  poets,  including  Pope  and  Byron. 
The  upper  Flask  inn  on  Hampstead  heath, 
once  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Kit-cat  club, 
of  which  Addison  and  Steele  were  members, 
is  now  a  private  residence.  At  the  present 
day  there  are  many  famous  taverns,  especially 
Jack  Straw's,  which  was  much  frequented  by 
Dickens  and  his  friends. 

HAMPTON,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Elizabeth  City  co.,  Virginia,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  Hampton  river,  a  small  inlet  of  Hampton 
roads,  about  2|  m.  from  Fortress  Monroe,  and  75 
m.  S.  E.  of  Richmond;  pop.  in  1870,  2,300,  of 
whom  1,840  were  colored.  Before  the  civil 
war  it  was  a  fashionable  watering  place.  It 
was  burned  by  the  confederates  under  Gen. 
Magruder  in  August,  1861,  but  is  now  steadily 
recovering.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Hampton 
normal  and  agricultural  institute,  designed  es- 
pecially to  train  colored  youth  as  teachers  of 
their  own  race,  by  giving  an  English  and  an  in- 
dustrial education,  while 
affording  students  an 
opportunity  to  defray  a 
portion  of  their  expenses 
by  labor.  The  grounds, 
comprising  a  farm  of  125 
acres  bordering  on  the 
river  ^  m.  below  the  vil- 
lage, were  purchased  by 
the  American  missionary 
association  in  1867,  at 
the  instance  of  Gen.  S. 
C.  Armstrong,  then  su- 
perintendent of  a  depart- 
ment of  the  freedmen's 
bureau  at  Hampton,  and 
since  principal  of  the  in- 
stitute. It  was  incor- 
porated in  1870,  and  in 
1872  the  state  awarded 
to  it  one  third  ($95,000) 
of  the  proceeds  of  the 
congressional  land  grant 
for  the  support  of  an 
agricultural  and  mechanical  college,  with  a  por- 
tion of  which  72  acres  more  of  land  have  been 
purchased.  The  hall  containing  the  school 
388  VOL.  viii.— 28 


HAMPTON 


431 


rooms,  printing  office,  and  boys'  dormitories, 
erected  in  1870,  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  the  freed- 
men's bureau,  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
three  stories  high  and  110  ft.  long  by  85  ft.  wide, 
and  was  constructed,  partly  by  the  labor  of  the 
students,  of  brick  made  on  the  farm.  The  cor- 
ner stone  of  another  hall,  for  the  girls'  dormi- 
tories, chapel,  &c.,  to  be  190  ft.  in  front  and 
40  ft.  wide,  with  a  wing  running  100  ft.  to  the 
rear,  was  laid  in  1873.  About  150  acres  of  the 
farm  are  under  cultivation  by  the  boys.  Tu- 
ition and  room  rent  are  free.  The  printing 
office  was  opened  in  November,  1871,  and  has 
been  successfully  operated  by  the  students. 
The  first  number  of  the  "  Southern  Workman," 
a  monthly  illustrated  periodical  devoted  to  the 
industrial  interests  of  the  freedmen,  was  issued 
on  Jan.  1,  1872.  The  girls  find  employment  in 
the  laundry  and  kitchen,  and  in  various  kinds 
of  needlework.  The  number  of  instructors  in 
1873-'4  was  18;  of  students,  226,  of  whom 
149  were  males  and  77  females.  The  course 
is  three  years.  The  Butler  school  house,  be- 
longing to  the*  institute,  in  which  was  organ- 
ized one  of  the  earliest  of  the  freedmen's 
schools,  is  used  by  the  county  as  a  free  school, 
and  contains  about  200  pupils.  Adjacent  to 
the  grounds  is  the  national  cemetery,  contain- 
ing a  chapel,  a  handsome  granite  monument, 
and  the  graves  of  5,123  Union  soldiers;  and 
near  by  is  the  national  home  for  disabled  sol- 
diers, once  a  flourishing  female  seminary,  which 
in  1872  provided  for  538  veterans  at  an  ex- 
pense of  $62,923  17. 

HAMPTON,  a  parish  of  Middlesex,  England, 
12  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  London,  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Thames,  near  its  junction  with  the  Mole ; 
pop.  in  1871,  6,122.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  pal- 
ace of  Hampton  Court,  once  a  favorite  resi- 


Hampton  Court. 

dence  of  the  Tudors  and  the  Stuarts,  and  now 
with  its  gardens  a  very  popular  holiday  resort 
of  the  Londoners.  The  gardens  in  their  pres- 


432 


HAMPTON 


HAMPTON  ROADS 


ent  form  were  laid  out  by  William  III.,  and 
comprise  44  acres.  They  are  in  the  formal 
Dutch  style,  with  elevated  terraces,  long  shady 
arcades,  and  a  curious  maze  or  labyrinth.  The 
palace  consists  of  three  quadrangles,  two  of 
which  were  erected  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who 
presented  them  when  finished  to  Henry  VIII. 
The  great  eastern  and  southern  fronts  were 
erected  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  This  pal- 
ace contains  a  fine  collection  of  pictures,  inclu- 
ding the  famous  cartoons  of  Raphael,  open  to 
the  public  free  of  charge,  and  is  occupied  in 
part  by  persons  of  rank  in  reduced  circum- 
stances. Edward  VI.  was  born  here,  and  here 
his  mother  Queen  Jane  Seymour  died.  Charles 
I.  was  for  some  time  imprisoned  here. 

HAMPTON.  I.  Wade,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1755,  died  at  Colum- 
bia, S.  C.,  Feb.  4,  1835.  During  the  revolu- 
tionary war  he  served  under  Sumter  and  Ma- 
rion, and  he  was  elected  to  congress  in  1794, 
and  again  in  1802.  In  1808  he  was  appointed 
a  colonel  in  the  United  States  army,  and  placed 
in  command  of  one  of  the  new  regiments  raised 
in  apprehension  of  a  war  with  Great  Britain. 
In  1809  he  was  made  brigadier  general,  and 
subsequently  was  placed  in  command  at  New 
Orleans,  but  in  1812  was  superseded  by  Wil- 
kinson. In  1813  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major  general,  and  was  soon  after  placed  in 
command  of  the  army  on  Lake  Champlain. 
He  did  not  succeed,  and  resigned  his  commis- 
sion in  1814,  and  returned  to  South  Carolina. 
He  acquired  a  large  fortune  by  speculations  in 
land,  and  at  his  death  was  supposed  to  be  the 
most  wealthy  planter  in  the  United  States,  be- 
ing, as  it  was  said,  the  owner  of  more  than 
3,000  slaves.  II.  Wade,  a  confederate  soldier, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Columbia, 
S.  C.,  in  1818.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
of  South  Carolina,  studied  law,  and  was  suc- 
cessively a  member  of  the  house  and  of  the 
senate  in  the  state  legislature.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  con- 
federate service,  and  commanded  the  Hampton 
legion  of  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
where  he  was  wounded.  He  was  made  briga- 
dier general,  served  in  the  Chickahominy  cam- 
paign, and  was  again  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Seven  Pines.  He  afterward  commanded  a 
cavalry  force  in  the  army  of  northern  Virginia, 
and  was  again  wounded  at  Gettysburg.  In 
1864  he  was  made  lieutenant  general,  and 
commanded  a  body  of  cavalry  in  Virginia.  He 
was  afterward  sent  to  South  Carolina,  and  in 
February,  1865,  commanded  the  rear  guard 
of  the  confederate  army  at  Columbia.  Large 
quantities  of  cotton  had  been  stored  here,  and 
upon  the  approach  of  the  Union  army  under 
Gen.  Sherman,  this  was  piled  in  an  open 
square  ready  to  be  burned.  Fire  was  set  to 
it,  which  resulted  in  a  conflagration  by  which 
a  great  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed.  A  sharp 
discussion  subsequently  arose  between  Hamp- 
ton and  Sherman,  each  charging  the  other  with 
the  wilful  destruction  of  Columbia.  The  fact 


appears  to  be  that,  as  far  as  either  was  con- 
cerned, the  conflagration  was  purely  acciden- 
tal. (See  COLUMBIA,  and  CONFLAGRATION.) 

HAMPTON  ROADS,  an  arm  of  Chesapeake  bay, 
lying  between  Hampton  and  Norfolk,  Va.,  form- 
ing the  estuary  of  James  river.  It  has  a  depth 
of  from  five  to  seven  fathoms.  The  channel  is 
commanded  by  Fortress  Monroe,  situated  on 
a  point  of  land  on  the  N.  shore  near  the  en- 
trance.— A  naval  action  took  place  here,  March 
8,  1862,  between  the  confederate  ironclad  Vir- 
ginia and  the  Union  frigates  Cumberland,  Con- 
gress, and  Minnesota ;  and  another  on  the  9th 
between  the  Virginia  and  the  turret  ship  Moni- 
tor. In  April,  1861,  the  steam  frigate  Merri- 
mack,  lying  at  Norfolk,  was  seized  by  the  con- 
federates, set  on  fire,  and  then  scuttled  and 
sunk.  She  was  subsequently  raised,  her  hull 
plated  with  railroad-iron  bars,  and  named  the 
Virginia.  Early  in  March,  1862,  there  were  ly- 
ing in  Hampton  roads  the  United  States  frigates 
Cumberland  and  Congress,  the  ship  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  steam  frigates  Minnesota  and 
Roanoke,  the  last  named  being  partially  disa- 
bled by  the  breaking  of  her  shaft.  On  the 
morning  of  the  8th  the  Virginia,  attended  by 
two  small  steamers,  came  down  from  Norfolk, 
passed  the  Congress,  receiving  a  harmless  broad- 
side, which  was  effectively  returned,  and  steer- 
ed directly  for  the  Cumberland,  which  she 
struck  with  her  iron-plated  bow,  making  a  large 
hole,  and  then  opened  fire  from  her  battery. 
The  Cumberland  sank  in  45  minutes  after  be- 
ing struck.  The  Congress  endeavored  to  es- 
cape into  shoal  water,  where  the  Virginia  could 
not  follow,  but  ran  aground,  while  the  Virginia 
took  up  a  position  close  under  her  stern,  and 
poured  in  a  heavy  fire,  by  which  the  frigate  was 
soon  disabled  and  set  on  fire.  In  eight  hours 
the  flames  reached  the  magazine,  and  the  vessel 
was  blown  up.  The  St.  Lawrence  and  Roanoke 
had  meanwhile  got  off  and  gone  down  the  bay. 
The  Minnesota  lay  fast  aground,  and  was  at- 
tacked by  the  three  confederate  vessels;  but 
the  draft  of  the  Virginia  would  not  permit  her 
to  come  within  a  mile,  and  only  one  shot  from 
her  struck  the  Minnesota.  As  night  came  on, 
the  confederate  vessels  withdrew.  Besides  the 
two  frigates,  the  Union  loss  was  286 ;  of  whom 
the  Cumberland  lost  121  killed  or  drowned,  the 
Congress  100  killed,  26  wounded,  and  20  pris- 
oners, and  the  Minnesota  3  killed  and  1 6  wound- 
ed. On  the  Virginia  there  were  2  killed  and 
8  wounded ;  on  the  other  confederate  steamers, 
4  killed  and  several  wounded.  Early  the  next 
morning  the  Virginia  again  approached  the 
Minnesota,  which  was  still  fast  aground.  But 
in  the  mean  while  the  Union  ironclad  Monitor, 
the  first  turreted  vessel  ever  brought  into  ac- 
tion, had  arrived  from  New  York,  and  inter- 
posed between  the  Virginia  and  the  Minne- 
sota. The  vessels  opened  fire,  but  without 
giving  or  receiving  damage,  the  armor  of  each 
affording  perfect  protection.  The  Virginia  now 
again  assailed  the  Minnesota,  and  received  a  full 
broadside  at  almost  point-blank  range,  which 


HAMSTER 

id   no  harm.     The   Monitor  kept   steaming 
round  the  Virginia,  searching  for  a  vulnerable 
point;  but  her  168-lb.  shot  glanced  off  harm- 
lessly.    The  Virginia  then  ran  down  the  bay, 
as  if  in  retreat,  followed  by  the  Monitor,  but 
turned  suddenly,  and  attempted  to  run  down 
ler  antagonist,  which  was  hardly  one  fifth  her 
But  a  blow  like  that  which  had  pierced 
Cumberland  made  no  impression  upon  the 
[onitor ;  and  the  prow  of  the  Virginia  having 
3n  slightly  damaged,  she  gave  up  the  battle 
id  steamed  toward  Norfolk.     In  this  action 
one  appears  to  have  been  injured  on  the 
^irginia.     Lieut,  (after  Commodore)  Worden, 
commander  of  the  Monitor,  was  badly  hurt 
particles  of  cement  thrown  into  his  eyes  by 
le  concussion  of  shots  which  struck  the  tur- 
3t,  and  two  sailors  were  partially  stunned  by 
same  concussion.     The  Monitor  remained 
larmed.     This  action  is  notable  as  the  first 
which  iron-clad  vessels  took  part. 
HAMSTER,  a  rodent  of   the    rat  family,  or 
iridce,  and  the  genus  ericetus  (Cuv.).     The 
icisors  are  f,  and  the  cheek  teeth  fzf,  or  16 
all,  as  in  the  rats ;  there  are  internal  cheek 


HANCOCK 


433 


Hamster  (Cricetus  vulgaris). 

jhes,  in  which  they  carry  grain  and  seeds 
their   subterranean   abodes;    the   head  is 
lick,  the  ears  oval  and  round,  the  body  rat- 
the  legs  short,  and  the  tail  about  1^  in. 
ig,  covered  with  hair.     There   are  several 
iies  in  Europe  and  northern  Asia,  of  which 
best  known  is  the  common  hamster  (C. 
jaris,  Cuv.)  ;  it  is  a  little  larger  than  a  rat, 
Idish  gray  above,  black  underneath,   with 
yellowish  white  spots  on  each  side,  a 
rhite  spot  on  the  throat,  and  another  under 
chest;   legs  whitish.     It  is  sometimes  al- 
entirely  black.     The  grooves  and  tuber- 
les  of  the  molars  are  more  regular  than  in  the 
it ;  the  fore  feet  are  four-toed  with  the  rudi- 
lent  of  a  thumb,  and  the  hind  feet  five-toed, 
3e,  and  furnished  with  long  claws  adapted  to 
ligging;    the  eyes  are  small  but  prominent; 
fur  fine  and  long.     The  hamster  commits 
havoc    among  the  grain,  by  the  large 
mantities  which    it  carries   to  its  burrows; 
"lese  are  dug  3  or  4  ft.  deep  in  light  sandy 
)il,  having  two  or  more  entrances  and  apart- 
lents,  and  each  animal  occupies  its  own;   it 
ms  lays  up  a  store  for  winter,  a  part  of  which 


it  passes  in  a  state  of  lethargy ;  though  its  food 
is  principally  vegetable,  it  will  devour  flesh. 
It  is  ferocious  and  untamable,  fighting  with  its 
mates,  and  biting  the  hand  that  feeds  it.  The 
burrows  are  often  very  complicated,  and  so 
capacious  and  well  filled  that  it  is  an  object 
with  the  farmer  to  collect  their  contents. 
Gestation  lasts  about  four  weeks,  and  occurs 
three  or  four  times  a  year,  each  litter  varying 
from  six  to  twelve.  It  is  very  cleanly  in  its 
habits,  and  is  an  excellent  climber,  but  a  poor 
walker  and  runner.  Other  species  are  found 
in  Siberia.— -The  Canada  hamster,  and  others 
so  called,  with  external  cheek  pouches,  have 
been  described  under  GOPHER;  the  genus  cri- 
cetua  is  not  found  in  America.  An  American 
mouse  of  the  genus  hesperomys  (H.  myoides, 
Gapper),  resembling  the  white-footed  species, 
is  sometimes  called  hamster  mouse  from  its 
having  internal  cheek  pouches;  in  no  other 
character  does  it  approach  ericetus  ;  it  is  found 
in  Canada,  Vermont,  and  New  York. 

HANAU,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  at  the  junction  of  the  Main 
and  the  Kinzig,  10  m.  E.  of  Frankfort ;  pop. 
in  1871,  20,278.  It  contains  an  ancient  castk, 
now  the  seat  of  the  Wetteravian  society  of 
natural  history,  one  Catholic  and  three  Prot- 
estant churches,  an  -academy  of  design,  and 
several  schools.  There  are  manufactories  of 
silks,  cottons,  carpets,  leather,  iron  ware,  pot- 
tery, and  jewelry,  and  a  large  trade  in  woods, 
drugs,  and  dyes.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  min- 
eral baths  of  Wilhelmsbad.  Here,  on  Oct.  30, 
1813,  Napoleon,  on  his  retreat  from  Leipsic, 
defeated  the  Germans  under  Marshal  Wrede. 
During  the  middle  ages  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  sovereign  counts  of  Hanau.  In  1451  the 
county  was  divided  into  two  states,  Hanau- 
Milnzenberg  and  Hanau-Lichtenberg,  the  rulers 
of  both  of  which  were  made  princes  in  1696. 
In  1736  the  house  of  Hanau  became  extinct, 
when  Hanau-Milnzenberg  was  united  with  the 
electorate  of  Hesse- Cassel,  and  Hanau-Lichten- 
berg with  Hesse-Darmstadt;  but  in  1785  this 
division  too  was  incorporated  in  the  electorate. 
As  a  part  of  the  latter  Hanau  was  annexed  to 
Prussia  in  1866. 

HANCOCK,  the  name  of  ten  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Maine, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  and  bounded  W.  in 
part  by  Penobscot  river  and  bay ;  area,  2,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  36,495.  It  is  watered  by 
Union  river  and  several  mill  streams.  The 
surface  is  uneven,  and  diversified  with  hilla 
and  lakes;  the  seacoast,  including  a  number 
of  islands,  among  which  is  the  island  of  Mt. 
Desert,  is  broken  by  many  good  harbors ;  the 
soil  is  fertile.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  cod  and  mackerel  fishing.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  2,999  bushels 
of  wheat,  5,971  of  Indian  corn,  34,396  of  oats, 
32,798  of  barley,  221,379  of  potatoes,  72,827 
Ibs.  of  wool,  531,997  of  butter,  and  32,653 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  1,958  horses,  5,777 
milch  cows,  2,399  working  oxen,  5,103  other 


434 


HANCOCK 


cattle, 20,084  sheep,  and  1,444  swine;  2  manu- 
factories of  wooden  boxes,  10  of  bricks,  3  of 
carriages,  15  of  barrels  and  casks,  6  of  marble 
and  stone  work,  6  of  fish  oil,  6  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  6  of  sails,  9  tanneries,  1  planing  mill, 
35  saw  mills,  4  establishments  for  curing  and 
packing  fish,  9  for  building  and  repairing  ships, 
and  6  for  wool  carding  and  cloth  dressing. 
Capital,  Ellsworth.  II.  The  N.  county  of 
West  Virginia,  forming  the  extremity  of  the 
"Panhandle,"  bordering  on  Pennsylvania,  and 
separated  from  Ohio  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the 
Ohio  river;  area,  about  100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,363,  of  whom  27  were  colored.  It  has 
a  hilly  surface  and  a  fertile  soil,  and  contains 
coal  and  fire  clay.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  34,270  bushels  of  wheat,  83,180 
of  Indian  corn,  68,494  of  oats,  34,578  of  pota- 
toes, 128,642  Ibs.  of  wool,  70,558  of  butter, 
and  4,351  tons  of  hay.  There  were  835  horses, 
869  milch  cows,  1,001  other  cattle,  26,353 
sheep,  and  1,892  swine;  2  manufactories  of 
stone  and  earthen  ware,  14  of  brick,  and  2 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Fairview.  III.  An  E. 
central  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  W.  by  the 
Oconee  river,  and  E.  by  the  N.  fork  of  the 
Ogeechee;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
11,317,  of  whom  7,672  were  colored.  The 
surface  and  soil  are  diversified.  It  is  well 
timbered,  and  contains  granite,  gold,  agate, 
chalcedony,  opal,  kaolin,  galena,  zircon,  and 
other  minerals.  The  Macon  and  Augusta  rail- 
road passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  8,078  bushels  of  wheat,  141,630 
of  Indian  corn,  17,794  of  oats,  26,404  of  sweet 
potatoes,  87,229  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  9,624  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  656  horses,  938  mules 
and  asses,  1,430  milch  cows,  3,174  other  cattle, 
1,634  sheep,  and  5,893  swine ;  1  cotton  factory, 
and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Sparta.  IV.  An 
extreme  S.  county  of  Mississippi,  bounded  S.  by 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  W.  by  Pearl  river, 
which  separates  it  from  Louisiana ;  area,  about 
1,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  4,239,  of  whom 
1,186  were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  in  the 
N.  and  nearly  level  in  the  S. ;  the  soil  is  mod- 
erately fertile.  Pine  forests  abound.  The 
New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  Texas  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  3,394  bushels  of  Indian  corn;  value  of 
live  stock,  $51,075.  There  were  8  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Shieldsborough.  V.  A  N.  E.  county 
of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Virginia,  and  drained 
by  Clinch  and  Powells  rivers ;  area,  480  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  7,148,  of  whom  585  were  colored. 
It  is  mountainous,  well  timbered,  and  thought 
to  be  rich  in  iron  ore.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  22,956  bushels  of  wheat,  204,190 
of  Indian  corn,  41,308  of  oats,  10,453  of  pota- 
toes, 13,967  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  55,029  of  butter. 
There  were  1,263  horses,  1,514  milch  cows, 
2,540  other  cattle,  7,365  sheep,  and  10,690 
swine.  Capital,  Sneedsville.  VI.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Kentucky,  separated  from  Indiana 
by  the  Ohio  river ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,591,  of  whom  729  were  colored. 


It  has  a  hilly  and  undulating  surface,  the  up- 
lands being  generally  fertile,  and  the  river  bot- 
toms extremely  rich.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  12,354  bushels  of  wheat,  376,915 
of  Indian  corn,  23,930  of  oats,  and  1,679,384 
Ibs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  1,961  horses,  1,249 
milch  cows,  1,622  other  cattle,  5,099,  sheep, 
and  9,449  swine ;  3  flour  mills,  1  manufactory  of 
furniture,  and  4  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ilawesville. 
VII.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Ohio,  drained  by 
branches  of  Auglaize  and  Portage  rivers  ;  area, 
536  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,847.  It  has  a 
level  surface  and  a  rich  soil,  and  abounds  in 
limestone.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Lake  Erie 
and  Louisville,  and  the  Findlay  branch  of  the 
Cincinnati,  Sandusky,  and  Cleveland  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  514,183 
bushels  of  wheat,  701,222  of  Indian  corn,  286,- 
822  of  oats,  80,763  of  potatoes,  19,832  of  flax- 
seed,  240,468  Ibs.  of  wool,  91,849  of  maple 
sugar,  765,744  of  butter,  and  32,903  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  9,313  horses,  8,078  milch 
cows,  11,672  other  cattle,  56,622  sheep,  and 
28,299  swine ;  10  manufactories  of  carriages, 
2  of  clothing,  8  of  furniture,  1  of  engines  and 
boilers,  1  of  linseed  oil,  8  of  saddlery  and  har- 
ness, 4  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
1  of  woollen  goods,  2  of  boots  and  shoes,  2  of 
iron  castings,  12  flour  mills,  1  planing  mill,  20 
saw  mills,  and  4  tanning  and  currying  estab- 
lishments. Capital,  Findlay.  VIII.  A  central 
county  of  Indiana,  drained  by  Blue  river  and 
smaller  streams;  area,  312  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,123.  The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and 
the  soil  is  fertile.  Timber  is  abundant.  The 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis,  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Hamilton,  and  Indianapolis,  and  the 
Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indian- 
apolis railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  440,212  bushels  of  wheat, 
810,496  of  Indian  corn,  42,050  of  oats,  47,149 
of  potatoes,  141, 244  Ibs.  of  wool,  234,379  of  but- 
ter, and  6,308  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,246 
horses,  3,986  milch  cows,  5,364  other  cattle, 
13,449  sheep,  and  22,042  swine ;  15  manufac- 
tories of  carriages,  6  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
5  of  bricks,  3  flour  mills,  and  12  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Greenfield.  IX.  A  W.  county  of  Illi- 
nois, bordering  on  Missouri  and  Iowa,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mississippi  river ; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  35,807.  It  has 
an  undulating  surface,  with  alternate  tracts  of 
timber  land  and  prairie,  and  a  rich,  well  tilled 
soil.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton, and  Qnincy,  and  the  Carthage  branch,  and 
by  the  Toledo,  Peoria,  and  Warsaw,  and  the 
Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  414,028  bushels 
of  wheat,  133,533  of  rye,  1,510,401  of  Indian 
corn,  579,599  of  oats,  92,863  of  Irish  potatoes, 
74,586  Ibs.  of  wool,  443,770  of  butter,  and  36,- 
062  tons  of  hay.  There  were  14,115  horses, 
2,258  mules  and  asses,  9,437  milch  cows,  17,- 
009  other  cattle,  20,582  sheep,  and  44,561 
swine;  9  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 38  of  carriages,  9  of  barrels  and  casks, 


HANCOCK 


435 


6  of  furniture^  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  13 
of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  chew- 
ing tobacco,  2  of  woollen  goods,  1  distillery, 
1  brewery,  14  flour  mills,  and  2  planing  mills. 
Capital,  Carthage.  X.  A  N.  county  of  Iowa, 
drained  by  the  sources  of  Boone  river  and 
other  streams  ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  999.  The  surface  is  mostly  undulating 
prairie,  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  contains  several 
small  lakes  and  extensive  deposits  of  peat.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  McGregor  and  Missouri 
Eiver  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  18,918  bushels  of  wheat,  19,541  of  Indian 
corn,  30,231  of  oats,  and  2,087  tons  of  hay, 
There  were  377  horses,  967  cattle,  411  sheep, 
and  416  swine.  Capital,  Upper  Grove. 

HANCOCK,  John,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Quincy,  Mass.,  Jan.  12, 1737,  died  there,  Oct. 
8,  1793.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1754,  and  shortly  after  entered  the  counting 
louse  of  an  uncle,  on  whose  death  in  1764  he 
jived  a  large  fortune,  and  soon  became  a 
)rominent  merchant.  In  1766  he  was  chosen 
the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives 
from  Boston.  The  seizure  of  his  sloop,  the 
Liberty,  occasioned  a  riot  in  1768,  when  the 
commissioners  of  customs  narrowly  es- 

iped  with  their  lives.  After  the  affray  known 
as  the  "Boston  massacre,"  in  1770,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  to  demand  of  the 

:>yal  governor  the  removal  of  the  troops  from 
the  city ;  and  at  the  funeral  of  the  slain  he  de- 
livered an  address  so  glowing  and  fearless  in 
its  reprobation  of  the  conduct  of  the  soldiery 
and  their  leaders,  as  greatly  to  offend  the  gov- 
ernor, who  eventually  endeavored  to  seize 
Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams,  both  of  whom  in 
1774  became  members,  and  the  former  presi- 
dent, of  the  provincial  congress  at  Concord. 
This  was  one  of  the  objects  of  the  expedition 
to  Concord  in  April,  1775,  which  led  to  the 
first  battle  of  the  revolution,  after  which  Gov. 
Gage  offered  pardon  to  all  the  rebels  except 
these  two,  "  wrhose  offences,"  he  adds,  "are 
of  too  flagitious  a  nature  to  admit  of  any  other 
consideration  but  that  of  condign  punishment." 
In  the  same  year  Mr.  Hancock  was  chosen 
president  of  the  continental  congress,  and  in 
1776  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Leaving  congress  in  1777,  on  account  of  ill 
health,  he  returned  to  Massachusetts,  where  he 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  for  framing  a 
constitution  for  the  state,  and  under  that  consti- 
tution was  in  1780  chosen  first  governor ;  to 
which  office,  with  an  interval  of  two  years,  he 
was  annually  reflected  till  his  death.  He  was 
a  man  of  strong  -common  sense  and  decision  of 
character,  of  polished  manners,  easy  address, 
affable,  liberal,  and  charitable.  In  his  pub- 
lie  speeches  he  displayed  a  high  degree  of  elo- 
quence. As  a  presiding  officer  he  was  digni- 
fied, impartial,  quick  of  apprehension,  and  al- 
ways commanded  the  respect  of  congress.  He 
employed  his  large  fortune  for  useful  and  be- 
nevolent purposes,  and  was  a  liberal  donor  to 
Harvard  college. 


HANCOCK,  Winfield  Scott,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Montgomery  co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  14,  1824. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1844,  served 
mainly  on  frontier  duty  till  1846,  and  after- 
ward in  the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  brevet- 
ted  as  first  lieutenant  for  gallant  and  merito- 
rious conduct  in  the  battles  of  Contreras  and 
Churubusco.  From  1848  to  1858  he  was  again 
on  frontier  duty  in  various  parts,  and  from  1859 
to  1861  was  quartermaster  of  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  California.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  recalled  to  Washington,  and 
was  made  brigadier  general  of  volunteers,  Sept. 
23,  1861.  During  the  peninsular  campaign  he 
was  especially  conspicuous  at  the  battles  of 
William sburg  and  Frazer's  Farm.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  campaign  in 
Maryland,  at  the  battles  of  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam.  Having  been  made  major 
general,  he  commanded  a  division  at  Freder- 
icksburg  and  Chancellorsville.  On  July  1, 

1863,  the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
he  was  sent  by  Gen.  Meade  to  decide  whether 
a   decisive  battle  should  be  given  there,  or 
whether  the  army  should  fall  back.    He  re- 
ported that  Gettysburg  was  the  place  to  fight, 
and  took  immediate  command  until  the  arrival 
of  Meade.     In  the  decisive  action  of  July  3  he 
commanded  on  the  left  centre,  which  was  the 
main  point  assailed  by  the  confederates,  and 
was  severely  wounded.    For  his  conduct  at 
Gettysburg  he  received  (May  30,  1866)  the 
thanks  of  congress.     Having  been  disabled  by 
his  wound,  he  was  on  sick  leave  until  March, 

1864,  being  meanwhile  engaged  in  recruiting 
the    second   army   corps,    which  was   placed 
under    his  command.     He    took    the    active 
command  of  this  corps  at  the  opening  of  the 
campaign  of  1864,  and  bore  a  prominent  part 
in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  (May  5,  6), 
Spottsylvania  Court  House  (May  9-20),  and 
North  Anna  (May  23,  24),  the  second  battle 
of  Cold  Harbor  (June  3),  and  the  operations 
around  Petersburg  until  June  19,  when,  his 
wound  breaking  out,  he  was  for  a  short  time 
on  sick  leave.     He  afterward  resumed  com- 
mand, and  took  part  in  several  actions  until 
Nov.  26,  when  he  was  called  to  Washington 
to  organize  the  first  corps  of  veterans;     After 
the  close  of  the  war  he  was  placed  succes- 
sively in  command  of  the  middle  department 
(1865-'6),  the  department  of  Missouri  (1866-'7), 
of  Louisiana  and  Texas  (1867-'8),  of  Dakota 
(1870-'72),  and,  on  the  death  of  Gen.  Meade 
in  November,  1872,  of  the  department  of  the 
East.     In  the  democratic  national  convention 
held  at  New  York  in  July,  1868,  he^was  a  can- 
didate for  the  presidential  nomination,  receiv- 
ing on  the  1st  ballot  33|-  votes  out  of  317, 
which  number  gradually  increased  to  144£  on 
the  18th ;  this  being,  with  the  exception  of 
145-1  cast  for  Pendleton  on  the  12th  ballot, 
the  greatest  number   of  votes  given  to  any 
candidate  for  the  nomination  until  the  22d 
ballot,  when  Horatio   Seymour  received  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  convention. 


436 


HAND 


HAND,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently 
formed,  and  not  contained  in  the  census  of 
1870 ;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m.  It  is  watered  by 
affluents  of  the  Missouri  and  of  the  Dakota  or 
James  river.  The  N.  W.  portion  is  occupied 
by  the  "Plateau  du  Coteau  du  Missouri." 

HANDEL,  or  HSndel,  Georg  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  in  Halle,  Feb.  23,  1685, 
died  in  London,  April  13, 1759.  His  father  was 
the  chamberlain  and  surgeon  of  a  Saxon  prince 
and  also  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and 
was  63  years  old  when  the  boy  was  born.  His 
predilection  for  music  was  so  strong  that  his 
father,  who  wished  him  to  become  a  lawyer, 
thought  it  necessary  to  lay  his  interdict  upon 
the  study  of  the  art.  In  his  necessity  the 
boy  was  fain  to  practise  organ  music  by  night 
upon  one  of  the  small  clavichords  of  that 
period.  About  1693  the  father  was  called  to 
Weissenfels  by  the  duke  upon  business,  and  the 
child,  then  eight  or  nine  years  old,  was  taken 
with  him.  A  grandson  of  the  elder  Handel 
held  at  the  time  some  post  in  the  family  of 
the  duke,  by  whom  the  talents  of  young  Han- 
del were  made  known  to  the  members  of  the 
musical  chapel.  Upon  a  Sunday  he  was  taken 
into  the  organ  loft,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
service  was  placed  in  the  organist's  seat  to  play 
the  voluntary.  The  duke  remained  to  hear 
him  play,  and  afterward  asked  who  the  child 
was.  "Little  Handel  from  Halle,  my  grand- 
father's youngest  son,"  was  the  reply.  The 
duke's  views  of  music  and  musicians,  and  his 
arguments  in  their  favor,  were  such  as  to  abate 
the  father's  prejudices,  and  on  returning  to 
Halle  music  was  added  to  the  other  studies  of 
the  child.  The  teacher  chosen  was  Friedrich 
Wilhehn  Zachau,  the  first  organist  and  instruc- 
tor in  Halle,  a  thorough  master  of  the  old 
Saxon  school.  While  pursuing  the  usual  school 
studies  then  required  of  boys  intended  for  the 
gymnasium  and  the  university,  he  was  kept  by 
Zachau  upon  contrapuntal  and  fugal  exercises, 
to  steady  practice  upon  the  organ  and  harpsi- 
chord, and  gradually  brought  to  a  familiar  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  then  principal  instru- 
ments of  the  orchestra,  the  string  quartet,  the 
flute,  and  the  oboe.  To  develop  his  feeling  for 
musical  form,  he  copied  specimens  of  the  style 
of  the  principal  masters  of  his  time,  particu- 
larly of  the  old  organists.  At  least  as  early 
as  1696,  when  the  boy  was  11  years  old,  a 
friend  of  the  father  took  him  to  Berlin  and  pre- 
sented him  to  the  elector,  afterward  Frederick 
I.  of  Prussia,  who  was  so  much  struck  by  his 
talents  as  to  offer  to  take  charge  of  his  educa- 
tion and  send  him  to  Italy ;  a  favor,  however, 
wisely  declined  by  his  father.  During  his  stay 
in  Berlin  the  young  musician  had  opportunity 
of  hearing  other  and  far  higher  music  than  be- 
fore, the  brothers  Bononcini  and  the  composer 
Attilio  being  in  Frederick's  service,  and  music 
being  in  a  highly  flourishing  condition,  through 
the  influence  of  the  electress,  herself  a  fine 
musician.  He  returned  to  Halle,  to  school, 
and  to  Zachau,  and  was  afterward  bound  to 


HANDEL 

home  by  new  and  stronger  ties,;  for  on  Feb. 
11,  1697,  his  father  died,  and  the  mother  could 
not  part  with  her  only  son.  No  immediate 
change  in  the  plans  laid  for  the  son  by  the  de- 
ceased father  was  made.  The  boy  pursued  his 
studies  with  such  zeal  and  success  as  to  matric- 
ulate in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  Feb. 
10,  1702.  He  was  already  an  extraordinary 
performer  upon  the  harpsichord  and  organ,  a 
good  violinist,  and  familiar  with  the  instru- 
ments then  in  use.  Ten  years  of  constant  prac- 
tice had  brought  him  to  that  skill  in  composi- 
tion by  which  his  musical  ideas  were  thrown 
upon  paper  with  as  much  facility  as  he  wrote 
his  native  German;  but  as  yet  he  was  not 
emancipated  from  the  forms  of  the  schools,  and 
wrote  a  fugue  with  more  ease  and  elegance 
than  a  melody.  On  March  13,  1702,  Handel, 
having  just  completed  his  17th  year,  was  for- 
mally installed  organist  of  the  Domkirche  at 
Halle,  with  a  regular  salary  and  a  right  of  free 
house  rent,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  $50 
per  annum.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  he 
resigned.  A  new  prospect  had  opened  before 
him.  His  mother  had  allowed  her  son  with 
her  blessing  to  abandon  the  law.  In  March, 
1703,  Handel  made  music  his  profession.  There 
was  nothing  more  for  him  to  learn  in  Halle  or 
Leipsic ;  but  in  Hanover  the  greatest  of  the  Ital- 
ians then  in  North  Germany,  Abb6  Steffani, 
was  chapelmaster ;  and  in  Hamburg  Reinhard 
Keiser,  the  greatest  German  operatic  com- 
poser of  his  day,  was  astonishing  the  public 
by  his  inexhaustible  fund  of  pleasing  popular 
melody.  To  these  cities  the  youth  bent  his 
steps.  Hawkins  records  Handel's  own  account 
of  his  reception  in  Hanover:  "When  I  first 
arrived  at  Hanover  I  was  a  young  man  under 
20.  I  was  acquainted  with  the  merits  of  Stef- . 
fani,  and  he  had  heard  of  me.  I  understood 
somewhat  of  music,  and  could  play  pretty  well 
on  the  organ.  He  received  me  with  great 
kindness,  and  took  an  early  opportunity  to 
introduce  me  to  the  princess  Sophia  and  the 
elector's  son,  giving  them  to  understand  that  I 
was  what  he  was  pleased  to  call  a  virtuoso  in 
music ;  he  obliged  me  with  instructions  for  my 
conduct  and  behavior  during  my  residence  at 
Hanover ;  and  being  called  from  the  city  to  at- 
tend to  matters  of  public  concern,  he  left  me 
in  possession  of  that  favor  and  patronage  which 
himself  had  enjoyed  for  a  series  of  years." 
In  June,  1703,  Handel,  doubtless  by  advice  of 
Steffani,  was  in  Hamburg.  During  the  short 
opera  season,  ending  in  August,  he  played  sec- 
ond violin  in  the  orchestra,  and  gave  lessons  in 
music.  He  soon  had  an  opportunity  of  showing 
his  powers.  The  harpsichordist  being  one  even- 
ing absent,  the  youthful  violinist  was  per- 
suaded to  take  the  seat,  to  the  astonishment  of 
all  the  orchestra.  Handel's  first  work  of  im- 
portance in  Hamburg  was  a  sort  of  oratorio  on 
the  "  Passion,"  which  Chrysander  dates  during 
the  spring  of  1704 ;  his  second,  the  opera  Almi- 
ra,  composed  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of 
the  same  year.  On  the  evening  of  Dec.  5, 


HANDEL 


437 


Mattheson's  Cleopatra  was  performed,  the  au- 
thor, a  tenor  singer,  taking  the  part  of  Antony. 
As  composer  he  had  the  right  to  direct,  and 
had  at  previous  performances,  after  the  death 
of  the  hero,  come  into  the  orchestra  and  taken 
the  direction.  On  this  evening  Handel,  being 
at  the  instrument,  refused  to  give  up  his  seat. 
On  leaving  the  theatre  they  drew  their  swords 
upon  each  other  in  the  open  market  place.  The 
contest  ended  by  the  springing  of  Mattheson's 
weapon  upon  a  broad  metal  button  of  Handel's 
coat.  On  Christmas  day  Reiser  and  others 
mediated  between  them,  friendship  was  re- 
stored, Handel  dined  with  Mattheson,  and  in  the 
evening  they  attended  together  the  rehearsal 
of  Almira,  which  was  produced  Jan.  8,  1705. 
It  ran  20  nights,  until  replaced  by  another  work 
from  the  same  pen,  Nerone,  Handel's  second 
work  for  the  stage.  It  was  given  but  two  or 
three  times,  owing  to  the  interruption  of  Lent. 
Another  work,  with  a  most  wretched  text, 
completes  the  list  of  those  which  he  wrote  for 
the  Hamburg  stage ;  but  it  was  not  given  till 
1708,  when  the  author  had  been  long  in  Italy, 
and  then  owing  to  its  length  was  divided  into 
two,  Florinda  and  Dafne.  During  the  latter 
part  of  his  residence  in  Hamburg  Handel's 
time  was  fully  occupied  by  his  pupils  and  his 
studies.  In  three  years  he  had  saved  200  ducats. 
One  invitation  to  visit  Italy  without  expense  in 
the  train  of  a  prince  he  had  declined.  The  win- 
ter of  1706-'7  he  passed  in  Florence  with  a  Tus- 
can nobleman  who  had  known  him  and  heard 
his  Almira  in  Hamburg.  A  Dixit  Dominus  of 
his  composition  shows  that  he  was  in  Rome  in 
April,  1707.  In  the  autumn  he  returned  to 
Florence  and  composed  Rodrigo,  his  first  Ital- 
ian opera,  which  was  received  with  great  ap- 
plause. In  April,  1708,  he  was  again  in  Rome, 
as  the  date  upon  his  oratorio  Risurrezione 
proves,  which  was  followed  by  a  cantata,  II 
trionfo  del  tempo  e  del  disinganno.  No  opera 
being  allowed  at  that  time  in  Rome,  his  works 
there  are  confined  to  oratorios  and  church  mu- 
sic. His  refusal  to  change  his  religion  alone 
prevented  him  from  attaining  the  highest  hon- 
ors possible  for  the  musical  artist  in  Rome.  In 
the  summer  of  1708  he  was  in  Naples,  where 
he  composed  the  original  Italian  Aci,  Galatea  e 
Polifemo,  and  other  works  of  less  importance. 
For  the  carnival  in  Venice  in  the  spring  of 
1709  he  composed  the  opera  Agrippina,  which 
was  performed  with  extraordinary  success.  Be- 
ing appointed  chapelmaster  by  the  elector  of 
Hanover,  afterward  George  I.  of  England,  which 
office  he  accepted  on  condition  of  being  allowed 
to  visit  London,  he  returned  to  Germany,  spent 
a  year  there,  and  arrived  in  England  near  the 
close  of  1710.  He  was  not'yet  25  years  old, 
but  was  already  famous  as  a  performer  on  the 
organ  and  harpsichord,  and  as  a  composer 
of  Italian  operas.  On  Feb.  24,  1711,  Rinaldo 
was  given,  which  is  said  to  have  been  composed 
in  a  fortnight,  and  was  so  much  admired  that 
the  publisher  cleared  £1,500  by  the  sale  of  the 
songs  and  airs.  The  season  closed  June  2,  and 


Handel  returned  to  Hanover  for  a  time,  during 
which  he  composed  most  of  his  chamber  duets ; 
probably  also  a  large  proportion  of  his  instru- 
mental music  may  be  referred  to  this  period. 
In  the  summer  of  1712  he  returned  to  England, 
where  he  produced,  on  Nov.  26,  the  short  pasto- 
ral opera  II  pastor  fido  ;  Jan.  10,  1713,  Teseo ; 
Feb.  6,  "Ode  on  Queen  Anne's  Birthday;" 
and  in  the  summer,  the  "  Utrecht  Te  Deum," 
which  he  had  completed  in  January  preceding, 
and  for  which  the  queen  settled  upon  him  a 
pension  of  £200  per  annum.  This  "  Te  Deum," 
which  celebrated  an  event  distasteful  to  the 
elector,  together  with  Handel's  prolonged  stay 
in  London,  cost  him  for  a  time  the  favor  of 
George.  With  the  exception  of  Silla,  a  short 
opera,  written  for  private  performance  at  Bur- 
lington house,  he  composed  no  extensive  score 
until  the  Amadige  in  1715.  Meantime  Anne 
had  died,  and  the  elector  had  been  crowned 
king  of  England,  at  whose  court  Handel  dared 
not  appear.  By  advice  of  Baron  Killmansegge 
and  Lord  Burlington,  he  prepared  a  set  of  in- 
strumental pieces,  employing  all  the  instru- 
ments then  in  use,  which  were  performed, 
Aug.  22,  1715,  on  occasion  of  a  grand  boat 
procession  on  the  Thames  in  which  the  king 
took  part.  This  music  is  the  well  known 
"  Water  Music,"  and  its  striking  beauties  re- 
stored the  composer  to  royal  favor.  Another 
£200  was  added  to  his  salary,  which  was  again 
increased  by  a  like  amount  a  few  years  later, 
when  he  undertook  the  musical  instruction  of 
the  young  princesses.  In  1716  Handel  went 
with  the  court  to  Hanover,  and  the  only  im- 
portant work  of  this  year  was  the  music  to 
Brockes's  German  poem  on  the  "  Passion  of 
Christ."  On  returning  to  London  he  accepted 
the  place  of  music  director  to  the  duke  of 
Chandos,  for  whose  chapel  during  the  next  three 
years  he  composed  the  noble  works,  in  three, 
four,  and  five  parts,  known  as  the  "Chandos 
Anthems,"  and  for  whom  were  written  his  first 
English  oratorio,  "  Esther,"  performed  Aug.  29, 

1720,  and  the  English  "  Acis  and  Galatea."    In 
February,  1719,  he  wrote  to  his  brother-in- 
law,  saying  that  he  was  detained  in  England 
by  business  upon  which  his  future  career  de- 
pended.    This  business  was  an  attempt  to  place 
Italian  opera  in  London  upon  a  firm  founda- 
tion, under  the  name  of  the  "  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,"  by  a  subscription  of  £50,000  from 
the  king  and  nobility.    He  went  to  the  conti- 
nent, engaged  a  company  of  singers,  and  the 
royal   academy  opened  April  2,   1720.     His 
Radamizto,  first    performed    here  April  27, 
achieved  great  success;   but  his  Italian  col- 
leagues now  conspired  against  him,  the  duch- 
ess of  Marlborough  and  her  influential  wing 
of  fashionable  society  siding  with  Bononcini. 
To  settle  the  rival  claims,  it  was  decided  that 
the  latter  and  another   Italian   and   Handel 
should  each  compose  one  act  of  a  new  three- 
act  opera,  which  resulted  in  their  joint  pro- 
duction of  Muzio  Scevola,  performed  in  April, 

1721 .  Although  the  greatest  merit  was  award- 


438 


HANDEL 


ed  to  the  third  act,  composed  by  Handel,  lie  | 
and  his  enterprise  were  nevertheless  subjected 
to  continued  hostility.  His  subsequent  operas 
composed  for  the  royal  academy  are :  Flori- 
dantc,  Dec.  9,  1721;  Ottone,  Jan.  12,  1723; 
Flavio  and  Oiulio  Cesar e,  1723;  Tamerla- 
no,  1724;  Rodelinda,  1725;  Scipione,  1726; 
Alessandro,  May  7,  1726  ;  Admeto,  1727;  Si- 
roe  (Cyrus),  1728;  Tolommeo,  1728.  Twelve 
operas  and  a  transcendent  third  act  of  anoth- 
er, together  with  his  labors  as  royal  chapel- 
master  and  director  of  the  opera,  would  seem 
to  be  enough  for  the  productiveness  of  eight 
years ;  but  in  1727  he  had  added  to  the 
list  of  his  minor  works  the  noble  anthems 
for  the  coronation  of  George  II.  But  with 
the  production  of  Tolommeo  in  1728,  the 
£50,000  subscription  was  exhausted,  and  the 
royal  academy  was  bankrupt.  Handel  had 
now  saved  £10,000,  and  determined  to  risk 
it  in  the  attempt  to  carry  on  an  enterprise 
in  which  the  nobility  had  signally  failed.  He 
therefore  formed  a  partnership  for  three  years 
with  Heidegger  of  the  Haymarket  theatre ;  vis- 
ited Germany,  thence  went  on  to  Italy,  taking 
his  old  friend  and  monitor  Abbe"  Steffani  with 
him,  and  returned  to  London  with  an  ex- 
cellent company  in  June,  1729.  The  season 
opened  Dec.  2.  For  this  enterprise  Handel's 
operatic  works  were:  Lotario,  Dec.  2,  1729; 
Partenope,  Feb.  24,  1730  ;  Poro,  Feb.  2,  1731 ; 
Ezio,  Jan.  25,  1732 ;  Sosarme,  Feb.  15,  1732 ; 
Orlando,  Jan.  27,  1733 ;  Ariadne,  Jan.  26, 
1734;  Parnasso  infesta  (serenata  partly  new), 
March  13,  1734;  Pastor  fido  (completely  re- 
arranged), June  4,  1734.  In  addition  to  his 
operatic  labors,  during  this  time  he  entered 
upon  a  path  peculiarly  his  own.  In  conse- 
quence of  certain  semi-public  performances  of 
his  oratorio  "  Esther,"  for  the  benefit  of  per- 
sons who  had  surreptitiously  obtained  a  copy 
of  the  score,  Handel,  in  Lent,  1732,  uby  his 
majesty's  command  "  brought  it  upon  the  stage 
of  the  Haymarket  (without  action  of  course), 
having  thoroughly  revised  it  and  made  several 
additions.  The  king  and  all  the  royal  family 
were  present.  It  was  given  five  times,  and 
proved  a  powerful  spur  to  Handel  in  that  di- 
rection in  which  he  stands  above  all  other 
composers.  The  proprietors  of  the  English 
opera,  too,  had  recently  brought  out  his  "  Acis 
and  Galatea"  with  action,  which  led  him  to  pro- 
duce it  also  with  large  additions  from  his  Ital- 
ian serenata  on  the  same  subject,  making  of  it 
a  medley  of  both  languages.  The  success  of 
u  Esther "  induced  him  to  try  oratorio  again, 
and  he  prepared  "  Deborah,"  which  was  given 
March  17,  1733.  In  July  he  conducted  the 
performance  of  his  third  English  oratorio, 
u  Athaliah,"  at  Oxford.  During  the  same 
season  the  conduct  of  Senesino,  his  principal 
singer,  was  such  that  Handel  discharged  him  ; 
and  as  the  composer  refused  to  recall  him,  a 
coalition  was  formed  against  him,  and  a  rival 
opera  established,  with  Senesino,  Farinelli,  and 
Cuzzoni  as  principal  vocalists,  and  Porpora  and 


Arrigoni  as  composers.  Handel  posted  to 
Italy,  engaged  a  good  troupe,  and  opened  the 
season  of  1734  with  three  operas,  the  music  of 
which  was  but  arranged  with  new  recitatives 
by  him :  Semiramide,  Cajo  Fdbrizio,  and  Ar- 
lace.  The  season  ended  with  the  Pastor  fido, 
and  with  it  Handel's  engagements  with  Heideg- 
ger. Oct.  5,  1734,  he  opened  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
fields  with  revivals  of  Ariadne  and  Pastor  fido, 
but  soon  removed  to  Covent  Garden.  The  first 
work,  mostly  original,  was  Terpsicore,  a  sort 
of  ballet  interspersed  with  vocal  music,  fol- 
lowed by  Ariodante,  an  opera,  Jan.  8,  1735. 
During  Lent  he  gave  his  three  oratorios  with 
organ  concertos  between  the  acts,  and  was 
ready  on  April  16  with  another  opera,  Alcina. 
In  the  autumn  Carestini,  his  first  singer,  was 
called  by  previous  engagements  to  Italy,  and 
during  the  succeeding  winter  Handel  was 
forced  to  depend  upon  performances  of  "  Es- 
ther "  and  "  Acis  and  Galatea,"  with  one  new 
work,  his  magnificent  music  to  Dryden's 
"  Alexander's  Feast."  But  succeeding  in  en- 
gaging Conti,  a  new  singer  of  high  reputation, 
he  returned  again  to  opera,  producing  Ata- 
lanta,  May  12,  1736;  Arminio,  Jan.  12,  1737; 
Giustino,  Feb.  16,  1737;  and  Berenice,  May 
18,  1737.  Handel  had  tried  every  honorable 
means  to  achieve  success.  He  had  given  old 
favorite  operas  revised,  and  new  ones  with 
extraordinary  scenic  effects;  had  prepared  a 
pasticcio  or  two  from  the  most  popular  music 
of  his  earlier  works;  had  resorted  to  oratorio, 
and  to  the  performance  of  concerts  upon 
harpsichord  and  organ,  wherein  he  was  ac- 
knowledged by  all  to  be  absolutely  without  a 
rival.  But  London,  which  had  not  supported 
a  single  exotic  opera,  could  not  now,  when  the 
novelty  was  exhausted,  encourage  two;  and 
with  the  failure  of  the  Berenice  his  £10,000 
were  at  an  end,  and  his  enemies  had  the  satis- 
faction of  having  at  length  crushed  him.  But 
they  too  were  exhausted.  Handel  closed  his 
theatre  in  May  ;  they  followed  in  September. 
Farinelli  had  deserted  them,  and  they  closed 
their  accounts  with  a  loss  of  £12,000.  Before 
Handel  finally  gave  way  to  the  pressure  against 
him,  his  health  had  failed,  and  soon  after  the 
catastrophe  an  attack  of  paralysis  prostrated 
him.  His  friends  persuaded  him  to  visit  Aix- 
la-Chapelle;  and  once  there  his  constitution 
triumphed ;  in  six  weeks  he  was  restored,  and 
returned  to  London  to  face  his  creditors  and 
engage  in  gigantic  labors  to  discharge  his 
debts.  On  Nov.  1  he  was  again  in  London; 
on  the  15th  he  began  the  opera  Faramondo, 
for  the  younger  Heidegger ;  on  the  20th  Queen 
Caroline  died,  and  the  king  ordered  a  funeral 
anthem,  which  was  completed  in  five  days, 
one  of  Handel's  grandest  and  most  touching 
works ;  he  then  took  up  the  opera  again,  and 
on  Dec.  24  it  was  completed.  Faramondo  was 
produced  in  January,  1738,  but  was  unpopular. 
On  Feb.  25  Alessandro  Severo  followed,  ar- 
ranged from  his  other  works,  and  on  April  15 
Serse  (Xerxes),  a  new  work.  The  great  pubj 


HANDEL 


439 


did  not  desert  the  composer  in  his  trouble, 
although  it  refused  to  sustain  the  operatic  en- 
^rprise  of  Heidegger.      At   a  concert  given 
for  the  benefit  of  Mr.  Handel,"  March  28,  the 
let  receipts   were  £800.     At  this  period  he 
fas  engaged  to  compose  music  for  Vauxhall 
lens,  and  the  popularity  of  his  music  was 
that  Tyers,  the  proprietor,  erected  to  his 
lonor  a  marble  statue  by  Roubiliac.     Heideg- 
jr's  operatic  enterprise  closed  June  6,  not  to 
renewed ;  and  Handel  gave  his  attention 
other  studies,  preparing  several  of  his  or- 
m  concertos  for  publication,  and  composing 
oratorios  "Saul"  and  "Israel  in  Egypt," 
rhich  were  completed  before  the  close  of  Oc- 
>ber.     These  two  immense  works  were  pro- 
ced  in  the  series  of  13  oratorio  performances 
the  succeeding  winter  and  spring,  the  for- 
r  Jan.  16,  the  latter  April  4,  1739.     For  his 
concerts  in  Lincoln's  Inn  fields  during  the 
m  of  1739-'40  the  new  works  were  Dry- 
"  St.  Csecilia  Ode  "  (not  the  "  Alexan- 
ler's  Feast"),  and  Milton's  "L' Allegro"  and 
lll  Penseroso."     The  season  of  1740-'41  com- 
14  performances,  the  new  works  being 
uneo  (Hymen)  and  Deidamia,  Italian  operas 
rhich  did  not  succeed.  This  closed  his  attempts 
produce  opera.     The  public  would  support 
jither  him  nor  any  other  person  at  that  time 
giving  opera  in   a  foreign  language.     Dis- 
>uraged  at  length,  he  determined  to  accept 
long  standing  invitation  from  the  lord  lieu- 
jnant  and  other  notables  of  Ireland  and  visit 
iblin.     For  performances  there  he  composed 
new  work  to  a  text  selected  from  the  Bible, 
lis  was  the  "  Sacred  Oratorio,"  now  known 
the  "Messiah."    He  reached  Dublin  Nov. 
18,  1741,  and  began  his  first  series  of  six  con- 
3rts  Dec.  23.     A  sacred  series  of  six  began 
i'eb.  6,   1742,  after  which  four  supplemental 
jrformances    were    given,   the    second    and 
fourth  of  which,  April  13  and  June  3,  were 
first  public  productions  of  the  immortal 
;  Messiah."     The  greatness  of  the  work  was 
immediately  appreciated,  and  its  author  en- 
joyed once  more  the  pleasure  of  a  triumphant 
iccess.     After  a  stay  of  nine  months  in  Ire- 
id,  Handel  returned  to  London  crowned  with 
iccess  and  honor.     He  seems  now  to  have  in- 
Inlged  for  a  time  in  a  period  of  rest  and  inac- 
vity;  but  in  the  spring  of  1743  he  gave  a 
3ries  of  twelve  oratorio  performances  (the 
Messiah  "  occupying  three,  and  a  new  work, 
Samson,"  eight),    with   great  success.     For 
lis  season  of  1744  the  new  works  were  the 
Dettingen  Te  Deum,"  "  Semele,"  and  "Jo- 
3ph  and  his  Brethren ;"  for  that  of  l744-'5, 
>r  which  he  had  taken  the  Haymarket  theatre, 
Hercules,"  "  Belshazzar,"  and  a  revival  of 
Deborah."     But  the  faction  of  the  nobility, 
>ecially  a  set  of  titled  women,  who  placed 
nesino  higher  than   Handel,  succeeded   so 
ir  in  curtailing  the  list  of  his  subscribers 
to  render  him  unable   to  meet  the  great 
cpenses  he  had  incurred  in   producing  his 
rorks  upon  the  large  stage  of  the  Haymarket, 


and  on  a  scale  of  then  unknown  grandeur ; 
and  in  the  spring  of  1745,  after  the  16th  of  the 
24  performances  advertised,  he  was  forced  to 
close  his  doors  and  again  suspend  payment. 
During  the  spring  of  1746  he  gave  only  the 
eight  performances  which  were  due  to  the 
subscribers  of  the  year  before,  with  but  one 
new  work,  the  "Occasional  Oratorio,"  which, 
so  far  from  being  a  pasticcio,  as  is  often  rep- 
resented, contains  in  37  pieces  only  six  from 
older  works.  From  this  time  onward  Handel 
abandoned  the  plan  of  depending  upon  the 
subscriptions  of  the  higher  classes,  throwing 
himself  upon  the  generosity  and  musical  taste 
of  the  general  public.  During  the  remainder 
of  his  life  he  gave  every  spring  a  series  of  10 
to  13  concerts,  and  with  such  success  that  he 
paid  his  debts  to  the  uttermost  farthing,  and 
in  little  more  than  ten  years  accumulated  £20,- 
000.  The  new  works  of  these  latter  years 
were:  "Judas  Maccabaeus,"  1747,  which  he 
gave  six  times ;  "Alexander,  "1748;  "Joshua," 
1748;  "Susannah,"  1749;  "Solomon,"  1749 ; 
"Theodora,"  1750;  "Choice  of  Hercules," 
1751  ;  "Jephthah,"  1752,  the  last  of  this  stu- 
pendous series  of  dramatic  oratorios.  While 
at  work  on  "  Jephthah,"  which  he  began  Jan. 
15,  1751,  and  ended  Aug.  30,  his  sight  began 
to  fail.  Three  operations  were  performed  upon 
his  eyes  without  success,  and  when  the  work 
was  produced  the  next  year,  the  grand  old  man 
was  led  into  the  orchestra  blind.  Thencefor- 
ward his  pupil,  John  Christian  Smith,  aided 
him  in  conducting  his  oratorios,  and  acted  as 
his  amanuensis  in  the  additions  and  changes 
which  he  still  occasionally  made  in  them. 
This  was  the  case  with  the  translation,  with 
much  added  matter,  of  the  II  trionfo  del  tem- 
po e  del  disinganno  of  his  youth,  into  the  fine 
work,  "  The  Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth." 
During  the  winter  of  l758-'9  his  health  failed 
again;  but  although  he  felt  himself  rapidly 
drawing  near  the  close  of  his  life  of  intense 
activity,  he  opened  his  usual  series  of  orato- 
rios, March  2,  with  "Solomon,"  with  "new 
additions  and  alterations."  "  Susannah,"  also 
with  new  additions  and  alterations,  followed, 
"Samson"  was  given  on  the  14th,  16th,  and 
21st  of  the  same  month,  and  "  Judas  (Macca- 
bseus"  on  the  23d  and  28th;  on  March  30 
and  April  4  and  6,  the  "-Messiah."  The  per- 
formance on  the  6th  was  the  last  at  which 
the  composer  was  present.  On  reaching  his 
house  he  went  to  bed  quite  exhausted,  and 
never  rose  from  it  On  the  17th  anniversary 
of  his  first  performance  of  the  "Messiah,"  a 
little  before  midnight,  he  breathed  his  last, 
seven  weeks  after  completing  his  74th  year. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  and  his 
statue  is  conspicuous  among  the  monuments 
of  the  "  poets'  corner  "  of  that  edifice. — During 
the  lifetime  of  the  composer  Pope  called  him 
the  "  giant  Handel,"  an  epithet  the  justice  of 
which  to  this  day  every  musician  feels.  His 
greatness  was  fully  acknowledged  by  his  con- 
temporary Bach,  and  by  the  greatest  that 


440 


HANEBERG 


HANGO 


have  followed  them  in  the  musical  profession. 
Beethoven  did  not  hesitate  to  call  him  the 
greatest  composer  that  ever  lived.  Handel 
possessed  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  melody,  of 
the  richest  and  noblest  character;  an  almost 
unparalleled  power  of  musical  expression ;  an 
unlimited  command  of  all  the  resources  of  con- 
trapuntal and  fugal  science ;  a  power  of  wield- 
ing huge  masses  of  tone  with  the  most  perfect 
ease  and  felicity.  But  perhaps  his  leading 
characteristic  was  the  grandeur,  majesty,  and 
sublimity  of  his  conceptions.  He  carried  the 
old  forms  of  opera  to  their  highest  perfection ; 
infused  a  new  life  and  power  into  English  ec- 
clesiastical music;  was  as  an  instrumental 
composer  equalled  by  none  but  Bach,  and  in 
one  direction  surpassed  all  others  who  have 
written.  We  refer  to  the  dramatic  oratorio,  of 
which,  if  not  the  creator,  he  was  the  perfecter, 
and  reached  a  height  in  the  "  Messiah,"  "  Is- 
rael in  Egypt,"  "Samson,"  and  "Judas  Mac- 
cabfflus,"  whereon  he  stands  alone.  The  prob- 
lem he  undertook  to  solve  was  that  of  giving 
such  dramatic  force  and  expression  to  the 
music  in  which  he  clothed  his  sacred  texts,  as 
to  be  able  to  dispense  with  all  scenic  and  stage 
effects,  and  this  he  did  with  marvellous  success. 
Making  all  due  allowance  for  the  thinness  of 
his  scores  in  comparison  with  those  written  for 
the  modern  orchestra,  and  for  his  occasional 
adaptations  from  other  works,  still  the  rapidity 
with  which  he  produced  his  greatest  composi- 
tions has  hardly  a  parallel  in  musical  history : 
"  Atalanta  "  in  19  days ;  "  Rinaldo  "  in  a  fort- 
night; "Alexander's  Feast"  in  17  days;  con- 
certante  for  nine  instruments  in  one  day ;  the 
"Messiah "in  23  days;  and  "Samson,"  begun 
only  eleven  days  afterward,  in  35. — Victor 
Schoelcher's  elaborate  biography  of  Handel  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1857,  and  one  'by  Chry- 
sander  at  Leipsic  (3  vols.,  1858-'67).  Mrs. 
Bray's  "Handel,  his  Life,  Personal  and  Profes- 
sional," was  published  in  London  shortly  after 
the  great  Handel  festival  at  the  crystal  palace 
in  June,  1857.  The  centennial  anniversary  of 
his  death  was  celebrated  in  London  on  a  gigan- 
tic scale  in  1859.  Many  editions  of  his  works, 
more  or  less  complete,  have  been  published; 
all  others  have  been  superseded  by  that  of  the 
German  Handel  society  (25  vols.,  1858-'66  et 
seq.}.  See  also  Handel  und  Shakespeare  (Leip- 
sic, 1868),  and  Handel' '«  Oratorientexte  (1873), 
both  by  Gervinus. 

HANEBEKG,  Daniel,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Tanne,  June  17,  1816.  He  was  con- 
secrated a  priest  in  1839,  and  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Munich.  He  was  a 
successful  instructor  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
a  favorite  preacher.  In  1850  ho  entered  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Bonifacius  at  Mu- 
nich, of  which  in  1854  he  was  chosen  abbot. 
Among  his  writings  are :  Ueber  die  arabische 
Psalmenubersetzung  des  Saadia  (1840);  Die 
rell<jin»f,n  AUerthiimer  (1842;  2d  ed.,  1866); 
Ueber  Schulwesen  tier  MoJiammedaner  (1 850) ; 
Geschichte  der  biblischen  Offeribarung  (1850; 


3d  ed.,  1864);  Erorterungen  uber  Pseudo- 
WaTcidi's  Geschichte  der  Eroberung  von  Syrien 
(1860);  Ueber  die  Theologie  des  Aristotele» 
(1863) ;  and  a  criticism  upon  Kenan's  Vie  de 
Jesus,  entitled  Kenan's  Leben  Jesu  (1864). 

HANGCHOW,  or  Hangchow-foo,  a  city  of  China, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Chekiang,  2  m.  from 
the  Tsientang  and  about  40  in.  from  its  mouth, 
110  m.  S.  W.  of  Shanghai.  It  is  situated  on  a 
plain  at  the  S.  terminus  of  the  imperial  canal, 
giving  it  water  communication  witli  Peking 
and  a  large  internal  trade,  while  the  river,  4 
m.  broad  opposite  the  city,  affords  communi- 
cation with  the  southern  parts  of  the  empire. 
Until  recently  it  was  one  of  the  largest  and 
richest  cities  of  China,  with  an  estimated  popu- 
lation of  700,000,  of  whom  more  than  60,000 
were  employed  in  silk  manufactures.  Till  1861 
it  was  the  great  resort  for  literary  and  reli- 
gious men,  and  colleges  and  temples  were  nu- 
merous. But  a  small  portion  of  the  people, 
including  a  garrison  of  7,000  troops,  reside 
within  the  walls,  the  rest  living  in  the  sub- 
urbs, which  are  extensive  and  beautiful,  and 
in  boats,  with  which  the  adjacent  waters  are 
thronged.  The  streets,  though  narrow,  are 
well  paved  and  clean  ;  arches  and  public  monu- 
ments abound,  and  the  shops  once  vied  with 
those  of  European  capitals  in  the  display  of 
gold  and  silver  ornaments,  and  silks  and  em- 
broideries, for  which  the  city  was  particularly 
famous ;  while  the  residence  of  the  court  and 
the  immense  trade  passing  through  it  increased 
its  wealth  and  importance.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  Sung  dynasty  (960-1279)  it  was 
the  metropolis  of  the  country.  Marco  Polo 
describes  it  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  as 
"preeminent  above  all  cities  in  the  world  in 
point  of  grandeur  and  beauty."  Until  it  was 
captured  by  the  rebels,  Dec.  28,  1861,  it  was 
the  residence  of  the  governor  and  general  of 
Chekiang  and  Fokien,  and  of  the  governor  of 
the  province.  The  rebels  held  it  three  years, 
during  which  they  plundered  and  impoverished 
the  place  and  drove  out  a  great  number  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  imperialists  recovered  it, 
March  31,  1864,  and  since  then  many  of  the 
inhabitants  have  returned,  and  the  city  is  re- 
covering something  of  its  former  prosperity. 

HANG-NEST.     See  BALTIMORE  BIRD. 

HANGO,  or  Hango-Udd,  a  seaport  of  Russia,  on 
the  coast  of  Finland,  about  half  way  between 
Helsingfors  and  Abo,  on  a  tongue  of  land  the 
extremity  of  which  forms  Hango  Head  or  Cape 
Hango.  The  population  is  small,  but  the  place 
derives  importance  from  its  harbor  being  free 
from  ice  excepting  during  about  one  month  of 
the  year,  owing  to  the  warm  currents  from  the 
gulf  of  Bothnia.  It  has  been  declared  a  free  port, 
and  a  railway  connecting  it  with  St.  Petersburg 
was  opened  Oct.  8,  1873.  The  mole  is  built  of 
granite,  and  runs  out  into  the  harbor  for  150 
yards,  with  a  depth  of  40  ft.  on  both  sides. 
Owing  to  the  natural  advantages  of  the  rail- 
way and  to  the  cheapness  of  labor,  it  carries 
freight  at  a  lower  rate  than  the  shorter  routes 


HANIFAH 


HANNIBAL 


Eevel  and  the  Baltic  ports. — The  Swedes 
were  defeated  here  in  1713  by  the  Kussians. 

HANIFAH  (commonly  called  ABU  HANIFAH), 
the  founder  of  the  Hanifites,  the  most  ancient 
of  the  four  sects  of  orthodox  Mussulmans,  born 
at  Kufah  in  699,  poisoned  in  767.  He  early 
gained  distinction  from  his  knowledge  of 
theology  and  law,  but  was  equally  eminent  for 
his  personal  qualities.  He  did  not  accept  the 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination,  and  was 
thrown  into  prison  by  the  caliph.  Subse- 
quently he  opposed  the  caliph's  persecution  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Mosul,  and  was  compelled 
to  take  poison.  A  mausoleum  was  built  for 
him  in  1092.  He  taught  that  the  sins  of  the 
faithful  are  not  annulled,  and  that  it  is  possible 
for  them  to  fall  into  transgression.  He  wrote 
a  famous  commentary  on  the  Koran,  entitled 
Sated,  or  "  The  Help." 

HANKA,  Yeneeslav,  a  Bohemian  philologist, 
born  at  Horzeniowes,  June  10,  1791,  died  Jan. 
12,  1861.  He  had  made  himself  popular  by 
several  poetical  productions  in  Czechic,  when 
he  became  famous  by  the  discovery  in  1817 
(the  genuineness  of  which  is,  however,  still 
contested)  of  the  "Manuscript  of  Koniginhof  " 
(Rulcopis  kralodwrslcy),  a  collection  of  Czechic 
poems  supposed  to  have  been  written  about 
the  beginning  of  the  14th  century.  He  was 
appointed  in  1818  librarian  of  the  national 
museum  of  Prague,  and  in  1849  professor  at 
the  university.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number 
of  important  grammatical,  lexicographical,  and 
critical  works  on  the  Bohemian  and  other 
Slavic  languages  and  literature. 

HANKEL,  Wilhelm  Gottlieb,  a  German  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Ermsleben,  May  17,  1814. 
In  1833  he  entered  the  university  of  Halle, 
where  he  began  the  study  of  theology,  but 
soon  devoted  himself  to  science.  In  1835  he 
became  assistant  in  the  cabinet  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  in  1836  teacher  of  science  in  the 
school  of  the  orphan  house.  In  1847  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Halle,  and  in  1849  ordinary  professor 
at  Leipsic.  He  is  especially  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  has 
published  Elektri-sche  Untersuehungen  (parts 
1-6,  Leipsic,  1856-'65). 

HANKOW,  a  city  of  China,  in  the  province 
of  Hupeh,  on  the  Yangtse-kiang,  470  m.  "W.  of 
Shanghai;  pop.  estimated  at  800,000.  The 
river  Han,  which  here  falls  into -the  Yangtse, 
separates  Hankow  from  Hanyang,  and  opposite 
both,  on  the  other  bank  of  the  Yangtse,  is  Wo- 
chang,  the  capital  of  Hupeh.  These  three 
towns  are  said  to  have  had,  before  they  were 
almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  Taepings,  an 
aggregate  population  of  5,000,000.  In  conse- 
quence of  its  flourishing  trade,  Hankow  is  now 
again  one  of  the  first  commercial  cities  of  the 
Chinese  empire,  and  in  particular  the  centre  of 
the  commerce  of  the  provinces  of  Hupeh,  Ho- 
nan,  Sechuen,  and  Kweichow.  It  is  one  of  the 
treaty  ports  opened  to  foreign  commerce.  Two 
regular  lines  of  steamships  connect  it  with 


Shanghai.  For  the  trade  with  Russia,  Han- 
kow is  next  to  Tientsin  the  most  important 
place.  The  imports  in  1871  were  valued  at 
$187,000,  the  exports  at  $5,112,000.  The  most 
important  articles  of  export  are  tea,  China 
grass,  hemp,  tobacco,  and  rhubarb ;  the  most 
important  articles  of  import  are  Russian  cloth 
and  velvets.  The  number  of  vessels  entering 
the  port  in  1869  was  286,  tonnage  185,226 ; 
cleared,  350,  tonnage  191,088. 

HMLEY,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  England, 
forming  with  the  township  of  Shelton  a  mu- 
nicipal borough,  1  m.  N.  of  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
and  149  m.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871, 
39,976.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  the  pottery 
manufacturing  district,  in  which  business  the 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed,  and  to  which 
the  rapid  increase  of  population  (which  in  1831 
was  only  7,121)  is  mainly  due.  The  town, 
situated  on  a  rising  eminence,  has  wide,  well 
paved  streets,  and  is  lighted  with  gas  and  sup- 
plied with  water.  It  has  a  handsome  town 
hall,  public  library,  mechanics'  institute,  and 
several  large  markets.  An  important  cattle 
market  is  held  here  every  fortnight. 

HANNAY,  James,  a  British  author,  born  in 
Dumfries,  Scotland,  Feb.  17,  1827,  died  in 
Barcelona,  Spain,  Jan.  9,  1874.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  the  age  of  13,  but  left  it  after 
five  years,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  contributed  to  various  periodicals,  and  from 
1860  to  1864  was  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh 
Courant."  In  1857  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  parliament  for  Dumfries.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  consul  at  Barcelona. 
His  works  include  "Biscuit  and  Grog"  (1848), 
"Hearts  are  Trumps "  (1848),  "KingDobbs" 
(1849),  "Singleton  Fontenoy"  (1850),  "Satire 
and  Satirists"  (1853),  "Sand  and  Shells" 
(1854),  " Eustace  Conyers"  (1857),  "A  Course 
of  English  Literature"  (1866),  and  "Three 
Hundred  Years  of  a  Norman  House  "  (1867). 

HAMIBAL,  a  city  of  Marion  co.,  Missouri, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  132  m.  above 
St.  Louis,  and  90  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Jefferson. 
City ;  pop.  in  1850,  2,020 ;  in  1860,  6,505 ;  in 
1870,  10,125,  of  whom  1,616  were  colored  and 
1,632  foreigners.  It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  railroads,  one  of  the  western 
termini  of  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western, 
and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
lines,  and  a  station  on  the  Mississippi  Valley 
railroad.  Hannibal  is  the  only  point  on  the 
Mississippi  S.  of  Keokuk  where  a  bridge  adapt- 
ed for  both  railroad  and  wagon  travel  spans 
the  river.  It  is  favorably  situated  for  com- 
merce, is  rapidly  increasing,  and  is  the  shipping 
point  for  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  pork, 
flour,  and  other  produce.  Coal  and  limestone 
abound  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  manufacture  of 
lime  is  a  prominent  business.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  St.  Louis,  it  is  the  most  extensive 
lumber  market  W.  of  the  Mississippi,  and  has 
a  large  trade  in  this  article  with  Kansas  and 
Texas.  It  contains  a  city  hall,  two  banks  with 


HANNIBAL 


a  capital  of  $250,000,  a  savings  bank,  several 
large  tobacco  factories,  pork-packing  houses, 
flour  mills,  saw  mills,  founderies  and  car  works, 
and  14  extensive  lumber  yards.  Hannibal 
college  was  established  in  1868,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  South, 
and  in  1872  had  5  professors  and  35  prepara- 
tory and  73  collegiate  students.  There  are  6 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  having 
in  1872  25  teachers  and  1,035  pupils;  several 
private  schools,  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  a 
daily  and  weekly  newspaper,  a  monthly  pe- 
riodical, and  13  churches. 

HAMIBAL,  or  Annibal  (in  Punic,  probably, 
"favorite  of  Baal"),  a  Carthaginian  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  247  B.  C.,  died  in  Nico- 
media,  Bithynia,  in  183.  He  was  the  son  of 
Hamilcar  Barca,  the  Carthaginian  hero  of  the 
first  Punic  war  and  leader  of  the  popular  party 
in  his  state ;  and  the  first  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  amid  the  impressions  caused  by  the 
achievements  of  his  father,  the  disasters  which 
terminated  that  protracted  struggle  against 
Rome,  and  the  horrors  of  the  military  mutiny 
which  followed  it.  Having  quelled  this  mu- 
tiny, and  prepared  for  the  conquest  of  Spain, 
Hamilcar,  designing  to  take  with  him  his  son, 
then  a  boy  of  nine  years,  led  him  before  their 
departure  to  an  altar,  and  made  him  swear 
eternal  enmity  to  the  Romans.  Spain,  which 
Hamilcar  and  his  son-in-law  and  successor  in 
command  Hasdrubal  conquered  as  far  as  the 
Ebro,  was  an  excellent  school  of  war  for  Han- 
nibal; and  when  the  young  general  took  the 
command,  on  the  death  of  his  brother-in-law 
(221),  he  possessed  all  the  qualities  which  could 
promise  success  to  the  great  military  and  polit- 
ical schemes  of  the  house  of  Barca.  His  first 
task  was  to  complete  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try south  of  the  Ebro.  After  a  few  victories, 
Saguntum  (now  Murviedro  in  Valencia)  alone 
remained  to  be  subdued.  This  city,  a  Greek 
colony,  was  an  ally  of  Rome ;  but  this  was 
only  another  inducement  for  Hannibal  to  at- 
tack it,  and  at  the  head  of  150,000  men  he  was 
strong  enough  to  undertake  the  siege  against 
the  will  of  his  government  and  the  wish  of  the 
predominant  party  in  Carthage.  Saguntum, 
after  a  defence  of  eight  months,  characterized 
by  that  desperate  valor  which  has  marked  the 
struggles  of  so  many  cities  in  ancient  as  well 
as  modern  Spain,  fell  while  Rome  was  still 
deliberating  on  its  rescue  (219).  Hannibal 
stained  his  victory  by  cruelty,  but  the  rich 
booty  sent  to  Carthage  silenced  the  accusations 
of  his  enemies  and  augmented  the  number  of 
the  friends  of  war.  Rome  demanded  in  vain 
the  surrender  of  the  young  general,  and  at  last 
through  her  envoy,  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus, 
declared  war.  Thus  the  second  Punic  war 
was  begun.  Unlike  the  first,  which  was  waged 
chiefly  for  the  possession  of  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  the  genius  of  Hannibal  made  it 
a  struggle  for  the  destruction  of  Rome,  which 
he  hoped  to  achieve  by  an  invasion  of  Italy 
from  the  north,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the 


half  subdued  subjects  of  the  tyrannical  repub- 
lic, of  whom  the  Insubrian  and  Boian  Gauls 
had  secretly  promised  a  revolt.  Having  se- 
cured the  coasts  of  Africa  by  an  army  of 
Spaniards,  and  Spain  by  another  of  Africans 
under  his  brother  Hasdrubal,  he  started  from 
New  Carthage  (now  Cartagena)  in  the  spring 
of  218,  with  90,000  foot,  12,000  horse,  and  37 
elephants,  crossed  the  Ebro,  subdued  in  a  se- 
ries of  bloody  struggles  the  warlike  tribes  of 
northeastern  Spain,  and  passed  the  Pyrenees, 
leaving  Hanno  to  guard  the  passes,  and  dis- 
missing thousands  of  native  Spanish  troops  to 
show  his  confidence  of  success.  His  army  was 
now  reduced  to  59,000  men,  with  whom  h« 
speedily  traversed  the  country  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Rh6ne,  crossed  that  river, 
unchecked  by  the  hostile  Massiliotes,  old  allies 
of  Rome,  and  their  warlike  Gallic  neighbors, 
and,  avoiding  the  cavalry  of  P.  Cornelius  Sci- 
pio  the  elder,  who  had  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Gaul,  marched  up  the  Rh6ne  and  Isere,  and 
through  the  comparatively  level  peninsula  of 
the  Allobroges  between  those  two  rivers  to 
the  Alps.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  he 
crossed  the  Graian  range  by  the  Little  St.  Ber- 
nard, which  agrees  with  the  relation  of  Poly- 
bius;  but  some  still  hold  that  his  route  was 
across  the  Cottian  range  by  Mt.  Cenis  (as  Livy 
relates),  or  Mt.  Genevre.  The  stormy  autumn 
weather  and  the  treachery  of  the  Centrones, 
a  Gallic  tribe,  greatly  augmented  the  natural 
horrors  of  this  15  days'  passage  of  an  army 
consisting  in  part  of  horsemen  and  elephants 
along  narrow  paths,  between  precipices  and 
avalanches,  over  rocky  peaks  and  ice  fields 
lightly  covered  with  snow.  But  the  spirit  of 
the  general  proved  equally  ingenious  in  baf- 
fling the  unexpected  assaults  of  the  Gauls, 
and  in  contriving  artificial  means  for  trans- 
porting the  army  with  its  trains.  Of  this, 
however,  no  more  than  20,000  foot  and  6,000 
horse  could  be  mustered  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Dora  Baltea.  But  the  Insubrians  and  Bo- 
ians  had  kept  their  promise  and  risen  against 
the  Romans;  they  now  readily  joined  his  ban- 
ners. Having  captured  Taurinium  (Turin), 
which  was  hostile  to  the  Insubrians,  he  de- 
feated Scipio,  who  had  returned  with  a  part 
of  his  army  from  Gaul  to  meet  him  on  his  de- 
scent from  the  Alps,  in  a  cavalry  engagement 
on  the  Ticino.  It  was  his  first  battle  against 
Romans,  and  the  first  in  Italy;  and  knowing 
the  importance  of  the  first  impression,  he  had 
inspired  his  brave  Numidian  cavalry  by  a  fiery 
speech.  The  consul  retreated  toward  the  for- 
tified town  of  Placentia  (Piacenza),  but  could 
not  prevent  his  colleague  T.  Semproiiius,  after 
his  arrival  from  Sicily,  from  accepting  a  bat- 
tle on  the  Trebia,  in  which  the  Romans  were 
entrapped  into  an  ambuscade  by  Mago,  the 
younger  brother  of  Hannibal,  and  completely 
routed.  Only  a  part  of  their  army  escaped 
toward  the  fortresses  of  the  Po.  The  cam- 
paign of  the  year  218  had  thus  been  a  succes- 
sion of  triumphs  for  Hannibal  from  the  Ebro 


HANNIBAL 


443 


to  the  Trebia.  The  Eomans  now  armed  to 
defend  the  lines  of  the  Apennines,  sending 
Servilius  and  Flaminius,  the  new  consuls  of  the 
year  217,  to  Umbria  and  Etruria,  on  either  of 
which  an  attack  was  expected.  Hannibal 
chose  a  western  passage  over  the  mountains, 
where  he  lost  all  his  remaining  elephants  but 
one,  and  having  crossed  the  marshy  environs 
of  the  Arno,  during  which  perilous  march  he 
lost  his  right  eye,  he  passed  by  the  camp  of 
Flaminius  at  Arretium  (Arezzo),  and  finally 
enticed  him  from  his  position  into  a  defile  be- 
tween Cortona  and  Lake  Thrasymenus  (now 
the  lake  of  Perugia),  where  the  Romans  were 
suddenly  attacked  by  the  Carthaginians  in 
front  and  rear.  Half  of  the  Roman  army,  to- 
gether with  the  consul,  perished  by  the  sword 
or  in  the  lake,  and  the  other  half  was  captured. 
Four  thousand  horsemen,  the  vanguard  of  Ser- 
vilius, who  was  hastening  from  Umbria  to  aid 
his  colleague,  arrived  only  to  meet  the  same 
fate.  Rome  trembled,  and  imagined  Hanni- 
bal already  before  its  gates.  {Hannibal  ante 
portas  became  afterward  a  proverb.)  Q.  Fa- 
bius Maximus  Verrucosus  was  proclaimed  pro- 
dictator  by  the  senate,  and  the  city  was  forti- 
fied. But  the  conqueror,  who  knew  Rome  and 
the  power  of  its  despair,  having  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  besiege  Spoletum,  re- 
solved to  detach  the  subjects  and  allies  of 
Eome  from  its  interest  before  attacking  the 
city  itself.  He  therefore  crossed  over  to  Pice- 
num,  and  carried  terror  and  devastation  into 
the  lands  of  the  faithful  confederates  of  Rome 
in  central  Italy.  Fabius  now  marched  against 
him,  and,  with  that  cautious  slowness  which 
won  him  the  surname  of  Cunctator  (the  De- 
layer), closely  followed  all  his  motions,  hover- 
ing around  him  like  "a  cloud  on  the  moun- 
tains," deterring  the  towns  from  defection,  but 
carefully  avoiding  the  risk  of  a  decisive  battle. 
By  thus  keeping  Hannibal  continually  at  bay, 
he  procured  Rome  time  for  greater  armaments. 
Once  he  had  even  the  good  fortune  to  surround 
him  closely  in  a  narrow  mountain  pass ;  but 

nibal  saved  himself  by  having  2,000  oxen 
burning  fagots  around  their  horns  driven 

n  an  eminence,  which,  making  the  enemy 
believe  that  a  sally  was  intended  on  that  side, 
induced  him  to  quit  one  of  his  main  positions. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  slowness  of  Fabius,  Mi- 
nucius,  his  master  of  the  horse,  attacked  the 
enemy  in  his  absence  at  Geronium,  and  for 
a  trifling  success  was  rewarded  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Rome  with  an  equal  share  in  the  su- 
preme command.  This  emboldened  him  to 
attempt  another  attack,  and  he  was  soon  en- 
snared and  routed  by  Hannibal,  being  saved 
from  total  ruin  only  by  Fabius,  who  hastened 
to  the  rescue  of  his  rival.  Hannibal  regarded 
this  as  a  defeat  by  Fabius.  "  I  told  you,"  he 
said,  "the  cloud  of  the  mountains  would  shed 
its  lightnings."  He  wrote  to  Carthage  for  re- 
enforcements  and  money ;  the  government 
refused  to  send  any,  for  none  were  needed, 
bis  enemies  said,  after  such  victories.  Hasdru- 


bal,  his  brother,  was  fully  engaged  in  Spain 
by  the  brothers  P.  Cornelius  and  Cneius  Scipio. 
A  decisive  battle  was  deemed  necessary  by  Han- 
nibal to  destroy  the  Roman  confederacy.  The 
rashness  of  C.  Terentius  Varro,  one  of  the  con- 
suls of  the  year  216,  soon  ottered  an  opportu- 
nity for  striking  a  great  blow,  of  which  Han- 
nibal well  knew  how  to  avail  himself.  The 
battle  was  fought  in  Apulia,  near  Cannse,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Aufidus  (Ofanto).  The  two 
consuls,  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus  and  Varro,  com- 
manded more  than  80,000  men;  the  Cartha- 
ginian generals,  Hannibal,  Mago,  Maharbal, 
Hanno,  and  another  Hasdrubal,  50,000.  Skil- 
ful disposition,  stratagem,  and  the  Numidian 
cavalry  decided  the  day  in  favor  of  the  Car- 
thaginians. ^Emilius  Paulus,  who  died  the 
death  of  a  hero,  21  military  tribunes,  80  sen- 
ators, and  numberless  knights  were  among  the 
50,000,  or,  according  to  others,  70,000  Roman 
victims  of  the  carnage.  Only  scattered  rem- 
nants escaped,  among  them  Varro,  who  now 
received  the  thanks  of  the  senate  quod  de 
republica  non  desperasset.  This  indomitable 
spirit  of  the  Romans,  as  well  as  his  own  heavy 
loss,  still  prevented  Hannibal  from  following 
the  advice  of  Barca  to  march  immediately  upon 
Rome.  He  was  for  the  present  satisfied  with 
the  possession  of  southern  Italy,  and  entered 
Capua,  which  opened  its  gates,  to  give  rest  to 
his  troops.  But  the  rich  and  luxurious  metrop- 
olis of  Campania  proved  fatal  to  their  disci- 
pline and  health,  and  desertion  thinned  their 
ranks.  Hannibal  had  passed  the  zenith  of  his 
good  fortune.  Marcellus,  the  sword  of  Rome, 
while  Fabius  continued  to  be  its  shield,  re- 
pulsed him  from  Nola,  and  besieged  and  con- 
quered Syracuse  (214-212),  a  newly  gained 
ally  of  Hannibal,  while  another  ally,  Philip 
of  Macedon,  was  prevented  from  fulfilling  his 
promises  of  aid.  Hasdrubal  in  Spain  fought 
with  varying  success,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  the 
son,  recovering  what  his  father  and  uncle  had 
lost  when  they  fell.  Sardinia  and  the  whole  of 
Sicily  were  soon  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
who  began  to  harass  the  coasts  of  Africa. 
While  Hannibal  was  effecting  his  successful 
march  to  Tarentum  and  its  occupation  (212), 
other  towns  were  lost.  Capua  was  besieged 
and  hard  pressed.  Unable  to  dislodge  the  be- 
siegers, he  suddenly  marched  toward  Rome, 
and  really  appeared  before  its  gates  (211),  but 
this  diversion  remained  fruitless.  The  siege  of 
Capua  was  not  raised,  and  both  that  city  and 
Tarentum  were  lost ;  and  after  a  victory  at  Her- 
donea  (210),  Hannibal  had  to  keep  himself  on 
the  defensive  in  Apulia,  Lucania,  and  Bruttium. 
His  most  dangerous  enemy,  Marcellus,  however, 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  Venusia,  and  was 
slain  (208).  This  was  one  of  Hannibal's  last 
achievements  in  Italy.  His  hopes  rested  on 
the  approach  of  his  brother  from  Spain  with  a 
mighty  army ;  but  the  consuls  Livius  and  Clau- 
dius Nero,  the  latter  of  whom  secretly  hastened 
from  the  south,  where  he  was  observing  Han- 
nibal, to  aid  his  colleague  in  the  north,  de- 


444 


HANNIBAL 


HANNO 


stroyed  in  the  battle  on  the  Metaurus  (207)  the 
new  army  and  every  hope  of  Carthaginian 
success.  Hannibal,  into  whose  camp  the  head 
of  his  brother  was  thrown  by  the  Romans, 
now  despaired  of  the  result,  but  still  continued 
the  struggle,  at  least  for  the  military  honor  of 
his  country,  in  Bruttium,  the  southernmost 
peninsula  of  Italy,  until  he  was  recalled  in  203 
to  Africa,  which  was  now  invaded  by  Scipio, 
the  conqueror  of  Spain".  Immediately  on  his 
return,  after  so  many  years  of  absence  and  vic- 
tories, he  created  a  new  cavalry,  and  defeated 
Masinissa  of  Numidia,  the  ally  of  Scipio,  but 
tried  to  induce  the  latter  to  negotiate.  The 
statement  that  an  interview  occurred  between 
Hannibal  and  Scipio  is  discredited  by  some 
historians.  At  all  events,  if  they  had  an  in- 
terview, it  was  without  results.  Hannibal  was 
obliged  to  accept  a  battle  at  Zama  (202),  in 
which  his  large  but  motley  host  of  Carthagin- 
ians, Libyans,  Ligurians,  Gauls,  and  Macedo- 
nians succumbed  to  the  less  numerous  but  well 
organized  and  disciplined  army  of  Scipio.  The 
terror  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and  a  panic 
among  the  mercenaries,  chiefly  caused  this 
crushing  defeat.  The  second  Punic  war  was 
soon  over ;  Rome  dictated  cruel  and  humiliating 
terms  of  peace,  and  Carthage  accepted  them 
(201).  But  Hannibal's  career  was  not  yet  end- 
ed. Removed  from  military  command  through 
the  influence  of  the  Romans,  he  soon  rose  to 
the  highest  civil  dignity  in  his  state,  and  as  suf- 
fete  he  evinced  the  same  energy,  boldness,  and 
genius  which  distinguished  him  as  a  general. 
He  detected,  denounced,  and  abolished  invet- 
erate abuses,  reformed  the  judiciary,  reorgan- 
ized the  finances,  restored  the  resources  of  the 
republic,  and  concluded  new  alliances.  But 
his  hostility  to  the  embezzlers  of  the  public 
revenues  and  monopolizers  of  offices  increased 
and  embittered  his  personal  enemies,  who  de- 
nounced his  patriotic  schemes  at  Rome,  and 
with  a  Roman  commission  sent  to  Africa  even 
concerted  a  plot  against  his  life.  He  sought 
safety  in  flight,  escaped  from  the  city,  sailed  to 
Tyre,  and  thence  went  to  the  court  of  Antiochus 
the  Great  of  Syria,  whom  he  soon  induced  to 
declare  war  against  the  Romans.  But  though 
the  king  treated  him  with  the  utmost  honor, 
he  was  prevented  by  intrigues,  and  by  jealousy 
of  Hannibal's  glory,  from  adopting  his  grand 
plans  of  a  combined  attack  on  Rome  in  Italy, 
as  well  as  from  giving  him  a  proper  share  in 
the  execution  of  his  own.  He  was  made  com- 
mander of  a  fleet  sent  against  the  Rhodians, 
but  failed  in  the  expedition,  though  he  person- 
ally distinguished  himself.  The  Romans,  hav- 
ing compelled  Antiochus  to  an  inglorious  peace, 
asked  the  surrender  of  their  old  enemy,  who 
was,  however,  informed  in  time  to  escape.  He 
repaired  to  the  court  of  Prusias,  king  of  Bithy- 
nia  (187),  passing,  it  is  said,  through  Gortyna  in 
Crete,  where  he  saved  his  treasures  by  placing 
sealed  casks  filled  with  lead  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  avaricious  inhabitants,  while  his 
gold  lay  concealed  in  hollow  statues  on  the  open 


floor  of  the  vestibule.  Anxious  to  induce  Pru- 
sias to  aid  him  in  his  plans  against  Rome,  he 
is  said  to  have  gained  a  victory  over  the  fleet 
of  his  enemy  Eumenes  of  Pergamus.  There, 
too,  the  Romans  persecuted  him ;  and  no  less 
a  person  than  T.  Q.  Flamininus  was  sent  to 
ask  his  surrender,  and  the  Bithynian  king  was 
weak  enough  to  command  the  arrest  of  his 
guest.  But  Hannibal  was  not  unprepared,  and 
determined  to  die  a  free  enemy,  and  not  a  slave 
of  the  Romans.  He  took  poison,  and  in  his 
last  hour  expressed  his  contempt  of  his  victo- 
rious but  degraded  enemies,  and  uttered  im- 
precations on  Prusias,  their  treacherous  accom- 
plice. He  had  kept  his  oath. 

HAMO,  a  Carthaginian  navigator  of  the  5th 
or  6th  century  B.  C.  He  was  commissioned 
by  the  government  of  Carthage  to  explore  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  and  to  plant  colonies 
there.  Setting  sail  accordingly  with  60  pente- 
conters  (vessels  of  50  oars  each),  carrying  30,- 
000  men  and  women,  he  passed  the  pillars  of 
Hercules,  and  voyaged  along  the  African  coast 
as  far  as  lat.  8°  N.,  according  to  some  writers. 
On  returning  to  Carthage  he  caused  an  account 
of  his  voyage  to  be  inscribed  on  a  tablet,  and 
then  dedicated  it  in  the  temple  of  Saturn.  It 
seems  to  have  been  written  in  the  Punic  lan- 
guage ;  the  version  of  it  which  remains  is  only 
a  Greek  translation.  According  to  this  tablet, 
known  as  a  Periplus,  it  appears  that  one  city 
was  built  not  far  from  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  and 
a  few  others  along  the  coast,  reaching  to  Cape 
Bojador.  The  first  edition  of  Hanno's  Periplus 
appeared  at  Basel  in  1534,  as  an  appendix  to 
the  edition  of  Arrian  by  Gelenius.  It  has  also 
been  published  by  Hudson  in  the  first  volume 
of  his  Geographi  Minores  (Oxford,  1698);  and 
in  1797  an  English  translation  of  it  by  Fal- 
coner was  issued  from  the  Oxford  press.  It  is 
still  an  open  question  at  what  time  this  Hanno 
lived,  whose  son  he  was,  and  how  much  of  the 
statements  of  the  Periplus  can  be  regarded  as 
trustworthy.  Some  authorities  believe  him  to 
be  either  the  father  or  the  son  of  the  Hamilcar 
who  fell  at  Himera  in  480  B.  C.  Others  com- 
pute that  the  voyage  was  made  about  570.  The 
Periplus  has  recently  been  cited  as  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  the  gorilla  in  those  days. 

HANNO,  surnamed  the  Great,  a  Carthagin- 
ian general  and  statesman,  contemporary  with 
Hamilcar  Barca  and  Hannibal,  died  in  old 
age,  after  the  battle  of  Zama,  202  B.  C.  While 
yet  a  very  young  man  he  commanded  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Carthaginian  army  in  Africa  during 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  took  Hecatompylus, 
an  opulent  city  of  that  continent.  When  the 
mercenaries  returned  from  Sicily  after  the  ter- 
mination of  the  first  Punic  war,  Hanno  was 
deputed  to  propose  to  them  that  they  should 
waive  their  right  to  a  part  of  the  arrears  due 
them ;  and  when  they  refused  to  accede  to  this 
and  took  up  arms  to  enforce  their  claim,  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  army  sent  to 
subdue  them.  His  military  abilities  were  not 
equal  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  enterprise, 


HANOVER 


445 


id  in  a  little  time  Hamilcar,  his  political  rival 
id  opponent,  was  associated  in  the  command 
rith  him.     Hanno  was  afterward  superseded 
>y  the  suffrages  of  the  soldiers,  and  a  new  col- 
ague  given  to  Hamilcar.     This  new  general 
jing  soon  after  taken  prisoner  and  killed  by 
mutineers,  a  formal  reconciliation  was  ef- 
jcted  between  the  two  rivals,  and  Hanno  was 
sstored  to  his  command.     The  fortune  of  war 
low  turned  against  the  mercenaries,  who  were 
jfeated  in  a  great  battle,  stripped  of  their 
>ngholds,  and  at  length  completely  subdued. 
)m  the  termination  of  this  war  Hanno  fig- 
res  rather  as  a  politician  than  a  warrior.     He 
the  head  of  the  aristocratic  party  at  Car- 
lage,  and  the  great  enemy  of  Hamilcar  and 
is  sons,  whose  policy  he  invariably  opposed. 
HANOVER,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia,  drained 
>y  North  Anna  and  South  Anna  rivers,  which 
lite  on  its  N.  E.  border  to  form  the  Parnun- 
cey;  area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,455, 
whom  8,562  were  colored.     The   surface 
uneven,  and  the  soil  much  diversified  and 
ipable  of  being^  improved.     The  Richmond, 
lericksburg,  and  Potomac,  and  the  Chesa- 
and  Ohio  railroads  traverse  the  county, 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  122,593 
ishels  of  wheat,  225,517  of  Indian  corn,  119,- 
511  of  oats,  29,278,  of  Irish  and  35,775  of  sweet 
)tatoes,  439,434  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  72,013 
1  butter.     There  were  1,468  horses,  983  mules 
id  asses,  2,175  milch  cows,  1,303  other  cattle, 
,260  sheep,  and  8,426  swine ;  15  flour  mills,  and 
saw  mills.     Capital,  Hanover  Court  House. 
HANOVER.    I.  A  town  of  Grafton  co.,  New 
Tampshire,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  opposite  Norwich,  Vt.,  with  which 
it  communicates  by  a  bridge,  50  m.  N.  W.  of 
Concord  ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,085.     The  surface  is 
in  some  parts  uneven,  but  the  greater  portion 
is  admirably  adapted  for  agriculture.     The  soil 
is  fertile,  and  there  is  probably  less  waste  land 
in  Hanover  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  coun- 
ty.   The  Moose  mountain,  an  elevated  ridge, 
runs  across  the  town  from  N.  to  S.  about  5  m. 
from  the  Connecticut.     The  Connecticut  and 
Passumpsic  Rivers  railroad  passes  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river.     The  principal  village  is 
situated  about  £  m.  from  the  river,  on  an  ele- 
vated plain,  and  is  built  around  a  public  square 
of  six  acres,  on  which  front  the  principal  edi- 
fices.    It  is  the  seat  of  Dartmouth   college. 
(See  DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE.)     The  town  con- 
tains a  national  bank,  a  hotel,  two  post  offices 
(Hanover    and    Hanover   Centre),    18    public 
schools   (two   graded),    a  monthly  periodical 
published  by  the  college  students,  and  four 
churches.     II.   A  town  of  Jefferson  co.,  In- 
diana, on  the  Ohio  river,  5  m.  below  Madi- 
son, and  80  m.  S.  E.  of  Indianapolis ;  pop.  in 
1870,   564.      It  occupies  a  healthy   situation 
on  a  high   bluff,   and  is  surrounded  by  fine 
scenery.     It  is  the   seat  of  Hanover  college 
(Presbyterian),  established  as  Hanover  academy 
1827,  and  chartered  as  a  university  in  1833. 
college  grounds  embrace  more  than  200 


acres,  and  contain  the  president's  house,  a  pro- 
fessors' residence,  and  a  college  building  200 
ft.  long  by  80  ft.  in  breadth.  The  property  and 
endowment  amount  to  $275,000.  The  college 
embraces  a  collegiate  and  a  preparatory  de- 
partment, each  comprising  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  Tuition  is  free.  In  1872-'3 
there  were  9  professors,  2  tutors,  and  134  stu- 
dents ;  total  number  of  graduates,  403. 

HANOVER  (Ger.  Hannover).  I.  A  N.  W. 
province  of  Prussia,  between  lat.  51°  17'  and 
53°  51'  N.,  and  Ion.  6°  40'  and  11°  32'  E. 
It  is  bounded  mainly  by  the  North  sea,  the 
grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  the  grand  duchy  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin,  the  provinces  of  Branden- 
burg and  Saxony,  the  duchy  of  Brunswick, 
the  provinces  of  Saxony,  Hesse-Nassau,  and 
Westphalia,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Area,  14,856  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
1,963,618,  of  whom  about  230,000  were  Ro- 
man Catholics,  12,000  Jews,  and  the  remain- 
der Protestants.  More  than  one  half  the  pop- 
ulation are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  about 
one  fourth  in  mining  and  manufactures.  The 
surface  is  flat,  except  in  the  S.  part,  which  is 
covered  by  the  Hartz  mountains,  some  of  the 
peaks  of  which  reach  an  elevation  of  3,000  ft. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Elbe,  which  with 
its  tributaries  drains  the  N.  E.  boundary,  the 
Ems,  traversing  the  W.  portion,  and  the  Weser, 
with  its  tributaries  draining  the  E.  portion. 
Among  the  lakes  are  the  Diimmersee,  the 
Steinhudermeer,  and  the  Seeburgersee.  The 
climate  generally  is  mild,  except  in  winter  in 
the  high  regions  of  the  south.  The  greatest 
heat  is  93°  F.,  the  greatest  cold  —29°,  and  the 
mean  temperature  45°.  About  one  sixth  of 
the  surface  is  covered  with  forests,  chiefly  oak, 
beech,  and  fir;  the  alluvial  flats  are  natural 
meadows  yielding  large  crops  of  hay,  or  are 
grazing  grounds  for  vast  herds  of  cattle ;  more 
than  one  fourth  of  the  surface  is  arable,  and 
is  carefully  cultivated.  The  moors  and  heaths 
of  the  lowlands  in  the  north  have  deep  peat 
beds,  which  provide  fuel  for  nearly  the  whole 
population,  and  $200,000  worth  of  it  is  sent 
yearly  to  Hamburg  and  Bremen.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  are  barley,  rye,  oats, 
buckwheat,  flax,  hemp,  potatoes,  chiccory,  gar- 
den vegetables,  and  some  fruit.  The  domestic 
animals,  generally  of  good  breeds,  in  1869  num- 
bered 212,905  horses,  863,362  cattle,  572,366 
hogs,  158,203  goats,  and  2,156,920  sheep,  of 
which  244,095  were  merinos.  Bee  keeping  is 
an  important  industry,  and  in  1869  there  were 
213,870  hives.  Poultry  is  plentiful,  and  im- 
mense numbers  of  geese  are  reared  in  the 
marshes.  Game  abounds  in  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains. Of  river  fish,  the  sturgeon  is  the  most 
valuable ;  the  sea  fisheries  of  herring  and  had- 
dock are  extensive.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
the  southern  districts  is  considerable ;  in  1869 
the  coal  mines  yielded  about  1,000,000  tons; 
the  value  of  iron,  zinc,  copper,  silver,  and  lead 
ores  mined  was  $1,500,000,  but  this  does  not 


HANOVER 


represent  the  exact  value,  as  the  profits  of  a 
portion  of  the  Ilartz  mines  are  divided  by 
Prussia  and  Brunswick  in  the  proportion  of  4 
to  3.  The  annual  yield  of  asphaltum  is  about 
2,500  tons,  and  some  gold  is  found.  In  some 
localities  rock  salt  is  mined  in  large  quanti- 
ties; and  there  are  also  extensive  slate  and 
sandstone  quarries.  There  are  large  smelting 
works  and  founderies  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mines.  The  export  of  linen  goods  in  1869 
amounted  to  $7,000,000.  The  province  has 
more  than  1,000  breweries  and  distilleries, 
nearly  200  manufactories  of  woollen  goods, 
several  large  cotton  factories,  20  glass  works, 
besides  many  manufactories  of  mirrors,  110 
tanneries,  40  paper  mills,  chemical  works  which 
furnish  immense  quantities  of  vitriol,  sulphu- 
ric acid,  sal  ammoniac,  and  sugar  of  lead,  In- 
dia-rubber works,  and  powder  mills.  The  gun 
makers  of  Hanover  and  Herzberg,  and  the 
physical,  optical,  and  mathematical  instru- 
ment makers  of  Gottingen,  have  a  European 
reputation.  The  province  has  95  m.  of  canals, 
650  m.  of  navigable  rivers,  and  565  m.  of  rail- 
ways. In  1871  the  merchant  marine  of  Han- 
over consisted  of  881  sailing  vessels  of  112,976 
tons,  4  steamships  of  823  tons,  563  coasters  of 
21,120  tons,  and  2,246  river  vessels  of  71,982 
tons.  The  principal  ports  are  Harburg,  Gees- 
temiinde,  Norden,  and  Emden.  The  princi- 
pal educational  institution  is  the  university  of 
Gottingen.  The  Protestants  have  3,200  pub- 
lic schools,  with  4,050  teachers  and  280,000  pu- 
pils ;  the  Roman  Catholics,  425  public  schools, 
with  500  teachers  and  35,000  pupils ;  the  Jews, 
80  schools,  with  90  teachers  and  1,750  pu- 
pils. For  administrative  purposes  the  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  6  Landdrosteien  and  37 
circles;  the  head  of  each  of  these  adminis- 
trative divisions  is  appointed  by  the  Prussian 
government.  The  province  has  a  local  gov- 
ernment of  75  elected  assemblymen,  with  6 
hereditary  members,  under  a  president  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  and  this  body  legis- 
lates on  all  provincial  matters. — The  early 
history  of  the  territory  now  included  in  the 
province  will  be  found  under  SAXONY.  Char- 
lemagne introduced  Christianity  with  his  sway, 
and  his  family  held  the  Saxon  duchy  till 
951,  when  it  passed  to  Hermann  Billung,  in 
whose  family  it  remained  till  the  death  of 
Magnus  in  1106.  It  was  then  bestowed  by 
the  emperor  Henry  V.  on  Lothaire  of  Sup- 
plin^t-nburg,  who  became  his  successor  in  the 
empire,  and  died  in  1137.  His  son-in-law  Hen- 
ry, duke  of  Bavaria,  of  the  house  of  Guelph, 
succeeded  in  Saxony,  and  by  marriage  into 
the  house  of  Billung  acquired  the  duchy  of 
Luneburg,  and  subsequently  he  added  Bruns- 
wick, Gottingen,  and  other  principalities.  Ilis 
son,  Henry  the  Lion,  made  considerable  addi- 
tions to  the  territory.  After  his  death  in 
1195,  of  his  three  sons  who  succeeded,  only  the 
third,  William,  left  male  heirs,  through  whom 
were  formed  in  the  13th  century  the  houses 
of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel  and  Brunswick- 


Luneburg.  (See  BRUNSWICK,  HOUSE  OF.)  A 
prince  of  the  latter  house,  Ernest  Augustus, 
was  created  elector  of  Hanover  in.  1692.  His 
wife,  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  elector  pal 
tine  Frederick  V.  and  of  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  James  I.  of  England,  was  declared 
next  heir  to  the  British  crown,  after  Mary, 
William  III.,  Anne,  and  their  descendants. 
His  son,  George  Lewis,  succeeded  in  1698,  and 
in  1714  became  king  of  Great  Britain  as  George 
I. ;  and  his  successors  retained  both  govern- 
ments till  the  accession  of  Victoria.  In  1715 
Hanover  purchased  the  principalities  of  Bre- 
men and  Verden.  Hanover  cooperated  with 
Maria  Theresa  in  the  wars  of  1740-'45,  with 
England  in  the  seven  years'  war  (1756-'63), 
and  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1757.  In 
1801  it  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians,  and  in 
1803  by  the  French,  who  ceded  it  to  Prussia  in 
1805,  retook  it  in  1806,  and  annexed  part  of  it 
to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  in  1810 ;  after  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  in  1813  it  was  restored  to  the 
elector-king.  In  1814  the  congress  of  Vienna 
made  it  a  kingdom  and  enlarged  its  territory. 
On  the  accession  of  Victoria  to  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain  in  1837,  Hanover  by  the  Salio 
law  was  separated  from  the  British  crown,  and 
Ernest  Augustus,  brother  of  William  IV.,  be- 
came king.  The  fifth  and  last  king  of  Hano- 
ver was  his  son  George  V.,  who  succeeded  in 
1851.  In  the  war  of  1866  Hanover  sided  with 
Austria,  and  was  occupied  by  Prussia  in  June. 
The  Hanoverians  defeated  the  Prussians  at 
Langensalza  on  June  27,  but  surrendered  on 
June  29.  Hanover  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in 
September.  (See  GEORGE  V.)  II.  A  city,  cap- 
ital of  the  province,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ihme  and  the  Leine,  64  m.  S.  E.  of  Bremen 
and  84  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Hamburg;  pop.  in  1871, 
87,641.  The  river  Leine  divides  the  old  and 
new  towns,  which  are  connected  by  11  bridges. 
The  old  town  was  formerly  fortified,  but  the 
ramparts  were  demolished  in  1780.  After  the 
city  became  the  royal  residence  in  1837,  it  was 
greatly  improved,  and  since  it  fell  to  Prussia 
in  1866  the  old  town  is  rapidly  disappearing, 
the  quaint  structures  of  former  years  giving 
place  to  warehouses  and  modern  residences. 
Among  the  noteworthy  public  buildings  are 
the  Kreuzkirche  and  the  Marktkirche,  built  in 
the  14th  century,  the  city  hall,  built  about  1455, 
and  the  Aegidienkirche,  probably  400  years  old, 
restored  in  1827.  Some  of  the  finest  buildings 
are  in  the  vicinity  of  Waterloo  square,  which 
contains  a  column  about  170  ft.  high,  surmount- 
ed by  a  statue  of  Victory  and  inscribed  with 
the  names  of  the  Hanoverians  who  fell  at  Wa- 
terloo. On  the  N.  side  of  the  square  is  the 
former  royal  palace,  built  in  1640,  from  which 
the  treasures  were  removed  by  the  ex-king  to 
Vienna  in  1866.  The  city  has  a  public  library 
of  40,000  volumes,  a  royal  library  of  150,000 
volumes  and  2,000  manuscripts,  a  number  of 
Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  syna- 
gogue, many  charitable  and  educational  insti- 
tutions, and  numerous  manufactories. 


HANOVER  COURT  HOUSE 


HANOVER    COURT    HOUSE,    Battle    of.      See 

CHICK A.HOMINY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  411. 

HMSEATIC  LEAGUE  (Old  Ger.JIansa,  a  union), 
a  commercial  alliance  of  certain  Germanic  cit- 
ies in  the  middle  ages,  for  the  protection  of 
trade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century 
society  in  northern  Europe  was  in  a  rude  stage. 
The  shores  of  the  Baltic  were  occupied  by  Slavic 
tribes.  Commerce,  wbere  it  existed,  was  viewed 
by  the  sovereigns  as  something  to  supply  their 
own  rapacity,  rather  than  as  a  benefit  to  the 
realm.  Petty  lords  followed  the  example  of 
the  sovereigns  and  levied  exactions  under  the 
pretence  of  giving  protection.  The  maritime 
cities  of  Germany  were  the  chief  sufferers,  es- 
pecially those  on  the  Elbe.  The  Genoese  and 
Venetians  possessed  the  monopoly  of  the  Med- 
iterranean and  the  East,  and  made  those  cities 
the  depots  of  their  northern  traffic.  The  rich 
cargoes  continually  passing  gave  birth  to  swarms 
of  pirates,  who  infested  the  Baltic.  In  1239 
an  agreement  was  entered  into  between  Ham- 
burg, Ditmarsh,  and  Hadeln,  to  take  means  to 
keep  the  course  of  the  Elbe  and  the  adjacent 
sea  free  of  marauders.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Hanseatic  league,  although  it  is  usually 
dated  from  the  compact  between  Hamburg  and 
Liibeck,  in  1241,  to  provide  ships  and  soldiers 
to  clear  the  traffic  way  between  the  rivers 
Elbe  and  Trave,  and  the  waters  from  Hamburg 
to  the  ocean,  and  further  to  promote  their  mu- 
tual interests.  When  this  partnership  had  been 
in  operation  six  years,  the  city  of  Brunswick 
joined  it.  Other  cities  speedily  sought  admis- 
sion, with  their  quota  of  men  and  money.  The 
progress  of  the  league  was  rapid.  By  1260  it 
had  so  expanded  that  a  convention  was  sum- 
moned to  regulate  its  affairs,  and  thereafter  its 
diet  assembled  triennially,  with  an  extraordi- 
nary meeting  decennially  to  renew  the  league. 
Lubeck  was  named  the  capital  of  the  Hansa, 
and  depositary  of  the  common  treasury  and 
archives.  Usually  the  meetings  were  held  at 
Lubeck,  but  occasionally  at  Hamburg,  Cologne, 
and  elsewhere.  The  cities  of  the  alliance  were 
organized  for  administrative  purposes  into  four 
circles :  1,  the  Vandalic  or  Wendish  towns  of 
the  Baltic ;  2,  the  Westphalian,  Rhenish,  and 
Netherlandish  towns ;  3,  the  Saxon  and  Bran- 
denburg towns ;  4,  the  Prussian  and  Livonian. 
The  capitals  of  these  circles  were  Lubeck,  Co- 
logne, Brunswick,  and  Dantzic.  The  number 
of  cities  belonging  to  the  league  fluctuated,  but 
at  the  height  of  its  power  it  comprised  the  fol- 
lowing 85  :  Andernach,  Anklam,  Aschersleben, 
Bergen,  Berlin,  Bielefeld,  Bolsward,  Branden- 
burg, Braunsberg,  Bremen,  Brunswick,  Bux- 
tehude,  Campen,  Colberg,  Cologne,  Cracow, 
Culm,  Dantzic,  Demmin,  Deventer,  Dorpat, 
Dortmund,  Duisburg,  Eimbeck,  Elbing,  El- 
irg,  Emmerich,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Gol- 
)w.  Goslar,  Gottingen,  Greifswald,  Gronin- 
Halberstadt,  Halle,  Hamburg,  Hamem^ 
im,  Hanover,  Harderwyk,  Helmsteclt,  Her^ 
rorden,  Hildesheim,  Kiel,  Konigsberg,  Kos- 
'eld,  Lemgo,  Lixheim,  Lubeck,  Luneburg,  Mag- 
389  VOL.  viii.— 29 


HANSEATIC  LEAGUE 


447 


deburg,  Munden,  Munster,  Nimeguen,  Nord- 
heim,  Osnabriick,  Osterburg,  Paderborn,  Qued- 
linburg,  Revel,  Riga,  Roermond,  Rostock,  Ru- 
genwalde,  Salzwedel,  Seehausen,  Soest,  Stade, 
Stargard,  Stavoren,  Stendal,  Stettin,  Stolpe, 
Stralsund,  Thorn,  Uelten,  Unna,  Venloo,  War- 
burg in  Sweden,  Werben,  Wesel,  Wisby,  Wis- 
mar,  Zutphen,  and  Zwolle.  These  cities  were 
represented  by  delegates.  The  edicts  of  the 
assembly  were  communicated  to  the  magis- 
trates at  the  head  of  each  circle,  and  were  en- 
forced with  the  strictness  of  sovereign  power. 
Besides  the  ordinary  members  of  the  league, 
other  cities  were  more  or  less  affiliated  with  it, 
but  without  representation  or  share  in  the  re- 
sponsibilities. Among  the  latter  were  Amster- 
dam, Antwerp,  Dort,  Ostend,  Rotterdam,  Bru- 
ges, Dunkirk,  Bayonne,  Bordeaux,  Marseilles, 
Rouen,  St.  Malo,  Barcelona,  Cadiz,  Seville,  Lis- 
bon, Naples,  Leghorn,  Messina,  and  London; 
but  in  the  14th  century  the  kings  of  France  and 
other  potentates  of  the  south  ordered  their  mer- 
chants to  withdraw  from  the  association.  The 
objects  of  the  league  were  in  the  beginning  the 
protection  and  expansion  of  commerce,  the  pre- 
vention of  piracy  and  shipwreck,  the  increase 
of  agricultural  products,  fisheries,  mines,  and 
manufactures.  With  these  views  they  estab- 
lished four  great  factories  or  depots  of  trade : 
at  London,  in  1250  ;  Bruges,  1252 ;  Novgorod, 
1272  ;  and  Bergen,  1278.  From  these  centres 
they  were  able  almost  to  monopolize  the  trade 
of  Europe.  Their  factories  were  conducted 
with  all  the  rigor  of  monastic  establishments, 
the  officers  being  bound,  among  other  things, 
to  celibacy  and  common  board.  The  London 
factory,  with  branches  at  Boston  and  Lynn, 
gave  the  Hansards,  as  the  merchants  of  the 
league  were  called,  command  both  of  the  im- 
port and  export  market  of  Britain,  while  it 
enabled  them  to  engross  much  of  the  carrying 
trade  to  the  exclusion  of  British  ships.  As  it 
was  difficult  in  the  state  of  navigation  at  that 
time  to  make  a  voyage  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Baltic  and  back  in  one  season,  Bruges 
became  the  intermediate  depot  for  the  rich 
traffic  with  Italy  and  the  Levant.  Novgorod 
was  the  entrepot  between  the  countries  E.  of 
Poland  and  the  cities  of  the  league;  while 
Bergen  secured  to  them  the  products  of  Scan- 
dinavia. The  league  was  at  its  greatest  power 
during  the  14th  and  first  half  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, but  its  objects  were  professedly  different 
from  those  with  which  it  set  out,  being  now  : 
1,  to  protect  the  cities  of  the  Hansa  and  their 
commerce  from  prejudice;  2,  to  guard  and 
extend  foreign  commerce  and  to  monopolize  it ; 

3,  to  administer  justice  within  the  confederacy; 

4,  to  prevent  injustice,  by  means  of  assemblies, 
diets,  and  tribunals  of  arbitration ;  5,  to  main- 
tain the  rights  and  immunities  received  from 
foreign  princes,  and,  where  possible,  to  extend 
them.    Further,  the  league  claimed  to  exercise 
a  general  judicial   power,  and  to  inflict  the 
greater  and  lesser  ban.    In  this  change  of  prin- 
ciple may  be  traced  the  seeds  of  dissolution. 


448 


HANSEATIC  LEAGUE 


HANSTEEN 


The  association  framed  for  defence  had  become 
a  confederation  exercising  a  sovereign  power, 
aiming  at  monopoly,  negotiating  treaties,  and 
declaring  war  or  peace.  In  1348  it  fought  and 
defeated  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  and 
Waldemar  III.  of  Denmark.  It  subsequently 
deposed  Magnus,  king  of  Sweden,  and  gave  his 
crown  to  his  nephew  Albert,  duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg. Again,  in  1428,  it  declared  war  on  Den- 
mark and  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  248  ships,  carry- 
ing 12,000  troops.  To  such  extent  did  it  carry 
its  arrogance  that  Niederhoff,  a  burgomaster 
of  Dantzic,  himself  declared  war  against  Chris- 
tian I.  of  Denmark.  When  citizens  of  London, 
jealous  of  the  privileges  of  the  Hanse  factory, 
insulted  the  employees  of  that  institution,  the 
league  declared  war  against  England,  and  com- 
pelled Edward  IV.  to  grant  yet  more  extrava- 
gant concessions.  But  influences  were  growing 
up  which  destroyed  the  league  as  rapidly  as  it 
rose.  Its  own  efforts  had  abolished  piracy,  and 
left  commerce  safe  on  the  ocean.  Its  own  ex- 
ample, too,  had  taught  states  the  value  of  the 
commerce  they  had  hitherto  disregarded.  The 
league,  in  short,  had  laid  the  foun,dation  of  that 
commercial  policy  which  has  since  become  the 
basis  of  all  political  relations.  Sovereigns,  nat- 
urally jealous  of  a  power  whose  military  force 
rivalled  their  own,  began  by  modifying  their 
previous  grants,  and  ended  by  repealing  them. 
Such  was  the  case  with  England,  which  about 
1597  withdrew  all  privileges  from  the  Hansard 
merchants.  The  English  and  Dutch,  finding 
themselves  now  strong  enough  to  compel  the 
right  to  trade  in  the  Baltic,  entered  into  it 
with  little  care  for  the  interests  of  the  Han- 
sards. Meantime  the  league,  finding  its  mo- 
nopolies slipping  away,  made  desperate  efforts 
to  retain  them  ;  and  the  cost  becoming  heavy 
the  maritime  towns  of  the  Baltic,  so  soon  as 
direct  trade  was  opened  with  the  Dutch  and 
English,  seceded  from  the  association.  The 
discovery  of  America  and  of  the  passage  to 
India  via  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  turned  the 
tide  of  commerce  into  new  channels,  and  was 
the  finishing  blow  to  the  existence  of  the 
league.  Its  last  meeting  was  held  in  1630  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  the  secession  of  the 
remaining  members.  Hamburg,  Lfibeck,  and 
Bremen,  to  which  was  afterward  added  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  formed  a  new  association 
under  the  name  of  the  free  Hanse  towns. 
Napoleon  in  1810  embodied  them  as  a  Han- 
seatic  department  of  the  French  empire  ;  their 
independence  was  acknowledged  again  in  the 
act  for  the  establishment  of  the  Germanic  con- 
federation (1815),  and  they  obtained  a  joint 
vote  in  the  federal  diet  as  the  free  Hanseatic 
cities.  Frankfort  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in 
1866 ;  the  three  other  cities  joined  the  North 
German  confederation  in  the  same  year.  Lil- 
beck  was  subsequently  added  to  the  German 
customs  union,  while  Hamburg  and  Bremen 
remained  free  ports.  Each  of  these  three  cities 
now  constitutes  a  state  of  the  German  empire, 
and  is  represented  in  the  diet. — See  Sartorius, 


Geschichte  des  Ursprungs  der  deutschen  llama 
(3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1802-'8),  continued  by 
Lappenberg  (2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1830);  Bar- 
thold,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Stddte  (4 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1850-'52) ;  and  Falke,  Die  Han- 
sa  als  deutsche  See-  und  Handelsmacht  (Ber- 
lin, 1862). 

IIAXSE.V,  Peter  Andreas,  a  German  astronomer, 
born  in  Tondern,  Schleswig,  Dec.  8,  1795,  died 
in  Gotha,  March  28,  1874.  He  early  excelled 
in  astronomical  studies,  and  in  1825  became 
director  of  the  Seeberg  observatory  near  Gotha. 
The  new  observatory  in  the  suburb  Erfurt  of 
that  town  was  built  under  his  direction  in  1859. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on  the  prob- 
lems of  physical  astronomy,  including  geodesy. 
His  Fundamenta  nova  Investigationis  Orbita 
vera,  quam  Luna  perlustrat  (Gotha,  1838), 
formed  the  basis  on  which  he  subsequently 
calculated  his  celebrated  Tables  de  la  lune  (Lon- 
don, 1857),  for  which  the  British  government 
awarded  him,  on  account  of  their  practical 
value  to  navigators,  a  prize  of  £1,000.  In  ex- 
planation of  the  methods  of  calculation  which 
he  had  employed  in  computing  the  perturba- 
tions of  the  moon,  given  in  his  tables,  he  pub- 
lished Darlegung  der  theoretischen  Berechnun- 
gen  der  in  den  Mondtafeln  angewiesenen  Sto- 
rungen  (Leipsic,  1862-'4).  Other  works  of 
importance  are :  Berechnung  der  abwluten  Sto- 
rungen  der  Planeten  (Leipsic,  185  6-' 9) ;  Geo- 
datuche  Untersuchungen  (1865-'8) ;  Tafeln  der 
Egeria  (1868) ;  and  Die  Ueimten  Quadrate  in 
ihrer  Anwendung  auf  die  Geodasie  (1868). 

HANSON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recent- 
ly formed,  and  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870 ;  area,  432  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Dakota  or  James  river.  The  surface  is  some- 
what diversified,  and  the  soil  fertile. 

HANSSENS,  Charles  Lonis,  a  Belgian  composer, 
born  in  Ghent  in  1802,  died  April  12,  1871. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  the  composer  Charles 
Louis  Joseph  Hanssens  (1777-1852),  and  be- 
came connected  with  various  theatres,  and  in 
1855  professor  at  the  Brussels  conservatory  of 
music.  His  best  known  opera,  Le  siege  de  Ca- 
lais, was  performed  in  Brussels  in  1861,  and 
he  produced  many  ballets  and  other  pieces. 

HANSTEEN,  Christopher,  a  Norwegian  astrono- 
mer, born  in  Christiania,  Sept.  26,  1784,  died 
there  in  April,  1873.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1815  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  and  mathema- 
tics at  Christiania.  His  Magnetismus  der  Erde 
(1819)  recapitulated  all  the  authentic  facts  on 
terrestrial  magnetism,  from  the  earliest  times; 
and  in  his  charts  of  the  lines  of  equal  dip,  pub- 
lished soon  after,  he  showed  that  there  is  but 
one  true  magnetic  pole  in  each  hemisphere. 
The  results  of  his  investigations  of  the  effects 
of  time  and  temperature  in  altering  the  mag- 
netism of  needles  are  published  in  his  De  Mu- 
tationibus  Virgos  Magneticas  (1842).  He  made 
numerous  observations  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
and  between  1828  and  1830  travelled  in  Siberia 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  region  of  con- 


HANTS 

vergence  of  the  needle.  On  his  return  he  su- 
perintended the  erection  of  an  observatory  in 
Christiania,  of  which  he  became  director  in 
1833.  He  had  charge  of  the  triangulation  of 
Norway,  and  was  a  member  of  the  commis- 
sion for  the  establishment  of  a  scientific  sys- 
tem of  measures  and  weights,  for  which  he 
furnished  the  fundamental  principles.  In  a 
memoir  on  the  secular  change  of  the  dip  (Co- 
penhagen, 1855;  in  French,  Brussels,  1865), 
he  argued  th'at  the  annual  diminution  of  the 
dip  is  decreasing,  and  consequently  that  a  mini- 
mum of  dip  will  occur  in  Europe  before  the 
close  of  this  century.  His  most  important 
works  are  Resultate  magnetischer  Beobachtun- 
gen  auf  einer  Reise  nach  Sibirien  (1863),  and 
"Observations  on  Magnetic  Inclination  be- 
tween the  years  1855  and  1864  "  (Ohristiania, 
1865 ;  in  French,  Brussels,  1865). 

HINTS,  a  central  county  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  bounded  N.  "W.  by  Minas  basin,  an  in- 
of  the  bay  of  Fundy,  and  N.  E.  by  the 

mbenacadie  river;  area,  1,1 76^  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

1871, 21,301,  of  whom  8,589  were  of  English, 
,728  of  Irish,  and  5,051  •of  Scotch  origin  or 
it.    The  surface  is  diversified  with  moun- 

ins  and  valleys.    The  underlying  rock  is  the 
3ermian  sandstone  of  the  coal  measures,  and 
im  is  abundant.    The  Windsor  and  Anna- 

lis  railroad  traverses  it.     Capital,  Windsor. 

HAJTWAY,  Jonas,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Portsmouth  in  1712,  died  in  London,  Sept.  5, 
L786.  The  earlier  part  of  his  life  was  passed 

mercantile  pursuits  in  St.  Petersburg,  during 
which  he  visited  Persia,  and  published  a  "  His- 
torical Account  of  British  Trade  over  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  with  a  Journal  of  Travels,"  &c.  (4 
vols.  4to,  London,  1753-'4).  In  1756  he  pub- 
lished a  "Journal  of  Eight  Days'  Journey  from 
Portsmouth  to  Kingston  -  upon  -  Thames  ;  to 
which  is  added  an  Essay  upon  Tea  and  its  Per- 
licious  Consequences;"  which  caused  Dr. 
Johnson  to  remark  that  "  Jonas  acquired  some 
reputation  by  travelling  abroad,  but  lost  it  all 
by  travelling  at  home."  He  wrote  nearly  70 
pamphlets,  mostly  devoted  to  philanthropic 
schemes.  He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  found- 
"ig  the  London  marine  educational  society, 
and  the  Magdalen  society.  He  was  the  first 
man  in  England  who  ventured  to  brave  public 
opinion  by  carrying  an  umbrella.  There  is  a 
lonument  to  him  in  Westminster  abbey. 

HAPSBIRG  (Ger.  Hdbsburg ;  originally,  it  is 

ipposed,  Habichtsburg  or  Hawk's  Castle),  a 
ruined  castle  of  Switzerland,  near  Brugg,  can- 
ton of  Aargau,  on  the  Wulpelsberg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Aar.  It  was  built  early  in 
the  llth  century,  and  has  given  its  name  to  the 
imperial  house  of  Austria.  The  first  count  of 
Hapsburg  was  Werner  II.,  a  nephew  of  Wer- 
ner, bishop  of  Strasburg,  who  is  represented 
by  genealogists  as  a  descendant  of  Ethico  I.,  a 
duke  of  Alemannia  in  the  7th  century.  The 
descendants  of  Count  Werner  augmented  the 
possessions  of  their  house  until  their  acquisi- 
tions were  divided  by  the  brothers  Albert  IV. 


HAPSBURG 


449 


and  Rudolph  III.  in  1232.  Rudolph  became 
the  founder  of  the  Lauffenburg  line,  which 
again  separated  into  the  Hapsburg-Laufienburg 
and  Kyburg  branches,  of  which  the  former 
became  extinct  (in  its  male  line)  in  1408,  and 
the  latter  in  1415.  The  line  of  Albert  IV.,  on 
the  other  hand,  became  flourishing  through  his 
son  Rudolph,  who  in  1273  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany,  and,  having  conquered  Ottocar 
of  Bohemia,  gave  his  provinces,  Austria,  Styria, 
and  Carniola,  to  his  sons  Albert,  afterward  the 
first  German  emperor  of  that  name  (died  in 
1308),  and  Rudolph,  on  whose  death  in  1290 
his*  share  also  reverted  to  Albert.  Under  the 
grandsons  of  the  latter  the  line  again  separated 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which,  numbering 
among  its  members  the  emperor  Albert  II. 
(died  1439),  became  extinct  in  1457,  with  the 
death  of  his  son  Ladislas,  king  of  Hungary, 
and  the  other  ascended  the  throne  of  Germany 
in  the  person  of  Frederick  III.  (died  1493), 
whose  descendants  were  now,  after  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Burgundian  dominions,  strong 
enough  to  make  the  German  imperial  dignity 
stationary  and  almost  hereditary  in  their  house 
down  to  the  last  hour  of  the  German  empire 
(1806).  The  successors  of  Frederick  III.  in 
that  dignity  were,  of  the  male  line,  Maximilian 

I.  (died  1519),  Charles  V.  (abdicated  1556), 
Ferdinand  I.  (died  1564),  Maximilian  II.  (1576), 
Rudolph  II.  (1612),  Matthias  (1619),  Ferdinand 

II.  (1637),  Ferdinand  III.  (1657),  Leopold  I. 
(1705),  Joseph  I.  (1711),  and  Charles  VI.  (1740); 
of  the  female  line  (Hapsburg-Lorraine),  Fran- 
cis I.  of  Lorraine,  husband  of  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.   (1765),  Joseph  II. 
(1790),  Leopold  II.  (1792),  and  Francis  II., 
who,  having  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  of 
Austria  in  1804  as  Francis  I.,  resigned  the 
German  imperial  dignity  in  1806.    His  succes- 
sor in  Austria  was  his  son  Ferdinand  I.  (1835- 
'48),  after  whose  resignation  his  nephew  Fran- 
cis Joseph,  son  of  the  archduke  Francis  Charles, 
was  declared  emperor,  Dec.  2, 1848.    His  son, 
Rudolph  Francis  Charles  Joseph,  born  Aug. 
21,  1858,  is  the  heir  to  the  crown.     Through 
Charles  V.  (I.),  who  was  the  son  of  Philip,  son 
of  Maximilian  I.,  and  of  Juana,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  house  of  Hapsburg 
also  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain,  uniting  with 
it  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Burgundy  in 
the  Low  Countries ;  while  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand I.  succeeded  in  attaching  to  the  Ger- 
man line  the  crowns  of   his  brother-in-law 
Louis  II.,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
against  the  Turks  (1526).     The  Spanish  line 
was  continued  by  Philip  IT.,  Philip  III.,  Philip 
IV.,  and  Charles  II.,  with  whom  it  became 
extinct  in  1700,  and  was  succeeded,  after  a 
great  struggle  involving  half  of  Europe  in  war, 
by  the  Bourbons.    The  chief  Swiss  possessions 
of  the  house  were  lost  as  early  as  the  first 
quarter  of  the  14th  century,  when  the  Swiss 
confederation  was  formed ;   the  rest  were  ce- 
ded to  various  cantons  at  later  periods,  the 


450 


HARAFORAS 


HARAR 


last  as  late  as  1802. — One  of  the  counts  of 
Hapsbnrg,  Geffery  (Gottfried),  settled  in  Eng- 
land in  the  13th  century,  served  Henry  III.  in 
his  wars,  and  assumed  the  surname  of  Feild- 
ing  from  the  county  of  Rinfilding  (Rheinfelden) 
in  Aargau,  then  belonging  to  Germany.  He 
became  the  progenitor  of  the  Denbigh  family, 
and  among  the  titles  of  the  present  earl  of 
Denbigh  are  those  of  Viscount  and  Baron 
Feilding  and  count  of  Hapsburg-Laffenburg 
and  Rheinfelden  in  Germany.  Henry  Field- 
ing, the  novelist,  was  a  member  of  this  family. 

HARAFORAS,  or  Alfoera,  a  savage  people  liv- 
ing in  Celebes,  the  Molucca  islands,  and  the  in- 
terior of  Papua.  In  general  appearance  they 
resemble  the  Malays,  but  are  darker  in  color, 
with  hair  not  straight  like  that  of  the  Malays, 
nor  woolly  like  that  of  the  Papuans,  but  crisp. 
Their  clothing  is  a  strip  of  the  inner  bark  of  a 
tree,  beaten  with  stones  until  it  becomes  white, 
and  appears  like  rough  white  paper.  Each 
warrior  is  armed  with  a  parang  or  cleaver, 
which  he  carries  in  his  right  hand,  while  on  his 
left  arm  he  bears  a  shield  3  or  4  ft.  long,  but 
only  4  or  5  in.  wide.  The  most  remarkable 
characteristic  of  this  people  is  their  head-hunt- 
ing. Every  young  man  must  cut  off  at  least 
one  human  head  before  he  can  marry.  The 
head  of  a  child  will  do;  that  of  a  woman  is 
better;  a  man's  still  better;  while  a  white 
man's  head  is  the  most  glorious  trophy.  In 
one  of  their  villages  were  found  three  times 
as  many  skulls  as  the  whole  population.  The 
Haraforas  of  Booro  live  not  in  villages,  but 
scattered  over  their  whole  territory.  Their 
houses  consist  of  little  more  than  a  roof  of 
palm  leaves  resting  on  four  poles,  with  a  kind 
of  platform  a  foot  or  two  above  the  ground, 
where  they  sit  and  sleep.  Some  of  them  ac- 
knowledge a  Mohammedan  rajah  as  their  su- 
perior. It  is  said  that  they  believe  in  one  su- 
preme being,  who  sent  men  a  teacher,  who  left 
precepts  of  morality,  taught  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  instituted  circumcision,  and  finally 
ascended  to  heaven.  Wallace  thinks  that  the 
Harafpras  are  a  distinct  race  from  the  Malays, 
and  kindred  to  the  Papuans,  between  whom 
and  the  Malays  they  form  the  boundary  line. 
In  Ceram  they  are  the  predominant  type. 

HARALSON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bor- 
dering on  Alabama,  and  watered  by  the  Talla- 
poosa  river;  area,  about  325  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,004,  of  whom  319  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  hilly  or  undulating.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  17, 780  bushels  of  wheat, 
86,352  of  Indian  corn,  7,209  of  oats,  6,772  of 
sweet  potatoes,  49,947  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  308 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  354  horses,  900 
milch  cows,  1,411  other  cattle,  1,992  sheep,  and 
5,456  swine.  Capital,  Buchanan. 

IIARAR,  Ilorrar,  or  Adari,  a  small  country, 
with  an  important  town  of  the  same  name,  in 
E.  Africa,  lat.  9°  20'  N.,  Ion.  42°  17'  E.,  165  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  Zeylah  on  the  gulf  of  Aden ;  pop. 
estimated  at  8,000.  The  town  is  situated  on  a 
gentle  slope  about  5,500  ft.  above  the  sea.  On 


the  east  are  cultivated  fields ;  the  W.  ridge  is 
laid  out  in  orchards ;  the  N.  side  is  covered 
with  tombs ;  and  on  the  south  is  a  low  valley 
traversed  by  a  mountain  torrent.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  stone  and  mud,  about  12 
ft.  high  and  3  ft.  thick,  and  kept  in  good  repair. 
The  wall  has  five  gates  flanked  by  oval  towers, 
and  encloses  an  area  about  a  mile  long  and 
half  a  mile  broad.  The  streets  are  narrow 
winding  lanes,  in  many  places  nearly  choked 
up  with  rubbish.  The  houses  are  generally 
built  of  rough  stone  cemented  with  clay,  and 
whitewashed.  The  emir  and  the  principal  in- 
habitants have  houses  of  two  stories,  with 
flat  roofs,  and  openings  high  up  for  windows. 
These  houses  stand  at  the  end  of  large  court- 
yards, which  are  entered  through  gates  of  hol- 
cus  stalks.  There  are  numerous  gambisa,  bell- 
shaped  thatched  cottages,  for  the  poorer  classes. 
The  principal  buildings  are  mosques,  the  finest 
being  the  jami,  or  chief  mosque,  which  was 
built  by  Turkish  architects.  The  town  is  sup- 
plied with  water  from  numerous  springs  in  its 
vicinity.  The  inhabitants  are  a  distinct  race, 
and  speak  a  dialect  which  is  heard  nowhere 
else.  They  are  rigid  Mohammedans,  and  en- 
force a  law  which  forbids  a  white  man  to  enter 
the  town.  The  features  of  the  men  are  coarse; 
many  squint ;  others  are  disfigured  by  small- 
pox, scrofula,  and  other  diseases.  The  women 
are  nearly  as  ill-looking  as  the  men.  There  is 
a  proverb  current  in  eastern  Africa,  "  Hard  as 
the  heart  of  Harar."  High  and  low  indulge 
freely  in  intoxicating  drinks.  The  principal 
occupation  of  the  people  is  tilling  the  soil, 
which  for  several  miles  around  is  highly  culti- 
vated, producing  coffee,  wheat,  jowari,  barley, 
and  a  variety  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  The 
Icaat,  a  small  plant  of  an  intoxicating  quality, 
is  very  abundant.  Coffee  is  the  most  impor- 
tant article  produced,  and  large  quantities  of 
it  are  annually  exported.  Other  exports  are 
slaves,  ivory,  tobacco,  wars  (safflower,  or  bas- 
tard saffron),  tobes  and  woven  cottons,  holcus, 
wheat,  Icaranji  (a  kind  of  bread),  ghee,  honey, 
gums,  tallow,  and  mules.  The  hand-woven 
tobes  form  an  important  branch  of  native  in- 
dustry, and  are  considered  equal  to  the  cele- 
brated cloths  of  Shoa.  The  tobe  consists  of 
a  double  length  of  eleven  cubits  by  two  in 
breadth,  with  a  border  of  bright  scarlet,  and 
the  average  value  of  one  in  the  city  itself  is 
about  $8.  It  is  made  of  the  long  fine-stapled 
cotton  which  grows  upon  the  hills,  and  is  soft 
as  silk,  and  warm  enough  for  winter  wear. 
The  thread  is  spun  by  women  with  two  wooden 
pins ;  the  loom  is  worked  by  both  sexes.  The 
lances  made  in  Harar  are  held  in  high  estima- 
tion. Caravans  arrive  at  all  seasons.  The 
principal  are  those  which  pass  between  Harar 
and  Berbera  and  Zeylah,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  ports  of  Harar.  The  March 
caravan  is  the  largest,  and  usually  consists  of 
2,000  camels.  As  of  old,  Harar  is  still  the 
great  half-way  house  for  slaves  from  Zangaro, 
Gurague,  and  the  Galla  tribes.  Harar  is  gov- 


HARBAUGH 


erned  as  an  independent  sovereignty  by  an 
emir,  who  rules  despotically,  and  seeks  to  hide 
his  Galla  extraction  by  claiming  descent  from 
the  caliph  Abubekr.  The  only  white  man 
known  to  have  visited  the  place  is  the  English 
traveller  Richard  F.  Burton,  who  penetrated 
thither  in  1855,  and  who  described  it  in  his 
"  First  Footsteps  in  East  Africa,  or  an  Explo- 
ration of  Harar  "  (London,  1856). 

HARBAUGH,  Henry,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  near  Waynesborough,  Pa.,  Oct.  28,  1817, 
died  at  Mercersburg,  Pa.,  Dec.  28,  1867.    In 
his  youth  he  worked  successively  as  a  farmer, 
carpenter,  miller,  and  teacher.     In  1840  he  en- 
tered Marshall  college,  Mercersburg,  afterward 
studied  theology,  and  in  1843  became  pastor  of 
a  German  Reformed  church  in  Lewisburg,  in 
L850  in  Lancaster,  and  in  1860  in  Lebanon,  Pa. 
1864  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
the  theological  seminary  of  Mercersburg. 
[e  was  known  as  an  exponent  of  the  so-called 
[ercersburg  school  of  theology.     In  1850  he 
iginated  the  "  Guardian,"  a  monthly  maga- 
ine,  which  he  continued  to  edit  till  the  end  of 
when  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Mercers- 
>urg   Review."      His    principal   works    are: 
"  Heaven,  or  an  Earnest  and   Scriptural  In- 
quiry into  the  Abode  of  the  Sainted  Dead  " 
(1848);  "The  Heavenly  Recognition"  (1851); 
The  Heavenly  Home"  (1853);  "The  Birds 
)f  the  Bible"  (1854);  "The  Fathers  of  the 
3rman  Reformed  Church"   (3   vols.,  1857- 
J) ;    "  The  True   Glory  of  Woman  "   (1858) ; 
;  Plea  for  the  Lord's  Portion  of  a  Christian's 
Wealth "  (1858) ;  "Poems"  (1860);  "Christo- 
logical  Theology  "  (1864) ;  Das  alt  Schulham, 
a  poem  in  the  dialect  of  the  Pennsylvania  Ger- 
mans ;  and  ffarfe,  Gfedichte  in  Pennsylvanisch- 
Deutscher  Mundart  (1870).      Nearly  all  his 
works  have  passed  through  many  editions. 

HARBOR  GRACE,  a  town  and  port  of  entry 
of  Newfoundland,  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  second  town  in  population 
and  importance  in  the  colony,  situated  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  the  island,  on  an  inlet  of  the  W. 
shore  of  Conception  bay,  30  m.  W.  N.  W.  of 
St.  John's ;  pop.  in  1869,  6,770.  It  presents  a 
handsome  appearance  from  the  harbor.  The 
mncipal  public  building  is  the  Roman  Catho- 
cathedral,  the  dome  of  which  is  a  promi- 
lent  object  upon  entering  the  port ;  the  inte- 
rior is  profusely  decorated.  The  circuit  court 
holds,  two  sessions  here  annually,  and  a  local 
court  sits  daily.  The  town  contains  several  ho- 
sls,  a  grammar  school  and  several  elementary 
schools,  a  telegraph  office,  'and  a  weekly  news- 
paper. The  harbor,  which  is  about  5  m.  in 
extent,  is  mostly  exposed  to  the  sea,  but  the 
portion  where  the  wharves  are  built  is  sheltered 
by  a  beach,  and  is  secure  in  all  weathers.  The 
cod  and  seal  fisheries  and  commerce  in  their 
products  are  the  principal  business.  The  chief 
exports  in  1872  were  72,508  quintals  of  cod- 
fish, 85,282  seal  skins,  144,900  gallons  of  cod 
oil,  297,108  of  seal  oil,  and  12,949  bbls.  of  her- 
ings. 


HARDEMAN 


451 


HARBFRG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Hanover,  on  the  Elbe,  6  m.  S.  of  Hamburg ; 
pop.  in  1871,  16,506.  It  has  glass  works,  su- 
gar refineries,  and  manufactories  of  tobacco, 
sail  cloth,  and  chemicals.  The  Elbe  is  now 
navigable  for  ocean  vessels  up  to  Harburg,  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  town  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  development  of  its  maritime  trade.  There 
is  a  newly  built  fort  and  large  wharves.  A 
railway  connects  the  town  with  Hanover,  and 
steamers  ply  between  it  and  Hamburg. 

HARCOURT,  Sir  William  George  Granyille  Vcrnon, 
an  English  lawyer,  born  Oct.  14,  1827.  He 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1851,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1854,  became  queen's  counsel  in 
1866,  and  professor  of  international  law  at 
Cambridge  in  1869.  In  1868  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford,  and  in 
November,  1873,  became  solicitor  general  and 
was  knighted,  going  out  of  office  with  the 
Gladstone  ministry  in  February,  1874.  He 
has  contributed  to  periodical  literature,  but  as 
a  writer  is  chiefly  known  by  essays  on  the  civil 
war  in  America  and  international  law,  pub- 
lished in  the  London  "  Times"  under  the  sig- 
nature of  "  Historicus." 

HARDEE,  Wffliam  J.,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  in  1818,  died  at  Wythe- 
ville,  Va.,  Nov.  6, 1873.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838,  served  during  the  Florida  war, 
and  in  the  war  with  Mexico  was  brevetted 
lieutenant  colonel  for  gallant  and  meritorious 
conduct.  He  was  on  frontier  duty  till  1856, 
when  he  became  commandant  of  cadets  and 
instructor  in  tactics  at  West  Point,  and  in  1860 
was  appointed  lieutenant  colonel  of  cavalry. 
He  resigned  Jan.  31,  1861,  and  entered  the 
confederate  service  as  brigadier  general.  He 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Shiloh,  Perryville, 
Stone  River,  Chickamauga,  and  Chattanooga, 
commanded  at  Savannah  and  Charleston  at  the 
time  of  their  occupation  by  the  Union  forces, 
and  afterward  surrendered  in  North  Carolina, 
with  the  remainder  of  Johnston's  army.  He 
aided  in  compiling  "Rifle  and  Light  Infantry 
Tactics,"  mainly  translated  from  the  French  by 
Lieut.  Benet,  which  was  adopted  in  1855  for 
the  use  of  the  army  and  militia. 

HARDEMAN.  I.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Texas,  sep- 
arated from  the  Indian  territory  on  the  N.  E. 
by  the  S.  fork  of  Red  river,  and  intersected  by 
Pease  river ;  area,  1,650  sq.  m. ;  still  unsettled. 
The  surface  is  generally  very  broken,  with  high 
hills  and  narrow  intervening  valleys.  The  wa- 
ter, being  impregnated  with  gypsum,  is  unpal- 
atable. The  county  is  better  adapted  for  stock 
raising  than  for  agriculture.  II.  A  S.  W.  coun- 
ty of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Mississippi,  and 
traversed  by  Hatchie  river;  area,  about  550 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,074,  of  whom  6,854 
were  colored.  It  has  a  generally  level  surface 
and  a  fertile  soil.  The  Hatchie  river  is  navi- 
gable at  high  water  from  its  mouth  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  this  county,  which  is  crossed  by 
the  Mississippi  Central  and  the  Memphis  and 
Charleston  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 


452 


IIARDEXBERG 


HARDERWYK 


1870  were  32,930  bushels  of  wheat,  586,508  of 
Indian  corn,  19,799  of  oats,  15,138  of  Irish  and 
32,143  of  sweet  potatoes,  83,872  Ibs.  of  butter, 
and  7,884  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,684 
horses,  2,202  mules  and  asses,  3,146  milch 
cows,  7,298  other  cattle,  7,139  sheep,  and  34,- 
936  swine.  Capital,  Bolivar. 

HARDENBERG,  Friedrieh  YOU,  baron,  better 
known  under  his  nom  de  plume  of  NOVALIS,  a 
German  author,  born  at  his  family  estate  of 
Wiederstedt,  Saxony,  May  2,  1772,  died  there, 
March  25, 1801.  He  was  educated  at  the  gym- 
nasium of  Eisleben,  and  at  the  universities  of 
Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  He  studied 
philosophy  and  jurisprudence,  and  prepared 
himself  for  the  practice  of  the  law,  but  ac- 
cepted an  appointment  as  auditor  in  the  salt 
works  of  Weissenfels,  of  which  his  father  was 
director.  His  delicate  and  sensitive  mind  re- 
ceived a  fatal  shock  from  the  death  in  1797  of 
a  young  lady,  Sophie  von  Kuhn,  with  whom 
he  was  in  love.  The  moral  beauty  of  his  life, 
the  spiritual  penetration  and  suggestiveness  of 
some  of  his  writings,  and  his  enthusiastic  love 
for  the  chivalric  periods  of  Christianity  and 
history,  made  him  the  idol  of  his  friends;  and 
although  his  works  are  but  few  and  fragmen- 
tary, he  holds  a  position  in  German  literature 
as  one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  ro- 
mantic school.  A  full  collection  of  his  writings 
was  prepared  by  Friedrich  von  Schlegel  and 
Tieck,  with  a  biography  by  Tieck,  and  pub- 
lished in  Berlin  in  1802  (5th  ed.,  1838).  An 
English  translation  of  his  Heinrich  von  Ofter- 
dingen  appeared  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1842. 

HARDENBERG,  Karl  August  yon,  prince,  a  Ger- 
man statesman,  born  at  Essenroda,  Hanover, 
May  31,  1750,  died  in  Genoa,  Nov.  26,  1822. 
He  received  a  brilliant  education,  travelled  ex- 
tensively abroad,  and  on  his  return  to  Hanover 
in  1778  entered  the  civil  service.  Shortly  af- 
terward he  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
London.  The  discovery  of  an  intrigue  between 
his  wife  and  an  English  prince  caused  him  to 
leave  Hanover  after  having  separated  from 
her,  and  to  enter  the  service  of  the  duke  of 
Brunswick.  In  1786  he  was  deputed  to  de- 
liver the  will  of  Frederick  the  Great,  which  had 
been  deposited  with  the  duke,  to  his  succes- 
sor, Frederick  William  II.  At  that  sovereign's 
recommendation  he  became  in  1790  minister  of 
the  margrave  of  Anspach  and  Baireuth,  at  the 
time  when  the  French  actress  Clairon,  who 
had  ruled  the  margrave  and  his  people  for  17 
years,  was  supplanted  in  his  affections  by  Lady 
Craven,  who,  however,  could  only  be  won  by 
marriage.  In  1791  Hardenberg  effected  the 
arrangement  by  which  the  territory  of  the 
margrave  was  ceded  to  Prussia,  in  considera- 
tion of  a  large  annuity,  which  enabled  that 
prince  to  reside  with  Lady  Craven  in  affluence 
in  England,  and  Hardenberg  was  made  minister 
of  state  and  governor  of  the  ceded  provinces. 
After  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  France 
in  1792,  the  king  appointed  him  administrator 
of  the  army,  and  in  1795,  as  an  ambassador  for 


Prussia,  he  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Basel. 
In  1797,  on  the  accession  of  Frederick  William 
III.,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  direction  of  the 
affairs  of  Franconia.  In  1804,  after  Berna- 
dotte's  invasion  of  Han  over,  Hardenberg  became 
prime  minister  for  a  short  time.  His  bold  re- 
buke of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  the  German 
territory  irritated  the  emperor ;  and  when  the 
victory  of  Austerlitz  and  the  treaty  of  Pres- 
burg,  in  December,  1805,  had  strengthened 
Napoleon's  position,  and  humbled  the  power 
of  Prussia,  the  king,  through  fear  of  war, 
sacrificed  his  minister,  and  Haugwitz  was  ap- 
pointed in  his  stead.  For  a  time  Hardenberg 
continued  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  but 
Napoleon  declared,  July  4, 1807,  that  he  would 
not  conclude  the  peace  of  Tilsit  unless  Harden- 
berg was  dismissed,  and  the  latter  withdrew 
accordingly,  and  passed  some  time  in  exile  in 
Russia.  Returning  to  Berlin  in  1810,  he  be- 
came chancellor  of  state,  and  carried  out  with 
zeal  the  policy  of  reforms  shortly  before  in- 
augurated by  Stein.  Permission  was  granted 
to  citizens  and  agricultural  laborers  to  acquire 
and  possess  real  estate,  and  to  the  nobles  to 
engage  in  industrial  and  commercial  pursuits 
without  prejudice  to  their  dignity.  The  bur- 
dens which  hitherto  lay  exclusively  upon  the 
humbler  classes  were  removed,  the  estates  of 
the  clergy  were  appropriated  for  the  liquida- 
tion of  the  public  debts,  new  resources  were 
developed  for  the  replenishment  of  the  ex- 
hausted treasury,  the  army  was  reorganized,  a 
new  and  improved  system  of  national  educa- 
tion was  introduced,  and  harmony  was  re- 
stored between  king,  nobles,  and  people  by 
an  equal  distribution  of  taxes  and  privileges. 
Finally,  serfdom  was  abolished.  Hardenberg 
aided  powerfully  in  rousing  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  Germans  in  1813  against  Napoleon,  signed 
the  treaty  of  peace  in  1814  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Prussia,  and  in  reward  for  his 
services  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  prince 
(June  3),  and  presented  with  the  rich  do- 
main of  Neuhardenberg.  He  accompanied  the 
allied  sovereigns  to  London,  attended  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  and  took  part  in  the  treaties 
of  Paris  in  1815.  In  1817  he  organized  the 
council  of  state,  of  which  he  became  president, 
and  was  present  on  behalf  of  Prussia  at  the 
congresses  of  Troppau,  Laybach,  and  Verona 
(1820-'22).  In  the  latter  part  of  his  adminis- 
tration he  reformed  the  system  of  taxation, 
and  regulated  the  national  archives.  He  left 
memoirs  of  his  times  from  1801  to  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  which  were  deposited  in  the  national 
archives,  not  to  be  opened  until  50  years  after 
his  death.  The  Memoires  (Tun  homme  d'etat 
(Paris,  1828 ;  German,  Leipsic,  1828),  contain- 
ing some  of  his  despatches,  has  been  erroneous- 
ly ascribed  to  him ;  Alphonse  de  Beauchamp 
is  supposed  to  be  the  author.  His  biography 
was  published  by  Klose  in  Halle  in  1851. 

HARDERWYK,  or  Hardenvijk,  a  town  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  Gelderland, 
on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  80  m.  E. 


HARDBACK 


of  Amsterdam ;  pop.  about  5,500.    It  was  for- 
merly one  of  the  Hanse  towns.     It  was  taken 
by  Charles  V.  in  1522,  by  the  Dutch  in  1572, 
and  in  1672  occupied  by  the  French,  who 
burnt  it  on  their  departure  in  1674.      It  is 
fortified  toward  the  land,  and  is  surrounded 
with  pleasure  gardens  and  arable  and  mea- 
dow land.      The  harbor  was  formerly  used 
for  fitting  out  vessels  in  the  East  India  trade, 
but  is  now  available  only  for  fishing  vessels. 
Seafaring,  fishing,  and  herring  smoking  are  the 
principal  occupations. 
HARDBACK.    See  SPIE^A. 
HARDHEAD.    See  MENHADEN. 
HARDICANl  TE,  Hardacannte,   Hardeeannte,  or 
Hardiknnt,  the  last  of  the  Danish  dynasty  of 
English  kings,  born  about  1017,  died  in  Lam- 
eth,  June  8, 1042.     He  was  the  son  of  Canute 
,e  Great  by  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard  I., 
luke  of  Normandy,  and  widow  of  the  deposed 
con  king  Ethelred  II.,  and  previous  to  the 
leath  of  his  father  was  made  viceroy  of  Den- 
rk.    Upon  the  death  of  Canute  he  neglected 
assert  his  right  to  the  throne  of  England, 
id  allowed  his  half  brother  Harold  to  obtain 
Lercia  and  Northumbria,  while  Emma  gov- 
jd  "Wessex  as  the  vicegerent  of  her  son. 
ma  was  finally  obliged  to  retire  to  Bruges, 
id  Harold  held  the  whole  country  under  obe- 
ince,  Hardicanute  meanwhile  remaining  in 
3nmark.     Urged  by  his  mother  to  dispossess 
e  usurper,  he  was  about  to  sail  to  England 
>r  that  purpose,  when  he  was  met  by  a  depu- 
fcion  of  English  nobles,  who  informed  him 
of  the  death  of  Harold,  and  offered  him  the 
crown.     He  reigned  from  1040  to  1042,  and 
died  of  apoplexy,  by  which  he  had  suddenly 
"  een  rendered  speechless  four  days  before  at  a 
larriage  feast.     He  was  a  good-natured  glut- 
en, was  never  married,  and  was  succeeded  by 
lis  half  brother  Edward  the  Confessor. 
HARDIN,  the  name  of  six   counties  in  the 
Fnited  States.     I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Texas, 
>unded  E.  by  Neches  river,  and  watered  by 
'ine  Island  bayou  and  Big  Sandy  river,  all 
ivigable  streams;  area,  1,832  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,460,  of  whom  242  were  colored.     Most 
the  surface  is  timbered,  only  a  small  portion 
sing  under  cultivation.    The  chief  productions 
1870  were  26,385  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
15,240  of  sweet  potatoes,  280  bales  of  cotton, 
3  hogsheads  of  sugar,  5,235  gallons  of  molasses, 
md  5,320  Ibs.  of  rice.     There  were  492  horses, 
1,246  milch  cows,  4,592  other  cattle,  600  sheep, 
1  5,701  swine.     Capital,  Hardin.     II.  A  S. 
county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Alabama 
id  Mississippi,  and  intersected  by  the  Ten- 
lessee  river;  area,  768  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
LI, 768,  of  whom  1,447  were   colored.      The 
irface  slopes  on  either  hand  toward  the  river, 
finch  is  here  navigable  by  steamboats.     Iron 
ore  and  timber  are  abundant,  and  the  soil  is 
fertile  in  some  parts.     The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  85,566  bushels  of  wheat,  484,721 
of  Indian  corn,  15,151  of  oats,  86,918  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  2,026  bales  of  cotton.     There  were 


HARDING 


453 


1,993  horses,  870  mules  and  asses,  2,670  milch 
cows,  1,383  working  oxen,  4,094  other  cattle, 
8,044  sheep,  and  21,235  swine ;  5  tanneries,  5 
currying  establishments,  5  flour  mills,  3  planing 
mills,  and  8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Savannah.  III. 
A  N.  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  N.  E. 
by  Salt  river  and  Rolling  fork,  and  watered  by 
branches  of  Green  river;  area,  about  500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,705,  of  whom  2,276  were 
colored.  It  has  a  hilly  or  undulating  surface 
and  a  fertile  soil.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  and  the  Elizabethtown  and 
Paducah  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  138,463  bushels  of  wheat,  566,830 
of  Indian  corn,  114,127  of  oats,  284,178  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  30,149  of  wool,  115,363  of  butter,  and 
3,483  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,693  horses, 
3,108  milch  cows,  4,547  other  cattle,  14,758 
sheep,  and  35,853  swine ;  4  carriage  factories, 
8  flour  mills,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Eliza- 
bethtown. IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Ohio,  in- 
tersected by  the  Scioto  river ;  area,  476  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  18,714.  The  surface  is  nearly 
level,  and  most  of  the  soil  is  excellent.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Cincinnati,  Sandusky,  and 
Cleveland,  the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  "Wayne,  and 
Chicago,  and  the  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  Indianapolis  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  250,817  bushels  of 
wheat,  270,909  of  Indian  corn,  147,562  of  oats, 
33,717  of  potatoes,  140,021  Ibs.  of  wool,  277,668 
of  butter,  and  20,665  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
6,385  horses,  4,272  milch  cows,  7,151  other 
cattle,  42,402  sheep,  and  15,212  swine;  3  man- 
ufactories of  boots  and  shoes,  6  of  carriages,  3 
of  cooperage,  5  of  furniture,  4  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
4  tanneries,  4  flour  mills,  2  planing  mills,  and 
35  saw  mills.  Capital,  Kenton.  V.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Illinois,  separated  from  Kentucky  by 
the  Ohio  river ;  area,  260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,024.  It  has  a  high,  broken  surface,  with  a 
fertile  soil,  and  abounds  in  lead  and  iron  ores. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  32,319 
bushels  of  wheat,  172,651  of  Indian  corn,  26,- 
991  of  oats,  and  105,707  of  potatoes.  There 
were  1,201  horses,  1,057  milch  cows,  2,393 
other  cattle,  3,390  sheep,  and  8,072  swine. 
Capital,  Elizabethtown.  VI.  A  central  county 
of  Iowa,  intersected  by  Iowa  river ;  area,  576 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,684.  It  is  well  tim- 
bered, has  excellent  prairie  land,  and  contains 
coal,  red  sandstone,  and  fine  white  limestone. 
The  Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  railroad  and  the 
Central  railroad  of  Iowa  intersect  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  496,347  bushels 
of  wheat,  640,510  of  Indian  corn,  250,139  of 
oats,  45,077  of  potatoes,  256,357  Ibs.  of  butter, 
and  18,185  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,191 
horses,  4,153  milch  cows,  6,900  other  cattle, 
3,857  sheep,  and  10,557  swine;  7  flour  mills, 
and  1  woollen  factory.  Capital,  Eldora. 

HARDING,  Chester,  an  American  portrait  paint- 
er, born  in  Conway,  Mass.,  Sept.  1, 1792,  died 
in  Boston,  April  1,  1866.  His  family,  who 
were  poor,  removed  to  Caledonia,  N.  Y.,  when 


454 


HARDINGE 


he  was  14  years  old,  and  he  was  early  thrown 
upon  his  own  resources  for  support.  He  be- 
came in  turn  hired  boy,  peddler,  agent,  and 
chairmaker,  and  eventually  a  house  painter  in 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  He  worked  at  this  occupation 
a  year,  when  acquaintance  with  a  travelling 
portrait  painter  led  him  to  attempt  art.  Hav- 
ing succeeded  in  producing  a  crude  portrait  of 
his  wife,  he  devoted  himself  enthusiastically  to 
the  profession.  He  painted  several  other  por- 
traits at  Pittsburgh,  and  then  went  to  Paris, 
Ky.,  where  he  finished  100  portraits  in  six 
months  at  $25  each.  After  receiving  slight  in- 
struction in  Philadelphia,  he  established  him- 
self prosperously  in  St.  Louis.  In  August, 
1823,  he  went  to  London,  and  spent  three  years 
in  studying  and  painting.  He  resided  next  in 
Boston,  where  he  became  very  popular.  In 
1843  he  went  to  England  again,  and  afterward 
resided  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  spending  his  win- 
ters frequently  in  St.  Louis  or  in  some  of  the 
southern  cities.  Among  the  distinguished  per- 
sons who  sat  to  him  were  Presidents  Madison, 
Monroe,  and  J.  Q.  Adams,  Chief  Justice  Mar- 
shall, Charles  Carroll,  William  Wirt,  Henry 
Clay,  Daniel  Webster,  John  C.  Calhoun,  Wash- 
ington Allston,  the  dukes  of  Norfolk,  Hamil- 
ton, and  Sussex,  Samuel  Rogers,  Sir  Archibald 
Alison,  Lord  Aberdeen,  and  David  Ricardo. 
His  last  work  was  a  portrait  of  Gen.  Sherman. 
He  wrote  "  My  Egotistography,"  which  has 
been  printed,  but  not  published. 

HARDINGE.  I.  Henry,  viscount,  an  English 
soldier,  born  in  Wrotham,  Kent,  March  30, 
1785,  died  at  Southport,  near  Tunbridge  Wells, 
Sept.  24,  1856.  He  entered  the  army  in  1798, 
became  lieutenant  in  1802,  and  captain  in  1804. 
He  served  throughout  the  peninsular  war,  be- 
ing part  of  the  time  on  the  staff  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief.  From  1809  to  1813  he  was 
deputy  quartermaster  general  of  the  Portuguese 
army.  He  took  part  in  several  battles  in  the 
peninsula,  and  was  twice  wounded.  On  the 
renewal  of  hostilities  in  1815  he  was  again  on 
the  staff  of  Wellington.  At  the  battle  of  Li- 
gny,  where  he  acted  as  brigadier  general  with 
the  Prussian  army,  he  lost  his  left  arm,  which 
prevented  his  presence  at  Waterloo.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  received  a  pension,  and 
was  made  a  knight  commander  of  the  bath. 
He  was  returned  to  parliament  for  Durham  in 
1820,  and  again  in  1826.  In  1828,  when  Wel- 
lington came  into  power,  he  was  made  secre- 
tary at  war,  which  office  he  exchanged  for  the 
chief  secretaryship  for  Ireland  two  years  later. 
When  Wellington  went  out  Hardinge  resigned, 
but  was  reinstated  in  office  by  Sir  Robert  Peel 
during  his  first  term  of  power  (1834-'5),  and 
again  in  1841.  In  April,  1844,  he  was  appointed 
governor  general  of  India.  He  originated  the 
policy  which  ended  in  the  annexation  of  Oude 
under  his  successor  Lord  Dalhousie.  When 
the  Sikhs  invaded  the  British  territory  from 
Lahore,  he  collected  a  force  of  32,000  men  and 
68  guns,  and  marched  with  it  toward  the 
threatene'I  portion  of  the  territory.  On  Dec. 


HARDOUIN 

13,  1845,  learning  that  a  large  Sikh  army  had 
crossed  the  Sutlej,  he  issued  a  proclamation, 
and  followed  it  up  by  immediately  attacking 
the  invaders.  The  battles  of  Moodkee,  Fero- 
zeshah,  Sobraon,  and  Aliwal  closed  this  short 
campaign  of  about  six  weeks,  during  which 
Hardinge  served  as  a  volunteer  under  Sir  Hugh 
Gough.  For  his  services  he  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  and  a  pension  of  £3,000  a  year, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  with  the  title  of 
Viscount  Hardinge  of  Lahore ;  the  East  India 
company  also  gave  him  a  pension  of  £5,000. 
He  received  16  medals  for  service  in  as  many 
pitched  battles.  In  January,  1848,  he  was  su- 
perseded in  the  Indian  government  by  Lord 
Dalhousie.  In  February,  1852,  he  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  ordnance,  and  on  the  death 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  in  September  of 
the  same  year,  he  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  forces.  In  October,  1855,  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  rank  of  field  marshal.  Having 
become  paralytic,  he  resigned  in  July,  1856. 
II.  Charles  Stewart,  viscount,  son  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  Sept.  12,  1822.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Christclmrch,  Oxford,  was  his  fa- 
ther's secretary  in  India,  and  took  part  in  the 
battles  with  the  Sikhs.  From  1851  to  1856  he 
sat  in  parliament  for  Downpatrick.  Under 
Lord  Derby's  second  administration  (1858-'9) 
he  was  under  secretary  at  war.  He  is  an  ar- 
tist of  much  merit,  and  has  published  elabo- 
rate "Views  in  India"  (imp.  fol.,  1847). 

HARDOUN,  Jean,  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Quimper,  Brittany,  in  1646,  died  in  Paris, 
Sept.  3, 1729.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits, 
and  after  teaching  rhetoric  for  some  time,  went 
to  Paris  to  finish  his  classical  studies.  He  pre- 
pared Pliny's  "  Natural  History"  for  the  Del- 
phin  series  of  classics  (5  vols.  4to,  1685) ;  and 
in  his  Chronologia  ex  Nummis  Antiquis  restitu- 
ta  (2  parts,  1693  and  1697)  he  maintained  that 
of  all  the  ancient  classics  none  are  genuine  but 
Homer,  Herodotus,  Cicero,  Pliny  the  Elder,  the 
Georgics  of  Virgil,  and  the  satires  and  epistles 
of  Horace ;  and  that  with  the  aid  of  these  the 
monks  of  the  13th  century  had  fabricated  all 
the  others,  and  reconstructed  ancient  history. 
The  -^Eneid  he  regarded  as  an  allegory  of  the 
progress  of  Christianity.  His  work  was  sup- 
pressed by  order  of  parliament,  but  was  surrep- 
titiously reprinted.  In  1708  he  was  compelled 
to  recant  his  opinions,  but  he  reproduced  them 
in  subsequent  works.  In  1715  he  published 
his  great  Conciliorum  Collectio  (12  vols.  fol.), 
embracing  the  councils  held  from  the  year  34 
to  1714,  including  more  than  20  whose  acts 
had  not  before  been  published ;  but  Pere  Har- 
douin  is  accused  of  having  suppressed  some 
important  pieces  and  replaced  them  by  apocry- 
phal passages.  At  the  request  of  six  doctors 
of  the  Sorbonne  the  parliament  arrested  the 
sale  of  the  work,  and  caused  a  number  of  leaves 
to  be  cancelled.  Among  his  other  works  are 
Nummi  Antiqui  Populorum  et  Urbium,  (1684) ; 
De  Nummis  Antiquis  Coloniarum  et  Munici- 
piorum  (1689)  ;  De  Nummis  Samaritanis,  and 


HARD  WICK 


HARE 


455 


De  Nummis  Herodianum  (1691) ;   Chronologia 
Veteris Testamenti (1697);  Opera Selecta(lW)-, 
and  his  posthumous  Opera  Varia  (1733). 
HARDWICK,  Charles,  an  English  theologian, 
rn  at  Slingsby,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  22,  1821, 
ied  Aug.  18,  1859,  while  ascending  the  Py- 
renees  near   Bagneres  de  Luchon.     He  was 
a  fellow  of  St.  Catharine's   hall,  Cambridge, 
here  he  resided  and  held  the  office  of  Chris- 
advocate  in  the  university.     In  1853  he 
as  appointed  professor  of  theology  in  Queen's 
liege,  Birmingham;   in   1855,  divinity  lec- 
rer  at  Cambridge;  and  a  few  months  be- 
his  death,  archdeacon  of  Ely.     Among  his 
orks  are :  "  Historical  Inquiry  relative  to  St. 
arine  of  Alexandria"  (1849);    "History 
the  Articles  on  Religion  "  (1851) ;  "  Twenty 
ons  for    Town  Congregations"  (1853); 
History  of  the  Christian  Church  during  the 
iddle  Ages  "  (1853)  ;  "  History  of  the  Chris- 
m  Church  during  the  Reformation  "  (1856) ; 
History  of  the  Preston  Strikes  and  Lock- 
its"  (1857);  and  "Manual  for  Patrons  of 
iendly  Societies"  (1859).    He  commenced 
elaborate  work,  "Christ  and  other  Mas- 
,"  comparing  Christianity  with  other  forms 
'  religion,  of  which  four  parts  were  published 
L855-'7 ;  2d  ed.,  1863).    He  also  prepared  an 
lition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Northumbrian 
version  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew. 
HARDWICKE,  Earls  of.    I.  Philip  Yorkc,  first 
irl,  an  English  jurist,  born  in  Dover,  Dec.  1, 
590,   died  in  London,  March   6,  1764.     Hi8 
indfather,  Simon  Yorke,  was  a  wealthy  mer- 
it of  Dover,  where  his  father,  Philip,  be- 
e  a  solicitor.      He  was  educated  for  the 
iw,  and  while  a  student  at  the  Middle  Temple 
acquainted  with  Chief  Justice  Parker 
jrward  earl  of  Macclesfield),  who  employed 
as  companion  and  tutor  to  his  sons,  and 
his  influence  to  push  him  forward  in  his 
)rofession.     He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1715, 
when  his  patron  was  made  lord  chancel- 
>r  he  entered  parliament  in  1719  &s  mem- 
for  Lewes,  the  expenses  of  his  election 
3ing  defrayed  by  the  government.    The  next 
rear  he  was  appointed  solicitor  general ;  soon 
'  ^rward  he  was  knighted;  in  1724  he  be- 
ime  attorney  general,  in  1733  lord  chief  jus- 
e  of  the  king's  bench  and  Baron  Hardwicke 
Hardwicke,  and  in   1737  lord  chancellor, 
iring  the  whole  period  of  his  public  life 
enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  for  integ- 
rity and  wisdom.     Only  three  of  his  chancery 
idgments    were    appealed  from,  and    those 
rere  confirmed.     -During  the  king's  absence 
1740,  '48,  and  '52,  he  was  one  of  the  jus- 
jes  chosen  to  administer  the  government; 
id  in  1746  he  was  named  lord  high  steward 
"  England  to  preside  at  the  trial  of  the  rebel 
)ttish  lords,  Kilmarnock,    Cromartie,   Bal- 
*ino,  and  Lovat.     In  1754  he  was  created 
riscount  Royston  and    earl    of    Hardwicke. 
November,  1756,  he  resigned  the  great  seal 
nd  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement, 
lis  life,  with  selections  from  his  correspon- 


dence, speeches,  and  judgments,  was  published 
in  1847.  II.  Philip  Yorke,  second  earl,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  Dec.  9, 1720,  died  May  16, 
1796.  In  1741  he  was  returned  to  parliament 
for  Reigate,  and  in  1747,  1754,  and  1761  for 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  was  in  1762 
made  chancellor  of  the  university.  He  was 
one  of  the  writers  of  the  "  Athenian  Letters, 
or  the  Epistolary  Correspondence  of  an  Agent 
of  the  King  of  Persia  residing  at  Athens  during 
the  Peloponnesian  War"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1741- 
'3 ;  4to,  1781 ;  2  vols.  8vo,  1789 ;  2  vols.  4to, 
1798  and  1810;  besides  which,  several  spuri- 
ous editions  were  published).  He  edited  the 
"Correspondence  of  Sir  Dudley  Carleton " 
(1775),  and  "Miscellaneous  State  Papers,  from 
1501  to  1726  "  (2  vols.  4to,  1798),  and  wrote  a 
"  Letter  on  the  Subject  of  Ministerial  Negotia- 
tion" (1785).  III.  Philip  Yorke,  third  earl, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  May  27,  1757, 
died  Nov.  18,  1834.  He  was  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland  from  1801  to  1806.  Of  his  three 
sons,  two  died  in  infancy,  and  the  other  was 
lost  in  a  storm  offLiibeck,  April  1,  1808.  IV. 
Charles  Philip  Yorke,  fourth  earl,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  April  2,  1800,  died  Sept.  17, 
1873.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1815,  and  in 
1816  served  as  midshipman  under  Lord  Ex- 
mouth  at  the  bombardment  of  Algiers.  From 
1831  to  1834  he  was  a  member  of  the  house  of 
commons,  and  from  1841  to  1847  lord  in  wait- 
ing to  the  queen.  During  the  revolutionary  pe- 
riod of  1848  and  1849  he  commanded  the  frig- 
ate Vengeance  at  Genoa,  and  in  the  latter  year 
contributed  toward  preserving  that  city,  then 
in  revolt,  for  Victor  Emanuel ;  and  in  1863  he 
was  made  an  admiral.  In  the  mean  time  he 
distinguished  himself  as  a  member  of  the  house 
of  lords,  and  in  1852,  and  again  in  1858,  was 
lord  privy  seal  under  Lord  Derby. 

HARDY,  a  N.  E.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
bordering  on  Virginia,  drained  by  Cacapon 
river  and  the  S.  branch  of  the  Potomac ;  area, 
about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,518,  of  whom 
616  were  colored.  It  has  a  mountainous,  rocky 
surface,  being  crossed  by  ridges  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  and  contains  valuable  mines  of  iron 
ore  and  many  fertile  valleys.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  33,442  bushels  of  wheat, 
114,567  of  Indian  corn,  13,283  of  oats,  13,566 
Ibs.  of  wool,  39,057  of  butter,  and  2,651  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  1,163  horses,  1,360  milch 
cows,  4,674  other  cattle,  4, 176  sheep,  and  2,967 
swine.  Capital,  Moorefield. 

HARE,  the  name  of  the  small  rodents  of  the 
family  leporidce,  and  the  genus  lepus  (Linn.), 
which  includes  also  the  rabbits.  This  has  fewer 
species  than  most  other  families  of  rodents, 
and  presents  the  exceptional  characters  of  large 
openings  of  the  skull,  an  imperfect  condition 
of  the  palate,  the  nasal  process  of  the  superior 
maxillary  perforated,  large  orbits  meeting  in 
the  middle  line  of  the  cranium,  small  temporal 
fossee,  and  an  increased  number  of  incisor  and 
molar  teeth;  the  scapular  spine  has  a  long 
acromion  process,  sending  down  a  considerable 


456 


HARE 


branch  at  right  angles;  there  are  five  toes  on 
the  fore  feet  and  four  on  the  hind ;  the  ears  are 
very  large,  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  head ; 
the  tail  short  and  bushy,  either  rudimentary  or 
carried  erect ;  hind  legs  much  longer  than  the 
anterior,  and  formed  for  leaping ;  the  stomach 
is  simple,  or  partially  divided  internally,  and 
the  caecum  very  long  and  divided  into  numer- 
ous cells  by  tendinous  bands ;  a  part  of  the  in- 
ner surface  of  the  cheeks  is  clothed  with  small 
hairs.  Hares  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  except  Australia,  but  most  abundantly 
in  North  America,  and  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  northern  hemisphere,  extending  even  into 
the  polar  regions.  There  are  only  two  genera  of 
the  family,  lepus  and  lagomys  ;  the  latter  will  be 
described  under  PIKA.  The  genus  lepus  has  the 
following  dental  formula :  incisors  £,  and  molars 
fz|,  a  larger  number  than  in  other  rodents; 
two  small  incisors  are  placed  behind  the  prin- 
cipal pair,  which  are  grooved  in  front,  all  be- 
ing white,  and  not  implanted  as  deeply  as 


European  Hare  (Lepus  timidus). 

usual  in  the  alveoli;  the  molars  are  rootless. 
There  seems  no  osteological  difference  between 
hares  and  rabbits;  the  latter,  however,  are 
gregarious  and  make  burrows  in  which  the 
young  are  raised,  while  the  former  are  more 
or  less  solitary,  and  merely  make  "  forms  "  of 
grass  on  which  they  sit ;  rabbits  are  born  blind 
and  naked,  but  hares  are  said  to  have  the  eyes 
open  and  the  body  covered  with  hair  at  birth. 
The  distinction  being  based  chiefly  on  habits, 
there  are  hardly  any  species  in  America  like 
the  rabbit  of  Europe  (L.  cuniculw,  Linn.),  un- 
less they  be 'the  gray  rabbit  (L.  syfaaticus, 
Bach.)  and  the  jackass  rabbit  {L.  callotis,  Wag- 
ler) ;  and  it  is  not  certain  that  any  other  old 
world  lepus  has  the  habits  and  peculiarities  of 
L.  euniculus.  The  last  three  species  will  be 
noticed  under  RABBIT.  The  common  hare  of 
Europe  (L.  timidus,  Linn.)  has  ears  longer 
than  the  head,  fringed  anteriorly  with  long 
hair ;  the  fur  mottled  with  black  and  ochrey 
brown,  with  rufous  tints  on  the  neck  and  outer 
side  of  limbs;  the  abdomen,  inner  side  of 


limbs,  and  tail  white;  upper  surface  of  tail  and 
ears  black ;  length  from  tip  of  nose  to  root  of 
tail,  along  the  curve  of  the  back,  23  in. ;  weight, 
8  to  12  Ibs.  Black  and  white  varieties  some- 
times occur,  but  the  color  is  not  changed  in 
winter  as  in  the  varying  northern  hares.  This 
species  is  found  generally  throughout  Europe, 
except  in  the  coldest  parts.  The  timidity  of 
the  hare  is  proverbial,  and  its  speed  has  made  it 
a  favorite  object  of  the  chase  from  the  times  of 
the  Romans;  the  principal  use  of  the  grey- 
hound is  to  pursue  this  animal.  The  eyes  are 
lateral  and  prominent,  and  vision  extends  to 
objects  on  all  sides  at  once ;  a  very  acute  sense 
of  hearing  and  smell  and  great  speed  are  given 
for  further  protection  against  its  numerous 
enemies;  the  palms  of  the  feet  are  covered 
with  hair;  the  nostrils  are  circular,  almost 
hidden  by  a  fold  which  may  be  closed;  the 
upper  lip  is  cleft ;  the  opening  of  the  ears  can 
also  be  closed ;  the  mammae  are  10.  They  are 
able  to  reproduce  at  a  year  old ;  the  period  of 
gestation  is  30  days,  and  from  two  to  five  are 
produced  at  a  birth.  They  remain  quiet  during 
the  day  in  their  form  or  seat,  which  is  a  mere 
depression  in  the  ground  near  some  bush, 
coming  out  toward  evening  in  search  of  food ; 
the  color  so  much  resembles  that  of  the  objects 
among  which  they  rest,  that,  as  if  conscious 
of  the  resemblance,  they  will  generally  remain 
quiet  in  their  form  until  they  are  almost  trod- 
den upon.  This  species  readily  takes  to  the 
water,  and  swims  well ;  it  sits  upon  its  tarsi, 
and  uses  its  fore  paws  in  holding  food  and 
cleansing  its  fur,  though,  from  its  incomplete 
clavicles,  less  perfectly  than  in  the  claviculated 
rodents;  it  drinks  lapping,  and  can  bite  se- 
verely. Early  in  spring  the  sexual  appetite  is 
very  strong,  and  the  animal  acts  so  strangely 
that  to  be  "as  mad  as  a  March  hare"  has 
become  a  proverb.  Its  intelligence  is  small, 
but  its  instincts  in  avoiding  its  enemies  are  re- 
markable. The  hare  and  rabbit  were  ranked 
among  ruminating  animals  by  the  Mosaic  law, 
but  were  forbidden  to  the  Jews  because  the 
hoofs  were  not  divided ;  Moses  probably  called 
the  hare  a  ruminant  from  the  partial  division 
of  the  stomach,  and  the  evident  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  lower  jaw.  The  food  of  the  hare 
is  entirely  vegetable,  and  its  flesh  is  delicate, 
nutritious,  and  universally  esteemed. — The  va- 
rying hare  (L.  varidbilis,  Pall.)  is  smaller  than 
the  common  species,  with  smaller  and  less 
black  ears,  shorter  tail,  and  without  the  mot- 
tled appearance  and  white  mark  on  the  cheek 
of  the  latter ;  in  summer  the  general  color  is 
rusty  brown,  finely  pencilled  with  black  and 
rufous  yellow  above,  and  impure  white  below ; 
tail  white,  grayish  above.  In  winter  the  fur 
is  white,  with  ears  black-tipped,  the  change  of 
color  being  due  to  the  cold  of  the  season  in  the 
northern  regions  which  it  inhabits.  It  is  found 
in  northern  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  as  the  arc- 
tic ocean,  but  is  wanting  in  central  Europe 
except  in  Alpine  regions.  Twenty  other  spe- 
cies of  hare  are  described  by  Waterhouse  in 


HARE 


457 


Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.— Among  the  Ameri- 
can species  which  grow  white  in  the  winter  is 
the  polar  hare  (L.  glacialis,  Leach),  the  largest 
of  the  family,  exceeding  a  large  cat;  it  mea- 
sures about  2  ft.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  lat- 
ter being  about  3£  in.,  and  the  ears  about  4  in. 
The  color  in  winter  is  pure  white,  with  the 
ears  black-tipped  before  and  behind,  and  the 
soles  dirty  yellowish  white;  in  summer  it  is 
light  brownish  gray  above,  varied  with  black, 
imp  and  upper  surface  of  tail  dark  plumbeous, 
i  glossy  black  with  whitish  posterior  mar- 
and  below  whitish  with  a  sooty  tinge ;  the 
sad  is  arched  and  wide,  the  ears  broad,  the 
short  and  hardly  perceptible  amid   the 
ise  hair ;  the  fur  is  soft,  fine,  and  full.    This 
ich  resembles  the  European  L.  variabilis, 
.  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  greater  blackness 
the  ears ;  it  is  found  in  arctic  America,  and 
far  south  as  Newfoundland,  in  the  most 
late  and  sterile  regions ;  it  feeds  on  berries 
rk,  twigs,  and  evergreen  leaves ;  it  is  not  very 
r,  though  difficult  to  take   in  its  favorite 
>wy  localities;   its  range  probably  extends 
Greenland  to  Behring  strait.     Indians, 
>pers,  and  arctic  travellers  have  often  been 
ived  from  starvation  by  this  animal.     Its  eyes 
adapted  for  the  twilight  and  auroral  light 
the  polar  countries,  which,  with  the  bright- 
of  the  pure  snow,  are  always  sufficient 
its  needs ;    its  flesh  is  said  to  be  deli- 
>us.    From  the  shortness  of  the  arctic  sum- 
this  species  produces  young  but  once  a 
r,  from  three  to  six  at  a  birth ;  the  fur  is 
)fter  than  the  finest  wool ;  its  summer  pelage 
is  not  last  more  than  three  or  four  months, 
e  weight,  in  good  condition,  is  from  10  to 
Ibs. — The  northern  hare,  sometimes  called 
rhite  rabbit  (L.  Americanus,  Erxl.),  is  a  little 
mailer  than  the  last ;  the  color  in  winter  is 
rhitish,  but  the  hairs  at  the  root  are  gray  and 


Northern  Hare  (Lepus  Americanus). 

pale  yellow  in  the  middle ;  in  summer  the  gen- 
eral hue  is  reddish  brown,  pencilled  with  black 
above,  and  the  under  parts  white,  very  much 
like  that  of  the  European  hare.  It  is  found  in 
the  eastern  portions  of  America  from  Virginia 
far  north  as  lat.  68° ;  its  favorite  haunts 


are  thick  woods,  where  it  is  hunted  with  dif- 
ficulty by  dogs;  its  food  consists  of  grasses, 
bark,  leaves,  young  twigs,  buds,  and  berries, 
and,  in  a  domesticated  state,  of  vegetables  and 
fruits.  This  is  the  swiftest  of  the  Ameri- 
can species,  and  has  been  known  to  clear  21 
ft.  at  a  single  leap;  like  other  hares  and  rab- 
bits, it  is  in  the  habit  of  beating  the  ground 
with  the  tarsi,  when  alarmed  or  enraged;  it 
is  fond  of  pursuing  a  beaten  path  in  the  woods, 
and  is  often  snared  in  such  places.  Its  flesh 
is  not  much  esteemed.  Its  enemies,  besides 
man  and  dogs,  are  the  lynx  and  other  car- 
nivorous mammals,  hawks,  owls,  and  even  the 
domestic  cat.  It  is  more  fierce  than  the  rab- 
bit, and  will  bite  and  scratch  severely.  The 
skin  is  very  tender,  and  the  fur  little  valued  by 
furriers ;  the  hind  feet  are  used  by  the  hatter 
in  finishing  his  fabrics. — The  swamp  hare  {L. 
aquaticus,  Bach.)  is  as  large  as  the  northern 
species,  with  long  ears  and  tail ;  dark  grayish 
brown  above  and  white  below  ;  it  is  strong  and 
swift ;  the  fur  is  coarse  and  glossy ;  the  feet 
are  not  densely  clothed  with  hair,  but  the  toes 
are  slender,  with  small  pads,  pointed,  and  with 
visible  claws.  This  species  prefers  low  marshy 
places,  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  to  which  it  is 
fond  of  resorting ;  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer, 
subsisting  chiefly  on  the  roots  of  the  iris  and 
other  aquatic  plants ;  when  started,  it  suddenly 
leaps  from  its  form,  and  makes  for  the  nearest 
water,  seemingly  conscious  that  in  that  element 
all  traces  of  its  scent  will  be  soon  lost ;  it  is 
fond  of  hiding  beneath  the  roots  of  trees  over- 
hanging the  water,  in  hollows  under  river 
banks,  and  in  decayed  trees.  It  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  swampy  tracts  bordering  on  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  in  the  south- 
western states;  it  has  not  been  seen  E.  or 
N.  of  Alabama,  according  to  Bachman. — The 
marsh  hare  (Z.  palustris,  Bach.)  is  smaller 
than  the  rabbit,  with  short  ears  and  tail ;  the 
legs  are  short  and  the  feet  are  thinly  clothed 
with  hair ;  the  general  color  above  is  yellowish 
brown,  beneath  gray ;  the  eyes  are  remarkably 
small.  It  is  found  in  the  maritime  districts  of 
the  southern  states,  especially  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  rice  fields.  It  is  an  excellent  swimmer, 
and  is  perfectly  at  home  in  the  miry  pool  and 
boggy  swamp  ;  it  runs  low  on  the  ground,  and 
is  rather  slow  and  clumsy  in  its  motions.  Its 
flesh  is  considered  superior  to  that  of  the  gray 
rabbit.  Like  other  species  of  the  genus,  it  is 
infested  in  the  summer  and  autumn  with  the 
larvas  of  an  cestrus,  which  penetrate  the  flesh 
and  keep  the  animal  lean  from  constant  irri- 
tation. Its  food  consists  principally  of  roots, 
bulbs,  and  twigs  of  plants  growing  in  marshes. 
It  breeds  several  times  a  year,  having  from  five 
to  seven  at  a  birth ;  the  young  are  placed  in  a 
kind  of  nest,  made  of  rushes  and  lined  with 
hair. — Several  other  species  of  hare  are  de- 
scribed by  Waterhouse  and  Baird. 

HARE.  I.  Julias  Charles,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  at  Herstmonceaux,  Sussex,  in  1796, 
died  there,  Jan.  23,  1855.  He  was  a  son  of 


458 


HAKE 


the  Rev.  Robert  Hare,  rector  of  Herstmon- 
ceaux,  and  grandson  of  Bishop  Francis  Hare. 
After  passing  some  time  on  the  continent,  he 
studied  at  the  Charterhouse  school,  and  was 
removed  in  1812  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
where  he  remained,  with  a  brief  interval,  for 
20  years;  he  became  a  fellow  in  1818,  and 
assistant  tutor  in  1822.  During  this  period 
he  applied  himself  especially  to  classical  and 
philological  learning,  German  literature,  and 
the  writings  of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth. 
In  1827  appeared  the  first  series  of  "  Guesses 
at  Truth,  by  Two  Brothers,"  a  volume  of  mis- 
cellaneous apophthegms  and  reflections,  the 
joint  production  of  himself  and  his  elder  bro- 
ther, Augustus  William.  A  second  edition  ap- 
peared in  1838  with  additions  by  himself,  and 
from  the  posthumous  papers  of  his  brother ;  a 
second  series  was  published  in  1848,  and  sev- 
eral editions  have  since  been  issued.  At  Cam- 
bridge he  united  with  Thirlwall  in  translating 
the  first  two  volumes  of  the  second  edition  of 
Niebuhr's  "  History  of  Rome  "  (1828-'32),  and 
lie  published  in  1829  a  vindication  of  the  work 
from  the  charges  of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 
He  also  contributed  largely  to  the  "  Philological 
Museum."  He  became  rector  of  Herstmon- 
ceaux  in  1832,  archdeacon  of  Lewes  in  1840, 
prebendary  of  Chichester  in  1851,  and  chaplain 
to  the  queen  in  1853.  Soon  after  settling  at 
Herstmonceaux  he  married  the  sister  of  his 
friend  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  and  began  his 
intimacy  with  Bunsen,  who  dedicated  to  him 
the  first  volume  of  "  Hippolytus  and  his  Age." 
His  collected  works  would  form  a  commentary 
on  the  leading  events  of  a  quarter  of  a  century 
having  special  reference  to  the  church  of  Eng- 
land. Besides  several  volumes  of  sermons  and 
miscellaneous  pamphlets  on  church  questions, 
his  principal  later  publications  were:  "The 
Means  of  Unity,  a  Charge,  with  Notes  "  (1847) ; 
"  The  Duty  of  the  Church  in  Times  of  Trial " 
(1848);  "The  True  Remedy  for  the  Evils  of 
the  Age  "  (1850) ;  "  A  Letter  to  the  Hon.  R. 
Cavendish,  on  the  recent  Judgment  of  the 
Court  of  Appeal  as  affecting  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Church"  (1850);  "The  Contest  with 
Rome"  (1852);  "A  Vindication  of  Luther 
against  some  of  his  recent  English  Assailants  " 
(1854);  and  an  edition  of  the  "Essays  and 
Tales  of  John  Sterling,  with  a  Memoir"  (2 
vols.,  1848).  II.  Augustus  William,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Herstmonceaux  in  1793, 
died  in  Rome,  Feb.  18, 1834.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  New  college,  Oxford,  and  became  rector  of 
Alton  Barnes  in  1829.  He  was  associate  au- 
thor of  the  first  series  of  "  Guesses  at  Truth," 
and  published  "  Sermons  to  a  Country  Congre- 
gation" (2  vols.,  London,  1837).  III.  Augustas 
Julias  Charles,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Rome,  March  13,  1834.  He  has  published 
"Epitaphs  for  Country  Churchyards"  (1856); 
"Winter  at  Mentone "  (1862);  "Walks  in 
Rome  "  (1871) ;  Wanderings  in  Spain  "  (1873) ; 
and  "Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life"  (1872), 
which  are  records  of  the  Hare  family. 


HARE,  Robert,  an  American  physicist,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17, 1781,  died  there,  May 
15,  1858.  His  father,  an  English  emigrant, 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  and  established  there 
an  extensive  brewery,  and  his  son  in  early  life 
managed  the  business.  His  tastes,  however, 
led  him  to  scientific  pursuits.  He  attended 
the  courses  of  lectures  on  chemistry  and  phys- 
ical sciences,  and  before  he  was  20  years  of 
age  joined  the  chemical  society  of  Philadelphia, 
to  which  in  1801  he  communicated  a  descrip- 
tion of  his  important  scientific  invention,  the 
oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  which  he  then  called 
the  hydrostatic  blowpipe,  and  which  was  after- 
ward named  by  Prof.  Silliman  the  compound 
blowpipe.  (See  BLOWPIPE.)  At  this  period 
the  subject  of  combustion  was  very  imperfectly 
understood,  and  even  Lavoisier,  who  had  dis- 
covered that  heat  sufficiently  intense  to  fuse 
alumina  might  be  obtained  by  directing  a  jet 
of  oxygen  upon  charcoal,  and  who  had  burned 
the  elements  of  water  together  to  produce  this 
fluid,  failed  to  discover  that  by  this  union  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  combustion  the  most 
intense  degree  of  heat  known  might  be  ob- 
tained. By  means  of  this  apparatus  Hare  was 
the  first  to  render  lime,  magnesia,  iridium,  and 
platinum  fusible  in  any  considerable  quantity. 
In  addition  to  these  discoveries  he  first  an- 
nounced that  steam  is  not  condensable  when 
combined  in  equal  parts  with  the  vapor  of 
carbon.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  medical  school  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  continued  in  this 
office  till  his  resignation  in  1847.  His  course 
of  instruction  was  marked  by  the  originality 
of  his  experiments  and  of  the  apparatus  he 
employed.  His  instruments,  often  designed 
and  sometimes  made  by  himself,  were  always 
of  large  dimensions  and  of  the  most  perfect 
plans ;  no  expense  nor  personal  labor  being 
spared  to  render  every  piece  of  apparatus  as 
complete  as  possible.  The  great  collection 
which  he  accumulated  he  bestowed,  after  re- 
signing his  office  in  the  university,  upon  the 
Smithsonian  institution.  One  of  the  most 
useful  small  instruments  of  his  invention  is 
the  valve  cock  or  gallows  screw,  by  means 
of  which  perfectly  air-tight  communication  is 
made  between  cavities  in  separate  pieces  of 
apparatus.  To  his  zeal  and  skill  in  devising 
and  constructing  improved  forms  of  the  voltaic 
pile,  American  chemists  are  indebted  for  the 
success  they  attained  in  applying  the  intense 
powers  of  extended  series  of  voltaic  couples 
long  in  advance  of  the  general  use  of  similar 
combinations  in  Europe.  In  1816  he  invented 
the  calorimotor,  a  form  of  battery  by  which  a 
large  amount  of  heat  is  produced  with  little 
intensity.  With  the  modified  form  of  it  called 
the  deflagrator,  devised  in  1820,  Prof.  Silliman 
succeeded  in  1823  in  volatilizing  and  fusing 
carbon.  The  perfection  of  these  forms  of  ap- 
paratus was  acknowledged  by  Faraday,  who 
adopted  them  in  preference  to  any  forms  he 
could  devise.  It  was  with  these  batteries  that 


HAREBELL 


HAREM 


459 


the  first  application  of  voltaic  electricity  to 
blasting  under  water  was  made.  This  was  in 
1831,  and  the  experiments  were  made  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Hare.  (See  BLASTING.) 
He  contributed  numerous  papers  to  the  "  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Science,"  and  other  period- 
icals, and  published  "Brief  View  of  the  Policy 
and  Resources  of  the  United  States  "  (1810), 
"Chemical  Apparatus  and  Manipulations" 
(1836),  and  "Compendium  of  the  Course  of 
Chemical  Instruction  in  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania."  In 
his  later  years  he  became  a  believer  in  spirit- 
ual manifestations,  and  wrote  "Spiritualism 
Scientifically  Demonstrated  "  (1855). 

HAREBELL,  the  common  name  in  this  coun- 
try and  England  for  a  beautiful  wild  peren- 
nial plant,  campanula  rotundifolia.  The  ge- 
nus campanula  is  a  large  and  very  ornamen- 
one ;  the  flowers  are  bell-shaped,  as  is  ex- 
id  by  the  name,  which  is  the  diminutive 


Harebell  (Campanula  rotundifolia) 

of  the  Italian  campana,  a  bell.  The  specific 
name  (round-leafed)  was  not  happily  chosen 
by  Linnaeus,  as  it  is  only  the  root  leaves  which 
are  round ;  and  as  these  usually  decay  by  the 
time  the  plant  flowers,  the  only  leaves  gener- 
ally found  upon  it  are  those  of  the  stem,  which 
are  linear  or  narrowly  lanceolate.  The  stem 
is  seldom  a  foot  high,  often  half  that,  and  bears 
from  one  to  ten  small  bell-shaped  flowers  of 
the  most  beautiful  bright  blue  color.  The 
harebell  is  common  in  Europe  and  northern 
Asia,  as  well  as  in  America,  and  is  most  fre- 
quent on  shaded  rocky  banks,  especially  on 
mountains,  which  it  ascends  to  great  elevations. 
It  is  one  of  the  wild  flowers  frequently  alluded 
to  in  poetry,  and  one  deserving  of  more  at- 
tention from  cultivators  than  it  has  received. 
It  will  grow  in  the  ordinary  soil  of  the  borders, 
but  its  most  appropriate  place  is  upon  the  rock- 
work.  There  is  a  double-flowered  variety  in 
the  French  gardens ;  and  an  upright,  rigid,  wild 


form  has  been  described  as  a  distinct  species, 
<?.  linifolia.  In  England  the  flowers,  treated 
with  alum,  are  used  to  make  a  green  dye. 

HARE  LIP,  a  congenital  fissure  of  the  upper 
lip,  on  one  or  on  both  sides,  giving  to  the 
mouth  very  much  the  appearance  presented 
by  the  cleft  upper  lip  of  the  hare.  It  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  a  fissure  of  the  hard  and 
soft  palate  in  which  the  cavities  of  the  mouth 
and  nose  communicate ;  when  the  teeth  and 
the  gums  project  through  the  fissure,  the  de- 
formity is  much  increased.  In  the  infant  it 
interferes  with  the  process  of  sucking,  and  in 
the  adult  renders  speech  imperfect ;  when  fis- 
sure of  the  palate  coexists,  not  only  is  articu- 
lation indistinct  and  nasal,  but  the  passage  of 
food  and  drink  from  the  mouth  to  the  nose, 
and  of  the  nasal  secretions  into  the  mouth,  is 
a  source  of  great  annoyance  and  mortification. 
This  deformity  is  in  most  cases  capable  of 
removal  by  a  very  simple  surgical  operation, 
which  has  been  practised  successfully  upon 
infants  a  few  weeks  old.  The  operation  con- 
sists merely  in  paring  the  edges  of  the  fissure 
with  a  knife  or  scissors,  and  keeping  the  cut 
surfaces  in  apposition  by  needles  and  sutures, 
strengthened  by  sticking  plaster  or  collodion. 
When  the  hare  lip  is  double,  both  sides  are 
generally  operated  on  at  the  same  time.  It  is 
usual  to  extract  projecting  teeth,  or  to  remove 
any  too  prominent  portion  of  the  jaw  by  cut- 
ting forceps.  Bleeding  is  generally  slight,  and 
restrained  by  pressure  or  simple  contact  of  the 
cut  surfaces.  In  infants,  adhesive  straps  are 
often  necessary  to  prevent  the  edges  being 
drawn  asunder  by  crying  or  sucking;  in 
adults,  strict  silence  and  liquid  food  are  en- 
joined for  four  or  five  days.  Fissure  of  the 
soft  palate  is  remedied  on  the  same  principle 
of  paring  the  edges  and  keeping  them  in  con- 
tact by  various  kinds  of  sutures  and  needles ; 
this  operation,  called  staphyloraphy,  can  only 
be  performed  on  a  patient  old  enough  to  aid 
the  proceedings  of  the  surgeon.  It  is  attribu- 
ted to  intra-uterine  disease,  producing  an  ar- 
rest of  development;  when  single,  it  is  said 
to  be  most  common  on  the  left  side.  In  very 
rare  instances  it  occurs  upon  the  median  line. 

HAREM  (Arabic,  el-harim,  the  sanctuary), 
a  term  applied  to  the  -holy  cities,  Mecca 
and  Medina,  which  are  jointly  called  "the 
harems,"  and  to  the  temple  of  Mecca,  which 
is  termed  mesjid  el-harim,  the  sacred  mosque ; 
but  which  in  its  more  general  use  signifies 
throughout  the  Mohammedan  world  the  fe- 
males of  a  family,  and  more  particularly  that 
part  of  a  dwelling  house  which  is  appropriated 
to  their  use.  It  is  also  commonly  used  by  the 
Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews  of  the  Turkish 
empire,  though  the  seclusion  of  their  women  is 
not  so  strict  as  that  of  the  Mohammedans,  and 
is  founded  on  customs  of  remote  antiquity  in 
the  East.  Its  prevalence  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans has  been  established  by  the  following  pas- 
sage of  the  Koran  :  "  And  speak  unto  the  be- 
lieving women,  that  they  restrain  their  eyes, 


460 


HAREM 


and  preserve  their  modesty,  and  discover  not 
their  ornaments,  except  what  necessarily  ap- 
peareth  thereof;  and  let  them  throw  their 
veils  over  their  bosoms,  and  not  show  their 
ornaments,  unless  to  their  husbands,  or  their 
fathers,  or  their  husbands'  fathers,  or  their 
sons,  or  their  husbands'  sons,  or  their  brothers, 
or  their  brothers'  sons,  or  their  sisters'  sons,  or 
their  women,  or  unto  such  men  as  attend  them 
and  have  no  need  of  women  [eunuchs],  or  unto 
children."  The  apartments  of  the  women  are 
generally  in  the  upper  stories,  and  so  contrived 
as  to  secure  the  utmost  privacy.  They  have 
commonly  a  separate  entrance,  and  care  is  taken 
to  place  the  windows  so  that  they  shall  not  be 
seen  from  the  windows  of  any  other  house  or 
from  the  street.  In  a  harem  containing  several 
wives,  it  is  usual  to  assign  to  them  separate 
suites  of  apartments.  In  some  places  the  harem 
is  often  superbly  furnished  and  decorated,  while 
the  more  public  part  of  the  dwelling  exhibits 
every  sign  of  poverty.  The  inmates  of  the 
harem  consist  of  a  wife  or  wives  and  of  any 
number  of  female  slaves,  some  of  whom  are 
kept  merely  as  servants  to  cook,  to  clean  the 
rooms,  and  to  wait  upon  the  wives  and  concu- 
bines. It  is  estimated,  however,  by  the  best 
informed  travellers,  that  only  one  man  in  20 
has  more  than  one  wife.  It  is  only  the  very 
rich  that  maintain  populous  harems,  and  many 
of  these  are  content  with  one  wife.  In  frequent 
instances  the  wife  who  will  not  tolerate  a  sec- 
ond spouse  in  the  harem  will  permit  the  hus- 
band to  keep  concubines  for  the  sake  of  having 
them  to  wait  upon  her.  It  is  said  that  Mo- 
hammedan women  do  not  dislike  the  seclusion 
in  which  they  are  kept,  but  take  a  pride  in  it 
as  an  evidence  of  their  value.  If  the  husband 
permits  them  to  be  freely  seen  by  other  men, 
they  regard  his  liberality  as  indicative  of  indif- 
ference.— The  Christian  travellers  most  familiar 
with  oriental  life  have  passed  very  opposite 
judgments  on  the  nature  and  effect  of  the  harem 
system.  Lady  Mary  Montagu,  who  visited  the 
harems  of  the  great  officers  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire, has  left  gorgeous  pictures  of  what  she  saw. 
She  describes  the  harems  as  glittering  with 
splendor  and  inhabited  by  lovely  girls  magnifi- 
cently attired,  leading  a  gay  and  happy  life.  Har- 
riet Martineau,  who  visited  some  harems  of  the 
higher  class  in  Cairo  and  Damascus  in  1847, 
gives  a  very  different  picture.  In  a  harem  at 
Cairo  she  found  20  women,  some  slaves,  nearly 
all  young,  some  good-looking,  but  none  hand- 
some. Some  were  black,  Nubians  or  Abyssin- 
ians,  and  the  rest  Circassians  with  very  light 
complexions.  She  saw  no  trace  of  intellect  in 
these  women,  except  in  a  homely  old  one.  Their 
ignorance  she.  describes  as  fearful,  and  their 
grossness  as  revolting.  At  Damascus  she  saw 
the  seven  wives  of  three  men  in  one  harem, 
with  a  crowd  of  attendants.  Of  the  seven,  two 
had  been  the  wives  of  the  head  of  the  house- 
hold, who  was  dead ;  three  were  the  wives  of 
his  eldest  son,  aged  22  ;  and  the  remaining  two 
were  the  wives  of  his  second  son,  aged  15.  Of 


the  five  younger,  three  were  sisters,  children 
of  different  mothers  in  the  same  harem.  They 
smoked,  drank  coffee  and  sherbet,  sang  to  the 
accompaniment  of  a  tambourine,  danced  in  an 
indecent  manner,  and  all  the  while  romping, 
kissing,  and  screaming  went  on  among  old  and 
young.  She  pronounces  them  the  most  stu- 
diously depressed  and  corrupted  women  she 
ever  saw.  Lady  Shiel,  wife  of  the  British  min- 
ister to  Persia  in  1849,  who  lived  four  years  in 
that  country,  says  that  Persian  women  of  the 
upper  class  lead  a  life  of  idleness  and  luxury, 
and  enjoy  more  liberty  than  the  women  of 
Christendom.  They  consume  their  time  by 
going  to  the  bath  and  by  a  constant  round  of 
visits,  and  frequently  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
reading  and  writing,  and  of  the  choice  poetical 
works  in  their  native  language.  Cooking,  or 
at  least  its  superintendence,  is  a  favorite  pas- 
time. In  populous  harems  the  mortality  among 
children  is  very  great,  owing  to  the  neglect, 
laziness,  and  ignorance  of  the  mothers  and 
nurses.  An  American  lady,  Mrs.  Caroline 
Paine,  who  travelled  in  the  Turkish  empire, 
says  in  her  "  Tent  and  Harem "  (New  York, 
1859)  that  she  made  the  acquaintance  of  Turk- 
ish women  who  were  "wonderful  instances 
of  native  elegance,  refinement,  and  aptness  in 
the  courtesies,  ordinary  civilities,  and  prattle 
of  society."  She  says:  "Turkish  women  are 
by  no  means  confined  to  a  life  of  solitude  or 
imprisonment,  and  they  would  be  scarcely 
tempted  to  exchange  the  perfect  freedom  and 
exemption  from  the  austere  duties  of  life,  which 
is  their  acme  of  happiness,  for  all  the  advan- 
tages that  might  be  gained  from  intellectual 
pursuits  or  a  different  form  of  society."  Capt. 
Burton,  who  travelled  extensively  in  Moham- 
medan countries  in  the  disguise  of  a  native, 
and  who  in  the  character  of  a  physician  saw 
something  of  the  interior  of  the  harem,  says 
that  the  oriental  is  "the  only  state  of  society 
in  which  jealousy  and  quarrels  about  the  sex 
are  the  exception  and  not  the  rule  of  life." 
Since  Abdul-Aziz  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Turkey  (1861),  in  some  of  the  harems  of  Con- 
stantinople and  other  cities  European  ideas 
and  manners  have  been  engrafted  upon  Asiatic 
splendor,  and  the  women,  under  attendance, 
now  go  into  the  streets  and  bazaars,  covering 
the  lower  parts  of  their  faces  with  a  single 
white  veil,  so  thin  that  it  does  not  conceal  the 
features,  while  the  eyes  and  eyebrows  are  en- 
tirely exposed.  The  majority  of  the  harems, 
however,  in  the  cities  and  in  the  interior,  still 
rigidly  and  religiously  retain  all  the  ancient 
rules  and  customs.  The  two  ladies  of  W.  H. 
Seward's  party,  in  his  tour  around  the  world, 
in  May,  1871,  visited  the  harem  in  the  palace 
of  the  khedive's  mother  (the  princess  valideh) 
at  Cairo.  After  traversing  a  succession  of  sa- 
loons superbly  furnished  with  velvet  carpets, 
lace  and  damask  curtains,  satin-covered  sofas 
and  divans,  large  French  mirrors,  and  crystal 
chandeliers,  they  were  presented  to  the  prin- 
cess, who  was  surrounded  by  the  ladies  of  the 


HAREM 


harem  and  Circassian  slave  girls.  The  prin- 
cess wife  of  the  khedive  wore  a  green  silk 
dress  with  lace,  hat,  gloves,  boots,  and  fan, 
all  from  London  or  Paris,  and  her  light  brown 
hair  was  dressed  in  the  latest  Parisian  style. 
The  ladies  of  the  harem,  many  of  them  dis- 
lying  diamond  solitaires  of  immense  size, 
ifessed  their  partiality  for  European  modes, 
all  of  them  had  ordered  outfits  from  Lon- 
lon,  with  the  request  that  they  might  be  coun- 
[•parts  of  the  trousseau  of  the  princess  Louise. 
?he  princess  mother  said  that "  since  the  ladies 
the  harem  were  allowed  to  see  the  Euro- 
opera  and  ballet  at  the  theatre  in  Alex- 
idria,  they  have  become  quite  disgusted  with 
le  native  performances  of  their  own  country." 
she  explained  the  condition  of  the  slave  wo- 
;  they  were  brought  from  their  native 
id  when  quite  young,  were  provided  with 
sbands  and  dowries,  and  were  "  very  lucky." 
it  the  system  as  a  domestic  institution  is 
imed  up  by  Mr.  Seward  as  follows:  "The 
[ohammedan  provision  for  woman  is  a  prison 
which  her  sufferings  from  jealousy  are  con- 
led  by  the  indulgence  of  her  vanity.  She  is 
lowed  the  society  of  her  own  sex  with  far 
restraint  than  is  ordinarily  supposed,  and 
displays  before  her  visiting  friends  with 
ride  the  wealth  and  ornaments  which  light- 
-  her  chains."  She  goes  abroad  only  in  a 
riage,  and  under  strict  surveillance ;  "  she 
lever  reads,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  is  required 
jver  to  think." — The  harem,  under  various 
julations,  is  found  in  all  eastern  countries 
lere  polygamy  and  concubinage  are  permit- 
or  practised.  While  the  Japanese  gen- 
rally  have  but  one  wife,  the  princes  and  no- 
les  keep  as  many  concubines  as  they  please, 
3uring  them  in  harems,  but  much  less  rigor- 
isly  than  is  done  in  Mohammedan  countries. 
Hiogo,  in  October,  1870,  Mr.  Seward  saw  a 
jy  Japanese  yacht  on  board  of  which  was  a 
limio  surrounded  by  numerous  retainers  and 
bevy  of  highly  painted  and  elegantly  dressed 
rang  women.  The  daimio  was  "giving  his 
fern  a  picnic."  In  Siam  the  law  allows  but 
le  wife,  except  to  the  king;  concubinage, 
lowever,  is  limited  only  by  the  means  of  the 
Within  the  capital,  Bangkok,  stands 
iclosed  in  a  double  wall  the  city  of  the 
Tang  Harm,  or  veiled  women,  which  is  fully 
Bribed  by  Mrs.  Leonowens  in  "The  Ro- 
mnce  of  the  Harem"  (Boston,  1873):  "In 
lis  city  live  none  but  women  and  children, 
fere  the  houses  of  the  royal  princesses,  the 
rives,  concubines,  and  relatives  of  the  king, 
rith  their  numerous  slaves  and  personal  at- 
indants,  form  regular  streets  and  avenues, 
'ith  small  parks,  artificial  lakes,  and  groups  of 
ine  trees  scattered  over  miniature  lawns  and 
itiful  flower  gardens.  In  the  southern  part 
>f  this  strange  city  the  mechanical  slaves  of 
le  wives,  concubines,  and  princesses  live,  and 
ly  their  trades  for  the  profit  of  their  mistress- 
This  woman's  city  has  its  own  laws,  and 
female  judges,  guards,  police,  prison  keep- 


HARGRAVES 


461 


ers,  executioners,  merchants,  brokers,  teachers, 
and  mechanics  in  every  trade.  No  man  can 
enter  the  city  except  the  king  and  the  priests, 
who  may  be  admitted  every  morning  under 
amazon  guard.  The  slave  women  can  go  out 
to  see  their  husbands,  or  on  business  for  their 
mistresses ;  the  mistresses  can  never  leave  it, 
except  by  the  covered  passages  to  the  palaces, 
temples,  and  gardens,  until  age  and  position 
have  given  them  a  certain  degree  of  freedom. 
No  fewer  than  9,000  women,  it  is  asserted,  are 
thus  secluded,  and  the  Nang  Harm  presents 
the  most  extensive  and  rigorous  instance  of 
the  harem  system. 

HARFLEIR,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine-Infe"rieure,  on  the  small  river 
Lezarde,  about  2  m.  W.  of  the  Seine,  4  m.  N. 
E.  of  Havre,  and  4  m.  S.  W.  of  Honfleur,  with 
which  it  is  occasionally  confounded ;  pop.  in 
1866,  1,966.  It  was  once  a  bulwark  against 
foreign  invasion  and  an  important  port,  but 
deposits  brought  down  by  the  Lezarde  have 
spoiled  the  harbor  by  forming  a  fringe  of  land, 
gradually  increasing  the  distance  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Seine.  The  vicissitudes  of  war,  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  especially 
the  rise  of  Havre,  gave  a  final  blow  to  Har- 
fleur,  and  the  fortifications  have  been  demol- 
ished. It  has  one  of  the  most  renowned  later 
Gothic  churches  of  Normandy,  with  a  famous 
belfry ;  a  modern  chateau  with  a  beautiful  park ; 
and  in  the  vicinity  are  delightful  promenades. 
It  continues  also  to  have  a  considerable  coast- 
ing trade,  and  possesses  a  number  of  manufac- 
tories. The  fisheries  are  likewise  prosperous. 
— Henry  V.  of  England  captured  Harfleur  in 
1415,  expelling  many  of  the  inhabitants,  whom 
he  replaced  with  English  settlers.  The  Eng- 
lish were  driven  from  the  town  in  1433  by  the 
neighboring  people  of  the  territory  (pays)  of 
Caux,  but  the  English  subsequently  reoccupied 
it  for  a  number  of  years,  their  domination  final- 
ly terminating  in  1450.  Yauban  designed  a 
canal  to  connect  Harfleur  with  Havre,  which 
remains  unfinished. 

HARFORD,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Maryland,  bor- 
dering on  Pennsylvania,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the 
Susquehanna  river,  and  S.  E.  by  Chesapeake 
bay ;  area,  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,605, 
of  whom  4,855  were  colored.  The  N.  W.  part 
is  hilly,  and  contains  limestone,  granite,  and 
iron.  The  surface  near  the  bay  is  level.  The 
soil  is  fertilized  by  the  use  of  lime  and  guano. 
It  is  crossed  by  the  Tide-Water  canal  and  the 
Philadelphia,  Wilmington,  and  Baltimore  rail- 
road. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
244,835  bushels  of  wheat,  659,789  of  Indian 
corn,  303,164  of  oats,  140,523  of  potatoes,  209,- 
140  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  16,927  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  4,247  horses,  5,718  milch  cows, 
7,558  other  cattle,  5,612  sheep,  and  11,676 
swine ;  1  manufactory  of  drugs  and  chemi- 
cals, 1  of  fertilizers,  1  of  pig  iron,  2  of  lime, 
2  saw  mills,  and  4  flour  mills.  Capital,  Belair. 

HARGRAVES,  Edmund  Hammond,  the  discover- 
er of  the  gold  fields  of  Australia,  born  at  Gos- 


462 


HARING 


HARIRI 


port,  England,  about  1816.  At  the  age  of  14 
he  went  to  sea  on  board  a  merchant  ship,  and 
during  the  succeeding  three  years  visited  almost 
every  part  of  the  world  as  a  sailor.  In  1.834 
he  settled  in  Australia,  where  he  married,  and 
engaged  in  farming  and  stock  raising.  In 
1849  he  went  to  California,  where  he  worked 
in  the  gold  diggings,  and  was  struck  with  the 
similarity  between  the  geological  structure  of 
California  and  that  of  Australia.  In  January, 
1851,  he  returned  to  Australia,  and  on  Feb.  5 
set  out  from  Sydney  on  horseback  to  cross  the 
Blue  mountains  and  explore  for  gold  on  the 
Macquarie  river  and  its  tributaries.  Having 
concluded  his  investigations,  he  wrote  to  the 
colonial  secretary,  April  30,  1851,  naming  va- 
rious places  in  the  district  of  Bathurst  where 
gold  might  be  found.  Within  the  year  follow- 
ing this  disclosure  gold  was  exported  from  New 
South  Wales  and  Victoria  to  the  amount  of 
nearly  $20,000,000.  Hargraveswas  appointed 
commissioner  of  crown  lands ;  the  legislative 
council  of  New  South  Wales  voted  him  £10,- 
000 ;  a  gold  cup  worth  £500  was  presented  to 
him  at  a  public  dinner;  and  he  received  va- 
rious other  public  and  private  rewards.  In 
1854  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  entitled  "Australia  and  its 
Gold  Fields"  (8vo,  London,  1855). 

HARING,  Wilhelm,  better  known  under  his 
nom  de  plume  WILIBALD  ALEXIS,  a  German 
novelist,  born  in  Breslau,  June  23,  1797,  died 
at  Arnstadt,  Dec.  16,  1871.  He  served  in  the 
army  as  a  volunteer,  and  studied  jurisprudence. 
Having  gained  reputation  by  historical  nov- 
els, he  became  especially  known  by  writing 
a  romance  entitled  Walladmor,  in  compliance 
with  a  wager  to  produce  an  imitation  of  Wal- 
ter Scott's  works.  De  Quincey  undertook  to 
translate  this  romance  into  English,  but  his 
version,  though  published  with  the  title  of 
"Walladmor"  (London,  1824),  was  so  much 
modified  as  to  be  nearly  an  original  work. 
He  wrote  several  books  of  travel,  and  was 
engaged  in  various  branches  of  literature,  but 
most  successfully  as  a  writer  of  historical  nov- 
els. The  best  of  them  are:  ScTiloss  Avalon 
(Leipsic,  1827) ;  Cdbani*  (6  vols.,  Berlin,  1832), 
containing  a  military  song  which  was  set  to 
music  and  became  very  popular ;  Der  Roland 
von  Berlin  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1840) ;  Derfalsche 
WaUemar  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1842);  Die  Uosen 
des  Herrn  von  Bredow  (2  vols.,  1846-'8);  Euhe 
ist  die  erste  Biirgerpflicht  (5  vols.,  1852) ;  Ise- 
grimm  (1854) ;  and  Dorothee  (1856).  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
Berlin  in  1861-'6,  in  18  vols..  In  concert  with 
Hitzig  he  prepared  28  of  the  36  volumes  of  Der 
neue  Pitaval  (Leipsic,  1842-'65),  a  collection 
of  historical  sketches  of  criminal  cases  (new 
series  by  Vollert,  7  vols.,  1866-72). 

IIARIWTON,  Sir  John,  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Kelston,  near  Bath,  in  1561,  died  in  Lon- 
don in  1612.  His  mother  was  nn  illegitimate 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  his  father  an  officer 
of  the  court,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  was  his  god- 


mother. He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge. In  1591  he  published  a  translation  of 
Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso,"  which  gained 
him  considerable  reputation.  In  1599  he  ac- 
companied the  earl  of  Essex  to  Ireland,  and 
attended  him  also  in  his  precipitate  return  to 
England.  While  he  was  in  Ireland,  Essex 
knighted  him  on  the  field,  to  the  great  dis- 
pleasure of  Elizabeth ;  but  James  I.  made  him 
a  knight  of  the  bath  in  1603.  He  wrote  a 
satiric  poem  called  the  "Metamorphosis  of 
Ajax  "  (1596),  after  the  manner  of  Rabelais, 
in  which  he  embellished  a  trivial  subject  with 
a  vast  store  of  learning,  wit,  and  humor.  The 
author  was  refused  a  license  to  print  it,  and 
was  punished  for  its  publication  by  exclusion 
from  the  court.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
an  "Apologie"  for  the  "Metamorphosis." 
"  The  Englishman's  Doctor,  or  the  Schoole  of 
Salerne,"  a  poem,  appeared  in  1608  or  1609. 
A  collection  of  his  "  Most  Elegant  and  Wittie 
Epigrams  "  was  appended  to  an  edition  of  his 
"  Orlando  Furioso  "  in  1 633 ;  and  a  miscellany 
of  original  papers  in  prose  and  verse  by  Har- 
ington  and  others  of  his  time,  under  the  title 
of  NugcB  Antigua,  was  published  in  1769-79. 
A  new  edition  with  a  life  of  Harington  was 
edited  by  Thomas  Park  (London,  1804). 

HARIRI,  Abu  Mohammed  Kasem  ben  Ali,  an 
Arabian  poet,  born  in  Bassorah  about  1050, 
died  there  in  1121  or  1122.  The  name  Hariri, 
u  dealer  in  silk,"  is  believed  to  refer  to  the 
occupation  of  the  poet  or  one  of  his  ancestors. 
For  a  while  he  held  a  political  office,  having 
the  title  of  salidb  al-khdbar  (news  officer).  He 
had  passed  the  age  of  50  when  Syria  and  a 
part  of  Mesopotamia  were  conquered  by  the 
Christians  of  the  first  crusade,  and  an  incident 
of  this  expedition  is  said  to  have  inspired  him 
with  the  idea  of  writing  the  Makamat  (plural 
of  malcama,  resting  place,  assembly).  A  de- 
tachment of  crusaders  surprised  the  town  of 
Seraj,  pillaged  and  burned  it,  massacring  the 
men  and  carrying  away  the  women.  Among 
the  few  who  escaped  was  Abu  Seid,  who  ap- 
peared in  rags  before  Hariri  and  his  friends, 
and  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  poet  by 
the  elegance  of  his  recital.  This  man  served 
as  a  model  for  the  hero  of  the  Makamat,  who 
received  his  name,  Abu  Seid  of  Seraj,  while 
the  poet  seems  to  have  painted  himself  in  the 
person  of  the  narrator,  Hareth  ben  Hammam. 
Abu  Seid,  who  appears  in  the  50  tableaux  or 
novelettes  of  the  poem,  is  a  scholar  and  poet, 
eager  to  enjoy  life,  careless  of  the  restrictions 
of  custom,  and  nowise  ashamed  of  his  poverty. 
The  Arabs  regard  the  Makamat  as  the  great 
treasury  of  their  language.  Having  conse- 
crated his  last  malcama  to  the  glorification  of 
his  native  city,  and  to  the  recollections  of  his 
youth,  Hariri  makes  his  Abu  Seid,  now  grown 
old,  vow  repentance  and  devotion  to  the  cares 
of  eternity.  He  continued,  however,  to  revise 
and  correct  his  work  till  his  death.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  numerous  grammatical  works,  of 
which  the  Molhat  al-Irdb  is  a  versified  essay 


HARLAN 


on  the  syntax  of  the  Arabian  language.     Of 
this,  as  well  as  of  Dorrat  al-Gawas,  on  idioms, 
fragments  are  contained  in  Sylvestre  de  Sacy's 
Anthologie  grammaticale  arabe.     Single  maka- 
mas  of  Hariri  have  been  translated  by  Golius, 
Albert  Schultens,  Eeiske,  Rosenmiiller,  Jahn, 
Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  Munk,  Theodore  Preston, 
and  others.     The  work  of  the  last  mentioned 
translator,  containing  20  makamas  in  English, 
appeared  in  London  in  1850,  and  another  col- 
*  action  by  T.  Chenery  in  1 867.    A  complete  Lat- 
translation  was  published  by  Peiper  (2d  ed., 
3ipsic,   1836).     But  neither  of  these-  equals 
B  German  translation  of  the  Makamat  by 
iedrich  Ruckert,  entitled  Die  Verwandlungen 
Abu  Seid  von  Sarug,  oder  die  Makamen 
Hariri,  in  freien  NachUldungen  (2  vols., 
tuttgart,  4th  ed.,  1864).     One  of  the  best  edi- 
)ns  of  the  original  is  that  of  Sylvestre  de  Sacy 
vols.,  Paris,  1821-'2),  with  a  commentary 
itly  collected  from  Arabian  writers ;  others 
3    been    published    at   Calcutta   (3   vols., 
M4),  at  Cairo,  with  notes  (1850),  and  by 
sinaud  and  Dernburg  (Derembourg)  at  Paris 
vols.,  1847-'53).     Partial  editions  with  notes 

numerous. 

HARLAN.     I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Kentucky, 
lering   on  Virginia,  watered  by  Cumber- 
river  and  its  head  streams,  and  bounded 
C.  by  Cumberland  mountain;   area,  about 
sq.  m;   pop.  in  1870,  4,415,  of  whom  99 
rere  colored.     It  has  a  rugged  surface,  and  is 
ch  in  coal,  iron,  and  timber.     The  chief  pro- 
ictions  in  1870  were  2,266  bushels  of  wheat, 
158,410  of  Indian  corn,  12,207  of  oats,  12,636 
'  potatoes,  10,324  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  58,558  of 
itter.    There  were  779  horses,  1,609  milch 
>ws,  3,151  other  cattle,  5,933  sheep,  and  10,- 
510  swine.     Capital,  Harlan.     II.  A  S.  county 
Nebraska,  bordering  on  Kansas,  and  inter- 
d  by  Republican  river  and  its  branches ; 
576  sq.  m.     It  is  not  included  in  the  cen- 
is  of  1870.     Capital,  Melrose. 
HAUL  AY,  Aeliille  de,  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
}aris,  March  7,  1536,  died  there  in  October, 
1616.     He  belonged  to  an  ancient  family,  and 
irried  a  daughter  of  De  Thou,  whom  he  suc- 
jded  in  1582  as  first  president  of  the  Paris 
rliament.    His  admirers  called  him  the  Chris- 
Cato,  on  account  of  his  virtues  and  piety, 
he  was  equally  distinguished  by  his  de- 
motion to  the  crown  during  one  of  the  most 
;ormy  periods  of  French  history.     He  pub- 
shed  La  coutume  d>  Orleans  (Paris,  1583). 
HARLEM.     See  HAARLEM. 
HARLEQUIN  (Ital.  arlecchino  ;  Fr.  arlequiri), 
pantomimic  character,  transplanted  from  the 
[talian  stage  to  other  countries,  traceable  to  the 
irliest  times,  and  more  immediately  identified 
rith  the  ancient  Roman  mimes,  who  appeared 
fore  the  public  with  their  heads  shaved,  a 
ty  face,  unshod  feet,  and  a  coat  of  many 
)lors.      The  general  term  zany   (It.  zanni), 
rhich  includes  most  sorts  of  harlequins,  is  de- 
ived  from  the  Latin  sannio,  a  buffoon.     Con- 
icuous  among  the  characters  or  masks  of  the 
390  VOL.  vm.— 30 


HARLESS 


4.63 


Italian  extemporized  comedy  were  the  ancient 
heroes  of  pantomime,  the  two  zanni.  One  of 
them  was  converted  into  Harlequin,  and  the 
other  into  Scapino,  both  satirizing  the  roguery 
and  drollery  of  the  Bergamese,  who  were  pro- 
verbial for  their  knavery,  while  other  characters 
were  introduced  who  parodied  the  Venetians, 
the  Bolognese,  and  the  rival  inhabitants  of  other 
Italian  cities.  Harlequin  generally  figured  as 
a  servant  of  Pantalone,  the  comic  representa- 
tive of  Venetian  foibles,  and  as  the  lover  of 
Colombina  or  the  arlecchinetta  ;  while  Scapino 
was  in  the  service  of  the  dottore,  the  loqua- 
cious pedant  and  the  burlesque  type  of  the 
academical  pretensions  of  Bologna.  The  prin- 
cipal inventor  of  the  pantomimes  in  which  the 
harlequin  was  introduced  was  Ruzzante,  who 
flourished  about  1530 ;  and  many  of  the  actors 
who  represented  the  harlequin  were  artists  of 
distinction.  Rich,  in  the  18th  century,  intro- 
duced Harlequin  on  the  English  stage,  and 
performed  the  character  under  the  feigned  name 
of  Lun.  In  France  Harlequin  was  converted 
into  a  wit,  and  even  into  a  moralist,  and  is  the 
hero  of  Florian's  compositions.  The  German 
Hanswurst  was  originally  intended  as  a  carica- 
ture of  the  Italian  Harlequin,  but  corresponded 
more  particularly  with  the  Italian  Maccaroni, 
the  French  Jean  Potage,  the  English  Jack 
Pudding,  and  the  Dutch  Pickelherring.  The 
German  Hanswurst  was  as  noted  for  his  clum- 
siness as  the  Italian  Harlequin  for  his  elasticity 
or  the  French  for  his  wit,  and  the  Spanish 
Gracioso  for  his  drollery.  Both  Hanswurst 
and  Harlequin  were  gourmands;  but  the  differ- 
ence between  the  German  and  Italian  buffoon 
was,  that  the  latter  could  eat  a  great  deal  with- 
out having  a  glutton-like  appearance,  while  the 
former  grew  to  Falstaffian  dimensions.  Gott- 
eched  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  drove 
the  Hanswurst  from  the  German  stage,  and  the 
Harlequin  of  the  Italian  became  under  Gol- 
doni's  hand  an  entirely  new  character. 

HARLESS,  Gottlieb  Christoph  Adolf,  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Nuremberg,  Nov.  21,  1806. 
He  graduated  in  theology  at  Erlangen  in  1829, 
and  in  1836  was  made  ordinary  professor  of 
theology  at  the  same  university.  As  a  deputy 
to  the  Bavarian  diet  in  1842-'3  he  opposed  the 
order  which  required  all  persons  connected 
with  the  army  to  bow  the  knee  to  the  sacra- 
mental host.  The  government  consequently 
removed  him  from  his  professorship  in  March, 
1845,  but  appointed  him  a  councillor  of  the 
consistory  at  Baireuth.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  called  to  Leipsic  as  professor  of  theology, 
and  in  1847  became  also  pastor  of  a  church  in 
that  city.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  chief 
court  preacher,  councillor  in  the  ministry  of 
public  worship,  and  vice  president  of  the  con- 
sistory at  Dresden.  In  November,  1852,  he 
was  appointed  president  of  the  Protestant  con- 
sistory at  Munich  and  member  of  the  Bavarian 
state  council.  Among  his  writings  are:  Com- 
mentar  uber  den  Brief  an  die  Epheser  (1834) ; 
Die  cliristlicne  Ethik  (1842)  ; 


464 


HARLEY 


1IARLINGEN 


collection  of  sermons  (2d  ed.,  4  vols.,  1860); 
Kirche  und  Amt  nach  lutherischer  Lehre  (1 853) ; 
Das  Verhdltniss  des  Christenthums  zu  Cultur- 
und  Lebentfragen  der  Gegenwart  (1863);  and 
Jakob  Bohme  und  die  Alchymisten  (1870). 

IIAKLEY,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  a  British 
statesman,  born  in  London,  Dec.  5,  1661,  died 
May  21, 1724.  He  was  of  an  old  Puritan  family 
of  Herefordshire,  his  father  and  grandfather 
having  taken  arms  on  the  parliamentary  side 
in  the  civil  war,  although  they  subsequently 
favored  the  restoration.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  public  life  in  1688  as  a  supporter 
of  the  prince  of  Orange,  in  whose  behalf  he 
aided  his  father  in  raising  a  body  of  horse.  He 
entered  the  first  parliament  which  met  after 
the  revolution,  and  for  a  time  acted  with  the 
most  ultra  section.of  the  whigs.  Subsequent- 
ly, however,  from  being  an  intolerant  and  vin- 
dictive whig  he  became  an  equally  intoler- 
ant high  churchman  and  tory.  He  gained  the 
confidence  of  both  dissenters  and  churchmen, 
who  combined  in  February,  1701,  to  elect  him 
speaker  of  the  house  of  commons.  He  was 
chosen  to  the  same  office  in  the  two  succeed- 
ing parliaments,  but  resigned  it  in  1704  upon 
being  appointed  secretary  of  state.  His  pro- 
motion was  due,  according  to  the  account  giv- 
en by  the  duchess  of  Marl  borough,  to  the  ex- 
ertions of  Miss  Abigail  Hill,  whom  he  subse- 
quently assisted  in  becoming  Mrs.  Masham,  and 
whose  influence  with  Queen  Anne  was  con- 
siderable. Godolphin,  Marlborough,  and  the 
whigs  lost  no  opportunity  of  weakening  Har- 
ley's  power,  and  in  this  were  favored  by  the 
discovery  that  one  of  his  clerks  named  Gregg 
was  carrying  on  a  secret  correspondence  with 
the  French  court.  Although  there  was  no 
evidence  of  the  complicity  of  Harley  in  this 
matter,  and  Gregg  signed  a  paper  exculpating 
him,  he  became  the  object  of  so  much  popular 
odium  that  the  queen  was  constrained  in  1708 
to  dismiss  him.  In  August,  1710,  the  whigs 
went  out  of  office,  and  he  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer.  The  attempt  of  a 
French  abb6,  Guiscard,  to  assassinate  him  in 
March,  1711,  caused  a  popular  reaction  in  his 
favor ;  and  upon  his  recovery  from  his  wounds, 
which  were  slight,  he  received  the  congratula- 
tions of  both  houses  of  parliament.  In  May  he 
was  created  earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer  and 
appointed  lord  high  treasurer  of  Great  Britain. 
He  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  power;  the 
whole  direction  of  affairs  was  in  his  hands;  the 
Marlborough  party  was  completely  discomfit- 
ed, while  his  own  influence  with  the  queen 
was  constantly  increasing ;  and  to  add  to  the 
eclat  of  his  administration,  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
was  concluded  in  April,  1713.  Soon  after  this 
the  intrigues  of  Bolingbroke,  his  ministerial 
coadjutor  and  political  associate,  began  to  un- 
dermine his  position;  and  on  July  27,  1714, 
after  a  stormy  session  of  the  privy  council,  he 
received  his  dismissal.  He  was  treated  with 
marked  coldness  at  court  on  the  accession  of 
George  I.,  and  in  August,  1715,  was  impeached 


by  the  house  of  commons  for  high  treason 
and  committed  to  the  tower.  He  was  attend- 
ed thither  by  an  immense  multitude,  crying, 
u  High  church  and  Oxford  for  ever !  "  After 
nearly  two  years'  confinement  he  was  brought 
to  trial  in  June,  1717,  on  his  own  petition,  and 
the  house  of  commons  not  appearing  to  prose- 
cute their  impeachment,  he  was  acquitted. 
The  researches  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh  among 
the  Stuart  papers  prove  that  at  this  very  time 
Harley  was  carrying  on  a  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  pretender  James  at  Ver- 
sailles. He  thenceforth  lived  in  retirement. 
He  left  a  library  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  man- 
uscripts of  immense  value.  The  manuscripts, 
amounting  to  nearly  8,000,  and  known  as  the 
Harleian  collection,  are  now  deposited  in  the 
British  museum.  This  collection,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  books  and  pamphlets,  the  latter, 
it  is  said,  numbering  400,000,  was  completed 
by  Edward  Harley,  his  son  and  successor.  The 
books  and  pamphlets  were  sold  to  T.  Osborne 
for  less  than  the  cost  of  binding,  and  Dr.  John- 
son, Oldys,  and  Maittaire  made  a  catalogue  of 
them  in  5  vols.  8vo  (1743-'5).  From  them 
was  compiled  "  The  Harleian  Miscellany "  of 
rare  pamphlets,  tracts,  &c.,  with  annotations  by 
William  Oldys  (8  vols.  4to,  1744-' 6  ;  enlarged, 
13  vols.  4to,  1808).  Harley's  own  writings, 
consisting  of  a  "Letter  to  Swift  on  Correcting 
and  Improving  the  English  Tongue,"  an  "  Es- 
say on  Public  Credit,"  an  "  Essay  on  Loans," 
a  "  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  the  Com- 
mons of  England,"  and  other  miscellaneous 
pamphlets,  have  little  merit.  A  few  days  be- 
fore his  dismissal,  he  wrote,  in  a  letter  to  the 
queen,  an  account  of  his  own  administration, 
which  is  published  in  Tindal's  history  and  else- 
where. He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Pope, 
Swift,  Arbuthnot,  Parnell,  Prior,  and  Gay,  and 
aspired  himself  to  the  character  of  a  wit  and 
poet,  sending  to  his  friends  verses  which,  Ma- 
caulay  says,  were  "more  execrable  than  the 
bellman's?'  Notwithstanding  the  important 
official  stations  he  occupied,  and  his  intimate 
relations  with  literary  men,  he  was  naturally 
slow  of  intellect,  an  awkward  speaker,  and 
possessed,  according  to  Macaulay,  "  that  sort 
of  industry  and  that  sort  of  exactness  which 
would  have  made  him  a  respectable  antiquary 
or  king-at-arms."  According  to  the  same  au- 
thority, his  influence  in  parliament  was  alto- 
gether out  of  proportion  to  his  abilities;  and 
his  erudition,  his  gravity,  his  avoidance  of  show, 
and  a  certain  affectation  of  mystery  and  reserve 
which  he  could  assume  on  occasions,  must  ac- 
count for  the  position  he  occupied  during  his 
long  career. 

HARLINGEN,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  Friesland,  on 
the  North  sea,  16  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Leeuwurden, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  canal,  and  60  in. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Amsterdam ;  pop.  about  1 0,000.  It 
has  an  active  trade  with  England,  Norway, 
and  the  Baltic,  being  the  principal  commercial 
town  of  Friesland,  and  manufactures  sail  cloth, 


HARLOW 


gin,  bricks,  paper,  salt,  &c.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  cattle,  butter,  cheese,  fruit,  vegeta- 
bles, flax,  hemp,  and  wool;  the  chief  imports 
are  corn,  timber,  tar,  pitch,  coal,  chalk,  and 
earthenware.  It  occupies  a  site  where  in  1134 
a  whole  town  was  destroyed  by  an  inunda- 
tion of  the  sea.  It  is  protected  by  one  of  the 
largest  dikes  in  Holland,  and  contains  a  monu- 
ment to  the  Spanish  governor  Robles,  who  first 
introduced  an  improved  method  of  construct- 
ing these  sea  wails. 

HARLOW,  George  Henry,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London,  June  10,  1787,  died  there,  Feb. 
4,  1819.  He  studied  under  Sir  Thomas  Law- 
rence, who  used  to  employ  him  to  prepare 
pictures  in  the  dead  coloring  and  to  advance 
copies.  He  had  so  large  a  share  in  painting 
the  much  admired  lap  dog  of  a  fashionable 
lady,  that  he  claimed  the  work  as  his  own,  and 
Lawrence  dismissed  him.  In  1818  Harlow  vis- 
ited Rome,  and  astonished  the  artists  of  that 
city  by  completing  an  effective  copy  of  Ra- 
phael's "  Transfiguration  "  in  18  days.  Canova 
exhibited  one  of  his  pictures  at  his  house,  and 
procured  his  election  as  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  St.  Luke.  His  best  original  works  are 
two  designs  from  Shakespeare,  "  Hubert  and 
Prince  Arthur"  and  the  "Trial  of  Queen  Cath- 
arine." The  principal  characters  in  the  latter 
are  portraits  of  the  Kemble  family. 

HARMATTAN,  a  dry,  hot  wind,  which,  blow- 
ing from  the  interior  of  Africa  toward  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  prevails  in  December,  January, 
and  February  along  the  coast  of  that  continent, 
from  Cape  Verd  to  Cape  Lopez.  It  comes  on 
at  any  time,  continues  sometimes  one  or  two 
and  sometimes  even  15  or  16  days,  and  is  ac- 
companied by  a  fog  which  obscures  the  sun, 
rendering  it  of  a  mild  red  color.  All  vegeta- 
tion is  checked,  young  or  tender  plants  are 
destroyed,  and  grass  is  turned  to  hay.  It  af- 
fects the  human  body  also,  making  the  eyes, 
nostrils,  and  lips  dry,  and  at  times  causing  the 
skin  to  parch  and  peel  off;  but  it  checks  epi- 
demics, and  cures  persons  afflicted  with  dys- 
entery, fevers,  or  cutaneous  diseases.  The  har- 
mattan  is  the  same  in  its  character  as  the 
sirocco  of  Italy  and  the  Icamsin  of  Egypt. 

HARMER,  Thomas,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Norwich  in  1715,  died  at  Wattesfielcl,  Suf- 
folk, in  November,  1788.  He  was  educated 
in  London,  and  in  his  20th  year  was  ordained 
minister  of  the  Independent  church  in  Wattes- 
field.  He  published  in  1764  "Observations 
on  Various  Passages  of  Scripture,"  illustra- 
ting them  by  quotations  from  books  of  oriental 
travel.  An  enlarged  edition  appeared  in  2 
vols.  in  1776.  The  5th  and  best  edition  was 
published  under  the  editorial  care  of  Dr.  Adam 
Clarke  (4  vols.,  T816).  His  other  works  are 
"  Outlines  of  a  New  Commentary  on  Solomon's 
Song,  drawn  by  the  Help  of  Instructions  from 
the  East"  (1768),  and  a  volume  of  miscellane- 
ous writings,  edited  by  Youngman  (1823). 

HARMODIUS  AND  ARISTOGITON,  two  Athe- 
nians, commonly  reckoned  among  the  martyrs 


HARMONICA 


465 


of  liberty.  Aristogiton  had  conceived  a  pas- 
sion for  Harmodius,  a  beautiful  youth,  in  which 
Hipparchus,  one  of  the  Pisistratid®,  was  his 
rival.  Stung  by  jealousy,  in  conjunction  with 
Harmodius  and  others,  he  formed  a  conspiracy 
to  destroy  the  tyrant  during  the  Panathenaic 
festival,  at  which  the  conspirators  were  pres- 
ent, with  their  swords  concealed  in  garlands 
of  myrtle.  The  plot  succeeded ;  but  Harmo- 
dius was  slain  by  the  guards,  and  Aristogiton 
arrested,  514  B.  0.  When  subjected  to  tor- 
ture by  Hippias,  the  brother  of  Hipparchus,  he 
named  as  his  accomplices  the  best  friends  of 
the  tyrant,  who  were  immediately  put  to  death. 
On  the  expulsion  of  Hippias  in  510,  the  Athe- 
nians paid  distinguished  honors  to  Harmodius 
and  Aristogiton,  erecting  statues  and  singing 
hymns  to  their  memory,  and  decreeing  that  no 
slave  should  bear  their  names.  In  307,  when 
the  Athenians  wished  to  pay  the  highest  hon- 
ors to  Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius  Poli- 
orcetes,  they  placed  their  statues  near  those 
of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.  To  the  mis- 
tress of  Harmodius,  who  refused  to  disclose 
the  names  of  the  conspirators,  was  erected  a 
tongueless  statue,  to  commemorate  the  victory 
gained  by  woman  over  her  love  of  talking. 

HARMONICA,  or  Armonica,  a  musical  instru- 
ment, in  which  the  tone  is  produced  by  the 
vibration  of  bell-shaped  glasses,  caused  by  fric- 
tion from  the  moistened  finger.  It  was  first 
contrived  by  Mr.  Packeridge,  an  Irish  gentle- 
man, was  improved  by  Mr.  E.  Delaval,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  society,  and  still  further  by  Dr. 
Franklin,  whose  instrument  had  a  compass  of 
three  octaves  from  G-  to  g.  The  glasses,  care- 
fully tuned  in  semitones,  were  revolved  by  a 
pedal  movement  and  touched  by  the  tips  of 
the  fingers,  occasionally  moistened  with  water. 
Once  tuned,  it  did  not  vary  from  the  pitch,  and 
the  volume  of  tone  was  swelled  or  'diminished 
by  a  greater  or  less  pressure.  The  quality  of 
the  tone  is  exceedingly  pure  and  sweet,  but  of 
such  a  penetrating  character  that  it  is  painful 
to  the  ears  of  many  sensitive  persons.  A  some- 
what similar  application  of  glass  vessels  for 
musical  instruments  is  described  in  the  Ma- 
thematiscJie  und  philosophische  Erquiclcung- 
stunden,  published  at  Nuremberg  in  1677;  and 
a  harpsichord  harmonica,  in  which  a  key  ac- 
tion was  substituted  for  finger  pressure,  was 
made  by  Rollig  at  Vienna,  and  by  Klein  at 
Presburg.  In  one  made  by  Abbate  Mazzuchi, 
the  friction  was  produced  by  a  hair  bow ;  and 
Stein,  the  celebrated  organ  builder,  invented 
a  stringed  harmonica,  in  which  strings  were 
used  instead  of  glasses,  with  a  kind  of  spinet 
attachment,  the  effect  of  which  was  thought 
remarkable.  Still  another  modification  was 
the  substitution  of  steel  pegs  for  the  glasses. 
The  construction  of  Franklin's  harmonica  is 
fully  described  by  him  in  his  letters.  His  en- 
thusiasm evidently  expected  for  the  harmonica 
an  extended  use,  which  none  of  the  forms  of 
the  instrument  have  ever  attained ;  nor  has  it 
been  regarded  by  musicians  or  composers  as 


466 


HARMONISTS 


HARMONY 


entitled  to  any  higher  rank  than  that  of  a  mu- 
sical curiosity  or  toy. 

HARMONISTS.     See  RAPP,  GEOKG. 

HARMONY  (Gr.  dp/zovta,  agreement  or  con- 
cord), in  music,  the  agreeable  sensation  pro- 
duced on  the  ear  by  the  simultaneous  sounding 
of  various  accordant  notes.  The  discussion  of 
this  subject  in  its  more  general  bearings  would 
include  the  consideration  of  the  whole  theory 
of  music ;  but  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  an 
account  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  produce 
harmonious  effects,  and  to  an  explanation  of 
the  reason  of  those  conditions.  From  the  days 
of  Pythagoras  to  the  year  1862  no  true  expla- 
nation had  been  given  of  the  facts  that  the 
sounding  together  of  notes  forming  certain  mu- 
sical intervals  gives  rise  to  agreeable  sensations, 
while  the  simultaneous  sounding  of  the  notes 
of  other  intervals  causes  disagreeable  or  disso- 
nant effects.  It  is  true  that  Pythagoras,  2,400 
years  ago,  had  shown  the  relations  existing 
between  harmonious  chords  and  the  lengths 
of  the  vibrating  strings  producing  their  con- 
stituent notes.  About  the  same  time  Tso-kin- 
ming,  a  friend  of  Confucius,  taught  that  the 
five  sounds  of  the  ancient  Chinese  gamut  cor- 
responded to  the  five  elements  of  their  natural 
philosophy,  water,  fire,  wood,  metal,  and  earth, 
and  that  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  and  4  are  the 
source  of  all  perfection.  In  the  middle  ages 
"the  music  of  the  spheres"  of  Pythagoras 
played  an  important  part  in  the  discussions  on 
harmony ;  and  according  to  Athanasius  Kir- 
cher,  music  is  the  product  of  both  the  "  macro- 
cosm" and  the  "microcosm."  Even  a  mind 
so  profoundly  scientific  as  that  of  Kepler  was 
entangled  in  such  mysticism ;  and  such  occult 
relations  even  in  these  days  charm  many  mu- 
sicians, more  disposed  to  the  pleasures  of  the 
imagination  than  to  the  toil  of  scientific  rea- 
soning. Euler,  in  his  Tentamen  Novce  Theories 
MusicoB  (1739),  attempts  to  explain  the  facts 
of  musical  harmony  by  the  hypothesis  that  the 
mind  takes  a  delight  in  the  sentiment  of  sim- 

C  ratios  of  vibration.  After  Euler,  D'Alem- 
t,  in  his  Elements  de  musique  (1762),  adopt- 
ed and  developed  the  hypothesis  of  Rameau, 
who  thought  that  he  saw  in  the  harmonics 
which  exist  in  nearly  all  sounds  suitable  for 
music  a  rational  explanation  of  the  main  prin- 
ciples of  harmony.  Another  system  of  har- 
mony was  brought  out  in  1754  by  Tartini,  the 
celebrated  violinist,  who  rediscovered  the  re- 
sultant tones  of  Sorge,  and  fancied  that  he  had 
found  in  them  a  clue  to  the  long  sought  ex- 
planation of  consonance  and  dissonance.  The 
honor  attending  the  solution  of  this  problem  was 
reserved  for  H.  Helmholtz,  professor  of  physi- 
ology in  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  In  1862 
he  published  a  work  entitled  Die  Lehre  von  den 
Tonempfindungen  ah  physiologische  Grundlage 
fur  die  Theorie  der  Musilc,  in  which  is  laid  the 
true  physical  basis  of  musical  harmony,  founded 
on  a  minute  study  of  the  auditory  sensations. 
The  main  distinction  between  his  views  and 
the  hypotheses  of  those  who  preceded  him 


is,  that  he  refers  the  causes  of  consonance 
and  dissonance  to  the  sensations  produced  by 
continuous  and  discontinuous  sounds,  while  all 
before  him  referred  the  facts  of  harmony  to  a 
psychological  cause. — In  order  fully  to  appre- 
ciate Helmholtz's  discovery,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  preface  an  account  of  it  with  a  few 
considerations  on  the  causes  and  nature  of 
sound ;  on  the  distinction  between  a  simple 
and  a  composite  sound;  on  the  phenomena 
of  interference  and  beats ;  and  on  the  power 
of  the  ear  to  analyze  a  composite  sound  into 
its  sonorous  elements.  Sound  is  the  sensation 
caused  by  tremors  sent  from  rapidly  vibrating 
bodies  through  the  air  or  other  elastic  medium 
to  the  ear.  The  vibrating  body  at  the  source 
of  the  sound,  and  the  elastic  medium  between 
that  body  and  the  ear,  may  be  of  either  solid, 
liquid,  or  gaseous  matter ;  but  generally  the 
vibrating  body  is  either  a  solid,  as  a  string  or 
tuning  fork,  or  a  mass  of  air,  as  in  the  case 
of  organ  pipes  and  nearly  all  wind  instruments. 
But  only  vibrations  the  number  of  which  in 
a  second  is  comprised  within  a  definite  range 
can  produce  on  the  ear  the  sensation  of  sound. 
This  range  is  between  about  40  and  40,000  vi- 
brations per  second,  the  pitch  of  sounds  rising 
with  the  number  of  vibrations  producing  them. 
As  the  velocity  of  sound  in  air  having  a  tem- 
perature of  32°  F.  is  1,090  ft.  per  second,  it 
follows  that  if  we  divide  1,090  by  the  number 
of  vibrations  the  sounding  body  makes  in  one 
second,  we  shall  have  the  distance  from  the 
sounding  body  through  which  the  air  is  affect- 
ed, or  vibrated,  after  the  body  has  made  its 
first  vibration ;  and  here  we  take  a  vibration 
in  the  German  and  English  sense,  as  a  motion 
to  and  fro,  and  not  to  or  fro  as  it  is  understood 
by  the  French.  Thus,  suppose  a  body  to  make 
one  vibration  in  ^  of  a  second,  and  then  in- 
stantly to  come  to  rest ;  the  air  in  front  of  this 
vibrating  body  will  be  moved  to  a  depth  of 
iffS  or  27i  ft. ;  and  this  depth  of  air  affect- 
ed by  one  vibration  is  called  a  wave  length  of 
sound.  The  half  of  this  wave  length  nearest 
the  body  was  formed  by  the  body  receding 
from  the  air  in  front  of  it,  and  therefore  this 
half  of  the  wave  length  is  composed  of  rarefied 
air,  or  air  the  molecules  of  which  are  separated 
by  more  than  their  natural  distances,  while  the 
other  half  of  the  wave  is  formed  of  condensed 
air,  or  air  the  molecules  of  which  are  forced  near 
together.  But  this  wave  progresses  forward 
with  a  velocity  of  1,090  ft.  per  second,  and  as 
it  passes  through  the  air  it  causes  those  mole- 
cules over  which  it  passes  to  oscillate  once  for- 
ward and  once  backward;  and  it  follows  tlmt 
the  air  touching  the  drum  of  the  ear  will  force 
this  membrane  inward  and  then  outward,  and 
thus  a  tremor  is  given  to  the  fibrilbe  of  the 
auditory  nerve.  But  if,  instead  of  making  only 
one  vibration,  the  body  continuously  vibrates. 
then  the  waves  succeed  each  other  with  perfect 
regularity,  and,  producing  continuous  oscilla- 
tions in  the  air  and  ear,  cause  the  continuous 
sensation  necessary  for  the  perception  of  a  mu- 


HAKMONY 


46? 


sical  sound.  If  the  body,  instead  of  making  40 
vibrations,  made  8,000  per  second  (which  cor- 
responds to  the  highest  note  used  in  music), 
the  wave  length  would  amount  to  only  1T<^ 
inch;  yet  this  very  short  wave  and  the  long 
ne  of  27£  ft.  travel  with  the  same  velocity  of 
090  ft.  per  second.  The  sounds  produced  by 
ese  vibrations  are  either  simple  or  composite, 
simple  sound  is  a  sound  having  only  one 
sh,  while  a  composite  sound  is  one  com- 
sed  of  two  or  more  definite  and  separable 
sounds  having  pitches  generally  in  the  ratio 
1  :  2 :  3  :  4 :  5,  &c.  This  series  of  sounds 
called  the  harmonic  series.  Thus,  the  sound 
a  tuning  fork  when  mounted  on  its  resonant 
or  that  of  a  gently  blown  closed  organ 
,  is  simple,  for  the  ear  can  distinguish  but 
one  pitch  in  these  sounds ;  while  the  sounds 
of  piano  or  violin  strings,  or  of  reed  organ 
pipes,  are  highly  composite,  and  the  ear  can 
separate  them  into  simple  sounds  whose  num- 
bers of  vibration  are  to  each  other  as  1  :  2  :  3  : 
4:  5,  &c.  For  example,  if  we  take  a  reed 
pipe  giving  C  below  the  middle  0  of  the  piano 
(which  note  we  will  designate  as  C2),  we  can 
separate  the  sound  of  this  pipe  into  the  fol- 
lowing simple  sounds  :  Oa,  Cs,  G3,  C4,  E4, 
G4,  Bb,  08,  D6,  E5, ;  or,  expressed  in  musical 
Nation  : 


These  simple  sounds  all  coexist  in  the  sound 
of  the  reed  pipe,  but  their  relative  intensities 
diminish  as  they  ascend  in  pitch ;  that  is,  the 
lowest  in  pitch  is  the  loudest,  and  serves  to 
designate  the  position  of  the  pipe  in  the  musi- 
cal scale.  Now  it  has  for  a  long  time  been 
known  that  those  musical  sounds  which  were 
best  adapted  to  render  the  etfects  of  musical 
composition,  and  which  we  distinguish  for  their 
brilliant  or  plaintive  qualities,  are  always  com- 
posite, and  contain  besides  the  fundamental 
sound  the  harmonic  series ;  and  indeed  the 
timbre  of  a  sound  depends  entirely  on  the  num- 
ber and  relative  intensities  of  its  harmonics. 
On  minute  examination  it  has  been  found  that 
a  simple  sound  is  produced  only  when  the  air 
near  the  ear  oscillates  forward  and  backward 
with  the  same  kind  of  motion  as  exists  in  a 
freely  swinging  pendulum.  If,  however,  the  ear 
experiences  the  sensation  of  a  composite  sound, 
the  air  near  it  has  a  reciprocating  motion,  which 
is  the  resultant  of  as  many  pendulum  vibra- 
tions as  there  are  harmonics  in  the  sound.  Yet 
the  ear  is  a  powerful  and  subtle  instrument 
for  decomposing  such  complex  motions  into 
their  simple  vibratory  components ;  for  the 
ear,  properly  aided,  can  separate  the  composite 
sound  of  a  reed  pipe  or  of  a  vibrating  string 
into  12  and  more  distinct  simple  harmonic  vi- 
brations. Those  who  are  interested  in  this 


subject  of  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  sound 
will  find  a  full  description  of  various  experi- 
mental methods  in  a  paper  by  Prof.  A.  M. 
Mayer  "On  an  Experimental  Confirmation  of 
Fourier's  Theorem,  as  applied  to  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  vibrations  of  a  composite  sonorous 
wave  into  its  elementary  pendulum  vibrations," 
&c.,  in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science" 
(1874).  According  to  Helmholtz,  the  ear  ac- 
complishes this  analysis  of  sound  by  means 
of  3,000  little  rods  or  cords,  existing  in  the 
ductus  cochlearis  of  the  inner  ear,  and  known 
as  the  rods  of  Corti.  These  rods  are  of  gradu- 
ated lengths  and  thicknesses  like  the  strings 
in  a  piano,  and  appear  to  be  tuned  to  3,000 
simple  notes,  equally  distributed  throughout 
the  range  of  the  seven  octaves  of  musical 
sounds.  Each  rod  is  connected  with  a  fila- 
ment of  the  auditory  nerve.  The  mode  of  ac- 
tion of  this  highly  organized  part  of  the  audi- 
tory apparatus  is  as  follows  :  the  vibrations  of 
a  composite  sound  reaching  the  rods  of  Corti, 
each  rod,  being  in  tune  with  a  simple  sound 
or  harmonic  existing  in  the  composite  sound, 
enters  into  vibration  and  shakes  its  attached 
nerve  filament,  and  thus  the  ear  receives  a 
sensation  formed  of  as  many  simple  sounds  as 
really  existed  in  the  composite  vibration.  In- 
deed, it  appears  that  the  rods  of  Corti  are  set 
in  vibration  exactly  as  the  strings  of  a  piano 
vibrate  to  the  elements  of  a  note  when  we  sing 
over  the  strings  of  the  instrument. — We  may 
now  consider  the  manner  of  production  of 
beats,  and  the  effects  they  produce  on  the  ear ; 
and  then  we  shall  be  in  possession  of  the  main 
facts  necessary  to  explain  the  fundamental  prin- 
ples  of  musical  harmony.  When  two  sounds 
nearly  in  unison  fall  upon  the  ear,  they  pro- 
duce alternate  risings  and  fallings  in  the  inten- 
sity of  their  resultant  effect  on  the  ear.  These 
alternations  of  intensity  are  called  beats,  and 
are  caused  in  the  following  manner  :  Suppose 
two  sounds,  produced  by  two  bodies,  one  giv- 
ing 2,000  vibrations  in  a  second,  the  other 
2,001.  It  is  evident  that  if  both  bodies  vibrate 
together  at  the  beginning  of  a  second,  they 
will  again  vibrate  together  at  the  end  of  the 
second ;  therefore  at  these  two  instants  the 
action  of  one  of  them  on  the  air  conspires  with 
the  action  of  the  other,  and  thus  we  have  an 
impression  given  to  the  air  which  is  the  sum 
of  the  two  vibrations  ;  but  at  the  half  seconds 
the  motions  of  the  two  bodies  are  opposed,  and 
therefore  at  these  instants  they  will  neutralize 
each  other's  action  if  their  intensities  of  vibra- 
tion are  equal,  and  at  the  instant  of  the  half 
seconds  we  shall  have  entire  silence.  Hence 
it  follows  that  the  number  of  beats  per  second 
given  by  any  two  vibrations  will  equal  the 
difference  in  the  number  of  vibrations  these 
bodies  separately  give  in  one  second.  Their 
beats  produce  on  the  ear  an  intermittent  action 
similar  to  that  experienced  by  the  eye  when 
successive  flashes  of  light  fall  upon  it.  These 
intermittent  actions  on  the  sensorium  are  al- 
ways unpleasant,  and  even  irritating.  The 


468 


HARMONY 


degree  of  unpleasantness,  however, .  depends 
on  the  number  of  the  beats  or  flashes  per 
second,  and  also  varies  with  the  pitch  of  the 
sound  or  the  color  of  the  light.  But  when 
the  beats  have  reached  a  certain  number  in  a 
second,  they  no  longer  produce  intermittent 
effects  on  the  nerves;  for  the  action  produced 
by  one  beat  lasts,  without  perceptible  diminu- 
tion, until  the  arrival  of  the  following  one,  and 
the  sensation  becomes  continuous ;  in  other 
words,  when  the  beats  follow  with  sufficient 
rapidity,  they  blend  together  and  form  a 
smooth,  sonorous  effect,  like  a  simple  musical 
sound.  This  relation  between  discontinuous 
and  continuous  impressions  on  the  nerves,  and 
unpleasant  and  pleasant  sensations,  is  at  the 
foundation  of  Helmholtz's  theory  of  musical 
harmony. — We  must  now  consider  the  effects 
resulting  when,  instead  of  producing  only 
simple  sounds  together,  as  above,  we  simul- 
taneously produce  composite  sounds  differing 
slightly  in  pitch.  If  we  sound  two  tuning 
forks,  each  giving  the  middle  C  of  the  piano, 
we  shall  have  two  simple  sounds  in  unison. 
Now  gradually  elevate  one  of  them  in  pitch 
and  observe  the  changing  sensations.  The 
harshness  increases  until  they  are  separated 
about  a  tone;  then  the  disagreeable  sensation 
diminishes,  and  entirely  vanishes  when  the 
notes  have  been  separated  by  an  interval  equal 
to  a  minor  third.  But  if,  instead  of  sounding 
the  forks,  we  use  two  reed  pipes  giving  the 
same  notes,  we  observe  that  the  slightest  de- 
parture from  unison  at  once  causes  a  very  un- 
pleasant sensation ;  the  reason  of  this  is,  that 
besides  the  beats  of  the  fundamental  simple 
sounds  of  the  pipes,  we  have  the  sensations 
produced  by  the  beating  of  some  20  harmon- 
ics of  their  fundamentals.  Therefore  the 
tuning  of  reed  pipes  is  difficult,  but  their  in- 
tervals are  defined  with  an  extraordinary  de- 
gree of  sharpness.  It  is  here  also  to  be  re- 
marked that  the  number  of  beats  per  second 
given  by  any  pair  of  harmonics  is  directly  as 
their  height  in  the  harmonic  series.  Tims  if 
the  fundamental  or  first  harmonics  give  3  beats 
per  second,  the  sixth  harmonics  will  give  18 
beats  per  second.  Therefore,  in  sounding  two 
such  pipes,  each  giving  20  harmonics,  we  should 
have  produced  on  the  ear  632  beats  per  sec- 
ond, 3  belonging  to  the  first  pair  of  harmonics, 
and  60  to  the  20th  pair. — Helmholtz's  discov- 
ery consists  in  the  demonstration  of  the  fact 
that  the  degree  of  smoothness  or  consonance 
of  any  given  chord  depends  entirely  on  the 
number  of  elementary  harmonics  and  resultant 
tones  which  beat  together  in  the  given  notes, 
on  the  intensities  of  these  beats,  and  on  the 
number  per  second  of  beats  produced  by  each 
dissonant  pair  of  harmonics.  This  fact* he 
proved  by  nearly  every  means  known  to  mod- 
ern science,  and  thus  established  a  real  physi- 
cal cause  for  the  harmonious  or  dissonant  sensa- 
tions we  experience  on  combining  various  notes. 
We  can  best  illustrate  the  truth  of  Ilelmholtz's 
theory  and  show  his  main  results  by  giving  in 


musical  notation  the  principal  intervals  of  fun- 
damental notes,  indicated  in  minims,  with  their 
accompanying  harmonics  written  over  them  in 
crotchets.  Only  the  first  six  harmonics  are  in- 
dicated, because  those  of  higher  order  are  gen- 
erally either  absent  from  a  musical  sound,  or 
exist  with  such  feeble  intensity  as  not  greatly  to 
affect  the  degree  of  consonance.  The  respec- 
tive harmonics  which  beat  we  have  connected 
together  by  straight  lines,  so  that  at  a  glance 
one  can  approximately  determine  the  degree 
of  consonance  of  a  given  interval.  The  inter- 
vals here  given  are  the  true  intervals  of  the 
natural  scale,  and  not  the  false  intervals  of  the 
tempered  scale.  On  the  latter  scale  the  only 
consonant  interval  is  the  octave.  The  intervals 
we  have  selected  are  the  octave,  the  fifth,  the 
fourth,  the  major  third,  the  major  sixth,  and 
the  minor  seventh  ;  the  ratios  of  the  vibra- 
tions giving  the  notes  of  these  intervals  are 
respectively  as  1  :  2,  2  :  3,  3  :  4,  4  :  5,  3  :  5, 
and  9  :  16. 


THE 
OCTAVE. 


No  dissonance  here  occurs  because  the  har- 
monics of  both  notes  are  in  unison. 


We  have  here  two  pairs  in  unison,  3-2  and 
6-4 ;  but  a  slight  departure  from  perfect 
smoothness  of  effect  is  caused  by  the  third 
harmonic  of  the  higher  note  beating  with  the 
fourth  and  fifth  of  the  lower.  If  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  two  fundamental  notes  of  this  in- 
terval are  not  rigorously 'as  2  :  3,  there  will  be 
discord.  Hence,  on  all  instruments  of  fixed 
equal-tempered  scales,  as  the  organ  or  piano, 
even  the  interval  of  the  fifth  is  slightly  discor- 
dant, only  the  octave  intervals  being  in  tune. 


THE 
FOURTH. 


HARMONY 


469 


The  dissonance  of  this  interval  is  greater  than 
in  the  case  of  the  fifth,  because  the  harmonics 
3-2  are  both  vibrations  of  intensity,  and  there- 
fore give  louder  beats  than  the  pairs  3-^  and 
3-5  of  the  fifth.  In  the  fourth  we  have  also 
the  additional  beats  of  pairs  6-4  and  6-5. 

THE  MAJOE  THIED  AND  THE  MAJOE  SIXTH. 


ie  major  third  and  the  major  sixth  are  writ- 
,en  together  as  they  are  about  equally  conso- 
aant,  for  the  dissonance  caused  by  the  beats  of 
pair  3-2,  separated  by  a  tone,  in  the  sixth,  about 
equals  that  of  the  weaker  beating  pair  4-3, 
-eparated  by  a  semitone,  in  the  major  third. 


THE 
MINOE 

SEVENTH. 


ie  minor  seventh  is  the  smoothest  of  that 
class  of  chords  sometimes  denominated  dis- 
cords, and  is  less  dissonant  than  the  minor 
sixth.  Besides  the  beats  of  the  harmonics  ex- 
isting as  described  in  the  above  intervals,  we 
have  also  the  influence  of  the  beats  of  the  re- 
sultant tones,  which  are  the  products  of  the 
combined  vibrations  of  the  fundamental  notes 
and  of  their  harmonics.  These  resultant  tones 
can  produce  beats  either  with  harmonics  or 
with  other  resultant  tones.  These  resultant 
tones  are  of  two  kinds,  viz. :  difference  tones 
and  summation  tones.  Difference  tones  were 
discovered  by  Sorge  in  1740,  and  their  pitch  is 
equal  to  the  difference  of  the  two  vibrations  of 
the  sounds  producing  them.  Summation  tones 
were  discovered  by  Helmholtz,  and  their  pitch 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
two  sounds  producing  them.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  Helmholtz's  work  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent merely  qualitative  ;  and  although  he  indi- 
cates the  existence  of  beats  as  the  cause  of  dis- 
cord, yet  he  does  not  give  laws  capable  of  quan- 
titative expression,  by  which  to  determine  be- 
forehand the  degree  of  consonance  or  dissonance 
existing  in  any  given  chord. — The  recent  re- 
search of  Prof.  Mayer  of  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  "  On 
the  Experimental  Determination  of  the  Law 
connecting  the  Pitch  of  a  Note  with  the  Dura- 
tion of  the  Residual  Sensation  it  produces  in 
the  Ear"  (American  Journal  of  Science,  1874), 


first  gave  the  duration  in  absolute  time  of  the 
sensation  of  sounds  after  the  exciting  vibrations 
had  ceased  to  exist  outside  the  ear,  and  thus 
afforded  the  means  of  determining  with  quan- 
titative exactness  the  smallest  number  of  beats 
that  two  sounds  must  produce  in  order  that 
they  form  a  consonant  interval.  This  latter 
condition  will  of  course  be  fulfilled  when  the 
beats  become  just  rapid  enough  in  their  succes- 
sion to  produce  a  continuous  sensation  in  the 
ear.  The  following  is  the  important  law  dis- 
covered by  Prof.  Mayer :  If  N  equal  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  producing  any  given  note,  and 
D  equal,  in  the  fraction  of  a  second,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  residual  sensation  (that  is,  the  time 
during  which  the  sensation  remains  after  the 
vibrations  outside  the  ear  have  ceased),  then 

D  ss-(£!jj£+tf}-0qpl.    The  denominator  of  the 

(vulgar)  fraction  thus  determined  will  be  the 
smallest  number  of  beats  per  second  which  one 
simple  sound  must  make  with  another  in  order 
that  harshness  or  dissonance  shall  entirely  dis- 
appear from  the  interval.  Thus  the  simple 
note  giving  the  middle  C  of  the  piano  makes 
264  vibrations  per  second,  and  the  residual  sen- 
sation of  its  sound  remains  on  the  ear  -fa  of  a 
second ;  therefore  the  note  which  will  make  48 
beats  per  second  with  this  C  will  form  an  in- 
terval free  from  all  harshness.  The  number  of 
vibrations  of  this  note  will  be  264  +  48,  or  312, 
which  is  D,  and  forms  with  C  the  interval  of 
the  minor  third.  Hence  the  nearest  note  to 
this  C  which  will  form  with  it  a  harmonious 
combination  is  its  minor  third.  If  we  in  like 
manner  calculate  the  nearest  interval  to  form 


.08 


> 


.01 


"'   IZS        Zl*          3*4        532         640         768 

Curve  showing  the  Relation  of  Pitch  and  Duration. 

a  consonance  with  the  C  below  the  middle  C, 
we  shall  find  it  to  be  the  major  third.  This 
nearest  consonant  interval  contracts  as  the 
pitch  ascends,  so  that  for  the  C  of  the  fifth  oc- 
tave above  the  middle  C  (the  highest  octave 
used  in  music)  the  interval  has  contracted  to 


470 


HARMS 


^  of  a  semitone.  Prof.  Mayer  has  also  deter- 
mined the  other  limit  of  the  effects  of  beats  by 
ascertaining  in  the  different  octaves  the  num- 
ber of  beats  which  produce  the  greatest  harsh- 
ness or  dissonance  on  the  ear.  We  give  above 
a  curve  which  at  a  glance  shows  the  connec- 
tion between  the  pitch  of  a  note  and  the  dura- 
tion of  the  residual  sensation.  The  curve  ap- 
proaches closely  to  an  equilateral  hyperbola 
(which  latter  curve  is  also  given  in  a  dotted 
line  as  a  means  of  comparison) ;  it  would 
indeed  coincide  with  the  hyperbola  if  the  du- 
ration of  the  residual  sensation  were  simply 
inversely  as  the  pitch.  The  units  of  division 
on  the  horizontal  line  equal  64  vibrations  per 
second,  while  the  units  on  the  vertical  line 
equal  ^  of  a  second.  To  find  by  means  of 
this  curve  the  duration  of  a  simple  sound,  ob- 
tain the  point  on  the  horizontal  line  corre- 
sponding to  its  number  of  vibrations,  and  then 
erect  from  this  point  a  perpendicular  reaching 
to  the  curve.  The  length  of  this  perpendicular 
in  units  of  the  vertical  scale  will  give  the  dura- 
tion of  the  residual  sensation  of  the  sound  in 
the  fraction  of  a  second ;  and  the  denominator 
of  this  (vulgar)  fraction  gives  the  number  of 
beats  which  the  note  will  have  to  make  with  a 
neighboring  one  to  form  the  smallest  consonant 
interval. — Although  the  science  of  counter- 
point is  based  upon  the  principles  of  harmony, 
yet  the  discussion  of  this  subject  leads  into  the 
higher  aesthetic  principles  of  musical  compo- 
sition ;  we  therefore  refer  to  the  article  Music 
for  information  on  that  subject. 

HARMS,  Clans,  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Fahrstedt,  Holstein,  May  25,  1778,  died  in 
Kiel,  Feb.  1,  1855.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
miller,  and  for  some  time  followed  his  father's 
business.  He  became  chief  pastor  of  the 
church  of  St.  Nicholas  and  provost  at  Kiel 
in  1835,  and  councillor  of  the  supreme  consis- 
tory in  1842.  Having  lost  his  sight,  he  resign- 
ed his  office  in  1849.  He  celebrated  the  jubi- 
lee of  the  reformation  in  1817,  by  propounding 
95  new  theses,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the 
total  depravity  of  man  and  the  indispensable 
necessity  of  faith  were  maintained.  Against 
him  Baumgarten-Crusius  wrote  the  XCV. 
Theses  Theologies  contra  Super  stitionem  et 
Profanationem.  The  theses  and  theological 
works  of  Harms  gave  the  first  strong  impulse 
to  a  great  revival  of  the  orthodox  Lutheran 
theology  in  Germany.  He  published  Pasto- 
ral Theologie  (3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1837)  ;  Weisheit 
und  Witz  (1850);  Selbstbiographie  (2d  ed., 
1851);  and  Vermischte  Aufsatze  (1853). 

HARNESS,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  about  1784,  died  in  November,  1869.  He 
was  lame,  besides  suffering  from  severe  illness 
at  Harrow,  where  Lord  Byron,  his  schoolmate 
and  friend,  offered  him  protection  with  these 
words:  "  Harness,  if  any  one  bullies  you,  tell 
me,  and  I'll  thrash  him  if  I  can."  He  after- 
ward studied  at  Cambridge,  took  orders,  and 
held  several  preferments  in  London.  He  wrote 
dramas  and  poems,  and  published  "  The  Con- 


HAROLD   I. 

nection  of  Christianity  with  Human  Happi- 
ness "  (2  vols.,  1823),  a  variorum  edition  of 
Shakespeare  (8  vols.,  1825),  "Parochial  Ser- 
mons" (1838),  and  other  works.  His  "Liter- 
ary Life,"  by  the  Rev.  A.  G.  L'Estrange  (1871), 
contains  much  matter  relating  to  Byron  and 
other  celebrities  of  his  time. 

IIARNETT,  a  central  county  of  North  Caro- 
lina, intersected  by  Cape  Fear  river,  and 
watered  by  Little  river ;  area,  675  sq.  in. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,895,  of  whom  3,038  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  in 
parts  productive.  Tar  and  turpentine  an- 
largely  produced.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Western  railroad  of  North  Carolina.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,571  bushels 
of  wheat,  125,410  of  Indian  corn,  64,290  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  334  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  588  horses,  1,791  milch  cows,  3,788 
other  cattle,  3,793  sheep,  and  10,194  swine. 
Capital,  Summerville. 

HARNETT,  Cornelius,  an  American  revolution- 
ary statesman,  born  in  England,  April  20,  1723, 
died  at  Wilmington,  N.  0.,  April  20,  1781.  He 
came  in  early  life  to  America,  and  prior  to  the 
disputes  with  Great  Britain  was  a  man  of 
wealth  and  distinction,  residing  on  a  large 
estate  near  Wilmington,  N.  C.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  to  denounce  the  stamp  act  and 
kindred  measures.  In  1770-'71  he  was  repre- 
sentative of  the  borough  of  Wilmington  in  the 
provincial  assembly,  and  chairman  of  the  most 
important  committees  of  that  body.  In  1772 
he  was  appointed  by  the  assembly,  with  Robert 
Howe  and  Maurice  Moore,  to  prepare  a  remon- 
strance against  the  appointment,  by  the  royal 
governor  Martin,  of  commissioners  to  fix  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  province.  Josiah 
Quincy,  who  visited  him  in  the  following  year, 
called  him  "  the  Samuel  Adams  of  North  Caro- 
lina;" and,  as  the  revolution  approached,  he 
was  its  master  spirit  throughout  the  Cape  Fear 
region.  He  was  elected  to  the  provincial  con- 
gress in  1775,  and  to  the  congress  at  Halifax, 
on  the  Roanoke,  in  1776,  and  drew  up  the  in- 
structions to  the  North  Carolina  delegates  in 
the  continental  congress.  When  in  1776  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  appeared  with  a  British  fleet  off 
Cape  Fear,  Harnett  and  Howe  were  excepted, 
as  arch-rebels,  from  the  terms  of  a  general  par- 
don. On  the  arrival  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence at  Halifax,  July  26,  1776,  Harnett 
read  it  to  a  great  concourse  of  citizens  and 
soldiers,  who  took  him  on  their  shoulders  and 
bore  him  in  triumph  through  the  town.  In  the 
autumn  he  was  on  the  committee  for  drafting  a 
state  constitution  and  bill  of  rights,  and  after- 
ward as  member  of  the  continental  congress 
he  signed  the  articles  of  confederation.  When 
in  1780-'81  the  British  held  possession  of  the 
country  around  Cape  Fear,  Harnett  was  made 
a  prisoner,  and  died  while  a  captive. 

HAROLD  I.,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  sur- 
named  HAREFOOT  from  his  swiftness  in  running, 
died  at  Oxford,  March  17,  1040.  He  was  the 
second  of  three  sons  of  Canute  the  Great,  who 


HAEOLD   II. 


HAROUN  AL-RASHID 


471 


expressed  the  wish  to  bestow  his  kingdoms 
Norway,  England,  and  Denmark  severally 
on  his  sons  Svend,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute. 
Lt  the  council  which  met  at  Oxford  upon  the 
death  of  Canute  (1035),  to  elect  a  new  sover- 
eign for  England,  the  chiefs  of  Danish  descent 
preferred  Harold ;  the  Saxons  preferred  Har- 
dicanute, because  he  was  the  son  of  the  widow 
of  their  late  king,  Ethelred.     Harold  got  pos- 
session of  London,  and  of  the  country  north 
the  Thames ;  and  Hardicanute,  who  claimed 
e  west,  and  by  the  marriage  contract  of  his 
lother  ought  to  have  succeeded  to  the  crown 
lis  brother  being  illegitimate),  was  soon  after 
jposed,  through  the  intrigues  of  Earl  Godwin, 
)on  the  promise  of  Harold  to  espouse  the 
lughter  of  that  nobleman.     Harold  and  God- 
rin  meantime  conspired  to  destroy  the  Saxon 
inces,  Alfred  and  Edward,  sons  of  Ethelred, 
.d  they  were  inveigled  from  their  retreat  in 
lormandy.     Alfred  was  hurried  to  the  isle  of 
]y  and  condemned  to  lose  his  eyes,  and  died 
the  wounds;    but  his  brother,   afterward 
Iward  the  Confessor,  escaped  back  to  Nor- 
idy.     Harold,  having  now  seized  the  trea- 
3  of  his  father's  widow,  who   escaped  to 
ruges,  was  soon  master  of  all  England.     His 
3ign  was  unmarked  by  other  notable  events. 
te  was  buried  at  Westminster;  but  his  body, 
interred  by  order  of  Hardicanute,  who  suc- 
jeded  him,  was  cast  into  the  Thames.     It  was 
Dvered  by  a  fisherman,  and  secreted  in  a 
lish  cemetery  in  London. 
HAROLD  II.,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
le  last  king  of  that  lineage,  second  son  of 
Iwin,  earl  of  Wessex,  killed  in  battle,  Oct. 
14,  1066.     He  was  a  leader  in  the  armies  of 
Iward  the  Confessor,  and  did  good  service 
battles  with  the  Welsh.     About  1065  he  was 
lipwrecked   on   the   coast  of   Ponthieu  and 
e  prisoner  by  the  earl  Guy,  who  delivered 
lirn  over  to  William  of  Normandy.     William 
lined  him  until  he  had  taken  an  oath  to 
)port  the  Norman's  pretensions  to  the  Eng- 
crown  after  the  death  of  Edward ;  but  when 
lat  event  took  place  (Jan.  5;  1066),  he  caused 
self  to  be  proclaimed  by  an  assembly  of 
le  thanes  and  the  citizens  of  London,  and 
ras  crowned  in  London  the  next  day.   Edward, 
is  asserted,  had  willed  the  succession  to  the 
ike  of  Normandy,  but  had  been  prevented 
)m  taking  steps  for  the  security  of  his  testa- 
mt.     Harold  claimed  a  similar  testamentary 
ht.     Harold's  brother  Tostig,  a  man  of  great 
lent  and   activity,    and  filled    with    deadly 
red  against  his  brother  for  fancied  wrongs, 
jpealed  to  Harold  Hardrada  of  Norway,  who 
romised  to  invade  England.     Tostig  collected 
force  in  Flanders,  after  planning  operations 
with  William,  and  ravaged  the  southern 
ts.     He   was  defeated   afterward   by  the 
iris  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria,  and  retired 
Scotland  to  await  the  arrival  of  his  allies, 
^illiam  meanwhile  sent  an  embassy  to  Harold 
lemanding  the  crown  of  England.     The  new 
ig  gave  a  disdainful  reply,  and  prepared  to 


receive  the  invaders.  His  attention  appears  to 
have  been  directed  chiefly  to  the  side  of  Nor- 
mandy ;  for  the  king  of  Norway,  accompanied 
by  Tostig,  landed  unopposed  at  Scarborough. 
They  were  met  near  York  by  the  northern 
earls,  who  were  defeated,  and,  retreating  to 
York,  were  besieged  in  that  city.  A  few  days 
later  Harold  arrived  to  their  relief  (Sept.  25, 
1066),  and  a  battle  was  fought  in  which  the 
king  of  Norway  and  Tostig  were  killed.  The 
Norwegians,  escaping  to  their  ships,  were  suf- 
fered to  withdraw  unmolested  from  the  coast. 
Three  days  afterward  the  duke  of  Normandy 
landed  at  Bulverhithe,  and  advanced  to  Hast- 
ings, where  on  Oct.  14  the  famous  battle  was 
fought  by  which  Harold  lost  his  life,  and  Wil- 
liam became  king  of  England.  (See  HASTINGS.) 
HAROUN  AL-RASHID  (Aaron  the  Just),  fifth 
caliph  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Abbassides,  born 
in  Rei  about  A.  D.  765,  died  in  Tus  early  in  the 
spring  of  809.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Abu 
Jaffar,  surnamed  Al-Mansour,  and  the  son  of 
the  caliph  Mahdi  by  the  slave  Khaizeran.  In 
the  reign  of  his  father  he  led  an  army  of  95,000 
Persians  and  Arabs  against  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire, then  ruled  by  Irene.  He  traversed  Asia 
Minor,  defeated  the  Greek  general  Nicetas, 
penetrated  to  the  Bosporus  (781),  encamped  on 
the  heights  of  Chrysopolis  (now  Scutari),  oppo- 
site Constantinople,  and  forced  the  empress  to 
engage  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of  70,000  dinas 
of  gold,  and  to  prepare  the  roads  for  his  return 
to  the  Tigris.  In  786  he  succeeded  his  elder 
brother  Hadi,  who  had  vainly  attempted  to 
exclude  him  from  the  throne,  and  had  even 
given  orders  for  his  execution,  which  was  only 
prevented  by  his  own  sudden  death.  By  his 
conquests  and  vigorous  internal  administration 
Haroun  raised  the  caliphate  to  its  greatest  splen- 
dor, and  made  his  reign  esteemed  the  golden 
era  of  the  Mohammedan  nations.  His  favorite 
ministers  were  Yahya  and  his  son  Jaffar,  of 
the  ancient  Persian  family  of  the  Barmecides, 
whose  ancestors  had  for  many  generations 
been  hereditary  priests  at  the  fire  temple  of 
Balkh,  and  who  now  rapidly  exalted  the  fam- 
ily to  the  highest  dignities  under  the  caliphate. 
While  Haroun  was  occupied  in  fortifying  the 
frontier  provinces  against  the  Greeks,  Musa 
the  Barmecide  captured  the  chiefs  of  two  hos- 
tile factions  in  Syria,  brought  them  to  Bagdad, 
and  ended  their  dissensions;  Fadhl,  son  of 
Yahya,  conquered  Cabool  and  pacified  a  rebel- 
lion in  Dailem  ;  and  Jaffar  joined  to  the  office 
of  vizier  that  of  governor  of  Syria  and  Egypt. 
The  whole  internal  administration  of  the  em- 
pire fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Barmecides. 
They  adorned  the  court  with  luxury,  patron- 
ized letters  and  science,  gave  festivals,  and 
made  a  prodigal  use  of  the  riches  which  they 
amassed.  The  reign  of  Haroun  is  chiefly  sul- 
lied by  the  sudden  disgrace  which  he  inflict- 
ed on  them  in  803,  condemning  those  from 
whose  talents  and  services  he  had  most  profit- 
ed to  imprisonment  or  death.  (See  BARME- 
CIDES.) He  had  devastated  the  Byzantine  ter- 


172 


HARP 


HARPER 


ritories  as  often  as  Irene  had  declined  pay- 
ment of  the  annual  tribute.  In  803  her  suc- 
cessor Nicephorus  demanded  restitution  of  all 
the  sums  the  empress  had  paid.  *  The  caliph  re- 
plied :  "  In  the  name  of  the  most  merciful  God, 
Haroun  al-Rashid,  commander  of  the  faithful, 
to  Nicephorus,  the  Roman  dog.  I  have  read 
thy  letter,  O  thou  son  of  an  unbelieving  mother. 
Thou  shalt  not  hear,  thou  shalt  behold,  my  re- 
ply." He  immediately  traversed  and  ravaged 
a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  laid  siege  to  Heraclea, 
brought  Nicephorus  to  acknowledge  himself  a 
tributary,  and  retired  triumphant  to  his  favor- 
ite palace  of  Racca  on  the  Euphrates.  The 
peace  being  violated  in  806,  he  returned  rapid- 
ly in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  at  the  head  of 
135,000  men  defeated  Nicephorus  in  Phrygia, 
in  a  battle  in  which  the  Greek  emperor  was 
three  times  wounded  and  40,000  of  his  subjects 
were  slain.  Again  the  tribute  was  refused, 
and  Haroun  returned  in  808  with  300, 000  men, 
desolated  Asia  Minor  beyond  Tyana  and  An- 
cyra,  demolished  Heraclea,  devastated  the  isl- 
ands of  Rhodes,  Cyprus,  and  Crete,  and  im- 
posed a  humiliating  treaty  on  Nicephorus.  It 
was  soon  broken,  and  Haroun  again  returned, 
took  Sebaste,  and  swore  never  again  to  make 
peace  with  so  perfidious  an  enemy.  A  revolt 
breaking  out  in  Khorasan,  the  caliph  died  while 
on  his  march  thither.  In  his  latter  years  he 
corresponded  with  Charlemagne,  and  in  807 
he  sent  him  a  tent,  a  clepsydra,  an  elephant, 
and  the  keys  of  the  holy  sepulchre.  He  per- 
formed the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  nine  times, 
cultivated  poetry  and  the  arts  and  sciences, 
protected  many  illustrious  scholars,  and  is  the 
principal  hero  of  the  Arabian  tales.  He  select- 
ed ministers  under  whose  wise  administration 
prosperous  towns  sprang  up,  commerce  flour- 
ished, and  Bagdad  was  enlarged  and  adorned 
and  made  the  centre  of  Arabic  civilization. 

HARP  (Sax.  hearpa,  Ger.  ffarfe),  a  musical 
stringed  instrument  of  a  triangular  shape,  the 
chords  of  which  are  distended  in  parallel  direc- 
tions from  the  upper  limb  to  one  of  the  sides, 
and  are  set  in  vibration  by  the  action  of  the 
thumb  and  fingers.  Its  origin  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained ;  but  it  was  familiar  to  the  Hebrews  in 
the  time  of  the  earlier  prophets,  and,  as  ap- 
pears by  the  sculpture  in  a  tomb  near  the 
pyramids  of  Gizeh,  was  known  to  the  Egyp- 
tians probably  as  early  as  2000  B.  0.  The  re- 
searches of  recent  travellers  show  that  the 
Egyptians  attained  great  perfection  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  harp,  which  was  frequently 
richly  ornamented  and  of  elegant  form,  having 
from  4  to  21  chords,  and  in  the  later  specimens 
strikingly  resembled  those  in  present  use.  In 
the  Paris  collection  of  Egyptian  antiquities  is 
a  triangular  harp  of  21  chords,  which,  like  all 
other  Egyptian  harps  of  which  we  have  repre- 
sentations, has  no  pole  or  pillar  to  support  the 
upper  limb  of  the  instrument.  That  the  omis- 
sion was  intentional  there  seems  no  doubt; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  tension 
of  the  strings  could  have  been  resisted.  To 


the  Greeks  it  seems  always  to  have  been  un- 
known, and  the  Romans  probably  had  no 
knowledge  of  it  in  anything  like  its  present 
form.  It  was  common  to  the  northern  races 
of  Europe  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  in  the  opinion  of  many  antiqua- 
ries was  original  among  them.  In  Ireland  and 
in  Wales  harps  of  many  strings  and  of  elegant 
form  were  in  use  as  early  as  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries,  and  in  the  former  it  was  adopted 
as  the  national  emblem.  In  Wales  it  is  still 
cherished  as  the  national  instrument,  and  an- 
nual trials  of  skill  in  its  use  take  place.  The 
introduction  of  pedals,  whereby  it  became  pos- 
sible to  modulate  into  all  keys,  first  gave  the 
harp  a  higher  position  than  that  of  an  instru- 
ment of  accompaniment,  and  the  improvements 
of  Sebastien  Erard  have  made  it  capable  of  per- 
forming any  music  written  for  the  pianoforte. 
His  double  action  harp,  perfected  in  1808,  has 
a  compass  of  six  octaves,  from  E  to  E,  with  all 
the  semitones,  and  even  quarter  tones.  Its 
form  and  tone  have  long  made  it  a  favorite  in- 
strument for  the  drawing  room.  In  the  or- 
chestra it  is  more  sparingly  used. 

HARP  (harpa),  a  genus  of  gasteropod  mol- 
lusks  of  the  family  of  whelks  or  buccinidee.  The 
shell  is  ventricose,  with  numerous  ribs  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  the  shape  and  the  ribs  resembling 
the  outline  and  the  strings  of  a  harp ;  the  aper- 
ture is  large,  notched  in  front,  and  without 
operculum.  The  foot  is  very  large,  crescent- 


I^irpa  ventriculata. 

shaped  in  front,  and  deeply  divided  from  the 
posterior  part.  There  are  about  a  dozen  spe- 
cies, inhabiting  deep  water  and  soft  bottoms  in 
the  East  Indies  and  the  Pacific  islands ;  thej 
are  carnivorous ;  the  shells  are  finely  colored 
and  of  elegant  shape,  generally  about  three 
inches  long.  Four  fossil  species  have  been 
found  in  the  eocene  strata  of  France. 

HARPER,  a  S.  county  of  Kansas,  bordering 
on  the  Indian  territory,  and  drained  by  branch- 
es of  the  Nescatunga  and  Arkansas  rivers; 
area,  1,152  sq.  m. ;  still  unsettled. 

HARPER,  Robert  Goodloe,  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  near  Fredericksburg,  Va., 
in  1765,  died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  15,  1825. 
His  parents  during  his  childhood  removed  to 
Granville,  N.  C.  In  his  15th  year  he  joined  a 
troop  of  horse,  and  under  Gen.  Greene  served 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  southern  revolu- 
tionary campaign.  He  graduated  at  Princeton 


HA 


HARPER  AND   BROTHERS 

college  in  1785,  studied  law  in  Charleston,  S. 
C.,  settled  in  the  interior  of  the  state,  and  be- 
came known  by  a  series  of  newspaper  articles 
on  the  proposed  change  in  the  state  constitu- 
tion.     He  was  soon  after  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature, and  in  1794  to  congress,  where  he  sup- 
xrted  the  administrations  of  Washington  and 
Adams,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
jaders  of  the  federal  party.     In  1801  he  re- 
tired from   congress,   and,  having  married   a 
.ighter  of  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  re- 
loved  to  Baltimore.     At  the  Maryland  bar  he 
tained  great  eminence,  and  was  associated 
nth  Joseph  Hopkinson  as  counsel  for  Judge 
Jhase  of  the  supreme  court,  when  under  im- 
ichment,  the  trial  resulting  in  an  acquittal, 
[arch  5,  1805.     In  1815  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator.     In  181 9-'20  he  visited  Europe, 
id  on  his  return  resumed  the  practice  of  his 
>rofession.     Selections  from  his  writings  and 
3hes  were  published  in  Baltimore  in  1814. 
HARPER  AND  BROTHERS,  a  firm  of  American 
rinters  and  publishers,  originally  consisting  of 
TAMES,  born  in  1795,  died  in  New  York,  March 
L7, 1869 ;  JOHN,  born  in  1797  ;  JOSEPH  WESLEY, 
isually  called  Wesley,  born  in  1801,  died  in 
Brooklyn,  Feb.  14,  1870 ;  and  FLETCHEE,  born 
in  1806.     They  were  the  sons  of  a  farmer  at 
ewtown,   Long  Island.     At  the  age  of  16 
Fames  and  John  were   apprenticed  to  differ- 
it  printers  in  New  York.     Having  concluded 
apprenticeship,  they  established   them- 
slvesin  business,  at  first  only  printing  for  book- 
sllers,  but  soon  began  to  publish  upon  their 
>wn  account.      Wesley  and  Fletcher  Harper 
rere  apprenticed  to  their  elder  brothers,  and 
they  became  of  age  were  admitted  as  part- 
ners; and  the  style  of  the  firm  was  about  1825 
changed  from  "  J.  and  J.  Harper  "  to  "  Harper 
and  Brothers."     They  soon  became  the  leading 
publishers  in  America.     In  1853  their  estab- 
lishment occupied  nine  contiguous  buildings  in 
Cliff  and  Pearl  streets,  filled  with  costly  ma- 
chinery and  books.     On  Dec.  10  of  that  year 
the  whole  was  burned  to  the  ground,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  workman  engaged  in  repairs  hav- 
ing thrown  a  burning  paper  into  a  tank  of  ben- 
zine, which  he  mistook  for  water.     Most  of 
leir  stereotype  plates  were  stored  in  vaults, 
md  were  saved ;  but  the  loss  in  buildings,  ma- 
chinery, and  books  amounted  to  $1,000,000, 
>on  which  there  was  only  $250,000  insurance, 
next  day  they  hired  temporary  premises, 
employed  the  principal  printers  and  bind- 
in  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  in 
^producing  their  books.     Before  the  ruins  of 
fire  could  be  cleared  away  the  plans  for 
leir  new  edifice  were  prepared.     It  covers 
about  half  an  acre  of  ground,  extending  from 
Cliff  street  to  Franklin  square  in  Pearl  street, 
and,  including  cellars,  the  structure  is  seven 
stories  high.     It  is  absolutely  fire-proof,  and 
constitutes  probably  the  most  complete  pub- 
lishing establishment  in  the  world,  all  the  op- 
erations in  the  preparation  and  publication  of 
a  book  being  carried  on  under  a  single  roof, 


HARPER'S  FERRY 


473 


and  the  regular  number  of  employees  in  the 
premises  being  about  1,000  of  both  sexes.  Be- 
sides the  books  published,  they  issue  three  il- 
lustrated periodicals  :  "  Harper's  Magazine," 
established  in  1850,  a  monthly,  devoted  to 
literature  and  the  arts;  "Harper's  Weekly," 
established  in  1857,  devoted  to  literature  and 
topics  of  the  day ;  and  "  Harper's  Bazar,"  estab- 
lished in  1867,  devoted  to  the  fashions,  litera- 
ture, and  social  life. — James  Harper  was  in  1844 
elected  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  for  the 
succeeding  year,  and  he  was  subsequently  put 
forward  for  the  governorship  of  the  state ; 
but  he  preferred  to  conduct  the  business  of  the 
firm  rather  than  engage  in  public  life.  In 
March,  1869,  while  driving  in  Fifth  avenue,  his 
horses  took  fright,  and  he  was  thrown  from 
his  carriage  ;  he  was  taken  up  insensible,  and 
died  two  days  afterward.  Wesley  Harper, 
who  for  many  years  had  charge  of  the  literary 
department,  died  after  a  long  illness.  After 
the  death  of  his  two  brothers  John  Harper 
withdrew  from  active  business ;  and  the  firm 
was  reorganized  by  the  admission  of  several 
of  the  sons  of  the  original  partners.  These, 
after  receiving  a  careful  education,  several  of 
them  at  Columbia  college,  entered  the  house,  < 
each  serving  a  regular  apprenticeship  in  some 
branch  of  the  business.  The  firm  now  (1874) 
consists  of  John  Harper  and  his  two  sons,  John 
Wesley,  born  in  1830,  and  Joseph  Abner,  born 
in  1833  ;  Fletcher  Harper,  and  his  son  Fletch- 
er, jr.,  born  in  1829;  Philip  J.  A.,  son  of 
James,  born  in  1824  ;  and  Joseph  Wesley,  son 
of  Wesley,  born  in  1830. 

HARPER'S  FERRY,  a  town  of  Jefferson  co., 
West  Virginia,  on  the  Potomac  river,  which 
forms  the  boundary  of  the  state  with  Mary- 
land, and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shenandoah, 
where  the  united  streams  fo'rce  their  passage 
through  the  Blue  Ridge,  45  m.  N.  W.of  Wash- 
ington ;  pop.  about  2,500.  It  is  built  around 
the  base  of  a  hill,  and  is  connected  by  a  bridge 
with  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Potomac.  The 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Winchester,  Poto- 
mac, and  Strasburg  railroads  unite  here,  and 
the  Ohio  and  Chesapeake  canal  runs  along  the 
Maryland  bank.  Before  the  civil  war  it  was 
the  seat  of  an  extensive  and  important  United 
States  armory  and  arsenal.  It  has  a  large 
flouring  mill,  a  college  for  colored  youth,  five 
or  six  schools,  and  five  churches.  It  has  not 
yet  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  war.  The 
scenery  around  Harper's  Ferry  is  celebrated 
for  its  striking  beauties.  Thomas  Jefferson  pro- 
nounced the  passage  of  the  Potomac  through 
the  Blue  Ridge  "  one  of  the  most  stupendous 
scenes  in  nature,  and  well  worth  a  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic  to  witness."— The  place 
acquired  some  notoriety  just  previous  to  and 
during  the  civil  war.  On  Oct.  16,  1859,  John 
Brown,  at  the  head  of  a  small  party  of  aboli- 
tionists, seized  upon  the  town  and  armory  build- 
ings, of  which  he  held  possession  for  more  than 
a  day,  when  he  was  captured.  (See  BROWN, 
JOHN.)  On  April  18,  1861,  the  arsenal  was 


474 


HARPIES 


seized  by  a  party  of  insurgents,  and  the  work- 
shops were  partly  burned.  The  place  was  af- 
terward alternately  in  the  hands  of  both  par- 
ties. In  September,  1862,  a  Union  force  of 
about  12,000  men,  under  Col.  Miles,  was  sta- 
tioned here.  On  the  12th,  four  days  before 


HARPSICHORD 

the  battle  of  Antietam,  a  strong  confederate 
force  under  Jackson  and  A.  P.  Hill  appear- 
ed before  Maryland  heights  on  the  Maryland 
shore,  and  early  in  the  morning  of  the  13th 
drove  the  Union  troops  stationed  there  behind 
their  breastwork.  This  was  soon  after  taken, 


Harper's  Ferry. 


when  the  federals  withdrew  across  the  river. 
On  the  same  day  the  confederates  established 
batteries  on  London  heights  on  the  Virginia 
shore,  and  on  the  14th  they  opened  fire  both 
from  these  and  Maryland  heights,  renewing 
it  at  daybreak  of  the  15th  from  seven  com- 
manding points.  The  federal  guns  returned 
fire  from  Bolivar  heights,  but  ineffectually,  and 
Col.  Miles  surrendered  his  force  (being  mortal- 
ly wounded  almost  in  the  act),  the  cavalry  of 
which  alone  had  escaped  in  the  night.  The 
confederates  made  about  11,000  prisoners,  and 
captured  73  guns,  13,000  small  arms,  and  a 
considerable  amount  of  stores. 

HARPIES  (Gr.  "Apnviai,  from  dpir&Zetv,  to 
snatch),  in  Greek  mythology,  fabulous  mon- 
sters, said  to  have  been  the  daughters  of  Nep- 
tune and  Earth,  or,  according  to  Hesiod,  of  Thau- 
mas  and  Electra.  In  Homer  they  are  merely 
personified  storm  winds,  who  were  believed  to 
have  carried  off  any  person  that  had  suddenly 
disappeared.  In  Hesiod  they  are  fair-haired 
and  winged  maidens  who  surpass  the  winds  in 
swiftness,  and  are  called  Aello  and  Ocypete; 
but  in  later  writers  they  are  represented  as 
disgusting  monsters,  with  heads  like  maidens, 
faces  pale  with  hunger,  and  claws  like  those  of 
birds.  The  harpies  ministered  to  the  gods  as 
the  executors  of  vengeance.  They  were  two 
or  three  in  number,  and  dwelt  in  the  Stropha- 
thc.-i n  isles,  in  the  Ionian  sea.  The  most  celebra- 
ted myth  in  which  the  harpies  figure  is  that  of 


the  blind  Phineus,  whose  food  they  had  been 
commissioned  to  snatch  away  as  often  as  it  was 
placed  before  him.  The  Argonauts  arrived  at 
his  residence  while  he  was  thus  tormented,  and 
freed  him  from  the  persecution.  In  the  fa- 
mous harpy  monument  discovered  in  Lycia  by 
Sir  C.  Fellowes,  and  nofa  in  the  British  mu- 
seum, the  harpies  are  represented  in  the  act 
of  carrying  off  the  daughter  of  Pandarrous. 

HARPOCRATES.     See  HOBTJB. 

HARPOCRATION,  Valerius,  a  Greek  philologist, 
who  according  to  some  flourished  in  the  2d 
century  A.  D.,  and  according  to  others  about 
the  middle  of  the  4th.  He  was  a  native  of  Al- 
exandria in  Egypt,  and  the  author  of  a  valuable 
lexicon,  still  extant,  to  the  works  of  the  Attic 
orators.  The  earliest  edition  was  published 
at  Venice  in  1503  ;  the  most  recent  is  that  of 
Bekker,  which  appeared  at  Berlin  in  1833. 

HARPSICHORD,  a  keyed  musical  instrument, 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  grand  piano,  in 
which  the  sounds  are  produced  by  the  action 
of  oblong  slips  of  wood  called  jacks,  furnished 
with  crowquill  plectrums,  and  moved  by  finger 
keys,  upon  a  series  of  stretched  wires,  resem- 
bling a  horizontal  harp.  It  was  provided  with 
stops  for  increasing  or  diminishing  the  power 
of  the  strings,  and  with  a  swell;  and  the  best 
instruments  had  a  compass  of  five  octaves,  from 
double  F  below  the  base  to  F  in  altissimo.  The 
harpsichord  was  in  use  as  early  as  the  15th  cen- 
tury, and  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  spinet 


HAKPY 


HARRIER 


475 


II 


and  virginals,  on  which  it  was  an  improvement. 
It  remained  the  highest  form  of  the  keyed  in- 
strument until  the  introduction  of  the  piano- 
forte into  general  use  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century. 

HARPY,  in  mythology.     See  HARPIES. 

HARPY,  a  bird  of  prey,  of  the  subfamily  aqui- 
Unce  or  eagles  ;  the  harpyia  destructor  (Cuv.) 
or  thrasaetus  harpyia  (Linn.),  and  the  crested, 
crowned,  royal,  tyrant,  and  destructive  South 
American  eagle  of  authors.  The  bill  is  strong, 
much  curved  at  the  acute  tip  ;  the  wings  mod- 
erate, reaching  beyond  the  base  of  the  tail,  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  quills  the  longest ;  tail 
long,  broad,  and  slightly  rounded  ;  tarsi  short 
and  very  thick ;  toes  robust,  armed  with  pow- 
erful claws.  The  length  is  from  2£  to  3  ft.,  and 
the  spread  of  the  wings  5  to  6  ft.  The  bill  is 
black,  the  head  crested ;  the  general  color  is 
dark  brown  above  and  white  below,  the  feath- 
ers of  the  breast  very  long  and  loose  ;  the  tail 
barred  with  brown  and  black,  and  the  vent  and 
thighs  with  black  and  white.  Several  varie- 
ties of  plumage  occur,  which  have  been  made 
characters  of  different  species,  but  Gray  de- 
scribes only  one  in  the  genus.  The  harpy  eagle 
lives  in  the  dark  forests  of  intertropical  Amer- 
ica, especially  near  the  borders  of  great  rivers ; 
it  preys  on  sloths,  monkeys,  large  birds,  and  on 
young  deer  and  other  quadrupeds  of  that  size. 


Harpy  (Thrasaetus  harpyia). 

Its  strength  and  courage  are  such  that  it  will 
attack  very  large  animals,  and  even  man  him- 
self, if  the  Indians  are  to  be  believed. 

HARRIER,  a  variety  of  the  hound  (canis  sa- 
gax,  Linn.),  used  in  hare  hunting.  The  ancient 
harrier  (cJiien  courant  of  the  French)  had 
a  moderately  long,  broad  muzzle ;  thick  and 
rounded  head  ;  large,  long,  and  pendent  ears  ; 
robust  body,  stout  limbs,  erect  tail,  and  short 
hair,  varied  with  black,  brown,  and  yellowish 
spots.  The  modern  improved  harrier  is  a  min- 
iature fox  hound,  with  shorter  ears,  an  acute 
sense  of  smell,  great  speed,  and  a  height  of 
about  18  in.  The  old  harrier  was  larger, 


slower,  and  more  inclined  to  dwell  on  the 
scent;  the  modern  breed  does  not  generally 
allow  the  hare  to  double  on  its  tracks,  but 
forces  it  into  a  straight  course,  running  it  down 
in  about  20  minutes.  The  pack  of  Sir  John 
Dashwood  King,  considered  the  model  of  this 


Harrier. 

dog,  originated  from  a  small  fox  hound  of  pure 
breed,  which  was  so  celebrated  that  he  was 
sold  for  the  enormous  sum  of  £700.  The  old 
harrier  came  near  the  beagle  in  appearance 
and  manner  of  hunting.  There  are  several 
breeds,  of  more  interest  to  the  sportsman  than 
to  the  zoologist. 

HARRIER,  a  hawk  of  the  subfamily  cercince 
of  Gray  and  milmnce  of  later  ornithologists, 
and  of  the  genus  circus  (Lacepede).  The  genus 
is  characterized  by  a  rather  large  head  and  a 
face  partially  encircled  by  a  ring  of  short  prom- 
inent feathers  as  in  the  owls;  bill  short,  com- 
pressed, curved  from  the  base,  with  the  lateral 
margins  festooned ;  nostrils  large ;  wings  long 
and  pointed,  with  the  third  and  fourth  quills 
nearly  equal  and  longest ;  tail  long,  wide,  and 
rounded  on  the  sides  ;  tarsi  long  and  slender, 
toes  moderate,  and  claws  rather  slender  and 
weak.  About  15  species  are  described  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world,  generally  found  in  open 
uncultivated  countries,  in  marshes,  and  along 
barren  sea  coasts.  The  flight  is  not  very  swift, 
but  easy  and  graceful,  and  generally  performed 
in  a  sailing  manner  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
ground.  The  American  harrier,  marsh  or  hen 
hawk  (C.  Hudsonius,  Linn.),  has  in  the  male  a 
length  of  about  18  and  an  extent  of  wings  of 
44  in.,  and  in  the  female  a  length  of  21  and  a 
spread  of  about  47  in.  The  form  is  rather 
long  and  slender ;  the  general  color  above  is 
pale  bluish  cinereous,  which  prevails  also  on 
the  breast ;  the  upper  tail  coverts  white ;  dark 
fulvous  tinges  on  the  back  of  the  head ;  under 
parts  white,  with  more  or  less  heart-shaped 
spots  and  longitudinal  marks  of  reddish  ful- 
vous ;  quills  brownish  black,  tinged  with  ashy 
on  the  outer  webs,  and  the  inner  mostly  white ; 
tail  cinereous,  nearly  white  on  the  inner  webs, 
and  obscurely  banded  with  brown,  its  under 


476 


HARKING 


HARRINGTON 


surface  and  the  under  wing  coverts  white.  In 
the  young  birds  the  upper  parts  are  dark 
hrown,  with  dull  rufous  edges  to  many  of  the 
feathers;  under  parts  reddish  white,  with 
brown  stripes,  and  upper  tail  coverts  white. 
It  is  found  throughout  North  America  from 
Mexico  to  the  arctic  regions,  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  in  Cuba.  It  breeds  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  often  seen'  in 
flocks  of  20  or  30.  When  paired,  the  sexes 
keep  together,  and  assist  each  other  in  the 
care  of  the  young.  The  nest  is  generally  made 
on  the  ground,  previously  scooped  out,  of 
dried  grasses,  and  of  considerable  bulk ;  some- 
times they  build  in  low  bushes.  The  eggs, 
about  four,  are  rounded,  smooth,  If  by  1£  in., 
bluish  white,  with  a  few  marks  of  pale  reddish 
brown.  The  bird  skims  over  the  open  fields, 
diligently  searching  for  food,  which  consists  of 
crickets,  lizards,  frogs,  snakes,  and  small  birds 
and  quadrupeds ;  it  is  fond  of  visiting  remote 
poultry  yards  after  young  chickens  and  gos- 


Bing-tailed  Harrier  (Circus  cyaneus). 

lings,  though  a  hen  of  ordinary  courage  is  usu- 
ally able  to  drive  it  off ;  it  rarely  strikes  its 
victims  on  the  wing.  The  ring-tailed  harrier 
of  Europe  is  the  C.  cyaneus  (Linn.) ;  there  are 
also  Montagu's  harrier  (C.  cineraceus,  Mont.) 
and  the  moor  or  marsh  harrier  (G.  ceruginosus, 
Linn.),  having  similar  habits  with  the  Ameri- 
can species. 

II  tltKI  VI.  Harro  Panl,  a  German  author,  born 
at  Ibensdorf,  near  Ilusum,  in  Schleswig,  Aug. 
28,  1798,  died  by  his  own  hand  in  the  island 
of  Jersey,  May  25,  1870.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  landed  proprietor  of  Friesland,  but  received 
only  a  scanty  education,  and  was  obliged  to 
accept  a  small  clerkship  in  the  custom  house. 
Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  to  painting 
and  literature  in  various  places,  and  after  pub- 
lishing two  volumes  of  poetry  at  Schleswig  in 
1821  he  wrote  a  sketch  of  his  adventurous 
life  and  travels  entitled  Rhonghar  Jarr,  Fahr- 
ten  eines  Friesen  in  Danemark,  Deutschland, 
Ungarn,  &c.  (4  vols.,  Munich,  1828).  In  1828 


he  joined  a  Philhellenic  expedition  to  Greece, 
but  soon  went  to  Rome,  and  next  to  Warsaw, 
where  he  served  for  a  few  months  in  the  army. 
His  Polish  experiences  w^ere  embodied  in  his 
novel  Der  Pole  (3  vols.,  Baireuth,  1831),  and 
in  his  Memoiren  uber  Polen  unter  russiscJier 
Herrschaft  (2  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1831 ;  French, 
Strasburg,  1833).  On  account  of  his  revolu- 
tionary tendencies  he  was  subsequently  ex- 
pelled from  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  in  18:] 0 
he  was  arrested  in  Bern  and  sent  to  England, 
where  in  1837  he  was  wounded  in  a  duel.  I  ir 
next  attempted  to  publish  in  Heligoland  revo- 
lutionary songs  for  circulation  in  G  ermany,  but 
was  arrested  and  sent  back  to  England.  On 
returning  to  that  island  in  1839  he  was  sent  as 
a  prisoner  on  a  vessel  bound  to  England,  but 
jumping  overboard  he  was  picked  up  by  a 
French  ship,  and  afterward  lived  successively 
in  England,  Brazil,  and  the  United  States.  In 
1849  he  arrived  in  Norway,  whence  he  was  ex- 
pelled in  the  following  year.  He  then  became 
a  member  of  the  European  central  democratic 
committee  in  London,  to  which  city  he  returned 
in  1856  after  having  been  in  1854  under  arrest 
in  Harburg,  and  after  having  spent  again  some 
time  in  Brazil.  Although  he  occasionally  re- 
ceived assistance  from  his  friends  at  subsequent 
periods,  misery  and  discontent  made  him  com- 
mit suicide.  Hisvpublications  comprise,  besides 
poems,  plays,  and  miscellaneous  writings,  many 
novels,  of  which  "  Dolores,"  the  scene  of  which 
was  in  South  America,  written  in  English  and 
published  in  New  York  in  1844-  (German,  4 
vols.,  Basel,  1858-'9),  is  considered  the  best. 

HARRINGTON,  James,  an  English  political  wri- 
ter, born  at  Upton,  Northamptonshire,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1611,  died  in  Westminster,  Sept.  11, 1677. 
He  entered  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  in  1629, 
and  after  leaving  the  university  travelled  on 
the  continent,  visiting  France,  Italy,  and  the 
Hague,  where  he  entered  Lord  Craven's  regi- 
ment, then  quartered  in  that  city.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  lived  for  a  time  in  retire- 
ment, but  in  1 646  was  appointed  to  wait  upon 
Charles  I.  during  his  confinement.  The  king 
became  strongly  attached  to  him,  and  made 
him  groom  of  the  bedchamber;  and  Harring- 
ton, though  a  republican  in  theory,  became 
loyal  to  the  person  of  the  monarch,  follow- 
ing him  even  to  the  scaffold.  *  After  the  death 
of  Charles  he  composed  his  great  work,  the 
"  Ocenna,"  which  was  seized  by  order  of 
Cromwell  while  in  the  press ;  but  he  was 
finally  permitted  to  publish  it  in  1656,  and 
even  to  dedicate  it  to  Cromwell  himself.  The 
"  Oceana"  is  a  kind  of  political  romance,  like 
Plato's  "Republic"  and  the  "Utopia"  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,  in  which  Harrington  describes 
an  imaginary  ideal  republic.  It  attracted 
much  attention,  and  was  answered  by  several 
persons,  the  principal  work  written  in  reply 
being  Baxter's  "Holy  Commonwealth."  In 
1659  Harrington  published  an  abridgment  of 
his  work,  under  the  title  of  "The  Art  of. Law- 
giving,"  and  instituted  a  club  called  the  "  Rota" 


HARRINGTON 


for  the  propagation  of  his  principles,  which  was 
dissolved  in  February,  1660.  He  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  treason,  Dec.  28,  1661,  being 
suspected  of  an  intent  to  overthrow  the  gov- 
ernment and  establish"  a  republic.  His  health 
was  impaired  and  his  mind  became  deranged 
by  his  imprisonment,  and  after  a  time  he  was 
liberated  through  the  intercession  of  the  earl 
of  Bath.  He  went  to  London,  where  he  par- 
tially recovered  his  bodily  health,  but  never 
•ained  the  full  vigor  of  his  intellect.  Be- 
,.B8  the  "Oceana,"  Harrington  published 
The  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  Monarchy  Con- 
sidered," "  The  Prerogative  of  Popular  Govern- 
ment," "A  Model  of  Popular  Government," 
several  political  tracts,  and  a  number  of  minor 
works,  among  which  is  a  translation  of  part  of 
e  works  of  Virgil.  His  political  writings  have 
n  several  times  republished ;  an  edition, 
ith  his  life  by  Toland,  in  1700,  in  1  vol.  fol. ; 
e  best  by  Thomas  Brand  Hollis  in  1771. 
HARRINGTON,  Sir  John.  See  HARINGTON. 
HARRIOT,  Thomas,  an  English  mathematician, 
in  Oxford  in  1560,  died  in  London,  July 
1621.  He  received  the  degree  of  B.  A.  at 
Oxford  in  1579,  and  was  a  member  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh's  expedition  to  Virginia  in  1584, 
writing  on  his  return  an  account  of  the  coun- 
try, under  the  title  of  "A  Brief  and  True 
Report  of  the  new-found  Land  of  Virginia," 
which  was  republished  in  vol.  iii.  of  Hakluyt's 
Voyages."  He  was  introduced  by  Raleigh 
the  earl  of  Northumberland,  received  from 
a  pension  of  £300,  and  afterward  devo- 
d  himself  to  mathematical  researches,  which 
ere  published  in  1631  by  his  friend  Walter 
Warner,  under  the  title,  Artis  Analyticee 
Praxis  ad  ^Equationes  Algebraical  Resohen- 
das.  He  corresponded  with  Kepler  upon  the 
theory  of  the  rainbow,  and  it  appears  from  his 
manuscripts  that  he  observed  the  spots  upon 
the  sun  before  he  could  have  known  of  Gali- 
leo's discovery  of  them. 

HARRIS.     I.  A  W.  county  of  Georgia,  sep- 
arated from  Alabama  by  the  Chattahoochee, 
and  drained  by  several  small  branches  of  that 
river;  area,  about  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
13,284,  of  whom  7,493  were  colored.     It  has  a 
greatly  diversified  surface  ;  the  E.  part  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Pine  and   Oak   mountains,  and 
large  tracts  of  land  are  covered  with  forests. 
The  chief  productions  in   1870   were   24,226 
bushels  of  wheat,  255,976  of  Indian  corn,  62,- 
914  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  8,163  bales  of  cot- 
ton.    There  were  964  horses,  1,537  mules  and 
asses,  2,647  milch  cows,  4,015  other  cattle,  and 
9,613  swine.     Capital,  Hamilton.     II.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Texas,  bordering  on  Galveston  bay, 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  San  Jacinto  river,  and 
tersected  by  Buffalo  bayou,  both  of  which 
e  navigable  by  steamboats;   area,  1,832  sq. 
. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,375,  of  whom  6,509  were 
ilored.     The  surface  is  a  fertile  alluvial  plain, 
early  destitute  of  timber  except  along  the 
iams,  and  covered  with  rich  savannas  which 
ture  large  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle. 


HARRIS 


477 


The  Houston  and  Texas  Central,  the  Houston 
and  Great  Northern,  the  Galveston,  Houston, 
and  Henderson,  the  Galveston,  Harrisburg,  and 
San  Antonio,  the  Texas  and  New  Orleans,  and 
the  Houston  Tap  and  Brazoria  railroads  trav- 
erse it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
99,977  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  38,895  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  1,064  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  2,833  horses,  4,561  milch  cows,  1,204 
working  oxen,  27,544  other  cattle,  5,713  sheep, 
and  5,434  swine.  It  has  a  number  of  manu- 
facturing establishments,  chiefly  in  Houston, 
the  county  seat. 

HARRIS,  James,  an  English  philologist,  born 
in  Salisbury,  July  20, 1709,  died  Dec.  22,  1780. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  as  gentleman  com- 
moner, and  thence  passed  as  a  student  of  law 
to  Lincoln's  Inn.  His  father  died  when  he 
was  24  years  of  age,  leaving  him  a  fortune,  so 
that  he  abandoned  the  law,  retired  to  his  na- 
tive town,  and  devoted  himself  to  more  con- 
genial pursuits.  He  was  elected  to  parliament 
for  the  borough  of  Christchurch  in  1761,  and 
tilled  that  seat  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  In 
1762  he  was  appointed  onfe  of  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty,  and  in  the  following  year  a  lord  of 
the  treasury,  but  went  out  of  office  with  the 
change  of  administration  in  1765.  In  1774  he 
was  appointed  secretary  and  comptroller  to  the 
queen.  In  1744  he  published  "Three  Trea- 
tises :  I.  Art ;  II.  Music,  Painting,  and  Poetry ; 
III.  Happiness;"  and  in  1751  his  famous  work, 
"  Hermes,  or  a  Philosophical  Inquiry  concern- 
ing Universal  Grammar,"  which  has  been  con- 
sidered a  model  of  ingenious  analysis  and  clear 
exposition,  Lowth  claiming  for  it  that  it  is  the 
best  specimen  of  analysis  since  the  time  of 
Aristotle.  In  1775  Harris  published  "Philo- 
sophical Arrangements,"  as  part  of  a  projected 
work  upon  the  "Logic"  of  Aristotle.  His 
"Philological  Inquiries"  was  published  after 
his  death,  in  1781.  His  collected  works  were 
published  in  1792  ;  a  fine  edition,  with  a  biog- 
raphy, was  published  by  his  son,  Lord  Malmes- 
bury,  in  1801  (2  vols.  4to,  London). 

HARRIS,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Ugborough,  Devonshire,  in  1804,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  21,  1856.  He  studied  divinity  in 
Hoxton  Independent  college,  and  became  pastor 
of  the  Independent  church  in  Epsom.  When 
in  1850  it  was  determined  to  consolidate  the 
various  Independent  colleges  in  and  about  the 
metropolis  into  one,  he  was  chosen  principal  of 
the  new  institution,  called  New  college,  in  which 
he  was  also  professor  of  theology.  While  at 
Epsom  he  wrote  his  prize  essay  against  covet- 
ousness  under  the  title  of  "  Mammon  "  (1836). 
Other  works  written  for  prizes  were  "Bri- 
tannia "  (1837),  an  appeal  in  aid  of  the  ob- 
jects of  the  British  and  foreign  sailors'  so- 
ciety, and  "The  Great  Commission"  (1842),  an 
essay  on  Christian  missions.  His  most  impor- 
tant works  are  "The  Pre-Adamite  Earth" 
(1847),  "Man  Primeval"  (1849),  and  "Patri- 
archy, or  the  Family,  its  Constitution  and  Pro- 
bation "  (1855). 


478 


HARRIS 


HAKRIS,  Thaddens  William,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, born  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Nov.  12, 
1795,  died  in  Cambridge,  Jan.  16,  1856.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1815,  studied 
medicine,  and  practised  his  profession  at  Milton 
Hill  till  1831,  when  he  was  appointed  librarian 
of  Harvard  college.  For  several  years  he  gave 
instruction  in  botany  and  general  natural  his- 
tory in  the  college,  apd  he  originated  the  Har- 
vard natural  history  society  for  the  students. 
He  was  chiefly  distinguished  as  an  entomologist. 
In  1837  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  a  zoological  and  botanical  survey 
of  Massachusetts,  the  result  of  which  was  his 
"  Systematic  Catalogue  of  the  Insects  of  Mas- 
sachusetts "  appended  to  Prof.  Hitchcock's  re- 
port. In  1841  appeared  his  "Report  on  In- 
sects Injurious  to  Vegetation,"  published  by 
the  legislature.  It  was  reprinted  in  1852, 
somewhat  enlarged ;  and  a  new  and  enlarged 
edition,  by  Charles  L.  Flint,  with  engravings 
drawn  under  the  supervision  of  Prof.  Agassiz, 
by  direction  of  the  legislature,  appeared  in  1862. 

HARRIS,  Thomas  Lake,  an  American  reformer, 
born  at  Fenny  Stratford,  England,  May  15, 
1823.  He  was  brought  to  America  when  four 
years  old  by  his  father,  who  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile pursuits  in  Utica,  N.  Y.  By  his  mother's 
death  and  financial  reverses  he  was  thrown 
from  boyhood  on  his  own  efforts  for  education 
and  support.  At  an  early  age  he  exhibited 
strong  religious  tendencies  and  poetic  imagina- 
tion. At  17  he  began  to  write  for  the  press, 
and  soon  after  became  known  through  contri- 
butions to  newspapers  and  periodicals.  In  his 
21st  year  he  renounced  his  inherited  Calvin- 
istic  faith  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Uni- 
versalist  denomination,  settling  at  once  over  a 
parish  in  Minden,  N.  Y.  After  a  few  months, 
on  account  of  failing  health,  he  went  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  whence  in  the  following  year  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  to  become  pastor  of  the 
fourth  Universalist  society ;  but  after  one  or 
two  years  he  was  again  prostrated  and  re- 
signed his  charge,  in  which  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Chapin.  In  the  ensuing  year 
he  took  the  position  which  he  has  since  main- 
tained of  an  independent  religious  and  social 
teacher,  and  organized  the  "  Independent 
Christian  Society  "  in  New  York,  to  which  he 
continued  to  minister  till  after  the  outbreak 
of  spiritualism  in  1850.  He  then  joined  a  com- 
munity at  Mountain  Cove,  Va.,  and  after  a  few 
months  employed  in  spiritual  investigations  he 
preached  and  lectured  in  the  principal  cities 
of  the  Union  till  1855.  In  philosophy  a  Pla- 
tonist,  in  spiritual  science  agreeing  with  Swe- 
den borg,  and  in  sociology  accepting  the  eco- 
nomical views  of  Fourier,  he  sought  in  these 
labors  to  turn  the  public  interest  in  spiritual- 
ism in  behalf  of  this  larger  and  higher  range 
of  thought.  In  1855  he  resumed  his  ministry 
among  his  friends  in  New  ^ork,  and  establish- 
ed a  periodical  devoted  to  his  religious  and  so- 
cial doctrines.  In  March,  1857,  as  he  affirms 
in  his  "Arcana  of  Christianity,"  he  was  sub- 


jected to  severe  temptations  from  evil  spirits, 
whom  he  saw  plainly  and  talked  with.  The 
result  of  the  conflict  with  these  demons  was 
that  he  triumphed  over  them  and  gained  the 
power  of  internal  respiration,  so  that  now,  as 
he  says,  "  I  inhale  with  equal  ease  and  freedom 
the  atmosphere  of  either  of  the  three  heavens, 
and  am  enabled  to  be  present,  without  the  sus- 
pension of  the  natural  degree  of  consciousness, 
with  the  angelic  societies,  whether  of  the  ulti- 
mate,  the  spiritual,  or  the  celestial  degree." 
In  1858  he  visited  England  and  Scotland,  and 
preached  and  lectured  several  months  each  in 
London,  Manchester,  Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow. 
Returning  in  1861,  he  retired  to  his  farm  in 
Amenia,  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.  Here  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  few  friends,  interested  in  or  experi- 
encing the  new  respiration,  and  seeking  to  real- 
ize a  purer  social  life.  As  his  spiritual  family 
enlarged  he  purchased  property  in  the  neigh- 
boring village  of  Amenia,  organized  a  national 
bank,  and  engaged  in  milling  and  other  branch- 
es of  business  at  that  place  and  elsewhere ;  and 
now  the  family  grew  into  a  society,  since  known 
as  the  "Brotherhood  of  the  New  Life."  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  the  interests  of  the  broth- 
erhood in  1866,  and  in  1867  removed  to  Port- 
land, Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.,  where  he  pur- 
chased for  his  own  account  a  tract  of  1,000 
acres  suitable  for  vineyard  and  agricultural  pur- 
poses, and  adjoining  farms  of  about  the  same 
extent  for  account  of  other  members  of  the  soci- 
ety. Among  those  who  had  joined  him  previ- 
ous to  this  were  Lady  Oliphant  and  her  son  Mr. 
Laurence  Oliphant,  M.  P.,  and  several  Japan- 
ese of  distinction,  one  of  whom  is  now  a  for- 
eign minister,  and  another  in  high  official  rank 
in  his  own  country.  Members  of  the  society 
who  hold  real  estate  cultivate  it  on  their  own 
account.  No  property  is  held  in  common.  Mr. 
Harris's  own  estate  affords  a  place  of  retreat . 
and  means  of  rest  and  recuperation  to  members 
of  the  fraternity  in  impaired  health,  or  to  those 
who  visit  him  from  Asia  and  Europe;  while 
its  cultivation  gives  employment  to  such  of  his 
friends  as  find  in  it  a  congenial  pursuit;  but 
nearly  all  the  members  of  the  brotherhood  are 
engaged  in  active  commercial,  industrial,  or  di- 
plomatic pursuits  in  their  respective  countries. 
The  "  Brotherhood  of  the  New  Life "  has  no 
written  creed,  covenant,  or  form  of  government. 
It  is  said  that  it  numbers  more  than  2,000  mem- 
bers, mostly  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  conti- 
nent, in  India  and  Japan,  and  that  it  is  held  in 
its  entirety  simply  by  the  principle  of  fraternal 
love,  and  by  an  inspiration  working  through 
internal  respiration,  and  that  its  growth,  since 
it  never  employs  proselytism,  is  by  means  of 
its  inherent  vitality  and  assimilative  power. 
They  claim  for  this  new  breath  that  it  descends 
through  the  heavens  from  the  Divine  Spirit. 
and  that  it  replaces  the  former  and  natural 
mode  of  breathing  by  a  respiration  which  is 
divine-natural,  in  fulfilment  of  the  statement 
which  Swedenborg  alleges  to  have  been  made 
to  him  by  the  angels  in  the  last  century,  that 


HAKBIS 


HARRISBURG 


479 


the  existing  order  of  Christendom  was  in  its 
last  stages  and  should  be  followed  by  anoth- 
er resulting  from  a  "  new  respiration,  breath- 
ed through  the  heavens  by  the  Lord."  They 
believe  that  inmostly  God  dwells  with  all  men, 
but  that  personally  and  corporeally  all  are 
en  rapport  with  good  and  evil  spirits ;  that 
self-love  and  self-indulgence  corrupt  and  de- 
grade the  person  till  the  divine  likeness  is 
effaced  and  the  man  becomes  a  devil ;  that 
salvation  is  neither  by  natural  progression, 
nor  philosophical  self-culture,  nor  justifying 
faith,  but  that  man  only  becomes  free  from 
his  evils,  and  from  the  tyranny  and  inspiration 
of  evil  spirits,  through  self-renunciation  and  a 
life  of  unselfish  labor  for  humanity ;  but  that 
in  this  latter  case  both  spirit  and  body  may 
)me  regenerate  and  pure.  They  hold  that 
God  is  Two-in-one,  infinite  in  fatherhood  and 
motherhood,  and  that  all  who  become  angels 
Ind  their  counterparts  of  sex  and  become  two- 
in-one  to  eternity ;  hence  they  recognize  in 
marriage  not  only  a  pure  ordinance,  but  the 
ibol  of  the  holiest  of  divine  mysteries.  They 
hold  that  the  Christian  church  of  the  future 
will  not  be  an  ecclesiasticism,  but  a  pure  and 
free  society,  not  communistic,  but  fraternal 
ind  cooperative.  Mr.  Harris's  principal  prose 
works  are :  "  Wisdom  of  Angels  "  (1856)  ; 
"  Arcana  of  Christianity  "  (1857,  1866) ;  "  Truth 

id  Life  in  Jesus"  (1859);  "Modern  Spirit- 
ualism, its  Truths  and  Errors"  (1860);  "Ser- 

>ns  and  Lectures  "  (1860) ;  "  Millennial  Age  " 
(1860);  "Breath  of  God  with  Man"  (1866). 
lis  poetical  works  are  :  "  Starry  Heavens  " 
(1853) ;  "  Lyric  of  the  Morning  Land  "  (1854) ; 
"Lyric  of  the  Golden  Age"  (1856);  "  Regi- 

,"  (1859);  "Hymns  of  Spiritual  Devotion" 
1856-'8) ;  "  The  Great  Republic  "  (1866). 

HARRIS,  William,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  April  29,  1765,  died 
Oct.  18,  1829.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 
lege in  1786,  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Epis- 
copal church  in  1792,  and  took  charge  at  once 
of  the  church  and  academy  in  Marblehead, 
Mass.  In  1802  he  became  rector  of  St.  Mark's 
church  in  New  York,  where  he  established  a 
classical  school.  He  was  chosen  in  1811  to 
succeed  Bishop  Moore  as  president  of  Columbia 
college,  and  for  six  years  retained  his  rector- 
ship in  connection  with  this  office.  He  was 
assisted  in  the  duties  of  the  presidency  by  Dr. 
J.  M.  Mason,  under  the  title  of  provost,  an  of- 
fice which  was  abolished  in  1816  ;  from  which 
time  until  his  death  Dr.  Harris  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  the  college. 

HARRIS,  William  Torrey,  an  American  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Killingly,  Conn.,  Sept.  10,  1835. 
He  entered  Yale  college  in  1854,  but  did  not 
graduate.  The  degree  of  A.  M.  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  college  in  1869.  In  1857  he 
went  to  St.  Louis,  and  in  the  following  year 
became  a  teacher  in  one  of  the  public  schools. 
Ten  years  later  he  was  made  superintendent 
of  schools,  a  post  which  he  still  holds  (1874). 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  philosophi- 
391  VOL.  vm.— 31 


cal  society  of  St.  Louis  in  1866,  and  in  1867  es- 
tablished the  "  Journal  of  Speculative  Philoso- 
phy," a  quarterly  magazine  which  he  continues 
to  edit,  and  to  which  he  has  contributed  many 
philosophical  articles  of  his  own,  besides  trans- 
lations of  the  principal  works  of  Hegel.  The 
"Journal"  has  also  published  translations 
from  Leibnitz,  Descartes,  Kant,  Fichte,  and 
Schelling,  and  from  recent  German  and  Italian 
philosophers,  and  many  remarkable  papers  on 
art.  In  1874  Mr.  Harris  was  elected  president 
of  the  "  National  Teachers'  Association." 

HARRISBURG,  a  city,  county  seat  of  Dauphin 
co.,  Pennsylvania,  and  capital  of  the  state,  sit- 
uated on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Susquehanna 
river,  here  spanned  by  a  public  and  a  railroad 
bridge,  95  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Philadelphia ;  lat. 
40°  16'  N.,  Ion.  76°  50'  W.;  pop.  in  1850, 
7,834;  in  1860,  13,405;  in  1870,  23,104,  of 
whom  2,795  were  foreigners.  The  river  at 
this  point  is  a  mile  wide,  and  is  divided  by 
an  island  in  the  middle.  The  city  is  hand- 
somely built,  and  is  surrounded  by  magnificent 
scenery.  The  state  house,  finely  situated  on 
an  eminence  near  the  centre,  is  a  handsome 
brick  building,  180  ft.  long  by  80  ft.  wide,  with 
a  circular  Ionic  portico  in  front  surmounted 
by  a  dome  commanding  a  fine  view.  It  was 
begun  in  1819,  and  occupied  for  the  first  time 
on  Jan.  28,  1822.  There  is  a  smaller  building 
of  similar  design  on  each  side  of  it,  devoted  to 
government  uses.  The  county  court  house,  in 
Market  street,  is  a  stately  brick  edifice,  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome.  The  state  lunatic  asylum, 
N.  of  the  city,  was  opened  in  1851,  and  in  1874 
had  408  inmates.  The  other  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  market  houses,  county  pris- 
on, eight  large  brick  school  houses,  a  fine  ma- 
sonic hall,  and  several  churches.  Front  street, 
overlooking  the  river,  affords  the  most  attrac- 
tive promenade  in  the  city,  and  contains  many 
of  the  finest  residences.  Harris  park  is  a 
handsome  public  square,  and  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  State  and  Second  streets  is  a  monument 
erected  in  memory  of  the  soldiers  of  the  county 
who  fell  in  the  civil  war.  Harrisburg  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  fertile  region,  abounding  in  coal 
and  iron  ore,  and  has  ample  means  of  commu- 
nication with  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  the 
west  by  the  Pennsylvania  canal,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania Central,  the  Cumberland  Valley,  the 
Northern  Central,  the  Lebanon  Valley,  and  the 
Schuylkill  and  Susquehanna  railroads.  The 
manufactures,  particularly  of  iron,  are  exten- 
sive. The  principal  establishments  are  10  iron 
founderies,  2  machine  shops,  a  rolling  mill,  a 
manufactory  of  nails,  2  of  steam  engines,  one 
each  of  files,  cars,  coaches,  cement  pipe,  pot- 
tery, brooms,  soap,  and  hose  and  belting,  4  of 
carriages,  2  of  cigar  boxes,  a  cotton  mill,  a 
knitting  mill,  4  planing  and  saw  mills,  2  tan- 
ning and  currying  establishments,  and  6  brew- 
eries. The  Lochiel  iron  company  manufactures 
bar  and  railroad  iron.  There  are  six  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $650,000.  The 
city  is  divided  into  9  wards,  and  is  governed  by 


480 


HARRISBURG 


HARRISON 


a  mayor  and  a  common  council  of  25  members. 
The  streets  are  well  paved  and  drained,  and 
lighted  with  gas.  Water  is  supplied  from  the 
river,  by  works  erected  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,- 
000,  and  having  a  capacity  of  10,000,000  gal- 
lons a  day.  The  taxable  valuation  of  proper- 


ty in  1874  was  $6,000,000 ;  city  debt,  $600,- 
000.  The  public  schools  in  1872  numbered  51 
(2  high,  15  grammar,  and  34  primary),  hav- 
ing 73  teachers  and  an  average  attendance  of 
2,339  pupils.  There  are  also  an  academy,  a 
female  seminary,  and  an  English  and  German 


Harrisburg,  from  the  west  bank  of  the  Susquehanna. 


Catholic  school.  Four  daily  and  eight  weekly 
(two  German)  newspapers  and  two  monthly 
periodicals  are  published.  The  state  library 
contains  30,000  volumes.  There  are  32  church- 
es, viz. :  4  Baptist,  1  Episcopal,  1  Evangelical, 
1  Jewish,  6  Lutheran  (2  German),  4  Meth- 
odist (1  Welsh),  4  Presbyterian,  2  Reformed  (1 
German),  2  Roman  Catholic  (1  German),  2 
United  Brethren,  and  5  miscellaneous. — The 
first  permanent  white  settlement  on  the  site 
of  Harrisburg  was  made  about  1726,  by  an 
Englishman  named  John  Harris,  who,  in  De- 
cember, 1733,  obtained  from  the  proprietaries 
of  Pennsylvania  a  grant  of  300  acres  of  land 
near  his  residence,  and  purchased  of  other 
grantees  500  acres  adjoining.  He  carried  on  a 
considerable  trade  with  the  Indians  of  the  vi- 
cinity. In  1753  the  Penns  granted  to  his  son, 
John  Harris,  jr.,  the  right  to  establish  a  ferry 
over  the  Susquehanna,  and  the  place  was  long 
known  as  Harris's  Ferry.  In  1785  the  town  was 
laid  out,  and  it  became  the  seat  of  justice  of  the 
new  county  taken  from  Lancaster  and  called 
Dauphin,  after  the  French  crown  prince ;  the 
town  also  received,  in  honor  of  Louis  XVI.,  the 
name  of  Louisbourg,  but  in  1791  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  borough  under  its  present  name. 
It  became  the  capital  of  the  state  in  1812,  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1860. 

HARRISON,  the  name  of  eight  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  N.  W.  county  of  West 
Virginia,  drained  by  the  W.  fork  of  Mononga- 


hela  river ;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,- 
714,  of  whom  655  were  colored.  It  has  a  hil- 
ly surface  and  fertile  soil,  and  abounds  in  tim- 
ber, coal,  and  iron.  The  Parkersburg  division 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  83,473  bushels  of  wheat,  327,261  of  In- 
dian corn,  56,183  of  oats,  26,028  of  potatoes, 
45,662  of  wool,  276,955  of  butter,  and  16,901 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,040  horses,  4,906 
milch  cows,  15,855  other  cattle,  15,812  sheep, 
and  8,951  swine;  1  manufactory  of  boots  and 
shoes,  1  of  iron  castings,  2  of  machinery,  5 
tanneries,  5  currying  establishments,  3  flour 
mills,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Clarksburg. 
II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  bordering  on 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  drained  by  Biloxi  and 
Wolf  rivers  and  branches  of  the  Pascagoula; 
area,  870  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,795,  of  whom 
1,427  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and 
mostly  covered  with  pine  woods,  and  the  soil 
is  light  and  sandy.  The  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  Texas  railroad  passes  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  9,345  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  12,625  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
98,750  Ibs.  of  rice ;  value  of  live  stock,  $78,135. 
There  were  16  saw  mills.  Capital,  Mississippi 
City.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bordering 
on  Louisiana,  bounded  N.  by  Big  Cypress  bayou 
and  Caddo  lake,  and  S.  by  Sabine  river  ;  area, 
964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,241,  of  whom 
8,931  were  colored.  The  surface  is  diversified 


HARRISON 


481 


prairies,  and  forests,  and  the  soil  is  fertile, 
al  and  iron  ore  are  found  on  the  Sabine  riv- 
and  there   are   several    mineral    springs. 
5  Texas  and  Pacific  railroad  passes  through 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  233,- 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  23,004  of  sweet 
itoes,  and  8,165  bales  of  cotton.      There 
rere  899  horses,  1,095  mules  and  asses,  2,396 
lilch  cows,  3,953  other  cattle,  2,463  sheep, 
id  8,269  swine.     Capital,  Marshall.     IV.    A 
F.  E.  county  of  Kentucky,  drained  by  Licking 
iver  and  its  S.  branch ;  area,  356  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
1870,  12,993,  of  whom  2,378  were  colored, 
le  surface  is  diversified  by  hills  and  tracts 
rich  rolling  land,  the  soil  is  fertile  and 
B!!  adapted  for  grazing,  and  blue  limestone 
abundant.     The  Kentucky  Central  railroad 
sses  through  it.     The  chief  productions  in 
were   61,669   bushels  of  wheat,  42,386 
,  rye,  719,315  of  Indian  corn,  85,914  of  oats, 
),604  of  potatoes,  281,704  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
1,961  of  wool,  and  153,756  of  butter.     There 
rere  5,966   horses,    1,924    mules    and  asses, 
,845   milch   cows,  5,590   other  cattle,  8,697 
leep,  and  16,098  swine;  10  carriage  factories, 
woollen  factory,  13  distilleries,  5  flour  mills, 
id  2  saw  mills.     Capital,  Cynthiana.     V.  An 
county  of  Ohio,  drained  by  branches  of  the 
)hio  and  Tuscarawas  rivers ;  area,  420  sq.  m. ; 
x  in  1870,  18,682.     It  has  a  hilly  surface  and 
ch  soil.    Limestone  and  iron   are  found. 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  rail- 
id  and  Cadiz  branch  traverse  it.     The  chief 
)ductions  in  1870  were  155,688  bushels  of 
fheat,  588,216  of  Indian  corn,  283,959  of  oats, 
57,996  of  potatoes,  820,615  Ibs.  of  wool,  616,- 
J8  of  butter,  and  31,652  tons  of  hay.     There 
rere  4,844  horses,  4,477  milch   cows,   6,515 
ler  cattle,  180,189  sheep,  and  9,067  swine; 
manufactories  of  carriages,  10  of  clothing, 
of  woollen  goods,  7  tanneries,  7  currying  es- 
iblishments,  2  planing  mills,  and  3  saw  mills. 
)ital,  Cadiz.     VI.  A  S.  county  of  Indiana, 
jp'arated  from  Kentucky  by  the  Ohio  river, 
bounded  W.  by  Blue  river ;  area,  478  sq. 
;  pop.  in  1870,  19,913.     It  has  an  uneven 
irface,  broken   by  "  knobs "   and  hills,  and 
»ed  partly  on  carboniferous  limestone.     It 
abounds  in   natural   caverns,    one   of   which. 
Pitman's  cave,  extends  more  than  2  m. 
ider  ground.     Near  it  is  a  remarkable  spring 
ft.  in   diameter,  and  several  hundred   ft. 
leep.      The  soil  is  mostly  good.     The  chief 
reductions  in  1870  were  255,847  bushels  of 
rheat,  507,072  of  Indian  corn,  171,700  of  oats, 
156,259  of  potatoes,  37,403  Ibs.  of  wool,  196,- 
577  of  butter,  and  7,212  tons  of  hay.     There 
rere  6,155   horses,  5,226   milch   cows,  5,633 
3r  cattle,  15,769  sheep,  and  29,139  swine ; 
16  manufactories  of  barrels  and  casks,  6  of 
irniture,  1  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
15  flour  mills  and  12  saw  mills.     Capital,  Cory- 
Ion.     VII.  A  W.  county  of  Iowa,    separated 
rom  Nebraska  by  the  Missouri,  and  crossed 
)y  Boyer  and  Soldier  rivers  and  other  streams ; 
about  480  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,931. 


The  surface  is  somewhat  diversified,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Timber  is  found  along  the  streams. 
The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Sioux 
City  and  Pacific  railroads  traverse  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  194,591  bush- 
els of  wheat,  664,510  of  Indian  corn,  103,207 
of  oats,  42,167  of  potatoes,  223,615  Ibs.  of  but- 
ter, and  22,661  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,451 
horses,  4,202  milch  cows,  7,027  other  cattle, 
5,222  sheep,  and  9,274  swine;  2  flour  mills, 
4  saw  mills,  and  1  woollen  factory.  Capital, 
Magnolia.  VIII.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Missouri, 
bordering  on  Iowa,  and  watered  by  affluents 
of  Grand  river ;  area,  754  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  14,635,  of  whom  10  were  colored.  It 
consists  in  large  part  of  prairies,  and  has  much 
fertile  soil  near  the  rivers.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  109,571  bushels  of  wheat, 
756,607  of  Indian  corn,  210,521  of  oats,  55,- 
400  of  potatoes,  86,415  Ibs.  of  wool,  20,075  of 
tobacco,  370,359  of  butter,  and  7,902  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  7,781  horses,  5,989  milch 
cows,  12,308  other  cattle,  31,609  sheep,  and 
31,393  swine;  2  flour  mills,  7  saw  mills,  and 
2  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establish- 
ments. Capital,  Bethany. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  an  American  statesman, 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, born  in  Berkeley,  Va.,  about  1740, 
died  in  April,  1791.  He  entered  public  life  in 
1764  as  a  member  of  the  Virginia  house  of 
burgesses,  of  which  he  soon  became  one  of  the 
leaders.  During  the  agitation  of  the  stamp  act 
question,  the  governor  of  Virginia  unsuccess- 
fully attempted  to  secure  his  support  by  offer- 
ing him  a  seat  in  the  executive  council.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  first  continental  congress, 
and  served  as  chairman  of  the  board  of  war 
and  on  other  important  committees  until  the 
close  of  1777,  when  he  returned  to  Virginia. 
He  was  elected  to  the  house  of  burgesses,  over 
which  he  presided  till  1782,  when  he  was 
chosen  governor.  In  1785,  after  having  been 
twice  reflected  governor,  he  returned  to  private 
life.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state  convention 
which  met  in  1788  to  ratify  the  federal  consti- 
tution, and  at  the  time  of  his  death  of  the 
state  legislature.  He  was  the  father  of  Wil- 
liam Henry  Harrison. 

HARRISON,  John,  an  English  mechanician, 
born  at  Faulby,  Yorkshire,  in  1693,  died  in 
London  in  1776.  He  was  the  son  of  a  carpen- 
ter, and  in  his  youth  worked  in  his  fathers 
shop.  A  taste  for  mechanical  pursuits  led  him 
to  study  the  construction  of  clocks,  and  in  1726 
he  effected  improvements  which  insured  much 
greater  accuracy  than  had  previously  been  at- 
tained in  timepieces.  In  1714  parliament  of- 
fered prizes  of  £10,000,  £15,000,  and  £20,000 
respectively  for  a  method  of  ascertaining  longi- 
tude within  60,  40,  or  30  miles.  Mr.  Harrison 
constructed  a  chronometer  which  was  satisfac- 
torily tested  on  a  voyage  in  1736,  and  by  suc- 
cessive improvements  on  it  secured  the  highest 
prize  in  1767.  His  inventions,  the  gridiron 
pendulum,  the  going  barrel,  the  compensation 


482 


HARRISON 


curb,  and  the  remontoir  escapement,  were  con- 
sidered the  most  remarkable  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  watches  of  the  last  century.  (See 
CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES.) 

HARRISON,  John,  an  English  regicide,  exe- 
cuted in  London  in  October,  1660.  He  was  a 
colonel  in  the  parliamentary  army,  and  superin- 
tended the  removal  of  Charles  I.  from  Hurst 
castle  to  Windsor,  Dec.  19-23, 1648.  The  king 
had  been  told  that  Harrison  was  appointed  to 
assassinate  him,  and,  struck  with  his  soldierly 
appearance,  told  him  his  suspicion,  when  Har- 
rison replied  that  the  parliament  would  not 
strike  the  king  secretly.  On  Jan.  19,  1649,  he 
escorted  Charles  from  Windsor  to  London  for 
trial.  He  was  appointed  major  general,  and 
was  one  of  a  conference  of  the  chief  men  at 
the.  house  of  the  speaker  of  the  commons,  in 
1651,  to  decide  upon  the  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment. When  Cromwell  was  about  to  dissolve 
the  long  parliament,  the  same  year,  he  told 
Harrison,  who  advised  against  haste.  In  1653 
he  was  considered  by  the  Anabaptists  as  their 
leader.  Upon  the  restoration,  in  1660,  he  was 
executed  with  nine  others. 

HARRISON,  William  Henry,  ninth  president  of 
the  United  States,  born  in  Berkeley,  Charles 
City  co.,  Va.,  Feb.  9, 1773,  died  in  Washington, 
April  4,  1841.  He  was  the  third  and  youngest 
son  of  Governor  Benjamin  Harrison.  At  the 
age  of  19  years,  with  the  commission  of  ensign, 
he  joined  the  army  employed  first  under  St. 
Clair,  and  afterward  under  Wayne,  against  the 
western  Indians,  becoming  aide-de-camp  of  the 
latter.  In  1795  he  was  made  captain  and 
placed  in  command  of  Fort  Washington,  on  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Cincinnati,  laid  out  on 
grounds  owned  by  John  Cleves  Symmes,  whose 
daughter  Capt.  Harrison  married.  In  1797  he 
resigned  his  commission  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  territory  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio, 
from  which  in  1799  he  was  chosen  a  delegate 
to  congress.  The  Northwestern  territory  hav- 
ing been  divided,  Harrison  was  appointed  in 
1801  governor  of  the  new  territory  of  Indiana, 
embracing  the  present  states  of  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  Almost  the 
whole  of  it  was  then  in  possession  of  the  In- 
dians, with  whom  as  superintendent  he  made 
several  important  treaties  in  which  large  ces- 
sions of  territory  were  obtained.  The  agitation 
among  the  Indians  caused  by  Tecumseh  and 
his  brother  the  prophet  having  resulted  in  hos- 
tilities, Harrison  in  the  autumn  of  1811  ad- 
vanced against  the  prophet's  town  at  the  head 
of  800  men,  partly  regulars  and  partly  volun- 
teers. His  camp  at  Tippecanoe  was  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked  on  the  night  of  Nov.  7.  The 
defeated  Indians  were  at  first  inclined  to  treat, 
but  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Great 
Britain  made  them  again  hostile.  After  Hull's 
surrender,  Harrison  was  appointed,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1812,  to  the  command  of  the  N.  W.  fron- 
tier, with  a  commission  as  brigadier  general. 
It  was  not  till  the  next  year,  by  which  time  he 
'vas  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major  general, 


that  he  was  able  to  commence  active  opera- 
tions. Several  mishaps  grew  out  of  the  inex- 
perience of  his  subordinate  officers,  but  the 
victory  of  Perry  on  Lake  Erie  enabled  him  to 
recover  from  the  British  the  American  terri- 
tory which  they  had  occupied,  and  to  pursue 
them  into  Canada,  where  on  Oct.  5  they  were 
totally  routed  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  A 
peace  with  the  N.  W.  Indians  soon  followed. 
Not  long  after,  in  consequence  of  misunder- 
standings with  Armstrong,  the  secretary  of 
war,  Harrison  resigned  his  commission  in  the 
army.  In  1816  he  was  elected  from  the  Cin- 
cinnati district  a  member  of  congress,  in -which 
body  he  sat  for  three  years.  In  1819  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  state  senate  of  Ohio, 
and  in  1824  United  States  senator.  He  was 
appointed  chairman  of  the  military  committee 
in  place  of  Gen.  Jackson,  who  had  just  resigned 
his  seat  in  the  senate.  In  1828  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  John  Q.  Adams  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Colombia,  but  was  recalled 
immediately  on  Jackson's  accession  to  the 
presidency  in  1829.  For  several  years  after 
his  return  he  took  no  active  part  in  political 
affairs,  but  lived  retired  on  his  farm  at  North 
Bend  on  the  Ohio,  a  few  miles  below  Cincin- 
nati, and  was  for  12  years  clerk  of  the  coun- 
ty court.  In  1836,  as  the  close  of  Jackson's 
second  term  of  office  drew  near,  the  opposition 
were  somewhat  at  a  loss  for  a  candidate  for 
the  presidency.  The  success  of  Gen.  Jackson 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  adopting  a  candidate 
who  had  military  reputation.  Harrison,  while 
in  command  of  the  N.  W.  department  during 
the  war  of  1812,  had  enjoyed  a  high  popularity 
in  the  west,  and  was  now  brought  forward  as 
a  presidential  candidate.  He  received  73  elec- 
toral votes,  a  greater  number  than  Clay  had 
obtained  four  years  before,  though  Massachu- 
setts, which  now  voted  for  Mr.  Webster,  then 
voted  for  him.  The  financial  crisis  which  fol- 
lowed the  election  of  Mr.  Van  Buren  greatly 
strengthened  the  opposition.  The  prospect  of 
defeating  his  reelection  was.very  strong  if  the 
opposition  could  unite  upon  a  candidate.  Mr. 
Clay  was  again  brought  forward  and  strongly 
urged.  Gen.  Scott  was  also  proposed.  In  the 
national  convention  which  met  at  Harrisburg, 
Dec.  4, 1839,  Gen.  Harrison  received  the  nomi- 
nation. A  very  ardent  and  exciting  canvass 
followed.  On  the  part  of  the  supporters  of 
Harrison  every  means  was  employed  to  arouse 
the  popular  enthusiasm.  Mass  meetings  and 
political  processions  were  now  first  brought 
into  general  use,  and  this  canvass  marks  an  era 
in  the  style  of  conducting  elections.  The  slur 
which  had  been  cast  upon  Harrison  that  he 
lived  in  a  "  log  cabin,"  with  nothing  to  drink 
but  "  hard  cider,"  was  seized  upon  as  an  elec- 
tioneering appeal.  Log  cabins  became  a  regu- 
lar feature  in  political  processions,  and  "  hard 
cider"  one  of  the  watchwords  of  the  party. 
Harrison  received  234  electoral  votes  to  60  for 
Van  Buren.  He  was  inaugurated  president, 
March  4,  1841.  His  cabinet  was  judiciously 


HARRODSBURG 

iposed,  and  great  expectations  were  formed 
of  his  administration ;  but  within  a  month,  and 
before  any  distinctive  line  of  policy  could  be 
established,  he  died,  after  an  illness  of  eight 
days,  brought  on,  it  was  supposed,  by  fatigue 
and  excitement  incident  to  his  inauguration. 
HARRODSBURG,  a 
>wn  and  the  capital 
Mercer    co.,    Ken- 
icky,    situated    on    a 
lall    branch   of   Salt 
•iver,  8  m.  S.  W.  of  the 
Kentucky    river,     and 
m.  S.  of  Frankfort ; 
y.  in  1870,  2,205,  of 
rtiom  1,101  were  col- 
jd.      Built  on   high 
rand  and   surround- 
by  fine  scenery,  it 
an  attractive   sum- 
ler   retreat,   and    en- 
:>ys  a  reputation   for 
i  mineral  waters.  The 
[arrodsburg      springs 
rere   formerly  among 
most    fashionable 
3es  of  resort  in  the 
western  states,  and  are 
till   visited    by    inva- 
ids.     They  were  pur- 

lased  a  few  years  ago  by  the  United  States 
>vernment  as  the  site  of  a  military  asylum, 
it  this  institution  is  not  now  in  operation, 
in  important  trade  is  carried  on  in  horses, 
ttle,  and  other  live  stock.     The  town  con- 
dns  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  national  bank, 
id  several  factories.     It  is  the  seat  of  Daugh- 
srs'  college  (Christian),  founded  in  1856,  and 
laving  in  1873-'4  8  instructors,  140  students, 
id  a  library  of  3,000  volumes.     It  is  essen- 
"ly  a  female  normal  school,  and  many  of  its 
raduates  are   engaged  in  teaching.     Bacon 
liege  has  been  removed  to  Lexington,  and 
lerged  in  the  Kentucky  university.     Harrods- 
Durg  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  town  in  Ken- 
icky,  the  first  cabin  having  been  built  in  1774 
Capt.  James  Harrod. 
HARROGATE,  or  Harrowgate,  a  village  of  York- 
lire,  England,  20  m.  W.  by  N.  of  York  ;  pop. 
1871,   10,829.     It  has  chalybeate  and  sul- 
lurous  springs,  and  is  the  principal  watering 
)lace  in  the  north  of  England.      It  contains 
iblic  baths,  hotels,  lodging  houses,  a  theatre, 
romenade  rooms,  ball  rooms,  and  libraries. 
HARROW,  or  Harrow-on-the-Hill,  a  village  of 
[iddlesex,  England,  10  m.  N".  W.  of  London ; 
)p.  in  1871,  10,867.     It  contains  an  ancient 
)arish  church  having  a  lofty  tower  and  spire, 
)laces  of  worship  for  Baptists  and  Methodists, 
ind  a  free  grammar  school  which  was  founded 
1571  by  John  Lyon,  a  wealthy  yeoman  of 
e  parish.    This  school  was  originally  intended 
for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor  boys  be- 
longing to  the  parish  of  Harrow ;  but  as  the 
education  is  almost  wholly  classical,  few  boys 
belonging  to  the  parish  take  advantage  of  it, 


HAKT 


483 


and  it  is  now  principally  attended  by  the  sons 
of  the  nobility  and  gentry,  and  is  in  high  re- 
pute. Among  the  celebrated  men  who  have 
been  educated  there  are  Sir  William  Jones, 
Dr.  Parr,  Lord  Byron,  and  Sir  Kobert  Peel. 
Harrow  school  chapel  has  been  much  improved 


Harrow  School. 

since  1856,  a  new  aisle  being  added  from  funds 
subscribed  by  the  masters  and  the  parents  of 
the  pupils,  and  a  beautiful  chancel  erected  at 
the  expense  of  the  head  master,  Dr.  Vaughan. 

HART.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  sepa- 
rated from  South  Carolina  by  the  Savannah 
river,  and  watered  by  several  of  its  small 
branches  ;  area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,783,  of  whom  1,942  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  uneven.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  18,986  bushels  of  wheat,  112,656  of  In- 
dian corn,  11,566  of  oats,  12,158  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  1,320  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
871  horses,  1,522  milch  cows,  2,335  other  cat- 
tle, 3,437  sheep,  and  4,529  swine,  and  1  cotton 
factory.  Capital,  Hartwell.  II.  A  central 
county  of  Kentucky,  in  the  region  called  "  the 
barrens,"  watered  by  Green  river,  which  is 
here  navigable  by  steamboats;  area,  432  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,687,  of  whom  2,192  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  small 
hills  thinly  covered  with  oak  and  other  timber, 
and  is  perforated  by  many  limestone  caverns ; 
the  soil  is  fertile.  The  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  81,923  bushels  of  wheat, 
449,286  of  Indian  corn,  62,785  of  oats,  2,315,212 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  26,250  of  wool,  and  132,382  of 
butter.  There  were  3,801  horses,  2,830  milch 
cows,  3,513  other  cattle,  13,365  sheep,  and 
22,249  swine.  Capital,  Mumfordsville. 

HART,  James  McDongal,  an  American  painter, 
brother  of  William  Hart,  born  in  Kilmarnock, 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  1828.  His  parents  hav- 
ing removed  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  he  commenced 
life  as  a  coach  painter  at  Troy,  and  was  induced 


484 


HART 


by  a  natural  taste  for  art  to  adopt  the  profession 
of  a  landscape  painter.  He  went  in  1851  to 
Dusseldorf,  where  he  spent  nearly  a  year  under 
the  instruction  of  Schirmer.  He  returned  to 
Albany  in  1852,  and  in  1856  removed  to  New 
York/  In  1857  he  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  academy  of  design,  and  in  1859  an  acade- 
mician. He  is  particularly  noted  as  a  painter 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  Some  of  his  principal 
paintings  are,  "Woods  in  Autumn,"  "Moon- 
rise  in  the  Adirondacks,"  "  Coming  out  of  the 
Shade,"  and  "  On  the  March,"  apiece  contain- 
ing cattle  and  sheep. 

HART,  Joel  T.,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Clark  co.,  Ky.,  about  1810.  His  education 
was  restricted  to  a  quarter's  schooling,  but  he 
read  diligently  all  the  books  that  he  could 
obtain.  In  1830  he  entered  a  stone  cutter's 
shop  in  Lexington,  and  soon  began  to  model 
busts  in  clay,  making  good  likenesses  of  many 
influential  persons,  among  whom  were  Gen. 
Jackson  and  Cassius  M.  Clay.  The  latter  gave 
him  his  first  commission  for  a  bust  in  marble. 
The  work  was  so  satisfactory  that  the  artist 
was  commissioned  by  the  "  Ladies'  Clay  Asso- 
ciation "  of  Virginia  to  execute  a  marble  statue 
of  Henry  Clay,  which  now  stands  in  the  capi- 
tol  square  at  Richmond.  He  went  to  Florence 
in  1849  to  execute  this  order,  but  the  work 
was  delayed  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  his 
model  by  shipwreck  and  by  other  circum- 
stances, and  it  was  not  till  1859  that  the  statue 
was  shipped  to  the  United  States.  Mr.  Hart 
afterward  made  the  colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Henry  Clay  which  now  stands  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  St.  Charles  and  Canal  streets  in  New 
Orleans.  He  still  resides  in  Florence  (1874), 
where  he  has  executed  many  busts  of  eminent 
men  and  a  number  of  ideal  works.  Among 
the  latter  are  "Angelina,"  "II  Penseroso," 
and  "  Woman  Triumphant." 

HART,  John,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  born  in  Hopewell  township,  N. 
J.,  in  1708,  died  there  in  1780.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  farmer,  and  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  on  his  own  farm  near  Trenton.  He  was 
several  times  a  member  of  the  provincial  con- 
gress of  New  Jersey,  and  was  prominent  espe- 
cially in  legislation  for  local  improvements. 
On  June  21,  1776,  he  was  elected,  with  four 
others,  to  the  continental  congress,  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of  the  New 
Jersey  delegation,  who,  elected  the  previous 
February,  were  unwilling  to  assume  the  re- 
sponsibility imposed  by  Lee's  resolution.  Of 
the  number  who  resigned  was  John  De  Hart, 
who  has  frequently  been  confounded  with  the 
signer  of  the  Declaration.  In  1777  and  1778 
John  Hart  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
New  Jersey  council  of  safety.  When  the  state 
was  invaded  by  the  British,  his  farm  was  laid 
waste  and  every  effort  made  to  capture  him. 
He  left  his  family  and  wandered  through  the 
woods,  constantly  hunted,  and  never  ventur- 
ing to  sleep  twice  in  the  same  house.  The  cap- 
ture of  the  Hessians  at  Trenton  made  it  safe 


for  him  to  return  to  his  farm,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life. 

HART,  John  Seely,  an  American  author,  born 
at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1810.  His  fam- 
ily removed  to  Pennsylvania,  finally  settling 
near  Wilkesbarre.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  in  1830,  and  after  teaching  for  a 
year  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  he  became  in  1832  tu- 
tor and  in  1834  adjunct  professor  of  ancient 
languages  at  Princeton,  where  from  1836  to 
1841  he  had  charge  of  the  Edgehill  school. 
From  1842  to  1859  he  was  principal  of  the 
Philadelphia  high  school,  and  from  1863  to 
1871  of  the  New  Jersey  state  normal  school  at 
Trenton.  In  1872  he  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  of  the  English  language  at  Prince- 
ton. He  has  contributed  largely  to  periodicals, 
and  edited  several  journals  and  illustrated  an- 
nuals. Besides  some  text  books  and  religious 
works,  he  has  published  "  Class  Book  of  Poe- 
try" and  "Class  Book  of  Prose"  (1844), 
"  Spenser  and  the  Fairy  Queen  "  (1847),  "  Fe- 
male Prose  Writers  of  America"  (1851),  "In 
the  School  Room  "  (1868),  "  Manual  of  Com- 
position and  Rhetoric"  (1870),  "Manual  of 
English  Literature  "  (1872),  "  Manual  of  Amer- 
ican Literature"  (1873),  and  "  Short  Course  in 
Literature,  English  and  American  "  (1874). 

HART,  Solomon  Alexander,  an  English  painter 
of  Jewish  descent,  born  in  Plymouth  in  April, 
1806.  He  commenced  his  career  by  painting 
miniatures,  but  in  1828  turned  his  attention  to 
historical  subjects,  and  at  once  achieved  a 
reputation  by  some  scenes  from  the  Jewish 
ceremonial.  He  next  painted  scenes  from  Scott 
and  Shakespeare,  and  again,  between  1845  and 
1850,  recurred  to  Jewish  subjects.  He  has 
also  shown  a  strong  partiality  for  subjects  il- 
lustrating the  ceremonials  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church.  In  1840  he  became  an  academi- 
cian, and  in  1854  succeeded  Leslie  as  professor 
of  painting  in  the  royal  academy,  to  which  in 
1865  he  was  appointed  librarian. 

HART,  William,  an  American  landscape  paint- 
er, born  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1823.  He 
came  with  his  parents  to  America  in  1831,  and 
settled  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  In  his  youth  he  was 
employed  in  coach  painting  in  Troy,  and  soon 
gave  evidence  of  great  ability  in  landscape 
and  portrait  painting.  In  1848  he  exhibited 
some  of  his  works  at  the  national  academy 
of  design,  and  they  were  favorably  received. 
In  1850  he  revisited  Scotland,  and  spent  three 
years  there  in  study,  settling  in  New  York 
city  on  his  return.  In  1856  he  was  made  an 
associate  of  the  national  academy,  and  two 
years  later  an  academician.  Mr.  Hart  is  a 
successful  teacher  of  his  art  as  well  as  a  pop- 
ular painter.  He  was  for  some  time  presi- 
dent of  the  Brooklyn  academy  of  design. 
Among  his  principal  pictures  are  "The  last 
Gleam,"  "  The  Golden  Hour,"  "  Sunset  from 
Dark  Harbor,  N.  B.,"  "  Opening  in  the  Elands  " 
i  (a  coast  scene),  and  "Up  in  the  Glen,  White 
I  Mountains."  He  is  especially  distinguished  for 
i  his  numerous  representations  of  American  au- 


HAUTE 


HARTFORD 


485 


tumn  scenery.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  en- 
courage the  establishment  of  the  American 
water-color  society,  and  for  three  years  was 
its  president.  His  water-colors  as  well  as  his 
oil  paintings  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
their  skies. 

HARTE,  Francis  Bret,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  25,  1839.  His  father, 
who  was  a  teacher  in  a  girls'  seminary,  died 
when  he  was  very  young.  In  1854  Bret  went 
to  California,  where  for  three  years  he  wan- 
dered about  among  the  mining  camps,  digging 
for  gold,  teaching  school,  and  finally  acting  as 
an  express  messenger,  but  meeting  with  very 
little  pecuniary  success  in  any  of  these  occupa- 
tions. In  1857  he  went  to  work  in  San  Fran- 
sisco  as  a  compositor  in  the  office  of  the  "  Golden 
Era."  To  this  journal  he  contributed  sketches 
of  California  life,  many  of  which  he  himself 
put  into  type.  After  a  time  he  was  transferred 
the  editorial  room,  and  still  later  he  became 

litor  of  the  "  Calif ornian,"  a  literary  weekly. 
1864  he   was  appointed  secretary  of  the 

Inited  States  branch  mint  in  San  Francisco, 
which  office  he  held  for  six  years.  Several  of 
his  short  poems,  contributed  to  San  Francisco 
papers  during  this  time,  were  widely  copied 
universally  admired.  Among  them  are 

The  Society  upon  the  Stanislau,"  "The  Plio- 
cene Skull,"  and  "  John  Burns  of  Gettysburg." 
In  July,  1868,  the  "  Overland  Monthly"  was 

)mmenced,  with  Harte  as  its  editor.     To  the 

iiigust  number  he  contributed  "The  Luck  of 
Roaring  Camp,"  a  story  of  mining  life  idealized, 
which  marks  the  beginning  of  his  highest  work 
as  a  writer.  In  January,  1869,  appeared  in  the 
same  magazine  "  The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat," 
more  realistic  and  in  some  respects  more  artistic 
than  its  predecessor.  These  were  followed  by 
numerous  other  stories  in  the  same  vein,  but 
none  of  which  have  been  quite  so  successful. 
In  September,  1870,  appeared  his  humorous 
poem  entitled  "  Plain  Language  from  Truthful 
James,"  popularly  known  as  "The  Heathen 
Chinee,"  which  was  very  widely  copied  and 
juoted,  and  of  which  several  illustrated  editions 
and  a  facsimile  of  the  original  manuscript  have 
been  published.  About  this  time  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  recent  literature  in  the 
university  of  Calif ornia ;  but  in  the  spring  of 
1871  he  resigned  that  chair,  as  well  as  the  edi- 
torship of  the  "  Overland,"  and  visited  the  At- 
lantic cities,  fixing  his  residence  at  New  York. 
His  "  Condensed  Novels,"  originally  contrib- 
uted to  the  "  Californian,"  in  which  he  pa- 
rodied the  styles  of  the  leading  writers  of  fic- 
tion, were  collected  and  published  in  New  York 
in  1867  (new  ed.,  Boston,  1871).  His  other 
independent  publications  are:  "Poems "and 
"Luck  of  Roaring  Camp  and  other  Sketches" 
(Boston,  1870) ;  "  East  and  West  Poems  "  and 
"  Poetical  Works,"  illustrated  (1871) ;  "  Mrs. 
Skaggs's  Husbands"  (1872);  and  illustrated 
editions  of  single  poems.  Since  1871  he  has 
been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly  "  and  other  periodicals. 


HARTE,  Walter,  an  English  author,  born  about 
1700,  died  in  Bath  in  1774.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  took  orders,  and,  after  establishing 
a  reputation  as  a  preacher,  became  vice  princi- 
pal of  St.  Mary's  hall,  Oxford.  He  travelled 
some  years  on  the  continent  as  tutor  to  the  son 
of  Lord  Chesterfield,  and  was  afterward  ap- 
pointed canon  of  Windsor.  He  early  formed 
an  intimacy  with  Pope,  whose  style  he  imita- 
ted. In  1727  he  published  a  volume  of  "  Poems 
on  several  Occasions;"  in  1730  an  "Essay  on 
Satire,"  in  1735  on  "Reason,"  and  in  1764 
on  "Husbandry."  His  principal  work  is  the 
"  History  of  the  Life  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  " 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1759 ;  2  vols.  8vo,  cor- 
rected and  improved,  1763;  new  ed.,  1807), 
which  was  translated  into  German,  with  notes, 
by  J.  G.  Bohme.  He  left  unfinished  in  manu- 
script a  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

HARTEBEEST.     See  ANTELOPE. 

HARTFORD,  a  N.  county  of  Connecticut,  bor- 
dering on  Massachusetts,  divided  into  two  un- 
equal parts  by  the  Connecticut  river,  and  wa- 
tered by  Farmington,  Mill,  Podunk,  Scantic, 
and  other  rivers ;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  109,007.  The  surface  is  much  diversi- 
fied, part  of  the  river  valleys  being  alluvial  and 
subject  to  inundation,  while  other  portions  of 
the  county  are  hilly  and  even  mountainous. 
Most  of  the  soil  is  fertile  and  highly  cultiva- 
ted ;  the  E.  part  is  famous  for  excellent  dairy 
farms.  The  Connecticut  river  is  navigable  by 
sloops  to  Hartford,  and  by  small  steamboats 
through  the  county,  which  is  also  intersected 
by  several  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  6,458  bushels  of  wheat,  69,387  of 
rye,  217,502  of  Indian  corn,  119,335  of  oats, 
450,158  of  potatoes,  1,301,352  Ibs.  of  butter, 
103,406  of  cheese,  5,830,209  of  tobacco,  25,925 
of  wool,  and  95,615  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,062  horses,  16,657  milch  cows,  5,742  work- 
ing oxen,  13,283  other  cattle,  8,009  sheep, 
and  9,645  swine.  There  were  1,031  manufac- 
turing establishments,  with  an  aggregate  capi- 
tal of  $21,259,828 ;  annual  value  of  products, 
$35,039,324.  The  most  important  were  7 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  18 
of  carriages,  17  of  clock  cases  and  materials,  3 
of  clocks,  72  of  clothing,  4  of  cotton  goods,  6 
of  cotton  thread,  &c.,  6  of  cutlery,  5  of  axes 
and  edge  tools,  3  of  firearms,  1  of  gunpowder, 
34  of  hardware,  9  of  hosiery,  23  of  iron  cast- 
ings, &c.,  26  of  machinery,  27  of  paper,  7  of 
plated  ware,  21  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of 
silk  goods,  61  of  tobacco  and  cigars,  10  of 
wood  work,  12  of  woollen  goods,  36  of  bricks, 
12  of  furniture,  30  flour  mills,  2  planing  mills, 
26  saw  mills,  3  bookbinderies,  and  12  printing 
establishments.  Capital,  Hartford. 

HARTFORD,  a  city  in  the  town  of  the  same 
name,  seat  of  justice  of  Hartford  co.,  and  capi- 
tal of  Connecticut,  the  second  city  in  the  state 
in  point  of  population,  situated  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Connecticut  river,  at  the  head  of  sloop 
navigation,  50  m.  by  the  river  from  Long  Island 
sound,  33  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  New  Haven,  100  m. 


486 


HARTFORD 


N.  E.  of  New  York,  and  95  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Boston ;  lat.  41°  45'  59"  N.,  Ion.  72°  40'  45"  W. 
The  town  extends  5£  m.  N.  and  S.  and  3£  m.  E. 
and  W.,  embracing  about  16£  sq.  m.  The  city 
comprises  10  sq.  m.,  and  is  about  3£  m.  long 
from  N.  to  S.,  with  an  average  breadth  of  3  m., 
the  width  near  the  centre,  however,  being  less 
than  2  m.  It  is  intersected  by  Park  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  11  bridges,  and  is  bound- 
ed W.  by  the  N.  and  S.  forks  of  that  stream. 
A  bridge  across  the  Connecticut,  1,000  ft.  long, 
connects  it  with  East  Hartford.  The  city  is 
laid  out  with  considerable  regularity,  part  of 
the  streets  running  nearly  parallel  to  the  river, 
and  others  crossing  them  E.  and  W.  Main 
street,  which  extends  from  N.  to  S.  through 
the  principal  portion  of  the  city,  is  the  great 


thoroughfare,  and  the  seat  of  the  principal  re- 
tail trade.  It  is  broad,  and  for  more  than  a 
mile  presents  an  almost  unbroken  range  of 
brick  and  stone  edifices.  On  this  street  are 
many  of  the  principal  public  buildings  and 
churches.  State  and  Commerce  streets  are 
also  the  seats  of  a  large  and  active  business. 
Asylum  street,  extending  W.  to  the  railroad 
depot,  is  filled  by  large  brick  and  freestone 
edifices,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  very  extensive  and 
heavy  business.  In  the  outskirts  are  many 
tasteful  and  elegant  residences ;  and  the  city, 
as  a  whole,  is  exceedingly  well  built.  The 
state  house,  erected  in  1794,  is  a  handsome 
Doric  edifice  containing  the  legislative  apart- 
ments and  several  law  courts.  In  the  senate 
chamber  is  an  original  painting  of  Washington 


New  State  House  at  Hartford,  Conn. 


by  Stuart.  On  the  E.  side  of  the  state  house 
square  a  building  is  in  course  of  construction 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  post  office,  Uni- 
ted States  courts,  &c.,  to  cost  about  $300,000. 
The  city  hall,  in  the  Grecian  style,  the  state 
arsenal,  the  opera  house,  and  the  Union  rail- 
road depot,  are  among  the  finest  of  the  other 
public  edifices.  The  city  park,  embracing  46 
acres,  is  beautifully  situated  in  a  bend  of  Park 
river,  S.  of  the  depot,  and  contains  a  fine 
bronze  statue  of  Bishop  Brownell  and  a  statue 
of  Gen.  Putnam.  Here  the  new  state  house, 
of  marble,  in  the  modern  Gothic  style,  is  in 
course  of  construction  (1874).  It  is  to  be  300 
ft.  long  by  200  ft.  broad  in  the  widest  part, 
and  250  ft.  high  to  the  top  of  the  dome,  which 
is  87  ft.  above  the  roof.  Besides  capacious 


chambers  for  the  two  houses  of  the  legislature, 
it  will  contain  rooms  for  the  supreme  court 
and  the  state  library.  It  is  to  be  completed  in 
May,  1876,  and  will  cost  about  $1,500,000. 
Besides  the  state  house  and  city  parks,  there 
are  two  other  public  squares.  Of  the  seven 
cemeteries,  the  most  noteworthy  is  Cedar  Hill 
in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  town,  comprising  268 
acres.  The  population  of  the  town  has  been 
as  follows:  in  1790,  4,090;  in  1800,  5,347;  in 
1810,  6,003;  in  1820,  6,909;  in  1830,  9,789;  in 
1840,  12,793;  in  1850,  17,966;  in  1860,  29,- 
152;  in  1870,  37,743,  and  of  the  city  37,180, 
of  whom  10,817  were  foreigners.  The  number 
of  families  was  7,427;  of  dwellings,  6,688.— 
The  Connecticut  river  is  open  from  about  the 
middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  December. 


HARTFORD 


487 


luring  which  time  steamers  run  daily  to  New 
rork  and  different  points  on  the  river,  and  in 
summer  to  various  watering  places  on  Long 
Island  sound.     There  are  also  lines  of  steam- 
ers to  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore,  and  packet 
ines  to  New  York,  Boston,  Albany,  Phila- 
lelphia,    and   other   points.      Railroad   com- 
mnication  with  New  York  and  the  principal 
in  New  England  is    furnished  hy  the 
i"ew  Haven,   Hartford,  and   Springfield,  the 
[artford,  Providence,  and  Fishkill,  the  Con- 
lecticut  Valley,  and  the  Connecticut  Western 
while  local  travel  is  accommodated  by 
cars,  by  omnibus  to  West  Hartford,  and 
stages  to  the  neighboring  towns.     Hartford 
ias  an  active  trade  with  the  surrounding  coun- 
ry,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  wholesale  busi- 
with  the  west  and  south.     The  tobacco 
of  the  immediate  vicinity  is  mostly  sold 
lere.    The  manufactures  are  varied  and  exten- 
ive,  embracing  iron  and  brass  foundery  prod- 
steam  engines  and  boilers,  screws,  sad- 
jry  hardware,  carriage  hardware,  sewing  ma- 
les,  files,  water  wheels,  forgings,  wire,  steel, 
lachinists'   tools,   plumbers'   materials,   lawn 
lowers,  eyelets,  stone  ware,  britannia  ware, 
Iver-plated  ware,  gold  pens,  spectacles,  or- 
is,  carriages,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  wool- 
rag  carpets,  envelopes,  saddlery  and  har- 
beer,  gin,  soap  for  fulling  and  scouring, 
fertilizers,  &c.    Three  companies  are  en- 
in  the  manufacture  of  firearms,  Sharps's 
and   Colt's  pistols  being  manufactured 
3re.      The   Colt  company  has  a  capital  of 
>1, 000,000,  and  possesses  works  and  grounds 
>vering  123  acres  diked  in  from  the  river. 
)heney  brothers,  an  incorporated   company, 
rith  a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  manufacture  silk 
Is  and  sewing  silk ;    their  principal  mills 
in  South  Manchester.    The  aggregate  value 
the  manufactures  for  1873  was  about  $10,- 
),000.    Including  the  New  York  and  New 
England  railroad  company,  with  a  capital  of 
),  000, 000,  there  are  103  incorporated  com- 
lies  in  Hartford,  having  an  aggregate  cap- 
of  $37,740,300,  of  which  about  one  half 
manufacturing   companies,    8    or  10  are 
lining   companies,   and   the  rest   are   trans- 
station  companies,  benevolent  associations, 
Book  publishing  is  extensively   carried 
11  firms  being  engaged  in  the  business, 
greater  part  of  the  books  published  here 
sold  by  subscription  through  agents,  who 
employed  in   all  parts  of   the    country, 
le  city  contains  14  hotels.     There   are   10 
itional  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
5,562,800 ;  2  state  banks,  with  $650,000  eap- 
" ;  5  savings  institutions,  with  deposits,  Jan. 
L,  1873,  amounting  to  $10,041,600  65 ;    and  3 
trust  companies,  with  a  capital  of  $650,000. 
""     deposits  of  "  the  society  for  savings,"  in- 
sorporated  in  1819,  alone  amounted  to  $7,020,- 
54.     The  insurance  business  is  proportion- 
ally far  more  extensive  than  that  of  any  other 
city  of  the  United  States,  and  has  ramifications 
all  parts  of  the  country.      The  number  of 


fire  insurance  companies  is  8,  having  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $7,100,000,  besides  2  mutual 
companies,  with  cash  assets,  Jan.  1,  1873, 
amounting  to  $152,341  18.  The  oldest  com- 
pany is  the  Hartford,  incorporated  in  1810,  and 
having  a  capital  of  $1,000,000.  The  ^Etna, 
with  a  capital  of  $3,000,000,  was  incorporated 
in  1819,  and  in  54  years  paid  losses  to  the 
amount  of  $39,000,000.  There  are  8  life  in- 
surance companies  (3  mutual),  a  life  and  ac- 
cident, and  an  accident  insurance  company, 
having  gross  assets,  Jan.  1,  1873,  to  the  amount 
of  $78,330,201.  The  Connecticut  mutual  com- 
pany, incorporated  in  1846,  had  nearly  $35,- 
000,000  assets;  the  ^tna,  over  $17,500,000; 
the  Connecticut  general,  about  $10,800,000; 
and  the  Phoenix  mutual,  over  $8,000,000.  The 
aggregate  assets  of  the  banking  and  insurance 
companies  at  the  beginning  of  1874  were  over 
$135,000,000.— The  city  is  divided  into  7  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  holding  office  for 
two  years,  a  board  of  aldermen  of  14,  and  a 
common  council  of  28  members.  One  alder- 
man is  elected  annually  from  each  ward  for 
two  years;  the  councilmen  hold  office  one 
year.  The  recorder  holds  the  city  court,  and 
the  police  judge,  with  an  associate,  the  police 
court.  The  police  force  consists  of  40  men.  A 
paid  fire  department  was  organized  in  1864; 
it  comprises  six  steam  engines,  one  hook  and 
ladder,  and  two  hose  companies.  A  fire  alarm 
telegraph  is  in  operation,  with  35  alarm  boxes, 
and  there  are  261  hydrants  and  5  reservoirs. 
Works  were  erected  in  1855  (still  maintained 
to  meet  any  emergency)  for  pumping  water 
from  the  Connecticut  river,  which  supplied  the 
city  till  1867,  when  the  new  works  at  West 
Hartford  went  into  operation.  These  works 
furnish  water  from  a  stream  in  that  town  to 
two  reservoirs,  one  having  a  capacity  of  165,- 
000,000  and  the  other  of  229,000,000  gallons, 
whence  it  is  distributed  through  nearly  54  m. 
of  mains.  The  total  cost  of  apparatus  for  sup- 
plying the  city  with  water  to  March  1,  1873V 
was  $1,065,826.  The  streets  are  well  paved 
and  drained,  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  ordi- 
nary receipts  into  the  city  treasury  for  the  year 
ending  April  1, 1873,  amounted  to  $638,691  72 ; 
the  ordinary  expenditures,  including  $100,000 
for  the  purchase  of  the  Trinity  college  grounds, 
were  $648,196  16;  total  receipts,  $1,160,115- 
05;  total  expenditures,  $1,157,793  89.  The 
floating  debt  was  $221,404 ;  funded  debt,  $1,- 
986,000.  The  sinking  fund  amounted  to  $161,- 
167.  The  grand  list,  or  assessed  valuation  of 
the  town,  in  1860,  was  $24,813,190;  in  1865, 
$36,948,305 ;  in  1870,  $44,509,427 ;  in  1872, 
$45,676,497.  Sessions  of  the  United  States  cir- 
cuit and  district  courts  are  held  here  annually. 
— The  benevolent  organizations  of  Hartford  are 
numerous.  The  American  deaf  and  dumb  asy- 
lum was  chartered  in  1816.  The  main  build- 
ing is  130  ft.  by  50,  and  four  stories  high.  In 
1873  the  asylum  had  18  teachers,  280.  pupils, 
and  a  library  of  2,500  volumes.  (See  DEAF  AND 
DUMB.)  The  Connecticut  retreat  for  the  in- 


488 


HARTFORD 


sane,  chartered  in  1824,  is  situated  on  a  com- 
manding eminence  just  outside  the  city,  sur- 
rounded by  about  17  acres  of  ground  pleasantly 
laid  out  in  gardens  and  walks.  The  main  edi- 
fice is  of  freestone  plastered  over  with  cement. 
The  number  of  officers  and  attendants,  Jan.  1, 
1874,  was  32 ;  of  patients,  139.  The  Hartford 
hospital  was  incorporated  in  1854;  the  build- 
ings with  the  grounds,  7  acres  in  extent,  cost 
$188,495  60;  the 'hospital  has  accommodations 
for  100  patients,  and  possesses  a  permanent 
fund  of  $153,500.  The  Hartford  orphan  asy- 
lum was  established  in  1833.  Among  other 
charitable  organizations  are  the  Hartford  dis- 
pensary, the  city  missionary  society,  the  Con- 
necticut home  missionary  society,  the  Connec- 
ticut Bible  society,  and  the  missionary  society 
of  Connecticut,  organized  in  1798,  "to  Chris- 
tianize the  heathen  in  North  America,  and  to 
promote  Christian  knowledge  in  new  settle- 
ments in  the  United  States."  There  are  90 
unincorporated  societies  for  benevolent,  social, 
and  other  purposes,  including  10  lodges  of 
freemasons,  3  of  odd  fellows,  and  20  temper- 
ance societies.  The  county  jail,  situated  in 
Pearl  street,  has  96  cells.  A  new  building  is 
in  course  of  erection  further  N.  Among  the 
educational  institutions,  the  most  prominent  is 
Trinity  college  (Episcopal),  founded  in  1823, 
and  having  in  1873-'4  17  professors  and  in- 
structors, 94  students,  and  a  library  of  15,000 
volumes.  The  buildings,  comprising  three  stone 
halls,  called  respectively  Seabury,  Jarvis,  and 
Brownell,  occupy  (1874)  a  site  on  the  W.  side 
•of  Trinity  street,  adjacent  to  the  city  park. 
The  grounds,  however,  have  been  sold  to  the 
city,  the  trustees  reserving  the  right  to  use 
them  until  April,  1877,  with  the  exception  of 
Brownell  hall,  a  portion  of  which  has  been 
demolished  to  make  room  for  the  new  state 
house.  A  new  site  for  the  college,  about  a 
mile  south  of  the  present  one,  has  been  pur- 
chased. (See  TRINITY  COLLEGE.)  The  theo- 
logical institute  of  Connecticut  (Congregation- 
al) was  chartered  in  1834,  and  in  1873-'4  had 
3  professors,  18  students,  and  a  library  of  7,000 
volumes.  The  Hartford  female  seminary,  found- 
ed in  1823,  had  in  1872  3  instructors  and  123 
Eupils.  There  are  13  select  schools.  The  town 
i  divided  into  10  school  districts.  The  num- 
ber of  public  school  houses  in  1873  was  16, 
•containing  105  rooms  and  5  halls;  number  of 
teachers,  128 ;  children  of  school  age  (4  to  16), 
9,138;  whole  number  registered,  6,905;  aver- 
age attendance,  about  4,000.  The  total  expen- 
diture for  school  purposes  was  $171,814  46,  of 
which  $91,674  85  was  for  teachers'  wages. 
The  two  evening  schools  had  10  teachers  and 
501  pupils.  The  high  school  was  established 
by  vote  of  the  town  in  March,  1847,  and  the 
first  building  was  completed  in  December  of 
that  year.  A  new  building,  one  of  the  finest 
school  edifices  in  the  country,  was  erected  in 
1869  on  a  handsome  site  a  short  distance  S.  W. 
of  the  union  depot.  It  is  100  by  85  ft.  in  its 
external  dimensions,  and  consists  of  two  sto- 


ries surmounted  by  a  Mansard  roof,  with  a 
raised  basement.  On  the  N.  E.  corner  is  a 
tower  120  ft.  high,  containing  a  clock  and  an 
observatory,  and  on  the  S.  E.  corner  is  another 
tower  68  ft.  high.  It  was  constructed  of  brick 
and  stone,  at  a  cost  of  about  $102,000,  and  will 
accommodate  409  scholars.  The  number  of 
teachers  in  1873  was  15 ;  of  pupils,  404.  The 
number  of  volumes  in  the  school  libraries  is 
about  3,000.  The  schools  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  board  of  9  visitors,  besides  which 
there  is  a  committee  for  each  district  and  the 
high  school.  The  Hartford  grammar  school, 
the  oldest  educational  institution  in  the  state, 
was  first  endowed  with  a  gift  of  land  by  Wil- 
liam Gibbins  in  1655,  and  about  10  years  after- 
ward received  a  considerable  sum  from  the 
estate  of  Governor  Edward  Hopkins.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1798.  The  scholars  must  pur- 
sue a  classical  course  of  study.  Tuition  is  free. 
Since  the  organization  of  the  high  school,  the 
grammar  school  has  practically  formed  part 
of  the  classical  department  of  that  institution, 
though  governed  by  its  own  board  of  trustees. 
There  are  4  daily  and  8  weekly  newspapers, 
and  3  monthly  periodicals,  of  which  one  is 
published  by  the  students  of  Trinity  college. 
The  Wadsworth  athenaeum,  in  Main  street,  is  a 
castellated  granite  building,  100  ft.  long  by  80 
ft.  deep  in  the  centre  and  70  ft.  deep  on  the 
wings,  with  central  towers  70  ft.  and  corner 
buttresses  56  ft.  high.  Its  cost,  over  $60,000, 
was  defrayed  by  the  contributions  of  citizens. 
In  this  building  are  the  reading  room  and  li- 
brary (containing  23,000  volumes)  of  the  young 
men's  institute ;  the  rooms  of  the  Connecticut 
historical  society,  which  possesses  a  library  of 
16,000  volumes;  the  Watkinson  library  (27,- 

000  volumes) ;  and  a  gallery  of  valuable  paint- 
ings and  statuary.     The  state  library  contains 
12,000  volumes.     The  Connecticut  school  of 
design  was  chartered  in  1872.     There  are  26 
churches,  of  which  11  are  in  Main  street  within 
a  distance  of  a  mile,  and  7  chapels.     The  num- 
ber of  religious  societies  is  40,  viz. :  5  Baptist, 

1  Catholic  Apostolic,  1  Church  of  Christ,  12 
Congregational,  8  Episcopal,  2  Jewish,  4  Meth- 
odist, 1   Presbyterian,  2  Roman   Catholic,  1 
Second  Advent,  1  Spiritualist,  1  Unitarian,  and 
1  Universalist.     Besides  the  Sunday  schools 
connected  with  the  churches,  there  are  3  mis- 
sion Sunday  schools,  with  60  teachers,  470  pu- 
pils, and  libraries  containing  1,000  volumes. 
The  corner  stone  of  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral to  be  erected  on  Farmington  avenue  was 
laid  in   1873. — Hartford   was  first  settled  in 
1635  by  emigrants  from  Newtown  (now  Cam- 
bridge), Mass.,  and  from  Dorchester  and  Wa- 
tertown,  many  of  whom  had  come  originally 
from  Braintree,  England.     The  present  locality 
of  Hartford  was  called  by  the  Indians  Suckiaug. 
The  first  settlers  named  it  Newtown;  but  in 
1637  it  was  formally  called  Hartford,  after 
Hertford,  England,  the  birthplace  of  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Stone,  one  of  the  first  pastors  of  the 
settlement.     In  1633  the  Dutch  had  erected  a 


HARTFORD   CONVENTION 


489 


fort  on  Dutch  point,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Park  and  Connecticut  rivers,  within  the  pres- 
ent limits  of  Hartford ;  but  in  1654  they  were 
dispossessed  by  an  act  of  the  general  court, 
and  the  new  colony  came  entirely  into  the 
hands  of  the  English.    Among  the  early  set- 
tlers were  a  number  who  had  been  persons  of 
eminence  and  affluence  in  England,  and  who 
were  held  in  high  honor  through  all  the  New 
England  settlements,   many   of   whom   were 
founders  of  families  yet  prominent  in  the  city. 
The  first  town  organization  admitted  inhabi- 
tants, and  even  temporary  residents,  only  by 
vote  of  the  town  meeting.     There  was  a  public 
market  semi-weekly,  and  a  public  fair  twice 
jvery  year.     The  first  town  meeting  was  held 
1635,  and  the  first  general  court  of  Connec- 
icut  in  1636.     The  first  church  came  ready 
lized  from  Cambridge,  with  its  pastors, 
tooker  and  Stone ;  and  its  first  house  of  wor- 
lip  was  erected  in  1638.     The  first  war  was 
Pequot  war  in  1637,  for  which  Hartford 
itributed  43  out  of  90  men,  including  corn- 
ider  and  chaplain,  besides  a  large  share  of 
)rovisions,  equipments,  &c.     In  1639  a  con- 
titution  for  the  government  of  the  colony  was 
led.      (See  CONNECTICUT,  vol.  v.,  p.  260.) 
A  school  was  in  operation  in  1638,  and  in  1643 
a  year  was  voted  to  the  teacher.   A  house 
correction  was  in  operation  in  1640;   the 
3t  inn  was  ordered  by  the  general  court  and 
)lished  in  1644.     In  1650  the  first  code  of 
iws  was  drawn  up,  chiefly  by  Roger  Ludlow, 
rhich  reduced  the  number  of  capital  offences 
from  160,  under  English  law,  to  15.     In  1687 
the  independent  spirit  of  the  colony  was  shown 
by  their  quiet  but  determined  resistance  to 
Andros,  in  his  attempt  to  take  away  the  char- 
ter of  1662,  when,  according  to  current  ac- 
counts, the  lights  in  the  council  chamber  were 
11  in  an  instant  extinguished,  and  the  charter 
iized  and  carried  off  in  the  dark,  and  hid  in 
famous  "charter  oak."     (See  ANDROS,  SIR 
CDMUND.)    In  1764  the  first  printing  office  was 
up  by  Thomas  Green.     In  1775  a  patriotic 
id  enterprising  committee  met  and  made  ar- 
rangements for  raising  men  and  money,  which 
resulted  in  the  taking  of  Ticonderoga.     In  1784 
the  city  was  incorporated ;   in  1792  the  first 
bank  and  first  charitable  society  were  establish- 
ed.    From  the  union  of  the  colonies  of  Connec- 
ticut and  New  Haven  in  1665  till  1701  the  le- 
gislature met  in  Hartford ;  between  the  latter 
date  and  1818  one  stated  session  was  held  in 
Hartford  and  one  in  New  Haven  each  year ; 
and  from  1819  to  1874  there  was  an  annual 
session  at  those  places  alternately.     In  1875, 
by  virtue  of  a  constitutional  amendment  rati- 
fied by  a  popular  vote  in  1873,  Hartford  is  again 
to  become  the  sole  capital. 

HARTFORD  CONVENTION,  an  assemblage  of 
delegates  from  the  New  England  states  which 
met  at  Hartford,  Dec.  15,  1814.  The  war  be- 
reen  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
hich  began  in  1812,  was  from  the  first  dis- 
ateful  to  the  majority  of  the  people  of  New 


England,  who  regarded  it  as  unnecessary  and 
impolitic,  and  who  had  suffered  from  it  im- 
mense losses  by  the  destruction  of  their  com- 
merce and  their  fisheries.  They  regarded  the 
war  as  a  mere  party  measure  of  the  demo- 
crats, and  as  federalists  they  had  earnestly  and 
persistently  opposed  it.  In  February,  1814, 
a  committee  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
made  a  report  on  public  affairs,  in  which  they 
declared  that,  in  their  opinion,  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  had  been  violated  by  the 
federal  government,  and  that  still  worse  mea- 
sures were  likely  to  follow;  and  they  sug- 
gested the  appointment  of  delegates  to  meet 
such  as  might  be  appointed  by  the  legislatures 
of  other  states  "  for  the  purpose  of  devising 
proper  measures  to  procure  the  united  efforts 
of  the  commercial  states  to  obtain  such  amend- 
ments or  explanations  of  the  constitution  as 
will  secure  them  from  future  evils."  The  de- 
fence of  the  New  England  coast  was  neglected 
by  the  federal  government,  and  the  British 
were  beginning  to  attack  it  with  vigor. 
Stonington  in  Connecticut  was  bombarded, 
Castine  and  all  Maine  east  of  the  Penobscot 
taken  possession  of,  while  a  rumor  spread  that 
Massachusetts  was  to  be  invaded  by  a  formi- 
dable force.  Another  committee  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature  reported  in  October,  1814, 
that,  in  the  position  in  which  that  state  stood, 
no  choice  was  left  her  between  submission  to 
the  enemy,  which  was  not  to  be  thought  of, 
and  the  appropriation  to  her  own  defence  of 
those  revenues  derived  from  her  people  which 
the.  general  government  had  hitherto  thought 
proper  to  expend  elsewhere.  The  committee 
also  recommended  a  convention  of  the  New 
England  states ;  and  their  report  being  adopt- 
ed by  the  legislature  by  a  vote  of  three  to  one, 
a  delegation  of  12  men  of  the  highest  reputa- 
tion, with  George  Cabot,  William  Prescott, 
and  Harrison  Gray  Otis  at  their  head,  was  ap- 
pointed. A  circular  letter  to  the  other  New 
England  states  called  upon  them  to  meet  in 
convention  "  to  devise  means  of  security  and 
defence  which  may  be  consistent  with  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  resources  from  total  ruin, 
and  adapted  to  their  local  situation  and  mu- 
tual relations  and  habits,  and  not  repugnant  to 
their  obligations  as  members  of  the  Union." 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  responded  to 
this  invitation,  the  former  by  appointing  seven, 
and  the  latter  four*  delegates.  Two  delegates 
appeared  from  New  Hampshire,  and  one  from 
Vermont,  not  sent  by  these  states,  but  by  sep- 
arate counties.  When  the  convention  assem- 
bled they  chose  George  Cabot  president,  and 
Theodore  Dwight  secretary.  For  20  days  the 
convention  sat  with  closed  doors,  and  on  their 
adjournment  embodied  the  result  of  their  delib-  , 
erations  in  a  report  addressed  to  the  legislatures 
which  they  represented.  This  manifesto  was 
moderate  in  tone  and  patriotic  in  sentiment, 
expressing  strong  affection  for  the  Union  and 
the  greatest  aversion  to  violent  or  unconstitu- 
tional opposition  to  legal  authority.  It  point- 


490      HARTFORD  CONVENTION 


HARTLEY 


ed  out,  however,  the  dangers  impending  over 
New  England  from  the  alleged  usurpations  of 
the  general  government  and  from  the  foreign 
enemy.  In  the  power  over  the  militia  claimed 
for  the  general  government ;  in  the  filling  up  of 
the  ranks  of  the  regular  army  by  conscription ; 
in  authorizing  the  enlistment  of  minors  without 
the  consent  of  their  parents  or  guardians,  thus 
invalidating  contracts,  the  report  maintained 
that  the  federal  constitution  had  been  disre- 
garded in  a  way  that  demanded  from  the  indi- 
vidual states  firm  and  decided  opposition.  The 
convention  recommended  to  the  legislatures  of 
the  states  for  which  it  spoke  the  adoption  of 
such  measures  as  might  be  necessary  effectu- 
ally to  protect  their  citizens  from  the  operation 
of  the  acts  passed  by  congress  containing  provi- 
sions subjecting  the  militia  and  other  persons 
to  forcible  drafts,  conscriptions,  or  impress- 
ments not  authorized  by  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States.  It  recommended  also  an 
immediate  application  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment by  the  New  England  states  for  author- 
ity to  combine  their  forces  for  their  defence 
against  the  British,  and  to  appropriate  for  the 
same  purpose  a  reasonable  amount  of  the  taxes 
levied  upon  them.  Finally,  it  proposed  sev- 
eral amendments  to  the  federal  constitution, 
among  which  were  :  basing  representation 
on  free  population;  making  the  president  in- 
eligible for  a  second  term;  disqualifying  per- 
sons of  foreign  birth  to  hold  office;  limiting 
embargoes  to  60  days ;  requiring  a  two-thirds 
vote  in  congress  to  admit  new  states,  to  inter- 
dict commercial  intercourse,  to  declare  war,  or 
to  authorize  hostilities,  except  in  cases  of  inva- 
sion. These  questions  had  arisen  during  the 
hostilities  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  news  of 
the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Ghent, 
which  arrived  soon  after  the  adjournment  of 
the  convention,  put  a  practical  stop  to  their 
discussion.  Congress,  however,  which  was 
then  in  session,  settled  some  of  them  by  an 
act  regulating  the  employment  of  state  troops 
by  the  federal  government  in  a  satisfactory 
manner. — The  holding  of  the  Hartford  con- 
vention and  its  supposed  treasonable  designs 
caused  a  great  outcry  from  the  democratic 
party,  and  excited  much  alarm  and  apprehen- 
sion at  Washington.  The  government  station- 
ed Major  Jessup,  a  Kentucky  officer  of  distinc- 
tion, at  Hartford  with  a  regiment  of  troops  to 
repress  any  sudden  outbreak;  but  after  the 
most  careful  investigation,  this  officer  reported 
to  his  superiors  at  Washington  that  the  con- 
ventipn  would  confine  itself  to  complaints,  re- 
monstrances, and  an  address  to  the  people, 
and  that  there  was  no  reason  to  apprehend 
any  treasonable  action.  The  state  depart- 
ment, however,  had  a  correspondent  who  pre- 
tended to  be  in  the  confidence  of  the  late  Brit- 
ish consul  at  Boston,  and  to  have  learned  from 
him  or  from  his  papers  the  existence  of  a  com- 
mittee of  New  England  royalists,  who  intend- 
ed to  establish  the  kingdom  of  New  England 
with  the  duke  of  Kent  as  its  sovereign.  The 


chief  clerk  of  the  state  department  was  sent  to 
Boston  to  investigate  this  matter,  but  could 
discover  no  trace  of  the  pretended  committee. 
The  imputation  of  treasonable  designs  to  the 
Hartford  convention  continued  until  a  recent 
period,  and  resulted  in  excluding  from  po- 
litical power  in  the  nation  almost  every  man 
implicated  in  its  doings.  It  was  also  one  of 
the  chief  causes  which  destroyed  the  federal 
party.  It  is  now,  however,  almost  universally 
conceded  that  the  Hartford  convention  was 
guiltless  of  any  designs  which  could  justly  be 
considered  treasonable. — See  "  History  of  the 
Hartford  Convention,"  by  Theodore  D wight 
(Boston,  1833). 

HARTLEPOOL,  a  town,  parliamentary  borough, 
and  seaport  of  Durham,  England,  on  a  small 
peninsula  N.  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tees,  17  m. 
S.  E.  of  Durham,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway;  pop.  in  1871,  39,969.  The  penin- 
sula or  headland,  on  which  stands  the  old  town, 
partially  encloses  a  fine  harbor  which  is  safe 
and  easy  of  access.  The  newer  portion  of  the 
town,  called  West  Hartlepool,  is  on  the  oppo- 
site or  S.  side  of  the  harbor,  which  is  about  a 
mile  wide.  The  old  town  was  rechartered  in 
1850,  and  has  since  been  greatly  improved.  It 
contains  three  churches,  including  the  ancient 
parish  church  of  St.  Hilda,  and  three  dissent- 
ing chapels,  a  fine  new  borough  hall,  a  large 
market,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  theatre,  and 
water  works.  There  are  iron  mills,  puddling 
furnaces,  founderies,  ship  yards,  and  breweries ; 
the  fisheries  are  considerable ;  and  there  is  a 
large  commerce,  principally  in  exporting  coal 
and  importing  timber.  West  Hartlepool,  which 
owes  its  existence  to  its  fine  docks,  has  wholly 
grown  up  since  the  first  one  was  constructed, 
in  1847.  It  is  well  paved,  lighted  with  gas, 
has  large  water  works,  and  contains  six  church- 
es and  chapels,  a  theatre,  town  hall,  mechanics' 
institute,  and  market  house.  There  are  large 
ship  yards,  founderies,  locomotive  works,  saw 
mills,  and  brick  yards,  and  76  acres  of  dockage 
and  three  miles  of  quays.  The  harbor  is  de- 
fended by  fortifications  and  has  two  light- 
houses. The  parliamentary  borough,  consti- 
tuted in  1867,  is  called  the  Hartlepools. 

HARTLEY.  I.  David,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  in  Armley,  Yorkshire,  Aug.  30,  1705, 
died  in  Bath,  Aug.  25,  1757.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  fellow,  was  destined  to  the  church, 
but  had  scruples  about  subscribing  the  XXXIX. 
articles,  and  therefore  studied  medicine,  which 
he  practised  with  success  at  London,  Bath,  and 
other  places.  All  records  agree  in  extolling 
his  personal  character.  His  society  was  sought 
by  the  most  distinguished  literary  men  of  his 
time.  At  the  age  of  25  he  began  the  composi- 
tion of  his  great  work,  "Observations  on  Man, 
his  Frame,  his  Duty,  and  his  Expectations," 
which  was  published  after  a  labor  of  18  years 
(2  vols.,  London,  l748-'9).  His  theory  of  sensa- 
tion, grounded  on  an  anatomical  inspection  of 
the  nervous  system,  is  historically  curious  as 


HAETMANN 


perhaps  the  first  attempt  to  explain  psycholo- 
gical phenomena  on  physiological  principles. 
According  to  him,  the  white  medullary  sub- 
stance of  the  brain,   spinal  marrow,   and  the 
nerves  proceeding  from  them,  is  the  immediate 
instrument  of  sensation  and  motion.     External 
objects  excite  vibrations  in  the  medullary  cord, 
which  are  continued  by  a  certain  elastic  ether. 
Connected  with  this  theory  are  other  doctrines, 
especially  that  of  association,  which  gave  to 
Dr.  Hartley  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  in- 
anious  metaphysicians  of  the  18th  century. 
7hen  a  sensation  has  been  frequently  expe- 
jnced  the  vibratory  movement  from  which  it 
rises  acquires  a  tendency  to  repeat  itself  spon- 
ineously.     Ideas  are  but  these  repetitions  or 
slics  of  sensation,  and  in  their  turn  recall  other 
ideas.    By  the  development  of  the  law  of  as- 
>ciation,  and  chiefly  by  the  law  of  transfer- 
ice,  he  accounts  for  all  the  phenomena  of  the 
lental  constitution.     In  many  cases,  the  idea 
rhich  is  the  link  of  association  between  two 
ler  ideas  comes  to  be  disregarded,  though 
association  itself  remains.     Thus  the  idea 
>f  money  is  connected  with  that  of  pleasure 
3y  the  conveniences  which  wealth  may  supply ; 
>ut  the  miser  takes  delight  in  money  without 
linking  of  these  conveniences.     In  this  way 
[artley  accounts  for  almost  all  the  human 
emotions  and  passions.      An   edition   of  the 
work,  by  his  son,  with  notes  from  the  German 
of  H.  A.  Pistorius,  was  published  in  1791  (3 
rols.,  London).     II.  David,  son  of  the  preceding, 
>rn  in  1729,  died  in  Bath  in  1813.     As  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  Kingston-upori-Hull,  he 
lily  opposed  the  war  with  the  American 
colonies.     He  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries 
appointed  to  treat  at  Paris  with  Dr.  Franklin, 
in  whose  correspondence,  published  in  1817, 
some  of  his  letters  appear.     He  was  an  early 
promoter  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade, 
and  exhibited  his  scientific  knowledge  in  sev- 
eral useful  inventions. 

HARTBIAM,  Ednard  von,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Berlin,  Feb.  23,  1842.     He  was 
lucated  at  the  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and  sub- 
juently  at  the  school  of  artillery.     He  be- 
rnie  an  officer  in  1861 ;    but  having  hurt  his 
>ot  accidentally  in  the  following  year,  and  an 
icurable  disease  setting  in,  he  has  since  been 
lost  entirely  confined  to  his  room.     Devo- 
ting himself  to  literary  'pursuits,  he  has  pub- 
"  "led  several  philosophical  works,  and  among 
lem  Die  Philosophic  des  Uribewmsten  (Berlin, 
L869;  5th  ed.,  1873),  by  which  he  has  gained  a 
slace  among  the  foremost  thinkers  of  the  age. 
e  contends  that  philosophy  must  seek  cor- 
poration from  results  inductively  obtained  in 
le  physical  sciences.    He  assumes  that  there 
in  nature  an  unconscious  will  and  idea  as  a 
jure  and  spiritual  activity,  without  a  substra- 
tum of  nerve  or  brain,  which  is  the  basis  of 
consciousness.     The  same  unconsciousness  he 
finds  in  spirit,  in  the  human  instinct,  sexual  love, 
emotions,  morals,  aesthetics,  and  thought,  in  the 
development  of  language,  sensual  perceptions, 


HARTSOEKEK 


491 


mysticism,  and  history.  His  metaphysics  teach 
that  unconsciousness  is  the  last  principle  of 
j  philosophy,  described  by  Spinoza  as  substance, 
I  by  Fichte  as  the  absolute  I,  by  Schelling  as  the 
absolute  subject- object,  by  Plato  and  Hegel  as 
the  absolute  idea,  and  by  Schopenhauer  as  the 
will.  The  attributes  of  the  unconscious  spirit 
are  will  and  idea,  and  the  world  is  the  product 
of  both.  He  affirms  that  it  is  neither  possible 
for  Hegel's  "  logical  idea  "  to  attain  to  reality 
without  will,  nor  for  Schopenhauer's  "irra- 
tional will "  to  determine  itself  to  prototypal 
ideas;  and  he  demands,  therefore,  that  both 
be  conceived  as  coordinate  and  equally  legiti- 
mate principles,  which  after  the  precedent  of 
Schelling  are  to  be  thought  of  as  functions  of 
one  and  the  same  functioning  essence.  The 
end  of  development  is  the  turning  back  of  vo- 
lition into  non-volition,  which  is  attained  by 
means  of  the  greatest  possible  intensification 
of  consciousness,  resulting  in  the  emancipation 
of  the  idea  from  the  will.  Among  Hartmann's 
minor  publications  are  several  poetical  produc- 
tions. 

HARTMANN,  Moritz,  a  German  poet  of  Jewish 
parentage,  born  at  Duschnik,  Bohemia,  Oct. 
15,  1821,  died  in  Vienna,  May  13,  1872.  He 
studied  in  Prague  and  Vienna ;  but  umbrage 
being  taken  at  his  liberalism,  he  left  Austria, 
and  published  a  volume  of  patriotic  poems, 
Kelch  und  Schwert  (Leipsic,  1844),  which  was 
followed  in  1847  by  Neuere  Oedichte.  In  1848 
he  was  a  prominent  liberal  member  of  the 
Frankfort  parliament,  and  accompanied  Froe- 
bel  and  Blum  to  Vienna,  whence  he  escaped 
after  the  execution  of  Blum,  and  travelled  ex- 
tensively, spending  a  considerable  time  in  the 
East  during  the  Crimean  war,  and  several 
years  in  Paris.  In  1860  he  delivered  lectures 
on  German  literature  and  history  in  the  acad- 
emy of  Geneva.  In  1863  he  removed  to  Stutt- 
gart, and  in  1868  to  Vienna.  Among  his  best 
known  novels  are :  Der  Gefangene  von  Chillon 
(1863) ;  Die  letzten  Tage  eines  Ednigs  (1866), 
which  has  been  translated  into  English ;  and 
Die  Diamanten  der  Baronin  (2  vols.,  1868). 
Of  his  political  writings  the  most  notable  is 
Eeimchronik  des  Pfaffen  Mauritius  (1849),  a 
satire  on  the  Frankfort  parliament,  written  in 
the  manner  of  the  old  rhyming  chronicles.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
Stuttgart  in  10  vols.  in  1874. 

HARTSHORN,  Spirits  of.     See  AMMONIA. 

HARTSOEKER,  Nicolaas,  a  Dutch  philosopher, 
born  in  Gouda,  March  26,  1656,  died  Dec.  10, 
1725.  He  was  intended  for  the  church,  but 
devoted  himself  to  scientific  pursuits.  One  of 
his  earliest  inventions  was  an  improved  form 
of  object  glasses  for  microscopes,  which  enabled 
him  to  discover  animalcules  in  the  animal  fluids, 
on  which  a  new  doctrine  of  generation  was 
formed.  Subsequently  in  Paris  he  succeeded 
in  manufacturing  object  glasses  for  telescopes 
superior  to  any  previously  made.  An  account 
of  these  discoveries  was  published  in  the  Jour- 
nal des  Savants  of  Paris  by  Huygens,  and  in 


492 


HARTSVILLE 


HARTZ 


1694  Hartsoeker  published  there  an  Essai  de 
dioptrique,  followed  in  1696  by  Principe*  de 
physique.  He  afterward  returned  to  Holland, 
and  while  there  was  introduced  to  the  czar 
Peter,  who  endeavored  without  success  to  in- 
duce him  to  settle  in  St.  Petersburg.  After 
filling  for  several  years 
the  professorship  of 
mathematics  in  Diis- 
seldorf,  he  retired  to 
Utrecht.  One  of  his 
last  works  was  Recueil 
de  plusieurs  pieces  de 
physique,  in  which  the 
system  of  Newton  was 
assailed  with  more  vio- 
lence than  force.  Pre- 
vious to  this  he  pub- 
lished his  lectures  un- 
der the  title  of  Conjec- 
tures physiques  (Am- 
sterdam, 1706-'8),  and 
a  number  of  other 
works,  many  of  a  con- 
troversial nature. 

HARTSVILLE,  a  town 
of  Bartholomew  co., 
Indiana,  about  40  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  Indianapolis ; 
pop.  in  1870,  433.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Hartsville 
university,  established 
in  1851  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  United 
Brethren,  which  in 
1872  had  14  professors 
and  instructors  and 
117  students,  mostly  in 
the  preparatory  depart- 
ment, of  whom  38  were 
females.  The  theologi- 
cal school  connected  with  the  university  had 
one  professor  and  11  students. 

HARTWICK,  a  town  of  Otsego  co.,  New  York, 
situated  on  the  Cooperstown  and  Susquehanna 
Valley  railroad,  4  m.  S.  of  Cooperstown  and 
Otsego  lake,  and  about  60  m.  W.  of  Albany ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,339.  The  surface  is  a  hilly  up- 
land, the  highest  summits  being  from  200  to 
350  feet  above  the  valleys.  The  E.  part  is 
drained  by  the  Susquehanna,  and  the  W.  part 
by  Otego  creek.  The  town  contains  four 
post  offices,  viz. :  Hartwick,  Hartwick  Semi- 
nary, South  Hartwick,  and  Toddsville.  In 
the  village  of  Hartwick  Seminary  is  Hartwick 
theological  and  classical  seminary,  incorpora- 
ted Aug.  13,  1816,  and  endowed  by  John  0. 
Hartwick,  from  whom  it  received  its  name. 
The  building  has  recently  been  remodelled,  and 
is  now  one  of  the  finest  seminary  buildings  in 
the  state.  Hartwick  seminary  is  connected 
with  the  Lutheran  church,  and  in  1873-'4  had 
5  instructors  and  85  students,  of  whom  60  were 
males  and  25  females,  and  7  were  in  the  theo- 
logical department.  There  are  3,000  volumes 
in  the  library. 


HARTZ  (Ger.  ITarz,  or  Earzgebirge),  the  most 
northwestern  mountain  range  in  Germany, 
between  lat.  51°  30'  and  52°  N.,  and  Ion.  10° 
10'  and  11°  30'  E.  It  separates  the  waters  of 
the  Weser  from  those  of  the  Elbe.  This  range 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  Upper  and'  Lower 


The  Brocken. 

Hartz,  lying  W.  and  E.  of  the  Brocken.  Their 
principal  axis,  which  extends  in  a  direction 
about  W.  N.  W.,  E.  S.  E.,  is  not  far  from  60  m. 
in  length.  The  width  of  this  main  chain,  as 
from  Wernigerode  to  Ilfeld,  is  about  18  m. 
The  highest  summit  is  the  Brocken,  a  mountain 
of  feldspathic  granite,  which  by  its  easy  decom- 
position has  caused  the  mountain  to  assume  a 
rounded  graceful  form.  It  rises  to  the  height 
of  3,737  ft.,  and  overlooks  all  the  surrounding 
country.  The  Rosstrappe  stands  near  by  in  the 
same  group,  and  is  of  somewhat  inferior  eleva- 
tion to  the  Brocken,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  formations  of  argillaceous  slates  and  the  lower 
limestones.  It  is  composed  of  granite  in  which 
quartz  predominates,  giving  to  the  rock  a  more 
indestructible  character  and  to  the  mountain  a 
more  rugged  aspect  than  that  of  the  Brockm. 
The  Rammelsberg  is  a  mountain  of  argillaceous 
slate  and  the  older  sandstones,  reaching  the 
height  of  about  1 ,200  ft.  above  the  plain  near  the 
town  of  Goslar.  The  district  comprising  these 
mountains  is  principally  made  up  of  granitic 
rocks,  which  form  the  highest  summits,  and 
of  gneiss,  argillaceous  slates,  and  metamorphic 


HARTZ 


limestones  and  sandstones,  which  are  grouped 
around,  and  penetrated  by,  the  granites.  Vari- 
ous rocks  of  the  upper  secondary,  from  the 
grfo  bigarre  or  new  red  sandstone  to  the  chalk, 
repose  unconformably  upon  the  older  forma- 
tions around  their  marginal  outcrop.  The 
more  elevated  portions  of  the  district  are 
rough  and  dreary,  with  a  sterile  soil  and  a  cold 
climate.  Numerous  streams  take  their  rise  in 
the  Hartz  mountains.  Tributary  to  the  Elbe  are 
the  Helme,  which  flows  through  the  deep  and 
beautiful  valley  called  the  Goldene  Aue,  and  the 
Zorge,  on  the  south ;  the  Eine,  Selke,  and  Bode, 
on  the  east ;  and  the  Holzemme  on  the  north. 
The  Use,  which  forms  several  fine  cataracts  in 
its  course,  the  Ecker,  Radau,  and  Ocker,  on  the 
north,  and  the  Innerste,  Sose,  and  Sieber,  on 
the  west,  flow  int^o  the  Weser.  The  valleys, 
being  well  watered,  are  very  fertile,  and  pro- 
duce abundant  pasturage,  and  large  herds  of 
cattle  are  reared  here.  This  district  is  also 
well  wooded,  and  timber  forms  an  important 
article  of  export.  But  the  mines,  chiefly  of  lead, 
silver,  copper,  zinc,  and  iron,  are  the  principal 
source  of  the  wealth  of  this  region.  The  other 
minerals  found  here  are  sulphur,  arsenic,  gran- 
ite, marble,  and  gypsum ;  and  in  the  east  are  a 
number  of  important  salt  springs.  For  many 
centuries  the  mines  have  been  industriously 
worked,  and  the  business  connected  with  them 
gives  employment  to  about  30,000  persons. 
The  mines  belong  chiefly  to  the  province  of 
Hanover  (Prussia)  and  Brunswick ;  the  former 
possessing  those  at  Clausthal  and  Andreasberg, 
in  the  Upper  Hartz,  and  the  latter  a  portion  of 
those  in  the  Rammelsberg  near  Goslar.  Those 
of  the  eastern  Hartz  are  in  the  territory  of 
Anhalt.  The  Rammelsberg  mines  were  opened 
about  the  year  970,  those  of  the  Upper  Hartz 
mostly  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries;  and  the 
chief  towns  upon  their  sites,  as  those  above 
named  and  Altenau,  Zellerfeld,  Lautenthal, 
Wildemann,  and  Grund,  were  founded  in  con- 
sequence of  the  discoveries  of  the  mineral 
resources  beneath  the  surface.  These  mining 
towns  (Bergstadte)  are  entitled  to  special  priv- 
ileges, and  no  business  is  conducted  in  them 
but  what  is  connected  with  mining  and  metal- 
lurgy. Clausthal  is  the  headquarters  of  these 
operations.  The  council  which  has  general 
charge  of  the  mines  meets  here,  and  here  are 
a  mint  and  a  school  of  mines,  the  latter  fur- 
nished with  a  fine  collection  of  minerals  and 
models  of  mining  and  other  machinery.  The 
mines  of  the  Upper  Hartz  belong  either  to  the 
group  at  Clausthal  or  that  of  Andreasberg. 
In  the  former  the  veins  follow  several  lines  of 
fracture  in  an  E.  and  W.  direction.  One  passes 
through  the  town  of  Zellerfeld,  extending  from 
Wildemann  to  Clausthal,  a  distance  of  3  m. 
They  produce  argentiferous  galena,  copper  py- 
rites, and  blende  in  a  quartzose  gangue,  inter- 
mixed with  calcareous  spar,  brown  spar,  heavy 
spar,  and  spathic  iron.  They  are  remarkable 
for  spreading  out  in  thin  branches  through  a 
great  breadth  of  rock,  and  at  Clausthal  these 


HARTZENBUSCH 


493 


strings  are  profitably  explored  throughout  a 
width  of  300  ft.  The  famous  drainage  level 
of  these  mines  is  noticed  in  the  article  ADIT. 
The  mines  and  city  of  Andreasberg  are  situated 
upon  the  steep  slope  of  a  mountain  of  argil- 
laceous and  silicious  slates.  The  whole  area 
occupied  by  the  former  is  hardly  a  mile  square. 
Rich  silver  ores  are  found  here  in  small  veins, 
as  the  antimonial  sulphuret  of  silver  and  ruby- 
red  silver  of  the  dark  and  light  varieties.  Ar- 
gentiferous galena  is  also  a  product  of  these 
mines.  At  this  locality  is  found  the  deepest 
mine  in  the  world.  It  is  upon  an  argentiferous 
vein,  which  has  been  followed  to  the  depth  of 
more  than  2,500  ft.  from  the  surface,  the  last 
800  ft.  since  about  the  year  1820.  The  richest 
ores  are  found  in  courses  which  extend  only 
about  100  ft.  in  length  on  the  vein.  The  best 
of  these  was  struck  at  a  depth  of  about  2,160 
ft.,  and  has  continued  highly  productive  to 
the  greatest  depth  named.  The  Rammelsberg 
mines  produce  similar  ores  to  those  of  the 
Upper  Hartz  district.  On  account  of  the  ex- 
treme hardness  of  some  of  the  veinstones  of 
these  mines,  it  has  been  the  practice,  instead 
of  attempting  to  drill  the  rock  for  blasting,  to 
build  a  large  fire  against  the  face  of  the  vein, 
and  leave  this  to  act  upon  the  ingredients,  like 
the  arsenic  and  sulphur,  which  may  be  volatil- 
ized, and  thus  cause  the  mass  to  be  easily 
attacked  and  broken  down  to  some  extent. 
Various  other  ores  have  been  obtained  in  the 
Hartz  besides  those  named.  Iron  mines  have 
been  extensively  worked;  ores  of  antimony 
have  been  produced  to  some  extent,  as  also 
those  of  cobalt  and  manganese.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  gold  has  also  been  found  in  Anhalt. 
The  rare  metal  selenium  has  been  extracted 
from  the  seleniuret  of  lead  of  the  same  district. 
The  Mansfeld  bituminous  copper  slates  are 
singular  ores,  of  so  low  a  percentage  that  the 
copper  pyrites  disseminated  through  them  is 
not  visible,  yet  they  have  been  long  profitably 
worked  in  the  Lower  Hartz.  The  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  Hartz  mines,  not  including  that 
of  the  Rammelsberg,  which  also  yields  5  Ibs. 
of  gold,  is  about  40,000  Ibs.  of  silver,  5,000  to 
6,000  tons  of  lead,  150  tons  of  copper,  and  10,- 
000  tons  of  iron. — The  population  of  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Hartz  speak  different  dialects.  Be- 
sides the  Brocken  or  Blocksberg,  which  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  popular  legends  and  fairy 
tales  of  Germany,  and  which  is  immortalized 
in  Goethe's  "Faust,"  there  are  many  remark- 
able localities  in  the  Hartz,  as  the  StauiFen- 
berg,  with  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Henry  the 
Fowler,  the  castle  of  Falkenstein,  the  Alexis- 
bad,  &c.  The  Teufelsmtihle,  Rosstrappe,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Bode  are  renowned  for  their 
fine  and  peculiar  scenery ;  and  two  curious 
caves,  Baumannshohle  and  Bielshohle,  are  in- 
teresting on  account  of  their  fossil  bones. 

HARTZENBIISCH,  Jnan  Engenlo,  a  Spanish  au- 
thor, born  in  Madrid.  Sept.  6, 1806.  His  father 
was  a  German  carpenter.  He  was  educated 
by  the  Jesuits  and  intended  for  the  church,  butT 


494 


HARVARD 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


becoming  interested  in  literature,  he  translated 
a  number  of  French  and  Italian  comedies  and 
prepared  for  the  stage  several  of  Calderon's 
plays.  He  also  composed  many  short  poems. 
In  1835  he  became  a  stenographer  on  the  staff 
of  the  Gaceta  de  Madrid.  In  1836  an  original 
drama  by  him,  entitled  Los  amantes  de  Teruel, 
was  played  with  success,  and  he  afterward  pro- 
duced many  others.  He  has  also  published  criti- 
cal editions  of  the  works  of  Tirso  de  Molina  (12 
vols.,  Madrid,  1839-'42),  of  Calderon  (4  vols., 
1849-'51),  of  Alarcon  (1852),  and  of  Lope  de 
Vega  (4  vols.,  1853).  Among  his  own  works 
are  Cuentos  y  fdbulas  (2  vols.,  1861),  Obras  de 
encargo  (1864),  and  Obras  escogidas  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1865).  In  1852  he  was  named  presi- 
dent of  the  theatrical  council,  and  he  has  been 
since  1862  director  of  the  national  library. 

HARVARD,  John,  the  founder  of  Harvard 
college,  born  in  England,  probably  in  Middle- 
sex, died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  24, 1638. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  having  emigrated  to  America  was 
made  a  freeman  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts, 
Nov.  2,  1637.  The  following  year,  as  appears 
from  the  town  records,  a  portion  of  land  was 
set  off  for  him  in  Charlestown,  where  he  exer- 
cised the  ministry.  In  April,  1638,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  a  committee  "to  consider  of 
some  things  tending  toward  a  body  of  laws." 
These  are  the  only  particulars  known  of  his 
life.  His  property  at  his  death  was  worth 
about  £1,500,  one  half  of  which  he  gave  for 
the  erection  of  the  college  which  bears  his 
name ;  but  part  of  this  bequest,  we  are  told, 
was  diverted  from  its  original  purpose.  He 
also  left  to  the  college  a  library  of  more  than 
300  volumes.  A  monument  to  his  memory 
was  erected  in  the  burial  ground  of  Charles- 
town  by  the  alumni  of  the  university,  and  in- 
augurated with  an  address  by  Edward  Everett, 
Sept.  26,  1828. 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  the  oldest  and  the 
most  amply  endowed  institution  of  learning  in 
the  United  States,  situated  in  Cambridge,  3  m. 
W.  of  Boston,  Mass.  Six  years  after  the  first 
settlement  of  this  region  by  the  English  the 
following  entry  appears  on  their  records,  under 
date  of  Oct.  28,  1636:  "The  court  agreed  to 
give  400/.  towards  a  schoale  or  colledge,  whear- 
of  200?.  to  bee  paid  the  next  yeare,  and  200Z. 
when  the  worke  is  finished,  and  the  next  court 
to  appoint  wheare,  and  what  building."  The 
next  year  the  court  ordered  that  the  college 
should  be  at  "  Newetowne,"  and  designated  the 
governor  and  deputy  governor,  with  ten  oth- 
ers, including  the  principal  laymen  and  minis- 
ters of  the  colony,  among  whom  were  John 
Cotton  and  John  Winthrop,  to  have  charge  of 
the  undertaking.  Under  date  of  March  13, 
1639,  it  was  "  ordered,  that  the  colledge  agreed 
upon  formerly  to  bee  built  at  Cambridg  shal 
bee  called  Harvard  Colledge."  By  the  change 
of  the  name  Newtown  to  Cambridge  it  was 
designed  to  honor  the  famous  English  univer- 
sity, of  which  some  of  the  early  settlers  were 


graduates,  and  the  name  Harvard  was  given  to 
the  institution  in  recognition  of  the  liberal  en- 
dowment of  about  £700  left  by  the  will  of  the 
Rev.  John  Harvard  in  1638.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  original  grant  of  £400  was  ever  ac- 
tually paid.  It  is  certain  that  the  project  tor 
a  college  lay  in  abeyance  until  the  bequest  of 
Harvard  at  once  initiated  the  necessary  meas- 
ures. In  1638  a  class  began  a  course  of  study 
in  the  college  under  Nathaniel  Eaton.  The  first 
class  graduated,  in  1642,  consisted  of  nine  mem- 
bers. Efforts  were  made  to  educate  a  few 
of  the  aborigines  as  teachers  of  their  own  race, 
but  only  one  Indian  was  ever  graduated.  In 
1642  the  general  government  of  the  college  and 
the  management  of  its  funds  were  vested  in  a 
board  of  overseers,  consisting  of  "  the  governor 
and  deputy  governor  for  the  time  being,  and 
all  the  magistrates  of  this  jurisdiction,  togeth- 
er with  the  teaching  elders  of  the  six  next 
adjoining  towns — viz.,  Cambridge,  Watertown, 
Charlestown,  Boston,  Roxbury,  and  Dorches- 
ter— and  the  president  of  the  said  college." 
In  1650  the  general  court  granted  a  charter  to 
the  college,  under  which  it  became  a  corpora- 
tion with  the  title  of  the  "President  and  Fel- 
lows of  Harvard  College,"  consisting  of  the 
president,  five  fellows,  and  a  treasurer  or  bur- 
sar, to  have  perpetual  succession  by  the  elec- 
tion of  members  to  fill  vacancies.  In  October, 
1680,  by  order  of  the  general  court,  the  ferry 
between  Boston  and  Charlestown  was  granted 
to  the  college.  The  town  of  Cambridge  gave 
several  parcels  of  land,  as  did  other  public  bod- 
ies and  private  individuals.  The  legislatures 
of  the  colony,  province,  and  state  of  Massachu- 
setts made  grants,  in  early  times  regular  ones 
annually,  to  pay  the  salary  of  the  president, 
and  to  aid  in  the  support  of  some  one  or  two 
other  officers  or  teachers  in  the  college,  as  also 
occasional  gifts  for  special  purposes;  while 
lotteries  were  chartered  to  obtain  money  for 
building  some  of  the  older  college  halls.  The 
last  grant  made  to  the  college  from  the  public 
treasury  was  in  1814.  When  a  constitution 
was  framed  for  the  commonwealth  in  1780  the 
perpetual  enjoyment  of  all  their  vested  rights 
and  powers  was  secured  to  the  president  and 
fellows  of  Harvard  college,  and  the  council  and 
senate  were  made  the  successors  of  the  magis- 
trates in  the  board  of  overseers  as  constituted 
in  1642.  The  organization  of  the  board  of 
overseers,  under  the  direction  of  the  legislature, 
underwent  various  changes  until  1865,  when 
the  connection  of  the  college  with  the  com- 
monwealth was  dissolved,  and  the  control  of 
the  university  was  vested  in  its  alumni.  Be- 
sides the  president  and  treasurer  of  the  uni- 
versity, who  are  ex  officio  members,  the  board 
consists  of  30  members,  divided  into  six  class- 
es, of  five  each,  who  after  a  term  of  six  years 
go  out  of  office  in  rotation,  five  overseers  being 
elected  by  the  alumni  each  year.  The  first 
election  of  overseers  by  the  alumni  was  held 
in  Cambridge  on  commencement  day  in  1866. 
Only  inhabitants  of  the  state  are  eligible  as 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


495 


members  of  the  board,  and  no  alumnus  is  "  en- 
titled to  vote  for  overseers  before  the  fifth  an- 
nual election  after  the  graduation  of  his  class." 
The  first  degree  of  D.  D.  ever  granted  by  the  in- 
stitution was  conferred  upon  Increase  Mather 
in  1692.  A  few  years  later  Harvard  college  re- 
ceived the  first  of  a  series  of  munificent  gifts 
from  the  Hollis  family,  including  some  valuable 
books.  In  1764  the  library  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  about  6,000  volumes  were  lost,  in- 
cluding all  of  Harvard's  books  except  one,  the 
oriental  collection  bequeathed  by  Dr.  Light- 
foot,  and  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics  pre- 

ited  by  Bishop  Berkeley.     Harvard  has  had 

presidents,  as  follows : 


NAMES.  Term  of  service. 
Joseph  Willard....  1781-1804 
Samuel  Webber...  1806-1810 
John  Thornton 

Kirkland 

Josiah  Quincy. . . . 
Edward  Everett.. 

Jared  Sparks 

James  Walker.... 
Cornelius  Conway 

Felton 

Thomas  Hill... 


1810-1828 
1829-1846 
1846-1849 
1849-1853 
1853-1860 


ident  and  fellows,  known  also  as  the  corpora- 
tion of  Harvard  college,  and  the  overseers. 
The  latter  body  has  undergone  various  changes 
in  its  organization,  but  its  general  powers  and 
duties  are  the  same  as  those  conferred  by  the 
act  of  1642,  giving  the  board  "full  power  and 
authority  to  make  and  establish  all  such  or- 
ders, statutes,  and  constitutions  as  they  shall 
see  necessary  for  the  instituting,  guiding,  and 
furthering  of  the  said  college,  and  the  several 
members  thereof,  from  time  to  time,  in  piety, 
morality,  and  learning;"  and  "  also  to  dispose, 
order,  and  manage  "  all  the  funds  and  property 
of  the  institution.  The  "  corporation,"  con- 
sisting of  the  president  and  treasurer  of  the 
university  and  five  fellows,  is  vested  with  the 
right  to  acquire  and  to  hold  property  and  to 
sue  and  to  be  sued.  With  this  board  originate 
all  nominations  to  office  in  the  university,  as 
well  for  filling  vacancies  in  its  own  body,  as  for 
president,  professors,  and  other  officers  of  in- 
struction. Its  action,  however,  is  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  board  of  overseers.  The 
functions  of  these  two  governing  bodies  extend 
to  all  the  professional  and  special  schools  of  the 
university.  The  internal  government  of  the 
institution  is  administered  by  the  president, 
deans,  and  faculties  composed  of  officers  of  in- 
struction. Besides  the  dean  and  faculty  of  the 


NAMES.  Term  of  service. 
Punster....  1640-1654 
iChauncy..  1654-1672 

Hoar 1672-1675 

riah  Oakes 1675-1682 

ohn  Rogers 1682-1684 

e  Mather...  1685-1701 
muel       Willard 

(acting) 

ohn  Leverett . . . 

j.  Wadsworth 

ward  Holyoke. 

uel  Locke.... 


1701-1707 
1708-1724 
1725-1737 
1787-1769 
1770-1773 


Charles  William  El- 
iot 


uelLangdon...  1774-1780 


The  external  administration  of  the  university 
vested  in  two  separate  boards,  viz.,  the  pres- 


Matthews  Hall  (showing  also  Massachusetts,  Harvard,  and  Hollis  Halls). 


college  proper,  each  professional  department 
has  a  dean  and  special  faculty ;  but  the  presi- 
dent of  the  university  is  the  president  of  each 
of  the  faculties.  In  1870  the  office  of  dean  of 
the  college  faculty  was  created  to  relieve  the 
president  of  a  portion  of  his  duties. — The  uni- 
versity lands  in  various  parts  of  Cambridge  — .,  —  — 

comprise  about  60  acres.    The  college  yard  con-    College  house  and  Holyoke  house,  on  the  oppo- 
tains  about  15  acres,  tastefully  laid  out  and    site  side  of  the  street  from  the  college  grounds, 
392  VOL.  viii. — 32 


adorned  by  many  stately  old  elms.  Here, 
forming  a  large  quadran?uiar  enclosure,  are 
clustered  15  extensive  buildings,  of  brick  or 
stone,  from  two  to  five  stories  high.  Hollis, 
Stoughton,  Holworthy,  Grays,  Thayer,  Weld, 
and  Matthews  halls,  the  last  three  erected  since 
1870,  are  exclusively  dormitories,  which,  with 


496 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


have  accommodations  for  nearly  700  students. 
The  remaining  buildings  include  Massachusetts 
hall,  erected  in  1720,  H  olden  chapel,  and  Har- 
vard, University,  and  Boylston  halls,  all  de- 
voted to  recitation,  lecture,  and  examination 


Appleton  Chapel. 

rooms,  offices,  and  laboratories ;  Appleton  cha- 
pel, with  seats  for  900;  Gore  hall,  containing 
the  library ;  and  Dane  hall  for  the  law  school ; 
besides  several  residences  occupied  by  the 


•  ']' 


jyy ,  i 

•»i"B<  •"'•?•'  -_^j 


Gore  Hall. 

president  and  professors.  In  the  near  vicinity 
of  the  college  yard  are  the  gymnasium,  the 
scientific  and  mining  schools,  the  divinity 
school,  and  the  museum  of  comparative  zoolo- 
gy. About  three  fourths  of  a  mile  N.  W.  of 
the  college  group  is  the  botanical  garden,  con- 


taining a  valuable  herbarium,  and  near  it  the 
observatory.  On  the  delta  near  the  college 
yard  stands  Memorial  hall,  erected  by  the 
alumni  and  friends  of  the  college  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  students  and  graduates  of  the 
university  who  died  in  the  national  service 
during  the  civil  war.  It  is  constructed  from 
designs  by  Ware  and  Van  Brunt  of  Boston,  of 
red  and  black  brick,  with  copings  and  window 
tracery  of  Nova  Scotia  stone,  and  is  310  ft. 
long  by  115  ft.  wide.  The  interior  comprises 
three  grand  apartments :  dining  hall,  164  by  60 
ft.,  and  80  ft.  high,  capable  of  seating  1,000 
persons;  memorial  vestibule,  112  by  30  ft.,  and 
60  ft.  high ;  and  the  academic  theatre.  The 
dining  hall,  said  to  be  the  grandest  college  hall 
in  the  world,  will  be  used  for  college  festivals, 
and  probably  by  the  Thayer  club,  an  organiza- 
tion supported  and  managed  by  students  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  board  at  cost.  The 
great  west  window,  23  ft.  wide  and  30  ft.  high, 
will  be  filled  with  stained  glass,  as  will  also 
in  course  of  time  the  36  side  windows.  Be- 
tween the  dining  hall  and  the  academic  theatre, 
which  is  not  yet  completed,  is  the  memorial 
vestibule,  surmounted  by  a  tower  200  ft.  high. 
The  interior  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade  of 
black  walnut,  with  marble  tablets  inscribed 
with  the  names  of  the  120  students  commem- 
orated, and  the  date  and  place  of  their  death. 
The  walls  above  are  simply  decorated  in  color, 
with  Latin  inscriptions,  mostly  taken  from 
the  poets.  At  either  end  are  large  windows 
tilled  with  stained  glass.  The  estimated  cost 
of  the  entire  structure  is  $575,000. — Besides 
the  college  proper,  the  university  comprises 
the  divinity  school,  law 
school,  medical  school, 
dental  school,  Lawrence 
scientific  school,  school 
of  mining  and  practical 
geology,  Bussey  institu- 
mmjaaimx  «s»K^  ^on  °^  agriculture  and 
horticulture,  observato- 
ry, botanic  garden  and 
herbarium,  and  Pea- 
body  museum  of  Amer- 
ican archaeology  and 
ethnology;  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  mu- 
seum of  comparative 
zoology.  All  of  these 
are  in  Cambridge  except 
the  medical  and  dental 
schools,  which  are  in 
Boston,  and  the  Bussey 
institution,  which  is  in 
Jamaica  Plain.  A  no- 
tice of  the  Episcopal, 
theological  school  in 

Cambridge  appears  in  the  catalogue  of  the  uni- 
versity, but  there  is  no  connection  between 
the  two  institutions. — During  the  past  few 
years  many  radical  changes  have  been  made 
in  the  courses  of  study  in  the  college,  with 
a  view  of  perfecting  a  system  of  instruction 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


497" 


which  by  its  elasticity  and  thoroughness  will 
best  accommodate  itself  to  the  widely  va- 
ried tastes  and  abilities  of  different  students. 
The  preparatory  course  of  study,  pursued  in 
schools  having  no  connection  with  the  univer- 
sity, has  also  undergone 
a  marked  revision,  in 
consequence  of  the 
changes  in  the  require- 
its  for  admission  to 
he  college,  the  aim  of 
"  faculty  being  that  • 

best    preparatory 
raining  shall  be  afford- 
to  young  men,  up  to 
average  age  of  18, 
rho  intend  to  pursue 
m-professional  studies 
>r  four  years  or  more. 
Since   1874  candidates 
ive  been  required  to 
an  examination  in 
le  of  two  courses  of 
tudy,  the  selection  be- 
ig  optional   with  the 
>plicant.    Each  course 
ibraces    14    subjects 
icluding  subdivisions) 
are  substantially 
le  same  in  both,  viz. :  Latin,  Greek,  mathe- 
latics,  ancient  history  and  geography,  modern 
id  physical  geography,  and  English  composi- 
In  one  course,  however,  classical  studies 
>redominate,  and  in  the  other  mathematical 
id  physical.     Besides  these,  there  are  optional 
laminations  in  the  classics,  mathematics,  and 
physics,  for  the  accommodation  of  those  who 
iesire  to  be  admitted  to  advanced  standing 
these,  or  to  pursue  elective  studies  in  other 
Bpartments.     In  addition  to  the  above,  appli- 
ints  for  admission  in  1875  and  thereafter  will 
required  to  translate  "easy  French  prose  at 
?ht,"  with  the  option  of  substituting  Ger- 
m;  and  in  1876  requirements  in  elementary 
ience  will  be  added,  the  applicant  having  a 
loice  among  the  subjects  of  botany,  physics 
chemistry,    and    descriptive    astronomy. 
o  examinations  for  admission  are  held,  one 
the  beginning  and  the  other  at  the  close  of 
e  academic  year.     In  view  of  the  recently 
Ided  requirements  for  admission,  and  to  en- 
ible  students  to  enter  college  at  the  average 
of  18,  candidates  may  divide  the  admission 
lamination  into  two,  separated  by  an  inter- 
of  not  less  than  an  academic  year.     The 
lemic  year,  which  is  the  same  for  all  de- 
bments  of  the  university,  extends  from  the 
Thursday  of  September  to  the  last  Wed- 
lesday  of  June,  with  a  vacation  of  two  weeks 
it  the  winter  holidays.     The  studies  pursued 
the  academic  department  are  classified  in- 
prescribed  and  elective ;  the  former  occupy 
le  whole    of  the  freshman  year  and   about 
me  third  of  the  sophomore  and  junior  years. 
The  studies  of  the  freshman  year  are  Greek, 
Latin,  mathematics,  German,  ethics,  and  chem- 


istry, 16  hours  a  week  being  devoted  to  reci- 
tations. In  the  sophomore  and  junior  years 
the  required  studies  are  elementary,  embra- 
cing in  the  former  physics,  rhetoric,  themes, 
history,  and  elementary  French  for  those  who 


Memorial  Hall. 

have  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in 
that  language  at  the  beginning  of  the  year; 
and  in  the  latter  logic,  psychology,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  course  in  rhetoric,  as  well  as  of  that 
in  themes  and  forensics.  In  the  senior  year 
only  certain  written  exercises  belong  to  the 
required  course.  Numerous  courses  of  elective 
studies  are  provided  for  students  in  the  sopho- 
more, junior,  and  senior  years,  who  may  also 
choose  any  of  the  prescribed  studies  in  the 
course  upon  condition  of  being  qualified  to 
pursue  them.  The  elective  studies  embrace 
the  following  courses:  1,  the  classics,  inclu- 
ding, besides  Latin  and  classical  Greek,  ec- 
clesiastical Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Sanskrit;  2, 
modern  languages,  including  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  early  English,  modern  Greek,  German, 
French,  Romance  philology,  Italian,  and  Span- 
ish; 3,  philosophy;  4,  history;  5,  Apolitical 
science ;  6,  mathematics ;  7,  physics,  including 
chemistry ;  8,  natural  history ;  9,  music. 
In  addition  to  the  prescribed  studies,  every 
sophomore  is  required  to  pursue  four  courses 
chosen  by  himself  from  the  elective  studies, 
with  at  least  two  exercises  a  week  each,  every 
junior  three  courses  with  three  exercises  a 
week  each,  and  every  senior  four  courses  with 
three  exercises  a  week  each.  Sophomores  and 
juniors  may  be  relieved  from  pursuing  any  of 
the  required  studies  of  those  years  by  passing- 
an  examination  in  such  studies  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
opportunity  is  afforded  to  students  of  pursuing 
the  ordinary  collegiate  course,  or  of  concentra- 
ting their  study  upon  a  limited  number  of  sub- 
jects. Examinations  in  writing  are  required 
in  every  study  at  the  end  of  the  year,  besides 


498 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


similar  examinations  on  nearly  every  subject  in 
the  middle  of  the  year.  A  large  portion  of 
the  instruction  is  given  by  lectures.  A  sys- 
tem of  special  honors,  classified  as  "  honors  " 
and  "second-year  honors,"  has  recently  been 
established  for  the  encouragement  of  those 
who  wish  to  attain  distinction  in  special  de- 
partments of  study.  The  former  are  awarded 
at  the  close  of  the  college  course  to  such 
students  as  prove  by  examination  exception- 
al proficiency  in  any  one  of  the  following 
courses :  classics,  modern  languages,  philoso- 
phy, history,  mathematics,  physics  (including 
chemistry),  and  natural  history.  Candidates 
for  honors  in  the  classics  or  in  mathematics 
must  have  previously  taken  second-year  honors 
in  the  same  department.  Second-year  honors 
in  the  classics  and  in  mathematics  are  awarded 
to  sophomores  and  juniors  upon  special  exam- 
ination. The  honors  awarded  are  stated  in 
the  diploma.  The  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts 
conferred  by  Harvard  university  has  been 
graded  as  the  ordinary  degree  and  the  degree 
with  distinction.  In  the  latter  case  the  dis- 
tinction is  indicated  in  the  diploma  by  the 
words  cum  laude ;  to  obtain  this  the  candi- 
date must  have  attained  80  hundredths  of 
the  maximum  mark  for  the  whole  college 
course,  or  87  hundredths  of  that  for  the  junior 
and  senior  years  combined.  The  necessary  ex- 
penses of  an  undergraduate  during  the  aca- 
demic year  range  from  $400  to  $650,  the  tui- 
tion being  $150.  Pecuniary  aid  afforded  to 
students  removes  the  necessity  of  any  leaving 
college  through  indigence.  Ninety-two  schol- 
arships varying  in  their  annual  income  from 
$40  to  $350  have  been  established,  and  the 
number  is  rapidly  increasing.  More  than  $20,- 
000  from  this  source  is  gratuitously  distrib- 
uted each  year  among  the  undergraduates,  the 
preference  being  given  to  those  ranking  highest 
as  scholars.  From  other  beneficiary  funds 
about  $750  is  annually  distributed  in  gratui- 
ties ranging  from  $50  to  $100.  There  is  also 
a  loan  fund,  the  annual  interest  of  which, 
amounting  to  more  than  $2,000,  is  lent  to  stu- 
dents in  sums  ranging  from  $50  to  $150,  pay- 
able at  their  option.  Besides  the  above,  stu- 
dents may  derive  an  income  from  acting  as 
monitors ;  the  various  monitorships  amount  to 
about  $1,200  a  year.  Twenty-three  prizes, 
yielding  annually  $895  in  sums  from  $15  to 
$100,  are  open  to  undergraduates. — In  the  di- 
vinity school  are  two  professorships  of  theolo- 
gy, one  of  ecclesiastical  history,  one  of  New 
Testament  criticism  and  interpretation,  and 
one  of  Hebrew,  besides  a  lectureship  on  Bibli- 
cal literature.  Bachelors  of  arts  are  admitted 
without  examination;  others  are  required  to 
pass  an  examination  in  Latin  and  the  Greek 
text  of  the  gospels.  The  full  course  occupies 
three  years,  on  the  completion  of  which  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  divinity  is  conferred  only 
upon  examination.  The  necessary  expenses 
are  about  $300  a  year.  There  are  nine  schol- 
arships, yielding  $1,695  annually,  in  sums  rang- 


ing from  $125  to  $260,  and  nearly  $3,000  from 
other  funds  is  annually  distributed  among  the 
students.  The  course  of  study  in  the  law 
school  occupies  two  years.  There  are  no  re- 
quirements for  admission  except  that  the  ap- 
plicant, if  not  a  college  graduate,  must  be  at 
least  19  years  old.  But  an  examination  is  re- 
quired for  admission  to  an  advanced  portion 
of  the  course  in  the  case  of  candidates  for  a 
degree.  Instruction  is  given  by  recitations, 
lectures,  and  moot  courts,  by  three  full  pro- 
fessors, an  assistant  professor,  and  several  lec- 
turers. The  cost  of  tuition  for  the  first  year 
that  a  student  is  a  member  of  the  school  is 
$150,  for  the  second  $100,  and  for  any  subse- 
quent year  $50.  Eight  scholarships,  of  the  an- 
nual value  of  $100  each,  are  assigned  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  academic  year  to  students  who 
have  been  in  the  school  the  whole  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  and  intend  to  remain  throughout 
the  ensuing  year.  Prior  to  1871-'2  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  laws  was  conferred  upon  all  who 
had  been  enrolled  as  students  a  year  and  a  half; 
it  can  now  be  obtained  only  upon  examination. 
In  the  Lawrence  scientific  school  courses  of 
instruction  are  provided  for  three  classes  of 
persons:  1,  those  desiring  the  ordinary  prac- 
tical education  in  engineering  and  science;  2, 
those  preparing  to  be  teachers ;  3,  those  desi- 
ring advanced  instruction  in  science  prepara- 
tory to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  or 
doctor  of  science.  The  instruction  prepara- 
tory to  the  degrees  of  civil  engineer  and  bach- 
elor of  science  comprises  a  four  years'  course 
in  civil  and  topographical  engineering,  and 
three  years'  courses  in  practical  and  theoretical 
chemistry,  in  natural  history,  and  in  mathe- 
matics, physics,  and  astronomy.  The  teachers' 
course  embraces  one  year's  study  in  the  ele- 
ments of  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  phys- 
ics. Instruction  for  candidates  for  the  doctor's 
degree  and  other  advanced  students  is  pro- 
vided in  physics,  chemistry,  zoology,  botany, 
and  mathematics.  Candidates  for  admission 
to  any  one  of  the  regular  courses  leading  to 
the  degree  of  civil  engineer  or  bachelor  of 
science  must  be  examined;  but  no  examina- 
tion is  required  for  admission  to  the  teachers' 
course,  or  that  for  advanced  students.  The 
degree  of  civil  engineer  is  conferred  after  ex- 
amination upon  students  who  have  completed 
the  course  in  civil  and  topographical  engineer- 
ing. To  obtain  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
science  the  student  must  have  attended  the 
school  for  at  least  one  year,  have  completed 
the  course  of  studies  in  one  or  more  depart- 
ments, and  pass  the  examination.  The  course 
of  study  pursued  and  the  grade  of  merit  are 
specified  in  the  degree,  the  three  grades  being 
indicated  by  cum  laude,  magna  cum  laude,  and 
summa  cum  laude.  The  tuition  fee  for  any  of 
the  courses  in  the  scientific  school  is  $150  a 
year.  There  are  four  scholarships  yielding 
annually  $150  each.  The  full  course  in  the 
school  of  mining  and  practical  geology  occu- 
pies four  years,  on  the  completion  of  which 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


499 


degree  of  mining  engineer  is  conferred  after 
examination.  In  the  case  of  candidates  for 
this  degree  an  examination  for  admission  to 
the  school  is  held.  Instruction  in  practical 
astronomy  and  the  use  of  astronomical  instru- 
ments, including  the  spectroscope,  is  given  at 
the  observatory  by  the  director  and  three 
assistants.  In  1871  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  system  of  instruction  was  made  in  the 
Harvard  medical  school.  The  new  plan  went 
into  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  academic 
year  1871-'2,  and  up  to  this  time  (1874)  this 
institution  has  stood  alone  in  its  efforts  to  in- 
luce  this  radical  reform  into  the  system  of 
medical  education  in  the  United  States.  Under 
the  new  system  instruction  is  given  by  lectures, 
recitations,  clinical  teaching,  and  practical  ex- 
rcises  distributed  throughout  the  academic 
fear.  This  extends  from  the  last  of  Septem- 
to  the  last  of  June,  and  is  divided  into  two 
mal  terms.  The  course  of  instruction  occu- 
>ies  three  years,  beginning  with  the  funda- 
lental  subjects  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and 
zhemistry  in  the  first  year,  and  proceeding  sys- 
smatically  through  all  the  recognized  branches 
of  a  good  medical  education.  In  the  impor- 
tant subjects  of  anatomy,  physiology,  chemis- 
try, and  pathological  anatomy,  obligatory  lab- 
oratory work  is  substituted  for  or  added  to 
the  usual  didactic  lectures.  Instead  of  the 
justomary  oral  examination  for  the  degree 
~  doctor  of  medicine  held  at  the  end  of  the 
jourse,  a  series  of  written  examinations  on  all 
the  main  subjects  of  medical  instruction  is  dis- 
tributed for  regular  students  through  the  en- 
tire course.  Other  students  may  pass  all  of 
those  examinations  together  at  the  end  of  the 
course.  Besides  being  obliged  to  pass  the  re- 
quired examinations  and  present  a  thesis,  every 
candidate  for  a  degree  must  be  21  years  of 
age,  and  must  have  studied  medicine  three 
years  and  attended  this  school  for  one  year. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $200  a  year.  A  special 
course  is  provided  for  graduates  in  medicine 
desiring  advanced  instruction.  The  marked 
diminution  in  the  number  of  students  which 
attended  the  introduction  of  this  change  has 
been  followed  by  a  rapid  annual  increase 
in  the  number  of  applicants  for  admission. 
The  dental  school  affords,  by  lectures,  recita- 
tions, and  practical  demonstrations,  a  complete 
course  of  instruction  in  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  dentistry.  Courses  of  study  are  pro- 
vided in  anatomy,  physiology,  chemistry,  sur- 
gery, operative  and  mechanical  dentistry,  and 
dental  pathology  and  therapeutics.  The  aca- 
demic year  is  divided  into  two  equal  terms. 
Attendance  during  the  winter  term  only  is  re- 
quired for  graduation.  The  degree  of  doctor 
of  dental  medicine  is  conferred  upon  those 
candidates  of  adult  age  who  have  pursued  their 
professional  studies  three  years  under  compe- 
tent instructors,  and  attended  two  courses  in 
this  institution,  and  who  pass  the  required  ex- 
amination. Attendance  upon  one  course  of 
lectures  in  another  dental  or  medical  school 


may  be  substituted  for  the  first  course  in  this 
school.  The  tuition  fee  is  $110  for  the  winter 
term,  or  $150  for  the  year.  The  school  of 
agriculture  and  horticulture,  established  in  ex- 
ecution of  the  trusts  created  by  the  will  of 
Benjamin  Bussey,  affords  thorough  instruction 
in  agriculture,  useful  and  ornamental  garden- 
ing, and  stock  raising.  The  regular  course  of 
study  to  be  pursued  by  candidates  for  a  degree 
occupies  three  years,  and  embraces  instruction 
in  physical  geography,  meteorology,  geology, 
chemistry  and  physics,  botany,  zoology,  and 
entomology,  in  levelling  and  road  building,  and 
in  French  and  German.  The  studies  of  the 
first  year  are  pursued  at  the  Lawrence  scien- 
tific school  in  Cambridge ;  those  of  the  remain- 
ing two  years  at  the  Bussey  institution  near 
Jamaica  Plain.  The  museum  of  comparative 
zoology  was  founded  in  1859,  with  Agassiz  as 
director,  in  which  position  he  continued  until 
his  death  in  1873.  It  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  faculty,  while  the  property  is  held  by 
the  trustees,  who  also  appoint  the  director; 
the  assistants  are  appointed  by  the  faculty. 
The  extensive  collections  are  open  to  visitors 
every  day  except  Sunday.  Instruction  in  nat- 
ural history  is  given  by  the  director  and  11 
assistants.  The  building  of  the  museum  con- 
tains 10  distinct  working  laboratories.  Con- 
nected with  the  museum  of  comparative  zo- 
ology is  the  Anderson  school  of  natural  history 
on  Penikese  island,  one  of  the  Elizabeth  group, 
about  16  m.  S.  W.  of  Cape  Cod.  This  insti- 
tution was  founded  by  John  Anderson  of  New 
York  as  a  summer  school  of  natural  history, 
and  was  opened  in  1873  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  Prof.  Agassiz.  (See  ELIZABETH 
ISLANDS.)  The  Peabody  museum  of  American 
archaeology  and  ethnology  was  founded  by  the 
late  George  Peabody,  who  gave  $150,000  for 
that  purpose.  The  object  of  the  founder  was  the 
formation  and  preservation  of  collections  in  ar- 
chaeology and  ethnology,  and  to  afford  instruc- 
tion in  those  departments.  No  building  has  yet 
been  erected  for  a  museum,  and  no  organization 
except  the  board  of  trustees  has  been  effected ; 
but  large  collections  pertaining  to  archaeology 
and  ethnology  have  been  made. — Besides  those 
already  mentioned,  the  degrees  of  master  of 
arts,  doctor  of  science,  and  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy (Ph.  D.)  are  conferred  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations  adopted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1872-'3.  Prior  to  that  time  the  latter 
two  degrees  had  not  been  conferred  by  this 
university,  while  that  of  master  of  arts  could 
be  obtained  by  any  Harvard  graduate  after  a 
period  of  three  years  from  graduation,  by  pay- 
ing a  fee  of  $5.  These  degrees  are  now  con- 
ferred only  upon  written  examinations,  and 
in  conformity  with  specified  regulations^  as  to 
residence,  graduation,  &c. ;  the  aim  being  to 
encourage  young  men  to  devote  one  or  more 
years  to  liberal  study  after  obtaining  the  bach- 
elor's degree.  The  degrees  of  master  of  arts 
and  doctor  of  philosophy  are  open  only  to 
bachelors  of  arts ;  those  who  have  not  gradu- 


500 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


ated  at  Harvard  must  prove  that  the  course 
pursued  by  them  is  equivalent  to  the  require- 
ments for  the  bachelor's  degree  in  this  uni- 
versity, or  must  pass  such  additional  exami- 
nations as  the  faculty  may  prescribe.  To  be- 
come a  master  of  arts,  the  candidate,  after  ta- 
king the  bachelor's  degree,  is  required  to  pursue 
for  at  least  one  year  at  the  university  an  ap- 
proved course  of  study,  and  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation on  that  course.  This  degree  is  also 
conferred  upon  graduates  of  the  law  or  divinity 
school  of  Harvard  university  who  are  at  the 
same  time  bachelors  of  arts,  and  who  pass  an 
examination  in  a  course  of  study  in  law  or  the- 
ology after  pursuing  that  course  one  year  at 
the  university.  A  university  residence  of  at 
least  two  years  is  required  of  the  candidate  for 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  science,  who,  besides 
being  a  bachelor  of  science,  must  also  have 
pursued  during  three  years  an  approved  course 
of  scientific  study  embracing  at  least  two  sub- 
jects, and  must  sustain  an  examination  in  those 
studies.  Only  a  two  years'  course,  however, 
is  required  of  students  who  are  both  bachelors 
of  arts  and  bachelors  of  science  of  Harvard 
university.  The  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy 
is  conferred  upon  those  who,  after  taking  the 
degree  of  A.  B.,  pursue  at  the  university  for 
two  years  an  approved  course  of  liberal  study 
in  any  of  the  following  departments :  philolo- 
gy, philosophy,  history,  political  science,  math- 
ematics, physics,  and  natural  history.  Can- 
didates are  further  required  to  pass  a  thorough 
examination  on  that  course  and  present  a  satis- 
factory thesis.  The  fee  for  the  examination 
for  the  degree  of  master  of  arts  is  $30,  and  for 
that  of  doctor  of  philosophy  or  doctor  of  sci- 
ence, $60.  All  the  elective  courses  of  study 
in  Harvard  college  are  open  to  graduates  of 
other  colleges  on  payment  of  the  fees.  For 
male  students,  and  for  candidates  for  the  ad- 
vanced degrees,  the  fees  range  from  $50  a  year 
for  three  hours  of  instruction  a  week,  to  $120 
for  six  hours.  For  the  encouragement  of  a 
more  thorough  scholarship  than  is  acquired  by 
undergraduates,  six  fellowships  for  graduates 
have  been  established,  each  of  which  has  an 
income  large  enough  to  support  a  student. 
Four  of  them  are  so  far  free  from  restrictions 
that  students  while  holding  them  may  pursue 
their  studies  either  in  this  country  or  in  Eu- 
rope. No  distinction  is  made  as  to  color  or 
age  in  the  admissions  to  Harvard  college,  but 
women  are  excluded.  A  system  of  examina- 
tions for  women  has  however  been  adopted, 
the  first  of  which  was  held  in  June,  1874.  A 
general  or  preliminary  examination  in  Eng- 
lish, French,  physical  geography,  botany  or 
physics,  mathematics,  history,  and  German, 
Latin,  or  Greek,  is  held  for  those  not  less 
than  17  years  old.  The  advanced  examination 
is  for  women  not  less  than  18  years  old  who 
have  passed  the  preliminary  examination.  It 
comprises  five  departments,  languages,  natural 
science,  mathematics,  history,  and  philosophy, 
in  one  or  more  of  which  the  candidate  may 


present  herself.  The  function  of  the  university 
is  limited  to  preparing  the  examination  papers, 
examining  the  work  of  the  candidates,  record- 
ing its  results,  and  giving  certificates  to  those 
who  pass.  The  examinations  may  be  held  in 
any  city  or  town.  The  preliminary  examina- 
tion continues  during  seven  days.  A  fee  of 
$15  for  the  preliminary  and  $10  for  the  ad- 
vanced examination  is  required. — The  various 
libraries  of  the  university  contain  200,000  vol- 
umes, distributed  as  follows:  college,  136,000; 
botanical  garden,  4,000  ;  divinity  school,  16,- 
000 ;  law  school,  15,000 ;  Lawrence  scientific 
school,  3,000 ;  medical  college,  2,000 ;  museum 
of  comparative  zoology,  5,000 ;  observatory, 
3,000;  society  libraries  of  students,  16,000. 
The  university  has  no  funded  property  from 
the  public  treasury,  but  has  always  depended 
upon  the  revenues  from  students  and  the  gifts 
of  individuals,  which  have  far  surpassed  in 
number  and  magnitude  those  made  to  any 
other  American  institution  of  learning.  No 
value  is  reported  for  the  lands  and  buildings 
used  for  college  purposes,  and  the  various  col- 
lections, libraries,  apparatus,  works  of  art,  &c. 
The  total  investments  of  the  college  in  1873 
were  stated  by  the  treasurer  at  $2,765,110,  of 
which  $1,854,372  was  productive  and  yield- 
ed an  annual  income  of  $133,676.  ^  The  total 
number  of  officers  of  instruction  in  the  uni- 
versity in  1873-'4,  exclusive  of  librarians, 
proctors,  &c.,  was  110,  including  50  professors, 
25  assistant  professors,  12  lecturers,  5  tutors, 
11  instructors,  and  12  assistants.  •  In  the  col- 
lege proper  there  were  18  professors,  15  as- 
sistant professors,  5  tutors,  4  instructors,  and 
8  assistants.  The  whole  number  of  students 
was  1,174,  including  35  candidates  for  higher 
degrees  and  10  resident  graduates.  Of  the  706 
undergraduates,  217  were  in  the  freshman,  170 
in  the  sophomore,  155  in  the  junior,  and  164 
in  the  senior  class.  The  following  statement 
indicates  the  number  of  instructors  and  pupils 
in  the  different  departments  of  the  university, 
the  same  instructors  in  some  instances  being 
counted  in  two  departments : 


DEPARTMENTS. 

j 

li 

Other 
instructors. 

Total  of 
instructors. 

i 

Academic  department  

18 

15 

17 

50 

706 

8 

?, 

7 

19, 

8 

5 

4 

4 

13 

81 

Divinity  school 

R 

1 

6 

22 

Lawrence  scientific  school  
Law  school                      

10 

I 

4 
1 

8 
2 

22 
6 

42 
188 

Medical  school  
Museum  of  comparative  zoology.  . 
School  of  mining  

10 
'9 

5 

'i 

18 

28 
12 
10 

175 

The  total  number  of  instructors  in  all  depart- 
ments has  increased  from  45  in  1865-'6  to  110 
in  1873-'4,  the  number  of  students  from  936  to 
1,174,  and  the  number  of  volumes  in  the  libra- 
ries from  165,000  to  200,000.  In  the  college 
proper  during  that  period  the  number  of  in- 
structors has  increased  from  22  to  50,  the 


HARVEST  FLY 


501 


number  of  students  from  413  to  706,  the  libra- 
ry from  110,000  to  136,000  volumes,  and  the 
number  of  scholarships  from  41  to  92.     Ac- 
cording to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1872,  the 
university  had  conferred  12,175  degrees,  in- 
cluding 596  honorary.     The  number  of  gradu- 
ates from  the  college  was  8,330,  of  whom  3,088 
rere  living;    2,036   students  had  graduated 
)m  the  medical,   1,720    from  the  law,  428 
the  theological,  183  from  the  scientific, 
J9  from  the  dental,  and  4  from   the  mining 
"lool. — See  "  A  History  of  Harvard  Universi- 
r,"  from  1636  to  1776,  by  Benjamin  Peirce 
L833) ;  "  The  History  of  Harvard  University," 
Josiah  Quincy  (1840);    "  A  Sketch  of  the 
fistory  of  Harvard  College,"  by  Samuel  At- 
is  Eliot  (1848) ;  and  "  Biographical  Sketches 
Graduates  of  Harvard  University"  (1642- 
3),  by  John  Langdon  Sibley  (vol.  i.,  1873). 
HARVEST  FLY,  a  hemipterous  insect,  of  the 
li vision  homoptera  (from  having  the  wing  cov- 
of  the  same  texture  throughout),  of  the 
lily  cicadadm,  and  chiefly  of  the  genus  cicada 
(Oliv.),  improperly  called  locusts  in  America, 
[t  has  been  known  from  remote  antiquity,  and 
i  the  T£TTI%  of  the  Greeks,  cicada  of  the  Latins, 
lie  of  the  French,  and  cicala  of  the  Italians, 
le  harvest  flies  or  cicadians  have  short  anten- 
j,  conical,  six-jointed,  and  tipped  with  a  little 
Bristle ;  wings  and  wing  covers  in  both  sexes, 
iclined  at  the  sides  of  the  body ;  three  joints 
the  tarsi ;  a  hard  skin ;  and  in  the  female  a 
iercer  lodged  in  a  groove  under  the  end  of 
body.     Those  of  the  genus  cicada,  which 
las  been  improperly  translated  grasshopper, 
—  easily  known  by  their  broad  heads ;  their 
convex,  and  brilliant  eye  on  each  side,  and 
iree  simple  eyes  on  the  crown ;  their  wings 
id  the  covers  veined  and  transparent ;  and  an 
levation  on  the  back  part  of  the  thorax  in  the 
>rm  of  an  X.     The  males  make  a  loud  rattling 
und  by  means  of  a  kind  of  kettle-drum  appa- 
Jus  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  abdomen ; 
lis  is  covered  by  two  large  oval  plates,  and 
-insists  of  a  cavity  containing  plated  folds  of 
parchment-like  membrane,   transparent   as 
lass ;   these  are  moved  by  muscular  cords, 
'hose  alternate  and  very  rapid  contractions 
relaxations  produce  a  corresponding  ten- 
ion  and  looseness  of  the  membranes  and  a 
msequent  harsh   rattling  noise,  heard  to  a 
msiderable  distance;   the  action  is  assisted 
the  rapid  movements  of  the  wings,  and  the 
>und  is  rendered  more  intense  by  the  reso- 
ance  of  cavities  within  the  body  protected 
)y  valves.     The  piercer  has  two  lateral  plates 
rthed  like  a  saw  in  the  lower  portion,  and 
tween  them  a  spear-pointed  borer.     They 
lave  not  the  power  of  leaping  like  locusts  and 
;rasshoppers ;  the  legs  are  short,  and  the  ante- 
ior  thighs  are  armed  with  two  stout  spines, 
i  the  perfect  state  they  live  only  a  few  weeks, 
3rforming  the  work  of  reproduction  and  then 
lying;   in  the  larva  state  they  are  wingless 
"id  subterranean,  living  on  the  juices  of  roots, 
id  passing  a  series  of  years  in  the  ground. 


The  C.  septendecim  (Linn.)  is  called  the  17  years 
locust  from  the  prevalent  belief  that  its  life  is 
prolonged  to  that  extent  in  the  imperfect  state ; 
undoubted  testimony,  both  from  popular  and 
scientific  sources,  proves  that  these  insects  usu- 
ally appear  at  intervals  of  17  years,  but  acci- 


Seventeen  Years  Locust  (Cicada  septendecim). 

dental  circumstances  may  accelerate  or  retard 
their  progress  to  maturity ;  though  they  ap- 
pear in  some  parts  of  the  country  probably 
every  year,  and  indeed  in  all  districts  except 
northern  New  England  and  to  the  north  of 
that,  the  lineal  descendants  of  each  swarm  ap- 
pear only  every  17  years;  the  popular  name  of 
locust  was  doubtless  derived  from  this  fact  of 
their  appearance  in  large  swarms  after  long  in- 
tervals of  time,  like  the  locusts  of  the  East.  In 
the  perfect  state  this  harvest  fly  is  of  a  black 
color,  the  anterior  edge  and  principal  veins  of 
its  transparent  wings  and  covers  being  orange 
red ;  near  the  tips  of  the  covers  there  is  a  dusky 
zigzag  line  in  the  form  of  the  letter  W,  which 
by  the  superstitious  is  supposed  to  indicate  ap- 
proaching war  ;  as  the  mark  on  the  other  wing 
would  be  inverted  like  the  letter  M,  the  two 
were  supposed  to  announce  a  war  with  Mexico 
during  their  appearance  in  Louisiana  in  1835, 
which  however  did  not  arise  until  some  years 
after;  the  eyes  are  red,  with  metallic  reflec- 
tions; the  rings  of  the  body  are  edged  with 
dull  orange,  and  the  legs  are  of  the  same  color ; 
the  expanse  of  wings  is  from  2|  to  3J  in. 
Though  found  upon  almost  all  kinds  of  trees, 
except  most  evergreens,  they  prefer  forests  of 
oaks.  The  perfect  insects  "emerge  from  the 
ground  from  February  to  the  middle  of  June, 
according  to  latitude  and  the  warmth  of  the 
season ;  their  numbers  are  often  so  great  that 
the  limbs  are  bent  and  broken  by  their  weight, 
from  six  to  eight  being  sometimes  seen  on  every 
leaf;  the  drumming  sound  is  heard  from  morn- 
ing to  night,  but  most  loudly  between  the 
hours  of  12  and  2.  They  are  not  found  in  low 
alluvial  lands,  and  a  dry  air  is  necessary  for 
the  perfection  of  the  drumming.  The  males 
perform  the  act  of  reproduction  and  soon  die ; 
they  present  scarcely  a  trace  of  digestive  ap- 
paratus, and  probably  take  no  nourishment; 
the  sexual  system  is  fully  developed  on  emer- 
gence from  the  ground,  each  of  their  500  sperm 
cells  containing  about  1,000  spermatozoa.  The 
females  have  each  about  500  eggs,  of  about 
¥1U  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  when  de- 
posited are  twice  that  size ;  their  digestive  sys- 


502 


HARVEST  FLY 


tern  is  complete,  and  the  demand  for  food  to 
develop  the  eggs  must  be  satisfied  during  their 
longer  life ;  the  females  are  one  third  smaller 
than  the  males.  In  order  to  deposit  her  eggs, 
the  female  clasps  the  smallest  twig  of  a  tree 
with  her  legs,  and  introduces  the  piercer  to 
the  pith  obliquely  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibres,  detaching  little  splinters  by  the  lateral 
saws  at  one  end  to  serve  as  a  cover  to  the  per- 
foration ;  after  boring  a  hole  long  enough  for 
about  16  eggs,  she  introduces  them  in  pairs 
side  by  side,  but  separated  slightly  by  woody 
fibre,  and  standing  obliquely  upward;  after 
making  a  nest  and  filling  it  in  a  space  of  15 
minutes,  she  makes  others  on  suitable  twigs 
until  her  stock  is  deposited ;  by  this  time  in- 
cessant labor  has  so  weakened  her  that  she 
drops  exhausted  from  the  tree,  and  soon  dies. 
The  eggs  are  pearl  white,  very  delicate,  and 
are  hatched  in  from  three  to  six  weeks,  ac- 
cording to  favoring  circumstances.  The  twigs 
pierced  by  the  insect  wither  and  fall  to  the 
ground,  either  on  account  of  the  wound  or  be- 
cause such  are  selected  as  would  soon  fall  from 
natural  causes ;  in  this  way  many  of  the  larvae 
reach  the  earth,  but  most  are  developed  on 
the  trees ;  the  emerging  larva  is  about  y1^  of 
an  inch  long,  hairy  and  grub-like,  of  a  yellow- 
ish white  color,  with  six  legs,  the  first  of 
which  are  strong  like  lobster  claws,  and  spiny 
beneath  ;  there  are  rudiments  of  wings,  or  little 
prominences,  on  the  shoulders,  and  under  the 
breast  is  a  long  sucking  ciliated  tube  with  a  cen- 
tral tongue.  Active  on  leaving  the  egg,  they  in 
a  few  moments  drop  to  the  ground,  and  at  once 
bury  themselves  beneath  the  surface  by  means 
of  their  fore  feet;  they  follow  the  roots  of 
plants,  perforating  them  with  their  beaks  and 
sucking  their  juices ;  they  do  not  descend  very 
deeply  into  the  soil,  and  change  but  little 
during  their  long  subterranean  abode  except 
in  size  and  in  development  of  the  rudimen- 
tary wings.  As  the  time  of  transformation 
approaches,  they  gradually  advance  toward  the 
surface  in  cylindrical  and  circuitous  passages, 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  from  a  depth 
of  one  or  two  feet ;  now  become  pupse,  they 
gradually  acquire  strength  for  their  final  change ; 
they  leave  the  earth  in  a  warm  night  and  as- 
cend trees,  on  which  in  a  short  time  the  pupa 
skin  bursts  on  the  back,  and  the  perfect  cicada 
comes  forth.  The  ground  is  sometimes  riddled 
like  a  honeycomb  by  their  numbers,  which  in 
about  six  weeks  are  all  dead.  Did  these  in- 
sects appear  every  year  or  two  in  the  same 
locality,  fruit  and  forest  trees  would  suffer  much 
from  their  attacks,  even  though  they  only  rob 
roots  of  juices ;  but  fortunately  they  appear 
only  at  long  intervals,  and  their  eggs  are  eaten 
from  the  beginning  by  ants  and  other  insects ; 
the  larvae  are  also  devoured  by  the  same  in- 
sects, by  birds  (especially  woodpeckers),  by 
toads  and  frogs,  and  other  reptiles  ;  when  turn- 
ed up  by  the  plough,  blackbirds  and  hogs  eat 
great  numbers  of  them  ;  many  perish  in  their 
wooden  prison,  and  others  are  killed  by  the 


fall  from  the  trees;  as  they  generally  occur  in 
swarms  containing  about  the  same  number 
at  each  period,  of  course  only  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  eggs  laid  can  ever  produce  the  per- 
fect insect,  probably  not  more  than  two  of 
the  deposit  of  each  female  arriving  at  matu- 
rity.— Another  American  species  is  the  dog- 
day  cicada  (G.  canicularis,  Harris),  so  called 
from  the  time  of  its  first  appearance  on  July 
25  ;  it  is  about  If  in.  long,  with  a  spread  of 
3  in. ;  it  is  black  above,  with  a  powdery  white 
substance  on  the  under  parts,  and  with  green 
markings  on  the  head,  thorax,  wing  covers,  and 
legs.  These  and  several  other  species  have 
the  drumming  apparatus,  which  is  always  in- 
tegumental,  having  no  relation  to  the  respira- 
tory system ;  the  sound  in  some  of  the  large 
southern  individuals  continues  for  nearly  a 
minute.  Other  harvest  flies  of  the  same  fam- 
ily, but  principally  of  the  genus  membracis 
(Fabr.),  have  only  two  eyelets ;  they  are  not 
furnished  with  a  musical  apparatus,  but  have 
the  faculty  of  leaping  a  distance  of  5  or  6  ft. ; 


European  Harvest  Flies.— 1.  Cicada  plebeia.    2.  Cicada  oral. 

they  are  more  properly  called  tree-hoppers. 
For  full  details  and  references  in  regard  to 
the  American  cicadada,  the  reader  may  con- 
sult Dr.  Harris's  work  on  "  Insects  Injurious 
to  Vegetation." — The  European  species  do  not 
pass  more  than  a  year  in  their  subterranean 
abode.  The  C.  plebeia  (Linn.)  is  the  largest, 
and  is  probably  the  one  sung  by  poets  of  anti- 
quity, especially  by  Anacreon  and  Virgil.  These 
insects  were  so  highly  esteemed  by  the  Athe- 
nians that  they  wore  golden  images  of  them 
in  their  hair;  they,  however,  were  also  es- 
teemed as  food,  just  before  the  conclusion  of 
the  nymph  state ;  they  are  said  to  be  sold  in 
South  American  markets,  and,  freed  from  the 
head,  wings,  and  legs,  to  be  roasted  and  ground 
into  flour.  More  than  60  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, spread  over  almost  all  the  warm  regions 
of  the  earth.  The  C.  plebeia  is  black,  with 
reddish  spots  on  the  thorax  and  wing  covers. 
The  C.  orni,  common  in  central  and  southern 
Europe,  is  about  an  inch  long,  yellowish  mixed 
with  black  ;  by  their  wounding  certain  species 


HARVEY 


503 


of  ash  tree  (ornus),  a  saccharine  fluid  escapes, 
which,  dried  and  hardened,  is  used  in  medicine 
as  manna ;  this  hint  from  the  insect  has  been 
taken  advantage  of  by  man,  who,  by  making 
incisions  in  the  trees,  is  able  to  obtain  a  large 
supply  of  this  purgative  substance. 

HARVEY,  a  S.  central  county  of  Kansas,  re- 
cently formed,  and  not  included  in  the  census 
of  1870,  intersected  by  the  Little  Arkansas 
river,  and  watered  by  affluents  of  Whitewater 
creek ;  area,  about  450  sq.  m.  The  Arkansas 
touches  the  S.  W.  corner.  The  Atchison,  To- 
peka,  and  Santa  F6  railroad  and  Wichita  branch 
traverse  it.  Capital,  Newton. 

HARVEY,  Sir  George,  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
at  St.  Ninian's,  near  Stirling,  in  1805.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  royal  Scottish  acad- 
emy. His  pictures  represent  scenes  from  Scot- 
tish history  and  domestic  life,  and  particularly 
those  relating  to  the  trials  and  persecutions  of 
the  Covenanters.  In  some,  however,  the  se- 
rious character  is  relieved  by  a  vein  of  quaint 
humor  characteristic  of  the  artist's  nationality. 
He  has  also  painted  landscapes  with  effect. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Covenanters  Preach- 
ing" (1830),  "  The  Curlers"  (1835),  "  The  Past 
and  Present"  (1840),  "A  Highland  Funeral" 
(1844),  "John  Bunyan  and  his  Daughter  sell- 
ing Laces  at  the  Door  of  Bedford  Jail "  (1857), 
and  "The  Penny  Bank"  (1864).  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Scottish  royal  acad- 
emy in  1864,  and  was  knighted  in  1867.  He 
has  published  "  Notes  of  the  Early  History  of 
the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  "  (1870). 

HARVEY,  William,  an  English  physician,  dis- 
coverer of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  born  in 
Folkestone,  Kent,  April  1, 1578,  died  in  London, 
June  3,  1657.  He  was  the  eldest  of  a  family 
of  nine  children,  and  at  10  years  of  age  was 
sent  by  his  father  to  the  grammar  school  in 
Canterbury,  whence  in  1593  he  went  to  Caius 
college,  Cambridge.  Having  taken  his  degree 
of  B.  A.,  he  repaired  about  1598  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Padua,  where  he  attended  the  lectures 
of  Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente  and  other  emi- 
nent professors  of  medical  science,  and  in  1602 
graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine.  Returning 
to  England,  he  settled  in  London,  and  in  1607 
was  admitted  a  fellow  of  the  royal  college  of 
physicians.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital,  a  post 
which  he  filled  uninterruptedly  till  1644,  and 
in  1615  became  lecturer  on  anatomy  and  sur- 
gery in  the  college  of  physicians.  It  was  in 
1619,  while  he  was  discharging  the  duties  of 
this  latter  office,  that  the  discovery  with  which 
his  name  has  since  been  associated  is  supposed 
to  have  been  made,  although,  from  his  desire 
to  thoroughly  confirm  and  mature  his  opinions, 
the  published  treatise  on  the  subject,  entitled 
Exercitatio  Anatomica  de  Motu  Cordis  et  San- 
guinis  in  Animalibus,  and  dedicated  to  Charles 
I.,  did  not  appear  till  1628  (4to,  Frankfort). 
Harvey,  it  is  said,  expressed  himself  indebted 
to  his  former  master,  Fabricius,  for  his  dis- 
covery ;  but  beyond  the  inductive  method  of 


research  which  led  to  it,  and  which  he  ac- 
quired from  the  teachings  of  the  Paduan  pro- 
fessor, and  the  discovery  by  the  latter  of  the 
valves  in  the  veins,  the  merit  is  undoubtedly 
his  own.  It  appears  certain,  however,  that 
Cassalpinus,  who  died  at  Rome  about  the 
time  that  Harvey  left  Italy,  distinctly  stated 
in  one  of  his  works  the  system  of  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood.  (See  C^ESALPINUS.)  For 
two  years  previous  to  the  death  of  James  L 
Harvey  was  the  royal  physician  extraordina- 
ry, and  in  1632  Charles  I.  appointed  him  his 
physician  in  ordinary.  He  was  thenceforth 
intimately  connected  with  the  court,  and  fre- 
quently prosecuted  his  anatomical  experiments 
in  the  presence  of  the  king,  whose  fortunes  he 
followed  after  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lution, and  with  whom  he  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill.  He  subsequently  retired 
with  the  king  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  made 
warden  of  Merton  college  and  received  the  de- 
gree of  M.  D.,  and  where  he  remained  until  the 
surrender  of  the  city  to  the  parliamentary 
forces.  Ever  more  interested  in  the  advance- 
ment of  science  than  in  the  mutations  of  polit- 
ical strife,  he  devoted  himself  while  there  to 
researches  on  generation,  a  subject  which  had 
engaged  his  attention  for  some  years  previous, 
and  upon  which  he  published  in  1651,  five  years 
after  his  return  to  London,  his  second  impor- 
tant work,  Exercitationes  de  Generations  Ani- 
malium.  His  adherence  to  the  royal  cause 
had  meanwhile  lost  him  his  position  as  phy- 
sician to  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital ;  but  he 
continued  to  discharge  his  functions  as  lecturer 
at  the  college  of  physicians  until  near  the  close 
of  his  life.  In  1652  he  received  the  rare  honor 
of  having  his  statue  placed  in  the  college  hall,, 
with  an  inscription  testifying  to  the  value  of 
his  discoveries.  He  subsequently  built  an  ad- 
dition to  the  college  and  endowed  it  with  his 
paternal  estate,  one  of  the  conditions  of  the 
grant  being  that  an  oration  should  be  delivered 
annually  in  commemoration  of  the  benefactors 
of  the  college,  and  an  "exhortation  to  the 
members  to  study  and  search  out  the  secrets 
of  nature  by  way  of  experiment,  and  for  the 
honor  of  the  profession  to  continue  mutually 
in  love."  Three  years  before  his  death  he  was 
elected  president,  but  declined  the  office  on 
account  of  his  advanced  age. — For  many  years 
Harvey  experienced  the  treatment  with  which 
all  innovators  or  discoverers  are  familiar,  and 
complained  that  his  practice  declined  consid- 
erably after  the  publication  of  his  treatise  on 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  a  result  which  he 
had  indeed  predicted.  He  was  far,  however, 
from  being  looked  upon  as  an  empiric;  and 
notwithstanding  the  hostility  of  some  eminent 
continental  professors  and  of  the  older  mem- 
bers of  the  profession  generally,  he  enjoyed  the 
intimacy  of  the  king,  and  of  Bacon,  Hobbes, 
Cowley,  and  other  persons  of  note  in  Eng- 
land, several  of  whom  were  his  devoted  parti- 
sans. He,  moreover,  lived  to  be  considered  as 
the  first  anatomist  and  physician  of  his  time., 


504 


HARVEY 


HASDRUBAL 


and  to  see  his  discoveries  universally  acknowl- 
edged. He  was  a  man  of  even  temper,  and  in 
liis  controversy  on  the  doctrine  of  circulation 
with  Riolanus,  professor  of  anatomy  in  Paris, 
the  only  one  in  which  he  personally  engaged, 
exhibited  a  forbearance,  modesty,  and  discre- 
tion eminently  worthy  of  imitation.  Harvey's 
works,  which  are  written  in  Latin,  display  ele- 
gant scholarship,  and  occasionally  a  consider- 
able degree  of  eloquence.  The  best  edition,  pub- 
lished by  the  college  of  physicians  in  1766,  and 
preceded  by  a  life  of  the  author  in  Latin  by 
Dr.  Lawrence,  contains,  in  addition  to  his  works 
above  enumerated,  his  reply  to  Riolanus,  an 
anatomical  account  of  Thomas  Parr,  who  died 
at  the  age  of  152,  and  nine  letters  on  anatomi- 
cal subjects.  During  the  civil  war  his  house 
in  London  was  pillaged,  and  a  number  of  valu- 
able manuscripts  were  destroyed,  the  loss  of 
which  he  never  ceased  to  deplore.  The  library 
of  the  British  museum  possesses  two  manuscript 
works  by  him,  De  Musculis  et  Motu  Anima- 
lium  and  De  Anatomia  Universali  ;  the  latter, 
dated  April,  1616,  contains  the  germ  of  the 
doctrine  of  circulation.  The  most  recent  pub- 
lication of  Harvey's  works  is  the  translation  by 
R.  Willis,  M.  D.,  brought  out  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Sydenham  society  (8vo,  London,  1847). 
— For  authorities  concerning  his  life,  see  Law- 
rence's memoir,  Sprengel's  "  History  of  Medi- 
cine," Aikin's  "  Biographical  Memoirs  of  Medi- 
cine in  Great  Britain,"  "  Lives  of  British  Phy- 
sicians" in  Murray's  "  Family  Library,"  &c. ; 
and  for  a  notice  of  his  discoveries,  see  CIBOU- 
LATION,  and  EMBRYOLOGY. 

HARVEY,  William,  an  English  engraver  and 
designer,  born  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne  about 
1800,  died  Jan.  13,  1866.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
was  apprenticed  to  Thomas  Bewick,  and  in 
1816  went  to  London  and  put  himself  under 
the  instruction  of  Haydon,  whose  "  Dentatus" 
he  engraved  on  wood.  From  1840  he  almost 
exclusively  devoted  himself  to  designing  for 
wood  engraving,  and  produced  an  immense 
number  of  works.  Many  important  publica- 
tions were  illustrated  by  him,  including  Lane's 
translation  of  the  "  Arabian  Nights,"  the  "  Pil- 
grim's Progress,"  Northcote's  "Fables,"  and 
Knight's  "  Pictorial  Shakespeare."  His  style 
is  original,  but  has  occasional  mannerisms. 

HARWICH,  a  seaport  of  Essex,  England,  situ- 
ated on  a  point  of  land  opposite  the  confluence 
of  the  Orwell  and  Stour,  66  m.  N.  E.  of  Lon- 
don; pop.  in  1871,  6,107.  The  harbor  is  one 
of  the  best  on  the  E.  coast  of  England,  be- 
ing completely  sheltered,  and  having  water 
sufficient  to  float  the  largest  ships  of  war. 
Hundreds  of  colliers  and  other  vessels  anchor 
here  during  the  prevalence  of  N.  E.  winds.  It 
is  defended  by  three  forts  and  a  redoubt,  with 
a  moat  and  drawbridge.  Two  fixed  lights  in- 
dicate the  entrance,  which  is  encumbered  with 
rocks,  and  dangerous  without  a  pilot.  Steam 
packets  sail  regularly  between  Harwich  and 
Antwerp,  in  connection  with  the  Great  East- 
ern railway.  Ship  building,  and  other  employ- 


ments connected  with  maritime  affairs,  occupy 
a  great  portion  of  the  population.  Harwich 
has  become  a  place  of  fashionable  summer  re- 
sort, as  it  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery 
and  affords  sea  bathing.  The  town  is  of  Saxon 
origin.  In  1318  it  was  incorporated  by  Ed- 
ward II.,  and  in  the  campaign  of  1346-'7  it 
supplied  14  ships  to  the  fleet  of  Edward  III. 

HARWOOD,  Edward,  an  English  author,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1729,  died  in  London,  Jan.  14, 
1794.  He  was  educated  for  the  ministry,  and 
in  1765  took  charge  of  a  small  Unitarian  so- 
ciety in  Bristol.  At  the  end  of  five  years,  in 
consequence  of  charges  affecting  his  religious 
opinions  and  private  character,  he  was  induced 
to  go  to  London,  where  he  passed  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.  He  published  "  A  Liberal  Trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament"  (2  vols.,  1767); 
"Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment "  (2  vols.,  1767-'71) ;  "  View  of  the  vari- 
ous Editions  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Clas- 
sics" (1775);  and  "The  New  Testament  col- 
lated with  the  most  approved  MSS.,  with  Se- 
lect Notes  in  English,  Critical  and  Explanato- 
ry "  (2  vols.,  1776). 

HASDRUBAL,  or  Asdruhal  (in  Punic,  probably, 
"  he  whom  Baal  aids  "),  the  name  of  a  number 
of  Carthaginian  naval  and  military  comman- 
ders, celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  three 
Punic  wars,  of  whom  the  following  are  the 
most  distinguished:  I.  Son-in-law,  and  suc- 
cessor in  the  command  in  Spain,  to  the  great 
Hamilcar  Barca,  after  whose  death  in  229  B. 
C.  he  continued  his  operations  with  the  assis- 
tance of  the  young  Hannibal,  founded  New 
Carthage  (now  Cartagena,  in  Murcia),  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Romans,  which  made 
the  Ebro  the  boundary  of  the  Roman  and  Car- 
thaginian possessions  in  the  peninsula.  He 
was  killed  by  a  Gallic  slave  in  revenge  for  the 
death  of  his  master,  and  was  succeeded  in  com- 
mand by  Hannibal  (221).  II.  Son  of  Hamil- 
car, was  left  in  Spain  when  his  brother  Han- 
nibal started  on  his  expedition  across  the 
Pyrenees  and  Alps  to  Italy  (218).  Being  af- 
terward prevented  from  following  him  by  a 
defeat  on  the  Ebro  which  he  suffered  from 
an  army  under  Publius  and  Cneius  Cornelius 
Scipio,  he  fought  in  Africa  against  Syphax, 
king  of  a  Numidian  tribe,  and  again  in  Spain, 
where  he  was  successful  against  his  former 
adversaries,  both  of  whom  fell  (211).  Two 
years  later  he  was  defeated  by  the  son  of  Pub- 
lius, the  afterward  renowned  Scipio  Africanus, 
though  he  could  not  be  prevented  from  cross- 
ing the  Pyrenees  while  hastening  to  the  as- 
sistance of  his  brother  in  Italy.  Arrived  in 
Umbria,  he  lost  his  army  and  life  on  the  banks 
of  the  Metaurus,  between  the  modern  Pesaro 
and  Sinigaglia,  being  defeated  by  the  Romans 
under  C.  Claudius  Nero  and  M.  Livius  (207). 
His  head  is  said  to  have  been  cut  off  and 
thrown  into  Hannibal's  camp.  III.  Son  of 
Gisco,  commander  in  the  second  Punic  war, 
fought  in  Spain,  214-206  B.  C.,  was  defeated 
together  with  Mago  by  P.  C.  Scipio  toward 


EASE 


the  end  of  this  period,  and  retired  to  Africa, 
where  by  giving  to  Syphax  his  daughter  So- 
phonisba,  already  promised  to  Masinissa,  he 
caused  the  enmity  of  Masinissa  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians. Together  with  Syphax  he  was  twice 
defeated  by  Scipio,  who  had  landed  in  Africa 
in  204.  The  condemnation  to  death  pro- 
nounced against  him  by  the  irritated  people, 
which  did  not  deter  him  from  continuing  in 
arms  against  the  enemies  of  his  country,  was 
reversed  after  the  arrival  of  Hannibal.  Finally, 
however,  being  driven  to  despair  by  the  pub- 
lic hatred,  he  terminated  his  life  by  poison. 
IV.  Commander  against  Masinissa  and  in  the 
third  Punic  war,  when  he  twice  defeated  the 
Roman  consul  Manilius,  bravely  opposed  Scipio 
Africanus  the  younger,  and  after  the  taking  of 
Carthage  by  the  latter  retired  into  the  citadel, 
and  finally,  with  a  small  number  of  his  own 
troops  and  a  host  of  deserters,  to  the  temple 
of  ^Esculapius.  Further  resistance  being  im- 
possible, he  secretly  went  over  to  the  camp  of 
Scipio  to  implore  his  mercy.  The  conqueror 
spared  his  life,  but  showed  him  to  the  deserted 
defenders  of  the  temple,  and  he  saw  his  wife 
throw  her  children  and  then  herself  into  the 
flames  of  the  burning  edifice.  Having  adorned 
the  triumph  of  Scipio,  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  as  a  captive  in  Italy. 

BASE,  Karl  August,  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Steinbach,  Saxony,  Aug.  25, 1800.  He  stud- 
ied theology  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic,  Er- 
langen,  and  Tubingen,  was  imprisoned  for  five 
months  in  1819  on  account  of  his  participa- 
tion in  the  movement  of  the  Burschenschaft, 
became  Privatdocent  of  theology  at  Tubingen 
in  1823,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic  in 
1829,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Jena  in  1830. 
For  many  years  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  theological  disputes  of  the  day,  and  in  1844 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Protestan- 
tische  KircJienzeitung  of  Berlin,  the  organ  of 
the  German  rationalists.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  several  of  them  have  passed 
through  many  editions.  Among  them  are : 
Lehrbuch  der  evangelischen  Dogmatilc  (1 825 ; 
6th  ed.,  1870);  Onosis  (3  vols.,  1827-'9;  2d 
ed.,  1870);  Hutterus  Redimvus,  oder  Dogma- 
tik der  evangelischen  Kirche  (1829 ;  10th  ed., 
1862);  Das  Leben  Jesu  (1829;  5th  ed.,  1865; 
translated  by  James  Freeman  Clarke,  Boston, 
1859);  Kirchengeschichte  (1834;  9th  ed.,  1867; 
translated  by  C.  E.  Blumenthal  and  C.  P. 
"Wing,  Few  York,  1856);  Neue  PropJieten 
(1851);  Franz  von  Assisi  (1856);  Das  geist- 
liche  ScJiauspiel  (1858);  Der  Papst  und  Ita- 
lien  (1861);  Polemik  gegen  die  romiscTi-Tcatho- 
lische  Kirche  (1862;  2d  ed.,  1871)  ;  and  Ideale 
und  IrrtMmer  (1872). 

HASENCLEVER.  I.  Peter,  a  German  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Remscheid,  Rhenish  Prussia, 
Nov.  24,  1716,  died  in  Landshut,  Prussian  Si- 
lesia, June  13,  1792.  Frederick  the  Great  had 
a  hiirh  opinion  of  his  business  capacity,  and  was 
in  the  habit  of  consulting  him.  In  1765  he  es- 
tablished a  house  in  New  York  for  the  sale  of 


HASLINGDEN 


505 


hemp,  potash,  and  iron.  Having  become  bank- 
rupt by  the  mismanagement  of  a  partner,  he  re- 
turned to  Europe,  and  carried  on  a  large  linen 
trade  in  Landshut  until  his  death.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Letters  from  Philadelphia"  in 
the  correspondence  of  Schlozer,  part  35  (1780), 
and  of  a  "Description  of  the  City  of  New 
York, "in the  commercial  notices  of  Sinapius, 
part  4  (1781).  II.  Jolianu  Peter,  a  German 
painter,  of  the  same  family  with  the  preceding, 
born  at  Remscheid,  May  18,  1810,  died  in  Diis- 
seldorf,  Dec.  16,  1853.  He  was  educated  at 
Diisseldorf  under  Schadow,  and  subsequently 
at  Munich.  Among  his  works,  a  series  enti- 
tled the  "Jobsiad"  are  well  known. 

HASENPFLUG,  Karl  Georg  Adolf,  a  German 
painter,  born  in  Berlin,  Sept.  23,  1802,  died 
April  13,  1858.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoe- 
maker, and  learned  his  father's  trade,  but  ob- 
tained admission  to  the  studio  of  the  decorative 
painter  Gropius,  where  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  King  Frederick  William  III.  He  executed 
paintings  of  the  cathedrals  of  Halberstadt, 
Magdeburg,  Erfurt,  Bamberg,  and  several  oth- 
ers ;  and  in  1830  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  restoration  of  the  Magdeburg  cathedral.  In 
1835  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Cologne,  to 
make  a  special  study  of  the  cathedral,  which 
he  represented  from  without  and  within  in  two 
large  paintings.  In  his  many  representations 
of  German  mediaeval  architecture  he  brought 
into  view  the  picturesque  side  of  that  art.  His 
paintings  have  been  carried  to  Belgium,  Eng- 
land, and  America. 

HASHISH.     See  HEMP. 

HASRELL,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Texas,  watered 
by  the  head  streams  of  the  Brazos  river ;  area, 
1,275  sq.  m. ;  still  unsettled.  It  consists  most- 
ly of  high  prairie  land,  of  little  value  except 
for  grass.  Antelopes  and  prairie  dogs  abound. 

HASLAM,  John,  a  British  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1763,  died  in  London  in  July, 
1844.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
studied  medicine  in  London,  where  he  became 
intimate  with  John  and  William  Hunter.  He 
was  for  many  years  apothecary  to  Bethlehem 
insane  hospital,  afterward  resided  several  years 
in  Edinburgh,  and  returning  to  London,  soon 
attained  a  large  practice  there.  In  1827  and 
1828  he  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  the  in- 
tellectual composition  of  man.  His  works  are : 
"  Observations  on  Insanity  "  (1798) ;  "Illustra- 
tions of  Madness  "  (1810)  ;  "  Considerations  on 
the  Moral  Management  of  Insane  Persons" 
(1817);  "Medical  Jurisprudence  as  it  relates 
to  Insanity,  according  to  the  Law  of  England  " 
(1818)  ;  "  A  Letter  to  the  Governors  of  Beth- 
lehem Hospital"  (1818);  "Essay  on  Sound 
Mind"  (1819);  and  "Lectures  on  the  Intellec- 
tual Composition  of  Man"  (1827-'8). 

HASLINGDEN,  a  market  town  of  Lancashire, 
England,  16  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Manchester;  pop. 
in  1871,  12,201.  It  has  a  handsome  parish 
church  of  modern  date  with  the  exception  of 
the  tower,  which  belonged  to  a  building  erected 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  The  woollen  manu- 


506 


BASSE 


HASTING 


facture,  formerly  the  staple  of  the  town,  is  now 
supplanted  by  that  of  cotton.  Excellent  build- 
ing stone,  slate,  and  flags  abound  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  there  are  several  coal  mines. 

HASSE.  I.  Frledrich  Christian  August,  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Rehfeld,  near  Herzberg, 
Jan.  4,  1773,  died  in  Leipsic,  Feb.  6,  1848.  He 
was  a  professor  at  the  military  academy  of 
Dresden  and  at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  and 
edited  the  Leipziger  Zeitung  from  1830  till  his 
death.  He  succeeded  Friedrich  Arnold  Brock- 
haus  in  1823  as  editor  of  the  Neue  Folge  des 
Conversations- Lexikon,  editing  also  the  6th  and 
7th  editions  of  that  cyclopaedia.  Besides  many 
other  works,  he  published  Cfeschichte  der  Lom- 
bardei  (4  vols.,  Dresden,  1826-'8).  II.  Fried- 
rieh  Rudolf,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dres- 
den, June  29, 1808,  died  in  Bonn,  Oct.  14, 1862. 
He  studied  theology  in  Berlin,  became  professor 
in  1836  at  Greifswald,  and  in  1842  at  Bonn, 
where  he  was  made  consistorial  councillor  in 
1853.  His  principal  works  are  Anselm  von 
Canterbury  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-'52),  and  the 
posthumous  Geschichte  des  alten  Bundes  (1863) 
and  Kirchengeschichte  (3  vols.,  1864).  III. 
Karl  Ewald,  a  German  physiologist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Dresden,  June  23,  1810. 
He  graduated  at  Leipsic,  and  has  been  profes- 
sor there  and  at  Gottingen.  His  Anatomische 
Beschreibung  der  Krankheiten  der  Circula- 
tions- und  Respirationsorgane  (Leipsic,  1841) 
has  been  translated  into  English  and  Dutch, 
and  his  Krankheiten  des  Nervenapparats  (Er- 
langen,  1855)  constitutes  vol.  iv.  of  Virchow's 
Handbuch  der  Pathologic  und  Therapie. 

BASSE,  Johann  Adolf  (called  in  Italy  II  Sas- 
sone,  the  Saxon),  a  German  composer,  born  at 
Bergedorf,  near  Hamburg,  March  25,  1699, 
died  in  Venice,  Dec.  23, 1783.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Porpora  and  Scarlatti.  His  opera  Sesostrate, 
produced  at  Naples  in  1726,  established  his  repu- 
tation; and  after  giving  several  other  works 
to  the  Italian  stage,  the  success  of  which  was 
insured  by  the  cooperation  of  his  wife,  the  cele- 
brated singer  Faustina,  he  accepted  the  office  of 
chapelmaster  and  composer  to  the  elector  of 
Saxony.  In  1733  he  was  invited  to  London  to 
compete  with  Handel,  and  brought  out  his  Ar- 
taserse,  in  which  Farinelli  made  his  debut  be- 
fore an  English  audience.  Although  the  opera 
was  performed  40  nights,  Hasse,  disgusted  with 
the  virulence  of  the  musical  cabals,  left  London, 
and  about  1740  established  himself  in  Dresden. 
Upon  the  bombardment  of  that  city  in  1760  he 
lost  all  his  musical  manuscripts.  He  then  went 
to  Vienna,  and  the  last  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  Venice.  Dr.  Burney  considered  Hasse 
the  most  learned,  natural,  and  elegant  composer 
of  his  age.  His  works,  including  all  the  libretti 
of  Metastasio,  were  so  numerous  that  it  is  said 
he  often  failed  to  recognize  his  own  music. 

HASSELQCIST,  Fredrik,  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  atTornvalla,  East  Gothland,  Jan.  14, 1722, 
died  in  Smyrna,  Feb.  9,  1752.  He  studied 
under  Linnaeus  at  the  university  of  Upsal. 
•Having  obtained  a  royal  stipend  to  travel  and 


study  abroad,  he  proceeded  in  1749  to  the  East, 
although  warned  by  Linnaeus  that  his  constitu. 
tion  was  too  feeble.  After  visiting  parts  of  Asia 
Minor,  Egypt,  and  Palestine,  he  died  on  his  way 
home.  Linnaeus  in  1757  published  the  results 
of  his  pupil's  investigations  in  a  work  entitled 
Iter  Palcestinum,  of  which  an  English  transla- 
tion was  published  in  1766  (8vo,  London). 

HASSELT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Limburg,  on  the  Demer,  42  m. 
E.  N.  E.  of  Brussels,  and  20  m.  W.  N.  W.  of 
Maestricht,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way ;  pop.  in  1866,  10,448.  It  is  fortified  and 
well  built.  The  chief  manufactures  are  tobacco, 
madder,  soap,  oil,  linen,  and  leather. 

HASTING,  or  Hastings,  a  Scandinavian  viking, 
or  sea  rover,  born  about  812,  some  say  in  Scan- 
dinavia, others  in  Normandy,  others  at  Tran- 
quilla  (modern  Trancost)  on  the  Seine.  He  at- 
tached himself  to  a  band  of  Northmen  who  had 
established  themselves  on  the  island  of  Biese, 
over  whom  he  soon  gained  the  chief  command 
on  sea  and  land.  His  first  achievement  was 
the  devastation  of  the  banks  of  the  Loire  as 
far  as  Tours  (about  845).  He  next  undertook 
an  expedition  against  Spain ;  but  meeting  a  re- 
pulse at  Corunna,  he  retraced  his  course  to- 
ward France,  sacked  Bordeaux,  and  carried  fire 
and  sword  as  far  as  Toulouse  and  Tarbes.  The 
people  of  the  latter  city  celebrate  to  this  day 
the  anniversary  of  a  victory  gained  by  their 
forefathers  over  Hasting  on  May  21.  Refit- 
ting at  the  mouth  of  the  Adour,  he  sailed  again 
for  the  coast  of  the  peninsula,  took  Lisbon,  pil- 
laged the  city  for  13  days,  burned  Seville,  and 
marched  upon  Cordova,  but  was  arrested  by 
the  allied  forces  of  the  Moors  and  Christians. 
Returning  with  reinforcements,  he  destroyed 
the  great  mosque  of  Algeciras  and  compelled 
Alfonso  the  Great,  king  of  Leon,  to  seek  ref- 
uge at  Oviedo.  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Pro- 
vence, in  their  turn,  became  also  the  scenes 
of  Hasting's  incursions.  He  next  made  a  de- 
scent upon  Tuscany,  and  planned  a  voyage  to 
Rome.  Steering  along  the  coast  into  the  bay 
now  known  as  the  gulf  of  Spezia,  he  descried 
a  city  (Luna,  now  Luni).  -Not  doubting  that 
he  was  approaching  Rome,  he  disembarked  his 
troops,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  say  to  the  em- 
peror, as  he  supposed,  that,  fresh  from  the  con- 
quest of  France,  he  desired  only  to  obtain  sup- 
plies and  means  to  refit  his  fleet.  For  himself, 
weary  of  a  roving  life,  he  sought  to  lay  down 
his  command  and  thenceforth  to  repose  in  the 
bosom  of  the  church.  The  count  of  Luna  and 
the  bishop  came  out  to  meet  him,  and  admin- 
istered baptism,  but  declined  to  admit  him  or 
any  of  his  followers  within  the  city  walls. 
Hasting  then  feigned  death ;  and  a  vast  fune- 
ral train,  passing  into  the  city,  deposited  the 
bier  before  the  cathedral  altar.  The  chief  then 
sprang  up  and  struck  the  bishop  to  the  earth  ; 
and  the  mourners,  throwing  off  their  long 
robes,  cut  their  way  back  to  the  city  gates, 
and  let  in  their  comrades.  The  city  was  won, 
but  Hasting  soon  learned  to  his  surprise  that  he 


HASTINGS 


507 


was  not  master  of  Rome.  After  other  exploits 
•he  once  more  appeared  upon  the  coast  of  Nor- 
mandy. Count  Robert  of  Anjou  and  the  duke 
of  Aquitaine  surprised  him  at  Brisarthe,  near 
Angers,  from  which  place,  after  a  furious  bat- 
tle, in  which  both  the  Frankish  leaders  were 
slain,  Hasting  ascended  the  Loire,  plundered 
every  town  on  its  banks,  and  sailed  for  Eng- 
land to  join  a  Danish  invasion.  Repulsed  by 
Alfred  the  Great,  he  reappeared  upon  the  Loire, 
and  wrung  from  Charles  the  Fat  possession  in 
perpetuity  of  the  county  of  Chartres.  He  now 
sought  a  home  in  Denmark,  where  at  a  great 
age  his  identity  is  lost  in  the  confusion  of  the 
chronicles,  which  attribute  to  him  the  subse- 
quent exploits  of  a  number  of  vikings  who  as- 
sumed his  name. 

HASTINGS,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Sussex,  England,  54  m.  S.  S.  E.  of 
London,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway ; 


Battle  Abbey,  Hastings. 

>p.  of  the  town  in  1871,  29,289  ;  of  the  bor- 
mgh,  33,335.  Hastings  is  one  of  the  cinque 
)orts,  and  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  coast, 
>eing  sheltered  on  three  sides  by  hills  and 
cliffs.  It  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  town. 
The  trade  is  inconsiderable.  Crowds  of  visitors 
lock  to  it  during  the  bathing  season. — The  bat- 
tle of  Hastings,  between  William  of  Normandy 
ind  Harold,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was 
fought  on  Oct.  14,  1066,  at  Senlac,  six  miles 
"rom  Hastings.  The  Normans,  formidable  by 
their  cavalry  and  bowmen,  advanced  to  the  at- 
tack, and  were  met  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  with 
their  battle  axes,  the  Kentish  men  in  front. 
Tie  battle  continued  from  9  o'clock  in  the 
morning  till  sunset,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  suf- 
fered severely  by  advancing  to  pursue  the  Nor- 
mans, who  feigned  retreat ;  yet  they  maintained 
their  position  till  Harold  fell  pierced  by  an  ar- 
row. Then  their  efforts  immediately  relaxed, 
and  they  dispersed  at  dusk.  "The  subjugation 


of  a  nation  by  a  nation,"  says  Macaulay,  speak- 
ing of  the  consequences  of  the  battle,  "has 
seldom,  even  in  Asia,  been  more  complete." 
Upon  the  battle  field  the  conqueror  within  two 
years  founded  the  "  abbey  of  bataille,"  and  the 
name  of  Senlac  was  changed  to  that  of  Battle, 
which  the  place  still  bears.  The  victorious  ar- 
my numbered  60,000  men,  more  than  one  fourth 
of  whom  were  left  on  the  field ;  the  number 
of  the  vanquished  and  their  loss  are  unknown. 
HASTINGS,  a  central  county  of  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, bordering  on  the  bay  of  Quinte,  an  inlet 
of  Lake  Ontario;  area,  2,337  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  48,364,  of  whom  20,408  were  of  Irish, 
11,543  of  English,  5,968  of  German,  5,120  of 
Scotch,  2,785  of  French,  and  1,547  of  Dutch 
origin  or  descent.  The  surface  is  interspersed 
with  small  lakes  and  rivulets.  Gold  is  found 
in  the  interior.  The  county  is  traversed  by 
the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  Capital,  Belleville. 
HASTINGS,  a  city  and 
the  capital  of  Dakota 
co.,  Minnesota,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Vermil- 
ion, and  about  5  m. 
above  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Croix,  20  m.  E.  S. 
E.  of  St.  Paul ;  pop.  in 
1860,  1,653;  in  1870, 
3,458.  Railroad  com- 
munication is  furnished 
by  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee, and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Hastings  and 
Dakota  lines.  The  Ver- 
milion here  falls  110  ft. 
in  half  a  mile,  and  fur- 
nishes abundant  water 
power.  The  principal 
manufactories  are  four 
flour  mills,  a  saw  mill, 
and  a  shingle  mill.  The 
city  has  a  three-story 

brick  hotel,  a  large  central  school  house,  con- 
taining the  high  school,  and  having  eight 
teachers,  three  school  houses  with  one  teach- 
er each,  a  Catholic  school  and  a  second  in 
course  of  erection,  a  national  bank,  two  week- 
ly newspapers,  and  eight  churches. 

HASTINGS,  Francis  Rawdon  Hastings,  marquis 
of,  an  English  soldier,  born  Dec.  9, 1754,  died  in 
the  bay  of  Baja,  near  Naples,  Nov.  28,  1826. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  at  the  age  of  17 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  a  foot  regiment. 
In  1773  he  was  sent  with  his  regiment  to  Amer- 
ica, and  two  years  later,  as  captain  in  the  63d 
foot,  participated  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  hill. 
In  1778  he  was  appointed  adjutant  general  of 
the  British  forces  in  North  America,  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  His  good  conduct 
at  the  battle  of  Monmouth  in  the  same  year 
procured  him  the  command  of  a  British  corps 
in  South  Carolina,  which  he  led  at  the  battle  of 
Camden  (Aug.  16,  1780),  and  with  which  he 


508 


HASTINGS 


subsequently  defeated  Greene  at  Hobkirk's  hill. 
Keturning  to  England  before  the  close  of  the 
war,  on  account  of  ill  health,  he  was  captured 
by  a  French  cruiser.  Soon  after  his  release  he 
was  created  Baron  Rawdon  and  honored  with 
several  marks  of  distinction  by  the  king ;  and 
in  1793  he  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  of  Moira. 
In  the  succeeding  year  he  commanded  a  body 
of  10,000  men  sent  to  relieve  the  duke  of  York 
in  Flanders,  which  service  he  successfully  per- 
formed. After  various  other  services,  he  was 
in  1806  appointed  master  general  of  the  ord- 
nance in  the  Grenville  and  Fox  ministry,  and 
after  the  assassination  of  Mr.  Perceval  in  1812 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  form  a  cabinet. 
Shortly  after  he  was  appointed  governor  gen- 
eral of  India,  where  he  remained  till  1823.  The 
most  important  event  of  his  administration  was 
the  successful  termination  of  the  Nepaul  war. 
He  was  subsequently  governor  of  Malta.  In 
December,  1816,  he  was  created  Viscount  Lou- 
don,  earl  of  Rawdon,  and  marquis  of  Hastings. 
HASTINGS,  Warren,  governor  general  of  Brit- 
ish India,  born  Dec.  6,  1732,  died  Aug.  22, 
1818.  He  was  descended  from  the  Hastingses 
of  Daylesford,  Worcestershire,  but  the  estate 
had  been  sold,  and  of  all  their  ancient  posses- 
sions the  grandfather  of  Warren  held  only  the 
rectory  of  Daylesford,  to  which  he  had  been 
presented  by  his  father.  He  had  two  sons, 
Howard,  who  held  an  office  in  the  customs, 
and  Pynaston,  the  father  of  Warren.  Pynas- 
ton,  at  the  age  of  15,  imprudently  married 
Hester  Warren,  the  daughter  of  a  small  farmer, 
and  being  in  great  poverty  abandoned  his  na- 
tive country,  leaving  two  children  to  the  care 
of  his  father.  The  rector,  impoverished  by  a 
lawsuit,  left  Daylesford,  and  became  curate  at 
Churchill,  where  Warren  was  sent  to  the  char- 
ity school  of  the  village.  In  1740,  his  uncle 
Howard  having  taken  charge  of  his  education, 
he  went  to  a  school  at  Newington,  where  he 
was  well  taught  but  badly  fed;  to  the  latter 
circumstance  he  was  accustomed  to  attribute 
his  diminutive  stature  and  feeble  health.  At 
the  age  of  10  he  was  removed  to  Westminster. 
Here  his  mental  powers  became  conspicuous, 
and  at  14  he  stood  first  among  his  competitors, 
and  was  already  distinguished  for  ambition, 
resolution,  and  industry.  His  uncle  dying,  he 
was  now  left  dependent  upon  a  distant  relative, 
who  procured  for  him  a  writership  in  the  East 
India  company.  In  January,  1750,  he  went  to 
India.  Here  he  at  once  began  to  study  the 
native  languages,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
make  himself  familiar  with  the  history  and 
literature  of  the  people  among  whom  he  now 
lived.  He  was  soon  noticed  by  Lord  Olive, 
and  was  employed  in  various  commercial  and 
diplomatic  measures.  In  1756  he  married  the 
widow  of  Capt.  Campbell,  who,  together  with 
the  two  children  she  had  borne  him,  died  be- 
fore his  return  to  England.  He  remained  in 
India  14  years,  not  distinguished  in  any  remark- 
able manner,  but  acquiring  knowledge  and 
highly  esteemed.  In  1764  he  arrived  in  Eng- 


land with  a  moderate 'fortune,  which  was  soon, 
exhausted  by  his  liberality  to  his  needy  rela- 
tives and  his  profuse  generosity.  His  talents 
and  his  knowledge  of  East  Indian  affairs  soon 
brought  him  again  into  the  service  of  the 
company.  In  1769  he  returned  to  India,  and 
was  made  second  in  the  council  of  Madras, 
and  in  1772  he  became  the  highest  official  of 
the  company,  the  president  of  the  supreme 
council  of  Bengal.  His  power  was  next  en- 
larged by  a  change  made  in  the  Indian  con- 
stitution by  an  act  of  parliament,  which  con- 
solidated the  separate  governments  into  one, 
and  Hastings  became  (Jan.  1,  1774)  governor 
general  of  British  India.  The  vast  territory 
over  which  he  ruled  was  composed  of  new 
conquests ;  the  English  were  few  in  number, 
and  their  supremacy  was  constantly  endangered 
by  Hyder  Ali,  rajah  of  Mysore,  by  the  Mahrat- 
tas,  and  by  other  native  powers.  In  these 
dangers  the  administrative  talent  and  unweary- 
ing constancy  of  Warren  Hastings  established 
the  British  empire  in  India.  He  was  unscru- 
pulous, resolute,  and  apparently  cruel ;  he 
perhaps  depopulated  whole  districts  by  his 
exactions,  and  committed  acts  of  signal  injus- 
tice. But  success  followed  him  ;  he  defeated 
opposition  in  his  council,  and  destroyed  his 
Indian  foes.  He  was  not  however  sustained 
by  the  home  administration,  nor  by  the  board 
of  directors.  Rumors  of  his  tyranny  in  India 
were  assiduously  spread  over  England  by  his 
enemies,  but  the  court  of  proprietors  sustained 
him  by  large  majorities  whenever  the  attempt 
was  made  to  remove  him  from  his  office.  En- 
couraged by  their  support,  he  now  neglected 
or  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  board  of 
directors  whenever  he  thought  them  impolitic, 
overawed  the  minority  of  his  council,  and 
ruled  with  a  power  almost  unchecked,  until 
February,  1785,  when  he  resigned  his  office, 
and  set  out  for  England,  not  unconscious  of 
the  danger  that  threatened  him  there.  He 
left  India,  it  is  said,  highly  popular  with  the 
natives  as  well  as  the  English  residents,  and 
followed  by  general  regret.  Upon  his  arrival 
in  England,  the  opposition  in  parliament,  led 
by  Edmund  Burke,  introduced  a  resolution  for 
an  inquiry  into  his  conduct,  but  the  proceed- 
ings did  not  commence  until  the  session  of 
1786,  when  Burke  brought  forward  his  articles 
of  impeachment.  Mr.  Pitt,  intimidated  by  the 
unpopularity  of  the  accused,  consented  to  the 
measure,  and  gave  up  Hastings  to  the  opposi- 
tion. In  the  impeachment  Burke  charged  him 
with  numerous  acts  of  oppression,  with  deso- 
lating whole  regions  of  British  domain,  with 
peculation  and  corruption,  with  exciting  useless 
wars,  and  with  various  acts  dishonoring  the 
British  name.  He  divided  his  charges  into  four 
heads,  namely,  the  oppression  and  final  expul- 
sion of  the  rajah  of  Benares,  the  cruel  treat- 
ment of  the  begums  or  princesses  of  Oude,  un- 
fair contracts,  and  wasteful  expenditure.  The 
sessions  of  1786-'7  having  been  consumed  in 
preliminary  measures,  the  house  of  lords  met 


HASTINGS 

in  "Westminster  hall,  Feb.  13,  1788,  to  hear  the 
impeachment.  The  hall  was  richly  adorned, 
and  a  distinguished  assembly  of  royalty  and 
nobility,  of  men  of  genius,  of  influence,  and  of 
fame,  gathered  to  hear  the  trial.  Hastings, 
il,  small,  sickly,  but  still  resolute,  knelt  at  the 
and  then  heard  without  exhibiting  any 
lotion  the  terrible  denunciations  of  his  accu- 

jrs.  On  the  15th  Burke,  in  the  name  of  the 
imons  of  England,  opened  the  charge  in  a 
which  lasted  three  days.  He  was  assist- 
by  Fox,  Sheridan,  Grey,  and  others,  and 

Iso  in  private  by  Sir  Philip  Francis.  During 
sessions  of  1788-'90  the  prosecution  pre- 
ited  its  charges.  In  1791  the  commons,  to 

lorten  the  trial,  were  willing  to  withdraw 

)ine  of  the  articles,  and  on  June  2,  the  73d 
day  of  the  proceedings,  Hastings  began  his  de- 
fence. This  continued  until  April  23,  1795,  on 
which  day,  the  148th,  he  was  acquitted  by 
large  majorities  on  each  separate  charge.  Pub- 
lic opinion  had  turned  in  his  favor,  and  his 
acquittal  was  approved  by  a  majority  of  his 
countrymen.  He  convinced  the  nation  that 
his  measures  had  secured  its  prosperity,  and 
showed  by  his  poverty  that  he  had  not  amassed 
wealth  in  his  government.  The  expenses  of 
the  trial,  £76,000,  had  consumed  all  his  for- 
tune. In  March,  1796,  the  East  India  company 
granted  him  an  annuity  of  £4,000  for  28£ 
years,  and  lent  him  £50,000  for  18  years  with- 
out interest.  He  now  purchased  the  Hastings 
estate  at  Daylesford,  and  retired  from  political 
life,  occupying  himself  in  rebuilding  the  family 
mansion,  and  in  agricultural  pursuits,  seeking 
to  naturalize  in  England  the  plants  and  animals 
of  India.  During  his  second  voyage  to  India 
he  had  become  acquainted  with  the  baron  and 
baroness  Imhoff,  who  were  his  fellow  passen- 
gers. The  baroness  attended  him  during  a  se- 
vere illness  on  shipboard,  and  about  a  year  after 
his  arrival  in  India,  the  baron  having  by  agree- 
ment procured  a  divorce,  his  wife  became  Mrs. 
Hastings.  This  lady,  who  was  accomplished 
and  attractive,  always  preserved  his  regard, 
and  now  presided  over  the  hospitalities  of 
Daylesford.  Hastings  had  long  aspired  to  a 
peerage,  but  never  received  any  higher  public 
honor  than  an  appointment  as  privy  councillor, 
a  short  time  before  his  death.  He  was  how- 
ever treated  with  the  most  distinguished  re- 
spect by  both  houses  of  parliament  when  in 
1813  he  appeared  at  the  bar  of  the  commons 
as  a  witness  on  Indian  affairs.  In  private  life 
Warren  Hastings  displayed  many  virtues.  He 
was  generous,  unselfish,  hospitable,  and  a 
steady  friend.  He  was  a  good  scholar,  and 
wrote  with  readiness  and  force.  He  encour- 
aged among  his  countrymen  the  study  of  the 
Indian  languages  and  history.  He  was  for  a 
time  president  of  the  Asiatic  society,  promoted 
geographical  research,  invited  learned  Hindoos 
to  settle  in  Calcutta,  founded  colleges  for  the 
instruction  of  the  native  youth,  and  urged 
upon  them  the  necessity  of  becoming  familiar 
with  the  language,  literature,  and  science  of 


HAT 


509 


England.  In  his  political  conduct  he  is  gener- 
ally allowed  to  have  shown  remarkable  ability. 
Macaulay  says  that  he  administered  govern- 
ment and  war  with  more  than  the  capacity  of 
Richelieu;  and  Mill,  the  historian  of  British 
India,  thinks  him  the  most  eminent  of  the 
chief  rulers  of  the  East  India  company. 

HAT,  a  covering  for  the  head.  From  the 
most  remote  times  man  has  made  use  of  a 
head  covering  of  some  kind.  The  most  an- 
cient form  probably  is  the  cap,  such  as  is  seen 
in  figures  representing  the  goddess  of  liberty. 
The  ancient  Greeks  had  several  other  kinds 
of  head  dress,  the  names  and  appearance  of 
which  have  been  preserved  in  their  writings 
and  on  engraved  gems.  According  to  Strutt,  the 
pileus  was  a  woollen  cap,  which  was  sometimes 
worn  as  a  lining  to  the  helmet ;  and  he  quotes 
several  Latin  authorities  to  show  that  it  was 
adopted  by  the  Romans  at  the  public  games 
and  festivals,  by  those  who  had  been  slaves, 
and  by  the  aged  and  infirm  for  the  sake  of  its 
warmth.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  of 
felt,  in  some  of  its  forms  not  unlike  hats  of  the 
same  material  at  the  present  day.  When  coni- 
cal it  was  the  apex  of  the  Roman  priests,  worn 
probably  from  the  time  of  Numa ;  with  an  ele- 
vated crest  pointed  forward  like  the  liberty 
cap,  it  was  the  Phrygian  or  Mysian  bonnet ; 
with  a  brim,  it  became  the  petasus,  a  hat  much 
like  the  round  felt  hats  now  worn.  Among  the 
Romans  the  cap  was  a  symbol  of  liberty,  and 
slaves  were  presented  with  one  on  receiving 
their  freedom.  After  the  assassination  of  Cae- 
sar coins  were  issued  by  Brutus  and  Cassius 
on  which  was  represented  a  cap  between  two 
daggers;  and  after  Nero's  death  many  Ro- 
mans put  on  caps  in  order  to  proclaim"  the 
restoration  of  their  liberties.  Even  at  a  later 
period  the  cap  or  hat  was  identified  with  lib- 
erty, as  in  the  republic  of  the  Netherlands  after 
the  emancipation  from  Spain,  when  a  hat  be- 
came the  national  emblem.  The  first  hatters 
in  the  middle  ages  appeared  in  Nuremberg  in 
1360,  under  the  name  of  Filzkappenmacher 
(manufacturers  of  felt  caps) ;  in  France,  under 
the  reign  of  Charles  VI.,  1380-1422 ;  and  in  1401 
in  Wurzburg,  Bavaria.  Charles  VII.,  in  a  pic- 
ture of  his  entrance  into  the  city  of  Rouen  in 
1449,  is  represented  as  wearing  a  felt  hat.  The 
early  Anglo-Saxons  wore  generally  no  other 
covering  for  the  head  than  the  long  flowing 
hair  they  sedulously  cultivated.  The  few  ex- 
amples of  caps  are  simple  in  form  and  scanty 
in  dimensions.  About  the  8th  century  they 
wore  caps  resembling  the  Phrygian  bonnet. 
"  Those  of  the  lower  class  of  people,"  says 
Strutt,  "  appear  rough  behind,  and  probably 
were  composed  of  the  skin  of  some  animal 
dressed  with  the  hair  upon  the  hide,  and  the 
shaggy  part  turned  outward.  When  the  men 
of  quality  wore  this  kind  of  covering,  it  was 
usually  enriched  with  some  species  of  ornament. 
Another  cap,  in  the  form  of  a  perfect  cone,  was 
worn  occasionally  by  the  nobility."  Speaking 
of  the  head  dress  in  use  in  the  9th  century,  the 


510 


HAT 


same  author  observes :  "  The  hat  was,  I  doubt 
not,  made  of  various  materials,  and  by  no 
means  seems  to  be  a  part  of  dress  universally 
adopted;  from  its  general  appearance  I  have 
supposed  it  to  have  been  made  of  skins  with 
the  shaggy  part  turned  downward,  and  prob- 
ably it  might  often  be  so ;  but  they  had  also 
felt  or  woollen  hats  at  this  period  (fellen  hcet\ 
which  their  own  records  testify."  About  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  one  of  the  "  nobels 
of  the  lande  mett  at  Clarendom  "  is  described  by 
Froissart  as  wearing  "  a  hatte  of  biever."  The 
hat  being  the  most  conspicuous  article  of  dress, 
and  surmounting  all  the  rest,  it  was  natural  to 
give  to  it  special  care  and  attention,  to  place  in 
it  showy  plumes  and  jewels,  and  surround  it 
with  bands  of  gold  and  silver.  To  it  were  at- 
tached ornamental  rosettes,  sometimes  designed 
as  badges  of  honor  or  of  office.  Its  form  and 
sometimes  color  were  also  made  to  designate 
the  rank  and  character  of  the  wearer,  as  the 
monarch  by  his  crown,  the  cardinal  by  his  red 
hat,  betokening  a  readiness  .to  spill  his  blood 
for  the  sake  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  court  fool 
by  the  cap  with  a  bell.  In  one  form  it  served 
to  distinguish  the  military  officer,  and  in  an- 
other the  peaceful  Quaker.  Among  the  great 
variety  of  hats  used  by  the  English,  the  forms 
of  which  are  preserved  in  old  pictures,  none 
combine  the  grace,  elegance,  and  comfort  of 
the  soft  hat  of  the  Spaniards,  which  the  latter 
have  retained  while  the  fashion  of  the  English 
hat  has  been  continually  changing.  The  manu- 
facture of  hats  has  been  carried  to  perfection 
in  the  United  States,  where  it  was  introduced 
.at  an  early  date.  The  representations  made 
by  the  London  board  of  trade  to  the  house  of 
commons  in  1732  refer  to  the  complaints  of  the 
hatters  in  London  at  the  extent  to  which  the 
manufacture  was  carried  on  in  New  England 
and  New  York. — Without  including  caps  and 
straw  hats,  the  kinds  in  general  use  may  be 
classed  as  those  which  are  felted  throughout, 
and  those  which  are  made  with  a  covering, 
usually  of  silk  plush  upon  a  prepared  stiff  body. 
In  the  former  class  are  included  the  coarse 
qualities  made  entirely  of  wool  mixed  with  hair 
and  stiffened  with  glue ;  those  called  plated, 
which  are  furnished  with  an  external  pile  or 
nap  of  finer  material  than  the  body,  and  some- 
times water-proof  stiffened  before  the  nap  is 
put  on  ;  and  those  called  short  naps,  in  which 
some  of  the  better  class  of  fur  is  worked  in 
the  plating  or  nap,  and  all  are  water-proof 
stiffened.  Beaver  hats,  formerly  esteemed  the 
best  of  all  hats,  had  merely  a  nap  of  the  fur  of 
the  beaver,  which  was  felted  into  the  body ; 
the  best  hats  being  finished  with  the  finest 
fur  taken  from  the  belly  and  cheeks  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  the  inferior  qualities  with  that  from 
the  back.  The  soft  genuine  beaver  hats,  now 
rarely  seen,  were  made  upon  a  body  of  rabbits' 
fur.  As  beavers'  fur  became  scarce,  nutria 
was  substituted  for  it,  also  the  fur  of  the 
musquash,  hare,  and  rabbit ;  and  for  the  body 
lambs1  wool  and  that  of  the  llama  were  used 


instead  of  rabbits'  fur.  Furs  intended  for 
felting  are  prepared  in  different  ways.  Hare 
skins  are  split  open,  then  rubbed  with  a  jagged 
knife  blade  called  a  rake  to  remove  bits  of 
fleshy  matter  adhering  to  the  pelt.  They  are 
next  damped  on  the  pelt  side  with  water,  and 
being  placed  together  in  pairs,  pelt  to  pelt,  are 
pressed.  They  are  thus  made  smooth  and 
ready  for  shearing,  by  which  the  long  coarse 
hairs  are  clipped  close  down  to  the  fur.  The 
angular  projections  and  edges  of  the  pelt  are 
then  trimmed  off,  a  process  called  rounding. 
The  fur  was  formerly  cut  from  the  skins  by 
hand,  and  this  method  is  still  practised  among 
some  of  the  smaller  European  manufacturers ; 
but  by  the  principal  manufacturers,  and  in 
America  by  all,  it  is  now  cut  by  machines  of 
American  invention.  The  skin  is  held  hori- 
zontally with  the  fur  side  down,  a  narrow  edge 
of  the  pelt  being  pushed  over  a  horizontal  bed 
knife,  which  presses  back  the  fur.  Behind 
this  bed  knife  a  cylinder,  provided  with  knives 
set  obliquely,  revolves  with  great  rapidity. 
The  edge  of  the  pelt  is  caught  between  the 
descending  knife  and  the  bed  knife,  and  cut 
off  as  by  a  pair  of  scissors;  the  line  of  fur 
attached  to  the  strip  is  thus  severed  at  the 
roots  and  falls  on  a  surface  placed  to  receive 
it.  As  strip  after  strip  of  pelt  is  thus  cut  off, 
the  fur  continues  falling  till  the  whole  fleece 
lies  compactly  together.  Rabbit  skins  are 
treated  in  a  similar  way,  except  that  the  long 
hairs,  instead  of  being  clipped,  are  pulled  by 
catching  each  one  between  a  knife  blade  and 
the  thumb,  which  is  protected  by  a  leather  cov- 
ering. Beaver  and  nutria  skins  require  more 
care  to  remove  the  fatty  and  fleshy  matters, 
and  to  cleanse  them  from  grease,  all  which 
must  be  done  before  the  long  hairs  are  pulled. 
Nutria  skins  especially  are  loaded  with  fat  upon 
the  pelt,  and  the  fur  is  filled  with  grease.  Scrub- 
bing with  a  brush  and  free  use  of  soap  and 
boiling  water  are  necessary  to  remove  the  lat- 
ter. Attempts  have  been  made  to  remove  the 
fur  by  chemical  ingredients,  but  the  effect  of 
these  has  usually  been  to  impair  the  felting 
property.  But  the  application  of  dilute  nitric 
acid  to  the  fur  before  it  is  removed  from  the 
pelt  is  found  to  improve  this  property,  probably 
by  destroying  the  last  traces  of  the  grease. 
Skins  that  have  been  wetted  with  it  are  said  to 
be  "  carroted,"  from  the  color  it  imparts ;  they 
should  be  immediately  dried  by  exposure  to  the 
heat  of  a  fire,  or  by  smoothing  with  a  hot  iron 
and  drying  in  the  sun.  Rabbit  and  hare  skins 
by  long  keeping  are  very  liable  to  suffer  injury 
from  moths  and  other  insects,  and  the  former, 
especially  if  kept  in  large  heaps,  from  the  run- 
ning of  the  greasy  matter  among  them,  and 
becoming  rancid,  corroding  the  pelt  itself.  In 
England  it  is  found  that  the  strongest  rabbit 
fur  for  felting  is  obtained  from  animals  bred 
near  the  sea.  The  skins  taken  in  the  winter 
are  far  superior  in  quality  to  those  obtained  at 
other  times,  and  are  distinguished  in  the  trade 
as  seasoned,  all  others  being  called  unseasoned. 


HAT 


511 


= 


The  annual  production  of  hatters'  fur  in  the 
United  States  is  about  500,000  Ibs. ;  but  the 
principal  supplies  come  from  towns  on  the 
North  sea,  from  Frankfort,  Brussels,  and  a  few 
other -places.  The  furs  are  obtained  there  in 
large  quantities,  and  have  the  excellent  quality 
of  thickness  due  to  a  cold  climate. — After  the 
fur  has  been  separated  from  the  pelt  it  is  first 
mixed,  the  different  qualities  together,  and  the 
finest  carded  cotton  is  added  in  the  proportion 
of  i  to  £  oz.  of  cotton  to  4  or  5  oz.  of  fur,  the 
quantity  required  for  a  felt  hat.  The 
ixing  is  effected  in  a  picking  machine,  into 
Inch  it  is  drawn  as  fed,  and,  immediately  seized 
a  toothed  picker,  which  revolves  with  great 
ocity,  creating  a  powerful  current  of  air,  it 
tossed  about  in  the  capacious  box  forming 
top  of  the  machine,  and  carried  as  it  falls 
an  endless  apron,  which  delivers  it  to  a 
nd  pair  of  feed  rollers  and  another  picker, 
which  the  operation  is  repeated.  The  fur 
barged  from  this  contains  the  long  hairs 
d  bits  of  pelt  and  other  impurities,  from  which 
it  is  to  be  separated  in  the  next  process,  which 
called  blowing.  The  machines  for  this  are 
tained  in  a  box  sometimes  20  ft.  long  and 
iut  7  high,  in  which  case  there  are  eight  suc- 
cessive sets  of  the  same  apparatus  of  pickers 
and  screens.  As  the  fur  is  fed  in  at  one  end, 
it  is  taken  by  the  feed  rollers  against  the  points 
of  a  cylindrical  picker,  which  revolves  several 
thousand  times  in  a  minute.  This  strikes  out 
&  large  portion  of  the  heavy  hairs  and  coarse 
particles,  and  tosses  the  light  fur  into  the  upper 
portion  of  the  box,  where  it  is  blown  forward 
to  the  next  set,  in  which  it  is  subjected  to  a 
repetition  of  the  same  process.  The  coarser 
portions  fall  upon  an  inclined  screen,  which  is 
kept  in  agitation.  The  loose  hairs  and  refuse 
stuff  fall  through  this,  and  the  portion  that  is 
shaken  off  the  screen  is  delivered  back  on  the 
floor  under  the  point  of  starting.  As  it  col- 
lects it  is  taken  up  and  sent  through  again. 
Much  of  the  dust  separates  through  the  perfo- 
rated sheet  copper  with  which  the  machine  is 
covered.  The  next  process  is  to  form  the  hat 
body ;  an  operation  that  has  been  accomplished 
by  various  methods,  as  by  bowing  and  working 
the  fur  together  by  hand,  and  thus  felting  it ; 
also  by  what  is  called  the  pneumatic  process, 
by  which  a  mat  is  obtained  that  is  afterward 
worked  upon  a  block  into  the  required  shape. 
Thomas  Blanchard  of  Boston  several  years  ago, 
by  exhausting  the  air  under  a  fine  wire  gauze, 
caused  the  fur  to  be  drawn  together  upon  this 
and  partially  felted,  in  the  form  of  a  thin  nar- 
row ribbon.  This  was  then  wound  upon  a 
double  cone  of  the  size  and  form  for  two  hat 
bodies.  The  next  improvement  was  that  of 
Henry  A.  Wells  of  New  York  in  1846,  who 
invented  the  machine  now  in  use.  He  made  a 
cone  of  sheet  copper  punched  full  of  round 
holes,  and,  setting  it  upright,  caused  it  to  re- 
volve slowly  upon  its  axis.  Under  this  an  ex- 
hausting fan  is  put  in  action,  causing  by  its 
rotation  of  about  4,000  times  in  a  minute  a 
393  VOL.  vm.— 33 


current  of  air  to  draw  through  the  holes  from 
the  outside.  A  trunk  or  box  with  a  vertical 
opening  directed  against  the  cone  discharges 
the  fur,  which  is  fed  into  it  at  the  other  end. 
Here  it  is  received  from  the  feeding  apron  in 
quantity  just  sufficient  for  one  hat  body.  It  is 
drawn  in  between  two  horizontal  feeding  roll- 
ers covered  with  felt,  and  immediately  seized 
by  a  cylinder  revolving  about  3,600  times  in  a 
minute,  and  furnished  with  several  longitudinal 
lines  of  stiff  brushes.  This  generates  a  current 
of  air,  which  scatters  the  fur,  and  blows  it  to- 
ward the  mouth  of  the  trunk,  where  it  is  rap- 
idly drawn  upon  the  perforated  cone  and  evenly 
spread  over  the  top  and  down  the  sides  of  the 
same,  in  quantity  enough  for  one  body  in  16 
revolutions.  H.  A.  Burr  improved  the  discharg- 
ing trunk,  so  that  it  could  be  adjusted  to  de- 
posit more  or  less  fur  on  any  desired  portions 
of  the  cone.  As  the  fur  collects,  the  workman 
picks  off  any  coarse  particles  that  gather  on  the 
surface,  and  when  the  supply  for  one  hat  body 
is  deposited  he  wraps  a  wet  cloth  over  the 
cone,  and  slips  a  metallic  cover  over  the  whole, 
which  he  removes  into  a  tank  of  hot  water.  A 
new  cone  is  immediately  set  in  its  place  to  re- 
ceive another  coating  of  fur.  The  hot  water 
makes  the  mat  more  tenacious.  It  is  soon 
slipped  off  the  cone,  taken  to  a  table,  gently 
worked  by  hand-rolling  in  a  piece  of  blanket, 
squeezed  and  pressed,  and  then  folded  into  con- 
venient shape.  It  is  now  ready  to  be  pressed 
with  others,  to  be  made  up  into  the  bundles  in 
which  the  bodies  are  sent  to  the  hatters.  The 
material  has  not  yet  assumed  the  form  or  size 
of  a  hat.  It  is  a  large  open-mouthed  bag, 
smaller  and  rounded  at  the  closed  end.  In 
making  the  bodies  by  the  old  hand  process,  a 
man  used  to  be  occupied  a  whole  day  upon 
four  or  five.  By  the  machine  just  described, 
and  known  as  the  "former,"  tended  by  two 
men  and  a  boy,  and  employing  another  in 
rolling  the  bodies,  400  are  completed  each  day, 
all  of  which  are  alike  in  shape,  weight,  and 
thickness.  The  cost  of  the  labor  on  each  is 
estimated  at  from  6  to  10  cts.  The  inferior 
bodies  made  by  the  old  method  cost  for  labor 
about  56  cents ;  their  manufacture  is  now  gen- 
erally abandoned. — After  the  mats  come  into 
the  hands  of  the  hatters,  they  are  reduced  in 
size  by  sizing.  This,  which  is  entirely  a  hand 
process,  consists  in  rubbing  a  pile  of  several 
bodies,  first  dipped  into  hot  water  and  rolled  in 
a  piece  of  blanket,  upon  a  sloping  table,  techni- 
cally called  a  battery,  which  is  arranged  around 
a  central  caldron  affording  accommodation  for 
from  8  to  12  workmen.  By  rubbing  the  bodies 
together  for  a  short  time  they  are  reduced  to 
about  one  third  their  original  size,  and  the  felt 
is  rendered  more  compact.  A  skilful  work- 
man knows  just  how  far  to  carry  this  process, 
which  leaves  the  shells,  as  they  are  now  called, 
uniform  in  thickness  and  size.  They  are  then 
dyed  of  any  desired  color,  after  which  they  are 
blocked,  which  consists  in  stretching  the  cone- 
shaped  shell  over  a  wooden  block  of  the  shape 


512 


HAT 


HATRAS 


and  size  of  the  hat  to  be  made.  This  was 
formerly  done  by  hand,  but  is  now  effected  by 
a  patented  machine  called  the  Eickemeyer  hat- 
blocking  machine,  invented  by  Rudolf  Eicke- 
meyer of  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  for  the  use  of  which 
a  royalty  of  from  2  to  8  cts.  per  dozen  is  paid 
by  all  manufacturers.  The  next  operation  is 
pouncing,  by  which  the  rough  surface  of  the 
hat  is  smoothed  and  all  inequalities  are  re- 
moved. This  also  was  formerly  done  by  hand 
by  two  workmen,  one  shaving  down  the  ine- 
qualities with  a  sharp  knife,  and  the  other 
smoothing  the  surface  with  sand-paper  and 
pumice  stone ;  but  it  is  now  performed  by  a 
patented  machine  in  which  the  hat  while  re- 
volving is  brought  into  contact  with  a  cylinder 
covered  with  emery  paper.  A  royalty  of  6  cts. 
per  dozen  for  fur  hats  and  3  cts.  per  dozen  for 
wool  hats  is  paid  by  each  manufacturer  for  the 
use  of  this  machine,  which  was  invented  by 
Sidney  S.  Wheeler  and  Daniel  D.  Manley  of 
Danbury,  Conn.  After  pouncing  the  hat  is  again 
stretched  on  a  block  and  pressed  into  shape 
with  a  hot  iron.  This  is  technically  called 
finishing.  If  the  hat  is  to  be  stiff,  the  next 
operation  is  curling,  which  consists  in  pressing 
the  brim  into  shape  with  a  hot  iron.  The 
trimming  is  done  by  girls,  who  put  in  the  lining, 
the  round  top  piece,  technically  called  the  tip, 
and  the  leather,  and  sew  on  the  band  and  the 
binding.  The  binding  is  usually  done  with  the 
sewing  machine,  but  in  some  hats  it  has  to  be 
put  on  by  hand.  The  last  operation,  called 
ironing  off,  is  merely  the  running  of  a  hot  iron 
over  the  hat  to  press  it  into  perfect  shape,  after 
which  it  is  ready  for  the  packing  box.  A 
cheaper  quality  of  hat  is  made  from  felted 
wool,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  conducted 
in  nearly  the  same  manner.  Wool  hats,  how- 
ever, are  sized  or  felted  in  a  fulling  mill.  They 
are  made  entirely  of  wool  in  the  United  States, 
but  in  England  a  little  fur  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  the  wool. — Silk  hats  were  formerly  made 
of  felt  shells  formed  by  the  Wells  machine, 
but  the  felt  bodies  are  now  almost  entirely  su- 
perseded by  those  made  of  muslin.  The  mus- 
lin is  prepared  by  being  stretched  on  frames 
and  saturated  with  a  solution  of  shell-lac  in  am- 
monia and  water.  For  the  brims  of  hats  from 
two  to  six  thicknesses  are  required ;  for  the 
tops  one  or  two  thicknesses.  After  the  several 
sheets  are  thoroughly  rubbed  together  so  that 
they  adhere  to  each  other,  they  are  dried  by 
the  fire,  after  which  another  coat  of  shell-lac 
varnish  is  put  on.  When  this  is  dry  the  muslin 
is  removed  from  the  frames  and  cut  into  the 
proper  shapes  for  sides,  tops,  and  brims.  The 
several  pieces  are  then  fitted  together  over  a 
block.  The  side  is  put  on  first,  and  then  the 
top,  the  projecting  edges  of  the  latter  being 
ironed  down  until  they  adhere  firmly  to  the 
side.  A  strip  of  thin  muslin,  technically  called 
robbin,  is  then  saturated  with  shell-lac  and 
ironed  down  around  the  edge  to  strengthen  it 
and  to  keep  the  parts  together.  Lastly,  the 
brim  is  -put  over  the  block  and  fastened  in  a 


similar  way,  the  inner  edge  being  turned  up 
and  ironed  against  the  side  and  finally  strength- 
ened with  a  piece  of  robbin.  After  the  brim 
has  been  trimmed  the  body  is  again  varnished 
with  a  solution  of  shell-lue  and  alcohol,  and 
when  this  is  dry  the  hat  is  ready  for  the  cover 
of  silk  plush.  The  brim  is  covered  by  one 
piece  on  the  under  side,  which  is  put  on  first, 
and  one  on  the  upper.  These  are  secured  by 
ironing  with  a  hot  iron,  which  softens  the  var- 
nish and  causes  it  to  stick  the  plush  to  the 
body.  The  cover  for  the  side,  to  which  the 
circular  piece  for  the  top  has  been  sewed  with 
a  scarcely  discernible  seam,  is  next  slipped  on 
and  ironed  until  it  adheres  thoroughly,  the 
seams  being  carefully  concealed.  Fashionable 
hats  require  the  finest  quality  of  French  plush ; 
that  made  by  Martin  at  Lyons  and  Metz  is  held 
in  the  highest  estimation  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  black  dye  with  which  it  is  col- 
ored. The  hat  is  now  lined  and  trimmed,  and 
afterward  shaped  and  smoothed  with  the  iron. 
Great  care  is  given  to  finishing  the  brim,  which 
is  curled  by  hand,  the  workman  judging  by  his 
eye  of  the  perfection  of  the  outline.  The  lining 
of  the  best  quality  of  hats  is  of  silk,  that  of 
the  cheaper  kinds  usually  of  paper.  In  what 
are  called  French  gossamer  bodies,  the  body  is 
composed  of  but  one  thickness  of  muslin,  and 
the  silk  lining  is  ironed  on  to  this  so  as  to  stick 
fast  to  it,  after  which  another  thickness  of 
muslin  is  ironed  on  to  the  outside.  In  those 
called  English  bodies,  the  body  is  generally 
of  two  thicknesses,  and  has  another  thick- 
ness of  muslin  ironed  on  to  it  after  the  hat 
is  formed.  This  is  the  common  style  of  hat, 
and  weighs  about  four  ounces.  Hat  bodies 
are  sometimes  made  also  of  cork,  willow,  and 
felt.  Cork  bodies  are  cut  very  thin,  and  are 
of  course  very  light.  Willow  bodies  are  of 
thin  slips  of  willow,  woven  by  a  process  pat- 
ented by  a  firm  in  Philadelphia.  White  hats 
for  summer  wear,  called  cassimere  hats,  are 
made  of  felt.  The  superiority  of  American  silk 
hats  is  owing  to  the  scrupulous  care  in  the 
selection  as  well  as  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
materials.  The  best  are  not  surpassed  in  Eu- 
rope. The  French  make  hats  of  similar  quali- 
ty; but  in  England  the  humidity  of  the  cli- 
mate will  not  admit  the  use  of  hats  so  light 
as  those  worn  in  America. — According  to  the 
census  of  1870,  the  total  value  of  the  hat  and 
cap  manufactures  of  the  United  States  in  that 
year  was  $24,848,167;  of  which  New  York 
produced  $8,708,723,  New  Jersey  $5,007,270, 
Connecticut  $3,740,871,  Massachusetts  $3,41 6,- 
191,  and  Pennsylvania  $2,813,766.— For  straw 
hats,  see  STEAW. 

HATRAS,  a  town  and  fort  of  India,  in  the 
province  and  90  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Delhi ; 
pop.  about  25,000.  It  is  the  chief  mart  for  the 
cotton  produced  in  the  neighborhood,  which  is 
forwarded  to  Furruckabad,  on  the  Ganges,  and 
conveyed  by  that  river  to  the  lower  provinces. 
The  present  fort  is  a  square  of  about  500  yards, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  and  a  deep 


HATTERAS 


dry  ditch.  The  old  fort  is  situated  half  a  mile 
E.  of  the  town,  and  though  now  a  heap  of  ru- 
ms was  once  regarded  as  formidable.  Hatras 
was  taken  by  the  British  in  1803.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Mahratta  war  in  1817  the  chief  of 
the  place  assumed  a  hostile  attitude.  He  was 
summoned  to  surrender  the  fort,  but  refused, 
whereupon  the  town  was  breached  and  evac- 
uated, Feb.  23,  1817.  On  March  1  fire  was 
opened  upon  the  fort,  which  was  abandoned 
during  the  night,  and  immediately  dismantled, 
as  well  as  the  neighboring  fortress  of  Mursan. 

HATTERAS.     See  CAPE  HATTERAS. 

HATTI-SHERIF  (Turkish,  noble  writing),  any 
ordinance  written  by  the  sultan's  hand,  or 
which  contains  his  paraf,  or  flourish,  and  the 
words,  "  Let  this  my  order  be  obeyed."  Some- 
times it  is  called  hatti-humayun,  ','  august  wri- 
ting." A  hatti-sherif  is  irrevocable.  The  most 
celebrated  in  modern  times  was  the  hatti-she- 
rif of  Gulhane,  promulgated  by  the  sultan  Ab- 
dul-Medjid,  Nov.  3, 1839,  guaranteeing  life  and 
property  to  all  subjects  of  the  empire  without 
distinction  of  creeds.  This  ordinance  was  con- 
firmed by  the  hatti-humayun  of  Feb.  18,  1856, 
which  granted  religious  liberty  to  the  non-Mo- 
hammedan population,  abolished  the  civil  and 
judicial  authority  of  the  Mussulman  ecclesias- 
tics, proclaimed  the  equality  of  all  creeds  and 
nationalities,  abolished  persecution  and  the  pun- 
ishment of  religious  converts,  made  non-Mo- 
hammedans admissible  to  public  office  and  or- 
dained their  representation  in  the  council  of 
state,  permitted  foreigners  to  hold  landed  prop- 
erty, decreed  the  establishment  of  public  schools, 
the  codification  of  the  laws,  the  reform  of  the 
monetary  system  and  of  the  police,  and  pro- 
posed to  introduce  other  public  improvements. 

II Al  ( II,  Johannes  Carsten  von,  a  Danish  poet, 
born  in  Frederikshald,  Norway,  May  12,  1791, 
died  in  Rome,  March  4,  1872.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Christiania  in  1821,  trav- 
elled in  France  and  Italy,  composed  several  of 
his  dramas  while  in  the  latter  country,  and 
returned  to  Denmark  in  1827.  For  several 
years  he  was  professor  of  natural  sciences  in 
the  university  of  Soro,  and  in  1846  he  became 
professor  of  northern  literature  at  Kiel.  Ex- 
pelled from  that  office  at  the  insurrection  of 
1848,  Queen  Maria  Sophia  Frederica  offered 
him  an  asylum  at  the  castle  of  Frederiksborg, 
where  he  resided  several  years.  In  1851  he 
succeeded  Oehlenschlager  as  professor  of  aes- 
thetics and  belles-lettres  at  the  university  of 
Copenhagen.  His  works  comprise  many  trage- 
dies, as  Bajazet,  Tiberius,  Don  Juan,  &c. ;  a 
dramatic  epic,  Hamadryaden ;  lyrical  poems 
and  romantic  tales,  among  which  are  Wilhelm 
Zabern  (2d  ed.,  1848)  and  Robert  Fulton  (2 
vols.,  1853).  He  also -wrote  upon  zoology  and 
other  natural  sciences.  His  Nordische  My- 
thenlehre,  in  German,  appeared  in  Leipsic  in 
1848.  In  concert  with  Forchhammer  he  pre- 
pared the  "Life  of  Oersted"  (Copenhagen, 
1853).  His  latest  works  were :  Charles  de  la 
iere  (1860),  Waldeman  Seier  (1862),  Nye 


HAUPT 


513 


Digtninger  (1869),  Afhandlinger  og  eesthetiske 
Betragtninger  (1869),  and  Minder  fra  min 
f^rste  Udenlandsreise  (Copenhagen,  1871). 

HAUG,  Martin,  a  German  orientalist,  born  at 
Ostdorf,  Wtirtemberg,  Jan.  30,  1827.  By  pri- 
vate study  he  made  himself  master  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  Hebrew.  In  1848  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Tubingen,  where  he  studied  San- 
skrit; and  he  afterward  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  Bonn.  In  1856  he  was  invited  to  Heidel- 
berg by  Bunsen,  to  aid  him  in  preparing  his 
Bibelwerk.  In  1859  he  went  to  India,  and 
became  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  the  college  at 
Poona,  where  he  was  brought  into  intercourse 
with  the  most  learned  native  priests,  and  ac- 
quired a  minute  knowledge  of  their  various 
forms  of  doctrine  and  worship.  In  1863,  under 
appointment  from  the  British  government,  he 
made  a  journey  through  the  province  of  Guze- 
rat,  and  collected  many  valuable  manuscripts 
in  Zend  and  Sanskrit.  He  returned  to  Europe 
in  1866.  His  principal  works  are:  Ueber  die 
Pehlewisprache  und  den  Bundehesch  (Gottin- 
gen, 1854) ;  Ueb.er  die  Schrift  und  Sprache  der 
zweiten  Keilschriftgattung  (1855) ;  Die  funf 
Gathas,  &c.  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1858-'60);  "Es- 
says on  the  Sacred  Language  of  the  Parsees" 
(Bombay,  1862);  and  an  edition,  with  a  trans- 
lation, of  "The  Aitareya  Brahmana  of  the 
Rigveda"  (2  vols.,  Bombay,  1863). 

HAIJGHTON,  William,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century, 
died  probably  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  written  a  number  of 
dramas  in  connection  with  Decker  and  others, 
and  a  few  unassisted.  The  only  plays  attrib- 
uted with  certainty  to  him  are  the  comedy, 
"Englishmen  for  my  Money,  or  a  Woman  will 
have  her  Will,"  which  is  reprinted  in  "The 
Old  English  Drama"  (4  vols.  12mo,  1830),  and 
"The  Pleasant  Comedie  of  Patient  Grissill,"  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Chettle  and  Decker, 
and  which  was  reprinted  by  the  Shakespeare 
society  in  1841. 

HAUKSBEE,  or  Hawksbee,  Francis,  an  English 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  17th  century,  died  after  1731.  He  held 
the  office  of  curator  of  experiments  to  the 
royal  society,  and  was  the  first  to  mark  the 
circumstances  of  electrical  attraction  and  re- 
pulsion, and  to  observe  the  production  of  light 
by  friction  both  in  air  and  in  a  vacuum.  His 
observations  were  given  chiefly  in  "Phy  si  co- 
Mechanical  Experiments  on  various  Subjects" 
(4to,  1709;  translated  into  French  and  en- 
larged, Paris,  1754). 

HAUPT,  Moritz,  a  German  philologist,  born  in 
Zittau,  July  27,  1808,  died  in  "Berlin,  Feb.  5, 
1874.  He  was  a  son  of  ERNST  FBIEDEICH 
HATJPT  (1774-1834),  who  was  noted  for  his 
Latin  metrical  versions  of  Goethe's  poems  and 
of  German  church  hymns.  Moritz  graduated 
at  Leipsic  in  1837,  and  was  professor  of  Ger- 
man language  and  literature  and  of  classical 
philosophy  from  1838  to  1850,  when  he  was 
removed  on  account  of  his  sympathy  with  the 


514 


HAUPTMANN 


HAUSER 


liberal  movement  of  1848-'9.  He  next  suc- 
ceeded his  former  teacher  Hermann  as  secre- 
tary of  the  historico-philosophical  class  till 
1853,  when  he  became  Lachmann's  successor 
in  the  chair  of  classical  literature  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  where  he  delivered  remark- 
able lectures  until  the  day  before  his  sudden 
death.  For  the  last  13  years  of  his  life  he  was 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of  sciences. 
His  works  include  many  critical  editions  of 
classics,  and  he  was  one  of  the  highest  au- 
thorities on  old  German  philology. 

HAUPTMAM,  Moritz,  a  German  composer, 
born  in  Dresden,  Oct.  13,  1792,  died  in  Leipsic, 
Jan.  3,  1868.  The  son  of  an  architect,  he  was 
intended  for  the  same  profession  and  became 
proficient  in  mathematics  and  other  sciences; 
but  he  afterward  devoted  himself  to  music. 
Completing  his  education  under  Spohr,  he  be- 
came in  1812  a  violinist  in  the  royal  orchestra 
of  Dresden,  and  in  1822  at  Cassel  under  the 
direction  of  Spohr.  He  remained  here  till 
1842,  when  he  became  cantor  to  the  Thomas 
school  at  Leipsic,  and  at  the  same  time  director 
of  music  in  the  churches  of  St.  Thomas  and 
St.  Nicholas,  and  professor  of  counterpoint 
and  fugue  at  the  newly  established  conserva- 
tory. His  Die  Natur  der  Harmonik  und  Me- 
trik  (Leipsic,  1853;  2d  ed.,  1873)  procured 
him  in  1857  from  the  university  of  Gottingen 
an  honorary  diploma  as  doctor  of  philosophy. 
His  sacred  compositions  are  esteemed  his  best ; 
but  his  Italian  sonnets  composed  for  the  con- 
tralto voice  of  his  wife,  and  his  duets  for  violin 
and  piano,  were  greatly  admired.  His  produc- 
tions include  Salve  Regina  for  four  voices,  a 
full  mass  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  and  the 
operas  Mathilde  and  Klein  Karin. 

HAUREAU,  Jean  Barthelemy,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  9,  1812.  He  received  a 
college  education,  and  became  a  journalist  at 
Le  Mans.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  appointed  keeper  of  manuscripts  at  the 
national  library  in  Paris,  and  was  returned  to 
the  constituent  assembly  for  the  department 
of  Sarthe,  but  retired  from  politics  after  the 
coup  d'etat  of  1851.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
librarian  for  the  order  of  advocates  of  Paris, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of  in- 
scriptions and  belles-lettres,  over  which  he 
presided  in  1873.  His  principal  works  are: 
Critique  des  hypotheses  metaphysique  de  Manes, 
de  Pelage  et  de  Videalisme  transcendentale  de 
Saint  Augwtin  (Le  Mans,  1840);  Histoire  lit- 
teraire  du  Maine  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1842-'73) ; 
Histoire  de  la  Pologne  depute  son  origine  jus- 
qu'en  1846 ;  De  la  philosophic  scolastique  (2 
vols.,  1851) ;  Francois  I.  et  sa  cour  (1853) ; 
Charlemagne  et  sa  cour  (1854)  ;  Oallia  Chris- 
tiana, &c.  (3  vols.,  1856-'65>.  The  last  work 
is  a  continuation  of  the  13  volumes  issued  by 
the  Benedictines  between  1715  and  1785. 

II  U'SKR,  Raspar,  a  German  youth,  remarkable 
for  his  mysterious  history,  born  about  1812, 
died  at  Anspach,  Dec.  17,  1833.  He  was  found 
in  the  streets  of  Nuremberg,  May  26,  1828, 


dressed  in  the  garb  of  a  peasant,  and  by  his  ap- 
parent helplessness  attracted  the  attention  of 
one  of  the  citizens.  On  his  person  was  found 
a  letter  from  which  it  appeared  that  since  he 
was  six  months  old  his  mother  had  left  him  in 
charge  of  a  poor  laborer,  the  writer  of  the  let- 
ter, who  kept  him  in  close  confinement,  but 
brought  him  up  in  the  Christian  religion  and 
taught  him  to  write.  The  time  having  arrived 
for  relinquishing  the  custody  of  the  boy,  the 
laborer  removed  him  from  his  house  during 
the  night  and  escorted  him  as  far  as  the  vicinity 
of  Nuremberg,  leaving  him  to  reach  that  town 
alone.  Enclosed  in  the  letter  was  a  note  pur- 
porting to  come  from  Kaspar's  mother,  and  sta- 
ting that  she  was  a  poor  girl  when  she  gave 
birth  to  him  (April  30,  1812),  and  that  his  fa- 
ther was  a  cavalry  officer  at  Nuremberg.  The 
only  information  which  the  person  to  whom 
the  letter  was  addressed  could  elicit  from  the 
boy  was  that  he  came  from  Ratisbon,  and 
wanted  to  become  a  cavalry  officer  as  his  fa- 
ther had  been.  He  was  removed  to  the  sta- 
tion house,  but  was  unable  or  unwilling  to  give 
any  account  of  himself  except  that  his  name 
was  Kaspar  Hauser.  He  would  not  take  any- 
thing but  bread  and  water.  He  could  write 
his  name  and  a  few  other  words,  but  was 
otherwise  entirely  ignorant.  Besides  the  let- 
ter, there  were  found  in  his  possession  a  pocket 
handkerchief  with  his  initials  marked  in  red 
and  several  Roman  Catholic  prayer  books.  He 
was  of  a  delicate  constitution,  but  well  formed, 
and  his  general  appearance  was  that  of  a  high- 
born youth.  He  was  detained  in  prison  as  a 
vagrant,  but  the  mayor  ef  Nuremberg  fre- 
quently took  him  to  his  house,  and  gradually 
learned  from  him  that  from  his  earliest  child- 
hood he  had  been  kept  in  a  kind  of  cellar,  from 
which  the  light  was  shut  out.  No  human 
being  ever  came  to  see  him,  excepting  a  man 
during  the  night,  who  washed  and  dressed 
him  and  brought  him  bread  and  water.  His 
only  amusement  was  two  wooden  horses. 
Shortly  before  he  was  taken  away,  this  man, 
whose  face  he  was  never  permitted  to  see, 
came  more  frequently  to  teach  him  to  write 
and  to  walk,  and  eventually  he  carried  him 
on  his  back  to  Nuremberg.  After  about  two 
months  he  was  handed  over  to  Professor  Dau- 
mer,  who  undertook  his  education.  But  the 
natural  ability  of  which  he  had  given  evidence 
in  his  conversation  decreased  as  he  was  sub- 
jected to  a  regular  system  of  instruction.  He 
mastered,  however,  writing  and  drawing.  He 

i  was  fond  of  riding  on  horseback,  and  rode 
well.  One  of  his  many  peculiarities  was  that 

j  he  could  not  bear  the  presence  of  priests  and 
physicians,  and  that  he  was  restless  and  uneasy 

I  in  church.  He  entered  Daumer's  family  July 
18,  1828.  On  Oct.  17  the  professor's  mother 

j  found  him  lying  prostrate  in  the  cellar  with  a 

!  wound  on  his  forehead.  He  said  that  a  man 
whose  face  was  blackened  had  assaulted  him 

j  with  a  knife,  upon  which  he  ran  away  and 

I  hid  himself  in  the  cellar.     The  most  search- 


HlUSSER 


ing  investigations  were  unavailing  to   detect 
the  man.    By  order  of  the  authorities  the  hoy 
was  now  removed  to  the  residence  of  a  magis- 
trate and  attended  by  two  policemen,  but  had 
only  been  there  a  few  months  when  one  day 
they  heard  the  report  of  a  firearm,  and  on  en- 
tering the  room  whence  it  came  they  found 
Kaspar  weltering  in  his  blood.     His  explana- 
tion was  that  the  wound  had  been  inflicted  by 
the  accidental  discharge  of  a  pistol.     Among 
the  many  strangers  who  became  interested  in 
Hauser's  fate  was  Lord  Stanhope,  who  went 
to  Nuremberg  in  1831.     He  removed  him  to 
mspach  with  a  view  of  completing  his  educa- 
ion,  and  placed  him  in  a  law  office  there, 
vhere  he  displayed  little  ability.     He  also  pro- 
dded Feuerbach,  the  jurist,  and  president  of 
court  of  appeal,  with  the  means  of  pushing 
il  proceedings.    After  the  death  of  i  euer- 
jh,  who  had  gained  more  insight  into  the 
e  than  any  other  person,  and  had  publish- 
Kaspar  Hauser,  Beispiel  eines  Verhrechens 
Seelenlehen  (Anspach,  1832),  Stanhope  was 
)ut  taking  his  protege  to  England,  when 
Caspar  was  stabbed  in  the  side,  Dec.  14, 1833. 
[e  was  able  to  reach  his  home,  and  to  tell  that 
ris  murderer  was  a  stranger,  who  professed  to 
the  bearer  of  some  important  revelations, 
whom  he  met  by  appointment  in  the  palace 
len  when  the  wound  was  inflicted,  from 
rhich  he  died  three  days  afterward.     Persons 
len  were  not  wanting  who  regarded  Kaspar 
tuser  as  an  impostor,  and  Merker  published  a 
rork  entitled  Kaspar  Hauser  nicht  unwahr- 
\inlich   ein  Betruger   (Berlin,  1830);   but 
Daumer  defended  him  upon  psychological  and 
loral  grounds.     Strenuous  efforts  were  vainly 
lade  to  discover  the  murderer.     In  1859  Dau- 
3r  published  at  Frankfort  EntMllungen  uber 
Caspar  Hauser ;  and  several  other  works  on 
subject  appeared  at  about  the  same  time. 
In  1872  the  interest  in  Hauser  was  revived 
by  the  publication  of  official  documents  (Au- 
thentische  Mittheilungen  uber  Kaspar  Hauser), 
by  means  of  which  Julius  Meyer,  a  Bavarian 
jurist,  endeavored  to  prove  that  he  was  an  im- 
postor.    Prof.  Daumer  published  in  reply  an 
exhaustive  work,  Kaspar  Hauser,  sein  Wesen, 
seine  Unschuld,  seine  Erduldungen  und  sein 
Ursprung  (Ratisbon,  1873),  which  makes  it 
highly  probable  that  he  was  the  son  of  the 
grand  duke  Charles  of  Baden  and  his  wife 
Stephanie,  and  that  the  countess  of  Hochberg 
and  Major  Hennehofer  were  the  authors  of 
the  crime,  which  was  designed  to  secure  the 
succession  in  Baden  to  the  children  of  the  coun- 
tess jind  the  grand  duke  Charles  Frederick. 

HAUSSER,  Ludwig,  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Cleeburg,  Alsace,  Oct.  26,  1818,  died  in 
Heidelberg,  March  17, 1867.  He  went  in  1835 
to  Heidelberg  to  study  philology ;  but  through 
the  influence  of  Schlosser  he  made  also  exten- 
sive historical  researches,  and  in  1839  published 
Die  deutschen  Gcschichtschreiher  vom  Anfange 
des  Franlcenreichs  bis  auf  die  Hohenstaufen. 
In  1848  he  edited  in  conjunction  with  Gervi- 


HAUTBOY 


515 


nus,  the  Deutsche  Zeitung,  and  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  chamber  of  Baden.  In  1850  he 
accepted  a  professorship  in  Heidelberg,  but 
continued  to  take  an  active  share  in  politics, 
and  in  1860  returned  to  the  chamber,  where 
he  was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  liberal  min- 
istry. Among  his  most  important  historical 
works  are  Deutsche  Oeschichte  vom  Tode  Fried- 
richs  des  Grossen  his  zur  Grundung  des  Deut- 
schen Bundes  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1854-7),  Ge- 
schichte  der  Franzosischen  Revolution  (1867), 
and  Geschichte  des  Zeitalters  der  Reformation 
(1868 ;  English  translation  by  Mrs.  R.  Sterge, 
1874).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
commenced  in  Berlin  in  1869. 

HAUSSMAM,  Georges  Eugene,  baron,  a  French 
politician,  born  in  Paris,  March  27,  1809.  He 
is  a  grandson  of  the  revolutionist  Nicolas 
Haussmann  of  Colmar  (1761-1846).  He  stud- 
ied law,  became  an  advocate  at  Paris,  and  was 
successively  sub-prefect  of  Nerac  (1833),  St. 
Girons  (1840),  and  Blaye  (1842),  and  prefect 
of  the  departments  of  Var,  Yonne,  and  Gi- 
ronde  (1850-'52).  In  1853  Napoleon  III.  ap- 
pointed him  prefect  of  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  in  which  office  he  became  celebrated  by 
his  extensive  operations  for  the  improvement 
and  embellishment  of  Paris,  one  of  the  many 
new  boulevards  constructed  under  his  adminis- 
tration bearing  his  name.  The  demolition  of 
some  old  quarters  of  the  metropolis  drove 
many  of  the  indigent  working  classes  to  the 
suburbs,  where  they  subsequently  became  the 
most  turbulent  promoters  of  the  commune ; 
while  thousands,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
saved  from  starvation  by  being  employed  on 
Haussmann's  public  works.  The  transforma- 
tion of  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  into  an  English 
park,  the  prefecture,  the  new  and  massive 
barracks,  admirable  water  works,  the  restora- 
tion of  the  H6tel-Dieu,  the  completion  of  the 
Louvre,  and  many  other  memorable  works 
were  due  to  Haussmann's  enterprise ;  but  they 
involved  an  enormous  expenditure,  requiring 
repeated  loans,  and  giving  rise  to  much  opposi- 
tion in  the  press  and  in  the  corps  legislatif,  and 
to  charges  of  mismanagement,  which  were  ex- 
posed in  1868  with  great  success  in  Jules  Fer- 
ry's Comptes  fantastiques  d1  Haussmann.  The 
prefect  succeeded  nevertheless  in  contracting 
a  new  loan  in  1869  for  260,000,000  francs ;  but 
he  was  obliged  to  retire  after  the  accession  of 
the  Ollivier  administration  (January,  1870). — 
See  Histoire  generale  de  Paris,  published  un- 
der Haussmann's  auspices  (2  vols.,  1866),  and 
Parallels  entre  le  marquis  de  Pomhal  et  le 
haron  Haussmann,  by  Lon  (1869). 

HAUTBOY  (Fr.  haut  hois,  high  wood),  or 
Oboe,  a  musical  wind  instrument  of  the  reed 
species,  slender  at  the  upper  end,  but  spread- 
ing out  conically  at  the  lower.  Its  compass 
extends  from  0  below  the  treble  clef  to  G,  the 
fourth  line  above  the  staff.  It  was  formerly 
used  chiefly  in  military  music,  but  is  now  an 
indispensable  appendage  to  the  orchestra.  It 
derives  its  name  from  its  high,  piercing  sound. 


516 


HAUTE-GARONNE 


HAUTE-GAROflNE  (Upper  Garonne),  a  S.  de- 
partment of  France,  formed  from  the  ancient 
provinces  of  Laiiguedoc  and  Gascony,  border- 
ing on  Spain  and  the  departments  of  Tarn-et- 
Garonne,  Tarn,  Aude,  Ariege,  Hautes-Pyre- 
nees,  and  Gers ;  area,  2,429  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  479,362.  The  N".  portion  is  nearly  level, 
but  the  S.  is  covered  with  lofty  mountains, 
mostly  spurs  from  the  Pyrenees,  one  of  which, 
Mont  Maladetta,  rises  to  the  height  of  11,162  ft. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Garonne,  Neste, 
Salat,  Ariege,  Save,  and  Tarn.  The  climate 
of  the  lowlands  is  in  general  mild,  but  that 
of  the  mountainous  districts  is  severe  in  win- 
ter. The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  plains  is  very 
fertile.  The  chief  vegetable  productions  are 
wheat,  maize,  millet,  rye,  flax,  hemp,  potatoes, 
garlic,  fruit,  and  timber,  with  which  the  de- 
clivities of  the  mountains  are  thickly  covered. 
A  large  quantity  of  wine  is  made,  generally 
of  inferior  quality.  The  department  is  rich 
in  minerals ;  iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  bis- 
muth, zinc,  coal,  rock  crystals,  slate,  gypsum, 
marble,  and  granite  are  found  in  abundance. 
The  staple  manufactures  are  coarse  woollens, 
canvas,  calico,  leather,  tinware,  earthenware, 
copperware,  scythes,  files,  mathematical  in- 
struments, glass,  gunpowder,  cannon,  tobac- 
co, wine,  and  brandy.  It  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Toulouse,  Muret,  Ville- 
franche,  and  St.  Gaudens.  Capital,  Toulouse. 

HAITE-LOIRE  (Upper  Loire),  a  S.  E.  depart- 
ment of  France,  in  Languedoc,  bordering  on 
the  departments  of  Puy-de-D6me,  Loire,  Ar- 
d&che,  Lozere,  and  Cantal;  area,  1,916  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  308,732.  The  surface  is  volca- 
nic, and  in  general  mountainous,  being  almost 
everywhere  traversed  by  offshoots  of  the  Can- 
tal or  Cevennes  chains,  the  summits  of  which 
are  covered  with  snow  during  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  year,  and  their  declivities  with 
dense  forests,  extensive  pastures,  or  chestnut 
woods  and  vineyards.  The  loftiest  of  its  peaks 
is  Mont  Mezin,  5,790  ft.  high.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Loire,  Allier,  and  Lignon.  The 
climate  varies  with  the  aspect  and  elevation 
of  every  district.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  and 
plains  is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  are 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  peas,  beans,  potatoes, 
fruit,  timber,  and  wine  of  poor  quality.  The 
minerals  are  iron,  copper,  coal,  lead,  antimony, 
chalcedony,  sapphires,  amethysts,  marble,  gyp- 
sum, &c.  The  only  important  manufactures 
are  silk,  thread  lace,  and  ribbons.  It  is  divi- 
ded into  the  arrondissements  of  Le  Puy,  Bri- 
oude,  and  Yssingeaux.  Capital,  Le  Puy. 

II \l  IK-ll VKNK  (Upper  Marne),  a  N.  E.  de- 
partment of  France,  formed  chiefly  from  the 
ancient  province  of  Champagne,  bordering  on 
the  departments  of  Marne,  Meuse,  Vosges, 
Haute-Saone,  C6te  d'Or,  and  Aube ;  area,  2,401 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  251,196.  The  surface  is 
generally  hilly,  and  occasionally  mountainous. 
Some  of  the  Langres  summits  attain  an  eleva- 
tion of  2,500  ft.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Marne,  Meuse,  and  Aube.  The  climate  is  mild 


HAUTE-SAVOIE 

and  healthful  in  summer,  but  in  winter  often 
very  severe  in  the  highlands.  The  valleys  and 
plains  are  fertile.  The  chief  productions  are 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  mus- 
tard, hemp,  fruit,  garden  plants,  and  timber, 
with  which  more  than  one  third  of  the  depart- 
ment is  covered.  A  large  amount  of  wine  ia 
made.  There  are  more  than  100  furnaces  for 
the  smelting  and  manufacture  of  iron,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  yarn,  woollen  stockings, 
leather,  gloves,  paper,  beer,  and  brandy  are 
manufactured.  It  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements of  Chaumont,  Langres,  and  Vassy. 
Capital,  Chaumont-en-Bassigny. 

HADTES-ALPES  (Upper  Alps),  a  S.  E.  depart- 
ment of  France,  in  Dauphiny,  bordering  on 
Italy  and  the  departments  of  Savoie,  Isere, 
Dr6me,  and  Basses- Alpes ;  area,  2,158  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  118,898.  The  loftiest  mountains 
of  France  (not  including  Mont  Blanc)  lie 
within  its  limits,  Mont  Olan,  the  Pic  d'Ar- 
sine,  and  Mont  Pelvoux  rising  upward  of  13,- 
400  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  entire  surface  is 
rugged  and  uneven,  with  vast  forests.  There 
is  rich  pasturage,  and  the  department  produces 
the  cereals,  wine,  hemp,  chestnuts,  wool,  &c. 
It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Gap, 
Embrun,  and  Briancon.  Capital,  Gap. 

HAUTE-SAONE  (Upper  Saone),  an  E.  depart- 
ment of  France,  in  Franche-Comte,  bordering 
on  the  territory  of  Belfort  and  the  departments 
of  Vosges,  Doubs,  Jura,  C6te  d'Or,  and  Haute- 
Marne ;  area,  2,062  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  303,- 
088.  The  surface  is  in  general  mountainous, 
offshoots  from  the  Vosges  and  Faucilles  ranges 
covering  it  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  high- 
est summits  are  the  Ballon  de  Servance  and  the 
Ballon  de  Lure,  which  attain  an  elevation  of 
nearly  4,000  ft.  Its  rivers  are  the  Saone  and 
its  tributaries,  the  Coney,  Lanterne,  Oignon, 
and  Amance.  The  climate  is  more  equable  than 
that  of  the  surrounding  departments,  and  the 
soil  is  on  the  whole  fertile.  The  principal 
productions  are  wheat,  rye,  maslin  (wheat  and 
rye  mixed),  maize,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  millet, 
beets,  peas,  beans,  rape,  fruit,  and  timber.  The 
rivers  abound  with  a  variety  of  fish,  including 
trout,  carp,  pike,  barbel,  eels,  and  crawfish. 
The  minerals  are  iron,  coal,  porphyry,  granite, 
and  gypsum.  The  staple  manufactures  are 
hardware,  glass,  earthenware,  leather,  cotton 
stuffs,  paper,  brandy,  and  oil.  It  is  divided 
into  the  arrondissements  of  Vesoul,  Gray,  and 
Lure.  Capital,  Vesoul. 

HAUTE-SAVOIE  (Upper  Savoy),  an  E.  depart- 
ment of  France,  bordering  on  the  lake  of 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  and  the  departments  of 
Savoie  and  Ain ;  area,  1,667  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  273,027.  With  the  department  of  Sa- 
voie and  a  part  of  Alpes-Maritimes  it  forms 
the  territory  ceded  to  France  by  Sardinia  in 
1860.  The  country  is  mountainous,  and  Mont 
Blanc  is  on  the  S.  E.  border.  The  area  of 
arable  land  is  limited,  but  the  grain  raised, 
with  chestnuts,  which  are  an  important  article 
of  food  for  the  laboring  classes,  is  nearly  suf- 


HAUTES-PYRENEES 


ficient  for  home  consumption.  In  the  north- 
ern part  the  vine  is  cultivated ;  but  a  large 
proportion  of  the  surface  is  devoted  to  pastur- 
age, and  the  mountains  furnish  timber  in 
abundance.  The  minerals  include  iron,  cop- 
per, and  lead,  but  they  are  not  extensively 
worked.  The  manufactures,  principally  of 
hardware,  coarse  woollens,  and  leather,  are 
lot  important ;  and  the  chief  trade  is  in  wool, 
ttle,  and  dairy  products.  It  is  divided  into 
e  arrondissements  of  Annecy,  Bonneville, 
>t.  Julien,  and  Thonon.  Capital,  Annecy. 

HAUTES-PYRENEES  (Upper  Pyrenees),  a  S.  W. 
lepartment  of  France,  in  Gascony,  bordering 
Spain  and  the  departments  of  Gers,  Haute- 
>nne,  and  Basses-Pyrenees,  and  deriving  its 
le  from  the  mountains  which  bound  it  on  the 
ith ;  area,  1,749  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  235,156. 
surface  is  broken  by  numerous  offsets  of  the 
enees,  between  which  lie  picturesque  and 
tile  valleys,  watered  by  the  Arros,  the  Gave- 
le-Pau,  and  other  streams.  The  department 
as  mines  of  copper,  iron,  argentiferous  lead, 
langanese,  antimony,  and  zinc,  and  contains 
ine  marble,  granite,  freestone,  kaolin,  gyp- 
im,  and  several  mineral  springs.  It  produces 
)undance  of  fruits,  wine,  good  pasturage,  cat- 
le,  sheep,  and  horses,  but  not  enough  grain  for 
jmestic  consumption.  The  manufactures  are 
lot  important,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  wool- 
stuffs  called  bareges.  It  is  divided  into  the 
mdissements  of  Tarbes,  Argeles,  and  Ba- 

3-de-Bigorre.     Capital,  Tarbes. 
HAUTE-VIEME  (Upper  Yienne),    a  W.  de- 
lent  of  France,  formed  of  parts  of  the 
icient  provinces   of  Marche  and  Limousin, 
)rdering  on  the  departments  of  Indre,  Creuse, 
}rreze,   Dordogne,  Charente,    and  Vienne ; 
2,130   sq.   m. ;    pop.   in   1872,  322,447. 
surface    is    diversified    with   mountains, 
ralleys,   and    extensive    plains.      The  moun- 
uns  are  connected  with  those  of  Auvergne, 
id  form  a  dividing  ridge  between  the  basins 
the  Loire  and  the  Garonne.     Their  highest 
)int,  the  Puy-Vieux,  is  3,200  ft.     The  Vi- 
me,  Thorion,  and  Gartempe  are  the  princi- 
"  rivers.     The  soil  is  not  fertile,  but  good  pas- 
irage  is  abundant,  and  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
,  are  reared.     Iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony, 
coal,  granite,  amethysts,  emeralds,  &c.,  are 
found,  and  an  active  manufacturing  industry  is 
levoted  to  iron,  steel,  copper,  porcelain,  paper, 
It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
jimoges,  Bellac,  Rochechouart,  and  St.  Yrieix. 
)ital,  Limoges. 
HAUT-RHIN  (Upper  Rhine),  formerly  a  N.  E. 
apartment  of  France,  in  Alsace,  bordering  on 
Switzerland  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden ; 
1,586   sq.   m. ;    pop.  in   1866,    530,285. 
Sy  the  treaty  of  May  10, 1871,  between  France 
id   Germany,  most  of  the  department  was 
jded  to  Germany  and  now  forms  a  portion  of 
Llsace-Lorraine.     (See  ALSACE.)     The  portion 
stained  by  France  contains  235  sq.  m.,  and  in 
1872  had  a  population  of  56,781.     It  is  called 
territory  of  Belfort,  from  its  capital. 


HAUY 


517 


HAFY.  I.  Rene  Jnst,  a  French  mineralogist, 
born  at  St.  Just,  near  Beauvais,  Feb.  28,  1743, 
died  in  Paris,  June  3,  1822.  He  was  born  of 
humble  parents,  but  his  love  for  religious  mu- 
sic attracted  the  attention  of  a  priest,  who,  af- 
ter giving  him  some  instruction,  procured  him 
a  situation  in  the  choir  of  a  church  in  Paris, 
whence  he  went  to  the  college  of  Navarre 
and  to  that  of  Cardinal  Lemoine.  In  the  lat- 
ter institution,  where  he  became  a  teacher, 
he  first  acquired  a  love  for  botany ;  and  ac- 
cidentally entering  the  lecture  room  of  Dau- 
benton,  he  conceived  a  passion  for  mineral- 
ogy, which  shaped  his  course  in  life.  The  ac- 
cidental dropping  of  a  specimen  of  calcareous 
spar  revealed  to  him  the  geometrical  law  of 
crystallization.  Communicating  his  discovery 
to  Daubenton,  at  the  suggestion  of  Laplace, 
who  saw  its  great  importance,  he  laid  it  before 
the  academy  in  1781.  His  discovery  met  with 
bitter  opposition ;  but  the  only  answer  he 
made  to  his  detractors  was  new  researches  and 
more  careful  study.  From  the  date  of  his  me- 
moir on  the  schorls  in  1784  commenced  a  new 
era  in  mineralogy ;  chemistry  confirmed  the 
teachings  of  crystallography,  and  an  entirely 
new  arrangement  of  minerals  was  the  con- 
sequence. During  the  revolution  Hatty,  who 
had  received  holy  orders,  was  thrown  into  pris- 
on ;  but  the  exertions  of  Geoffrey  Saint-Hi- 
laire  obtained  his  release  a  few  days  before  the 
massacre  of  September,  1792.  In  1793  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  committee  on  weights 
and  measures,  and  in  1794  keeper  of  the  cabi- 
net of  mines.  In  the  latter  capacity  he  pre- 
pared his  principal  work,  Traite  de  mineralo- 
gie  (4  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1801),  of  which  a  por- 
tion had  been  published  in  a  single  volume  in 
1797.  It  is  a  complete  exposition  of  the  idea 
that  the  crystalline  form  should  be  the  princi- 
pal guide  in  the  determination  of  mineralogi- 
cal  species,  elevating  his  favorite  study  at  once 
into  the  class  of  exact  sciences.  In  December, 
1802,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralo- 
gy in  the  museum  of  natural  history.  In  an- 
swer to  an  application  from  government  to  pre- 
pare a  treatise  on  physics  for  colleges,  he  pub- 
lished in  1803  his  Traite  elementaire  de  phy- 
sique, which  passed  through  three  editions.  The 
little  emolument  accorded  to  him  under  the 
empire  he  lost  under  the  restoration,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  cramped  by 
poverty  ;  but  he  endured  it  with  cheerfulness, 
and  was  greatly  respected  by  all  who  knew 
him.  He  died  from  the  effects  of  a  fall,  leav- 
ing as  sole  inheritance  to  his  family  his  mag- 
nificent collection  of  crystals,  the  fruit  of  20 
years'  labor ;  it  is  now  preserved,  in  a  room 
by  itself,  in  the  museum  of  natural  history  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works,  besides  those  above 
referred  to,  are:  Essai  tfune  theorie  sur  la 
structure  des  cristaux  (1784) ;  Exposition  de  la 
theorie  de  Velectricite  et  du  magnetisme .(1787) ; 
De  la  structure  consideree  comme  caractere  dis- 
tinctif  des  mineraux  (1793)  ;  Caracteres  phy-^ 
siques  des  pierres  precieuses  (1817)  ;  and  Traite 


518 


HAVANA 


de  cristallographie  (1822).  He  also  contribu- 
ted numerous  papers  to  many  of  the  scientific 
journals  of  the  day.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  academy,  and  of  the  principal  sci- 
entific and  learned  associations  of  Europe  and 
America.  II.  Valentin,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, celebrated  as  an  instructor  of  the 
blind,  and  as  the  inventor  of  apparatus  for 
their  education,  born  at  St.  Just,  Nov.  13, 
1745,  died  in  Paris,  March  19,  1822.  He  was 
called  in  France  the  "apostle  of  the  blind," 
and  commenced  his  labors  in  their  behalf  in 
1784.  For  an  account  of  his  career,  see  BLIND. 
HAVANA  (Span.  La  Habana,  or,  San  Cristobal 
de  la  Habana),  a  fortified  maritime  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  Spanish  colony  of  Cuba,  and  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  ranking  among  the  fore- 
most seaports  and  commercial  marts  of  the 
world.  It  is  situated  on  the  W.  side  of  a  beauti- 


ful bay  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  N.  W.  coast 
of  the  island ;  lat.  23°  8'  K,  Ion.  82°  22'  W. 
The  population  is  represented  in  the  official 
returns  of  1871  as  being  only  169,184,  compri- 
sing 108,754  whites,  37,623  free  negroes,  &c., 
and  22,807  slaves;  but  it  is  really  at  least  200,- 
000.  The  Spanish  government  has  always  in 
its  official  census  returns  underrated  the  popu- 
lation of  its  colonies.  The  city  stands  on  a 
sort  of  peninsula,  formed  on  one  side  by  the 
bay  and  on  the  other  by  the  waters  of  the 
gulf;  and  it  is  commonly  distinguished  into 
two  portions,  the  intramural  or  old  town,  be- 
tween the  bay  and  the  site  of  the  ancient  walls, 
and  the  extramural  or  new  town,  beyond  the 
walls.  In  the  former  the  streets,  though  for 
the  most  part  regular  and  well  paved,  are  ex- 
tremely narrow,  and,  being  lowest  in  the  mid- 
dle, favor  the  accumulation  of  great  pools  of 


Havana. 


water  hi  the  rainy  season  ;  and  the  sidewalks 
are  barely  wide  enough  for  one  pedestrian. 
The  macadamized  thoroughfares  of  the  other 
portion,  rather  resembling  roads  than  streets, 
are  ample,  well  ventilated,  and  fringed  on 
either  side  with  rows  of  graceful  palm  trees. 
Some  of  them  are  among  the  principal  prome- 
nades or  drives  of  the  city.  The  prevailing 
style  of  architecture  is  identical  with  that  of 
the  south  of  Spain.  The  houses  are  solidly 
built  of  stone,  with  very  thick  walls,  often 
painted  within  and  without  in  showy  colors, 
especially  blue,  green,  or  yellow,  and  some- 
times a  mingling  of  all  three ;  they  are  either 
of  one  story  and  roofed  with  tiles,  or  of  two 
stories  with  a  flat  roof  of  substantial  masonry, 
at  times  surmounted  by  a  mirador  (lookout), 
affording  at  once  a  magnificent  view  and  a 
cool  and  agreeable  retreat  after  sunset.  The 


windows,  which  are  extremely  high,  are  never 
glazed,  but  defended  on  the  outside  by  strong 
iron  bars,  and  within  by  wooden  shutters  se- 
cured, like  the  doors,  with  massive  bars  or 
bolts.  The  doors,  almost  always  double,  are 
very  ponderous,  and  open  either  directly  into 
the  sala  or  parlor,  or  into  a  large  gateway 
(zaguari),  guarded  by  a  portero  or  janitor,  and 
leading  into  an  open  patio  (courtyard)  whence 
a  spacious  staircase  leads  to  the  apartments 
above.  All  the  rooms  open  upon  a  covered 
veranda  which  surrounds  the  patio.  In  the 
dwellings  of  the  rich  the  floors  and  stairs  are 
usually  of  marble,  the  decorations  and  furni- 
ture luxurious  and  tasteful,  and  the  patio  is 
generally  embellished  with  a  parterre  of  exotic 
flowers  and  an  elegant  fountain  in  the  centre. 
Many  of  the  residences  in  the  extramural  por- 
tion of  the  city  are  constructed  in  a  mor<» 


HAVANA 


519 


II 


modern  style,  particularly  in  El  Cerro  (the 
Hill),  a  handsome  street  3  m.  long,  leading  to  a 
village  of  the  same  name,  and  chiefly  inhabit- 
ed by  the  wealthy  and  fashionable,  especially 
in  summer.  There  is,  however,  no  quarter  of 
the  town  exclusively  occupied  by  the  higher 
classes,  and  in  any  street  a  miserable  hovel 
may  be  seen  side  by  side  with  a  stately  man- 
sion. Foremost  among  the  public  edifices  of 
Havana  is  the  cathedral,  erected  in  1724,  and 
used  as  a  college  by  the  Jesuits  till  1789  ;  but 
it  is  less  remarkable  for  the  beauty  'of  its  ar- 
chitecture than  as  being  the  resting  place  of 
the  ashes  of  Christopher  Columbus,  transferred 
thither  from  Santo  Domingo,  Jan.  15,  1796. 
On  one  of  the  walls  is  a  stone  slab  with  the 
bust  of  Columbus  in  relief,  and  an  inscription 
beneath.  There  are  fifteen  other  churches, 
nine  of  which  are  attached  to  certain  monastic 
orders ;  two,  Santa  Catalina  and  San  Juan  de 
Dios,  date  from  the  16th  century;  one,  San 
Agustin,  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th ;  and 
all  are  noteworthy  for  the  richness  and  splen- 
dor of  their  decorations.  El  Templete,  the 
Little  Temple,  is  curious  as  having  been  erect- 
ed in  1828  on  the  spot  where  mass  was  first 
celebrated,  in  1519.  There  are  numerous 
monasteries  and  nunneries.  The  governor's 
palace,  on  the  "W.  side  of  the  Plaza  de  Armas, 
is  a  yellow  two-story  edifice,  with  a  hand- 
some colonnade  in  front;  it  is  occupied  by 
the  captain  general,  his  staff,  and  the  offices 
of  the  several  government  departments.  The 
custom  house,  fronting  on  the  bay,  is  a  spa- 
cious building,  devoid  of  architectural  inter- 
est ;  but  the  customs  warehouse,  formerly  the 
church  of  San  Francisco,  consecrated  in  1737, 
has  the  loftiest  tower  in  the  city.  Other 
buildings  or  public  establishments  worthy  of 
mention  are  the  admiralty,  the  exchange,  the 
university,  the  prison,  a  vast  quadrangular 
structure  erected  in  1771,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  bay,  and  the  real  casa  de  beneficencia,  a 
large  building  with  beautiful  grounds  and  com- 
prising an  orphan  asylum  and  an  asylum  for 
vagrants,  established  about  1790.  Havana  has 
three  theatres,  one  of  which,  built  under  the 
auspices  of  Captain  General  Tacon,  whose  name 
it  bears,  is  said  to  be  equal  in  size  to  La  Scala  of 
Milan ;  an  arena  for  bull  fights,  this  amusement 
being  still  popular  in  Havana ;  a  gymnasium,  a 
circus,  and  a  number  of  well  arranged  and  com- 
fortable public  baths.  The  university  has  fac- 
ulties of  philosophy  and  letters,  sciences,  phar- 
macy, medicine  and  surgery,  and  law.  There 
is  also  a  large  number  of  public  and  private 
schools,  the  former  dependent  upon  the  supe- 
rior board  of  public  instruction,  the  president 
of  which  is  the  captain  general,  and  which  is 
composed  of  three  sections,  each  under  a  vice 
president.  There  is  a  hospital  for  those  afflict- 
ed with  a  species  of  leprosy  peculiar  to  the 
Antilles  and  reputed  incurable;  a  lying-in,  a 
charity,  and  a  military  hospital,  and  an  insane 
asylum.  The  cemeteries,  seven  in  number, 
under  the  charge  of  the  church,  are  situated 


in  the  extramural  district.  Interments  are 
made,  as  in  Spain,  in  niches  of  tombs  built  in 
several  stories  above  ground,  each  closed  with 
an  inscribed  slab.  Few  cities  in  the  world 
have  a  larger  number  ofpaseos  or  public  prom- 
enades and  public  parks  than  Havana.  The 
Plaza  de  Armas,  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
quays,  and  facing  which  is  the  governor's  pal- 
ace, as  already  observed,  comprises  four  gar- 
dens, with  a  statue  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  the 
centre;  magnificent  palms  and  other  trees 
border  the  walks,  along  which  are  stone  seats 
with  iron  rests ;  and  a  regimental  band  plays 
there  every  evening.  The  Alameda  de  Paula, 
bordering  the  bay,  has  an  elegant  fountain  sur- 
mounted by  a  marble  column,  with  military 
trophies  and  national  symbols.  A  favorite 
evening  resort  is  the  Parque  de  Isabel,  taste- 
fully laid  out,  and  having  in  the  centre  a  statue 
of  Isabella  II.  The  Campo  de  Marte,  used  as  a 
drill  ground  for  the  military,  is  a  large  enclo- 
sure resembling  a  trapezium  in  shape,  the 
longest  side  of  which  is  375  ft. ;  it  has  four 
handsome  gates,  distinguished  respectively  by 
the  names  Colon,  Cortes,  Pizarro,  and  Tacon. 
The  Paseo  de  Tacon  is  a  magnificent  wide 
drive,  with  double  rows  of  trees,  a  promenade 
for  pedestrians,  and  profusely  embellished  with 
columns  and  statues,  some  of  the  latter,  espe- 
cially one  of  Charles  III.,  ranking  among  the 
finest  specimens  of  art  in  America.  Adjoining 
this  promenade  is  a  beautiful  gate  opening  into 
the  botanic  garden,  in  which  are  specimens  of 
countless  tropical  plants ;  and  besides  these  gar- 
dens are  the  magnificent  grounds  attached  to 
the  quinta  or  country  residence  of  the  captain 
general.  Other  paseos,  such  as  those  of  La  Eeina, 
El  Prado,  La  Cortina  de  Vald6s,  and  El  Salon  de 
O'Donnel,  vie  in  beauty  and  scenery  with  those 
enumerated.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  are  nu- 
merous places  of  fashionable  resort,  such  as  Ma- 
rianao,  Puentes  Grandes,  and  Guanabacoa.  «Not 
least  among  the  interesting  features  of  Havana 
were  formerly  the  walls  which  girded  the  old 
town,  commenced  in  1633,  under  Flores,  but 
not  completed  till  1702.  With  their  forts,  ten 
bastions,  and  seven  gates,  they  were  quite  use- 
less ;  and  a  new  town  having  grown  up  be- 
yond them,  they  were  almost  totally  demol- 
ished in  1864,  and  handsome  dwellings  erected 
in  their  place,  materially  improving  the  appear- 
ance and  sanitary  condition  of  the  city.  Good 
water  is  brought  from  the  river  Chorrera  by 
an  aqueduct  about  T  m.  long,  furnishing  a  suf- 
ficient supply  for  use  and  for  about  50  public 
fountains.  The  city  is  well  lighted  with  gas. 
There  are  eight  good  hotels,  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  restaurants,  cafes,  &c.— The  climate  of 
Havana  is  essentially  tropical ;  but  the  exces- 
sive heat  is  tempered  by  the  sea  breeze,  which 
blows  regularly  every  morning,  and  the  agree- 
able terral  (land  breeze)  every  evening.  There 
are  but  two  seasons :  the  dry  or  so-called  win- 
ter season,  from  November  to  May,  when  very 
,  little  rain  falls ;  and  the  wet  or  summer  season, 
i  which  usually  begins  early  in  June  and  lasts  till 


HAVANA 


about  the  middle  of  October,  and  during  which 
scarcely  a  day  passes  without  heavy  rain,  some- 
times accompanied  by  violent  thunder  and 
lightning.  The  mean  temperature  during  the 
day  is  80°  F.  in  winter,  and  86°  to  90°  in  sum- 
mer. Havana  has  several  times  been  visited 
by  terrific  hurricanes,  especially  in  1768,  1810, 
1844,  and  1846,  when  numbers  of  ships  an- 
chored in  the  bay  were  entirely  destroyed,  and 
much  damage  was  done  in  the  city  and  sur- 
rounding country.  Yellow  fever  prevails  each 
year,  commencing  generally  toward  the  end  of 
June,  and  disappearing  in  September ;  foreign- 
ers only  are  attacked  by  this  disease,  which  is 
particularly  fatal  among  the  shipping  and  sol- 
diers. The  average  mortality  is  27  per  day 
throughout  the  year. — The  harbor,  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world,  is  entered  from  the  north- 
west by  a  channel  which  is  narrow  for  about 
three  eighths  of  a  mile,  and  then  opens  into  a 
magnificent  triple-headed  bay,  with  a  mean 
depth  of  five  fathoms,  and  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 1,000  vessels  of  any  size.  The  wharves, 
which,  save  the  portion  occupied  by  the  paseos 
above  mentioned,  extend  along  the  whole  wa- 
ter front  of  the  town,  are  provided  with  cov- 
ered sheds,  and  are  almost  continually  lined 
with  ships  of  all  nations,  closely  ranged  with 
their  bowsprits  inward.  The  harbor  is  de- 
fended by  six  forts.  One  of  these,  the  bateria 
de  la  Punta,  stands  on  a  projecting  tongue  of 
land  called  the  Punta,  to  the  right  of  the  en- 
trance ;  another,  the  Morro  castle,  is  placed  di- 
rectly opposite  the  first;  both  were  built  at 
the  close  of  the  16th  century.  On  the  same 
side  as  the  Morro  are  the  fortifications  of  La 
Cabafia,  situated  upon  abrupt  hills  overlooking 
the  narrow  entrance;  still  further  inward  is 
the  Casa  Blanca,  commanding  the  city;  and 
beyond,  in  regular  succession  around  the  bay, 
are  seen  the  forts  Ntimero  Cuatro,  Principe, 
San  Lazaro,  and  Pastora,  the  tower  of  Ohorre- 
ra,  and  the  fortress  of  Santo  Domingo.  Be- 
tween the  forts  Niimero  Cuatro  and  Oasa 
Blanca  stands  the  little  town  of  Regla,  with 
its  vast  warehouses  of  stone  and  corrugated 
iron,  as  handsome  and  substantial  as  any  in 
the  world,  and  in  which  is  stored  each  year 
the  greater  portion  of  the  sugar  of  the  island 
previous  to  its  exportation.  In  the  arsenal, 
erected  in  1734,  ship  building  was  formerly 
carried  on ;  it  has  a  dry  dock  of  sufficient  ca- 
pacity for  a  vessel  of  1,000  tons;  and  cannon 
were  cast  here  of  bronze,  the  copper  being 
furnished  by  the  Cobre  mines  on  the  island. — 
There  are  in  Havana  some  iron  founderies,  ma- 
chine shops,  and  carriage  and  other  factories ; 
but  the  chief  manufacturing  industry  is  that  of 
tobacco.  No  less  than  100  first-class  and  in- 
numerable minor  establishments  are  devoted 
to  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  of  ever  changing 
brands,  usually  numbering  about  1,000 ;  and 
the  average  daily  production  of  paper  cigarettes 
is  computed  at  2,600,000. — After  New  York, 
Havana  is  the  principal  commercial  port  of  the 
new  world.  About  two  thirds  of  the  foreign 


commerce  of  the  island  is  carried  on  through 
it,  the  chief  articles  of  export  being  sugar,  rum, 
molasses,  and  tobacco,  with  oranges,  pineap- 
ples, plantains  or  bananas,  and  fruit  jellies. 
The  quantities  of  sugar  exported  in  the  two 
years  1872-'3  were  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Boxe*. 

Hbdi. 

Total  In  lh». 

1872... 

1,161.178 

51,089 

108,308,870 

1878 

1  168  887 

58,008 

119,089,230 

The  total  value  of  that  exported  in  1872  was 
$26,666,672  60;  in  1873,  $26,892,927  50,  ap- 
proximately. In  1872  there  were  exported  some 
1,500  tierces  (12,000  gallons)  of  molasses,  20,- 
841  pipes  (2,605,125  gallons)  of  rum,  248,- 
775  Ibs.  of  wax,  18,210,800  Ibs.  of  tobacco  in 
leaf,  229,087,545  cigars,  and  19,344,707  pack- 
ages (containing  each  25)  of  cigarettes.  In 
1873  the  quantity  of  leaf  tobacco  exported  was 
18,184,350  Ibs.,  the  number  of  cigars  239,- 
168,758,  and  of  packages  of  cigarettes  24,- 
065,084.  The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  linen, 
cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  fabrics,  breadstuffs, 
machinery  for  sugar  mills,  railway  materials 
(the  last  four  from  the  United  States),  wines, 
oil,  &c.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  num- 
ber, nationalities,  and  tonnage  of  the  vessels 
entered  in  1872 : 


COUNTRIES. 

Number. 

Tonnage. 

United  States  

882 

417,725 

Spain  '.  

785 

228,416 

Great  Britain        

800 

106,261 

Prussia 

44 

69,721 

France 

62 

88,588 

57 

20,752 

Other  nations  

49 

18,091 

Total... 

2,169 

899,504 

There  are  two  lines  of  steamers,  averaging 
three  vessels  per  week,  from  New  York  ;  week- 
ly lines  from  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  New 
Orleans,  and  a  line  twice  weekly  from  Key 
West;  weekly  lines  from  Spain,  France,  and 
England,  some  of  the  steamers  of  the  two  last 
in  transitu  for  Vera  Cruz  and  other  gulf  ports 
of  Mexico ;  steamers  weekly  to  Matanzas ;  and 
an  extensive  coasting  trade  with  Santiago  de 
Cuba  and  the  intermediate  ports.  An  extra 
steamer  from  New  York  every  20  days  for 
Vera  Cruz  carries  passengers  and  freight  to 
and  from  Havana.  Four  railways,  with  numer- 
ous branches,  place  the  city  in  communication 
with  the  principal  towns  in  the  Western  De- 
partment; telegraphs  extend  to  all  important 
points  in  the  island  ;  there  is  a  submarine  cable 
to  Key  West,  and  another  from  Bataban6  to 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  thence  to  Kingston,  Ja- 
maica, connecting  with  that  from  the  latter 
island  to  Asp  in  wall.  Horse  cars  run  every  five 
minutes  between  the  old  and  new  towns ;  be- 
sides which  there  are  several  lines  of  omni- 
buses, and  a  large  number  of  public  vehicles 
running  very  cheaply.  Havana  has  three  pub- 
lic and  a  large  number  of  private  banks ;  es- 


HAVANA 


tablishments  of  commercial,  industrial,  and 
agricultural  credit ;  a  savings  bank ;  a  monte 
de  piedad  (pawn  office)  under  the  direction  of 
the  government ;  and  21  daily  and  other  news- 
papers and  periodicals.  Besides  the  library  of 
the  university,  there  are  several  others  attach- 
ed to  the  various  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions. The  royal  Havana  lottery  is  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  the  government,  to 
which  it  yields  annually  about  $40,000,000; 
and  another  lottery,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
municipal  government,  was  organized  in  1873. 

-Diego  de  Velazquez,  the  conqueror  of  the 
island,  founded,  on  July  25, 1515,  a  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Gtiines  or  Mayabeque,  and 

lied  it  San  Cristdbal  in  honor  of  Christopher 
Columbus.  Shortly  afterward  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  embouchure  of  the  Rio  Almen- 
dares,  and  finally,  in  1519,  to  its  present  site 
and  under  its  present  name.  As  early  as  1508 
Sebastian  de  Ocampo  visited  the  bay  for  the 
purpose  of  repairing  his  ship,  and  from  that 
circumstance  named  it  bahia  de  las  Carenas 
(Careen  bay).  To  its  convenient  geographical 
position  and  the  excellence  of  its  harbor  is  due 
the  rapid  growth  and  early  prosperity  of  Ha- 
vana ;  but  that  prosperity  aroused  before  long 
the  cupidity  of  freebooters  and  pirates,  who 
sacked  and  burned  it  in  1538.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  repetition  of  similar  incursions,  a  fort 
called  La  Fuerza,  still  standing  and  occupied 
as  a  barrack,  was  built  by  Hernando  de  Soto, 
ind  the  town  declared  to  be  a  stronghold,  or- 
ders being  issued  at  the  same  time  that  it  should 
be  saluted  by  vessels  of  war  entering  the  port. 
Havana  was  probably  raised  to  a  bishopric  soon 
after  its  foundation,  for  its  second  bishop  died 
in  1528.  In  1539  De  Soto  set  out  from  here 
on  his  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Florida, 
taking  with  him  900  foot  and  300  horse,  but 
leaving  the  garrison  well  defended ;  for  Havana 
had  already  been  constituted  the  chief  naval 
station  and  port  of  outfit  for  the  Spanish  forces 
in  the  new  world,  then  called  Indias,  and  the 
indispensable  haven  and  outpost  for  the  newly 
established  viceroyalty  of  New  Spain,  whose 
shores  were  without  any  adequate  harbors.  In 
1550  the  residence  of  the  captain  general  and 
the  seat  of  government  were  transferred  from 
Santiago  de  Cuba  to  Havana.  In  1551  pirates, 
under  the  notorious  Jacob  Sores,  sacked  the 
church  and  the  houses  of  the  wealthy,  and 
forced  the  commandant  of  the  fort  to  surrender. 
After  committing  numerous  outrages  and  mur- 
dering many  of  the  influential  citizens,  Sores 
departed;  but  the  place  was  afterward  re- 
peatedly seized  by  buccaneers.  It  was  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked  by  Drake  in  1585  ;  but  from 
that  time  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
it  was  the  scene  of  no  remarkable  event.  The 
yellow  fever  first  made  its  appearance  among 
the  shipping  in  the  summer  of  1761.  The  fol- 
lowing year  an  English  squadron  commanded 
by  Admiral  Pocock  bombarded  the  city,  and 
compelled  it  to  capitulate,  Aug.  14,  after  a 
brave  defence  during  two  months.  It  was  re- 


HAVELOCK 


521 


stored  to  the  Spaniards  in  1763,  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris.  In  1782  was  published  La  Gaceta 
de  la  Hdbana,  the  earliest  newspaper  in  the 
island.  In  1789,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  their  church  became  the  cathedral  of 
Havana,  in  which  seven  years  later  was  de- 
posited the  urn  containing  the  ashes  of  Colum- 
bus. In  1818  the  port  of  Havana,  in  common 
with  the  others  of  the  island,  was  by  law 
opened  to  foreign  commerce.  The  work  on 
the  first  railway  of  the  island,  that  from  Ha- 
vana to  Gtiines,  was  begun  in  1835 ;  and  in 
1837  the  first  ferry  boats  were  established  be- 
tween the  city  and  Regla  on  the  opposite  shore 
of  the  bay.  In  1850  the  first  line  of  mail 
steamships  from  Cadiz  to  Havana  was  estab- 
lished. On  the  revolution  in  Hayti  in  1795 
upward  of  12,000  families  from  that  island  set- 
tled in  Havana,  as  did  also  a  large  portion  of 
the  French  army  driven  from  Hayti  in  1802  ; 
and  a  few  years  later,  during  the  struggle  of 
the  Spanish  continental  colonies  for  their  in- 
dependence, vast  numbers  took  refuge  in  Ha- 
vana, especially  from  Mexico.  Many  useful  in- 
stitutions and  material  improvements  and  em- 
bellishments of  the  city  are  mainly  due  to  Cap- 
tain General  Don  Miguel  Tacon,  such  as  the 
fire  company,  established  in  1835,  the  theatre 
which  bears  his  name,  and  several  of  the  finest 
public  promenades. 

HAVEL,  a  river  of  Germany,  and  the  prin- 
cipal right  branch  of  the  Elbe.  It  rises  in  a 
small  lake  near  Neu  Strelitz  in  Mecklenburg, 
flows  S.,  passing  within  a  few  miles  of  Berlin, 
to  Potsdam,  and  thence  W.  and  N.  W.  to  its 
junction  with  the  Elbe.  Its  entire  length  is 
218  m.,  and  it  is  navigable  to  Furstenberg,  30 
m.  from  its  source.  It  is  the  connecting  link 
of  a  chain  of  18  lakes,  of  which  the  lake  of 
Tegel,  the  most  northerly,  the  great  lake  be- 
tween Spandau  and  Potsdam,  the  Fahrland- 
see,  the  Jungfernsee  near  Potsdam,  and  the 
Schwilowsee  are  the  most  important.  Near 
Deetz  it  expands  to  a  breadth  of  1,000  ft., 
and  again  contracts  suddenly  to  300  ft.  Near 
Brandenburg  it  enlarges  into  the  Beetzsee.  Its 
principal  affluents  are  the  Rhin,  Dosse,  Spree, 
and  Plaue.  The  Finow  canal  connects  it  with 
the  Oder,  and  the  Plaue  canal  with  the  Elbe ; 
and  the  Rappin  canal,  connecting  the  upper 
and  lower  course  by  means  of  the  Rhin,  saves 
a  long  stretch  of  winding  navigation.  The 
river,  with  these  canals,  is  of  great  importance 
to  the  internal  commerce  of  Prussia. 

HAVFAOCK,  Sir  Henry,  a  British  soldier,  born 
at  Bishop  Wearmouth,  Durham,  April  5,  1795, 
died  near  Lucknow,  India,  Nov.  25,  1857.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  school.  In 
1813  he  began  the  study  of  the  law,  but  in 
1815  obtained  a  commission  in  the  army,  and 
in  1823  was  sent  to  India.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Burmese  war  of  1824,  and  at 
its  conclusion  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the 
court  of  Ava,  and  in  1827  published  "The 
History  of  the  Ava  Campaigns."  In  1828  he 
was  promoted  to  a  captaincy,  and  accompanied 


522 


HAVELOCK 


the  array  for  the  invasion  of  Afghanistan  as 
staff  officer  of  Sir  Willoughby  Cotton.  He 
was  at  the  storming  of  Ghuznee  and  the  occu- 
pation of  Cabool,  and  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of 
the  War  in  Afghanistan  in  1838-'9  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1840).  He  afterward  distin- 
guished himself  in  Afghanistan,  in  the  Mahratta 
campaign,  and  in  that  against  the  Sikhs.  In 
1843  he  was  appointed  Persian  interpreter  to 
the  commander-in-chief,  and  brevetted  as  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
Sutlej  campaign  was  appointed  deputy  adjutant 
general  at  Bombay.  In  1849  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope for  his  health,  and  returned  to  Bombay  in 
1851,  and  became  in  succession  brevet  colonel, 
quartermaster  general,  and  adjutant  general. 
In  the  expedition  sent  to  Persia  in  1856,  he 
commanded  the  troops  at  the  taking  of  Moham- 
merah.  He  returned  to  Bombay  when  peace 
was  concluded,  and  sailed  for  Calcutta,  but  was 
wrecked  on  the  voyage  (April,  1857)  off  the 
coast  of  Ceylon.  Reaching  Calcutta  while  the 
sepoy  mutiny  was  at  its  height,  he  was  at 
once  despatched  to  Allahabad  to  take  com- 
mand of  a  column  destined  for  the  relief  of 
Cawnpore,  which  was  then  besieged  by  the 
Nana  Sahib.  He  left  Allahabad  in  the  begin- 
ning of  July  with  about  1,200  men,  and,  having 
been  joined  by  a  reenforcement  which  raised 
his  strength  to  nearly  2,000,  encountered  and 
routed  3,500  mutineers  at  Futtehpoor,  and  on 
the  16th  defeated  the  Nana  before  Cawnpore. 
The  Nana  having  fled  on  the  following  day, 
Havelock  entered  the  city,  to  find  that  the 
surviving  Europeans  had  been  massacred  on 
the  15th.  From  Cawnpore  Havelock  followed 
the  Nana  to  Bithoor,  defeated  him,  and  burned 
the  place.  He  then  pushed  on  toward  Luck- 
now,  where  the  garrison,  under  Inglis,  was 
closely  beset.  Having  crossed  the  Ganges  on 
the  25th,  he  was  opposed  at  Onao  by  the  ene- 
my, over  whom  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
(July  29).  On  the  same  day  he  defeated  the 
mutineers  again  at  Busserut-Gunge ;  but  a  few 
days  afterward,  finding  his  force  reduced  to 
about  1,300  men,  and  being  encumbered  with 
the  sick  and  wounded,  he  had  to  retreat  and 
wait  for  reinforcements.  The  enemy  imme- 
diately reoccupied  Busserut-Gunge,  and  Have- 
lock returned  twice  and  drove  them  out.  Af- 
ter the  third  attack  (Aug.  12)  he  recrossed 
the  Ganges  to  Cawnpore,  having  now  only 
1,000  men.  Joining  Gen.  Neill  at  that  place, 
he  marched  against  the  Nana,  who  had  re- 
entered  Bithoor,  and  routed  him,  Aug.  16. 
On  Sept.  15  Gen.  Outram  reached  Cawnpore 
with  1,700  men.  His  rank  was  higher  than 
Havelock's,  but  he  relinquished  to  the  latter 
the  chief  command;  and  on  the  19th  Have- 
lock, now  major  general,  again  set  out  for 
Lucknow,  Outram  accompanying  the  force  as 
a  volunteer.  After  a  series  of  battles  he  reach- 
ed that  city  on  the  25th,  and  fought  his  way 
with  a  loss  of  over  500  men  into  the  residency, 
where  Inglis  was  shut  up.  Outram  now  took 
the  command.  Under  him,  seconded  by  Have- 


HAVEN 

lock,  the  garrison  and  their  relievers  had  to 
withstand  a  siege  until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  enabled  them  to  retire  to  Cawnpore. 
The  residency  was  evacuated  Nov.  22,  but 
Havelock,  whose  strength  had  been  broken  by 
sickness  and  exposure,  died  of  dysentery  three 
days  afterward.  Previous  to  his  death  the 
commander-in-chief  had  conferred  on  Have- 
lock the  "good  service  pension"  of  £100  a 
year.  A  baronetcy  having  been  conferred  on 
him  the  day  after  his  death,  the  title,  together 
with  an  annuity  of  £1,000,  was  given  to  his 
eldest  son,  Henry  Marshman  Havelock  (born 
Aug.  6,  1830),  who  had  been  with  his  father 
in  Persia,  and  during  the  campaign  against  the 
sepoys,  in  which  he  was  twice  wounded.  An 
annuity  of  £1,000  was  also  granted  to  his 
widow,  who  was  a  daughter  of  the  missionary 
Dr.  Marshman. — See  J.  C.  Marshman's  "Me- 
moirs of  Havelock"  (2d  ed.,  London,  1870). 

HAVEJV,  Alice  Bradley,  an  American  authoress, 
born  in  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  13,  1828,  died 
at  Mamaroneck,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  23,  1863.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Emily  Bradley,  and  while  a 
school  girl  she  sent,  under  the  pseudonyme  of 
Alice  G.  Lee,  many  attractive  sketches  to  the 
Philadelphia  "Saturday  Gazette,"  edited  by 
Joseph  0.  Neal.  Their  correspondence  re- 
sulted in  her  marriage  with  Mr.  Neal  in  1846, 
and  at  his  request  she  assumed  the  name  of 
Alice,  and  thereafter  wrote  under  the  pseu- 
donyme of  Cousin  Alice.  On  his  death  in  1848 
she  took  the  editorial  charge  of  the  "  Gazette," 
and  conducted  it  for  several  years,  contributing 
at  the  same  time  poems,  sketches,  and  tales 
to  other  periodicals.  She  published  a  volume 
in  1850  entitled  "  The  Gossips  of  Rivertown, 
with  Sketches  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  but  is 
more  generally  known  by  her  series  of  juvenile 
stories,  as  "Helen  Morton,"  "Pictures  from 
the  Bible,"  "  No  such  Word  as  Fail,"  "  Patient 
Waiting  no  Loss,"  "Contentment  Better  than 
Wealth,"  "All's  not  Gold  that  Glitters,"  "  Out 
of  Debt  out  of  Danger,"  "The  Coopers,"  and 
many  others.  In  1853  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Samuel  L.  Haven.  Her  biography  has  been 
published  under  the  title  "Cousin  Alice,  a 
Memoir  of  Alice  B.  Haven  "  (New  York,  1865). 

HAVEN,  Erastns  Otis,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  1,  1820.  He  grad- 
uated at  Wesleyan  university,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1842.  After  teaching  some  years  in 
Amenia  seminary,  New  York,  he  entered  the 
itinerant  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church,  and  was  pastor  about  six  years  in  New 
York  and  vicinity.  In  1853  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  but  left  it  in  1856  to 
become  editor  of  "  Zion's  Herald  "  in  Boston, 
where  he  resided  till  1863.  During  this  time 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  board 
of  education,  and  served  two  terms  in  the  state 
senate,  being  specially  prominent  in  the  advo- 
cacy of  educational  interests.  In  1863  he  be- 
came president  of  the  university  of  Michigan, 
which  during  the  next  six  years  nearly  doubled 


HAVEN 


HAVEKHILL 


523 


numbers  and  in  resources,  and  became  one 
the  largest  universities  of  the  country.     In 
L869  he  became  president  of  the  Northwestern 
liversity  at  Evanston,  111. ;  in  1872  he  was 
lected  first   corresponding  secretary  of  the 
tethodist  Episcopal  board  of  education ;  and 
June,  1874,  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of 
e  Syracuse  university,  N.  Y.     He  is  the  au- 
lor  of  "The  Young  Man  Advised"  (12mo, 
Tew  York,  1855),  "Pillars  of  Truth"  (1860),  and 
Rhetoric,  a  Text  Book  for  Schools  "  (1869). 
HAVEN,  Gilbert,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
Boston,  Sept.  19,  1821.     He  graduated 
Wesleyan  university  in  1846,  and  for  two 
rs  taught  Greek  and  Latin  in  Amenia  semi- 
ry,  of  which  in  1848  he  became  principal.    In 
L851  he  joined  the  New  England  conference 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  was 
tioned  successively  at  Northampton,  Wilbra- 
i,  Westfield,  Roxbury,  and  Cambridge,  Mass. 
1861  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  8th 
[assachusetts  regiment,  the  first  commissioned 
iplaincy  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
•.     In  1862  he  made  a  tour  in  Europe  and 
East,  and  on  his  return  was  stationed  as 
rtor  for  two  years  in  Boston.     His  earnest 
Ivocacy  of  the  cause  of  the  colored  popula- 
)n,  both  before  and  during  the  civil  war,  led 
his  appointment  in  1865  to  the  supervision 
the  interests  of  the  destitute  freedmen  and 
whites  in  the  state  of  Mississippi.     In  1867  he 
was  appointed  editor  of  "Zion's  Herald,"  Bos- 
i,  and  continued  in  this  office  till  1872,  when 
was  elected  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church.     The  general  conference  assign- 
his  residence  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  placed  un- 
jr  his  special  superintendence  the  interests  of 
3  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  the  extreme 
ithern  states.     He  has  been  a  persistent 
idvocate  of  Protestant  missions  in  Italy  and 
long  the  Spanish-speaking  peoples,  and  in 
1872  and  1873  visited  Mexico  in  the  interest 
this  cause.     He  has  published  "  The  Pil- 
im's  Wallet,"  a  book  of  travels  (1864),  and 
National  Sermons:  Sermons,  Speeches,  and 
otters  on  Slavery  and  its  War"  (1869). 
HAVEN,   Joseph,    an    American    clergyman, 
>rn  in  Dennis,  Mass.,  in  1816,  died  in  Chi- 
),  May  23V 1874.    He  graduated  at  Amherst 
lege  in  1835,  studied  in  the  Union  theologi- 
cal seminary  in  New  York,  and  graduated  at 
the  theological  seminary  at  Andover  in  1839. 
He  was  pastor  of  Congregational  churches  in 
Ashland  and  Brookline,  Mass.,  in  1850  became 
professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  in 
Amherst  college,  and  in  1858   of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Chicago  theological  seminary. 
In  1870  he  resigned  his  professorship  on  ac- 
count of  enfeebled  health,  and  visited  Germa- 
ny, Palestine,  and  Egypt.     In  1874  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mental  and  moral  philoso- 
phy in  the  university  of  Chicago.     Dr.  Haven 
has  published  "Mental  Philosophy"  (Boston, 
1857),  "  Moral  Philosophy  "  (1859),  both  exten- 
sively used  as  school  text  books,  and  "  Studies 
in  Philosophy  and  Theology  "  (Andover,  1869). 


HAVERFORD  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  learn- 
ing under  the  care  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
founded  by  members  of  that  body  in  Philadel- 
phia, New  York,  and  New  England,  and  opened 
in  the  autumn  of  1833.  It  is  situated  in  the 
township  of  Haverford,  Delaware  co.,  Pa.,  on 
the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  8  m.  N. 
W.  of  Philadelphia.  The  buildings  stand  on  a 
lawn  of  60  acres,  laid  out  with  great  taste,  and 
adorned  with  a  fine  collection  of  trees  and 
shrubbery.  The  institution  is  richly  endowed, 
and  furnished  with  libraries,  a  chemical  labo- 
ratory, philosophical  apparatus,  mineralogical 
and  geological  cabinets,  and  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory. In  1873-'4  there  were  5  professors, 
50  students,  and  8,932  volumes  in  the  libra- 
ries. The  total  number  of  graduates  was  232. 

HAVERFORDWEST  (Welsh,  Hwlfford),  a  par- 
liamentary borough,  town,  and  county  in  itself, 
of  S.  Wales,  locally  in  Pembrokeshire,  of  which 
it  is  the  capital,  on  the  Cleddy,  about  200  m.  W. 
by  N.  of  London ;  pop.  in  1871,  11,390.  The 
parish  church  of  St.  Thomas  dates  from  1225. 
Among  the  schools  is  one  founded  in  1684  for 
clothing  and  educating  24  boys  and  12  girls. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point  at  spring 
tides  for  vessels  of  100  tons,  but  the  port  is  de- 
pendent on  that  of  Milford.  It  was  once  strongly 
fortified,  but  all  traces  of  the  walls  and  towers 
have  disappeared.  On  a  rock  overhanging  the 
river  was  a  strong  castle  built  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury by  Gilbert  de  Clare,  first  earl  of  Pembroke. 
In  the  insurrection  of  Owen  Glendower  it  was 
successfully  defended  against  the  French  troops 
in  the  Welsh  service.  In  the  civil  wars  of  the 
17th  century  it  was  held  by  the  royalists.  The 
only  remaining  vestige  of  the  castle  is  the  keep, 
which  has  received  large  additions  and  been 
converted  into  the  county  jail. 

HAVERHILL,  a  city  of  Essex  co.,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Merrimack  river,  at 
the  head  of  navigation,  18  m.  from  the  sea,  and  27 
m.  N.  of  Boston  ;  pop.  in  1850,  5,877  ;  in  1860, 
9,995;  in  1870,  13,092,  of  whom  2,003  were 
foreigners.  It  is  connected  by  two  handsome 
bridges  with  Bradford  on  the  opposite  bank  of 
the  river.  The  Boston  and  Maine  railroad 
crosses  the  Merrimack  at  this  point,  and  con- 
nects at  Bradford  with  the  New  bury  port  rail- 
road. A  street  railroad  company  has  recently 
been  organized.  The  city  is  divided  into  six 
wards,  and  is  about  12  m.  in  length  on  the 
river  and  3  m.  in  breadth,  bordering  on  New 
Hampshire.  Within  its  limits  are  several  hills, 
commanding  extensive  and  beautiful  views,  and 
four  lakes,  from  two  of  which  it  draws  its  sup- 
ply of  water.  At  the  E.  extremity  is  Rocks 
village,  connected  with  West  Newbury  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Merrimack  by  a  wooden 
bridge,  and  at  the  W.  extremity  Ayers  village, 
containing  several  manufactories.  The  thickly 
settled  portion  is  pleasantly  built  on  a  gentle  ac- 
clivity, presenting  with  its  neat  shaded  dwell- 
ings and  background  of  hills  a  remarkably  at- 
tractive appearance.  There  are  a  soldiers' 
monument  of  white  marble,  a  fine  city  hall, 


524 


HAVERSTRAW 


HAVRE 


an  odd  fellows'  and  a  masonic  building,  two 
other  public  halls,  five  hotels,  and  six  wharves. 
Haverhill  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes,  which  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, and  in  which  it  is  surpassed  only  by 
Lynn.  In  1832  the  number  of  firms  engaged 
in  the  business  was  28 ;  in  1837,  42 ;  in  1860, 
100  ;  in  1874,  150.  The  shipments  have  been 
as  follows;  in  1850,  46,272  cases;  1855,  66,- 
984;  1860,  83,856  ;  1872,  200,000,  worth  about 
$8,000,000.  The  number  of  hands  employed  is 
from  6,000  to  8,000,  many  of  whom  are  Ca- 
nadian French.  The  goods  manufactured  here 
are  principally  for  women's,  misses',  and  chil- 
dren's wear,  and  are  sold  chiefly  in  the  west  and 
south.  There  are  also  26  manufactories  of 
heels,  &c.,  3  of  lasts,  1  of  shoe  nails  and  tacks, 
8  or  10  of  other  articles  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  boots  and  shoes,  3  of  carriages,  4  of 
bricks,  3  of  wool  hats,  5  of  paper  boxes,  1  of 
woollens,  a  bonnet  bleachery,  4  machine  shops, 
4  national  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$840,000,  and  2  savings  banks  with  deposits  in 
1874  amounting  to  $3,128,000.  Four  or  five 
small  streams  furnish  water  power.  The  valu- 
ation of  property  in  1873  was  $10,861,470; 
taxation,  $217,229  40  ;  debt,  Jan.  1,  1874, 
$352,875  64.  The  number  of  public  schools 
in  1873  was  47,  viz. :  1  high,  25  grammar,  and 
21  primary,  having  52  teachers  and  2,111 
pupils.  There  are  a  daily,  a  tri-weekly,  a 
semi-weekly,  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  a 
public  library,  a  children's  aid  society  and 


home,  a  young  men's  Christian  association,  and 
20  churches. — Haverhill  was  settled  in  1640, 
and  incorporated  in  1645.  A  city  charter  was 
granted  in  1870.  For  a  long  period  it  was  a 
frontier  town,  and  suifered  severely  during  the 
Indian  wars.  In  1697  Mrs.  Hannah  DustiD 
was  taken  captive  during  an  Indian  attack, 
but  shortly  after  escaped  by  killing  10  of  her 
captors,  with  the  aid  of  a  boy  and  her  nurse. 
The  city  is  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Whittier. 

HAVERSTRAW,  a  town  of  Rockland  co.,  New 
York,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  op- 
posite Peekskill,  and  32  m.  1ST.  of  New  York  city 
hall;  pop.  in  1870,  6,412.  The  principal  vil- 
lage is  situated  on  the  margin  of  the  river,  and 
is  overhung  by  a  line  of  limestone  cliffs,  which 
produce  large  quantities  of  lime.  About  2  m. 
above  is  the  village  of  Grassy  Point.  The 
principal  business  is  the  manufacture  of  bricks. 
The  village  contains  a  bank,  a  select  school, 
two  hotels,  a  weekly  newspaper,  print  works, 
a  foundery,  a  ship-building  establishment,  and 
three  cigar  factories.  The  town  also  contains 
the  incorporated  village  of  Warren,  situated  in 
the  S.  part.  Stony  Point,  famous  in  the  revo- 
lutionary war,  is  just  above  Haverstraw,  from 
which  it  was  separated  in  1865. 

HAVRE  (Fr.  Le  Havre),  a  fortified  seaport  of 
Normandy,  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine- 
Inferieure,  situated  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Eng- 
lish channel  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine, 
108  m.  direct,  or  143  m.  by  rail,  N.  W.  of  Paris, 
and  44  m.  W.  of  Rouen ;  lat.  49°  29'  14"  N., 


Havre. 


Ion.  0°  6'  38"  E. ;  pop.  in  1872,  86,825.  Next 
to  Marseilles  it  is  the  principal  emporium  of 
France,  and  has  direct  communication  by  steam 
vessels  with  London,  Rotterdam,  Hamburg, 
Copenhagen,  St.  Petersburg,  Cadiz,  Malaga, 


New  York,  &c.  With  the  United  States  the 
commerce  is  of  great  magnitude,  and  Havre  is 
an  important  point  of  departure  of  emigrants. 
It  receives  the  bulk  of  the  American  cotton, 
and  ships  most  of  the  exports  of  French  goods 


HAVRE   DE   GKACE 


to  the  United  States.  The  number  of  vessels 
entered  in  1870  was  8,458,  tonnage  2,516,898, 
of  which  116,  tonnage  114,000,  were  Ameri- 
can; cleared,  5,707,  tonnage  1,386,152.  The 
number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  is  about 
500.  The  imports  of  cotton  in  1870  were  464,- 
985  bales,  of  which  294,032  bales  were  from 
the  United  States.  The  imports  of  petroleum 
were  116,247  bbls. ;  of  coals,  116,100  tons. 
The  total  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  is 
about  $250,000,000  annually;  and  about  one 
fifth  of  the  whole  foreign  commerce  of  France 
is  carried  on  through  this  port.  The  imports 
consist  chiefly  of  cotton,  spices,  cofiee,  tea, 
sugar,  timber,  &c.,  and  the  exports  of  French 
manufactured  goods,  wiae,  brandy,  oil,  jewelry, 
salted  meat,  butter,  cheese,  fish,  &c.  There  are 
manufactories  of  paper,  sugar  refineries,  a  gov- 
ernment manufactory  of  tobacco,  a  large  cotton 
factory,  several  manufactories  of  machinery,  a 
large  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  salt, 
&c.  The  ship  yards  of  Havre  produce  the  best 
vessels  in  France.  Its  docks  are  among  the 
finest  in  the  world  and  capable  of  accommoda- 
ting over  600  vessels.  The  largest,  called  1'Eure, 
has  an  area  of  700,000  sq.  ft.,  and  one  of  its 
dry  docks  is  515  ft.  long  by  112  ft.  broad.  A 
basin  recently  constructed  has  an  area  of  53 
acres.  Havre  is  much  frequented  during  the 
season  for  sea  bathing.  It  has  a  commercial 
court,  a  school  of  navigation  with  an  obser- 
vatory, three  theatres,  a  public  library,  an  ex- 
change, a  chamber  of  commerce,  a  merchants' 
lub  house,  and  a  Lloyd's  with  the  principal 
European  journals.  Among  the  churches  are 
an  English  chapel  and  an  American  church. 
The  old  fortifications  have  been  removed,  and 
new  forts  constructed  on  the  heights,  which 
command  both  the  city  and  the  sea.  The  mil- 
itary quarter  of  Havre  contains  an  extensive 
arsenal.  The  city  hall,  which  is  centrally  sit- 
uated, is  a  magnificent  edifice,  resembling  the 
late  Tuileries  in  the  style  of  its  architecture. 
The  adjoining  picturesque  village  of  St.  Ad- 
dresse  is  studded  with  pretty  villas  and  gar- 
dens.— Havre  was  founded  by  Louis  XII.  at 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  and  consist- 
ed then  only  of  a  few  huts.  Francis  I.  caused 
it  to  be  fortified,  and  the  construction  of  a  port 
was  begun  under  his  auspices.  It  was  called 
after  him  Ville  Francoise  or  Franciscopolis,  and 
afterward,  from  a  chapel  of  that  name,  Havre 
de  Grace.  The  English  took  it  in  1562,  and 
bombarded  it  on  several  occasions  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries.  The  extension  of  the 
fortifications  and  of  the  town  generally  was 
ordained  by  Louis  XVI.  in  1786,  and  has  since 
been  carried  out  far  beyond  the  original  plans. 
Among  the  eminent  persons  born  in  Havre  are 
Mile.  Scudery,  Mme.  de  Lafayette,  Bernardin 
de  St.  Pierre,  and  Casimir  Delavigne. 

HAVRE  DE  GRACE,  a  town  of  Harford  co., 
Maryland,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Susquehanna 
river,  near  its  mouth  in  Chesapeake  bay,  35  m. 
N.  E.  of  Baltimore ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,281,  of 
whom  441  were  colored.  It  is  the  8.  terminus 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


525 


of  the  Tidewater  canal,  and  the  Philadelphia, 
Wilmington,  and  Baltimore  railroad  here  cross- 
es the  river  on  a  bridge  3,271  ft.  long,  comple- 
ted in  1867  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $1,250,000. 
The  town  is  noted  for  its  scenery,  and  has  con- 
siderable trade  in  coal,  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper. It  was  laid  out  in  1776,  and  was  burn- 
ed by  the  British  in  the  war  of  1812. 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS,  or  Sandwich  Islands,  the 
most  northerly  cluster  of  the  Polynesian  archi- 
pelago, constituting  a  kingdom,  and  consisting 
of  12  islands,  in  the  North  Pacific,  between 
Mexico  and  China,  extending  about  360  m.  in 
a  curve  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  between  lat.  18° 
55'  and  22°  20'  N.,  and  Ion.  154°  55'  and  160° 
15'  W.  Their  names  and  areas,  in  order  from 
S.  E.,  are:  Hawaii,  4,040  sq.  m. ;  Maui,  603 
sq.  m. ;  Molokini,  islet ;  Kahoolawe,  60  sq.  m. ; 
Lanai,  150  sq.  m. ;  Molokai,  169  sq.  m. ;  Oahu, 
522  sq.  m.;  Kauai,  527  sq.  m. ;  Lehua,  islet; 
Niihau,  70  sq.  m. ;  Kaula  and  Bird  island, 
islets;  total,  about  6,100  sq.  m.,  of  which  two 
thirds  are  included  in  the  principal  island, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  group.  The  isl- 
ands are  of  volcanic  formation  and  mountain- 
ous, the  fertile  lands  being  mostly  confined  to 
the  valleys  and  to  a  belt  of  alluvial  soil  at  the 
shore.  The  uplands  are  better  adapted  to 
grazing  than  to  tillage.  The  mountains,  cov- 
ered with  dense  forests,  are  not  cultivable. 
The  windward  coasts,  which  receive  the  N.  E. 
trade  winds,  intercept  the  rain,  and  are  fertile, 
while  the  leeward  parts  of  the  same  island  may 
be  almost  rainless.  On  the  windward  side  the 
mountains  are  densely  wooded.  The  upper  lim- 
it of  vegetation  is  determined  by  the  aspect. 
On  the  windward  side  of  Mauna  Kea  the  writer 
has  observed  mosses  at  a  height  of  more  than 
12,000  ft. ;  on  the  leeward  side  of  Mauna  Loa 
vegetation  ceases  at  8,000  ft.  Only  seven  of 
the  islands  are  inhabited.  Hawaii,  the  eastern- 
most (formerly  miscalled  Owhyhee),  is  of  a  tri- 
angular shape,  and  is  of  the  most  recent  for- 
mation; it  consists  of  a  sloping  belt  of  coast 
land,  a  high  central  plateau,  and  three  princi- 
pal mountains :  Mauna  Kea,  13,953  ft. ;  •  Mauna 
Loa,  an  active  volcano,  13,760  ft. ;  and  Mauna 
Hualalai,  7,822  ft.  In  no  part  of  the  islands 
can  one  journey  far  without  seeing  extinct 
craters,  generally  overgrown  with  luxuriant 
vegetation.  Many  hundred  square  miles  of 
Hawaii  are  covered  with  recent  and  barren 
lavas.  Near  the  shore  the  natives  cultivate 
sweet  potatoes  upon  lavas  that  are  hardly 
cooled,  pulverizing  the  scoria  and  mixing  with 
it  a  little  vegetable  mould.  Earthquakes,  gen- 
erally slight,  occur  frequently  upon  Hawaii, 
but  not  so  often  upon  the  other  islands.  From 
June,  1833,  to  May  31,  1867,  173  shocks  were 
recorded  at  Hilo.  On  April  2,  1868,  five  days 
before  a  great  eruption  from  Mauna  Loa,  vio- 
lent shocks  occurred  in  the  district  of  Kau, 
and  a  volcanic  wave  which  followed  the  earth- 
quake swept  away  the  hamlets  on  the  coast. 
Hawaii  has  two  great  active  craters,  Kilauea  and 
Mauna  Loa ;  the  former  is  continually,  the  lat- 


526 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


ter  intermittently  active.  From  the  latter  great 
eruptions  took  place  in  1832,  1840,  1843,  1852, 
1855,  1859, 1868,  and  1873.  The  lava  general- 
ly forces  its  way  through  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain at  a  distance  of  several  miles  from  the  ter- 
minal crater,  which  is  active  at  the  same  time. 
The  eruptions  of  1840,  1859,  and  1868  made 
their  way  to  the  sea,  adding  somewhat  to  the 
area  of  the  island.  Those  of  1843  and  1855 
poured  out  respectively  about  17,000,000,000 
and  38,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  lava.  That  of 
1859  ran  50  in.  to  the  sea  in  eight  days.  Ki- 
lauea  is  the  largest  continually  active  crater 
in  the  world.  It  is  situated  upon  the  eastern 
part  of  Mauna  Loa,  at  an  elevation  of  3,970  ft, 
and  is  a  pit  8  m.  in  circumference  and  1,000  ft. 
in  depth.  Its  eruptions  are  commonly  inde- 
pendent of  those  from  the  summit  crater.  The 
crater  is  easily  descended,  and  the  melted  lava 
may 'be  often  dipped  out  upon  the  end  of  the 
traveller's  staff.  The  principal  town  upon  this 
island  is  Hilo,  on  the  N.  E.  coast,  which  is 
rainy,  fertile,  and  highly  tropical  in  appearance. 
The  leeward  coasts  of  Hawaii  are  sterile  and 
volcanic,  overhung  in  many  parts  by  a  steep 
bleak  mountain.  Herds  of  wild  cattle,  descend- 
ed from  a  stock  introduced  by  Vancouver  in 
1793,  roam  in  the  mountain  forests,  where  they 
are  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their  horns  and  hides. 
Maui,  the  second  island  in  size,  is  composed  of 
two  mountainous  peninsulas  connected  by  alow 
isthmus.  Mauna  Haleakala,  on  the  eastern  pen- 
insula, is  10,200  ft.  high,  and  has  an  extinct 
summit  crater,  the  largest  known,  being  2,000 
ft.  deep  and  27  m.  in  circumference.  The  prin- 
cipal town  is  Lahaina.  Kauai,  the  third  island 
in  size,  is  the  most  uniformly  tropical  in  char- 
acter; it  is  fertile  and  abundantly  watered. 
Oahu,  the  fourth,  has  fertile  plains  upon  the 
N.  and  S.  sides ;  the  latter  are  the  best  culti- 
vated, and  are  the  most  populous  -region  in  the 
whole  group.  The  capital,  Honolulu,  is  here 
situated.  The  highest  peak  on  Oahu  is  3,310 
ft.  high.  Molokai,  the  fifth  island  in  size,  is 
mountainous,  presenting  a  magnificent  wall  of 
precipices  to  the  north ;  it  is  thinly  inhabited, 
as  are  the  yet  smaller  and  lower  islands,  La- 
nai  and  Niihau.  Kahoolawe,  Molokini,  Lehua, 
Kaula,  and  Bird  island  are  uninhabited. — The 
Hawaiian  islands  have  one  excellent  harbor, 
that  of  Honolulu,  on  the  island  of  Oahu.  It  is 
protected  by  a  barrier  of  coral  reef,  has  21  ft. 
of  water  on  the  bar  at  low  tide,  and  from  4  to 
6£  fathoms  inside.  It  affords  safe  anchorage 
and  great  facilities  for  the  discharging  of  car- 
goes, and  is  easy  of  access  from  all  quarters  and 
with  all  winds.  Hilo,  on  the  N.  E.  side  of  Ha- 
waii, has  a  good  natural  harbor,  protected  sea- 
ward by  a  reef  of  coral  and  lava,  and  with  from 
3  to  8  fathoms  of  water.  With  proper  wharves, 
this  would  be  an  excellent  harbor.  Lahaina, 
on  the  island  of  Maui,  has  an  open  roadstead 
witli  good  anchorage.  Kawaihai  and  Kealake- 
akua,  on  the  W.  side  of  Hawaii,  and  Waimea, 
Koloa,  Nawiliwili,  and  Hanalei,  on  Kauai,  have 
tolerable  harbors. — The  climate  of  the  islands 


is  healthful  and  remarkably  equable,  so  much 
so  that  the  Hawaiian  language  has  no  word  to 
express  the  general  idea  of  weather.  Extreme 
heat  is  never  known;  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  year  at  Honolulu  is  75°  F.,  and  the  dai- 
ly range  seldom  exceeds  15°.  During  12  years 
the  extremes  of  temperature  in  the  shade  were 
53°  and  90°.  At  Lahaina  the  range  in  10 
years  was  from  54°  to  86°.  June  is  the  warm- 
est month,  and  January  the  coldest  and  most 
rainy.  A  more  bracing  climate  may  be  ob- 
tained by  ascending  the  mountains ;  an  hour's 
ride  from  Honolulu  up  the  Nuuanu  valley  will 
give  a  lower  temperature.  Above  Lahaina,  at 
an  elevation  of  3,000  ft.,  the  thermometer  rang- 
es from  40°  to  75° ;  and  at  Waimea,  on  Hawaii, 
the  average  temperature  is  64°.  On  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  islands  the  climate  is  rougher 
and  the  rainfall  more  abundant.  Honolulu  and 
Lahaina,  from  their  genial  climate,  are  particu- 
larly adapted  for  the  residence  of  invalids. 
Much  of  the  island  scenery  is  extremely  beauti- 
ful.— The  indigenous  fauna  of  the  islands  is 
small.  It  consists  of  swine,  dogs,  rats,  a  bat 
which  flies  by  day,  and  domestic  fowls,  which 
appear  to  be  native.  Snipes,  plovers,  and  wild 
ducks  are  found  on  all  the  islands.  There  are 
only  a  few  species  of  singing  birds ;  many  spe- 
cies, however,  have  beautiful  plumage.  One 
of  the  birds,  melithreptes  Pacifica,  has  under 
each  wing  a  small  tuft  of  feathers  of  a  golden 
yellow  color  and  about  an  inch  in  length.  The 
war  cloak  of  Kamehameha  I.  was  made  of 
these  rare  feathers ;  it  was  4  ft.  long  and  1 1| 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  its  formation  is  said  to 
have  occupied  nine  successive  reigns.  Many 
varieties  of  fish  frequent  the  shores,  and  form 
a  staple  of  diet  with  the  natives.  The  indi- 
genous flora  numbers  about  373  species,  and 
many  more  have  been  introduced.  The  cocoa- 
nut,  banana,  breadfruit,  pandanus,  cordyline 
(Tci),  and  taro  or  kalo  (arum  esculentum)  are 
probably  indigenous.  The  last  forms  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  natives.  The  productions  of 
the  islands  are  sugar,  rice,  coffee,  cotton,  san- 
dal wood,  tobacco,  arrowroot,  wheat,  maize, 
tapioca,  oranges,  lemons,  bananas,  tamarinds, 
breadfruit,  guavas,  potatoes,  yams,  kalo,  fun- 
gus, wool,  hides,  tallow,  pulu  (a  fibre  collected 
from  the  trunks  of  the  tree  fern),  and  ornamental 
woods.  Neat  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  are 
raised. — The  islands  lie  several  hundred  miles 
south  of  the  commercial  routes  between  San 
Francisco  and  Japan  and  China.  They  are  a 
station  for  the  English  line  of  steamers  from 
California  to  the  Feejee  islands  and  Australia,  to 
which  latter  market  the  increasing  trade  of  the 
South  Pacific  islands  mainly  goes.  That  of  the 
Hawaiian  islands  is  tending  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. A  considerable  part  of  the  sugar  crop  of 
1873  went  to  Melbourne  and  Sydney,  where  the 
duty  is  low.  The  planters  and  foreign  residents 
desire  a  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United 
States,  and  in  1856,  1867,  and  1869  unsuccessful 
attempts  were  made  to  negotiate  one  ;  and  still 
more  recently  the  Hawaiian  government  of- 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


527 


fered  to  cede  the  harbor  of  Pearl  river,  6  m. 
from  Honolulu,  to  the  United  States,  as  an  in- 
ducement to  grant  such  a  treaty.  As  a  naval 
station,  the  islands  offer  many  advantages  to 
any  power  that  should  eventually  seek  the 
control  of  the  North  Pacific.  The  commerce  is 
at  present  chiefly  with  California;  the  value- of 
that  trade  from  1853  to  1873,  including  freights, 
passage  money,  and  cargo  values  inward  and 
outward,  exceeded  $19,750,000.  The  American 
duties  on  Hawaiian  sugar  exported  amount  to 
$225,000,  and  on  rice  and  other  products  $75,- 
000,  or  $300,000  annually.  The  imports  from 
the  United  States  in  1873  exceeded  $1,000,000  ; 
they  consist  chiefly  of  manufactured  goods, 
lumber,  shooks,  cured  meats,  breadstuffs,  and 
groceries.  Sugar  is  the  chief  export ;  the 
amount  sent  to  San  Francisco  increased  from 
282,000  Ibs.  in  1853  to  15,500,000  Ibs.  in  1872. 
The  total  export  for  1873  was  23,129,101  Ibs. 
Coffee  and  cotton  are  subject  to  destructive 
blights.  The  leading  exports  in  1873  were : 

Fungus,  Ibs 57,533 

Hides,  pcs 20,877 

Pulu,lbs 412,823 

Goatskins,  packs.. .     66,702 

Tallow,  Ibs 495,000 

Salt,  tons 445* 


Sugar,  Ibs  
Molasses,  galls.. 
Rice,  Ibs  
Paddy,  Ibs  
Coffee,  Ibs  
Wool.  Ibs... 

23,129,101 
146,459 
941,438 
.       507,945 
2(52,025 
829,507 

es 


111.  ^ 

1840 
gove 


total  value  of  the  exports  in  1873  was 
,128,055 ;  of  the  imports  for  the  same  year, 
$1,349,448.     The  number  of  merchant  vessels 
arriving  was  106,  with  a  tonnage  of  62,089. 
The  number  of  cargoes  invoiced  at  above  $10,- 
000  was  34,  of  which  28  arrived  in  American, 
3  in  British,  and  3  in  Hawaiian  vessels.     The 
whaling  fleet  has  fallen  off  from  549  visits  of 
ships  in  1859  to  63  in  1873,  it  having  sought  oth- 
er ports. — Up  to  the  year  1839  the  islands  were 
governed  as  an  absolute  monarchy  and  upon 
feudal  principles.     In  that  year  Kamehameha 
III.  was  induced  to  sign  a  bill  of  rights,  and  in 
and  1842  to  grant  constitutions  by  \vhich 
surrendered  the  absolute  rule  in  favor  of  a 
vernment  by  the  three  estates  of  king,  nobles, 
and  people,  with  universal  suffrage,  a  biennial 
parliament,  and  paid  representatives.    The  con- 
stitution of  1842  and  the  civil  and  penal  codes 
ere  mainly  prepared  by  Chief  Justice  William 
Lee,  an  American.   Judge  Lee  rendered  great 
vices  to  the  nation,  especially  in  confirming 
the  common  natives  a  third  of  the  lands 
the  kingdom,  which  were  formerly  owned 
tirely  by  the  king  and  chiefs.      The  new 
stitution  remained  in  force   until  the  ac- 
ion  of  Kamehameha  V.,  who  abrogated  it 
ug.  13,  18G4,  and  promulgated  in  its  place  a 
institution  imposing  qualifications  on  suffrage 
and  on  eligibility  to  the  legislature,  and  cen- 
tralizing the  government  in  the  hands  of  the 
king.    A  voter  must  read  and  write,  pay  his 
taxes,  and  have  an  income  of  $75  a  year.     The 
executive  power  is  the  king,  a  privy  council, 
of  which  the  four  governors  of  the  larger  isl- 
ands are  members,  and  four  responsible  minis- 
ters.    The  legislative  power  is  the  king  and  the 
parliament,  composed  of  14  nobles  (of  whom  6 
394  VOL.  vni.— 34 


are  whites)  and  28  representatives  (of  whom 
7  are  whites).  Both  classes  discuss  and  vote 
together.  The  judiciary  power  is  a  supreme 
court,  composed  of  a  chief  justice,  who  is  also 
chancellor,  and  at  least  two  judges,  four  dis- 
trict courts,  and  police  and  other  tribunals. 
For  1870  and  1871  the  entire  income  of  the 
government  was  $912,000,  or  $456,000  per 
year.  The  salaries  called  for  amount  to  half  of 
the  income ;  the  king  is  paid  $22,500  a  year. 
Persons  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage,  chiefly 
Americans,  occupy  various  positions  under  the 
government ;  and  the  constitution  is  modelled 
largely  after  that  of  the  United  States.  It  guar- 
antees liberty  of  worship  and  of  the  press,  free 
instruction,  the  right  of  assembly  and  of  peti- 
tion, trial  by  jury,  and  habeas  corpus.  There  is 
no  army  or  navy ;  the  king  has  a  body  guard. 
In  1843  the  Hawaiian  kingdom  was  recognized 
as  an  independent  sovereignty  by  France  and 
England,  and  in  1844  by  the  United  States. — 
The  Hawaiians  form  one  of  the  families  of  the 
brown  Polynesian  race  (radically  distinct  from 
the  Malay,  and  more  akin  to  the  Papuan,  ac- 
cording to  Wallace),  a  race  which  inhabits  also 
the  Marquesas,  Tonga,  Society,  Friendly,  and 
Samoan  groups,  as  well  as  New  Zealand.  Their 
similarity  of  language  is  so  great  that  the  Ha- 
waiian and  the  New  Zealander,  though  sepa- 
rated by  a  distance  of  5,000  m.,  can  readily 
understand  each  other.  The  Hawaiian  lan- 
guage is  very  pictorial  and  expressive,  with 
a  full  vocabulary  for  all  natural  objects.  Its 
primitive  character  is  shown  by  the  deficiency 
of  abstract  words  and  general  terms ;  even 
generic  terms,  like  insect,  color,  are  wanting ; 
at  the  same  time  it  abounds  in  nice  distinc- 
tions, and  is  exact  in  grammatical  struc- 
ture. The  American  missionaries  employed 
but  12  letters  in  reducing  it  to  writing,  A,  E, 
I,  O,  U,  H,  K,  L,  M,  N,  P,  W;  and  the  num- 
ber of  different  sounds  is  not  greatly  larger 
than  this.  As  in  all  Polynesian  languages, 
every  word  and  syllable  must  end  in  a  vowel. 
The  ratio  of  vowel  to  consonantal  sounds  is 
nearly  twice  as  great  as  in  Italian.  The  Poly- 
nesian ear  marks  the  slightest  distinctions  of 
vowel  sound,  but  is  dull  in  distinguishing  con- 
sonants ;  &  and  jt>,  d  and  £,  are  confounded ; 
and  in  Hawaiian  I  is  interchangeable  with  d, 
and  t  with  Ic.  The  language  contains  no  verb 
whatever  to  express  either  being,  existence, 
possession,  or  duty. — The  Hawaiians  are  of  a 
tawny  complexion,  inclining  to  olive,  without 
any  shade  of  red ;  the  hair  is  black  or  dark 
brown,  glossy  and  wavy ;  they  have  large  eyes, 
a  somewhat  flattened  nose,  and  full  lips.  They 
are  well  made  and  active,  and  of  good  stature ; 
the  chiefs  are  often  larger,  and  considerably 
exceed  the  average  height  of  Europeans.  Like 
other  Polynesians,  they  are  expert  in  swimming 
and  in  the  use  of  canoes,  by  which  their  war 
expeditions  were  often  carried  on.  They  are 
good  fishermen  and  horsemen,  and  make  ser- 
viceable sailors  in  the  whaling  fleets.  Their 
disposition  is  facile,  yielding,  and  imitative; 


528 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


they  are  demonstrative  and  laughter-loving,  and 
are  capable  of  a  fair  degree  of  intellectual  and 
moral  elevation.  Their  songs  or  meles  man- 
ifest genuine  poetic  feeling.  In  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  music  they  show  special  apti- 
tude. They  are  not  naturally  an  industrious 
race,  but  they  now  cultivate  the  soil  with  con- 
siderable skill ;  they  manufacture  sugar,  molas- 
ses, salt,  and  arrowroot,  and  work  in  iron  and 
other  metals.  At  the  time  of  Cook's  visits 
they  had  abandoned  cannibalism,  but  were 
characterized  by  licentiousness  and  brutality, 
and  living  under  the  reign  of  terror  imposed 
by  the  cruel  tyranny  of  the  tabu.  Their  char- 
acter is  not  yet  essentially  civilized,  although  it 
has  been  much  modified  by  education.  The 
population  of  the  islands  is  steadily  decreasing. 
In  1779  it  was  roughly  estimated  by  Cook  at 
400,000,  which  was  doubtless  a  great  exagger- 
ation. An  estimate  in  1822  gave  142,000. 
Official  censuses  have  since  been  made  at  dif- 
ferent periods,  which  gave:  in  1832,  130,313; 
in  1836,  108,579;  in  1850,  84,165;  in  1853, 
73,138;  in  1860,  69,800;  in  1866,  62,959;  in 
1872,  56,899.  In  the  21  years  from  1832  to 
1853  the  decrease  was  44  per  cent. ;  in  the  19 
years  from  1853  to  1872  it  was  22  per  cent. 
This  lessening  rate  of  decrease,  however,  must 
be  in  part  attributed  to  the  increasing  number 
of  half-breeds  and  of  foreigners.  The  number 
of  foreigners  upon  the  islands  in  1850  was 
1,962;  in  1853,  2,119;  in  1860,  2,716;  in  1866, 
4,194 ;  in  1872,  5,366  (1,938  Chinese,  889  Amer- 
icans, 619  English,  395  Portuguese,  234  Ger- 
mans, and  88  French).  There  were  51,531 
natives  (2,487  half-breeds).  The  decrease  of 
the  aborigines  is  due  to  many  causes,  of  which 
those  now  principally  active  may  be  traced  to 
their  contact  with  the  whites.  The  main  cause 
is  that  foreign  diseases  are  extremely  fatal  to 
them.  In  1853  the  smallpox  carried  off  1,200 
out  of  a  population  of  2,800  in  Ewa,  near 
Honolulu.  Measles,  influenza,  and  venereal 
diseases  have  been  prevalent  and  fatal ;  licen- 
tiousness prevails  in  spite  of  missionary  effort, 
and  is  a  considerable  check  upon  population. 
Diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  dysentery,  fe- 
vers, and  leprosy  are  frequent.  A  hospital  has 
been  established  of  late  years  upon  the  W.  part 
of  Molokai  for  the  seclusion  of  lepers.  The 
discontinuance  of  ancient  sports,  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  dress,  and  the  rapid  change  in 
the  habits  of  the  people,  formerly  in  natural  re- 
lation with  their  circumstances,  have  tended 
strongly  in  the  same  way.  The  introduction 
of  clothes  appears  to  have  been  especially  fatal, 
the  Hawaiian  being  utterly  careless  about  pre- 
cautions respecting  dampness  and  ventilation. 
The  pure  native  race  seems  destined  to  disap- 
pear, and  the  half-caste  population  is  increas- 
ing rapidly.  The  marriages  of  the  Chinese  and 
Americans  with  the  native  women  are  usual- 
ly fruitful  of  healthy  children;  but  marriages 
between  the  natives  are  not  prolific.  Educa- 
tion has  been  diffused  among  the  Hawaiians  to 
an  extent  perhaps  unexampled  elsewhere.  Of 


8,931  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  15, 
8,287  were  attending  245  schools  of  various 
grades  in  1872.  There  is  one  teacher  for  eve- 
ry 27  children  in  the  group,  and  scarcely  a  Ha- 
waiian of  proper  age  cannot  read  and  write  his 
own  language.  Comparatively  little  effort  has 
been  made  to  teach  the  natives  English.  The 
schools  receive  subsidies  from  the  government, 
and  are  under  its  supervision.  A  number  of 
newspapers,  in  Hawaiian  and  English,  are  sus- 
tained. The  people  maintain  churches  by  vol- 
untary effort,  and  are  extremely  liberal  in  their 
contributions  for  various  religious  objects.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  commu- 
nicants. There  is  however  a  tendency  to  sub- 
side into  the  habits  and  practices  of  barbarism, 
and  the  native  superstitions  are  with  difficulty 
kept  in  check.  But  life  and  property  are  as 
secure  as  anywhere  in  the  world,  and  capital 
offences  are  extremely  rare. — In  1820  the  first 
missionaries  from  America  arrived  at  the  isl- 
ands. There  was  no  written  language;  the 
land  was  owned  by  the  king  and  the  chiefs,  to 
whom  the  people  were  absolutely  subject.  But 
Kamehameha  II.  had  just  abolished  idolatry, 
and  he,  and  still  more  his  successor,  were 
friendly  to  the  mission,  which  soon  gained 
great  success.  The  islands  rapidly  assumed  the 
appearance  of  a  civilized  country.  In  1822 
the  language  was  reduced  to  writing;  and 
since  that  time  more  than  200  works,  mostly 
educational  and  religious,  have  been  publish- 
ed in  Hawaiian.  The  total  number  of  Protes- 
tant missionaries  sent  to  the  islands,  clerical 
and  lay,  including  their  wives,  is  156.  The  cost 
of  the  mission  up  to  1869  was  $1,220,000.  It 
has  been  formally  discontinued,  but  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  missionaries  still  remain, 
supported  by  their  churches  or  engaged  in 
business.  The  whole  number  of  persons  ad- 
mitted to  the  Hawaiian  Protestant  churches  up 
to  1873  inclusive  was  67,792;  and  the  total 
membership  of  the  same  churches  in  1873  was 
12,283.  Several  of  the  Protestant  missionaries 
and  their  children  have  filled  places  in  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1827  a  French  Catholic  mission 
was  established  at  Honolulu.  In  1829  the  Ha- 
waiian government  directed  the  priests  to  close 
their  chapels  ;  some  of  the  proselytes  were 
confined  in  irons,  and  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries arriving  afterward  were  not  allowed 
to  land.  In  1839  the  French  government  sent 
a  frigate  to  Honolulu,  and  compelled  Kameha- 
meha III.  to  declare  the  Catholic  religion  free 
to  all.  The  whole  number  of  the  Catholic 
population  of  the  islands  in  1872  was  stated 
to  be  23,000.  An  English  Reformed  Catho- 
lic mission  was  sent  out  in  1862,  and  met  with 
favor  from  Kamehameha  V.,  who  was  less  in 
sympathy  with  the  Protestant  missionaries 
than  his  predecessor  had  been.  An  Anglican 
bishop  of  Hawaii  was  appointed,  who  remained 
till  1870.  Since  his  return  in  that  year  to 
England  the  mission  has  attracted  less  interest, 
and  its  success  has  been  small. — These  islands 
were  known  to  the  Spaniards  more  than  a  cen- 


HAWES 


tury  before  their  rediscovery  by  Capt.  Cook 
in  1778,  Hawaii  being  called  Mesa.  They  first 
became  generally  known  by  the  fate  of  Cook, 
who  was  killed  by  the  natives,  Feb.  14,  1779. 
He  named  the  group  the  Sandwich  islands, 
after  Lord  Sandwich,  then  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty ;  but  the  name  placed  at  the  head  of 
this  article  is  that  which  is  used  at  the  islands. 
In  1795-'6  Kamehameha  subjugated  all  of  the 
islands  except  Kauai,  which  gave  in  its  alle- 
giance a  few  years  later,  and  founded  the  line 
)f  kings  which  ruled  the  islands  until  the  close 
>f  1872.  His  successors  assumed  Kamehame- 
as  a  title,  prefixing  a  special  name.  The 
lates  of  their  death  and  succession  are  as 

Hows:  Kamehameha  I.,  May  8,  1819;  II. 
(Liholiho),  July  14,  1824;  III.  (Kauikeaouli), 
3. 15, 1854 ;  IV.  (Alexander),  Nov.  30,  1863  ; 
(Lot),  Dec.  11,  1872.  King  Lot  dying 
rithout  leaving  an  heir  or  appointing  a  suc- 
essor,  and  the  line  of  Kamehameha  I.  being 
extinct,  William  Lunalilo,  descendant  of  an  old 

lily  of  Hawaiian  chiefs,  was  elected  king 

in.  8,  1873.    He  died  Feb.  3,  1874,  without 

sue,  and  David  Kalakaua,  a  high  chief,  was 
lected  king  in  his  place,  by  a  parliament  as- 
3mbled  Feb.  12,  1874,  for  that  purpose.— A 
ill  list  of  works  relating  to  the  islands  will  be 
mnd  in  the  "Hawaiian  Club  Papers"  (Bos- 

i,  1868).  Besides  the  works  of  the  explorers 
)ook,  Vancouver,  Freycinet,  Kotzebue,  Byron, 

id  Wilkes,  and  those  of  the  missionary  Ellis, 
he  following  are  among  the  more  important : 
Jibble,  "  History  "  (Lahainaluna,  1843) ;  Jarves, 
"  History  "  (Boston,  1843 ;  enlarged,  Honolulu, 
1873) ;  H.  T.  Cheever,  "  The  Island  World  in 
the  Pacific"  (New  York,  1851);  Dana,  "  Coral 
"Reefs  and  Islands  "  (New  York,  1853),  and  "  Ge- 
)logy  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition  "  (Phil- 
.delphia,  1849) ;  G.  W.  Bates,  "  Island  Notes,  by 
,  Haole  "  (New  York,  1854) ;  Andrews,  "  Gram- 
mar of  the  Hawaiian  Language"  (Honolulu, 
1854),  and  "Dictionary"  (1865);  Hopkins, 
"Hawaii"  (London,  1866);  Mann,  "Flora  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  "  (Boston,  1868) ;  Brig- 
ham,  "Notes  on  Hawaiian  Volcanoes"  (Bos- 
ton, 1868-'9) ;  Bliss,  "  Paradise  of  the  Pacific  " 
(New  York,  1873);  Nordhoff,  "Northern  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands" 
(1874).  See  also  Coan  on  volcanoes  in  the 
"American  Journal  of  Sciences"  (1851-'73), 
and  the  "Missionary  Herald  "  (1819-74). 

HAWES,  Joel,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Medway,  Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1789,  died  at 
Gilead,  Conn.,  June  5, 1867.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  university  in  1813,  and,  after  studying 
theology  at  Andover,  was  settled  in  the  first 
Congregational  church  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1818,  where  he  became  known  as  an  able 
preacher  and  writer.  He  published  "  Lectures 
to  Young  Men"  (Hartford,  1828),  which  has 
had  a  very  large  circulation  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain ;  "  Tribute  to  the  Mem- 
ory of  the  Pilgrims  "  (1830)  ;  "  Memoir  of  Nor- 
mand  Smith"  (1839);  "Character  Everything 
to  the  Young"  (1843);  "The  Religion  of  the 


HA  WICK 


529 


East"  (1845);  " Looking-Glass  for  the  Ladies, 
or  the  Formation  and  Excellence  of  Female 
Character"  (1845);  " Washington 'and  Jay" 
(1850) ;  "  An  Offering  to  Home  Missionaries  " 
(1865)  ;  and  numerous  occasional  sermons. 

HAWFINCH,  a  conirostral  bird,  of  the  family 
fringillidoe  and  genus  coccothraustes  (Briss.). 
The  common  European  hawfinch  (C.  vulgaris, 
Briss.)  has  a  very  large  bill  and  head,  like  other 
grosbeaks ;  the  neck  is  short  and  thick,  and  the 
body  and  limbs  are  proportionally  small.  In 
the  male  the  head  is  yellowish  brown,  with  the 
throat  and  space  before  the  eyes  black ;  fore 
part  of  back  dark  chestnut,  the  rest  brownish 
gray,  shading  on  the  upper  tail  coverts  into 
yellowish  brown ;  wings  with  purple  gloss  and 
white  spots ;  tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  with 
a  terminal  white  spot  on  the  inner  web,  the 
inner  gray  toward  the  end  and  tipped  with 
white ;  below  pale  yellowish  brown ;  under  tail 
coverts  white;  the  bill  flesh-colored,  tipped 
with  dusky ;  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  primaries 
have  their  tips  emarginate  and  the  external 
margins  falcate ;  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  five  of 
the  secondaries  are  truncated,  the  inner  edge 


Hawfinch  (Coccothraustes  vulgaris). 

of  the  tips  rounded,  and  the  outer  sharp ;  the 
tail  is  short  and  straight.  The  female  resem- 
bles the  male,  hut  the  colors  are  paler.  The 
length  is  about  7  in.,  and  the  extent  of  wings 
11  in.  Specimens  are  often  seen  more  varied 
with  white.  It  is  found  in  the  mountainous 
and  elevated  regions  of  Europe,  and  is  an  ir- 
regular visitant  of  Great  Britain.  It  feeds  on 
the  seeds  of  various  trees,  especially  the  horn- 
beam, plane,  pines,  and  cherry,  on  the  kernels 
of  the  haws,  plum,  &c.,  on  laurel  berries,  and 
in  the  summer  on  various  garden  vegetables, 
particularly  green  peas.  The  song  is  pleas- 
ant, but  plaintive.  The  nest  is  very  elaborately 
constructed,  of  the  usual  materials,  on  the 
highest  branches  of  trees,  and  the  eggs,  three 
to  five,  are  of  a  pale  olive  green,  with  black 
spots,  and  irregular  streaks  of  dusky;  the 
young  are  hatched  toward  the  end  of  May,  and 
resemble  the  young  green  finch;  the  bill  be- 
comes deep  blue  in  the  breeding  season. 

HAWICR,  a  town  and  borough  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, Scotland,  on  the  Teviot,  40  m.  S.  E.  of 
Edinburgh,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 


530 


HAWK 


HAWKE 


way  ;  pop.  in  1871,  11,356.  It  is  divided  into 
nearly  equal  parts  by  the  river  Slitrig.  Several 
of  the  newer  streets  contain  handsome  houses ; 
but  old  structures  may  be  seen  in  various  parts, 
having  more  the  look  of  fortresses  than  dwell- 
ings. There  is  an  elegant  new  parish  church, 
and  an  old  church,  which  was  the  scene  of  the 
capture  of  Sir  Alexander  Ramsay  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Douglas  in  the  reign  of  Robert  Bruce. 
There  are  several  other  churches,  public  li- 
braries, and  reading  rooms,  an  academy,  be- 
nevolent institutions,  and  an  exchange,  built 
in  1864.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  town  is  the 
Moat,  an  artificial  mound,  312  ft.  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base  and  117  at  the  top,  and  30 
ft.  high,  supposed  to  have  been  used  at  first  for 
a  burial  place,  and  afterward  as  a  court  of  jus- 
tice. The  Tower  inn  was  formerly  a  fortress 
of  the  barons  of  Drumlanrig.  Hose,  blankets, 
and  flannels  are  largely  manufactured,  and 
gloves,  leather,  and  candles  are  also  made. 
Branksome  tower,  famous  from  Scott's  "  Lay 
of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  is  3  m.  from  the  town. 

HAWK,  a  name  indiscriminately  applied  to 
many  birds  of  the  falcon  family,  of  the  sub- 
families accipitrince,  buteonince,  falconince,  and 
milvina ;  indeed,  to  almost  any  bird  of  prey 
which  is  not  a  vulture,  an  eagle,  or  an  owl. 
The  duck  hawk  has  been  described  under  FAL- 
OON,  the  hen  hawk  under  HARRIER,  and  the 
fish  hawk  and  goshawk  under  their  respec- 
tive titles ;  the  white-tailed  and  swallow-tailed 
hawks  are  noticed  under  KITE,  and  the  pigeon 
and  sparrow  hawks  in  their  alphabetical  order ; 
and  many  are  described  under  BUZZARD.  The 
well  known  American  birds  of  this  name  which 
may  be  most  appropriately  noticed  here  are  the 
following.  Cooper's 
hawk  (accipiter 
Cooperi,  Bonap.)  is 
about  20  in.  long, 
with  an  extent  of 
wings  of  38  in.; 
the  form  is  more 
long  and  slender 
than  in  the  falcons 
and  goshawk,  the 
wings  are  short, 
and  the  tarsi  and 
tail  long;  the  gen- 
eral color  above  is 
dark  ashy  brown, 
darker  on  the  head ; 
the  under  parts  are 
transversely  barred 
with  light  rufous 
and  white ;  throat 
and  under  tail  cov- 
erts white.  It  is 
found  generally  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  temperate  North  Ameri- 
ca, less  commonly  in  the  west.  The  flight  is 
very  rapid,  and  near  the  ground  ;  it  is  one  of 
the  boldest  hawks,  attacking  birds  larger  than 
itself;  the  ruffed  grouse,  quails,  pigeons,  and 
hares  are  its  favorite  food.  The  sharp-shinned 


Accipiter  Cooperi. 


hawk  {A.  fuscus,  Gmel.)  is  a  small  species, 
from  11  to  14  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings 
of  2  ft. ;  the  upper  plumage  is  brownish  black, 
tinged  with  ashy;  under  parts  light  rufous, 
with  transverse  white  bands ;  the  throat  and 
under  tail  coverts  white,  the  former  streaked 


Sharp-shinned  Hawk  (Accipiter  fuscus). 


with  black;  tail  ashy  brown,  white-tipped, 
with  about  four  brownish  black  bands.  It  is 
found  throughout  North  America  from  Mexico 
to  the  arctic  regions ;  it  is  one  of  the  swiftest 
and  boldest  of  the  hawks,  seizing  upon  birds 
and  animals  which  it  cannot  fly  away  with ; 
its  flight  is  low  and  irregular,  and  its  direction 
changed  with  great  quickness ;  it  preys  also  on 
reptiles. — The  young  of  all  the  hawks  differ 
greatly  from  the  adults,  having  generally  a 
much  lighter  and  white-mixed  plumage.  The 
keenness  of  vision  of  these  birds,  sweeping 
with  great  rapidity,  and  often  at  a  consider- 
able height  above  their  prey,  is  remarkable ; 
to  have  a  "sight  like  a  hawk"  has  become  a 
proverb.  They  usually  fly  low,  irregularly,  and" 
with  sudden  change  of  course,  for  which  their 
short  wings  and  long  tails  are  well  adapted; 
the  falcons,  on  the  contrary,  have  longer  wings 
and  shorter  tails,  and  fly  with  greater  regular- 
ity and  at  considerable  elevation,  from  which 
they  descend  with  exceeding  swiftness;  the 
kites  have  both  the  wings  and  tail  elongated, 
with  a  corresponding  power  of  rapid  and  high 
flight,  and  the  ability  of  very  sudden  descent 
and  change  of  direction.  Hawks,  and  indeed 
birds  of  prey  generally,  are  almost  always  shot 
at  when  they  come  within  range  of  a  gun, 
without  any  particular  reason,  except  that  they 
are  hawks,  and  of  a  ferocious  disposition ;  they 
do  no  great  mischief  beyond  the  occasional 
stealing  of  a  chicken,  hare,  grouse,  or  pigeon, 
which  otherwise  would  fall  a  victim  to  man's 
appetite ;  and  they  are  of  positive  advantage  to 
the  agriculturist  by  destroying  animals  and  birds  . 
injurious  to  vegetation,  and  noxious  reptiles. 

HAWKE,  Edward,  baron,  an  English  admiral, 
born  in  1715,  died  at  Shepperton,  Middlesex, 


HAWKESWORTH 


HAWKINS 


531 


Oct.  14,  1781.  He  entered  the  navy  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  in  1734  had  risen  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  vessel.  Ten  years  later  he  was  pres- 
ent at  the  naval  battle  of  Toulon  between  the 
English  fleet  and  the  combined  French  and 
Spanish  fleets,  on  which  occasion  his  ship,  the 
Berwick,  broke  from  the  line  of  battle,  and 
captured  the  Spanish  ship  Padre,  of  superior 
force.  But  as  this  act  of  heroism  involved  a 
disobedience  of  Orders,  Capt.  Hawke  was  tried 
and  dismissed  from  the  service,  to  which  he 
was  immediately  restored  by  George  II.,  who 
thenceforth  called  him  his  own  admiral.  In 
1747  he  was  made  rear  admiral  of  the  white, 
and  on  Oct.  14  of  the  same  year  gained  a  com- 
plete victory  over  a  French  squadron  off  Belle- 
isle  on  the  coast  of  France.  In  1756  he  super- 
seded Admiral  Byng  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
subsequently  was  employed  in  blockading  the 
French  ports  in  the  bay  of  Biscay.  In  April, 
1758,  he  drove  a  French  armament  destined  for 
America  on  shore  in  the  Basque  roads.  In 
November,  1759,  he  attacked  the  French  fleet 
under  Conflans  in  Quiberon  bay  in  the  midst 
of  a  storm,  and,  after  a  memorable  and  ex- 
tremely perilous  action,  the  ships  being  closely 
engaged  among  the  breakers  on  the  coast,  de- 
stroyed or  captured  several  of  the  enemy's 
vessels,  thus  preventing  the  projected  invasion 
of  England.  For  these  services  he  received 
the  thanks  of  parliament  and  a  pension  of 
£2,000.  In  1765  he  was  appointed  vice  admi- 
ral of  England  and  first  lord  of  the  admiral- 
ty, and  in  1776  was  created  Baron  Hawke  of 
Towton  in  Yorkshire. 

HAWKESWORTH,  John,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  in  1715  or  1719,  died  Nov.  17, 
1773.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  clockmaker, 
and  afterward  seems  to  have  passed  some  time 
in  an  attorney's  office.  In  1744  he  succeeded 
Dr.  Johnson  as  compiler  of  parliamentary  de- 
bates for  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine."  In 
1752  he  began,  in  concert  with  Johnson  and 
Thornton,  a  series  of  papers  called  the  "  Ad- 
venturer," on  the  plan  of  the  "Rambler." 
This  periodical  was  published  twice  a  week, 
and  ran  through  140  numbers,  of  which  70 
were  by  Hawkesworth.  They  were  very  suc- 
cessful, and  procured  him  from  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  the  Lambeth  degree  of  LL.  D. 
In  1765  he  published  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Swift,  with  a  memoir.  He  was  critic  in  the 
"Gentleman's  Magazine "  from  1765  to  1772, 
when  he  was  selected  to  prepare  for  publica- 
tion, at  the  cost  of  the  government,  an  account 
of  Cook's  voyage  to  the  South  sea,  for  which 
he  received  £6,000.  The  work  appeared  in 
1773,  in  3  vols.  4to,  illustrated  with  maps  and 
cuts,  and  comprised,  besides  a  digest  of  Cook's 
papers,  a  narrative  of  the  previous  voyages  of 
Byron,  Wallis,  and  Carteret.  He  wrote  "  Zim- 
ri,"  an  oratorio  (1760);  "Edgar  and  Emme- 
line,"  a  fairy  drama  (1761);  "  Aim  or  an  and 
Hamet,"  an  eastern  tale  (1761)  ;  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Fenelon's  TeUmaque  (1768). 

HAWKING,    See  FALCONRY. 


HAWKINS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bor- 
dering on  Virginia,  drained  by  Holston  river, 
here  navigable  by  steamboats ;  area,  710  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,837,  of  whom  1,889  were 
colored.  It  is  traversed  by  Clinch  mountain 
and  other  high  ridges.  Limestone  is  abundant, 
and  the  valleys  are  fertile.  The  East  Tennes- 
see, Virginia,  and  Georgia  railroad  skirts  the 
S.  W.  border,  and  a  branch  terminates  at  the 
county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  138,968  bushels  of  wheat,  466,470  of  In- 
dian corn,  112,306  of  oats,  26,124  Ibs.  of  wool, 
117,468  of  butter,  and  3,354  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  3,192  horses,  3,705  milch  cows, 
1,298  working  oxen,  4,793  other  cattle,  16,567 
sheep,  and  21,700  swine;  2  flour  mills,  and 
2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Rogersville. 

HAWKINS,  Benjamin  Waterhonse,  an  English 
artist,  born  in  London,  Feb.  8,  1807.  He 
graduated  at  St.  Aloysius  college,  and  after- 
ward studied  sculpture  under  W.  Behnes. 
From  1842  to  1847  he  lived  at  Knowsley,  the 
seat  of  Lord  Derby,  engaged  in  making  studies 
from  living  animals.  He  was  assistant  super- 
intendent of  the  world's  fair  in  London  in 
1851.  From  1852  to  1855  he  was  occupied  in 
constructing  33  life-size  models  of  extinct  ani- 
mals for  the  crystal  palace  park,  many  of  them 
colossal.  He  has  lectured  in  the  principal 
cities  of  England,  Scotland,  and  America,  on 
geology  and  zoology,  illustrating  his  lectures 
by  his  drawings,  and  since  1868  has  resided  in 
the  United  States.  He  has  published  "Popu- 
lar Comparative  Anatomy  "  (London,  1840) ; 
"Elements  of  Form"  (1842);  "A  Compara- 
tive View  of  the  Human  and  Animal  Frame" 
(1860) ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Prof.  Huxley, 
"  An  Elementary  Atlas  of  Comparative  Oste- 
ology "  (1864),  and  "  Artistic  Anatomy  of  the 
Horse,  Cattle,  and  Sheep,  for  Art  Students." 

HAWKINS,  Sir  John,  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  Plymouth  about  1520,  died  in  the  West 
Indies,  Nov.  21,  1595.  In  his  youth  he  made 
several  voyages  to  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the 
Canary  islands,  and  was  engaged  for  some 
years  in  the  slave  trade.  The  first  adventure 
from  England  in  this  traffic  was  made  by  Haw- 
kins in  1562,  when  he  sailed  with  a  small 
squadron  for  the  coast  of  Guinea.  There  he  ob- 
tained 300  blacks,  whom  he  sold  advantageous- 
ly in  Hispaniola  (Hayti),  and  with  the  profits 
of  this  sale  was  enabled  to  fit  out  a  second  and 
larger  enterprise  for  the  same  purpose  in  1564. 
In  the  following  year  Queen  Elizabeth  granted 
him  permission  to  wear  as  his  crest  "a  demi 
Moor  in  his  proper  color,  bound  and  captive." 
He  made  a  third  voyage  in  1567,  for  which  he 
received  assistance  from  the  queen,  and  with 
500  negroes  sailed  from  Guinea  to  Spanish 
America.  All  trade  between  the  Spanish  set- 
tlements and  foreigners  having  been  prohibited, 
he  found  himself  unable  to  dispose  of  his  cargo, 
and,  indignant  at  the  refusal  of  the  governor 
of  Rio  de  la  Hacha  to  trade  with  him,  he  took 
possession  of  the  town.  He  then  sailed  to  Car- 
tagena and  sold  his  slaves,  but  soon  after  leav- 


532 


HAWKINS 


HAWK  MOTH 


ing  that  place  he  was  attacked  by  the  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  bay  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua,  Mexico, 
and  escaped  with  but  two  vessels,  with  which 
he  made  his  way  to  England,  arriving  in  Jan- 
uary, 1568.  This  loss  seems  to  have  disheart- 
ened him,  and  he  made  no  more  commercial 
voyages.  In  1573  Elizabeth  appointed  him 
treasurer  of  the  navy.  He  served  in  1588  as 
•  rear  admiral  against  the  Spanish  armada,  and 
was  knighted  for  his  services.  In  1590  he  was 
sent  with  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  to  intercept  the 
Plate  fleet,  and  to  harass  the  trade  of  Spain, 
but  was  successful  only  in  the  latter  object. 
In  1595  he  commanded,  in  conjunction  with 
Drake,  an  expedition  against  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions in  the  West  Indies.  The  two  com- 
manders quarrelled  and  separated,  the  attacks 
upon  Dominica  and  Porto  Rico  were  repulsed, 
and  Hawkins  died  at  sea.  He  was  an  able  sea- 
man, but  rude,  cunning,  and  avaricious.  He 
was  twice  returned  as  member  of  parliament 
for  Plymouth,  and  once  also  for  another  place. 
He  founded  at  Chatham  a  hospital  for  seamen. 

HAWKINS,  Sir  John,  an  English  author,  born 
in  London  in  March,  1719,  died  May  21,  1789. 
He  was  articled  to  an  attorney,  but  devoted  his 
leisure  to  literature  and  the  cultivation  of  mu- 
sic. He  subsequently  acquired  a  large  fortune 
in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  by  legacies 
and  marriage.  In  1741  he  joined  the  madrigal 
society,  and  soon  after  gained  considerable  rep- 
utation by  the  publication  of  several  sets  of 
madrigals,  for  which  he  furnished  the  words. 
In  1749  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  Dr. 
Johnson's  club.  About  1760  he  began  to  col- 
lect materials  for  a  history  of  music,  which 
after  16  years  of  labor  was  published  in  5  vols. 
4to,  under  the  title  of  "  General  History  of  the 
Science  and  Practice  of  Music."  It  suffered 
somewhat  in  competition  with  Dr.  Burney's 
history,  published  about  the  same  time ;  but 
the  value  of  the  information  which  it  contains 
is  beyond  all  question,  and  it  fairly  supplies  in 
learning  what  it  lacks  in  elegance  of  style.  A 
new  edition,  with  an  index,  was  published  in 
1853  (2  vols.  4to,  London).  The  library  which 
he  had  accumulated  in  the  preparation  of  this 
work  he  presented  to  the  British  museum. 
He  also  published  an  edition  of  Walton's  "  Com- 
plete Angler,"  and  a  memoir  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
whose  works  he  edited  in  11  volumes. 

HAWK  MOTH,  the  proper  name  of  the  second 
or  crepuscular  division  of  the  order  lepidoptera, 
corresponding  to  the  old  genus  sphinx  (Linn.), 
most  conveniently  divided  into  the  sections 
of  sphinxes,  aegerians,  and  glaucopidians.  For 
the  characters  of  the  order  both  in  the  perfect 
and  immature  state,  see  BUTTERFLY,  and  CAT- 
ERPILLAR. The  hawk  moths  have  the  antennae 
fusiform  or  thickest  in  the  middle,  and  gen- 
erally hooked  at  the  tip;  the  comparatively 
narrow  wings  are  retained  in  a  horizontal  or 
slightly  inclined  position  by  a  bristle  or  bunch  | 
of  stiff  hairs  on  the  shoulder  of  each  hind  wing,  j 
which  is  received  by  a  hook  on  the  under  side 
of  each  fore  wing,  the  upper  ones  covering  the  i 


lower;  there  are  two  pairs  of  spurs  on  the 
hind  legs.  Most  of  these  insects  fly  in  the 
morning  and  evening  twilight,  though  a  few 
appear  by  day.  Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of 
sphinx  to  this  group  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
of  some  of  their  caterpillars,  when  at  rest,  to 
the  Egyptian  figure ;  supporting  themselves  oil 
the  posterior  pairs  of  legs,  they  raise  the  fore 
part  of  the  body,  and  remain  fixed  in  this,  posi- 
tion for  hours  at  a  time.  The  adult  sphinxes 
are  generally  called  humming-bird  moths  from 
the  noise  they  make  when  flying,  and  hawk 
moths  from  their  hovering  and  powerful  flight ; 
the  body  is  thick  and  robust,  and  the  strong 
wings  long,  narrow,  and  pointed ;  with  their 
very  long  tongues  they  obtain  honey  from 
flowers  while  on  the  wing;  many  are  of  such 
size,  and  have  such  brilliant  colors,  that  they 
might  readily  be  taken  for  humming  birds. 
Some  of  the  aegerians  also  fly  by  day ;  though 
their  flight  is  swift,  it  is  not  prolonged,  and 
they  generally  alight  while  feeding;  they 
much  resemble  bees  and  wasps;  they  have  a 


Hawk  Moth  (Sphinx  qumqueinaculatus). 

tuft  at  the  end  of  the  body  which  can  be 
extended  like  a  fan.  The  glaucopidians,  so 
named  from  the  bluish  color  of  the  eyes  in 
some  of  the  species,  have  the  antennae  feath- 
ered on  each  side ;  they  fly  mostly  by  day,  and 
alight  to  take  their  food.  The  large  green 
caterpillar,  with  a  horn  on  the  top  of  the  last 
segment,  commonly  called  potato  worm,  is  a 
good  example  of  the  larva  of  the  sphinx  moth. 
In  this  division  all  have  16  legs,  in  pairs  be- 
neath the  first  to  third  and  sixth  to  tenth  or 
last  segments  of  the  body ;  and  all,  except  the 
aegerians  and  glaucopidians,  have  a  horn  or 
tubercle  on  the  top  of  the  last  segment.  The 
sphinx  caterpillars  devour  the  leaves  of  plants 
on  which  they  are  found.  The  caterpillars  of 
the  aegerians  are  called  borers,  in  common  with 
the  larvae  of  other  orders  of  insects,  from  their 
living  concealed  within  the  stems  or  roots 
of  plants,  and  feeding  upon  their  interior  sub- 
stance; they  are  soft,  whitish,  and  slightly 
downy ;  they  make  a  cocoon  with  bits  of  wood 


HAWK  MOTH 


cemented  by  gummy  matter,  within  which 
they  are  transformed  into  chrysalids ;  these  are 
of  a  shining  bay  color,  having  the  edges  of  the 
abdominal  segments  armed  with  rows  of  short 
teeth,  by  means  of  which  they  work  out  of 
the  cocoon  and  out  of  the  hole  in  the  wood. 


HAWKS 


533 


Larva  and  Chrysalis  of  Sphinx  quinquemaculatus. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  glaucopidians  are  slen- 
der, with  a  few  scattered  hairs  or  tufts ;  they 
eat  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  undergo  trans- 
formation in  cocoons  of  coarse  silk ;  the  chrys- 
alids are  round  at  one  end,  tapering  at  the 
other,  without  teeth  on  the  surface;  they 
much  resemble  the  nocturnal  moths. — The  po- 
tato worm,  or  larva  of  the  sphinx  quinquema- 
culatus,  with  oblique  whitish  stripes  on  the 
sides,  grows  to  a  length  of  3  or  4  in.  and  the 
thickness  of  the  finger ;  it  attains  its  full  size 
toward  the  end  of  August,  and  often  injures 
the  plant  by  devouring  the  leaves ;  crawling 
into  the  ground,  it  remains  a  chrysalis  du- 
ring the  winter,  and  in  the  following  summer 
comes  out  a  large  moth,  measuring  5  in.  across 
the  wings;  the  color  is  gray,  with  blackish 
lines  and  bands,  and  five  round  orange  spots 
encircled  with  black  on  each  side  of  the  body ; 
the  tongue,  which  when  not  in  use  is  coiled 
like  a  watch  spring,  may  be  unrolled  to  a 
length  of  5  or  6  in.  The  elm  is  infested  with 
a  pale  green  caterpillar,  about  3|  in.  long,  with 
seven  oblique  white  lines  on  each  side,  a  row 
of  little  notches  on  the  back,  and  four  short 
notched  horns  on  the  shoulders ;  this  is  the 
larva  of  a  sphinx  (ceratomia  quadricornis,  Har- 
ris), and  sometimes  commits  considerable  mis- 
chief during  July  and  August ;  these  larva 
pass  the  winter  in  the  earth,  and  come  out  in 
the  following  June  large  moths,  with  an  ex- 
panse of  wings  of  nearly  5  in. ;  the  color  is 
light  brown,  varied  with  darker  and  with 
white,  with  five  longitudinal  dark  brown  lines 
on  the  hind  part  of  the  body.  This  caterpillar 
is  easily  caught  in  the  morning  during  the  sea- 
son of  maturity.  Grape  and  other  vines  are 
attacked  by  the  larvae  of  the  satellitia  and 
achemon  hawk  moths,  the  moth  of  the  former 
being  of  a  light  olive  color  and  expanding  4  or 


5  in.,  and  of  the  latter  reddish  ash,  with  brown 
patches  on  the  thorax  and  anterior  wings,  and 
expanding  3  or  4  in.  For  details  on  other 
sphinxes  injurious  to  vegetation,  see  the  work 
of  Dr.  T.  W.  Harris,  "  On  Insects  Injurious  to 
Vegetation."  The  sphinx  caterpillars,  being 
of  large  size  and  full  of  juices,  are  commonly 
chosen  by  the  ichneumon  flies  as  the  nidus  in 
which  to  deposit  their  eggs,  the  larvro  from 
which,  feeding  on  the  substance  of  the  cat- 
erpillar, and  frequently  spinning  their  cocoons 
in  great  numberston  the  outside,  so  reduce  it 
that^the  metamorphoses  do  not  take  place; 
multitudes  are  destroyed  in  this  way. — Ash 
trees  and  cucurbitaceous  vines  suffer  much 
from  the  boring  larvsB  of  segerians;  the  former 
from  the  trocJiilium  dentatum  (Harris),  of  a 
brown  color,  with  yellow  markings,  expanding 
about  1£  in. ;  the  latter  from  the  cegeria  cu- 
curMtce  (Harris),  with  an  orange-colored  body 
spotted  with  black,  and  with  its  fore  wings  ex- 
panding about  1£  in.  Peach  and  cherry  trees 
throughout  the  United  States  have  of  late 
years  been  infested  with  a  naked  whitish  borer, 
the  cegeria  [T.]  exitiosa  (Say);  the  perfect  in- 
sect is  a  slender  dark  blue  moth,  the  males 
being  much  the  smaller,  and  differing  consid- 
erably in  marking  from  the  females.  For  an 
account  of  these  insects,  and  the  best  ways  of 
preventing  their  ravages,  see  Dr.  Harris's  pa- 
pers in  vols.  v.  and  ix.  of  the  "  New  England 
Farmer." — The  glaucopidian  moth  (procris 
Americana)  is  in  some  years  very  injurious  to 
vines,  stripping  off 
the  leaves  in  mid- 
summer. Its  wings 
are  very  narrow,  ex- 
panding about  an 
inch ;  the  color  is 
blue  black,  with  a 
saffron  collar  ;  the 
caterpillars  are  yel- 
lowish, with  black 
velvety  tufts  on  each 
ring,  and  a  few  hairs 
on  the  end  of  the 
body.  They  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  gre- 
garious, and  rather  sluggish  in  their  motions ; 
in  the  southern  states  several  broods  are 
hatched  in  a  season.  For  a  full  account  see 
"Hovey's  Magazine"  for  June,  1844.— Many 
species  of  all  these  sections  are  found  in  Eu- 
rope, where  their  habits  have  been  carefully 
observed. 

HAWKS,  Francis  Lister,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  New  Berne,  N.  C.,  June  10, 1798, 
died  in  New  York,  Sept.  26,  1866.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  university  of  North  Carolina  in 
1815,  studied  law  and  practised  with  great  suc- 
cess for  several  years,  and  was  elected  to  the 
legislature.  He  resolved  however  to  enter  tho 
ministry  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  and 
was  ordained  in  1887.  He  officiated  for  a  time 
as  assistant  minister  in  New  Haven,  and  in  St. 
James's  church,  Philadelphia,  and  in  1830  was 
chosen  professor  of  divinity  in  Washington  (now 


^Egeria  exitiosa. 


534: 


HAWK'S  BILL 


HAWTHORN 


Trinity)  college,  Hartford.  In  1831  he  became 
rector  of  St.  Stephen's  church,  New  York,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  year  of  St.  Thomas's  church 
in  the  same  city,  where  he  officiated  till  1843. 
Having  been  appointed  by  the  general  conven- 
tion of  1835  historiographer  of  the  American 
Episcopal  church,  he  went  to  England,  and 
obtained  numerous  important  papers  relating 
to  the  early  history  of  Episcopacy  in  America. 
In  1837  he  founded,  with  Dr.  0.  S.  Henry, 
the  "  New  York  Review,"  of  which  he  was  for 
some  time  editor  and  a  principal  contributor. 
In  1839  he  founded  St.  Thomas's  hall,  at 
Flushing,  L.  I.,  a  school  specially  for  the  sons 
of  the  clergy,  but  through  its  failure  became 
heavily  involved  in  debt.  In  1843  he  removed 
to  Mississippi,  of  which  diocese  he  was  elected 
bishop  the  same  year.  His  consecration  was 
opposed  in  the  general  convention  of  1844,  on 
account  of  charges  connected  with  his  financial 
embarrassments.  His  character  was  fully  vin- 
dicated, and  a  vote  of  acquittal  was  passed, 
but  he  refused  to  accept  the  bishopric.  At  the 
end  of  1844  he  became  rector  of  Christ  church, 
New  Orleans,  where  he  remained  five  years, 
being  meanwhile  elected  first  president  of  the 
university  of  Louisiana.  In  1849  he  became 
rector  of  Calvary  church,  New  York,  his  pe- 
cuniary embarrassments  and  those  of  the 
church  having  been  relieved  by  a  large  sub- 
scription. In  1852  he  was  elected  bishop  of 
Rhode  Island,  but  declined.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  Dr.  Hawks,  whose  sympathies 
were  strongly  with  the  south,  resigned  his 
charge,  and  in  1862  became  rector  of  Christ 
church,  Baltimore.  In  1865,  however,  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  where  the  chapel  of  the 
Holy  Saviour  was  begun  for  him ;  and  his  last 
public  act  was  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone 
in  September,  1866.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Reports  of  Cases  adjudged  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  North  Carolina,  1820-'26"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  Raleigh,  1823-'8);  "Digest  of  all  the 
Cases  decided  and  reported  in  North  Caro- 
lina;" "Contributions  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  United  States "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
embracing  Virginia  and  Maryland,  New  York, 
1836-'41) ;  "  Commentary  on  the  Constitution 
and  Canons  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States"  (8vo,  1841);  "Egypt 
and  its  Monuments"  (8vo,  1849);  and  "Au- 
ricular Confession  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  "  (1 2mo,  1850).  Dr.  Hawks  translated 
Rivero  and  Tschudi's  "Antiquities  of  Peru" 
(1854),  and  edited  "The  Official  and  other 
State  Papers  of  the  late  Maj.  Gen.  Alexander 
Hamilton"  (8vo,  1842);  "Narrative  of  Com- 
modore Perry's  Expedition  to  the  China  Seas 
and  Japan  in  1852-'4"  (8vo  and  4to,  1856), 
compiled  from  Perry's  original  notes  and  jour- 
nal; the  "Romance  of  Biography"  (12  vols.); 
Appleton's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biography  "  (1856) ; 
and  "  History  of  North  Carolina  "  (1857). 

HAWK'S  BILL.     See  TURTLE. 

HAWKSMOOR,  Nicholas,  an  English  architect, 
born  in  1666,  died  in  1736.  He  was  a  pupil  of 


Sir  Christopher  Wren,  after  whose  death  he 
was  surveyor  of  Westminster  abbey,  and  de- 
signed many  of  the  edifices  erected  in  pur- 
suance of  the  statute  of  Queen  Anne  for  build- 
ing 50  new  churches.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
been  associated  with  Sir  John  Vanbrugh  in 
building  Castle  Howard  and  Blenheim. 

HAWRWOOD,  Sir  John  (called  by  the  Italians 
GIOVANNI  ACUTO),  an  English  military  adven- 
turer in  the  14th  century.  He  fought  for  the 
Viscontis  and  for  Gregory  XL,  and  so  daring 
were  his  ravages  of  the  Florentine  territory, 
that  he  was  paid  130,000  golden  florins  as  a 
ransom.  In  Naples  he  sided  with  Charles  III. 
against  Louis  of  Anjou.  In  the  course  of  a 
campaign  in  the  contest  between  Florence  and 
the  Viscontis,  shortly  before  his  death,  Hawk- 
wood  pitched  his  camp  on  a  hill.  Jacopo  del 
Verme,  another  leader  of  condottieri,  opened 
the  dikes  of  the  Adige,  and  surrounded  the  hill 
with  water,  sending  at  the  same  time  a  fox  in 
a  cage  as  a  present  to  Acuto.  His  reply  was : 
"  Good ;  but  the  fox  does  not  look  at  all  sad ; 
he  will  find  his  way  out."  He  found  a  crossing 
place,  and  cut  his  way  through  his  opponents. 

HAWLEY,  Gideon,  an  American  missionary, 
born  in  Stratford  (now  Bridgeport),  Conn.,  Nov. 
5,  1727,  died  in  Marshpee,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1807. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1749,  and 
commenced  his  labors  at  Stockbridge  in  1752, 
opening  a  school  at  that  place,  in  which  he  in- 
structed a  number  of  Mohawk,  Oneida,  and 
Tuscarora  families.  In  1754,  under  the  patron- 
age of  Sir  William  Johnson,  he  began  a  mission 
among  the  Iroquois,  or  Six  Nations,  on  the 
Susquehanna  river;  but  in  1756  he  was  obliged 
by  the  disturbances  of  the  French  war  to  leave 
that  region,  when  he  became  a  chaplain  in  the 
army  marching  against  Crown  Point.  The 
campaign  being  over,  he  reengaged  in  his  mis- 
sionary work  at  Marshpee,  where  he  was  in- 
stalled as  pastor  in  1758,  and  there  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

HAWLEY,  Joseph,  an  American  revolutionist, 
born  in  Northampton,  Mass.,  in  1724,  died 
March  10, 1788.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college, 
and  practised  law  at  Northampton.  At  the  time 
of  the  disputes  between  Great  Britain  and 
America,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  advo- 
cating the  cause  of  the  colonies.  "We  must 
fight,"  he  wrote  to  the  delegates  of  Massachu- 
setts, "if  we  cannot  otherwise  rid  ourselves 
of  British  taxation.  The  form  of  government 
enacted  for  us  by  the  British  parliament  is  evil 
against  right,  utterly  intolerable  to  every  man 
who  has  any  idea  or  feeling  of  right  or  liberty." 
He  was  several  times  elected  a  member  of  the 
council,  but  declined,  preferring  to  occupy  a 
seat  in  the  state  legislature,  of  which  from  1764 
to  1776  he  was  an  influential  member.  From 
a  violent  opposer  of  the  ecclesiastical  measures 
of  Jonathan  Edwards,  whose  removal  from 
Northampton  he  had  been  active  in  effecting, 
he  became  his  warm  advocate,  and  in  1760 
wrote  a  letter  deploring  his  part  in  the  affair. 

HAWTHORN.    See  THORN. 


HAWTHORNE 


535 


HAWTHORNE.  I.  Nathaniel,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  July  4,  1804,  died 
at  Plymouth,  N.  H.,  May  19, 1864.  His  ances- 
tors, who  came  from  England,  had  settled  at 
Salem  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century. 
The  Hawthornes  in  that  century  took  part  in 
the  persecution  of  the  Quakers  and  the  witches. 
For  a  long  period  the  men  of  the  family  followed 
the  sea ;  "a  gray-headed  shipmaster  in  each 
Deration  retiring  from  the  quarter-deck  to  the 
nomestead,  while  a  boy  of  14  took  the  heredi- 
tary place  before  the  mast,  confronting  the  salt 

ray  and  the  gale,  which  had  blustered  against 
us  sire  and  grandsire."  The  father  of  Nathan- 
3!  Hawthorne  was  a  shipmaster  who  died  of 
rellow  fever  in  Surinam  in  1808.  His  mother, 
rhose  maiden  name  was  Manning,  was  a  wo- 
of great  beauty  and  extreme  sensibility. 
Eer  grief  at  her  husband's  death  was  hardly 
litigated  by  time,  and  for  the  rest  of  her  life 
le  lived  a  mourner  in  absolute  seclusion.  For 

5re  than  30  years  she 

>k  her  meals  alone  in 
ler  chamber.  At  the 
of  14,  on  account  of 
feeble  health,  Nathan- 
el  Hawthorne  was  sent 
live  on  a  farm  be- 
Dnging  to  his  family  in 
Raymond,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Sebago  lake  in 
Maine.  He  returned  to 
Salem  for  a  year  to 
complete  his  studies 
preparatory  to  entering 
Bowdoin  college,  where 
he  graduated  in  1825, 
in  the  same  class  with 
George  B.  Oheever  and 
Henry  W.  Longfellow. 
Franklin  Pierce,  who 
was  in  the  preceding 
class,  was  his  intimate 
friend.  After  quitting 
college  he  resided  many 

years  in  Salem,  leading  a  solitary  life  of  medi- 
tation and  study,  a  recluse  even  from  his  own 
household,  walking  out  by  night  and  passing  the 
day  alone  in  his  room,  and  writing  wild  tales, 
most  of  which  he  burned,  and  some  of  which 
appeared  in  newspapers,  magazines,  and  annu- 
als. In  1828  he  published  in  Boston  an  anony- 
mous romance,  called  "  Fanshawe,"  which  he 
never  acknowledged,  and  which  has  not  been 
reprinted.  In  1836  he  went  to  Boston  to  edit 
the  "American  Magazine  of  Useful  Knowl- 
,'"  of  which  he  wrote  the  whole,  and  for 
which,  owing  to  the  insolvency  of  the  publish- 
ers, he  received  no  pay.  In  1837  he  collected 
from  the  annual  called  "  The  Token  "  and  from 
other  periodicals  a  number  of  his  tales  and 
sketches,  and  published  them  at  Boston  under 
the  title  of  "Twice-told  Tales."  The  book 
was  noticed  with  high  praise  in  the  "North 
American  Review "  by  Mr.  Longfellow,  who 
pronounced  it  the  work  of  a  man  of  genius 


and  of  a  true  poet,  but  it  attracted  little  atten- 
tion from  the  general  public.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, it  found  its  way  into  the  hands  of  the 
more  cultivated  and  appreciative  class  of  read- 
ers ;  and  in  1842  a  new  edition  was  issued,  to- 
gether with  a  second  series  of  tales  collected 
from  the  "Democratic  Review"  and  other 
magazines.  These  volumes,  says  Mr.  George 
W.  Curtis,  are  "full  of  glancing  wit,  of  tender 
satire,  of  exquisite  natural  description,  of  sub- 
tle and  strange  analysis  of  human  life,  darkly 
passionate  and  weird."  In  1838  Mr.  Bancroft 
the  historian,  then  collector  of  the  port  of 
Boston,  appointed  Mr.  Hawthorne  a  weigher 
and  gauger  in  the  custom  house.  He  fulfilled 
his  novel  duties  well,  was  a  favorite  with  the 
sailors,  it  is  said,  and  held  his  office  till  after 
the  inauguration  of  President  Harrison  in 
1841,  when,  being  a  democrat,  he  was  dis- 
placed to  make  room  for  a  whig.  After  leav- 
ing the  custom  house  he  went  to  live  with  the 


The  Old  Manse  at  Concord,  Mass. 

association  for  agriculture  and  education  at 
Brook  Farm  in  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  founders.  He  remained 
here  a  few  months,  "belaboring  the  rugged 
furrows;"  but  before  the  year  expired  he  re- 
turned to  Boston,  where  he  resided  till  1843, 
when  he  married  Miss  Sophia  Peabody  and 
took  up  his  abode  in  the  old  manse  at  Concord, 
which  adjoins  the  first  battle  field  of  the  revo- 
lution, a  parsonage  which  had  never  before 
been  profaned  by  a  lay  occupant.  In  the  in- 
troduction to  the  volume  of  tales  and  sketches 
entitled  "Mosses  from  an  old  Manse"  (New 
York,  1846),  he  has  given  a  charming  account 
of  his  life  here,  of  "wild,  free  days  on  the 
Assabet,  indulging  fantastic  speculations  be- 
side our  fire  of  fallen  boughs  with  Ellery  Chan- 
ning,  or  talking  with  Thoreau  about  pine  trees 
and  Indian  relics  in  his  hermitage  at  Walden." 
These  "Mosses"  were  mostly  written  in  the 
old  manse,  in  a  delightful  little  nook  of  a  study 


636 


HAWTHORNE 


in  the  rear  of  the  house,  from  whose  windows 
the  clergyman  of  Concord  watched  the  tight 
between  his  parishioners  and  the  British  troops 
on  April  19,  1775.  In  the  same  room  Emer- 
son, who  once  inhabited  the  manse,  wrote 
"  Nature."  Mr.  Hawthorne  resided  in  Con- 
cord for  three  years,  mingling  little  with  the 
society  of  the  village,  and  seeking  solitude  in 
the  woodland  walks  around  it,  or  in  his  boat 
on  the  beautiful  Assabet,  of  which  in  his  "  Moss- 
es" he  says:  "A  more  lovely  stream  than 
this,  for  a  mile  above  its  junction  with  the 
Concord,  has  never  flowed  on  earth — nowhere, 
indeed,  except  to  lave  the  interior  regions  of 
a  poet's  imagination."  In  1846  Mr.  Hawthorne 
was  appointed  surveyor  of  the  port  of  Salem. 
He  carried  his  family  thither,  and  for  the  next 
three  years  he  was  the  chief  executive  officer 
in  the  decayed  old  custom  house,  of  which  and 
its  venerable  inmates  he  gave  a  graphic  and  sa- 
tirical sketch  in  the  introduction  to  "  The  Scar- 
let Letter  "  (Boston,  1850),  a  powerful  romance 
of  early  New  England  life,  which  became  at 
once  exceedingly  popular,  and  established  for 
its  author  a  high  and  wide-spread  reputation. 
In  1849,  the  whigs  having  regained  control  of 
the  national  government,  Mr.  Hawthorne  was 
again  removed  from  office.  Retiring  to  the 
hills  of  Berkshire,  he  settled  in  the  town  of 
Lenox,  in  a  little  red  cottage  on  the  shore  of 
the  lake  called  the  Stockbridge  Bowl.  Here 
he  wrote  "  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables " 
(Boston,  1851),  a  story  the  scene  of  which  is 
laid  in  Salem  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  present 
century.  It  was  not  less  successful  than  "  The 
Scarlet  Letter,"  though  its  striking  and  som- 
bre effect  is  wrought  out  of  homely  and  ap- 
parently commonplace  materials,  and  its  strain 
of  horror  is  prolonged  almost  to  tedious- 
ness.  This  was  followed  by  "  The  Blithedale 
Romance"  (Boston,  1852),  in  which,  as  he 
says  in  the  preface  to  the  book,  he  "has  ven- 
tured to  make  free  with  his  old  and  affection- 
ately remembered  home  at  Brook  Farm,  as  be- 
ing certainly  the  most  romantic  episode  of  his 
own  life."  The  characters  of  the  romance,  he 
says,  are  entirely  fictitious,  though  the  scene 
of  Brook  Farm  was  in  good  keeping  with  the 
personages  whom  he  desired  to  introduce. 
44  The  self-conceited  philanthropist ;  the  high- 
spirited  woman  bruising  herself  against  the 
narrow  limitations  of  her  sex ;  the  weakly 
maiden,  whose  tremulous  nerves  endow  her 
with  sibylline  attributes;  the  minor  poet,  be- 
ginning life  with  strenuous  aspirations,  which 
die  out  with  his  youthful  fervor;  all  these 
might  have  been  looked  for  at  Brook  Farm, 
but,  by  some  accident,  never  made  their  ap- 
pearance there."  In  1852  Mr.  Hawthorne  re- 
turned to  Concord,  where  he  purchased  a  house 
and  a  few  acres  of  land,  intending  to  make  it 
his  permanent  home.  During  the  presidential 
canvass  of  1852  he  published  a  life  of  his  col- 
lege friend  Franklin  Pierce,  the  democratic 
candidate.  President  Pierce  in  1853  appoint- 
ed his  biographer  to  one  of  the  most  lucrative 


posts  in  his  gift,  the  consulate  at  Liverpool. 
Mr.  Hawthorne  held  this  office  till  1857,  when 
he  resigned  it,  and  for  two  years  travelled 
with  his  family  in  France  and  Italy,  residing 
for  a  good  while  in  Rome  and  in  Florence. 
He  returned  to  Concord  in  the  latter  part  of 
1860,  and  lived  here  quietly  until  his  health 
failed,  and  in  the  spring  of  1864  he  set  out  on 
a  journey  through  New  Hampshire  with  ex- 
President  Pierce.  He  reached  a  hotel  in  the 
town  of  Plymouth,  where  he  stopped  for  the 
night,  and  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  in  the 
morning.  Among  his  works  not  already  men- 
tioned are :  "  True  Stories  from  History  and 
Biography"  (Boston,  1851);  "The  Wonder 
Book  for  Girls  and  Boys  "  (1851) ;  "  The  Snow- 
Image  and  other  Twice-told  Tales"  (1852); 
and  "Tanglewood  Tales,"  a  continuation  of 
"The  Wonder  Book"  (1853).  Each  of  these 
is  in  1  vol.  12mo.  In  1845  he  edited  "The 
Journal  of  an  African  Cruiser"  (New  York), 
from  the  MSS.  of  a  naval  officer,  Lieut.  Hora- 
tio Bridge.  His  longest  and  perhaps  his  best 
work,  "The  Marble  Faun,"  a  romance  of  Italy, 
was  published  in  Boston  in  1860,  and  in  the 
same  year  reprinted  in  London  with  the  title 
"  Transformation."  His  next  work,  "  Our  Old 
Home,"  a  series  of  English  sketches  contrib- 
uted to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  was  publish- 
ed in  a  volume  in  1863.  This  was  the  last 
of  his  books  that  appeared  during  his  life. 
After  his  death  his  wife  edited  from  his  diaries, 
which  he  kept  with  remarkable  regularity, 
his  "American  Note  Books"  (1868),  "English 
Note  Books"  (1870),  and  "French  and  Italian 
Note  Books  "  (1872).  In  1872  "  Septimius  Fel- 
ton,  or  the  Elixir  of  Life,"  a  psychological 
romance,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Concord 
in  1775,  was  found  among  his  manuscripts  and 
edited  by  his  daughter  Una.  Some  chapters 
of  "  The  Dolliver  Romance,"  an  unfinished 
work,  were  published  in  the  "  Atlantic  Month- 
ly "  in  1864.  A  complete  edition  of  his  wri- 
tings was  issued  in  Boston  in  1873,  in  21  vols. 
16mo.  Mr.  Hillard  of  Boston,  one  of  Haw- 
thorne's most  intimate  friends,  says  of  him  in 
an  article  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly  "  for  1870 : 
"  He  was  a  man  as  peculiar  in  character  as  he 
was  unique  in  genius.  In  him  opposite  quali- 
ties met,  and  were  happily  and  harmoniously 
blended ;  and  this  was  true  of  him  physically 
as  well  as  intellectually.  He  was  tall  and 
strongly  built,  with  broad  shoulders,  deep 
chest,  a  massive  head,  black  hair,  and  large, 
dark  eyes.  Wherever  he  was,  he  attracted 
attention  by  his  imposing  presence.  He  looked 
like  a  man  who  might  have  held  the  stroke 
oar  in  a  university  boat.  And  his  genius, 
as  all  the  world  knows,  was  of  masculine 
force  and  sweep.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  no 
man  had  more  of  the  feminine  element  than 
he.  He  was  feminine  in  his  quick  perceptions, 
his  fine  insight,  his  sensibility  to  beauty,  his 
delicate  reserve,  his  purity  of  feeling.  No  man 
comprehended  woman  more  perfectly;  none 
has  painted  woman  with  a  more  exquisite  and 


HAXTHAUSEN 


ethereal  pencil.     And  his  face  was  as  mobile 
and  rapid  in  its  changes  of  expression  as  is  the 
face  of  a  young  girl.     His  lip  and  cheek  herald- 
ed the  word  before  it  was  spoken.     His  eyes 
would  darken  visibly  under  the   touch  of  a 
passing  emotion,  like  the  waters  of  a  fountain 
ruffled  by  the  breeze  of  summer.     So,  too,  he 
was  the  shyest  of  men.     The  claims  and  cour- 
tesies of  social  life  were  terrible  to  him.     The 
thought  of  making  a  call   would  keep  him 
awake  in  his  bed.     At  breakfast,  he  could  not 
lay  a  piece  of  butter  upon  a  lady's  plate  with- 
out a  little  trembling  of  the  hand — this  is  a  fact, 
and  not  a  phrase.     He  was  so  shy  that  in  the 
presence  of  two  intimate  friends  he  would  be 
less  easy  and  free-spoken  than  in  that  of  only 
le."     H.  Sophia  Peabody,  an  American  author- 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
1810,  died  in  London,  England,  Feb.  26, 1871. 
was  married  to  Hawthorne  in  1843,  having 
le  his  acquaintance  by  illustrating  one  of  his 
Twice-told  Tales,"  "  The  Gentle  Boy."     She 
considerable  artistic  talent,  and  after  the 
iath  of  her  husband  devoted  herself  to  edit- 
_  his  "  Note  Books."     In  1868  she  published 
Volume   of  her  own   observations  entitled 
'Notes   in  England    and  Italy."      She   was 
siding  in  England  with  her  two  daughters 
rhen  she  died.     III.  Julian,  an  American  au- 
5r,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Boston, 
me  22,  1846.     He  went  to  Europe  with  the 
st  of  the  family  in  1853,  and  remained  there 
11  1860,  when  he   came  home  to   Concord, 
lere  he  went  to  school  for  three  years,  his 
previous  education  having  been   entirely  do- 
tic.     In  1863  he  entered  Harvard  college, 
the  class  which  graduated  in  1867;  but  his 
ttendance  was  very  irregular,  and  he  did  not 
luate.     In  1868  he   entered  the   scientific 
100!  of  the  university,  but  gave  more  atten- 
m  to  rowing  and  other  muscular  exercises 
lan  to  his  studies.     He  rowed  in  the  college 
fcta  in  the  summer  of  that  year,  and  in  the 
itumn  went  to  Dresden  in  Germany,  where 
resided  nearly  two  years,  studying  engineer- 
He  came  to  New  York  in  1870,  and  was 
iployed  till  1872  as  an  engineer  in  the  de- 
irtment  of  docks.     In  November,  1870,  he 
fied  an  American  lady  of  German  descent, 
rhose  acquaintance  he  had  made  in  Dresden. 
1871  he  began  to  write  stories  and  sketches 
)r  the  magazines,  and  in  1873  published  in 
id  on  and  New  York  a  novel  entitled  "  Bres- 
it."     In  1872  he  went  with  his  family  to 
)resden,  where  he  now  (1874)  resides. 
HAXTHAUSEN,  Franz  Ludwig  Marie  Angnst,  bar- 
i,  a  German  author,  born  near  Paderborn, 
reb.  3,  1792,  died  in  Hanover,  Dec.  31,  1866. 
e  was  a  wealthy  land  owner,  served  in  the 
:my,  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  travelled  ex- 
isively,  especially  in  Russia.     His  works  in- 
lude  Die  Agrarverfassung  und  ihre  Conflicte 
rlin,  1829) ;  Die  landlicJie  Verfassung  der 
nz  Preussen    (Konigsberg,   1838) ;    Stu- 
uber  die  innern  Zustande,  das  VolTcsleben 
id  insbesondere  die  landlicJien  EinricJitungen 


HAY  COLD 


537 


Emslands  (3  vols.,  Hanover,  1847-'52),  a  book 
which  attracted  great  attention  in  Russia; 
Tramkaukasia  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1856);  Das 
constitutionelle  Princip  (French  and  German, 
2  vols.,  1865);  and  Die  landlicJie  Verfassunq 
Russlands  (1866). 

HAY,  John,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Salem,  111.,  Oct.  8,  1839.  He  was  educated  at 
Brown  university,  studied  law  at  Springfield, 
111.,  and  had  just  been  admitted  to  the  bar 
when  he  received  the  appointment  of  private 
secretary  to  President  Lincoln  (1861).  He  re- 
mained with  the  president  almost  constantly 
until  his  assassination  in  1865,  but  served  as  a 
staff  officer  for  several  months  in  the  field  du- 
ring the  civil  war.  In  1865  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  legation  at  Paris,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1867,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
Vienna.  Here  he  was  for  some  time  charge1 
d'affaires ;  and  in  1868  he  was  again  transferred 
to  Madrid  as  secretary.  In  1870  he  returned 
to  America,  and  became  attached  to  the  staff 
of  the  "New  York  Tribune."  He  has  writ- 
ten "Pike  County  Ballads"  and  "Castilian 
Days,"  both  published  at  Boston  in  1871. 

HAY  COLD,  Hay  Asthma,  or  Hay  Fever,  an 
affection  first  described  by  Dr.  John  Bostock 
in  1819,  under  the  name  catarrhus  astivus. 
The  local  symptoms  denote  subacute  inflamma- 
tion of  the  nostrils  (coryza),  and  of  the  bron- 
chial mucous  membrane  (bronchitis),  together 
with  irritability  of  the  eyes,  and,  in  a  certain 
proportion  of  cases,  bronchial  spasm  or  asthma. 
More  or  less  fever  and  other  evidences  of  con- 
stitutional disturbance  accompany  the  affec- 
tion. The  foregoing  names  imply  that  the 
cause  is  contained  in  emanations  from  hay. 
Observations  show  that  fresh  or  newly  mown 
hay  causes  the  affection  in  some  persons ;  but 
this  expression  of  the  causation  is  not  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive,  as  other  emanations 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom  give  rise  to  it. 
The  special  cause  or  causes  contained  therein 
have  not  as  yet  been  ascertained.  It  is  prob- 
able that  different  persons  are  affected  by  the 
products  of  different  kinds  of  vegetation,  dif- 
fused in  the  atmosphere.  The  peculiar  sus- 
ceptibility to  their  influence  is  inherent  in  the 
system  ;  that  is,  it  is  an  idiosyncrasy ;  and  this 
idiosyncrasy  is  manifested  only  during  the  sum- 
mer or  autumnal  months.  In  some  cases  the 
affection  occurs  in  successive  years  precisely 
at  the  same  period,  and  has  a  uniform  dura- 
tion. It  rarely  if  ever  persists  or  is  developed 
after  the  occurrence  of  black  frosts.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  unknown  in  the  southern  states 
and  in  the  northern  regions  of  Canada.  It  is 
never  developed  on  the  sea ;  and  persons  suf- 
fering from  it  find  instant  and  complete  relief 
after  the  first  12  or  24  hours  of  a  sea  voyage. 
Relief  is  also  obtained  in  situations  where  there 
is  little  or  no  vegetation.  These  facts  render 
it  certain  that  the  cause  is  contained  in  tho 
atmosphere,  and  that  it  is  of  vegetable  origin. 
The  affection  has  been  elaborately  studied  by 
Dr.  Morrill  Wyman,  author  of  a  work  entitled 


638 


HAYDEN 


HAYDN 


"  Antnmnal  Catarrh  (Hay  Fever)  "  (1872).  Ac- 
cording to  this  author,  there  are  two  forms 
of  annually  recurring  bronchial  inflammation 
(catarrh)  in  the  northern  part  of  this  country, 
affecting  persons  with  a  peculiar  idiosyncrasy. 
The  first  is  often  called  the  rose  cold  or  June 
cold,  commencing  in  the  latter  part  of  May  or 
early  in  June,  and  continuing  into  July.  This 
corresponds  to  the  affection  known  in  England 
as  hay  asthma  or  hay  fever.  The  other  form 
is  called  by  Dr.  Wyman  catarrkus  autumnalis 
or  autumnal  catarrh.  In  this  form  the  affec- 
tion begins  generally  in  the  third  or  fourth 
week  of  August,  and  ends  in  the  latter  part 
of  September  or  in  October.  Dr.  Wyman  has 
collected  facts  which  show  that  relief  may  be 
obtained  by  going  to  certain  portions  of  the 
White  Mountain  region,  to  Mount  Mansfield  in 
Vermont,  to  the  Adirondack  mountains,  or  gen- 
erally to  any  point  lying  800  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Persons  who  suffer  from  the  affection  in  the 
places  in  which  they  reside,  may  secure  relief 
and  exemption  by  various  changes  of  residence, 
to  be  determined  in  each  case  by  individual 
experience,  inasmuch  as  the  particular  agencies 
are  unknown.  The  treatment  of  the  affection, 
when  removal  without  the  region  in  which 
the  cause  exists  is  not  practicable,  must  consist 
of  palliative  measures.  Iodide  of  potassium, 
and  the  salts  of  bromine,  arsenic,  and  strych- 
nine, have  been  found  useful.  Prof.  Helmholtz 
has  discovered  vibrio-like  organisms  in  the  na- 
sal secretions  in  this  complaint,  whose  action 
is  arrested  by  the  local  employment  of  quinine. 
HAYDEN,  Ferdinand  Vandeveer,  an  American 
geologist,  born  in  Westfield,  Mass.,  Sept.  7,  1829. 
He  emigrated  to  Ohio  at  an  early  age,  and 
graduated  at  Oberlin  college  in  1850.  He  af- 
terward studied  medicine  at  the  Albany  medi- 
cal college,  taking  his  degree  in  1853.  In  the 
spring  of  that  year  he  visited  the  "  Bad  Lands  " 
of  Dakota  on  White  river  in  the  interest  of 
Prof.  James  Hall,  explored  one  of  the  remark- 
able ancient  deposits  of  extinct  animals,  and 
returned  with  a  large  and  valuable  collection 
of  fossil  vertebrates.  He  again  ascended  the 
Missouri  river  for  the  American  fur  company 
in  the  spring  of  1854,  and  spent  two  years  in 
exploring  the  upper  Missouri,  entirely  at  his 
own  expense,  returning  in  1856  with  another 
large  collection  of  fossils,  a  part  of  which  was 
deposited  in  the  academy  of  sciences  of  St. 
Louis,  and  a  part  in  that  at  Philadelphia. 
These  collections  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
officers  of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  and  he 
was  appointed  geologist  on  the  staff  of  Lieut. 
G.  K.  Warren  of  the  topographical  engineers, 
who  was  then  making  a  reconnoissance  of  the 
northwest,  and  continued  on  this  duty  till 
1861,  when  he  entered  the  army  as  a  medical 
officer.  In  1864  he  was  assistant  medical  in- 
spector of  the  department  of  Washington,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  chief  medical 
officer  of  the  army  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 
In  1865  he  was  elected  professor  of  geology 
and  mineralogy  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 


vania, and  held  that  post  till  1872,  when  he 
resigned  on  account  of  the  increased  labor  in 
managing  the  survey.  In  the  summer  of  1866 
he  made  another  expedition  to  the  upper  Mis- 
souri in  behalf  of  the  academy  of  sciences  of 
Philadelphia,  bringing  back  another  valuable 
collection  of  vertebrate  fossils.  The  United 
States  geological  survey  of  the  territories,  un- 
der charge  of  Prof.  Hayden,  was  commenced 
in  the  spring  of  1867  with  an  appropriation  of 
$5,000  ;  continued  in  1868  with  $5,000,  in  1869 
with  $10,000,  in  1870  with  $25,000,  in  1871 
with  $40,000,  in  1872  with  $75,000  and  $10,- 
000  for  engraving,  and  in  1873  with  $75,000 
and  $20,000  for  engraving.  Seven  annual  re- 
ports of  the  survey  have  been  published,  and 
a  final  report  on  Nebraska,  in  octavo,  besides 
3  vols.  4to,  with  illustrations.  Besides  his  re- 
ports, Dr.  Hayden  has  written  about  40  scien- 
tific papers,  published  in  the  "American  Jour- 
nal of  Science,"  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  of  Philadelphia,  and  in 
the  reports  of  the  Smithsonian  institution.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  national  academy  ot  sci- 
ences, and  of  many  other  American  and  Eu- 
ropean societies.  Dr.  Hayden  has  occupied 
about  20  years  in  exploring  the  west,  and 
has  extended  his  investigations  over  much  of 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Dakota,  Monta- 
na, Idaho,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico. 

HAYDN,  Joseph,  a  German  composer,  born  at 
Kohrau,  Lower  Austria,  March  31, 1732,  died  in 
Vienna,  May  31,  1809.  He  was  the  eldest  of 
the  20  children  (by  two  mothers)  of  Matthias 
Haydn,  a  wheelwright.  In  his  fifth  year  his 
musical  talents  attracted  the  notice  of  Frank,  a 
school  teacher  of  Haimburg,  who  advised  the 
parents  to  give  their  son  a  musical  education. 
When  six  years  old  he  was  sent  to  the  school 
at  Haimburg,  where  he  learned  reading,  wri- 
ting, singing  by  note,  and  all  the  instruments 
then  usual  in  orchestras  which  his  strength 
would  admit  of  his  playing.  He  had  come  to 
Haimburg  at  a  season  of  numerous  religious 
processions,  and  the  drummer  had  just  died. 
Frank  gave  the  child  a  lesson  or  two,  and  a  few 
days  after  the  people  of  the  town  laughed  to 
see  their  processions  led  by  a  boy  of  six  years 
beating  a  drum,  which  was  mounted  upon  a 
humpbacked  dwarf.  His  voice  proved  to  be 
one  of  remarkable  power,  sweetness,  and  com- 
pass, and  attracted  the  notice  of  the  parish 
priest,  who  afterward  recommended  him  to 
Reuter,  chapelmaster  of  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Stephen's  in  Vienna,  as  a  choir  boy.  Reuter 
examined  him,  gave  him  a  single  lesson  in  the 
execution  of  the  shake  or  trill,  ordered  him  to 
practise  singing  the  scale  daily,  and  at  eight 
years  of  age  received  him  into  the  choir.  The 
number  of  boys  in  the  choir  was  six,  for  the 
support  and  instruction  of  each  of  whom  Reuter 
received  700  florins  (about  $300),  a  sum  amply 
sufficient  in  those  days  for  their  handsome  sup- 
port, and  to  furnish  them  with  the  best  teach- 
ers. In  the  case  of  Haydn,  and  doubtless  of 
the  others,  a  large  proportion  of  the  700  florins 


HAYDN 


539 


went  into  Renter's  pocket;  for,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  little  Latin  and  much  practical  mu- 
sic, Joseph  seems  to  have  been  taught  nothing. 
In  the  theory  and  science  of  the  art  he  received 
in  eight  years  but  two  lessons  from  his  master. 
His  physical  wants  were  as  ill  supplied  as  those 
of  his  mind.  Hunger  during  these  years  was  a 
spur  to  him  in  the  study  of  singing,  he  having 
early  learned  that  his  beautiful  voice  could  be 
made  to  procure  him  food.  Constant  practice 
in  singing  the  music  of  the  best  Italian  and 
German  ecclesiastical  composers  made  up  in 
some  measure  for  the  want  of  adequate  instruc- 
tion in  musical  theory ;  his  natural  instinct  for 
correct  harmony  and  counterpoint  being  de- 
veloped in  spite  of  his  ignorance  of  rules.  With 
little  bread,  little  instruction,  and  many  a  beat- 
ing from  Reuter,  Joseph  reached  his  16th  year, 
when  his  voice  began  to  break,  and  his  master, 
seeing  that  he  could  no  longer  make  him  a 
source  of  profit,  sought  a  fit  occasion  to  dismiss 
him.  Joseph  was  often  in  difficulty  from  his 
practical  jests.  One  of  these  gave  Renter  the 
wished-for  occasion.  One  of  the  boys  wore  his 
hair  long  and  tied  in  a  queue.  Joseph,  to  bring 
him  into  uniformity  with  the  others,  took  op- 
portunity to  cut  it  off,  and  being  complained 
of  was  sentenced  to  a  severe  castigation  upon 
the  open  hand.  He  begged  hard  to  be  let  off, 
offering  to  resign  if  his  punishment  were  re- 
mitted. "No  help  for  you,"  said  Reuter; 
"  you  shall  first  receive  your  Schilling  and  then 
march."  The  boy  of  16  was  turned  into  the 
streets  of  Vienna  with  a  threadbare  coat  and 
three  bad  shirts.  His  parents,  to  whom  he 
went,  could  not  aid  him,  and  besought  him  to 
carry  out  the  old  plan  and  enter  the  church. 
What  he  had  seen  of  the  lower  clergy  during 
his  eight  years  in  St.  Stephen's  had  not  in- 
creased his  liking  for  such  a  life,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Vienna  to  see  what  could  be  done  in 
music.  He  took  up  his  abode  in  a  garret  room 
of  a  five-story  house,  where  he  had  neither 
stove  nor  fireplace,  and  where  rain  and  snow 
penetrated  through  the  holes  in  the  roof. 
Among  the  first  friends  whom  the  boy  found 
was  a  widow,  who  with  her  daughter  lived  by 
knitting ;  she  gave  him  permission  to  sleep  on 
the  floor  in  her  own  room  when  the  winter 
came.  She  afterward  fell  into  extreme  want. 
Haydn  was  then  in  prosperity ;  in  his  good  for- 
tune he  remembered  her,  and  for  30  years  gave 
her  a  small  monthly  pension.  It  was  at  this 
period  that  his  genius  received  its  permanent 
direction.  The  first  six  sonatas  of  0.  P.  E. 
Bach  fell  into  his  hands.  "  I  could  not  leave 
my  instrument,"  said  he  in  his  old  age,  "  until 
I  had  played  them  through ;  and  whoever 
thoroughly  understands  me,  must  see  that  I 
owe  very  much  to  Emanuel  Bach  ;  that  I  com- 
prehended and  industriously  studied  him. 
Emanuel  Bach  himself  sent  me  a  compliment 
for  this."  After  a  time  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  Metastasio,  who  lived  in  the  same  house. 
The  poet  had  charge  of  the  education  of  a  Si- 
gnora  Martinez,  then  a  child,  and  Haydn  was 


employed  to  give  her  rudimental  instructions  in 
music,  thus  having  opportunity  to  make  him- 
self a  thorough  master  of  the  Italian  language. 
Through  Metastasio  he  became  acquainted  with 
Porpora,  who  was  then  in  Germany  giving 
singing  lessons  to  the  mistress  of  Correr,  the 
Venetian  ambassador.  Thus  far  Haydn  had 
had  no  opportunity  of  studying  the  theory  of 
music  with  a  master,  nor  been  able  to  pur- 
chase books  for  this  purpose.  It  was  therefore 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  him  to  have  the 
benefit  of  the  profound  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience of  Porpora.  Porpora,  too,  wished  for 
some  one  to  play  the  accompaniments  when  he 
gave  his  lessons.  That  he  received  lessons  from 
Porpora  directly,  save  such  as  were  necessary 
to  render  him  adequate  to  the  old  master's  de- 
mands upon  him,  is  very  doubtful ;  but  he  de- 
rived the  highest  advantage  from  being  present 
at  the  lessons,  and  willingly  bore  the  old  man's 
ill  humor.  During  a  visit  of  three  months  to 
the  baths  of  Mannersdorf,  Correr  took  his  mis- 
tress and  her  teacher,  and  Haydn  chose  to  act 
during  that  time  as  Porpora's  servant  rather 
than  miss  the  opportunity  of  improving  himself. 
He  wore  no  livery,  and  dined  at  the  table  of 
Correr's  officials,  not  at  that  of  the  servants. 
He  was  known  as  Porpora's  accompanist,  and 
in  this  capacity  attracted  the  notice  of  Gluck, 
Wagenseil,  and  other  musical  notabilities  of 
Vienna.  His  salary  was  then  six  ducats  a 
month.  From  this  time  his  prospects  were 
continually  brighter.  A  Baron  Furnberg  often 
invited  him  to  his  house  both  in  the  city  and  in 
the  country,  to  small  musical  parties ;  and  for 
him,  during  the  autumn  of  1750  or  the  winter 
following,  Haydn  composed  his  first  quartet  for 
stringed  instruments.  Returning  one  day  to 
his  lodgings,  he  found  that  his  clothes  and  a 
few  other  possessions  had  been  stolen ;  but  he 
had  already  made  friends,  and  one  of  them 
gave  him  a  good  suit  of  black,  another  linen, 
&c.,  and  Furnberg  took  him  for  two  months  to 
his  country  seat.  From  1751  to  1759  his  life 
was  that  of  a  successful  young  music  teacher. 
His  fees  for  instruction  gradually  rose  from  two 
to  five  florins  per  month.  Sundays  and  church 
festivals  were  busy  days  with  him ;  at  8  in  the 
morning  he  played  the  organ  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Carmelites,  at  10  in  the  chapel  of  Count 
Haugnitz,  and  at  11  he  sang  (tenor)  in  his  old 
choir  at  St.  Stephen's,  receiving  for  each  ser- 
vice 17  kreutzers.  He  was  often  employed  in 
serenading,  his  own  music  generally  forming 
part  of  the  programme.  One  evening  the 
handsome  wife  of  Kurz,  a  famous  harlequin, 
was  the  recipient  of  the  serenaders'  homage, 
and  the  husband  was  so  struck  by  the  music  as 
to  go  down  to  the  street  and  ask  who  was  its 
author.  Haydn,  then  about  20,  acknowledged 
it.  Kurz  had  the  text  for  a  short  comic  opera, 
DerUnkende  Teufel(uThe  Limping  Devil"), 
a  satire  on  the  lame  theatre  director,  Affligio, 
and  this  he  persuaded  Haydn  to  compose.  The 
piece  was  given  three  times  with  applause,  and 
then  forbidden  by  the  police.  Haydn  received 


540 


HAYDN 


for  his  work  24  ducats.  Having  now  the 
means,  he  determined  to  make  himself  master 
of  the  science  of  music,  and  to  reduce  to  order 
what  he  had  previously  acquired  by  observa- 
tion and  practice.  His  first  purchase  was  the 
theoretical  work  of  Emanuel  Bach,  which  ap- 
peared in  1753.  Then  came  Mattheson's  Voll- 
kommener  Kapellmeister,  and  finally  Fux's 
Oradus  ad  Parnassum.  To  these  works  he 
devoted  a  most  thorough  study,  giving  the  pref- 
erence on  the  whole  to  Bach,  although  he  af- 
terward used  Fux  as  his  text  book  in  teaching 
on  account  of  the  excellence  of  his  method. 
His  own  pen  was  never  idle.  Besides  his  ex- 
ercises in  harmony  and  counterpoint  for  his 
own  improvement,  he  wrote  pieces  in  infinite 
variety  for  his  pupils,  which  fell  into  the  hands 
of  publishers  and  made  him  known,  though 
they  gave  him  no  pecuniary  profit.  In  1759, 
at  the  age  of  27,  he  at  length  obtained  an  ap- 
pointment. A  Bohemian,  Count  Morzin,  en- 
gaged him  as  music  director  and  composer, 
with  a  salary  of  200  florins,  free  lodgings, 
and  table  with  his  secretaries  and  other  of- 
ficials. Haydn  now  resolved  to  marry.  A 
hair  dresser,  Keller,  in  the  Landstrasse,  Vien- 
na, had  often  aided  him  in  his  days  of  want, 
and  in  return  Haydn  had  instructed  the  eldest 
daughter  in  music,  and  to  her  lost  his  heart. 
But  she  had  chosen  to  enter  a  convent,  and, 
urged  by  gratitude  and  the  persuasions  of  Kel- 
ler, he  transferred  his  proposal  to  her  sister, 
and  married  her.  She  proved  but  a  sorry 
match  for  the  chapelmaster.  She  had  few 
truly  feminine  qualities,  and  was  disposed  to 
squander  Haydn's  earnings.  Morzin  would 
have  no  married  men  in  his  orchestra,  and 
Haydn  was  obliged  to  keep  his  marriage  secret. 
It  was  during  this  year  that  Haydn  wrote  his 
first  grand  symphony  for  full  orchestra.  Be- 
fore the  winter  of  1759-'60  was  over,  which 
Morzin  spent  in  Vienna,  he  found  it  necessary 
to  reduce  his  expenses,  and  one  step  was  to  dis- 
miss his  orchestra.  This  was  no  loss  to  Haydn, 
for  Prince  Nicholas  Esterhazy  had  heard  his 
symphony,  and  in  1760  appointed  him  chapel- 
master.  This  position  Haydn  held  without  in- 
terruption until  Esterhazy's  death,  full  30  years, 
spending  eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year  at 
Eisenstadt  or  at  Eszterhaz  in  Hungary,  and 
the  winter  in  Vienna.  His  salary,  at  first  400 
florins,  was  gradually  increased  to  1,000.  The 
prince  was  ever  ready  with  his  purse,  and  thrice 
when  Haydn's  house  in  Eisenstadt  was  burned, 
Esterhazy  rebuilt  it  at  his  own  expense.  In 
his  will  he  gave  Haydn  a  pension  equal  to  his 
salary  for  life,  and  his  successor,  though  he  dis- 
missed his  orchestra,  continued  to  Haydn  his 
title  of  chapelmaster,  and  added  400  florins  to 
his  pension.  The  composer  had  free  range  of 
the  fields  and  forests  of  the  prince,  and  could 
gratify  his  passion  for  shooting  and  fishing  to  his 
heart's  desire.  It  cost  him  little  to  live  in  the 
country,  with  no  family  but  a  wife  and  a  servant 
or  two ;  and  but  for  Frau  Haydn's  propensity 
to  squander  her  husband's  earnings,  he  might 


have  saved  a  handsome  share  of  his  emolu- 
ments. A  French  traveller  who  visited  Esz- 
terhaz about  1782  says:  "The  chateau  stands 
quite  solitary,  and  the  prince  sees  nobody  but 
his  officials  and  servants,  and  strangers  who  are 
drawn  hither  from  curiosity.  He  has  a  puppet 
theatre,  which  is  certainly  unique  in  character. 
Here  the  grandest  operas  are  produced.  One 
knows  not  whether  to  be  amazed  or  to  laugh 
at  seeing  Alceste,  Alcides,  Al  livio,  &c.,  put 
upon  the  stage  with  all  due  grandeur  and  play- 
ed by  puppets.  His  orchestra  is  one  of  the  best 
I  ever  heard,  and  the  great  Haydn  is  his  court 
and  theatre  composer.  He  employs  a  poet  for 
his  singular  theatre,  whose  humor  and  skill  in 
suiting  the  grandest  subjects  to  his  stage,  and 
in  parodying  the  gravest  pieces,  are  often  ex- 
ceedingly happy.  He  often  engages  a  troop  of 
wandering  players  for  months  at  a  time,  and 
he  himself  with  a  few  officials  and  servants 
forms  the  entire  audience.  They  are  allowed 
to  come  upon  the  stage  uncombed,  drunk,  their 
parts  not  half  learned,  and  half  dressed.  The 
prince  is  not  for  the  serious  and  the  tragic,  and 
he  enjoys  it  when  the  players,  like  Sancho 
Panza,  give  loose  reins  to  their  humor."  For 
this  prince  Haydn,  ever  ready  with  new  and 
excellent  music  in  which  no  tragic  tones  re- 
sounded, was  just  the  man.  Haydn  said  of  him 
toward  the  close  of  his  life  :  "  My  prince  was 
satisfied  with  all  my  works ;  I  received  ap- 
plause ;  as  chief  of  the  orchestra,  I  could  try 
experiments,  observe  what  produced  the  right 
effect  and  what  weakened  it ;  could  therefore 
improve,  add,  cut  out,  venture.  I  was  separa- 
ted from  the  world,  nobody  to  meddle  with 
and  plague  me,  and  so  I  was  perforce  original." 
The  demand  upon  him  for  church  and  instru- 
mental music  was  constant ;  for  theatrical  mu- 
sic frequent ;  and  the  best  of  the  year's  pro- 
ductions  in  the  country  came  in  the  winter  to 
a  hearing  in  Vienna  before  the  highest  musical 
circle  in  Europe.  Thus  ten  years  had  not  passed 
since  entering  the  service  of  Esterhazy  before 
the  name  of  Haydn  had  a  European  reputation, 
and  the  publishers  of  Leipsic,  Berlin,  Hamburg, 
and  even  of  more  distant  cities,  vied  with  those 
of  Vienna  in  giving  his  works  to  the  world. 
Anything  like  a  complete  catalogue  of  his  com- 
positions during  these  30  years  is  impossible ; 
much  was  lost  when  his  houses  were  burned, 
much  was  scattered ;  but  we  know  of  1 63  pieces 
for  the  baryton,  from  the  solo  with  pianoforte 
to  the  octet  and  grand  concerto ;  of  sympho- 
nies for  full  orchestra,  at  least  four  per  annum ; 
of  a  score  or  two  of  masses  and  other  works  for 
divine  service  in  the  prince's  chapel ;  of  more 
than  100  works  of  chamber  music  of  the  higher 
forms,  with  an  immense  number  of  simpler  con- 
struction. At  least  12  Italian  operas  by  him 
were  performed  in  the  private  theatre,  and  four 
German  operettas  by  the  marionettes.  The 
oratorio  II  ritorno  di  Tobia  was  composed  in 
1774  for  the  "  Musicians'  Widows  and  Orphans 
Society  "  in  Vienna,  he  being  a  candidate  for 
admission.  On  learning  that  he  must  bind 


HAYDN 


541 


himself  to  compose  for  the  society  whenever 
called  upon,  he  withdrew  his  score ;  and  the 
society  18  years  later  was  proud  to  elect  him 
an  honorary  member.     The  fame  of  his  Italian 
3ras  procured  him  an  order  to  compose  one 
>r  the  imperial  opera  house  in  Vienna.     La 
constanza    was    written    and    accepted, 
laydn  had  studied  the  capacities  of  the  singers 
ifully,  and  adapted  his  parts  with  great  skill 
their  various  powers.     The  theatre  was  in 
hands  of  the  same  Italians  who  had  before 
icceeded  in  preventing  the  performance  of 
tozart's  La  finta  simplice,  and  it  was  enough 
array  them  against  Haydn  that  he  was  a 
ierman.     The  one  means  in  their  power  to 
the  opera  was  to  make  an  entire  change  in 
he  distribution  of  the  parts,  and  this  they  did. 
lying,  "  I  know  what  and  for  whom  I  wrote," 
laydn  took  his  score  and  returned  to  Eisen- 
it.    During  the  building  of  the  new  chateau 
it  Eszterhaz,  the  accommodations  were  so  lim- 
that  the  prince  took  with  him  of  his  or- 
lestra  but  a  few  virtuosos,  who  were  obliged 
» leave  their  families  at  Eisenstadt.  Six  months 
I,  and  the  musicians,  full  of  impatience  to 
jturn,  were  astonished  and  despairing  to  learn 
lat  Esterhazy  intended  to  prolong  his  stay 
months.     They  came  to  Haydn  praying 
to  find  some  means  of  changing  the  prince's 
letermination.     To   have  sent   in  a  petition 
rould  only  have  brought  upon  him  and  them 
he  laughter  of  their  employer.     Haydn  com- 
a  sextet,  giving  the  first  violin  to  the 
irtuoso  Tomasini,   whose  playing  would  be 
ire  to  hold  the  prince  until  the  close.     At 
le  performance  one  player  after  another  ceased, 
blew  out  his  candle,  took  his  music  and  instru- 
lent,  and  silently  left  the  room,  until  at  length 
Tomasini  alone  remained,  and  he  only  to  finish 
lis  part,  when  like  the  rest  he  put  out  his  light 
id  withdrew.    "  If  they  all  go  away,  we  must 
ive  too,"  said  Esterhazy.     The  performers 
had  waited  in  an  anteroom,  and  as  the  prince 
came  through  he  said  laughing :    "  Haydn,  I 
understand  it ;  the  gentlemen  may  all  leave  to- 
morrow."   The  sextet  was  afterward   devel- 
oped into  a  symphony.     In  1780  the  philhar- 
lonic  society  of  Modena  sent  Haydn  a  diploma 
honorary  member.     In  1785  he  received  an 
order  from  Cadiz  in  Spain  to  compose  a  series 
of  seven  adagios  for  orchestra,  to  be  played  in 
the  principal  church  at  the  annual  festival  in 
commemoration  of  the  crucifixion.     To  these 
seven  were  afterward  adapted  words  founded 
upon  the  seven  phrases  spoken  by  Christ  upon 
the  cross.     As  adagios,  performed  in  a  church 
lighted  by  a  single  lamp,  the  priests  prostrate 
before  the  altar,  and  the  multitude  kneeling  in 
silence,  this  music  is,  as  Haydn  himself  de- 
clared, among  the  most  successful  of  his  com- 
positions. Prince  Nicholas  Esterhazy  died  Sept. 
28, 1790.    His  son  and  successor  Paul  Anthony, 
not  having  the  taste  of  his  father,  dismissed 
the  orchestra,  retaining  Haydn  nominally  as  his 
chapelmaster.     The   composer  was  now   free 
from  all  labor  but  that  of  composition,  had  a 


handsome  income  secured  to  him,  and,  having 
made  Vienna  his  residence,  occupied  himself 
in  laying  plans  for  future  works  on  a  grander 
scale  than  any  hitherto  attempted.  Thus  only 
could  he  compete  with  the  young  Mozart, 
whom,  he  loved  as  a  son,  but  whose  genius  was 
a  spur  to  the  veteran.  A  few  weeks  after  the 
death  of  Esterhazy  a  stranger  entered  the 
room  of  Haydn.  "  I  am  Salomon,  of  London," 
said  he,  "and  come  to  take  you  thither;  to- 
morrow we  will  strike  a  bargain."  Salomon 
was  a  native  of  Bonn,  but  left  that  city  early 
in  life  to  enter  the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of 
Prussia,  and  in  1783  emigrated  to  London.  He 
had  repeatedly  urged  Haydn  by  letter  in  pre- 
vious years  to  visit  that  city,  and  Prince  Ester- 
hazy  was  ready  to  give  the  necessary  leave  of 
absence;  but  Haydn  was  unable  to  make  up 
his  mind  to  accept  the  invitation.  Gallini,  the 
undertaker  of  the  great  professional  concerts 
in  Hanover  square,  was  with  Salomon  upon 
the  continent  at  this  time  engaging  singers  and 
virtuosos  for  the  succeeding  season.  Salomon 
was  already  at  Bonn  on  his  way  back  to  Lon- 
don when  he  learned  the  death  of  Esterhazy, 
and  immediately  started  for  Vienna  to  engage 
Haydn.  The  composer  hesitated  long,  but  an 
offer  of  3,000  florins  for  an  Italian  opera,  and 
100  florins  for  every  new  work  which  he  should 
compose  and  direct  in  a  series  of  20  concerts, 
at  length  overcame  his  scruples,  and  on  Dec. 
15,  1790,  he  left  Vienna.  The  musical  world 
of  London  received  him  with  the  highest  de- 
gree of  enthusiasm,  which  increased  with  each 
new  work  that  he  produced.  Soon  after  the 
concerts  began,  a  quarrel  broke  out  between 
Gallini  and  Salomon  on  the  one  part,  and  the 
other  directors  of  the  concerts  on  the  other, 
which  resulted  in  driving  the  two  from  Hano- 
ver square  to  the  Haymarket  theatre.  Haydn, 
having  made  his  contract  with  Gallini,  re- 
mained faithful  to  him  notwithstanding  the 
offer  of  a  large  sum  from  the  other  party. 
The  public  followed  Haydn  to  the  Haymarket, 
and  the  enterprise  of  Gallini  and  Salomon  was 
successful.  Haydn's  first  stay  in  London  last- 
ed 18  months.  The  principal  works  produced 
were:  Orfeo  (opera  seria),  9  symphonies,  a 
symphony  concertante,  "  The  Storm,"  a  grand 
chorus  with  orchestra,  6  quartets,  11  sona- 
tas, several  beautiful  songs  and  canzonets,  and 
the  arrangements  to  more  than  100  Scotch 
songs.  The  Orfeo  was  not  given,  because  Gal- 
lini's  license  did  not  include  operatic  perform- 
ances. In  the  summer  of  1792  Haydn  returned 
to  Vienna,  with  a  handsome  sum  saved  from 
his  earnings,  and  the  fame  of  being  (for  Mozart 
was  now  dead)  the  greatest  of  living  com- 
posers. On  Jan.  19,  1794,  he  left  Vienna  for 
a  second  visit  to  London,  where  he  remained 
a  year  and  a  half.  His  principal  works  were 
three  symphonies,  a  large  number  of  songs 
and  airs,  both  with  pianoforte  and  orchestral  ac- 
companiment, the  ten  commandments  composed 
as  canons,  24  minuets  and  German  dances,  6 
contra  dances,  3  sonatas,  an  overture,  ballads, 


542 


HAYDN 


&c.  George  III.  and  his  queen  endeavored  to 
persuade  him  to  remain  in  England ;  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  created  him  doctor  of  music. 
All  classes  vied  in  testifying  their  admiration  of 
his  genius.  His  fame  preceded  him  to  Vienna, 
and  soon  after  his  return  in  1795  he  gave  a 
concert,  which  was  crowded  to  excess,  wherein 
he  produced  his  three  new  symphonies,  and  in 
which  the  young  Beethoven  appeared  both  as 
composer  and  virtuoso,  and  played  his  own 
first  pianoforte  concerto.  Haydn  was  now  in 
Vienna  what  he  had  heen  in  London,  the  un- 
rivalled master.  He  had  brought  with  him 
from  London  an  English  text  for  an  oratorio, 
prepared  by  Linley,  from  Milton's  "  Paradise 
Lost,"  entitled  "  The  Creation."  Not  ventur- 
ing to  compose  so  grand  a  work  to  an  English 
text,  he  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  Baron  van 
Swieten,  who  translated  and  arranged  it  in  its 
present  form.  Twelve  persons  of  the  high- 
est nobility  subscribed  to  the  amount  of  500 
ducats,  which  they  offered  him  for  a  compo- 
sition of  the  new  text.  Haydn  accepted  the 
proposition,  and  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age  he 
completed  this  magnificent  work.  It  was  first 
produced  March  19,  1799.  Its  great  success 
led  Van  Swieten  to  prepare  another  text  from 
Thomson's  "  Seasons,"  which  was  composed 
within  the  next  two  years,  and  first  produced 
at  Vienna,  under  the  title  of  Die  Jahreszeiten 
("The  Seasons"),  April  24,  1801.  This  labor 
had  been  too  great  for  him,  and  the  barren, 
unpoetical  text  had  been  a  source  of  great 
trouble  and  annoyance.  Soon  after  finishing 
it  he  felt  a  feverish  attack  in  his  head,  and 
from  that  time  his  strength,  both  mental  and 
physical,  sensibly  failed.  From  this  period  to 
his  death  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  his 
house  and  garden,  which  had  become  one  of 
the  principal  attractions  to  strangers  in  Vienna. 
On  March  27, 1808,  he  was  once  more  induced 
to  appear  in  public.  It  was  at  a  performance 
of  the  "  Creation,"  in  the  great  hall  of  the 
university.  At  the  famous  passage,  "and 
there  was  light!  "  in  the  first  chorus,  the  audi- 
ence as  usual  burst  into  tumultuous  applause. 
Haydn,  waving  his  hand  toward  heaven,  ex- 
claimed, "  It  comes  from  there !  "  At  the  end 
of  the  first  part  he  felt  it  necessary  from  his 
great  weakness  to  leave  the  room ;  and  as  he 
was  borne  out  in  the  great  chair  in  which  he 
had  sat,  he  once  more,  with  tearful  eyes,  turned 
to  the  orchestra,  and  spread  out  his  hands  as 
if  to  bless  them.  It  was  his  farewell  to  the 
whole  world.  On  May  10,  1809,  early  in  the 
morning,  a  corps  of  the  French  army  advanced 
toward  the  suburb  Mariahilf  of  Vienna,  not  far 
from  Haydn's  house.  His  servants  were  en- 
gaged in  getting  him  out  of  bed  and  dressing 
him  when  four  cannon  reports  shook  the  house 
and  frightened  the  domestics.  "Children," 
said  Haydn,  "fear  not;  where  Haydn  is,  no 
misfortune  can  befall  you."  But  he  had  hardly 
spoken  these  brave  words  when  he  himself 
began  to  tremble  violently.  He  now  declined 
rapidly,  and  died  May  31,  in  his  78th  year. — 


Gerber's  attempt  to  catalogue  Haydn's  works 
fills  over  13  octavo  pages  of  his  Neues  Lexikon, 
and  is  far  from  being  complete.  Haydn  him- 
self in  1805  was  unable  to  give  a  complete  list 
of  his  compositions;  he  could  remember  but 
118  symphonies,  yet  Gerber  had  at  that  time 
the  themes  of  140.  His  compositions  in  Eng- 
land alone  filled  768  leaves  (1,536  pages)  music 
folio.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  list 
which  he  made  out  in  1805  for  Prof.  Bertuch, 
"of  such  as  he  could  remember:"  118  sym- 
phonies, 83  quartets,  24  trios,  19  operas,  5 
oratorios,  163  compositions  for  the  baryton,  24 
concertos  for  different  instruments,  15  masses, 
10  pieces  of  church  music,  44  sonatas  for  piano- 
forte, with  and  without  accompaniment,  42 
German  and  Italian  songs,  39  canons,  13  vocal 
pieces  for  three  and  four  voices,  365  Scotch  and 
English  songs  arranged  with  accompaniments, 
40  divertimenti  for  from  three  to  nine  instru- 
ments, four  fantasias,  capriccios,  &c.  Haydn 
will  for  ever  fill  a  large  space  in  musical  his- 
tory, not  only  for  the  magnitude,  number, 
originality,  and  beauty  of  his  compositions,  but 
as  being  one  of  the  small  number  who  have 
made  eras  in  the  development  of  the  art.  He 
is  the  great  mentor  in  the  department  of  or- 
chestral and  chamber  music,  the  father  of  the 
modern  quartet  and  its  kindred  forms,  and  of 
the  grand  symphony.  By  this  it  is  not  meant 
that  orchestras  and  small  companies  of  per- 
formers on  stringed  instruments  were  unknown 
before  his  time,  but  that  he,  adopting  the  sonata 
form  as  perfected  by  Emanuel  Bach  and  intro- 
ducing it  into  compositions  for  the  orchestra 
and  chamber,  laid  the  foundation  for  that  won- 
derful development  of  instrumental  music  ex- 
hibited in  his  own  later  compositions  and  in 
the  works  of  Mozart,  and  which  reached  its 
climax  in  the  musical  "poems"  of  Beethoven. 
There  are  but  two  names  in  musical  history  for 
which  this  honor  is  claimed  at  the  expense  of 
Haydn's  fame.  The  one,  San  Martini  (Sam- 
martini),  belonged  to  the  old  Italian  school, 
and  if  any  of  his  instrumental  works  belong  to 
the  new  era,  they  are  those  of  his  later  days, 
when  Haydn's  influence  was  already  every- 
where felt.  But  the  fame  of  Haydn  has  hardly 
been  seriously  claimed  for  San  Martini.  Of 
the  other,  Boccherini,  for  whom  more  serious 
claims  have  been  urged,  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  when  Haydn's  quartets  were  already  be- 
coming known  and  gaining  him  a  reputation, 
Boccherini  was  a  child  of  13  or  14  years ;  that 
Haydn  was  already  in  the  service  of  Prince 
Esterhazy  as  chapelmaster  when  Boccherini's 
opus  L,  Sei  sinfonie,  for  two  violins,  alto  and 
'cello  obbligato  (that  is,  mere  quartets)  was 
written ;  that  Boccherini's  first  work  for  more 
than  four  instruments — a  concerto  (op.  8)  for 
six  instruments  obbligati,  and  six  ad  lit). — 
was  not  composed  till  1769,  before  which  date 
at  least  18  of  Haydn's  symphonies  and  sev- 
eral of  his  quartets  had  been  printed  in 
Paris.  Haydn  thought  it  unfortunate  that 
circumstances  had  led  him  so  preponderantly 


I 

rath 


HAYDON 


543 


the  field  of  instrumental  composition, 
_jther  than  into  that  of  operatic  writing. 
But  in  this  no  one  who  is  acquainted  with 
lis  works  at  all  extensively  can  doubt  he  was 
error.  He  was  of  too  happy  a  tempera- 
it  to  have  touched  the  deep-toned  harps  of 
idel,  Gluck,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven.  For 
>re  than  half  a  century  music  flowed  from 
is  pen  in  a  continuous  stream,  always  new, 
Iways  attractive,  always  cheerful,  always 
eautiful,  often  grand,  sometimes  reaching  the 
iblirne,  but  never  betraying  any  touches  of 
lly  tragic  sorrow  or  grief.  He  was  the  mu- 
al  apostle  of  the  beautiful  and  the  happy. — 
ydn's  biography  has  been  written  by  Grie- 
3r  (1810),  Bombet  ("Bayle,"  1817),  Grosser 
),  and  Ludwig  (1867).  II.  Michael,  a  Ger- 
composer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
Rohrau,  Sept.  16,  1737,  died  in  Salzburg, 
1808.  He  was  educated  in  music  by 
3uter,  'and  rose  to  eminence  as  an  organist 
composer,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  his 
lose  study  of  the  works  of  Fux,  Bach,  Handel, 
Graun.  He  was  chapelmaster  at  Gross- 
rardein  in  Hungary,  and  occupied  the  same 
lition  in  the  cathedral  of  Salzburg,  where 
also  established  an  excellent  school  of  coun- 
3rpoint.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  em- 
race  operas,  oratorios,  masses,  symphonies, 
many  other  popular  forms  of  vocal  and 
trumental  composition ;  but  they  are  little 
wn  in  consequence  of  the  author's  reluc- 
ce  to  have  them  published  during  his  life, 
lis  brother  Joseph  considered  him  the  best 
iposer  of  sacred  music  of  the  day. 
HAYDON,  Benjamin  Robert,  an  English  painter, 
rn  in  Plymouth,  Jan.  25,  1786,  died  by  his 
>wn  hand  in  London,  June  22,  1846.  Disre- 
ding  the  wishes  of  his  father  that  he  should 
lopt  his  own  business,  that  of  a  bookseller,  he 
rent  to  London  at  the  age  of  18,  and  became 
student  in  the  school  of  the  royal  academy. 
[e  was  an  enthusiast  in  the  pursuit  of  what  is 
led  "high  art,"  and  prosecuted  his  studies 
.  drawing  and  anatomy  with  singular  earnest- 
His  first  picture,  "Joseph  and  Mary 
ting  with  our  Saviour  after  a  Day's  Journey 
the  Road  to  Egypt,"  was  exhibited  in  1807, 
immediately  purchased  by  Thomas  Hope, 
author  of  "Anastasius."  This  was  fol- 
>wed  by  "  Dentatus,"  a  work  which  estab- 
shed  his  reputation,  but  involved  him  in  a 
larrel  with  the  academy,  whose  hanging 
mmittee  had  placed  the  picture  in  a  small 
side  room.  A  fondness  for  controversy  led 
him  to  publish  several  attacks  upon  the  acad- 
emy, which  had  only  the  effect  of  estranging 
some  of  his  most  valuable  friends,  of  exasper- 
ating his  own  temper,  and  of  cutting  him  oif 
from  what  was  the  chief  ambition  of  his  life, 
the  honor  of  being  an  academician.  From  this 
time  forward,  notwithstanding  the  frequent 
production  of  eminent  works,  he  had  constant- 
ly to  struggle  with  pecuniary  difficulties.  In 
1815  he  established  a  school,  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  academy,  in  which  the  Landseers 
395  VOL.  viii. — 35 


and  Eastlake  were  instructed,  and  about  the 
same  time  became  associated  in  the  conduct 
of  a  periodical  entitled  "Annals  of  the  Fine 
Arts."  Having  no  tact  for  either  pursuit,  he 
failed  in  both;  and  in  1823*  two  years  after 
his  marriage,  he  was  so  involved  in  debt  that  he 
became  an  inmate  of  the  king's  bench  prison, 
where  he  remained  two  months.  Subsequent- 
ly he  painted  here  one  of  his  most  characteris- 
tic works,  "  The  Mock  Election,"  representing 
a  scene  which  took  place  within  the  prison 
walls  in  July,  1827,  and  which  was  purchased 
by  George  IV.  for  500  guineas.  For  his  "Pha- 
raoh, and  Moses,"  painted  soon  after  his  re- 
lease, he  obtained  an  equal  sum.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  and  similar  emoluments,  in  1836  he 
again  became  a  prisoner  for  debt,  but  was  soon 
after  enabled  to  compound  with  his  creditors. 
About  this  time  he  lectured  on  painting  with 
considerable  success.  Upc-fn  the  publication 
by  government,  in  great  part  through  Hay- 
don's  own  exertions,  of  proposals  for  decora- 
ting the  new  houses  of  parliament  with  frescoes 
representing  scenes  in  the  history  of  the  na- 
tion, he  sent  to  the  exhibition  in  Westminster 
hall  two  cartoons,  "  The  Curse  "  and  "  Edward 
the  Black  Prince."  No  notice  was  taken  of 
his  performances,  and  his  hope  of  executing 
some  great  public  work  of  art  was  crushed  for 
ever.  To  show  the  world  how  erroneous  had 
been  the  decision  of  the  judges,  he  commenced 
a  series  of  gigantic  pictures,  including  "  Uriel 
and  Satan,"  "  Curtius  Leaping  into  the  Gulf," 
the  "  Burning  of  Rome,"  and  the  "  Banishment 
of  Aristides,"  the  two  latter  of  which,  while 
on  exhibition  in  London,  attracted  but  133 
visitors  during  the  time  that  Tom  Thumb  in 
an  adjoining  room  received  120,000.  Under 
the  weight  of  this  neglect  and  of  pecuniary 
embarrassments  his  reason  gave  way,  and  while 
engaged  on  his  last  great  picture,  "  Alfred  and 
the  Trial  by  Jury,"  he  put  an  end  to  his  life, 
having  first  written  in  his  journal :  "  Stretch 
me  no  longer  on  this  rough,  world."  A  post- 
mortem examination  discovered  a  long-seated 
disease  of  the  brain,  which  may  account  for 
much  of  his  eccentricity.  His  family  were 
provided  for  by  a  public  subscription.  Hay- 
don's  autobiography,  edited  by  Tom  Taylor  in 
1853  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.  8vo),  lays  bare  the  char- 
acter of  the  man,  and  explains  his  unhappy 
career.  His  love  of  art  was  a  passion  rather 
than  a  principle.  An  impetuosity  of  temper, 
impatience  of  criticism,  and  an  exaggerated  es- 
timate of  his  own  powers  and  of  his  mission  as 
the  apostle  of  high  art,  were  continually  involv- 
ing him  in  disputes.  His  "Judgment  of  Solo- 
mon," "Christ's  Entry  into  Jerusalem,"  "Christ 
Rejected,"  "Christ's  Agony  in  the  Garden," 
and  "Raising  of  Lazarus,"  all  painted  previous 
to  his  first  imprisonment  for  debt,  and  in  the 
maturity  of  his  artistic  powers,  are  among  the 
most  favorable  specimens  of  his  style.  Several 
of  these  pictures  contain  portraits  of  eminent 
personages,  and  the  "  Christ's  Entry  into  Jeru- 
salem "  is  now  the  property  of  the  Catholic 


544 


HAYDUKS 


HAYES 


cathedral  in  Cincinnati.  His  literary  efforts 
are  confined  chiefly  to  his  "Lectures  on  Paint- 
ing and  Design"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1844-'6),  which 
are  bold  and  clear  expositions  of  the  principles 
of  art  as  he  understood  them.  He  also  wrote 
the  article  on  painting  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  and  induced  the  government  to 
purchase  the  Elgin  marbles. 

HAYDPKS,  a  class  of  Hungarians  who  were 
originally  shepherds  (Hung.  hajdu\  and  from 
whom  patriotic  militia  organizations  subse- 
quently received  the  name.  The  gallantry  of 
the  Hayduks  was  signally  rewarded  by  Bocs- 
kay,  prince  of  Transylvania  and  the  protector 
of  the  rights  of  the  Protestants,  who  endowed 
them,  Dec.  12,  1605,  with  privileges  of  no- 
bility, and  assigned  to  them  a  district  known 
as  the  Hayduk  towns  (ffajdu-vdrosoty ;  and 
they  have  retained  most  of  those  privileges, 
excepting  immunity  from  taxation,  which  was 
withdrawn  by  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  at  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century.  The  district 
is  enclosed  within  the  county  of  Szabolcs,  E. 
of  theTheiss,  and  comprised  in  1870  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  59,715,  almost  all  Magyars 
and  Protestants.  Besides  the  capital,  Boszor- 
meny  (pop.  19,208),  it  contains  the  towns  of 
Dorog  (8,216),  Hadhaz  (7,024),  Nanas  (13,198), 
and  Szoboszlo  (12,269). — Menials  of  Hungarian 
officials  and  magnates  having  been  called  hay- 
duks,  the  name  was  adopted  at  German  courts 
for  ponderous  lacqueys,  though  these  are  gen- 
erally Germans  or  Swiss,  and  not  Hungarians. 

HAYEL,  or  Hail,  a  city  of  Arabia,  in  Nedjed, 
capital  of  the  sultanate  of  Shomer,  situated  in 
a  plain  between  the  mountain  ranges  Jebel 
Adja  and  Jebel  Solma,  lat.  27°  44'  N.,  Ion.  42° 
42'  E.,  240  m.  N.  E.  of  Medina;  pop.  in  1862, 
about  22,000.  The  walls,  which  are  20  ft. 
high,  with  bastioned  towers  and  folding  gates, 
surround  an  area  capable  of  containing  a  popu- 
lation of  300,000,  if  its  houses  were  closely 
packed  as  in  European  cities ;  but  there  are 
many  large  gardens,  open  spaces,  and  planta- 
tions within  their  circuit.  The  palace  of  the 
sultan  with  its  pleasure  grounds  occupies  near- 
ly a  tenth  of  the  city.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  30  ft.  high,  with  semicircular  bastions 
along  its  front,  and  a  gateway  flanked  by  high 
square  towers.  From  the  palace  itself  rises  a 
massive  oval  tower  70  ft.  high.  The  streets 
of  the  city  are  irregular,  and  most  of  the 
houses,  which  are  generally  of  brick  with  flat 
roofs,  are  built  about  central  courtyards.  The 
surrounding  plain  is  studded  with  houses  and 
gardens,  the  country  seats  of  wealthy  citizens 
or  of  members  of  the  ruling  family.  Hayel  is 
the  centre  of  a  thriving  commerce. 

HAYES,  Angnstns  Allen,  an  American  chemist, 
born  in  Windsor,  Vt.,  Feb.  28,  1806.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  military  academy  in  Norwich, 
Vt.,  in  1823,  and  then  began  the  study  of 
chemistry  as  a  profession.  In  1825  a  laborious 
research  undertaken  by  him,  for  the  purpose 
of  more  accurately  determining  the  proximate 
composition  of  various  American  medicinal 


plants,  was  rewarded,  among  other  results,  by 
the  discovery  of  the  organic  alkaloid  sangui- 
naria,  a  compound  remarkable  for  the  brilliant 
colors  of  its  salts,  although  itself  colorless,  or 
nearly  so.  In  1827,  while  assistant  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  New  Hampshire  medical 
college,  he  investigated  the  compounds  of 
chromium  ;  and  his  paper  on  this  subject  was 
highly  praised  by  Berzelius.  Dartmouth  col- 
lege about  the  same  time  conferred  upon  him 
an  honorary  degree  of  M.  D.  Since  1828  he 
has  resided  in  Boston  or  its  vicinity,  and  has 
devoted  his  time  to  chemical  investigations, 
filling  also  successively  the  posts  of  director 
of  an  extensive  manufactory  of  colors  and 
chemical  products  at  Koxbury,  of  consulting 
chemist  or  director  of  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant dyeing,  bleaching,  gas,  iron,  and  cop- 
per-smelting establishments  in  New  England, 
and  of  state  assayer  of  Massachusetts.  His 
contributions  to  science  have  been  numerous 
and  valuable,  and  may  be  found  chiefly  in  the 
"  Proceedings"  of  the  American  academy  and 
of  the  Boston  society  of  natural  history,  in 
the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  and  in 
the  "Annual  of  Scientific  Discovery."  In 
1837  he  conducted  an  elaborate  investigation 
upon  the  economical  generation  of  steam  and 
the  relative  value  of  fuels,  which  in  1838  led 
to  a  novel  arrangement  of  steam  boilers.  To 
Dr.  Hayes  belongs  also  the  credit  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  oxides  of  iron  in  refining  pig  iron 
in  the  puddling  furnace,  so  as  to  produce  with- 
out loss  a  pure  malleable  iron  ;  and  still  earlier, 
the  refining  of  copper  was,  under  his  direction, 
rendered  a  much  shorter  and  more  certain  op- 
eration, by  the  introduction  of  the  scales  of 
oxide  of  copper  produced  in  refining.  Among 
his  other  important  original  researches  are 
those  in  relation  to  the  chemical  decomposi- 
tion of  alcohol  by  chlorine  and  the  formation 
of  chloroform ;  upon  the  action  of  alcohol  on 
the  human  system,  and  the  demonstration  of 
its  invariable  oxidation  in  the  system  into  alde- 
hyde and  acetous  and  acetic  acids ;  on  the  for- 
mation, composition,  and  specific  differences 
of  the  varieties  Of  guano ;  on  the  existence  of 
a  deposit  of  native  iron  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa ;  and  a  memoir  on  the  difference  in  the 
chemical  constitution  and  action  of  sea  water?, 
on  and  below  the  surface,  on  soundings,  and 
at  the  entrances  of  rivers.  This  last  research 
forms  part  of  an  investigation  undertaken 
under  a  commission  from  the  United  States 
navy  department  to  examine  and  report  on 
the  subject  of  copper  and  copper  sheathing 
as  applied  In  the  construction  of  national  ves- 
sels, and  his  report  embodies  a  vast  amount 
of  scientific  and  commercial  information.  In 
1859-'60,  while  considering  the  question  of 
supply  of  water  to  the  city  of  Charlestown,  he 
found,  as  his  earlier  analysis  indicated,  that 
the  deep  water  of  Mystic  pond  was  far  less 
pure  than  the  surface  water.  The  question  of 
diffusion  under  a  flowing  surface  came  up  for 
study,  with  the  responsibility  of  accepting  or 


HAYES 


HAYM 


545 


ejecting  the  source  of  supply.    He  had  proved 
hat  a  copper  strip  or  wire,  passing  vertically 
through  two  masses  of  water  of  slightly  unlike 
somposition,  would  become  polarized,  and  ex- 
libit  electrolytic  action.     This  mode  of  testing 
he  exact  limits  of  the  impure  water  was  ap- 
plied under  his  direction,  and  it  was  shown 
lat  a  compound  affording  sulphur  when  de- 
)mposed  could  he  detected  by  its  action  on 
le  strip  to  form  a  black  sulphide,  and  the 
limits  of  the  existence  of  this  compound  were 
iad  on  the  surface  of  the  strip  of  copper,  or 
silvered  copper.     A  large  number  of  observa- 
tions on  this  and  other  masses  of  water  have 
proved  the  high  practical  value  of  the  applica- 
m,   and  demonstrated   the    presence  of   a 
ream  of  naturally  pure  water,  nearly  20  ft. 
leep,  flowing  over  impure  water  without  con- 
amination.    After  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
rar,  Dr.  Hayes  called  public  attention  to  the 
mcertainty  of  the  foreign  supply  of  saltpetre, 
md  the  necessity  of  domestic  production.    His 
forts  resulted  in  the  manufacture  of  the  sup- 
ply for  the  navy  from  caustic  potash  and  nitrate 
>f  soda,  by  a  novel  process,  the  product  being 
great  purity.     After  spending  two  years  in 
irope,  to  restore  his  impaired  health,  study- 
ig  various  phenomena  of  chemical  geology,  he 
eturned  to  the  United  States,  and  for  the  last 
jw  years  has  withdrawn  from  active  life. 
HAYES,  Isaae  Israel,  an  American  explorer, 
>rn  in  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  March  5,  1832.     He 
ras  educated  in  Philadelphia,  graduated  M.  D. 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania  in  April,  1853, 
id  in  May  was  appointed  surgeon  of  the  sec- 
id  Grinnell  expedition  to  the  Arctic  ocean, 
ider  command  of  Dr.  Kane,  which  he  ac- 
ipanied,  returning  with  it  in  1855.     Some 
jminiscences  of  this  expedition  are  given  in 
lis   "Arctic  Boat  Journey"   (Boston,  1860). 
Te  was  convinced  that  there  was  an  open  sea 
>und  the  north  pole,  and  presented  his  views 
the  American  geographical  and  statistical 
jiety  in  December,  1857,  and  during  the  en- 
suing winter  in  lectures  on  arctic  explora- 
ms  delivered  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
JT,  especially  at  the  Smithsonian  institution 
Washington.     Subscriptions  in  aid  of  an 
exploring  expedition  were  collected  by  scien- 
ific  and  other  societies  in  America  and  Eu- 
)pe,  and  with  this  aid  he  was  enabled  to  fit 
)ut  the  schooner  United  States,  of  133  tons, 
which  he  sailed  from  Boston,  July  9,  1860, 
rith  a  company  of  14  persons  besides  himself, 
[e  reached  Upernavik,  Greenland,  Aug.  12, 
itered  Melville  bay  on  the  23d,  and,  after 
3ing  twice  driven  back  by  the  violence  of  the 
Tind  and  floating  floes   of  ice,  anchored  in 
'ort  Foulke  on  the  "W.  coast  of  Greenland,  in 
lat.  78°  17',  Sept.  9.     He  explored  the  glacier 
system  of  Greenland,  and  after  wintering  in 
Port  Foulke  set  out  April  4,  1861,  upon  a  boat 
and  sledge  journey  across  and  up  the  sound. 
The  party  of  12  men  and  14  dogs  found  it  im- 
practicable to  drag  the  boat  over  the  hum- 
mocks of  ice,  and  sending  it  back,  Dr.  Hayes 


pressed  onward  with  three  companions  and 
two  dog  sledges.  They  reached  the  W.  coast 
of  the  sound  May  10,  and  travelled  north  until 
the  1.8th.  Their  provisions  being  exhausted, 
they  were  obliged  to  return,  having  reached 
land  in  lat.  81°  37'  N.,  beyond  which  they  saw 
open  water.  The  schooner  was  broken  out 
of  the  ice  July  10,  and  returned  to  Boston 
Oct.  23.  In  this  expedition  Dr.  Hayes  dis- 
covered a  new  sound  or  channel  opening  west- 
ward from  the  centre  of  Smith  sound.  He 
found  the  portion  of  Kennedy  channel  which 
Morton  had  reported  to  be  open  in  June,  1854, 
frozen  over  May  23, 1861,  and  the  W.  coast  of 
the  channel  heaped  with  great  masses  of  ice. 
Before  his  return  home  civil  war  had  begun, 
during  which  he  served  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
U.  S.  army.  He  published  an  account  of  the 
expedition  under  the  title  of  "  The  Open  Polar 
Sea  "  (Boston,  1867),  and  received  for  his  dis- 
coveries a  gold  medal  from  the  royal  geographi- 
cal society  of  London,  and  another  in  1868 
from  the  geographical  society  of  Paris.  In 
1869  he  sailed  in  the  steamer  Panther  in  com- 
pany with  the  artist  William  Bradford,  explo- 
ring the  southern  coasts  of  Greenland,  and  pub- 
lished "  The  Land  of  Desolation  "  (New  York, 
1872).  He  has  also  published  "  Cast  away  in 
the  Cold,"  a  story  (Boston,  1868).  He  is  now 
(1874)  preparing  a  history  of  maritime  discov- 
ery, and  still  entertains  the  project  of  reaching 
the  north  pole  by  way  of  Smith  sound. 

HAYLEY,  William,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Chichester  in  1745,  died  in  Felpham,  Nov.  20, 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, and- studied  law,  but  being  rich  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  In  1792  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Cowper,  whose  life  he  afterward 
wrote  (1802).  His  "Triumphs  of  Temper," 
a  poem  in  six  cantos  (1781),  was  perhaps  the 
most  popular  of  his  poetical  works.  Among 
his  other  writings  are  an  "Essay  on  Painting" 
(1778),  "Essay  on  History  "(1781),  "Essay 
on  Old  Maids"  (1785),  and  the  "Life  and 
Poetical  Works  of  Milton  "  (1794). 

HAYM,  Rudolf,  a  German  author,  born  at 
Grtinberg,  Silesia,  Oct.  5,  1821.  After  having 
studied  in  Halle  and  Berlin,  he  became  a 
teacher ;  but  the  Prussian  government  refusing 
to  license  him  as  a  professor,  he  turned  his  at- 
tention to  journalism  and  politics,  was  in  1848 
elected  to  the  Frankfort  parliament,  and  pub- 
lished Die  deutsche  Nationalversammlung  (3 
vols.,  Berlin,  1848-'50).  In  1850  he  edited 
the  Constitutionelle  Zeitung  in  Berlin;  _ but 
being  expelled  from  that  city  for  having  given 
umbrage  to  the  authorities,  he  went  to  Halle, 
where  he  obtained  a  diploma,  and  in  1851  be- 
gan to  lecture  on  philosophy  and  modern  Ger- 
man literature,  and  eventually  obtained  a  pro- 
fessorship. He  edited  the  Prevssische  Jahr- 
Mcher  from  1858  to  1864,  wrote  for  Ersch  and 
Gruber's  cyclopeedia,  and  has  published  Wil- 
Jielm  von  HuniboUt  (Berlin,  1856),  Hegel  uml 
seine  Zeit  (1857),  Arthur  Schopenhauer  (1864), 
and  Die  Romantische  ScMle  (1870). 


646 


IIAYNAU 


HAYNE 


HAYNAF,  Julius  Jakob  Ton,  an  Austrian  sol- 
dier, born  in  Cassel,  Oct.  14,  1786,  died  in  Vi- 
enna, March  14,  1853.  He  was  an  illegitimate 
.  son  of  the  elector  William  I.  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
who  while  stationed  with  his  regiment  in  the 
town  of  Haynau,  Prussian  Silesia,  formed  an 
illicit  connection  with  an  apothecary's  daugh- 
ter named  Rebekka  Ritter,  who  after  a  mor- 
ganatic marriage  with  him  assumed  the  name 
of  Frau  von  Lindenheim.  Two  daughters  and 
four  sons  resulted  from  this  marriage,  who 
adopted  the  name  of  their  mother's  birthplace. 
The  eldest  son,  Wilhelm  (1779-1856),  became 
known  by  the  unpopular  part  which  he  took 
in  the  affairs  of  Hesse-Cassel  in  1850;  the  sec- 
ond, Friedrich,  was  minister  of  war  of  the  elec- 
tor from  1853  to  1855 ;  the  third,  Ludwig,  died 
in  Heidelberg  in  1843 ;  and  the  fourth,  the 
subject  of  this  notice,  entered  the  Austrian 
service  in  1801  as  lieutenant,  was  wounded  and 
captured  in  the  campaign  of  1805  near  Nord- 
lingen,  was  in  1813  and  1814  with  the  army  in 
Italy,  and  in  1815  on  the  upper  Rhine.  Hav- 
ing been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major  gener- 
al in  1835,  he  became  military  commander  of 
Gratz  in  1844,  and  of  Temesvar  in  1847.  Ra- 
detzky  appointed  hrai  commander  of  Verona  in 
1 848.  In  the  night  of  July  24-25  he  despatched, 
upon  his  own  responsibility,  a  number  of  sol- 
diers to  Somma  Campagna,  and  secured  by  this 
measure  the  victory  of  Custozza.  Afterward 
he  displayed  his  skill  at  the  siege  of  Peschiera. 
He  became  notorious  for  his  rigorous  measures 
at  Ferrara,  Bergamo,  and  other  places;  and 
his  ruthless  energy  in  quelling  the  insurrection 
of  Brescia  (March  and  April,  1849)  spread  ter- 
ror among  the  Italian  population.  He  subse- 
quently took  part  in  the  siege  of  Venice,  and 
on  May  30  he  was  invited  to  assume  the  su- 
preme command  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Hun- 
gary. He  defeated  the  Hungarians  near  Raab 
and  elsewhere,  and,  protected  in  the  flank  and 
rear  by  the  Russian  forces,  he  rapidly  advanced 
toward  Szegedin,  crossed  the  Theiss,  and  routed 
the  Hungarians  at  Szoreg  (Aug.  5)  and  near 
Temesvar  (Aug.  9),  by  which  victory  he  res- 
cued that  fortress  and  virtually  terminated 
the  war.  The  emperor  of  Austria  rewarded 
him  with  the  governorship  of  Hungary,  and 
gave  him  extensive  estates.  The  execution  of 
the  thirteen  Hungarian  commanders  at  Arad, 
as  well  as  of  Louis  Batthyanyi  and  other  patri- 
ots at  Pesth,  took  place  under  his  command. 
His  intractable  and  haughty  temper,  which  on 
many  occasions  had  brought  him  into  collision 
with  his  superiors,  at  length  caused  him  to  be 
dismissed  from  the  public  service,  July  6, 1850. 
He  travelled  in  England,  where,  for  his  cruelty 
toward  the  Italians  and  Hungarians,  and  espe- 
cially the  ill  treatment  to  which  female  politi- 
cal prisoners  were  said  to  have  been  subjected 
under  his  orders,  he  was  assaulted  by  the  dray- 
men of  Barclay's  brewery  in  London,  on  his 
visit  to  that  establishment  in  September,  1850, 
in  such  a  violent  manner  that  he  barely  escaped 
with  his  life.  Hostile  demonstrations  were  also 


made  against  him  in  Brussels  and  Hanover. 
His  name  was  more  identified  with  Austrian 
oppression  in  Hungary  and  Italy  than  that  of 
any  other  servant  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg ; 
but  Baron  Schonhals  in  his  biography  of  his 
comrade,  which  appeared  in  Gratz  in  1853, 
tried  to  exonerate  him  from  the  charge  of  in- 
tentional cruelty,  asserting  that  he  acted  only 
in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  his  masters. 

HAYNE,  Isaac,  an  American  revolutionary 
officer,  born  in  South  Carolina,  Sept.  23,  1745, 
executed  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Aug.  4,  1781. 
In  1780  he  was  a  senator  in  the  state  legisla- 
ture. On  the  invasion  of  the  state  by  the  Brit- 
ish, he  served  in  a  cavalry  regiment  which  kept 
the  field  during  the  final  siege  of  Charleston. 
Being  included  in  the  capitulation  of  that  place, 
he  was  paroled  on  condition  that  he  should 
not  again  serve  against  the  British  while  they 
held  possession.  When  in  1781  the  fortunes  of 
the  British  began  rapidly  to  decline,  he  and  all 
others  in  his  situation  were  required  to  join 
the  British  standard  as  subjects.  His  wife  and 
several  of  his  children  lay  at  the  point  of  death 
from  smallpox,  but  his  expostulations  were  un- 
heard, and  he  went  to  the  city,  after  obtaining 
a  written  pledge  from  the  military  comman- 
dant of  his  district  that  he  should  be  allowed  to 
return.  This  pledge  was  ignored  in  Charleston, 
and  he  was  told  that  he  must  either  become  a 
British  subject  or  goto  prison.  He  subscribed 
a  declaration  of  allegiance  to  the  royal  govern- 
ment, but  only  under  protest  against  the  ad- 
vantage taken  of  him  at  such  a  moment.  Thus 
enabled  to  return  to  his  family,  he  maintained 
his  pledge  of  neutrality.  But  when,  by  the 
continued  success  of  the  Americans,  the  British 
were  driven  from  all  quarters,  and  nothing  re- 
mained to  them  but  Charleston,  they  resolved 
to  require  military  service  of  all  who  had  given 
their  parole.  Hayne  then  went  to  the  Ameri- 
can camp,  and  was  commissioned  by  the  gov- 
ernor as  colonel  of  a  militia  regiment.  In 
July,  1781,  he  made  an  incursion  to  the  Quar- 
ter House,  a  precinct  within  five  miles  of 
Charleston,  and  captured  Gen.  Williamson, 
who  had  gone  over  to  the  British.  It  was 
feared  that  Williamson  would  be  hanged  as  a 
traitor,  and  the  British  commandant  at  Charles- 
ton ordered  out  his  entire  force  in  pursuit. 
Hayne's  party  was  surprised  and  scattered, 
and  he  himself  captured.  He  was  taken  to 
Charleston,  and  after  a  brief  examination  by 
a  board  of  officers,  without  any  trial,  and  no 
witnesses  being  examined,  he  was  condemned 
to  be  hanged  by  the  joint  orders  of  Lord  Raw- 
don  and  Lieut.  Col.  Balfour.  He  protested 
against  this  summary  process,  which  was  ille- 
gal, whether  he  was  regarded  as  a  British  sub- 
ject or  as  a  captive  who  had  broken  his  parole. 
The  citizens  and  ladies  of  Charleston  united  in 
petitioning  for  his  pardon ;  but  Rawdon  and 
Balfour  were  inexorable.  A  respite  of  48 
hours  only  was  allowed  him  in  which  to  take- 
leave  of  his  children,  at  the  end  of  which  period 
he  was  hanged.  This  vindictive  measure  was 


HAYNE 


discussed  with  great  ability  in  the  British  par- 
liament, and  while  both  Rawdon  and  Balfour 
justified  it,  each  was  solicitous  to  attribute  it 
to  the  agency  of  the  other.  Lord  Rawdon 
(earl  of  Moira)  published  a  justification  of  his 
conduct,  which  was  analyzed  and  criticised  by 
Robert  Y.  Hayne  in  the  "  Southern  Review  " 
for  February,  1828. 

HAYNE,  Paul  Hamilton,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Jan.  1,  1831.  He 
was  educated  in  Charleston,  and  became  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  "Southern  Literary 
Messenger"  and  other  periodicals.  He  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  Charleston  "  Literary 
Gazette,"  was  connected  with  the  Charleston 
u  Evening  News,"  and  was  from  its  beginning 
(1857)  a  principal  editor  of  "Russell's  Maga- 
zine," published  in  Charleston.  He  published 
a  volume  of  poems  in  Boston  in  1854,  and 
another  in  New  York  in  1857.  These  collec- 
tions consist  chiefly  of  brief  poems,  sonnets, 
and  lyrics,  "The  Temptation  of  Venus,  a 
Monkish  Legend,"  being  the  longest.  A  third 
volume,  entitled  "Avolio,  and  other  Poems," 
was  published  in  1859.  Since  then  he  has 
been  a  frequent  contributor  to  periodicals, 
mainly  of  short  poems.  In  1873  he  edited  the 
poems  of  Henry  Timrod,  and  in  the  same  year 
published  in  Philadelphia  a  fourth  volume  of 
his  poems  under  the  title  of  "  Legends  and 
Lyrics."  Since  the  close  of  the  civil  war  he 
has  resided  in  Georgia,  near  Augusta. 

HAYNE,  Robert  Young,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  St.  Paul's  parish,  Colleton  dis- 
trict, S.  C.,  Nov.  10,  1791,  died  in  Asheville, 
N.  C.,  in  September,  1840.  He  was  educated 
in  Charleston,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
before  he  was  21  years  old.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  war  of  1812  he  served  in  the  3d  regi- 
ment of  South  Carolina  troops,  and  then  re- 
sumed practice  in  Charleston.  In  1814  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture, and  after  serving  two  terms  he  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  house,  and  then  attor- 
ney general  of  the  state.  In  1823  he  was  cho- 
sen a  senator  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
debates  on  the  question  of  protection  to  Amer- 
ican manufactures  Mr.  Hayne  took  a  leading 
part,  and  in  every  stage  of  the  discussion  he 
was  an  uncompromising  opponent  of  the  pro- 
tective system.  When  the  tariff  bill  of  1824 
came  before  the  senate,  he  made  in  opposition 
to  it  an  elaborate  and  powerful  speech,  in 
which  for  the  first  time  the  ground  was  ta- 
ken that  congress  had  not  the  constitutional 
right  to  impose  duties  on  imports  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  domestic  manufactures.  He 
was  equally  strenuous  in  his  opposition  to  the 
tariff  of  1828,  which  roused  in  South  Carolina 
the  spirit  of  resistance  that  came  to  a  crisis  in 
1832.  In  that  year  Mr.  Clay  proposed  a  reso- 
lution in  the  senate  declaring  the  expediency 
of  repealing  forthwith  the  duties  on  all  im- 
ported articles  which  did  not  come  into  compe- 
tition with  domestic  manufactures.  Mr.  Hayne 
denounced  this  proposition,  and  submitted  an 


HAYNES 


547 


amendment  to  the  effect  that  all  the  existing 
duties  should  be  so  reduced  as  simply  to  afford 
the  revenues  necessary  to  defray  the  actual  ex- 
penses of  the  government.  He  supported  this 
amendment  in  one  of  his  ablest  speeches,  but  it 
was  rejected,  and  the  principles  of  Mr.  Clay's 
resolution  were  embodied  in  a  bill  which  passed 
both  houses  and  received  the  sanction  of  the 
president.  Mr.  Hayne  on  this  occasion  was 
the  first  to  declare  and  defend  in  congress  the 
right  of  a  state,  under  the  federal  compact,  to 
arrest  the  operation  of  a  law  which  she  con- 
sidered unconstitutional.  This  doctrine  led  to 
the  celebrated  debate  between  Mr.  Webster  and 
himself.  In  consequence  of  the  passing  of  the 
tariff  bill  the  legislature  'of  South  Carolina 
called  a  state  convention,  which  met  at  Co- 
lumbia, Nov.  24,  1832,  and  adopted  an  ordi- 
nance of  nullification.  In  the  following  De- 
cember Mr.  Hayne  was  elected  governor  of  the 
state,  while  Mr.  Calhoun,  resigning  the  vice 
presidency  of  the  United  States,  succeeded  to 
his  place  in  the  senate.  On  Dec.  10  President 
Jackson  issued  his  proclamation  denouncing 
the  nullification  acts  of  South  Carolina.  The 
governor  replied  with  a  proclamation  of  de- 
fiance, and  South  Carolina-  prepared  for  armed 
resistance.  But  congress  receded  from  its 
position  on  the  protective  question,  the  tariff 
was  for  the  time  satisfactorily  modified,  and 
South  Carolina  in  another  convention,  of  which 
Gov.  Hayne  was  president,  repealed  her  ordi- 
nance of  nullification.  In  December,  1834,  he 
retired  from  the  office  of  governor,  and  was 
soon  after  elected  mayor  of  Charleston.  He 
was  attending  a  railroad  convention  at  Ashe- 
ville when  he  contracted  a  fever  and  died. 

HAYNES,  John,  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  afterward  of  Connecticut,  born  in  Essex, 
England,  died  in  1654.  He  came  with  Hooker's 
company  to  Boston  in  1633,  and  soon  after  was 
chosen  assistant,  and  in  1635  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. In  1636  he  removed  to  Connecti- 
cut, and  in  1639  was  chosen  its  first  governor, 
and  every  alternate  year  afterward,  which  was 
as  often  as  the  constitution  permitted,  till,  his 
death.  He  was  one  of  the  five  who  in  1638-'9 
drew  up  a  written  constitution  for  the  colony, 
which  was  the  first  ever  formed  in  America, 
and  which  embodies  the  main  points  of  all  our 
subsequent  state  constitutions,  and  of  the  fed- 
eral constitution; 

HAYNES,  Lemuel,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  West  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  18,  1753, 
died  in  Granville,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  28,  1834.  His 
father  was  black  and  his  mother  white.  The 
latter  abandoned  her  offspring,  who  at  the  age 
of  five  was  bound  out  as  a  servant  in  a  family 
at  Granville,  Mass.,  where  he  was  educated  as 
one  of  the  children.  In  1775  he  joined  the 
revolutionary  army  at  Roxbury ;  in  1776  was 
a  volunteer  in  the  expedition  to  Ticonderoga  ; 
after  which  he  returned  to  Granville  and  be- 
came a  farmer.  Between  this  time  and  1780 
he  studied  Latin  and  Greek,  and  devoted  much 
attention  to  theology.  In  1780  he  received 


548 


HAYS 


HAYTI 


license  as  a  preacher,  and  was  invited  to  supply 
the  pulpit  of  a  new  church  in  Granville.  Here 
he  remained  for  five  years.  In  1785  he  was 
ordained,  and,  after  preaching  two  years  in 
Torrington,  Conn.,  was  called  to  a  parish  in 
Rutland,  Vt.,  where  he  was  settled  for  30 
years.  He  afterward  preached  at  Manchester, 
Vt.,  ahout  three  years ;  and  then  at  Granville, 
N.  Y.,  from  1822  till  his  death.  He  had  great 
shrewdness,  wit,  and  common  sense.  One  of 
his  sermons,  delivered  impromptu  in  reply  to 
Hosea  Ballou,  on  the  subject  of  Universalism, 
passed  through  many  editions  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  A  memoir  of  him  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cooley. 

HATS,  a  central  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  San  Marcos  river  and  watered  by  branches 
of  the  Colorado ;  area,  690  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,088,  of  whom  1,217  were  colored.  A 
chain  of  thickly  wooded  hills  crosses  it  from 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  the  rest  of  the  surface  is 
generally  undulating.  Building  stone  is  abun- 
dant. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
92,420  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  7,838  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  1,468  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  2,448  horses,  1,863  milch  cows,  6,044 
other  cattle,  1,481  sheep,  3,770  swine,  and  2 
saw  mills.  Capital,  San  Marcos. 

HATS,  William  Jaeob,  an  American  artist,  born 
in  New  York,  Aug.  8,  1830.  He  studied  draw- 
ing with  John  R.  Smith  in  New  York,  and  de- 
voting himself  to  animal  painting,  went  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Missouri  in  1860  to  paint 
the  fauna  of  that  region.  He  has  since  visited 
Nova  Scotia  and  travelled  extensively  through 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  sketch- 
ing and  studying  the  habits  of  the  native  ani- 
mals. Among  his  principal  works  are :  "  The 
Herd  (bisons)  on  the  Moor"  (1861);  "The 
Stampede  "  (1862) ;  "  The  Prairie-Dog  Village  " 
(1862);  "Bison  Bull  at  Bay "(1865);  "Bull 
Moose  of  Nova  Scotia"  (1867);  "Prairie  on 
Fire  "  (1869) ;  "  Bouquet  of  Orchids,"  86  varie- 
ties (1871) ;  "  Herd  of  Caribou  in  Nova  Scotia" 
(1871)  ;  and  "Mule  Deer  "  (1872).  Mr.  Hays 
has  in  preparation  a  work  on  the  "Ruminants 
of  America,"  to  be  fully  illustrated  by  himself. 

HATTI,  or  Haiti.  I.  An  island  of  the  West 
Indies,  formerly  called  Hispaniola  (Span.  Es- 
panola),  and  afterward  Santo  Domingo.  It  is 
one  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  after  Cuba  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  West  India 
islands,  lying  between  lat.  17°  36'  and  19°  59' 
N.,  and  Ion.  68°  20'  and  74°  38'  W.  Its  great- 
est length  E.  and  TV.,  from  Cape  Engatto  to 
Cape  Tiburon,  is  405  m.,  and  its  greatest  width 
N.  and  S.,  from  Cape  Isabella  to  Cape  Beata, 
165m.;  area,  including  the  islands  off  the  coast, 
28,030  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  708,500,  three  fourths 
of  whom  are  negroes  or  mulattoes,  and  the 
remainder  whites  or  mestizos.  Hayti  is  48  m. 
E.  S.  E.  of  Cuba,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Windward  passage,  118  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Jamaica,  and  76  m.  W.  N.  W.»of  Porto  Rico, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mona  pas- 
sage. In  the  Windward  passage,  about  40  m. 


W.  of  Cape  Tiburon,  is  the  guano  island  of 
Navaza.  The  island  of  Tortuga  or  Tortue  lies 
a  short  distance  from  the  N.  W.  coast,  and  that 
of  Gonaive  in  the  southern  division  of  the  great 
gulf,  85  m.  wide,  formed  by  the  vast  peninsu- 
las which  stretch  W.,  the  one  toward  Cuba  and 
the  other  toward  Jamaica.  Hayti  is  now  oc- 
cupied by  two  independent  states,  the  republic 
of  Hayti  to  the  west  and  the  Dominican  Re- 
public to  the  east.  The  island  is  of  very  irregu- 
lar form,  being  so  deeply  indented  by  bays  and 
inlets  as  to  constitute  a  coast  line  of  about 
1,500  m.,  presenting  numerous  excellent  har- 
bors. Of  the  great  peninsulas,  the  southwest- 
ern is  the  most  conspicuous,  being  150  m.  long 
by  18  to  40  m.  wide ;  the  northwestern  is  about 
50  m.  long  by  30  to  45  m.  wide ;  and  that  of 
Samana,  to  the  northeast,  is  about  40  m.  long 
by  6  to  8  m.  wide.  The  island  is  intersected 
W.  and  E.  by  three  chains  of  mountains,  con- 
nected by  transverse  ridges,  and  intervening  are 
extensive  plains  and  savannas.  The  central 
chain,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  the  Sierra 
del  Cibao,  runs  E.  S.  E.  from  Cape  San  Nicolas 
to  Cape  Engafio ;  its  culminating  point,  near 
the  centre  of  the  island,  attains  an  elevation 
variously  estimated  from  7,200  to  9,000  ft. 
Nearly  parallel  with  this  chain  is  the  Sierra  de 
Monte  Cristo,  stretching  from  near  the  town 
of  Monte  Cristo  to  Escocesa  bay,  where  it  ter- 
minates abruptly.  Between  these  two  ranges 
extends  the  Vega  Real  or  Royal  valley,  130  m. 
long,  watered  by  the  Yuna  and  Gran  Yaque 
rivers,  and  comprising  extensive  pasture  lands. 
The  third  or  southern  mountain  range  com- 
mences at  Cape  Tiburon,  extends  E.  through 
the  S.  W.  peninsula,  and  terminates  at  the  Rio 
Neiva,  about  mid  way  between  the  cities  of  Port- 
au-Prince  and  Santo  Domingo.  The  secondary 
chains,  running  from  the  main  ones  toward  the 
sea,  divide  the  country  into  plains  of  various  fig- 
ures and  extent,  which  are  intersected  by  still 
other  ridges  reaching  sometimes  to  the  beach. 
Besides  the  Vega  Real,  there  are  other  exten- 
sive plains  and  valleys,  as  the  llanos  or  flats  of 
the  southeast,  also  a  rich  pasture  district  80  m. 
in  length,  and  the  plain  of  Les  Cayes  at  the  W. 
end  of  the  island.  The  latter  has  been  greatly 
extended  by  the  formation  of  a  kind  of  rock 
consisting  of  comminuted  shells  and  coral,  in- 
crusted  with  calcareous  cement,  resembling 
travertine,  a  species  of  rock  in  process  of  for- 
mation throughout  the  whole  of  the  West  India 
islands ;  fragments  of  pottery  and  other  human 
works  have  been  found  in  it  at  a  depth  of  20  ft. 
The  proximity  of  the  mountains  to  the  N.  coast 
prevents  the  formation  of  any  considerable  riv- 
ers, and  hence  the  principal  streams  have  their 
courses  either  in  a  W.,  S.,  or  E.  direction.  The 
Artibonite  flows  S.  E.  and  N.  W.,  and  the  Gran 
Yaque  N.  W. ;  the  Yuna  flows  S.  E. ;  and  the 
Neiva,  Nisao,  and  Ozama  flow  S.  They  are 
all  obstructed  by  sand  bars,  and  few  of  them 
are  navigable  even  for  short  distances.  The 
Ozama,  however,  admits  vessels  of  any  size 
into  the  harbor,  and  for  3  m.  up  is  about  four 


HAYTI 


549 


I 


fathoms  deep.    Lakes  are  numerous ;  those  of 
Enriquillo  and  Azua  are  salt ;  the  former,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Neiva,  is  20  m.  long  by  8  m. 
broad,  and  the  latter  half  that  size.    S.  of  these 
lies  the  fresh-water  lake  of  Icotea  or  Limon, 
about  the  size  of  Azua.     Near  the  mouth  of 
the  Yuna  are  extensive  salt  marshes  known 
by  the  name  of  Gran  Estero.     Mineral  springs 
exist  in  various  parts ;  in  the  east  are  the  hot 
springs  of  Banica  (temperature  112°  to  125°  F.), 
Biahama,  Jayua,  and  Pargatal,  and  in  the  west 
.e  chalybeate  spring  of  Sainte-Kose,  the  saline 
f  Jean  Rabel,  and  the  sulphur  of  Dalmarie. 
'he  minerals  found  in  the  island  are  various, 
eluding  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercury,  cop- 
r,  iron,  tin,  sulphur,  manganese,  antimony, 
ck  salt,  bitumen,  jasper,  marble,  and  several 
ds  of  precious  stones.    The  gold  mines  have 
en  abandoned,  and  gold  washing  is  only  car- 
ed on  by  the  poorer  classes  in  the  northern 
reams.    Indeed,  all  the  minerals  are  neglected 
r  want  of  machinery  and  capital.     On  the 
ores  of  the  bay  of  Pearls  are  the  remarkable 
ves  of  San  Lorenzo,  similar  in  character  and 
rmation  to  those  of  Matanzas  in  Cuba. — The 
imate  is  hot  and  moist,  but  generally  salu- 
-rious ;  in  the  north,  and  especially  in  the  more 
levated  localities,  there  is  a  perpetual  spring, 
"he  seasons  are  divided  into  wet  and  dry ;  in 
me  localities  years  have  passed  over  without 
single  heavy  shower.     The  rainy  season  is 
•om  April  to  November  in  the  W.,  S.,  and 
central  portions,  and  embracing  the  other  half 
"  the  year  in  the  N.  districts.     It  is  only  on 
e  southern  coasts  that  hurricanes  are  com- 
mon.   At  Santo  Domingo  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature are  60°  and  95°,  with  an  annual  mean 
of  78-5°  ;  and  at  Port-au-Prince  the  extremes 
are  63°  and  104°,  with  a  mean  of  81°.    The 
maximum  occurs  in  August  and  September, 
but  the  summer  heats  are  much  tempered  by 
the  sea  breezes  by  day,  and  the  terral  or  land 
breeze  during  the  night.    Hayti  has  on  several 
occasions  suffered  from  earthquakes  ;  the  most 
lisastrous  on  record  are  those  of  1564,  1684, 
691,  1751,  1770,  and  1842.    By  that  of  1751 
ort-au-Prince  was  destroyed,  and  the  coast  for 
m.  submerged ;  and  by  that  of  1842  many 
wns  were  overturned  and  thousands  of  lives 
Vegetation  is  of  a  tropical  character,  except 
where  elevation  has  a  controlling  influence, 
nd  for  beauty  and  luxuriance  is  unsurpassed 
r  any  in  the  world.      The  mountains  are 
othed  with  majestic  forests  of  pine,  mahog- 
any, ebony,  fustic,  satinwood,  and  lignum  vitse ; 
also  the  rdble  or  oak,  the  wax  palm,  divi-divi, 
and  numerous  other  cabinet  woods ;  while  the 
graceful  palma  real  or  royal  palm  flourishes 
everywhere  in  the  lowlands.     The  richest  of 
flowering  plants  abound ;  and  the  usual  tropi- 
cal esculents,  grains,  and  fruits,  including  plan- 
tains, bananas,  yams,  batatas,  maize,   millet, 
oranges,   pineapples,    cherimoyas,    sapodillas, 
with  melons,  grapes,  and  tamarinds,  grow  in 
all  parts  of  the  islands.    There  is  a  species  of 
-ve,  Fourcroya   Oubense,   extremely  abun- 


dant, from  the  fibres  of  which  is  made  almost 
all  the  rope  used  in  the  country.  The  western 
or  French  section  has  always  been  the  best 
cultivated  and  most  valuable  part  of  the  island, 
as  it  is  the  most  populous.  The  articles  chiefly 
raised  for  export  are  coffee,  cotton,  cacao, 
sugar  cane,  indigo,  and  tobacco.  Some  of 
these  are  now  less  and  others  more  extensively 
produced  than  in  colonial  times.  In  1789,  76,- 
000,000  Ibs.  of  coffee  were  exported  from  the 
whole  island ;  in  1854-'5  only  50,749,876  Ibs. 
were  exported;  in  1855-'6  the  quantity  was 
35,497,724  Ibs. ;  and  in  1857-'8,  46,699,270  Ibs. 
The  sugar  cane  was  first  planted  here  by  Pedro 
de  Atienza  in  1520 ;  and  no  country  produces  it 
in  greater  perfection.  The  other  most  impor- 
tant exports  are  guano  and  other  manures,  log- 
wood and  other  dyes,  and  mahogany  and  oth- 
er woods. — The  native  quadrupeds  are  small, 
the  largest  being  the  agouti ;  but  the  animals 
introduced  from  Europe,  and  now  in  a  wild 
state,  have  thriven  prodigiously,  large  numbers 
of  cattle,  swine,  and  dogs  roaming  freely  in  the 
savannas ;  the  cattle  of  hundreds  of  owners 
graze  in  herds,  and  are  annually  collected  and 
counted,  and  the  young  branded.  Birds  are 
not  numerous ;  still  large  numbers  of  pigeons 
are  annually  taken  and  used  as  food,  and  ducks 
and  other  water  fowl  frequent  the  marshy 
places.  Insects  abound,  many  of  them  venom- 
ous, such  as  scorpions,  tarantulas,  and  centi- 
pedes. There  are  many  species  of  snakes  and 
lizards ;  the  iguana  sometimes  attains  a  length 
of  5  ft.,  and  is  then  much  feared  ;  its  flesh  is 
by  the  natives  considered  a  delicacy.  The 
lakes  and  rivers  contain  caymans  and  alliga- 
tors ;  in  the  surrounding  sea  whales  are  fre- 
quently taken ;  manatees  or  sea  cows  are  nu- 
merous ;  and  turtles,  lobsters  of  enormous  size, 
oysters,  and  crabs  abound  on  the  coasts.  II. 
A  republic,  occupying  the  "W.  portion  of  the 
island,  and  divided  from  the  Dominican  Re- 
public on  the  east  by  an  irregular  line  drawn 
from,  the  mouth  of  the  river  Anses-a-Pitre  or 
Pedernales  on  the  S.  coast  to  that  of  the  river 
Massacre,  which  flows  into  the  bay  of  Man- 
zanillo,  on  the  N.  coast.  Its  territory  extends 
between  lat.  17°  55'  and  19°  55'  N.,  and  Ion. 
71°  52'  and  74°  38'  W.,  and,  including  the  isl- 
ands of  Tortuga,  Gonaive,  &c.,  contains  10,204 
sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  six  departments, 
and  subdivided  into  arrondissements  and  com- 
munes ;  the  population  is  about  570,000.  The 
capital  and  chief  port,  Port-au-Prince,  situa- 
ted at  the  head  of  the  great  bay,  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  21,000 ;  and  the  other  ports 
open  to  foreign  commerce  are  Cape  Haytien, 
Port  de  la  Paix,  Gonaives,  Saint-Marc,  Mira- 
goane,  Jeremie,  Aux  Cayes,  Acquin,  and  Jac- 
mel.  In  this  portion  of  the  island  the  moun- 
tains, although  relatively  more  numerous,  are 
of  less  elevation  than  in  the  E.  portion ;  and 
between  them  are  beautiful  and  fertile  plains 
and  valleys,  well  watered,  and  yielding  spon- 
taneously valuable  timber,  precious  woods,  and 
dyes.  Agriculture  is  imperfectly  carried  on, 


550 


IIAYTI 


with  inadequate  implements.  In  earlier  times, 
when  the  soil  was  cultivated  by  slaves,  some 
of  the  staples  were  more  abundantly  produced. 
The  articles  most  largely  exported  are  coffee, 
cotton,  cacao,  wax,  logwood,  fustic,  and  other 
dyes,  mahogany,  and  tortoise  shell.  Cotton, 
though  always  cultivated  extensively  here,  has 
been  subject  to  numerous  fluctuations ;  before 
the  revolution  7,200,000  Ibs.  were  annually  sent 
to  France  alone ;  in  1858  the  total  quantity 
exported  was  only  463,608  Ibs.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  American  civil  war  cultivators 
were  stimulated  by  the  rise  in  price  from  4d. 
to  2*.  Gd.  per  pound,  and  the  exports  increased 
to  5,000,000  Ibs. ;  and  notwithstanding  a  heavy 
fall  in  prices  in  1865,  the  crop  in  1866  reached 
7,000,000  Ibs.  The  civil  war  of  1868  again 
checked  the  trade,  reducing  the  exports  to 
2,000,000  Ibs. ;  but  an  interval  of  peace  brought 
the  exports  for  1871-'2  to  4,130,315  Ibs.  The 
yield  of  the  most  favorable  year  above  re- 
corded is,  however,  greatly  inferior  to  the  ca- 
pabilities of  the  country ;  and  this  restricted 
production  is  due  to  the  disorganized  state  of 
society,  the  system  of  peasant  culture,  and  the 
lack  of  field  hands.  The  coffee  yield  has  been 
less  intermittent  than  that  of  cotton ;  during 
the  last  15  years  of  the  18th  century  it  averaged 
70,000,000  Ibs. ;  from  1850  to  1860  the  annual 
average  was  45,000,000  Ibs.,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing decade  60,000,000.  All  the  Haytian  coffee 
is  in  common  designated  Santo  Domingo ;  it  is 
of  excellent  quality,  and  comparatively  cheap  ; 
but  there  is  a  general  prejudice  against  it,  as  it 
is  often  sent  away  imperfectly  hulled,  and  even 
with  an  addition  of  sand  and  gravel  to  increase 
the  weight.  It  is  mostly  sent  to  France,  where 
large  quantities  are  bought  for  the  army.  The 
coffee  exports  to  Hamburg  were  19,303,858  Ibs. 
in  1872,  and  9,401,666  Ibs.  in  1873.  The  home 
consumption  is  estimated  at  1,644,000  Ibs.  an- 
nually. Of  cacao,  which  of  late  years  has 
been  much  neglected,  the  produce  might  with 
care  be  augmented  indefinitely.  The  quantiti es 
of  the  principal  articles  exported  in  the  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1872,  were  as  follows :  cof- 
fee, 64,774,861  Ibs. ;  cacao,  3,003,488  ;  cotton, 
4,140,315;  logwood,  183,600,000;  wax,  139,- 
740 ;  mahogany,  608,941 ;  honey,  88,060  gal- 
lons; hides,  fustic,  and  other  articles  unenu- 
merated.  Their  total  value  was  $7,504,633. 
The  largest  share  of  the  exports  in  1871  went 
to  England,  $1,400,000 ;  but  it  is  probable  that 
much  of  this  was  for  merchandise  in  transitu, 
the  Liverpool  packets  taking  through  freight 
for  Havre  and  other  continental  ports.  The 
imports  from  England  embrace  small  quanti- 
ties of 'almost  every  article  manufactured  in 
that  country,  which  owes  this  advantage  to 
its  direct  steam  communication  with  Hayti. 
Large  quantities  of  English  hardware  are  taken, 
and  galvanized  iron  has  of  late  been  extensive- 
ly imported  for  roofing  houses,  a~precaution 
rendered  necessary  by  the  frequency  of  dis- 
astrous fires.  Only  the  high  class  of  provis- 
ions are  brought  from  England,  this  branch 


being  monopolized  by  the  United  States.  Cer- 
tain kinds  of  American  cotton  fabrics  now  find 
a  good  market  in  Hayti ;  for,  though  some- 
what dearer  than  the  British,  they  are  found 
to  be  more  durable.  The  total  value  of  the 
imports  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 1872,  was 
$6,860,408.  The  imports  from  England  in 
1870,  $3,900,000-,  were  more  than  one  half  the 
total  imports  into  the  country  ;  and  although 
they  fell  to  $2,500,000  in  the  following  year, 
the  same  proportion  was  preserved.  The  Uni- 
ted States  sent  40,399  gallons  of  petroleum  to 
Hayti  in  1871,  69,377  in  1872,  and  87,421  in 
1873.  The  port  movements  in  1871-'2  were: 
904  vessels  entered,  tonnage  165,903,  and  850 
cleared,  tonnage  186,985.  There  being  little 
cargo  in  Hayti  for  the  United  States,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  ship  coffee  and  cotton  for  England 
via  New  York,  there  to  be  transhipped.  Ves- 
sels under  50  tons  burden,  not  being  subject 
to  tonnage  dues,  do  not  appear  on  official  re- 
turns. Two  steamers  from  New  York  make 
about  18  trips  annually  to  the  island.  The 
internal  carrying  trade  is  almost  exclusively 
carried  on  by  horses  and  mules. — Owing  to 
protracted  civil  wars,  the  finances  are  in 
extreme  disorder,  and  it  is  impossible  to  ob- 
tain accurate  statements  thereof.  The  rev- 
enue in  1870  was  estimated  at  40,000  000  of 
gourdes,  or  $2,500,000,  and  the  expenditure 
at  double  that  amount.  There  is  a  large  float- 
ing debt,  arising  from  the  accumulation  of  the 
paper  money  successively  emitted  by  several 
governments,  especially  from  1853  to  1855, 
when  the  annual  emission  was  about  4,500,- 
000;  and  this  currency,  amounting  in  1872  to 
some  800,000,000,  has  at  times  been  subject  to 
great  depreciation ;  in  the  year  just  mentioned 
it  fluctuated  from  165  to  350  per  cent.,  while 
during  the  late  civil  war  it  was  almost  value- 
less. A  measure  initiated  by  the  government 
in  1873  to  redeem  the  paper  money  proved 
abortive,  the  rate  of  exchange  having  b«en 
fixed  at  300  per  cent.,  while  the  commercial 
value  was  250  paper  dollars  to  one  of  silver. 
Another  scheme  for  the  same  purpose,  namely, 
increasing  temporarily,  first  by  10  and  after- 
ward by  25  per  cent.,  the  import  and  export 
duties,  already  very  high,  had  an  evil  effect 
upon  commerce.  Smuggling  became  an  organ- 
ized system ;  only  one  half  of  the  duties  was 
paid  to  the  government,  and  the  other  divided 
between  the  merchants  and  the  custom-house 
officials.  Heavy  payments  lately  made  to 
France  on  account  of  the  public  debt,  and  of 
the  indemnity  for  losses  sustained  by  French 
subjects  during  the  revolution,  have  consider- 
ably embarrassed  the  finances.  In  1873  a  like 
compensation  of  £9,073  was  paid  to  England. 
The  remaining  debt  to  France  in  1872  was 
$3,863,242,  to  be  paid  in  11  annual  instal- 
ments.— The  government  is  based  on  the  con- 
stitution proclaimed  on  June  14,  1867,  by  the 
terms  of  which  the  legislative  power  rests  in  a 
national  assembly  composed  of  two  chambers, 
the  senate  and  the  chamber  of  deputies,  tho 


HAYTI 


551 


latter  being  elected  by  direct  vote  of  all  male 
citizens  for  a  term  of  three  years,  while  the 
senators  are  appointed  by  the  deputies  for  two 
years.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
president  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years, 
and  who  must  have  completed  35  years  of  age. 
A  president  can  be  reflected  only  after  a  lapse 
of  four  years  from  the  expiration  of  his  term 
of  office.  Four  ministers,  of  finance  and  for- 
eign affairs,  justice  and  public  instruction,  inte- 
rior, and  war,  aid  him  in  the  administration  of 
the  republic.  The  judicial  power  rests  in  a  high 
court  of  cassation,  being  the  highest  tribunal 
of  appeals,  with  superior  courts  in  the  capitals 
of  departments,  and  subsidiary  and  primary 
courts  in  the  arrondissements  and  communes. 
The  laws  are  founded  on  the  civil  code  of 
France.  The  Koman  Catholic  is  the  religion 
of  the  people,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
archbishop.  There  are  four  colleges  in  Hayti, 
and  each  commune  has  a  number  of  common 
and  grammar  schools. — Hayti  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  December,  1492,  and  here,  at 
Isabella  on  the  N.  shore,  was  founded  the  first 
Spanish  colony  in  the  new  world.  Santo  Do- 
mingo was  founded  Aug.  4,  1496.  For  nearly 
half  a  century  these  settlements  received  much 
attention  and  rose  to  great  prosperity ;  but  as 
other  parts  of  America  were  discovered,  the 
population  was  drawn  off,  and  the  natives 
having  been  extirpated,  the  island  became  al- 
most a  waste.  In  1585  Admiral  Drake  seized 
Santo  Domingo  city,  for  which  he  received  a 
ransom  of  25,000  ducats.  About  1632  the 
French  took  possession  of  the  W.  shore,  and 
their  numbers  (increased  in  a  certain  measure 
by  the  buccaneers  who  had  established  them- 
selves on  the  island  of  Tortuga  and  on  the  N. 
W.  coast  of  Hayti)  multiplied  so  rapidly  that 
the  Spaniards  were  unable  to  cope  with  or 
banish  them ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Kyswick, 
Sept.  20,  1697,  the  western  portion  of  the  isl- 
and was  guaranteed  to  France.  Cultivation 
in  Hayti  (as  the  French  now  called  their  part 
of  the  island)  rapidly  extended  under  the  new 
rule ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  cotton  and  su- 
gar consumed  not  only  in  France,  but  in  all 
Europe,  came  toward  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  from  Hayti,  which  by  that  time  had 
become  one  of  the  most  valuable  possessions 
in  the  new  world.  The  boundaries  between 
the  two  colonies  were  not  fixed  till  1777.  In 
the  mean  time  the  eastern  or  Spanish  portion 
made  little  or  no  progress.  In  1790  the  popu- 
lation of  the  western  colony  numbered  about 
500,000,  of  which  number  38,360  were  of  Eu- 
ropean origin  and  28,370  free  people  of  color, 
the  remainder  being  negro  slaves.  The  free 
people  of  color  were  mostly  mulattoes,  and 
some  of  them  had  received  a  liberal  education 
in  France  and  possessed  large  estates;  still 
they  were  excluded  from  all  political  privileges, 
and  were  not  eligible  to  positions  of  authority 
or  trust.  The  great  revolution  in  France  was 
heartily  responded  to  by  the  whites  of  the 
colony,  who  sent  deputies  to  the  national  as- 


sembly at  Paris,  and  proclaimed  the  adhesion 
of  the  colony  to  the  principles  of  liberty, 
equality,  and  fraternity.  The  application  of 
these  principles,  however,  it  was  intended 
should  be  confined  exclusively  to  the  whites. 
But  the  mulattoes  demanded  their  extension 
to  themselves;  and  this  appeal  being  treated 
with  contempt  and  indignation,  they  resolved 
to  resort  to  arms.  Accordingly  some  300  of 
them  rose  in  insurrection  in  October,  1790, 
under  one  Vincent  Og6,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  France ;  but  he  was  defeated,  captured, 
and  with  his  brother  broken  on  the  wheel, 
and  21  of  his  followers  were  hanged.  Much 
indignation  was  expressed  in  Paris  against  the 
colonists,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  society 
of  les  amis  des  noirs,  the  national  assembly, 
May  15,  1791,  passed  a  decree  declaring  that 
the  people  of  color  born  of  free  parents  were 
entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  French  citizens. 
This  decree  did  not  touch  slavery  or  meddle  with 
the  slaves,  but  it  excited  to  the  highest  pitch 
the  jealousies  and  apprehensions  of  the  plant- 
ers, who  forced  the  governor  of  the  colony  to 
suspend  its  operation  until  they  could  appeal 
to  the  home  government.  The  refusal  of  their 
rights  caused  much  commotion  among  the  mu- 
lattoes, and  civil  war  again  appeared  inevi- 
table, when  a  third  party,  little  considered  by 
either  of  the  others,  unexpectedly  interfered. 
The  slaves  on  the  plantations  rose  in  insurrec- 
tion, Aug.  23, 1791.  The  whites  in  alarm  con- 
sented (Sept.  11)  to  admit  the  mulattoes  to  the 
civil  rights  granted  them  by  law,  and  for  a 
time  there  seemed  some  prospect  of  the  resto- 
ration of  peace.  But  on  Sept.  24  the  national 
assembly  at  Paris,  moved  by  the  remonstrances 
which  had  been  received  from  the  white  colo- 
nists, repealed  the  decree  of  May  15.  The  mu- 
lattoes now  flew  to  arms,  and  the  civil  war 
continued  with  increased  ferocity  on  all  sides 
for  several  years.  Commissioners  were  repeat- 
edly sent  from  France,  but  could  effect  nothing. 
The  whites  themselves  were  divided  into  hos- 
tile factions,  royalist  and  republican,  the  French 
part  of  the  island  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards 
and  by  the  English,  and  the  insurgent  blacks 
and  mulattoes  under  able  chiefs  held  strong 
positions  in  the  mountains  and  defied  all  efforts 
to  subdue  them.  The  French  commissioners, 
involved  in  difficulties  on  every  hand,  at  length 
decided  to  conciliate  the  blacks,  and  in  August, 
1793,  proclaimed  universal  freedom,  in  appre- 
hension of  an  English  invasion,  which  took  place 
in  the  following  month.  In  February,  1794, 
the  national  convention  at  Paris  confirmed  this 
act  of  the  commissioners,  and  formally  guaran- 
teed the  freedom  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
French  colony.  Meantime  the  English  con- 
quered the  whole  western  coast  of  the  island, 
took  the  capital,  Port-au-Prince,  and  besieged 
the  governor,  Gen.  Laveaux,  in  Port  de  la 
Paix,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  French,  who 
were  reduced  to  extremities  by  famine  and  dis- 
ease. At  this  juncture  the  blacks,  led  by 
Toussaint  1'Ouverture,  relying  on  the  procla- 


552 


IIAYTI 


mation  of  emancipation,  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
French  governor.  The  siege  of  Port  de  la 
Paix  was  raised,  the  Spaniards  were  driven 
back,  and  after  a  long  contest,  during  which 
Toussaint  was  appointed  by  the  French  author- 
ities commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  the  Eng- 
lish in  1797  were  expelled  from  the  island,  the 
whole  of  which,  by  the  treaty  with  Spain  con- 
cluded at  Basel,  July  22,  1795,  now  belonged 
to  France.  Under  the  energetic  administra- 
tion of  Toussaint  1'Ouverture,  peace  was  re- 
stored, commerce  'and  agriculture  revived,  the 
whites  were  protected  and  their  estates  restor- 
ed to  them,  and  a  constitution  for  the  colony 
was  adopted,  acknowledging  the  authority  of 
France,  but  making  no  distinction  between  the 
citizens  on  account  of  race  or  color.  In  1801, 
however,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first  con- 
sul, resolved  to  restore  slavery  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo ;  the  French  legislature  at  Paris  decreed 
its  restoration ;  and  an  expedition  under  Gen. 
Leclerc  was  sent  to  enforce  the  decree.  The 
army  landed  at  Samana  at  the  end  of  January, 
1802,  the  campaign  was  commenced,  and  fought 
with  various  success  until  May  1,  when  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded.  Notwithstanding  this 
treaty,  Toussaint  was  treacherously  seized  at 
midnight,  and  conveyed  to  France,  where  he 
died  April  27,  1803.  Indignant  at  the  capture 
of  their  leader,  the  negroes  immediately  renew- 
ed hostilities  under  Dessalines,  who  prosecuted 
the  war  with  vigor  and  success ;  and  the  yel- 
low fever,  having  broken  out  in  the  French 
army,  became  a  more  fearful  and  fatal  antago- 
nist than  the  marshalled  negroes.  In  the 
midst  of  this  calamity  Leclerc  died,  and  was 
succeeded  in  command  by  Gen.  Rochambeau. 
The  first  act  of  this  general  was  the  renewal 
of  the  armistice,  but  it  proved  of  no  advantage 
to  him ;  the  blacks  continued  to  receive  reen- 
forcements,  the  fever  raged  violently,  and  to 
add  to  his  embarrassment,  an  English  fleet 
appeared  off  the  coast.  When  the  period  for 
which  the  armistice  had  been  proclaimed  ex- 
pired, his  army  was  reduced  to  a  mere  hand- 
ful of  men,  powerless  for  either  offence  or  de- 
fence, and  was  soon  after  driven  into  Cape 
Haytien,  where  on  Nov.  30,  1803,  the  French 
general  capitulated  to  the  commander  of  the 
English  squadron.  On  Jan.  1, 1804,  the  Hay- 
tians  formally  asserted  their  independence; 
and  Dessalines,  who  had  conducted  the  war  to 
its  close,  was  appointed  governor  for  life.  Not 
content,  however,  with  the  simple  title  allotted 
to  his  station,  and  in  imitation  of  Bonaparte, 
who  had  six  months  before  grasped  the  im- 
perial sceptre  of  France,  Dessalines  assumed 
(Oct.  8, 1804)  the  title  of  Jean  Jacques  I.,  empe- 
ror of  Hayti ;  but  his  reign  was  troublous  and 
brief,  and  terminated  in  a  military  conspiracy 
on  Oct.  17,  1806,  he  himself  being  assassinated 
on  the  same  day.  Hayti  was  now  divided 
among  several  chieftains,  the  principal  of  whom 
were  Henri  Christophe  in  the  northwest  and 
Petion  in  the  southwest.  The  eastern  part  of 
the  island  was  repossessed  by  Spain.  Chris- 


tophe was  appointed  chief  magistrate  for  life ; 
but  in  1811,  having  become  dissatisfied  with 
his  present  honors,  he  changed  his  title  to  that 
of  king,  calling  himself  Henri  I.,  and  had  the 
kingly  office  made  hereditary  in  his  family. 
P6tion  continued  to  act  as  president  of  the 
southwest  till  March,  1818,  when  he  died,  uni- 
versally lamented  by  his  people.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  despotic  Christophe  by  his  arbitrary 
acts  provoked  the  vengeance  of  his  subjects, 
and  shot  himself  during  a  revolt  against  his 
authority  in  October,  1820.  Boyer,  who  suc- 
ceeded Petion  in  power,  now  united  all  the 
governments  of  the  west,  and  ruled  over  the 
whole  Haytian  territory.  The  retrocession  of 
the  eastern  colony  had  been  made  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  English  government ;  but  it  was 
never  fully  acquiesced  in  by  the  inhabitants, 
and  its  possession  by  Spain  had  since  been 
rather  nominal  than  real.  The  proximity  of  a 
free  republic,  separated  only  by  a  convention- 
al line,  was  also  fraught  with  danger,  and  en- 
couragement to  revolt  was  not  otherwise  want- 
ing. At  length  the  people  determined  to  be  as 
free  and  independent  as  their  neighbors,  and 
on  Nov.  30,  1821,  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke 
and  declared  their  country  a  republic.  Profit- 
ing by  the  dissensions  that  followed,  Boyer, 
the  Haytian  president,  now  invaded  the  dis- 
turbed country,  and  in  1822  united  the  whole 
island  under  his  government.  France  ac- 
knowledged the  independence  of  its  former 
colony  in  1825,  on  the  condition  that  Hayti 
should  pay  150,000,000  (subsequently  reduced 
to  90,000,000)  francs,  as  an  indemnity  for  the 
losses  of  the  French  colonists  during  the  rev- 
olution. Boyer  retained  the  presidency  till 
1842,  when  a  revolution  broke  out  against  his 
power  and  compelled  him  to  flee ;  and  soon  af- 
ter the  inhabitants  of  the  east,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Juan  Pablo  Duarte,  rose  against  the 
Haytians,  overpowered  them,  and  in  February, 
1844,  formed  themselves  into  an  independent 
state  under  the  style  of  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic. In  the  following  years  the  supreme  pow- 
er in  Hayti  was  successively  held  by  H6rard, 
Guerrier,  Pierrot,  and  Riche"  till  1847,  when 
Gen.  Faustin  Soulouque  was  elected  president. 
He  renewed  the  attempt  to  subjugate  the  east- 
ern republic ;  but  he,  at  the  head  of  an  army 
5,000  strong,  was  opposed  by  Santana  with 
only  400  men,  and  signally  defeated  at  Las 
Carreras  on  the  river  Ocoa  in  April,  1849. 
Soulouque  was  a  member  of  the  secret  order 
of  Vaudoux;  he  was  superstitious  and  illiter- 
ate, but  possessed  of  great  ambition.  On  Aug. 
26,  1849,  aided  by  the  blacks,  he  assumed  the 
title  of  emperor  as  Faustin  I.,  and  caused  the 
constitution  to  be  altered  to  meet  the  changed 
circumstances  of  affairs;  and  to  consolidate 
his  power,  he  surrounded  himself  by  a  court 
composed  of  princes  of  the  blood,  dukes,  counts, 
barons,  &c.,  and  established  two  orders  of 
knighthood,  that  of  St.  Faustin  and  the  legion 
of  honor.  He  was  crowned  with  great  pomp 
in  1850.  His  policy,  which  had  become  des- 


HAYWARD 


HAZEBROUCK 


553 


yutic  ;  his  habits,  too  expensive  for  the  condi- 
tion of  the  country ;  and  above  all  his  impu- 
lent  robberies  of  the  public  funds,  gave  rise 
a  sullen  discontent,  which  soon  pervaded 
the  whole  country.     On  Dec.  22,  1858,  he  was 
leposed ;  and  on  the  following  day  a  republic 
proclaimed  under  Fabre  Geffrard.      On 
Fan.  10,  1859,  Soulouque  made  an  attempt  to 
rain  the  crown,  but  was  compelled  to  sur- 
ider  to  Geffrard,  and  on  the  15th  he  set  sail 
for  Jamaica.    In  September  a  band  of  conspira- 
>rs  attempted  to  assassinate  Geffrard,  but  suc- 
jeded  only  in  murdering  his  daughter.     The 
issins  were  apprehended  and  executed.     A 
jries  of  impolitic  acts  soon  rendered  the  new 
Iministration  as  unpopular  and  odious  as  had 
jen  that  of  Soulouque.     On  the  night  of  Feb. 
J2,  1867,  the  citizens  of  Port-au-Prince  rose 
insurrection;  and  Geffrard,  foreseeing  that 
change  was  contemplated    and  imminent, 
mdered  his  abdication  and  fled  to  Jamaica, 
iving  previously  secured  a  large  amount  of 
public  money.     A  triumvirate  was  now  ap- 
rinted,  composed  of  Nissage-Saget,  Chevalier, 
id  Salnave ;  but  in  June  the  last  named  was 
levated  to  the  presidency,  and  the  present  con- 
titution  at  once  promulgated.    A  new  insur- 
jction  broke  out  against  Salnave  in  1868.    Af- 
having  been  several  times  defeated  by  the 
evolutionists,  he  fortified  himself  in  Port-au- 
ince ;  but  his  fleet  having  been  captured,  the 
>wn  bombarded,  and  the  grand  palace  com- 
letely  destroyed,  he  was  compelled  to  seek 
ifety  in  flight,  and  yielding  to  the  persuasions 
)f  the  British  consul,  he  endeavored  to  escape 
Dominican  territory.      He  was,  however, 
iptured  by  Cabral,  and  on  Jan.  11,  1870,  sur- 
sndered  to  Nissage-Saget,  who  had  meantime 
?n  called  to  the  capital  by  the  victorious 
m.  Brice,  by  whom  the  city  had  been  bom- 
irded.     Salnave  was  tried  by  court  martial, 
charges  of  bloodshed  and  treason,  sentenced 
death,  and  shot  on  the  steps  of  his  ruined 
On  May  29  Nissage-Saget  was  named 
president  of  the  republic  of  Hayti;  and  he  has 
now  (April,  1874),  in  spite  of  numerous  at- 
ipts  to  overthrow  his  government,  almost 
nnpleted  his  term  of  office,  a  good  fortune 
rhich  few  of  his  predecessors  enjoyed. 
HAYWARD,  Abraham,  an  English  writer  and 
slator,  born  about  1800.     He  is  a  lawyer, 
lolding  the  rank  of   queen's   counsel.      His 
rorks  are :    "  Statutes  founded  on  the   Coin- 
ion  Law  Reports"  (London,  1832);  a  prose 
translation  of  Goethe's  "Faust"  (1833-'47); 
translation  of  Savigny's  "  Vocation  of  our  Age 
">r  Legislation   and   Jurisprudence"   (1839); 
"Law  regarding  Marriage  with  the  Sister  of 
Deceased  Wife  "  (1846) ;  "  Juridical  Tracts  " 
(1856);    "Biographical  and  Critical  Essays" 
vols.,  1858-'73) ;  "  Autobiography,  Letters, 
id  Remains  of  Mrs.  Piozzi"  (2  vols.,  1861) ; 
"Diaries  of  a  Lady  of  Quality  from  1797  to 
1844  "  (1864) ;  and  "  More  about  Junius  "  (1868). 
HAYWOOD.    I.  A  W.  county  of  North  Caro- 
lina, bordering  on  Tennessee,  and  watered  by 


Big  Pigeon  river  ;  area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,921,  of  whom  515  were  colored.  It 
lies  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Iron  moun- 
tain, and  has  a  rough  surface  with  fertile  river 
bottoms.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
40,734  bushels  of  wheat,  206,998  of  Indian 
corn,  26,879  of  oats,  11,126  of  potatoes,  18,692 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  15,299  of  wool,  and  76,463  of 
butter.  There  were  1,357  horses,  2,539  milch 
cows,  4,106  other  cattle,  7,844  sheep,  and  11,- 
234  swine.  Capital,  Waynesville.  II.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Tennessee,  drained  by  the  Hatchee 
and  the  S.  fork  of  Forked  Deer  river;  area, 
600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,094,  of  whom  13,- 
832  were  colored.  It  has  an  even  surface,  and 
a  fertile,  well  cultivated  soil.  The  Louisville 
and  Nashville  and  Great  Southern  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  38,507  bushels  of  wheat,  522,921  of 
Indian  corn,  31,037  of  sweet  potatoes,  89,739 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  10,510  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  2,172  horses,  1,889  mules  and 
asses,  7,706  cattle,  5,206  sheep,  and  20,514 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages,  2  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  and  6  saAv  mills. 
Capital,  Brownsville. 

HAZARD,  Rowland  Gibson,  an  American  manu- 
facturer and  author,  born  in  South  Kingston, 
R.  I.,  Oct.  9,  1801.  He  has  been  engaged  from 
his  youth  in  mercantile  and  manufacturing  pur- 
suits, in  which  he  has  accumulated  a  large  for- 
tune. While  in  New  Orleans  in  1841-'2,  with 
great  effort,  and  under  repeated  threats  of  be- 
ing lynched,  he  obtained  the  release  of  large 
numbers  of  free  negroes  who  belonged  to  ships 
from  the  north,  and  who  had  been  placed  in 
the  chain  gang.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Rhode  Island  house  of  representatives  in  1851- 
'2  and  1854-'5,  and  was  a  state  senator  in 
1866-'7.  He  has  published  an  "  Essay  on  Lan- 
guage" (1834);  "Lectures  on  the  Adaptation 
of  the  Universe  to  the  Cultivation  of  the 
Mind  "  (1840) ;  "  Lecture  on  the  Causes  of  the 
Decline  of  Political  and  National  Morality" 
(1841) ;  "  Essay  on  the  Philosophical  Character 
of  Channing"  (1844);  "Essays  on  the  Rela- 
tions of  Railroad  Corporations  to  the  Public  " 
(1849) ;  "  Essay  on  the  Duty  of  Individuals  to 
Support  Science  and  Literature  "  (1855) ;  "  Es- 
says on  the  Resources  of  the  United  States" 
(1864);  "Freedom  of  the  Mind  in  Willing" 
(1864) ;  "  Essays  on  Finance  and  Hours  of  La- 
bor "  (1868);  and  "Causation  and  Freedom 
in  Willing,"  two  letters  addressed  to  John  Stu- 
art Mill  (1869). 

HAZARDVILLE,  Conn.     See  ENFIELD. 

HAZEBROUCK,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Le  Nord,  24  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Lille, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Calais  and  Dunkirk  rail- 
ways; pop.  in  1866,  9,017.  It  has  several 
handsome  public  buildings,  among  which  are 
the  spacious  and  richly  ornamented  parish 
church,  built  from  1493  to  1520,  surmounted 
by  a  beautiful  spire  of  open  work,  240  ft.  high ; 
a  fine  town  house,  an  old  Augustinian  convent 
now  occupied  by  the  large  linen  market,  a 


554 


HAZEL 


communal  college,  and  a  normal  school.  There 
are  manufactures  of  linen,  thread,  starch,  soap, 
leather,  and  salt;  breweries,  tanneries,  dye 
works,  oil  mills,  and  lime  kilns. 

IIAZEL,  the  common  name  for  shrubs  or  small 
trees  of  the  genus  corylus,  which  is  by  some 
botanists  placed  with  the  oak,  chestnut,  &c.,  in 
the  order  cupuliferce,  while  others  make  it  the 
type  of  a  small  order  co- 
rylaccce,  comprising  the 
hazel  and  the  hornbeams. 
The  name  of  the  genus  is 
an  ancient  one,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  from  the  Greek 
n6pvc,  a  helmet,  while  the 
word  hazel  is  referred  by 
some  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
hcesel,  bonnet.  There  are 
seven  recognized  species 
of  the  genus  corylus,  two 
of  which  are  natives  of 
North  America.  These 
are  small,  much  branched 
shrubs,  rarely  over  6  ft. 
high,  and  very  common 
along  the  edges  of  woods 
and  by  roadsides  and  in 
thickets.  They  are  among 
the  first  plants  to  open 
their  flowers  in  spring  ; 
the  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  in  aments 
very  dissimilar  in  appearance,  and  both  upon 
the  same  plant ;  the  male  or  staminate  flowers 
are  in  cylindrical  pendulous  aments  2  or  3  in. 
long,  and  consist  of  a  wedge-shaped  scale,  be- 
neath which  are  about  eight  anthers ;  being  per- 
fectly formed  the  autumn  before,  these  aments 


Hazel  Flowers. 


Hazel  Leaves  and  Fruit. 

are  ready  to  open  with  the  first  warm  days,  and 
when  quite  in  flower  they  are  tremulous  with 
every  breeze  and  scatter  their  pollen  profusely. 
The  pistillate  aments  are  small,  and  might  be 
overlooked  by  a  careless  observer,  as  they  ap- 
pear so  much  like  buds.  A  close  inspection  will 


show  a  cluster  of  delicate  crimson  stigmas  pro- 
jecting from  the  apex  of  the  bud-like  ament; 
the  fertile  flowers  are  very  simple,  consisting 
of  an  ovary  with  two  elongated  styles,  placed 
in  the  axil  of  a  scale  and  accompanied  by  t\vo 
small  bracts,  which  as  the  fruit  matures  in- 
crease rapidly  in  size,  and  ultimately  form  an 
envelope  or  husk  which  encloses  it ;  the  fruit 
is  a  one-seeded  nut  with  a  bony  shell  and  a 
large  sweet  kernel.  The  most  abundant  Amer- 
ican species  is  the  common  or  American  hazel, 
C.  Americana,  which  has  a  nut  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  broad,  somewhat  less  in 
length,  and  surrounded  by  a  husk  longer  than 
itself,  but  which  is  open  down  to  the  nut ;  this 
involucre  consists  of  two  leafy  bracts,  which 
are  thick  below,  with  their  margins  cut  and 
fringed.  This  species  extends  from  Canada  to 
Florida  and  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  nuts 
vary  in  size  and  quality,  but  at  the  best  are  in- 
ferior to  the  imported.  The  beaked  hazel,  C. 
rostrata,  is  a  smaller  bush  than  the  other,  and 
mainly  differs  from  it  in  the  form  of  the  husk, 
which  closely  surrounds  the  nut  and  is  pro- 
longed beyond  it  into  a  long  bristly  beak ;  its 
form  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  long- 
necked  bottle;  the  nuts  are  less  pleasant  to  the 
taste.  This  is  more  common  northward  and 
upon  mountains  southward,  and  extends  to  the 
Pacific  coast;  a  variety  of  it  has  even  been 
found  near  the  Amoor  river  in  Asia. — The  most 
important  corylm  is  C.  Avellana,  which  pro- 
duces the  well  known  imported  filbert.  The 
specific  name  is  said  to  be  from  Abellina  in 
Asia,  which  Pliny  supposed  to  be  its  native 
country,  but  it  is  found  wild  in  various  parts 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in 
northern  Africa.  In  its  natural  state  the  fil- 
bert forms  a  large  bush,  but  by  keeping  down 
the  suckers  which  it  so  abundantly  produces  it 
may  be  made  to  form  a  tree  20  or  30  ft.  high. 
The  filbert  is  largely  cultivated  in  England  and 
on  the  continent.  This  species  has  nearly  the 
same  general  appearance  as  the  American  ha- 
zel bush,  but  the  fruit  is  much  larger,  while  the 
involucre  or  husk  is  not  usually  longer  than  the 
nut.  _  It  is  but  little  cultivated  in  this  country, 
and  is  only  now  and  then  seen  in  gardens,  chief- 
ly as  a  curiosity.  "With  proper  care  in  pruning 
there  seems  to  be  no  obstacle  to  its  cultivation 
here ;  those  who  have  tried  it  say  that  it  yields 
abundantly.  In  England,  where  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  their  cultivation,  the  bushes  are 
kept  to  the  height  of  about  6  ft.,  and  in  their 
early  growth  are  pruned  with  a  view  to  pro- 
duce a  great  number  of  lateral  branches,  as  it 
is  upon  these  that  the  fruit  is  borne.  There 
are  30  or  40  named  varieties  recorded,  but  not 
more  than  half  a  dozen  are  in  general  cultiva- 
tion. The  name  filbert,  or  "full-beard,"  is 
given  to  those  with  a  long  husk  ;  those  with  a 
short  husk  are  called  hazel-nuts,  or  simply  nuts; 
while  those  with  a  short  nut  and  a  thick  shell 
are  known  as  cobs.  Among  the  most  valued 
varieties  is  the  Cosford,  which  has  a  very  long 
nut  with  a  thin  shell.  In  two  of  the  esteemed 


HAZLETON 

cultivated  rarities,  the  red  and  the  white  fil- 
bert, the  husk  is  so  much  prolonged  beyond 
the  nut  that  some  botanists  have  regarded  it  as 
a  species,  C.  tubulosa;  another  marked  variety 
is  the  frizzled  nut.  It  is  said  that  30  cwt.  of 
nuts  have  been  produced  upon  a  single  acre. 
In  England  the  nuts  are  preserved  and  sold  in 
the  husk ;  after  being  thoroughly  dried  they  are 
sometimes  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur  to  prevent  moulding  ;  some  for  the 
same  purpose  pack  them  with  salt.  Besides 
the  large  quantities  raised  in  England,  the  im- 
portation, chiefly  of  Barcelona  nuts,  is  very 
large,  over  140,000  bushels  having  been  import- 
ed in  a  single  year.  Those  brought  to  the 
United  States  come  almost  wholly  from  the 
south  of  Europe ;  a  very  small  quantity  of 
English  nuts  in  the  husk  are  sold  by  city 
fruit  dealers.  The  wood  of  the  filbert  is  very 
close-grained,  and  furnishes  tough  and  flexible 
shoots  for  making  crates,  hoops,  whip  handles, 
withes,  and  the  like.  A  variety  with  dark  pur- 
ple foliage  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  shrub. 
An  Asiatic  species,  C.  colurna,  forms  a  large 
tree ;  its  nuts  are  imported  into  England  under 
the  name  of  Smyrna  or  Constantinople  nuts; 
they  yield  an  oil  valued  by  painters. 

HAZLETON,  a  borough  of  Luzerne  co.,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  dividing  ridge  between  the 
Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers,  about  2,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  and  80  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Phila- 
delphia; pop.  in  1860,  1,707;  in  1870,  4,317; 
in  1874,  about  7,000.  It  is  connected  with  the 
seaboard  by  the  Lehigh  Valley  railroad,  and 
with  the  west  by  the  Danville,  Hazleton,  and 
Wilkesbarre  line.  It  has  a  very  healthful  sum- 
mer climate,  and  is  resorted  to  during  that  sea- 
son by  many  wealthy  families  from  the  sea- 
board and  inland  cities.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
Hazleton  coal  field,  commanding  the  trade  of 
that  district,  and  contains  the  shops  of  the  Ha- 
zleton division  of  the  Lehigh  Valley  railroad, 
two  planing  mills,  two  grist  mills,  a  furniture 
factory,  a  foundery,  a  large  hotel,  two  banks, 
a  daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  three  pub- 
lic school  buildings,  and  eight  churches. 

HAZLITT.  I.  William,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Maidstone,  April  10, 1778,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Sept.  18,  1830.  His  father,  a  Unitarian 
clergyman,  sent  him  to  the  Unitarian  college 
at  Hackney  to  be  educated  for  the  ministry. 
But  he  devoted  himself  to  philosophy  and  art, 
and  on  leaving  college  determined  to  become  a 
painter.  He  painted  portraits  with  tolerable 
success,  but  finding  he  was  not  likely  to  reach 
a  high  standard,  he  renounced  the  art.  In 
1805  appeared  his  essay  on  "  The  Principles  of 
Human  Action,"  after  which  he  became  a 
regular  contributor  to  newspapers  of  political 
articles  and  theatrical  art  criticisms,  which, 
with  his  criticisms  on  literature  and  literary 
men,  constitute  his  chief  claim  to  remem- 
brance. Among  his  best  known  works  are: 
"Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays"  (8vo, 
London,  1817);  "A  View  of  the  English 
Stage"  (1818);  "Lectures  on  the  English 


HEAD 


555 


Poets"  (1818);  "Lectures  on  the  English 
Comic  Writers"  (1819);  "Lectures  on  the 
Literature  of  the  Elizabethan  Age"  (1821); 
"  Table  Talk  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1824) ;  "  The  Spirit 
of  the  Age  "  (1825),  containing  sketches  of  the 
leading  public  characters  of  the  day ;  an  essay 
on  the  fine  arts  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica ;"  and  the  "  Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  " 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1828),  dictated  by  enthusiastic 
admiration  of  his  subject.  In  1836  appeared 
his  "Literary  Remains,"  with  a  notice  of  his 
life  by  his  son,  and  thoughts  on  his  genius  and 
writings  by  Sir  E.  L.  Bulwer  and  Sergeant 
Talfourd  (2  vols.  8vo).  Hazlitt's  free  com- 
ments upon  living  authors  made  him  many  ene- 
mies. He  was  married  in  1808,  and  divorced 
in  1823,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  married  a 
wealthy  widow.  II.  William,  an  English  au- 
thor, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Wiltshire, 
Sept.  26,  1811.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
London  in  1844,  and  appointed  registrar  of  the 
court  of  bankruptcy  in  1854.  He  is  chiefly 
known  in  the  world  of  letters  by  editions  of 
some  of  his  father's  works ;  an  edition  of  the 
writings  of  De  Foe  (3  vols.  8vo,  1840) ;  transla- 
tions of  Michelet's  "Eoman  Republic,"  Guizot's 
"  History  of  the  English  Revolution  "  (12mo, 
1846)  and  "History  of  Civilization"  (3  vols. 
12mo,  1846),  Thierry's  "  History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  England  by  the  Normans"  (2  vols. 
12mo,  1847),  and  Hue's  "Travels  in  Tartary, 
Thibet,  and  China"  (1852);  and  an  edition  of 
Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  with  additions, 
from  the  earliest  period  to  the  close  of  the  last 
generation  (4  vols.  12mo,  1854).  In  connec- 
tion with  Mr.  Roche  he  has  compiled  a  "Man- 
ual of  Maritime  Warfare  "  and  editions  of  the 
bankruptcy  acts  of  1861  and  1869.  III.  Wil- 
liam Carew,  an  English  author,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  Aug.  22,  1834.  He  entered  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1859,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1861.  He  has  written  "  The  History  of 
the  Venetian  Republic"  (4  vols.,  1858-'60); 
"British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island" 
(1858) ;  and  "  Sophy  Laurie,"  a  novel  (1865). 
He  has  also  edited  "Old  English  Jest  Books" 
(3  vols.,  1864),  "Remains  of  the  Early  Popular 
Poetry  of  England"  (4  vols.,  1864-'6),  the 
works  of  Charles  Lamb  (4  vols.,  1866-'7l), 
"Memoirs  of  William  Hazlitt"  (2  vols.,  1867), 
"Bibliography  of  Old  English  Literature" 
(1867),  "English  Proverbs  and  Proverbial 
Phrases"  (1869),  "Popular  Antiquities  of 
Great  Britain  "  (3  vols.,  1870),  and  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Warton's  "  History  of  English  Poetry  " 
(4  vols.,  1871).  In  the  last  named  work  he 
was  assisted  by  several  eminent  antiquaries. 

HEAD.  I.  Sir  George,  an  English  author,  born 
near  Rochester  in  1782,  died  in  London,  May 
2,  1855.  He  served  as  commissary  in  the  Brit- 
ish army  during  the  war  in  the  Peninsula,  and 
also  in  Nova  Scotia  and  the  Canadas.  He 
published  "Forest  Scenes  and  Incidents  in  the 
Wilds  of  North  America,"  "Home  Tour,"  and 
"  Rome,  a  Tour  of  Many  Days."  II.  Sir  Fran- 
cis B«nd,  an  English  author,  brother  of  the  pre- 


556 


HEADLEY 


HEABNE 


ceding,  born  near  Rochester  in  1793.  "While 
an  officer  in  the  engineers  he  received  from  a 
raining  company  an  invitation  to  explore  the 
gold  and  silver  mines  of  South  America,  be- 
tween Buenos  Ayres  and  the  Andes.  He  ar- 
rived in  Buenos  Ayres  in  1825,  and  in  a  short 
time  had  completed  the  work,  having  crossed 
the  pampas  four  times  and  the  Andes  twice, 
and  ridden  more  than  6,000  miles,  most  of  the 
time  alone.  His  "  Rough  Notes  of  a  Journey 
across  the  Pampas  "  (1826)  gives  a  graphic  de- 
scription of  his  expedition.  In  November,  1835, 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant  governor  of  Upper 
Canada,  and  held  office  during  the  insurrection 
of  1837;  after  which  ho  returned  home  and 
published  a  narrative  in  which  he  justified  the 
severe  measures  he  had  taken  against  the  in- 
surgents. For  his  services  in  suppressing  the 
rebellion  he  was  created  a  baronet  in  1838,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  the  legislatures  of  Up- 
per Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick. 
In  1867  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor.  His 
remaining  works  are :  "  Bubbles  from  the 
Brunnen  of  Nassau  "  (1833) ;  "  Life  of  Bruce  " 
(1844);  "The  Emigrant"  (1847);  "Stokers 
and  Pokers"  and  " The  Defenceless  State  of 
Great  Britain  "  (1850) ;  "  A  Fagot  of  French 
Sticks"  (1851);  "A  Fortnight  in  Ireland" 
(1852);  "Descriptive  Essays"  (1856);  "The 
Horse  and  his  Rider  "  (I860) ;  and  "  The  Royal 
Engineer"  (1870). 

HEADLEY,  Joel  Tyler,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Walton,  Delaware  co.,  N.  YM  Dec.  30, 
1814.  He  graduated  at  Union  college  in  1839, 
studied  at  Auburn  theological  seminary,  and 
was  pastor  for  two  years  at  Stockbridge,  Mass. 
Obliged  by  the  failure  of  his  health  to  abandon 
his  profession,  he  travelled  in  Europe  in  1842- 
'3,  and  after  his  return  published  two  volumes 
entitled  "Letters  from  Italy"  and  "The  Alps 
and  the  Rhine  "  (New  York,  1845),  which  were 
received  with  favor.  In  1846  he  published 
"Napoleon  and  his  Marshals"  (2  vols.  12mo) 
and  "Sacred  Mountains,"  and  in  1847  "Wash- 
ington and  his  Generals"  (2  vols.).  Among 
his  later  publications  are  lives  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, Winfield  Scott,  Andrew  Jackson,  and 
Washington;  "  Adirondacks,  or  Life  in  the 
Woods"  (1849) ;  "The  Imperial  Guard  of  Na- 
poleon from  Marengo  to  Waterloo "  (1852), 
founded  on  a  popular  French  history  by  E.  M. 
tie  Saint-Hilaire ;  a  "History  of  the  Second 
War  between  England  and  the  United  States" 
(2  vols.,  1853);  "Sacred  Scenes  and  Charac- 
ters;" "Life  of  General  Havelock"  (1859); 
"  The  Great  Rebellion,  a  History  of  the  Civil 
War  in  the  United  States  "  (2  vols.,  1863-'6) ; 
"Chaplains  and  Clergy  of  the  Revolution" 
(1864);  and  "Sacred  Heroes  and  Martyrs" 
(1870).  Mr.  Headley  resides  near  Newburgh, 
on  the  Hudson  river.  In  1856-'7  he  was  sec- 
retary of  state  of  New  York. 

HEALY,  George  Peter  Alexander,  an  American 
painter,  born  in  Boston,  July  15, 1813.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  1836,  where  he  remained  several 
years,  alternating  his  residence  there  with  oc- 


casional visits  to  the  United  States.  He  is 
known  for  his  portraits  of  Louis  Philippe, 
Marshal  Soult,  Gen.  Cass,  Calhoun,  Webster, 
Pierce,  Gen.  Sherman,  O.  A.  Brownson,  W.  H. 
Prescott,  H.  W.  Longfellow,  and  other  promi- 
nent persons.  His  large  historical  picture  of 
"Webster's  Reply  to  Hayne,"  which  contains 
130  portraits,  was  completed  in  1861,  and  now 
hangs  in  Faneuil  hall,  Boston.  At  the  great 
Paris  exhibition  in  1855  he  exhibited  a  series 
of  13  portraits  and  a  large  picture  represent- 
ing Franklin  urging  the  claims  of  the  American 
colonies  before  Louis  XVL,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived a  medal  of  the  second  class.  He  resided 
in  Chicago  from  1855  to  1867,  when  he  went 
to  Europe,  and  now  (1874)  lives  in  Rome. — His 
daughter  MARY  is  the  author  of  "Lakeville" 
(1 871),  and  other  successful  novels. 

HEARD,  a  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bordering 
on  Alabama,  and  intersected  by  the  Chatta- 
hoochee  river;  area,  286  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,866,  of  whom  2,648  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  hilly  and  well  wooded  with  oak,  hick- 
ory, and  pine.  Gold,  lead,  and  iron  have  been 
found,  and  the  soil  is  generally  rich.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  22,771  bushels  of 
wheat,  151,435  of  Indian  corn,  13,406  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  3,508  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  637  horses,  744  mules  and  asses,  1,231 
milch  cows,  2,282  other  cattle,  3,012  sheep, 
and  6,425  swine.  Capital,  Franklin. 

HEARING.     See  ACOUSTICS,  and  EAR. 

HEARNE,  Samuel,  an  English  explorer,  born 
in  London  in  1745,  died  in  1792.  In  early 
life  he  served  as  a  midshipman  under  Hood, 
but  upon  the  conclusion  of  the  seven  years' 
war  he  entered  the  employment  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  company,  and  made  several  journeys  into 
the  northern  regions  of  British  America  in 
quest  of  a  northwest  passage  and  of  mines  of 
the  precious  metals.  In  1770-'71  he  descend- 
ed the  Coppermine  river  about  30  m.  to  the 
Arctic  ocean.  He  was  promoted  for  these 
services,  and  in  1787  returned  finally  to  Eng- 
land. In  1795  appeared  his  "Journey  from 
the  Prince  of  Wales's  Fort,  in  Hudson's  Bay, 
to  the  Northern  Ocean ;  undertaken  by  order 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  for  the  Dis- 
covery of  Copper  Mines,  a  Northwest  Passage, 
&c.,  in  the  Years  1769,  1770,  1771,  and  1772" 
(4to,  London). 

HEARNE,  Thomas,  an  English  antiquary  and 
author,  born  at  White  Waltham,  Berkshire,  in 
1678,  died  June  10,  1735.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford  in  1699,  and  became  janitor  of  the 
Bodleian  library  in  1701,  and  in  1712  second 
librarian.  Three  years  later  he  was  appoint- 
ed architypographus  of  the  university  and  es- 
quire beadle  of  civil  law ;  but  being  a  strong 
Jacobite,  he  was  soon  compelled  to  resign 
his  offices.  His  plodding  industry  and  irrita- 
ble temper  brought  upon  him  the  ridicule  of 
many  satirists,  and  Pope  described  him  in  the 
"Dunciad"  under  the  name  of  "WTormius." 
Among  Hearne's  most  valuable  publications, 
which  number  more  than  40,  and  the  greater 


HEAKT 


557 


part  of  which  were  printed  by  subscription  at 
Oxford,  are  the  "Life  of  JElfred  the  Great," 
from  Sir  John  Spelman's  manuscript  in  the 
Bodleian  library  (8vo,  1709);  Leland's  "Itin- 
erary" (9  vols.  8vo,  mO-'12);  and  Leland's 
"Collectanea"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1715). 

HEART,  a  hollow  muscular  organ,  the  centre 
of  the  circulatory  apparatus,  situated  within  the 
cavity  of  the  chest,  giving  origin  to  the  arteries 
and  receiving  the  termination  of  the  veins. 
In  the  human  species  it  is  conical,  with  its  base 
upward  and  backward,  on  the  median  line, 
from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  dorsal  verte- 
bra, and  its  point  directed  downward,  forward, 
and  to  the  left,  reaching  nearly  to  the  level  of 
the  sixth  costal  cartilage.  In  the  human  sub- 
ject its  length  is  about  5  in.,  its  breadth  about 

in.,  and  its  average  weight  a  little  less  than 
10  oz.  Its  size  in  any  particular  individual 
corresponds  very  nearly  with  that  of  the  closed 
fist.  In  man  and  all  the  warm-blooded  verte- 
brate animals  the  heart  is  double,  that  is,  it  con- 
sists of  two  lateral  halves,  right  and  left,  sepa- 
rated by  an  impervious  partition ;  the  right  half 
being  destined  to  receive  the  venous  blood  re- 
turning from  the  general  circulation  and  send 
it  to  the  lungs ;  the  left  half  receiving  the 
arterialized  blood  from  the  lungs  and  sending 
it  into  the  arterial  system,  to  be  distributed 
throughout  the  body.  The  left  half  is  con- 
siderably the  thicker,  more  muscular,  and  more 
powerful ;  the  impulse  required  to  propel  the 
blood  through  the  general  circulation  being 
greater  than  that  needed  to  carry  it  through 
the  vessels  of  the  lungs.  Each  half  consists 
of  two  cavities  communicating  with  each  oth- 
er, called  respectively  the  "auricle"  and  the 
"  ventricle."  The  auricle  is  the  smaller  and 
thinner,  receiving  the  blood  directly  from  the 
veins,  while  the  ventricle  is  the  larger  and 
stronger,  receiving  the  blood  from  the  auricle 
and  discharging  it  into  the  corresponding  ar- 
tery. Between  the  auricle  and  ventricle,  on 
each  side,  is  an  opening,  the  "  auriculo- ventri- 
cular orifice,"  through  which  the  blood  passes 
from  the  former  to  the  latter.  From  the  right 
ventricle  originates  the  pulmonary  artery,  go- 
ing to  the  lungs,  and  from  the  left  ventricle  the 
aorta,  the  main  trunk  of  the  arterial  system. 
The  heart  is  so  placed  within  the  chest  that 
the  right  auricle  and  ventricle  are  situated 
rather  upon  its  anterior,  and  the  left  auricle 
and  ventricle  rather  upon  its  posterior  portion ; 
so  that  in  a  front  view  the  right  side  of  the 
organ  comes  most  prominently  into  notice. 
The  great  arteries  also  arise  from  the  base  of 
the  heart  in  such  a  way  that  the  commence- 
ment of  the  pulmonary  artery  is  in  front  and  a 
little  to  the  left,  that  of  the  aorta  rather  be- 
hind and  to  the  right.  Thus  the  two  streams 
of  blood,  arterial  and  venous,  in  passing  through 
the  heart,  cross  each  other  in  an  obliquely  spi- 
ral direction ;  the  venous  blood,  which  enters 
the  right  auricle,  passing  out  by  the  pulmo- 
nary artery  on  the  left,  and  the  arterial  blood, 
which  enters  by  the  left  auricle,  passing  out 


by  the  aorta  on  the  right.  The  structure  of 
the  heart,  as  already  intimated,  is  essentially 
muscular.  Its  muscular  fibres,  which  form  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  its  mass,  belong  to  the 
striped  variety,  resembling  in  this  respect  the 
fibres  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  They  are  dis- 


p.r 


FIG.  1.— The  Heart,  Great  Vessels,  and  Lungs— Front  View. 

R.V.,  right  ventricle;  L.V.,  left  ventricle;  R.A.,  right 
auricle;  L.A.,  left  auricle;  Ao.,  aorta;  P. A.,  pulmo- 
nary artery;  P.V.,  pulmonary  veins;  R.L.,  right  lung; 
L.L.,  left  lung;  V.S.,  vena  cava  superior;  F./.,  vena 
cava  inferior. 

tinguished  from  the  latter  by  two  peculiarities : 
their  smaller  size,  and  the  fact  that,  although 
generally  arranged  in  a  parallel  direction,  they 
frequently  anastomose  with  each  other,  thus 
forming  a  kind  of  muscular  network,  and  no 
doubt  affording  mutual  points  of  support  at 
the  time  of  their  contraction.  The  general  ar- 
rangement of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  heart 
is  spiral  and  circular.  They  originate  princi- 
pally from  a  strong  fibrous  ring  surrounding 
the  auriculo-ventricular  orifices.  Thence  the 
fibres  destined  to  form  the  walls  of  the  auricles 
pass  upward  and  encircle 
these  cavities  with  a  variety 
of  interlacing  bands,  some  of 
which  pass  across  the  inter- 
vening septum  and  thus  con- 
nect the  two  auricles  by  mus- 
cular fibres  common  to  both. 
The  fibres  of  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  right  ventricle 
also  pass  obliquely  downward 
across  the  interventricular 
septum,  and  wind  spirally 
round  the  apex  of  the  left 
ventricle.  The  deep-seated 
fibres  of  each  ventricle  are 
still  more  strongly  spiral  and 
even  nearly  circular  in  di- 
rection, like  the  transverse 
fibres  of  the  intestine,  so  that  when  they  con- 
tract like  the  fingers  of  a  closed  hand,  they 
nearly  obliterate  the  cavity  of  the  ventricles. 
At  their  termination  they  again  run  upward, 
and  are  attached  to  the  auriculo-ventricular 


FIG.  2. — Muscular 
Fibres  of  the 
Heart. 


558 


HEART 


ring  from  which  they  originated,  or,  by  fleshy 
columns,  to  the  tendinous  chords  of  the  ven- 
tricular valves.  Besides  its  muscular  tissue, 
the  heart  is  covered  externally  by  a  serous 
and  fibrous  membrane,  the  pericardium,  and 
is  lined  internally  by  another  serous  mem- 
brane, the  endocardium ;  the  latter  of  which  is 
continuous  with  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
blood  vessels.  At  each  of  the  great  orifices  of 
the  heart  are  membranous  valves,  composed 
of  a  thin  and  flexible  but  strong  fibrous  tissue, 
so  arranged  as  to  allow  the  blood  to  pass  free- 
ly onward  in  its  course,  but  to  prevent  its 
flowing  back  in  the  opposite  direction.  Those 
situated  at  the  auriculo-ventricular  orifices  are 
the  ventricular  valves;  those  at  the  orifices  of 
the  great  arteries  are  the  arterial  valves.  Each 
set,  on  the  right  and  left  side,  has  also  received 
a  special  name  corresponding  to  certain  pecu- 
liarities of  form  or  position.  The  right  ven- 
tricular valve  is  composed  of  a  broad  fibrous 


FIG.  8.— Horizontal  Section  of  the  Human  Heart,  at  the 
level  of  the  Ventricular  Orifices. 

A.   Orifice  of  pulmonary  artery.    B.  Orifice  of   aorta. 
C,  C,  C.  Tricuspid  valves.    D,  D.  Mitral  valves. 

sheet  with  three  main  points  or  divisions, 
whence  it  is  called  the  tricuspid  valve.  Its 
floating  edges  are  easily  displaced  from  the 
auricle  toward  the  ventricle,  thus  allowing  the 
blood  a  free  passage  in  this  direction ;  but  on 
being  forced  backward,  from  the  ventricle  to- 
ward the  auricle,  its  free  edges  come  in  con- 
tact with  each  other  and  are  firmly  held  in 
this  position  by  a  number  of  tendinous  chords 
running  from  its  edge  and  under  surface  to  the 
inner  wall  of  the  ventricle  below,  which  are 
now  put  upon  the  stretch.  Thus  the  passage 
from  the  ventricle  to  the  auricle  is  completely 
closed,  and  it  can  be  opened  only  in  a  forward 
direction.  The  left  ventricular  valve  is  similar 
to  the  right,  except  that  it  consists  of  only  two 
main  pointed  sheets,  like  the  two  halves  of  a 
bishop's  mitre ;  it  is  therefore  called  the  mitral 
valve.  It  is  supported  in  position  by  tendinous 
chords,  as  in  the  former  instance  (fig.  3).  At 
each  of  the  arterial  orifices  are  three  valves, 


having  the  form  of  semilunar  bags,  with  their 
concavities  toward  the  wall  of  the  artery  to 
which  they  are  attached,  and  their  convexities 
toward  the  cavity  of  the  ventricle.  Thus  when 
the  stream  of  blood  passes  from  the  ventricle 
into  the  artery,  the  valves  are  flattened  against 
the  wall  of  the  vessel,  and  offer  no  resistance 
to  its  current ;  but  when  distended  by  a  back- 
ward impulse  they  fill  with  blood,  and,  their 
edges  coming  in  contact,  they  close  the  orifice 
of  the  ventricle  in  this  direction.  Both  sets 
of  arterial  valves,  from  the  similarity  of  their 
figure,  are  called  semilunar  valves ;  but  they 
are  also  known  as  the  pulmonary  or  the  aortic 
valves,  according  to  the  particular  vessel  in 
which  they  are  situated.  They  are  usually  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  heart ;  but  it  is 
evident  from  what  has  been  said  above  that 
they  belong  in  reality  rather  to  the  arterial 
system. — The  action  of  the  heart  consists  in  an 
alternate  contraction  and  relaxation,  by  which 
at  one  instant  it  receives  the  blood  from  the 
veins  and  at  another  propels  it  into  the  arte- 
rial system.  In  this  process  the  two  auricles, 
right  and  left,  contract  simultaneously;  and 
the  two  ventricles  subsequently  contract,  also 
at  the  same  instant  with  each  other.  Still 
the  auricular  and  ventricular  contractions  are 
not  distinctly  and  separately  alternate  with 
each  other,  to  the  same  extent  as  the  strokes 
of  the  two  pistons  of  a  force  pump.  The  action 
of  the  heart  appears  rather  to  consist  in  a  sin- 
gle continuous  contraction,  which  begins  at  the 
auricle  and  thence  runs  forward  to  terminate  at 
the  ventricle.  The  ventricular  action  is  much 
more  powerful  than  that  of  the  auricle ;  and  of 
the  two  ventricles  the  left  is  so  much  the  more 
important  in  size  and  strength,  that  mainly  to 
the  action  of  this  part  are  due  the  changes  m 
form  and  position  of  the  heart  at  the  instant 
of  contraction.  The  contraction  of  the  ven- 
tricles is  almost  instantly  followed  by  their  re- 
laxation ;  and  while  in  this  condition  they  are 
gradually  filled  by  the  blood  flowing  steadily 
into  them  from  the  veins  and  through  the  qui- 
escent auricles.  Then  comes  the  contraction 
of  the  auricles,  which  completes  the  distention 
of  the  ventricular  cavities ;  and  this  distention 
is  at  once  followed  by  the  vigorous  contraction 
of  the  ventricles,  discharging  their  blood  in 
great  abundance,  to  be  followed  again  by  a  pe- 
riod of  relaxation.  This  is  the  succession  of 
the  phenomena  which  present  themselves  when 
the  heart  is  seen  in  activity  during  life. — At 
every  ventricular  contraction  the  substance  of 
the  heart  becomes  harder ;  it  twists  slightly 
upon  itself  from  left  to  right ;  and  its  point 
strikes  the  walls  of  the  chest,  in  the  human 
subject,  in  the  fifth  intercostal  space,  a  little 
to  the  left  of  the  edge  of  the  sterntfm.  Tlie 
induration  of  the  organ  at  the  moment  of  its 
activity  is  due  to  its  muscular  nature,  since  the 
same  tension  and  momentary  induration  can 
be  felt  in  any  of  the  voluntary  muscles  in  con- 
traction. Such  a  muscle,  when  in  activity, 
becomes  swollen  and  at  the  same  time  harder 


HEAET 


559 


the  touch;  and  the  induration  disappears 
en  the  muscle  becomes  relaxed.  That  the 
iduration  of  the  heart  really  coincides  in  time 
,'ith  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle  and  the 
)mpression  of  the  blood,  may  be  easily  shown 
Dy  an  experiment  first  performed  by  Harvey, 
lamely,  by  thrusting  a  small  metallic  canula 
through  the  substance  of  the  left  ventricle  into 
its  cavity,  upon  which  the  blood  is  driven  out 
from  the  external  orifice  of  the  canula  in  inter- 
rupted jets,  each  jet  corresponding  in  time  with 
the  induration  and  tension  of  the  substance  of 
the  heart.  The  movement  by  which  the  point 
of  the  heart  strikes  the  walls  of  the  chest  pro- 
duces a  visible  and  tangible  undulation  of  the 
integument  at  the  fifth  intercostal  space.  This 
is  called  the  "  impulse."  The  impulse  is  a  val- 
uable guide  for  the  physician  in  many  cases,  as 
it  is  increased  to  an  abnormal  degree  in  cases 
of  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  and  also  displaced 
from  its  natural  location  when  the  organ  is  en- 
larged or  from  any  cause  altered  in  position. 
The  heart  is  loosely  attached,  at  its  base,  by 
means  of  the  great  vessels  to  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  spinal  column ;  but  its  body  and 
apex  are  nearly  uncoufined,  being  covered  only 
by  the  pericardium,  whose  exterior  is  itself  a 
serous  membrane,  being  invested  by  the  free 
surface  of  the  pleura.  Consequently,  while 
the  base  of  the  heart  is  generally  fixed,  the 
point  of  the  organ  may  move  in  various  direc- 
tions when  compressed  or  encroached  upon  by 
neighboring  growths.  When  the  heart  is  sim- 
ply enlarged,  its  point  is  turned  further  toward 
the  left  side.  When  the  pericardium  is  dis- 
tended with  an  accumulation  of  serum,  the  point 
of  the  organ  fails  to  reach  the  walls  of  the  chest, 
and  the  impulse  disappears  altogether.  When 
there  is  an  accumulation  of  fluid  in  the  left 
pleural  cavity,  the  point  of  the  heart  may  be 
turned  completely  over  to  the  right  of  the  ster- 
num, so  that  the  impulse  may  be  felt  on  that 
side.  There  are  also  cases,  though  rare,  in 
which,  from  a  congenital  malformation,  the 
relative  position  of  all  the  internal  organs  is 
reversed,  the  heart  being  placed  on  the  right 
side,  the  liver  on  the  left,  the  spleen  and  great 
pouch  of  the  stomach  on  the  right,  &c.  The 
abnormal  position  of  the  heart  may  be  more 
easily  distinguished  during  life  than  that  of 
any  other  internal  organ,  owing  to  its  very 
perceptible  impulse  against  the  walls  of  the 
chest. — The  action  of  the  heart  is  accompanied 
by  two  peculiar  sounds,  very  audible  when  the 
ear  is  applied  to  the  front  part  of  the  chest. 
These  sounds  follow  each  other,  in  the  healthy 
condition,  with  perfect  regularity,  and  are  both 
produced  at  each  cardiac  contraction.  They 
are  known  as  the  first  and  second  sounds  of 
the  heart.  The  first  sound  occurs  at  the  instant 
of  the  ventricular  contraction.  It  is  distinct, 
but  slightly  prolonged,  and  is  heard  most 
plainly  over  the  anterior  and  lateral  surface 
id  toward  the  apex  of  the  organ.  It  is  pro- 
luced  by  the  shutting  back  and  sudden  ten- 
of  the  ventricular  valves,  combined,  ac- 
396  VOL.  vin. — 36 


cording  to  some  authorities,  with  the  muscu- 
lar action  of  the  heart's  walls  and  the  passage 
of  the  blood  through  its  cavities.  The  second 
sound,  which  immediately  follows  the  first,  is 
shorter,  but  sharper  and  clearer.  It  is  heard 
most  distinctly  over  the  sternum  at  the  level 
of  the  third  costal  cartilage.  Doubtless  it  is 
due  exclusively  to  the  shutting  back  of  the  ar- 
terial valves  (aortic  and  pulmonary)  ;  since,  in 
the  first  place,  it  is  heard  with  remarkable 
clearness  directly  over  the  situation  of  these 
valves,  and  becomes  fainter  and  less  marked  as 
the  ear  is  moved  further  away ;  and  secondly, 
it  has  been  found  by  experiment  upon  the  lar- 
ger animals  that  if  these  arterial  valves  be 
hooked  back  by  a  curved  needle  introduced 
into  the  base  of  the  great  vessels,  the  second 
sound  immediately  disappears,  but  returns  again 
as  soon  as  the  valve  is  liberated.  The  charac- 
ter, regularity,  position,  and  relative  intensity 
of  these  sounds  often  become  valuable  signs  to 
the  medical  man  in  determining  the  nature  and 
progress  of  affections  of  the  heart. — The  pulsa- 
tions of  the  heart  follow  each  other,  in  every 
species  of  animal,  with  a  certain  degree  of  ra- 
pidity. Generally  speaking,  this  rapidity  is 
greater  in  the  warm-blooded,  less  in  the  cold- 
blooded animals.  In  species  of  the  same  class, 
the  pulsations  are  more  rapid  in  the  smaller, 
less  so  in  the  larger.  In  the  human  subject  the 
average  rapidity  of  the  cardiac  pulsations,  for 
an  adult  male,  is  about  70  a  minute.  They  are 
more  frequent,  as  a  rule,  in  young  children  and 
in  the  female  sex ;  and  there  are  variations  in 
this  respect,  within  certain  limits,  in  particular 
persons,  owing  to  individual  peculiarities  of  or- 
ganization. Thus  it  would  not  necessarily  be 
an  abnormal  sign  to  find  in  any  particular  per- 
son the  habitual  frequency  of  the  heart's  ac- 
tion from  60  to  65,  or  from  75  to  80  a  minute. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  heart's  action  is  slower 
and  more  powerful  in  fully  developed  and  mus- 
cular persons,  more  rapid  and  feebler  in  those 
of  slighter  organization.  In  all  cases  the  heart 
is  temporarily  excited  to  increased  frequency  of 
action  by  unusual  exertion  or  by  nervous  ex- 
citement ;  and  its  pulsations  also  become  more 
rapid  in  many  diseased  conditions,  particularly 
those  of  a  febrile  character.  The  heart's  action 
is  always  purely  involuntary,  being  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  will.  Its  persistency  is  very 
remarkable.  In  the  warm-blooded  animals  the 
heart's  action  ceases  in  a  very  few  minutes  af- 
ter the  destruction  of  the  nervous  centres,  or 
after  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  its  own 
vessels  is  arrested  by  haemorrhage,  by  ligature, 
by  the  stoppage  of  respiration,  or  by  excision 
of  the  heart  itself;  since,  like  the  other  organs 
in  these  animals,  it  requires  a  constant  supply 
of  freshly  arterialized  blood  to  preserve  its  vi- 
tality. But  in  the  cold-blooded  animals  it  will 
continue  to  beat  for  many  hours  after  it  has 
been  emptied  of  blood,  and  even  after  it  has 
been  cut  out  of  the  chest  and  separated  from  all 
its  nervous  and  vascular  connections.  The  pul- 
sations of  the  separated  heart  have  been  seen 


560 


HEART 


HEART  (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


to  go  on  in  the  eel  for  six  hours,  in  the  torpedo 
for  nine  hours,  and  in  the  salmon  for  twen- 
ty-four hours.  In  the  turtle,  the  brain  and 
medulla  oblongata  having  been  destroyed,  the 
heart,  left  in  situ  but  drained  of  blood,  contin- 
ued to  pulsate  for  more  than  eight  hours ;  and 
the  heart  of  the  same  animal,  cut  out  of  the 
body,  drained  of  blood,  divested  of  pericar- 
dium, and  exposed  upon  an  earthen  plate,  con- 
tinued its  action  for  four  hours.  This  shows 
that  the  heart,  as  a  muscular  organ,  is  endowed 
with  an  unusual  degree  of  irritability.  Other 
muscles  contract  only  occasionally,  on  the  ap- 
plication of  a  special  stimulus;  but  with  the 
heart  the  contractions  are  incessantly  repeated, 
with  only  momentary  intervals  of  relaxation, 
from  the  first  periods  of  embryonic  existence 
to  the  latest  moment  of  life.  This  irritability 
is  so  great  that  the  contact  of  any  foreign  sub- 
stance, even  that  of  the  atmospheric  air  or  the 
plate  upon  which  the  separated  organ  rests,  is 
sufficient  to  produce  a  contraction,  which  is 
repeated  at  intervals  as  soon  as  the  muscular 
irritability  has  again  accumulated  by  a  short 
interval  of  relaxation.  During  life,  it  is  be- 
lieved, the  immediate  stimulus  to  each  cardiac 
contraction  is  the  filling  of  its  cavities  by  the 
blood  which  flows  into  them.  When  this  dis- 
tention  is  complete,  the  ventricles  respond  by 
a  contraction,  empty  themselves,  and  then  re- 
main quiescent  until  again  filled  to  their  full 
capacity,  when  the  motion  is  repeated.  But 
for  this  to  go  on,  as  it  does,  indefinitely,  the  in- 
herent irritability  of  the  heart  must  be  very 
great,  as  compared  with  other  muscles ;  and  in 
fact,  as  mentioned  above,  its  motions  may  con- 
tinue to  be  excited  for  a  considerable  period  by 
the  contact  of  the  external  atmosphere  or  oth- 
er foreign  bodies. — In  the  inferior  animals  the 
heart  varies  in  size,  form,  and  construction,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  external  configuration 
of  the  body,  and  particularly  according  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  and 
the  activity  with  which  this  function  is  per- 
formed. In  the  warm-blooded  animals,  name- 
ly, mammalia  and  birds,  whose  respiration  is 
very  active  and  performed  by  lungs,  the  heart 
is  a  double  organ  with  four  cavities,  as  in  man ; 
consisting  of  a  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle 
destined  for  the  pulmonary  circulation,  and  a 
left  auricle  and  left  ventricle  for  the  general 
circulation.  Since  in  these  animals,  in  order 
to  provide  for  the  necessary  activity  of  respira- 
tion, all  the  venous  blood  must  constantly  pass 
through  the  lungs  before  reaching  the  arterial 
system,  the  two  sets  of  cavities  in  the  heart  are 
completely  distinct  from  each  other,  the  venous 
blood  being  carried  exclusively  to  the  lungs  for 
aeration,  and  the  pure  arterialized  blood  alone 
being  disseminated  through  thearterinl  system. 
But  in  the  reptiles  which  are  air-breathing  ani- 
mals but  of  sluggish  respiration,  the  two  ven- 
tricles are  imperfectly  separated  from  each  oth- 
er, the  septum  between  them  being  more  or  less 
perforated,  or,  as  in  the  crocodiles,  the  two  ven- 
tricles communicating  with  the  same  artery. 


In  the  batrachia,  the  heart  consists  of  but 
three  cavities,  two  auricles,  and  one  ventricle. 
Thus  the  venous  blood  from  the  right  auricle 
and  the  aerated  blood  from  the  left  auricle  are 
mingled  in  the  cavity  of  the  single  ventricle, 
and  this  mixed  blood  is  sent  partly  to  the  lungs 
and  partly  to  the  general  circulation.  Thus 
the  blood  sent  to  the  organs  of  the  general  cir- 
culation is  never  so  highly  aerated  as  in  the 
mammals,  and  the  blood  sent  to  the  lungs  is 
never  completely  venous.  This  is  no  doubt  one 
reason  why  respiration  can  be  so  long  suspend- 
ed in  these  animals  without  producing  death. 
In  fishes  there  is  but  a  single  auricle  and  a  sin- 
gle ventricle,  destined  to  receive  the  venous 
blood  coming  from  the  body,  and  to  propel  it 
into  an  arterial  trunk,  by  which  it  is  conveyed 
to  the  gills.  After  passing  through  these  or- 
gans the  arterfalized  blood  is  again  collected  in 
a  single  trunk  corresponding  to  the  aorta,  and 
thence  distributed  throughout  the  body.  In 
the  fishes,  accordingly,  the  entire  heart  repre- 
sents the  right  side  of  that  organ,  as  it  exists 
in  the  mammalia;  its  contractions  being  suffi- 
cient to  insure  the  passage  of  the  blood  through 
the  organs  of  respiration,  and  afterward  also 
through  the  whole  arterial  system. 

HEART,  Diseases  of  the.  The  diseases  of  the 
heart  are :  1,  inflammatory  affections ;  2,  or- 
ganic diseases,  or  structural  lesions ;  and  3, 
functional  disorder.  The  inflammatory  affec- 
tions are  distinguished  from  each  other  and 
named  according  to  the  particular  structure 
inflamed.  Inflammation  of  the  serous  mem- 
brane which  covers  the  organ  and  lines  the 
heart  sac  (pericardium)  is  called  pericarditis. 
Inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  organ  (endocardium)  is  called  en- 
docarditis. Inflammation  of  the  substance  of 
the  organ  (muscular  and  connective  tissue)  is 
called  myocarditis  or  carditis.  I.  INFLAMMA- 
TORY AFFECTIONS. — Pericarditis.  The  inflam- 
mation in  pericarditis  may  be  either  acute  or 
subacute  and  chronic.  Acute  pericarditis  is 
characterized  by  the  same  local  morbid  effects 
essentially  as  acute  inflammation  affecting  oth- 
er analogous  serous  membranes,  as  for  exam- 
ple acute  pleurisy.  The  inflammatory  pro- 
duct called  coagulable  lymph  or  fibrinous  ex- 
udation is  found  after  death  in  more  or  less 
abundance,  covering  the  inflamed  membrane, 
together  with  the  effused  liquid  or  serum,  the 
quantity  of  this  varying  in  different  cases,  and 
holding  in  suspension  flakes  of  lymph.  If  re- 
covery take  place,  the  lymph  and  the  serum 
disappear,  and  in  place  thereof  new  tissue  is 
formed  causing  permanent  adhesion  of  the 
heart  to  the  pericardial  sac,  either  wholly  or 
in  part.  An  entire  obliteration  of  the  space 
between  the  heart  and  this  sac,  by  means  of 
this  newly  formed  tissue,  is  not  incompatible 
with  the  continuance  of  life  and  health.  Acute 
pericarditis  may  be  produced  by  penetrating 
wounds  or  contusions  of  the  chest.  Exclusive 
of  these  so-called  traumatic  causes,  the  affec- 
tion occurs  in  connection  with  acute  articular 


HEART  (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


561 


rheumatism,  or  rheumatic  fever.     The  affec- 
tion is  generally  secondary  to  some  other  dis- 
ease, most  frequently  rheumatism.     It  some- 
times occurs  in  connection  with  either  acute  or 
chronic  disease  of  the  kidneys;  also  in  some 
cases  of  pleurisy  and  pneumonia.     It  is  a  rare 
complication  in  cases  of  pyaemia,  scurvy,  erysip- 
elas, and  the  eruptive  and  continued  fevers. 
As  a  primary  affection  it  is  exceedingly  rare. 
An  attack  of  pericarditis  is  generally  indicated 
by  acute,  lancinating  pain,  referred  to  the  re- 
gion of  the  heart,  increased  by  a  deep  inspira- 
tion.    Its  intensity  varies  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent cases,  being  sometimes  excruciating,  and 
sometimes  slight  or  even  wanting.     There  is 
also  more  or  less  tenderness  on  pressure  over 
the  region  of  the  heart,  and  its  action  is  no- 
tably increased.    With  these  local  symptoms 
are  associated  those  pertaining  to  the  system 
at  large  which  accompany  symptomatic  fever. 
As  the  affection  is  almost  always  developed  in 
connection  with  other  diseases,  the  symptoms 
'  the  latter  are  of  course  combined  with  those 
the  former.     After  a  time,  which  in  some 
consists  of  only  a  few  hours,  the  local 
iptorns  are  liable  to  be  modified  by  the  ef- 
icts  of  the  accumulation  of  liquid  within  the 
jricardial  sac.     The  movements  of  the  heart 
restrained  in  proportion  as  the  liquid  is 
mndant  and  rapidly  effused.     The  pulse  may 
>vv  become  feeble  and  irregular,  and  the  pa- 
tient suffer  from  a  distressing  sense  of  oppres- 
ion,  which  is  increased  by  any  muscular  ex- 
rtion  or  by  emotional  excitement.     The  com- 
ircssion  of  the  heart  may  be  the  cause  of 
jath,  which  sometimes  occurs  suddenly  after 
some  exertion  or  excitement. — The  diagnosis 
1  recognition  of  pericarditis  has  been  rendered 
>rompt  and  positive  by  means  of  auscultation 
id   percussion.      Soon  after  the  attack,  the 
idation  of  fibrine  occasions  a  friction  sound 
rith  the  heart's  movements,  and  this  is  proof 
"  the  existence  of  the  disease.     Afterward, 
rhen  considerable  liquid  has  been  effused  into 
le  sac,  the  friction  sound  may  cease,  but  it  is 
racticable  to  determine  the  presence  and  the 
quantity  of  liquid  within  the  sac  by  physical 
igns,  which  are  obtained  by  auscultation  and 
jrcussion.     The  danger  in  cases  of  pericardi- 
depends,  other  things  being  equal,  on  the 
itensity  of  the  inflammation,  the  quantity  of 
raded  fibrine,   and  the  amount   of   effused 
juid.      Aside  from  these   conditions,  much 
spends  on  the  diseases  with  which  it  is  asso- 
iated.    When  developed  in  connection  with 
leumatism,  it  ends  in  recovery  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases ;  but  occurring  in  connection  with 
Jisease  of  the  kidneys,  with  pleurisy  or  pneu- 
lonia,  and  in  cases  of  pyaemia,  it  ends  in  death 
men  oftener  than  in  recovery.     When  death 
not  sudden,  the  disease  destroys  life  by  slow 
thenia    or    exhaustion. — As    regards  treat- 
lent,  acute  pericarditis  claims  in  general  the 
sures  indicated  in  other  inflammatory  af- 
fections.    These   measures,   however,  are  in 
lany  cases  to  be  modified  by  the   circum- 


stances pertaining  to  the  diseases  with  which 
this  is  associated.  A  very  important  fact 
proper  to  the  affection,  however,  is  that  the 
source  of  danger  is  the  weakness  of  the  heart 
as  a  direct  effect  of  the  inflammation,  and  as 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  liquid  within  the 
sac.  This  modifying  fact  contra-indicates  ac- 
tive measures  of  treatment  which  in  them- 
selves tend  to  impair  the  power  of  the  heart's 
action.  Whenever  the  effusion  of  liquid  is 
such  as  to  compress  the  heart,  measures  having 
for  their  object  the  absorption  of  the  liquid 
are  indicated.  In  the  treatment  of  rheuma- 
tism an  important  object  is  to  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  this  complication;  and  clinical 
experience  has  shown  that  this  object  is  pro- 
moted by  the  use  of  alkaline  remedies. — 
Chronic  pericarditis  may  be  a  sequel  of  the 
acute  affection,  or  the  inflammation  may  be 
subacute  from  the  first.  In  some  cases  the  in- 
flammation continues  with  an  abundant  exu- 
dation of  lymph,  agglutinating  the  inner  sur- 
faces of  the  sac,  and  proving  fatal  by  slow  ex- 
haustion. In  other  cases  a  large  accumulation 
of  liquid  takes  place,  amounting  to  several 
pounds  in  weight ;  and  to  the  exhaustion  inci- 
dent to  the  persistence  of  the  inflammation  is 
added  the  compression  of  the  heart  thus  occa- 
sioned. In  both  varieties  the  disease,  as  a 
rule,  proves  fatal  sooner  or  later.  A  few 
cases  have  been  reported  in  which  the  liquid 
has  been  removed  by  puncture  of  the  chest,  and 
relief  of  distressing  symptoms  has  been  there- 
by obtained.  The  removal  of  liquid  from  the 
pericardial  sac  through  a  very  small  canula  by 
means  of  suction,  or,  as  it  is  called,  aspiration, 
can  be  effected  without  danger  from  the  opera- 
tion, and  it  remains  to  be  ascertained  whether 
in  some  instances  recovery  may  not  follow. — 
Endocarditis.  In  this  affection  the  inflamed 
membrane  is  in  contact  with  the  blood  contained 
within  the  cavities  of  the  heart;  hence,  al- 
though fibrinous  exudation  takes  place  as  in 
pericarditis,  the  exuded  lymph  is  in  a  great 
measure  washed  away  from  the  membrane  and 
carried  into  the  circulation.  A  portion,  how- 
ever, adheres  to  the  membrane,  roughening  the 
surface  in  contact  with  the  blood,  and  giving 
rise  to  an  abnormal  sound  (an  endocardial  or 
bellows  murmur),  which  is  an  important  physi- 
cal sign  of  the  disease.  Moreover,  upon  the 
little  masses  of  lymph  which  adhere  to  the 
membrane  coagulated  fibrine  from,  the  blood 
contained  in  the  cavities  of  the  heart  is  apt  to 
be  deposited;  and  in  this  way  are  produced 
the  so-called  vegetations  or  warty  growths 
which,  being  sometimes  detached  and  carried 
into  the  arteries  with  the  current  of  the  blood, 
are  arrested  in  vessels  too  small  to  allow  of 
their  further  progress,  become  fixed,  and  occa- 
sion an  obstruction  which  may  lead  to  haemor- 
rhage (haemorrhagic  infarctions),  and  to  the 
impairment  of  nutrition  within  a  circumscribed 
area  beyond  the  point  at  which  the  obstruc- 
tion is  seated.  These  movable  plugs  or  em- 
boli,  as  they  are  termed,  play  an  important  part 


562 


HEART  (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


in  affections  proceeding  from  disturbance  of 
the  circulation  and  nutrition  in  different  organs 
of  the  body,  more  especially  the  brain.  (See 
BRAIN,  DISEASES  OF  THE.)  The  phenomena 
thus  produced  are  treated  of  by  medical  writers 
under  the  head  of  embolism,  and  the  study  of 
these  phenomena  within  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century  has  enlarged  in  no  small  degree  the 
boundaries  of  pathological  knowledge.  The 
local  effects  of  endocarditis  are  also  of  much 
importance  as  laying  the  foundation  for  pro- 
gressive changes,  especially  in  the  valves  of 
the  heart,  constituting  what  are  called  valvu- 
lar lesions.  The  inflammation  in  endocarditis 
is  generally  limited  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart, 
that  is,  to  the  endocardial  membrane  lining  the 
left  ventricle  and  the  left  auricle. — Like  peri- 
carditis, this  is  very  rarely  a  primary  disease  ; 
and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  occurs  in 
connection  with  acute  articular  rheumatism. 
It  is  evidently  due  to  the  same  internal  agency 
which  in  rheumatism  causes  the  inflammation 
within  the  joints,  this  agent  being  a  morbid 
principle  in  the  blood,  supposed  to  be  lactic 
acid.  Endocarditis  occurs  in  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  cases  of  acute  articular  rheuma- 
tism than  pericarditis.  These  two  diseases  are 
associated  whenever  rheumatic  pericarditis  oc- 
curs ;  in  other  words,  the  latter  affection  rarely 
if  ever  occurs  in  rheumatism  without  the  co- 
existence of  endocarditis.  The  development 
of  endocarditis  is  attended  with  little  or  no  pain 
or  other  subjective  symptoms  referable  to  the 
heart ;  and  hence  the  knowledge  of  its  exist- 
ence followed  the  application  of  auscultation 
to  the  study  of  diseases  of  the  chest.  The  diag- 
nosis rests  wholly  upon  physical  evidence  ob- 
tained by  auscultation.  The  roughening  of  the 
endocardial  membrane  within  the  left  ventricle 
causes,  as  already  stated,  an  adventitious  sound 
or  murmur,  and  the  production  of  this  murmur 
while  a  patient  is  under  observation  constitutes 
the  proof  of  the  presence  of  the  affection.  The 
diagnostic  murmur  accompanies  the  first  sound 
of  the  heart,  and  is  referable  to  the  mitral 
valve.  The  immediate  danger  from  endocar- 
ditis is  slight;  indeed,  there  is  no  immediate 
danger  to  life  except  from  the  formation  within 
the  heart  of  a  clot  (thrombosis)  of  sufficient 
size  to  arrest  the  circulation  either  within  the 
heart  or  the  large  vessels.  The  liability  to  em- 
bolism has  been  already  referred  to,  but  this 
is  seldom  if  ever  directly  fatal.  The  affection, 
however,  is  by  no  means  one  of  small  impor- 
tance, the  danger  being  that  valvular  lesions 
may  be  the  result.  These  lesions,  progressively 
increasing,  may  at  a  period  more  or  less  re- 
mote, often  after  the  lapse  of  many  years,  oc- 
casion death. — As  regards  treatment,  endo- 
carditis calls  for  no  active  measures.  It  is  im- 
portant that  undue  action  of  the  heart  be  pre- 
vented as  far  as  possible  by  enjoining  mental 
and  physical  quietude,  and  relieved,  if  it  ex- 
ist, by  soothing  remedies.  The  alkaline  treat- 
ment in  cases  of  rheumatism  is  preventive  to  a 
certain  extent  of  this  affection,  as  it  is  of  peri- 


carditis. It  is  probable  also  that  the  judicious 
use  of  alkaline  remedies  moderates  the  inten- 
sity of  the  endocardial  inflammation,  and 
thereby  diminishes  its  local  effects. —  Carditis, 
or  Myocarditis.  Inflammation  of  the  substance 
of  the  heart,  irrespective  of  the  pericardium 
and  the  endocardium,  is  extremely  rare.  Sup- 
purative  inflammation,  however,  sometimes  oc- 
curs, giving  rise  to  an  abscess  in  the  walls  of 
the  organ  or  in  the  septum  between  the  ven- 
tricles. The  pus  contained  in  the  abscess  may 
be  discharged  into  the  pericardial  sac,  causing 
pericarditis,  or  into  the  ventricular  cavity, 
causing  purulent  infection  of  the  blood  Cpya3- 
mia).  Induration  produced  by  a  morbid  in- 
crease of  the  tissue  which  unites  together  the 
muscular  fibres,  is  another  effect  of  inflainnm- 
tion  seated  in  the  walls  of  the  organ.  There 
are  no  means  of  determining  during  life  the 
existence  of  carditis  or  myocarditis.  II.  OE- 
GANIC  DISEASES.  Th  e  organic  diseases  or  struc- 
tural lesions  to  which  the  heart  is  liable  relate, 
first,  to  the  valves  and  orifices,  and  second,  to 
the  walls  of  the  organ. —  Valvular  Lesions.  In 
the  great  majority  of  cases  these  are  seated  in 
the  left  side  of  the  heart,  being  either  mitral  or 
aortic,  or  in  both  the  situations  indicated  by 
these  terms.  The  changes  embraced  under  the 
name  valvular  lesions  are  various,  arising  from 
morbid  thickening  or  attenuation,  calcification 
(formerly  called  ossification),  rupture  of  valves, 
&c.  The  various  changes,  however,  produce 
their  evil  results  chiefly  in  two  ways,  namely, 
by  affecting  the  valves  so  as  to  render  them 
more  or  less  incompetent  to  perform  their  func- 
tions, and  diminishing  the  size  of  the  mitral  or 
aortic  orifice  so  as  to  produce  more  or  less  ob- 
struction to  the  passage  of  blood.  The  lesions 
which  render  the  valves  incompetent  permit 
the  blood  to  flow  backward  or  regurgitate,  and 
hence  they  are  sometimes  distinguished  as  re- 
gurgitant  lesions.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
which  diminish  the  size  of  the  orifices  prevent 
the  free  passage  of  the  blood  in  its  direct  or 
onward  course,  and  hence  they  are  termed 
obstructive  lesions.  Not  infrequently  the  lesions 
are  such  as  to  involve  both  regurgitation  and 
obstruction  at  the  same  orifice.  The  lesions 
may  be  situated  at  either  the  mitral  or  the 
aortic  orifice,  or  at  both  orifices ;  and  in  some 
instances  one  or  both  of  the  corresponding 
orifices  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  the  tri- 
cuspid  and  the  pulmonie,  are  the  seat  of  analo- 
gous lesions. — Obstruction  of  the  flow  of  blood 
through  the  orifices  within  the  heart,  and  re- 
gurgitation,  lead  to  enlargement  of  the  organ 
and  to  various  morbid  effects  in  other  organs. 
The  effects  of  mitral  lesions  relate  especially  to 
the  lungs.  Owing  to  the  congestion  of  the 
lungs  induced  by  obstruction  and  regurgitation 
at  the  mitral  orifice,  the  changes  in  the  blood 
effected  by  respiration  are  impeded,  whence  the 
sense  of  want  of  breath  which  in  certain  cases 
of  disease  of  the  heart  is  the  source  of  great 
distress.  Haemorrhage  into  the  air  tubes  and 
into  the  air  cells  sometimes  results  from  the 


HEART   (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


563 


congestion   due  to    mitral   obstruction.      An 
effect  of  the  persistent  pulmonary  congestion 
caused  by  mitral  lesions  is  an  over  accumula- 
tion of  blood  in  the  cavities  of  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  and  from  this  effect  follows  gen- 
eral dropsy.     Aortic  lesions  interfere  especial- 
ly with  the  circulation  throughout  the  arteries 
of  the  system ;  the  immediate  effect  is  to  keep 
the  left  ventricle  over-distended  with  blood. 
The  regurgitant  lesions  in  this  situation  render 
the  supply  of  arterial  blood  to  the  heart  itself 
insufficient,  and  more  than  any  other  involve 
the  liability  to  sudden  death.     It  is  a  popular 
impression  that  all  organic  affections  of  the 
heart  involve  this  liability.     This  is  far  from 
being  true;  sudden   death  occurs  in  only   a 
small  proportion  of  cases. — Valvular  lesions 
generally  occur  as  a  sequel  of  acute  articular 
rheumatism.     They  often  take  place  slowly/ 
and  for  a  long  time  they  are  latent  as  regards 
ly  symptoms  of  which  the  person  affected  is 
)nscious.     Their  progress,  as  a  rule,  is  unat- 
ided  by  pain,  and  in  general  it  is  not  until 
icy  have  induced  a  certain  amount  of  enlarge- 
lent  of  the  heart  that  the  evils  just  referred 
begin  to  be  apparent.     Not  infrequently 
lany  years  elapse  before  they  give  rise  to  any 
larked  effects.     When  not  a  sequel  of  rheu- 
latism,  they  may  arise  from  changes  in  nutri- 
ion  incident  to  old  age,  and  they  are  some- 
imes  due  to  syphilis.     The  valves  of  the  heart 
lay  be  imperfectly  developed,  or  lesions  may 
jsalt  from  disease  occurring  in    foetal  life. 
?hese  congenital  lesions  are  oftener  seated  in 
16  right  than  in  the  left  side  of  the  heart.     In 
considerable  proportion  of  the  cases  of  young 
children  affected  with  organic  disease  of  the 
•t,  the  primary  lesions  are  congenital. — The 
diagnosis  of  valvular  lesions  has  been  rendered 
^ery  complete  by  means  of  auscultation.    With 
rery  rare  exceptions,  they  give  rise  to  adven- 
titious sounds,  or  murmurs,  the  characters  of 
which,  as  regards  their  situation,  their  trans- 
mission in  different  directions,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  the  heart  sounds,  enable  the  physi- 
cian not  only  to  determine  the  existence  of 
lesions,  but  to  localize  them,  and  to  distinguish 
between  those  which  involve  obstruction  and 
regurgitation.      Moreover,   the  normal  heart 
sounds  are  modified  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford 
information  of  the  extent  to  which  the  valves 
are  injured  by  the  lesions.     Auscultation,  in- 
deed, enables  the  physician  to  determine  the 
existence,  the  seat,  and  the  character  of  valvu- 
lar lesions,  long  before  they  have  occasioned 
any  apparent  morbid  effects  of  which  the  pa- 
tient is  conscious.  —  When    valvular   lesions 
have  advanced  sufficiently  to  produce  obvious 
symptoms  referable  to   either  obstruction  or 
regurgitation,  or  to  both,  they  will  destroy  life 
sooner  or  later.     The  duration  of  life   varies 
within  wide  limits ;  often  a  great  amount  of 
injury  is  tolerated  for  a  long  period.     The  le- 
sions are  irremediable,  and  therefore  the  treat- 
ment does  not  embrace  recovery  as  an  object ; 
but  much  may  be  done  by  judicious  manage- 


ment to  relieve  symptoms,  to  postpone  seri- 
ous evils,  and  to  prolong  life.  The  more  impor- 
tant of  the  measures  of  management  relate  to 
a  proper  regulation  of  the  habits  of  life  as 
regards  diet,  exercise,  &c.  While  excessive 
muscular  exercise  is  to  be  avoided,  such  an 
amount  as  is  taken  without  discomfort  may  be 
highly  useful  by  improving  the  general  condi- 
tion of  the  system.  While  excesses  in  eating 
and  drinking  are  hurtful,  a  deficient  alimenta- 
tion is  not  less  so.  In  brief,  a  great  end  of 
treatment  is  to  render  the  system  tolerant  of 
the  lesions  as  much  and  as  long  as  possible,  and 
this  end  is  promoted  by  such  a  course  of  man- 
agement, hygienic  and  medicinal,  as  conduces 
to  the  general  welfare  of  the  economy. — En- 
largement of  the  Heart.  This  is  of  two  kinds, 
namely,  enlargement  due  to  an  increase  of 
muscular  structure,  and  enlargement  from  in- 
creased size  of  the  cavities.  The  first  is  repre- 
sented by  greater  weight  of  the  heart,  and  is 
called  hypertrophy  ;  the  second  is  distinguished 
as  dilatation,  and  is  represented  by  augmented 
volume,  without  necessarily  any  increase  of 
weight.  But  whenever  the  heart  is  consider- 
ably enlarged,  the  two  kinds  of  enlargement, 
as  a  rule,  are  combined ;  and  when  combined, 
an  important  distinction  relates  to  the  pre- 
dominance of  either  the  hypertrophy  or  the 
dilatation.  Enlargement  from  an  increase  of 
muscular  structure,  without  dilatation,  is  called 
simple  hypertrophy ;  and  enlargement  solely 
from  increased  size  of  the  cavities  is  called 
simple  dilatation.  Enlargement  by  hyper- 
trophy is  the  result  of  an  abnormal  growth 
of  the  muscular  structure ;  and  the  growth  of 
this  involuntary  muscle  takes  place,  just  as 
voluntary  muscles  are  made  to  grow,  by  long 
continued  increased  exercise.  An  immediate 
effect  of  obstructive  and  regurgitant  valvular 
lesions  is  an  undue  accumulation  of  blood  in 
certain  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart ;  the  organ 
is  thereby  stimulated  to  increased  power  of 
action,  and  in  this  consists  the  pathological 
connection  between  valvular  lesions  and  hy- 
pertrophy. But  hypertrophy  has  its  limita- 
tions ;  like  the  voluntary  muscles,  the  muscular 
structure  of  this  organ  can  only  grow  to  a 
certain  extent.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that 
hypertrophic  growth  of  the  heart  under  the 
circumstances  noted,  so  far  from  being  an  evil, 
is  a  positive  advantage.  The  muscular  strength 
of  the  organ  being  augmented  by  its  muscular 
growth,  it  is  enabled  better  to  carry  on  the  cir- 
culation despite  the  difficulties  pertaining  to  the 
valvular  lesions.  In  this  point  of  view,  hyper- 
trophy of  the  heart  is  conservative  or  compen- 
sating. When  hypertrophy  has  reached  its  maxi- 
mum, the  undue  accumulation  of  blood  in  the 
cavities  of  the  heart  leads  to  dilatation ;  the  walls 
yield  more  and  more  to  the  distention.  Thus, 
in  general,  hypertrophy  precedes  dilatation,  the 
latter  taking  place  after  the  muscular  structure 
has  increased  to  the  extent  of  its  ability  to  grow. 
Causes  other  than  valvular  lesions  may  give 
rise  to  enlargement  by  hypertrophy  and  dilata- 


564 


HEART   (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


tion.  Emphysema  of  the  lungs,  and  sometimes 
other  affections  which  impede  the  free  circula- 
tion of  blood  through  these  organs,  involve  an 
over  filling  of  the  right  ventricle  with  blood ;  and 
the  mechanism  of  the  hypertrophy  and  dilata- 
tion which  follow  is  the  same  as  when  the  en- 
largement is  caused  by  valvular  lesions.  En- 
largement also  occurs  in  some  cases  of  chronic 
disease  of  the  kidneys,  the  probable  explanation 
being  that  the  circulation  through  the  capillary 
vessels  is  impeded,  and  hence  the  heart  is  excited 
to  increased  muscular  exertion.  Enlargement 
of  the  heart  in  different  cases  has  its  primary 
seat  in  different  portions  of  the  organ,  and  the 
enlargement  of  certain  portions  predominates. 
Thus  valvular  lesions  at  the  aortic  orifice  in- 
duce first  and  especially  enlargement  of  the 
left  ventricle ;  mitral  lesions  lead  particularly 
to  enlargement  of  the  left  auricle  and  of  the 
right  ventricle;  pulmonary  emphysema  leads 
to  enlargement  of  the  right,  and  renal  disease 
to  enlargement  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 
These  facts  are  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
immediate  bearing  of  the  causative  conditions 
on  the  blood  currents  and  the  quantity  of  blood 
in  the  different  cavities  of  the  heart.  It  is  a 
question  whether  enlargement  is  ever  a  result 
of  the  disturbances  of  the  heart's  action  em- 
braced under  the  name  functional  disorder. 
Oases  in  which  this  causative  relation  exists  are 
certainly  extremely  rare. — The  symptoms  and 
morbid  effects  of  enlargement  vary  much  ac- 
cording as  hypertrophy  or  dilatation  predomi- 
'nates,  or  as  either  exists  without  the  other. 
The  effects  referable  to  hypertrophy  are  due 
to  the  increased  power  of  the  heart's  action, 
proportionate  to  the  increase  of  its  muscular 
structure.  If  hypertrophy  exist  alone,  or  if 
it  greatly  predominate,  this  increased  power  is 
represented  by  an  increased  momentum  of  the 
blood  in  the  arteries.  Active  congestion,  more 
especially  within  the  skull,  is  sometimes  a  con- 
sequence. This  effect  would  be  of  much  more 
frequent  occurrence  were  it  not  that  in  most 
cases  of  hypertrophy  there  are  valvular  lesions 
which  tend  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  blood 
sent  into  the  arteries.  Aortic  and  mitral  le- 
sions, either  obstructive  or  regurgitant,  have 
this  tendency,  and  hence  they  are  conservative 
as  regards  the  prevention  of  active  congestion 
of  the  brain  and  other  organs.  The  effects  of 
dilatation  are  the  opposite  of  those  referable 
to  hypertrophy.  Dilatation  involves  weakness 
of  the  heart,  and  its  ability  to  propel  the  blood 
through  the  arteries  is  lessened  in  proportion 
as  the  heart  is  dilated.  This  power  of  enlarge- 
ment is  not,  like  hypertrophy,  compensatory 
or  conservative,  when  associated  with  valvular 
lesions ;  on  the  contrary,  many  of  the  evils  of 
organic  disease  of  the  heart  are  attributable 
to  the  weakness  incident  to  it.  Dilatation  of 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  resulting  from 
mitral  lesions  stands  in  immediate  relation  to 
general  dropsy,  and  in  a  certain  degree  to  the 
defective  pulmonary  circulation.  Dilatation 
of  the  left  ventricle  resulting  from  aortic  le- 


sions renders  this  part  more  liable  to  become 
distended  with  blood,  causing  paralysis  of  the 
muscular  walls  and  sudden  death. — Enlarge- 
ment of  the  heart  and  its  extent  are  easily  de- 
termined by  means  of  physical  signs  furnished 
by  the  touch  (palpation)  and  percussion.  By 
the  touch  it  is  found  that  the  apex  beat  is 
more  or  less  lowered  and  carried  to  the  left 
of  its  normal  situation.  Between  the  apex 
and  the  base  of  the  organ  are  often  found  im- 
pulses not  perceptible  in  health.  By  percus- 
sion the  boundaries  of  the  organ  are  readily 
ascertained  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 
The  vocal  resonance  also,  as  heard  with  the 
stethoscope,  enables  the  physician  to  define 
the  limits  to  which  the  organ  extends.  Palpa- 
tion and  auscultation  furnish  signs  by  which 
predominant  hypertrophy  may  be  differentiated 
from  dilatation.  If  hypertrophy  predominate, 
the  impulses  of  the  heart  as  felt  by  the  hand 
are  strong,  and  often  there  is  a  heaving  move- 
ment extending  over  the  region  of  the  heart. 
The  first  sound  of  the  heart,  over  the  apex,  is 
abnormally  loud,  long,  and  booming.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  dilatation  be  considerable  or 
great,  weakness  of  the  organ  is  denoted  by 
feeble  impulses  and  by  diminished  intensity  to- 
gether with  shortness  and  a  valvular  quantity 
of  the  first  sound  of  the  heart  in  the  situation 
of  the  apex.  With  these  physical  signs  are 
associated,  on  the  one- hand,  symptoms  and 
effects  denoting  a  morbid  increase  of  the  pow- 
er of  the  heart's  action  in  hypertrophy,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  in  dilatation,  those  proceed- 
ing from  a  morbid  feebleness  of  the  organ. — 
Hypertrophy  of  the  heart  seldom  calls  for 
treatment  with  a  view  to  lessen  or  remove  this 
lesion.  To  do  this  would  in  general  not  be 
desirable  were  it  practicable;  and  it  is  not 
practicable,  because  the  hypertrophy  is  in  most 
cases  a  result  of  conditions  which  of  necessity 
continue.  It  would  not  be  desirable,  inasmuch 
as  the  lesion  protects  against  the  evils  which 
would  otherwise  flow  from  the  causative  con- 
ditions, and  it  is  therefore  a  conservative  pro- 
vision against  these  evils.  It  is  different  with 
dilatation ;  it  is  desirable  to  prevent  the  pro- 
gress of  this  kind  of  enlargement,  and  to  ob- 
viate the  weakness  of  the  heart  which  it 
induces.  Measures  of  treatment  may  do  con- 
siderable toward  the  accomplishment  of  these 
objects.  The  heart  may  often  be  strength- 
ened by  dietetic,  hygienic,  and  medicinal  mea- 
sures to  promote  assimilation  and  nutrition; 
and  in  as  far  as  the  muscular  structure  of  the 
heart  is  rendered  strong  and  vigorous,  it  is  less 
likely  to  yield  to  the  distention  of  the  blood 
within  its  cavities  and  become  more  and  more 
dilated.  There  are  some  remedies  which  seem 
to  exert  a  direct  tonic  influence  upon  the  mus- 
cular structure  of  the  heart.  Digitalis  is  pre- 
eminently a  remedy  of  this  character.  By  the 
judicious  use  of  this  remedy  in  conjunction 
with  hygienic  treatment,  the  heart  sometimes 
regains  in  a  measure  the  strength  which  has 
been  impaired  by  dilatation,  the  distressing 


HEART  (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


565 


evils  which  have  already  ensued  being  greatly 
relieved.  This  latter  statement  has  reference 
especially  to  dropsy  and  suffering  from  a  sense 
of  the  want  of  breath.  Life  may  be  often  pro- 
longed and  the  tolerance  of  the  lesion  pro- 
moted by  appropriate  management. — Atrophy 
of  the  Heart.  This  is  a  lesion  the  reverse  of 
enlargement,  the  term  denoting  a  morbid  dim- 
inution of  the  size  of  the  organ.  The  heart  is 
greatly  diminished  in  size,  and  in  some  cases 
of  great  emaciation  its  weight  may  be  reduced 
to  4|  oz.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
atrophy  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  con- 
dition, and  gives  rise  to  no  special  morbid  ef- 
fects. Atrophy  may  be  produced  by  the  ad- 
hesions which  result  from  pericarditis,  and  the 
diminished  muscular  power  thus  induced  may 
give  rise  to  morbid  effects  dependent  on  fee- 
bleness of  the  circulation.  As  the  size  of  the 
icart  can  be  determined  with  much  precision 
}y  physical  signs,  the  diagnosis  of  atrophy  is 
practicable.  From  its  infrequency,  however, 
and  the  very  small  proportion  of  cases  in  which 
it  has  pathological  significance,  it  is  not  a  le- 
sion of  much  importance. — Fatty  Degenera- 
m.  This  term  is  not  applied  to  the  deposit 
of  fat  upon  the  heart  or  between  the  muscular 
fibres  of  its  walls.  The  organ  is  sometimes 
)verloaded  with  fat  in  these  situations,  and  is 
loubtless  thereby  burdened ;  but  serious  con- 
sequences never  follow.  Fatty  degeneration 
of  the  heart  means  a  substitution  of  fat  for  the 
proper  muscular  substance,  and  this  takes  place 
without  as  well  as  with  an  increase  of  the  adi- 
pose tissue  of  the  organ,  and  is  a  lesion  of  seri- 
ous import.  It  is  evident  that  in  proportion  as 
fat  is  substituted  for  the  muscular  substance, 
the  power  of  the  heart's  action  must  be  weak- 
ened. If  the  structural  change  be  consider- 
able and  extensive,  morbid  effects  and  danger 
arise  from  the  enfeebled  circulation.  The  pulse 
is  small,  compressible,  irregular,  and  sometimes 
notably  slow  ;  there  is  breathlessness  on  exer- 
tion; the  patient  readily  faints,  and  there  is 
danger  of  death  from  over  distention  of  the 
cavities  of  the  heart.  The  lesion  involves 
softening  of  the  muscular  structure,  sometimes 
resulting  in  rupture.  There  are  no  special 
physical  signs  which  denote  this  lesion,  but 
auscultation  and  palpation  show  persistent 
weakness  of  the  heart's  action.  The  apex  im- 
pulse is  feeble  or  not  appreciable,  and  the  first 
sound  of  the  heart  is  feeble,  short,  and  valvular 
over  the  apex.  The  lesion  may  exist  alone,  or 
it  may  coexist  with  valvular  lesions  and  en- 
largement ;  in  the  latter  case  its  existence  is 
not  easily  determined.  "When  it  exists  alone 
the  diagnosis  may  be  made  with  much  positive- 
ness,  taking  the  symptoms  and  signs  which 
have  been  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  the 
following  facts:  Fatty  degeneration  occurs 
rarely  before  middle  age  ;  it  exists  more  fre- 
quently, but  by  no  means  invariably,  in  con- 
nection with  general  obesity ;  and  it  is  often 
accompanied  by  the  fatty  change  in  the  cornea 
known  as  the  arcus  senilis.  The  treatment 


consists  of  a  highly  nutritious  diet,  into  which 
fatty  articles  should  enter  sparingly,  together 
with  the  employment  of  hygienic  measures 
and  remedies  designed  to  give  tone  to  and  to 
invigorate  the  heart.  The  lesion  is  irremedi- 
able ;  that  is,  the  fibres  which  have  under- 
gone degeneration  are  never  restored  to  their 
normal  condition.  All  that  is  to  be  hoped  for 
from  treatment  relates  to  the  tolerance  of  the 
affection  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  the  re- 
lief of  symptoms. — Miscellaneous  Lesions.  Soft- 
ening of  the  muscular  structure  of  the  heart, 
irrespective  of  fatty  degeneration,  may  occur 
in  connection  with  the  continued  and  eruptive 
fevers,  scorbutus,  pyaemia,  and  other  diseases. 
It  is  due  to  disturbed  nutrition,  and  is  accom- 
panied by  great  feebleness  of  the  circulation. 
Softening  as  thus  produced  is  not  irremedi- 
able ;  restoration  takes  place  on  recovery  from 
the  diseases  to  which  it  is  secondary. — Rup- 
ture of  the  heart  has  been  mentioned  as  an  ac- 
cident occurring  in  connection  with  fatty  de- 
generation. It  may  occur  also  as  a  result  of 
circumscribed  suppurative  inflammation  in  the 
muscular  walls,  and  of  aneurismal  dilatation. 
It  is  one  of  the  causes  of  sudden  death.  If  the 
rupture  be  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  of  the 
free  escape  of  blood  into  the  pericardial  sac, 
the  loss  of  blood  and  the  compression  of  the 
heart  by  the  blood  accumulating  in  the  sac, 
prove  immediately  or  quickly  fatal.  Some- 
times, however,  the  opening  is  so  small  that 
death  is  slowly  produced,  and  cases  have  been 
reported  in  which  the  orifice  has  been  tem- 
porarily closed  by  a  coagulum  of  blood,  and 
the  escape  of  blood  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
cause  death  has  been  delayed  from  one  to  two 
days.  Cicatrization  and  recovery  are  perhaps 
not  beyond  the  limits  of  possibility,  but  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  there  is  an  authentic 
case  on  record. — Cancer,  hydatid  cysts,  fibrous 
growths,  calcareous  deposits,  and  other  affec- 
tions involving  serious  lesions,  are  very  rarely 
seated  in  the  heart ;  and  when  they  are,  their 
existence  cannot  be  determined  during  life. — 
Wounds  of  the  heart  with  perforation  of  the 
walls  are  of  necessity  fatal,  death  taking  place 
as  in  cases  of  rupture.  Foreign  bodies,  how- 
ever, may  remain  imbedded  in  the  muscular  sub- 
stance without  giving  rise  to  any  serious  incon- 
venience for  an  indefinite  period.  The  writer 
has  seen  a  specimen  in  which  a  pistol  ball  was 
found  in  the  walls  of  the  right  ventricle,  the  pa- 
tient having  received  the  wound  20  years  before 
his  death,  and  the  cause  of  death  being  an  attack 
of  pneumonia.  III.  FUNCTIONAL  DISOEDEB  OF 
THE  HEART.  Under  this  name  are  embraced  all 
kinds  of  disturbed  action  occurring  irrespective 
of  either  inflammation  or  any  structural  lesion. 
The  forms  of  functional  disorder  are  various. 
A  frequent  form  is  that  commonly  known  by 
the  name  palpitation,  consisting  of  violent  or 
tumultuous  action,  of  which  the  patient  is  dis- 
tressingly conscious,  occurring  in  paroxysms 
very  variable  as  regards  their  duration  and 
their  recurrence.  In  severe  cases  patients  o£ 


566 


HEART   (DISEASES  OF  TUB) 


ten  say  that  the  heart  seems  to  rise  into  the 
throat,  or  it  seems  to  be  struggling  to  get  out 
of  the  chest.  Frequent  interinittency  of  the 
heart's  action  is  another  form ;  the  patient  is 
sensible  of  the  intermissions,  and  feels  as  if 
there  was  danger  at  any  instant  of  the  heart 
ceasing  to  act.  In  some  cases  the  heart  acts 
regularly,  but  with  more  or  less  rapidity.  Pa- 
tients sometimes  describe  a  sensation  of  flut- 
tering in  the  chest.  A  strong  beat  followed 
by  a  feeble  beat,  the  latter  sometimes  not  giv- 
ing rise  to  a  pulsation  at  the  wrist,  and  this  al- 
ternation going  on  regularly  for  hours,  days,  or 
weeks,  is  a  curious  form  of  disorder ;  and  want 
of  unison  in  the  action  of  the  right  and  the 
left  ventricle,  causing  reduplication  of  the 
sounds  of  the  heart,  is  another  equally  curious. 
In  most  instances  functional  disorder  occasions 
great  anxiety  and  apprehension,  patients  think- 
ing that  there  must  be  organic  disease  of  the 
heart,  and  that  they  are  in  danger  of  sudden 
death.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to  convince 
them  that  they  have  only  a  functional  disorder, 
which,  however  distressing,  is  devoid  of  dan- 
ger. The  mental  uneasiness  caused  by  a  func- 
tional disorder  in  general  far  exceeds  that  felt 
in  cases  of  serious  organic  disease.  From  the 
sympathetic  relations  between  the  mind  and 
the  heart,  functional  disorder  of  the  latter  is 
frequently  due  to  mental  excitement  and  de- 
pression, and  the  disorder  is  apt  to  be  increased 
or  perpetuated  in  consequence  of  the  attention 
becoming  concentrated  on  the  heart's  action  as 
represented  by  the  beats  and  the  pulse.  Other 
causes  which  produce  and  keep  up  functional 
disorder  are  the  immoderate  use  of  tobacco, 
dyspeptic  derangement,  and  abuse  of  the  sex- 
ual function.  Gouty  persons  are  liable  to  it. 
It  is  especially  apt  to  occur  in  connection  with 
impoverishment  of  the  blood  (anaemia).  There 
is  a  constitutional  tendency  to  disorder  of  the 
heart's  action  in  some  persons,  who  may  be 
said  to  have  irritable  hearts.  These  persons 
are  often  subject  to  it  more  or  less  during  their 
lives.  It  is  vastly  important  to  discriminate 
between  functional  disorder  and  organic  dis- 
ease of  the  heart,  inasmuch  as  the  former  is 
unattended  with  danger,  and  has  little  or  no 
tendency  to  eventuate  in  the  latter ;  and  this 
assurance  by  the  physician  not  only  relieves 
needless  anxiety  on  the  part  of  the  patient, 
but  often  does  much  toward  effecting  a  cure. 
In  determining  that  an  affection  of  the  heart 
is  purely  functional,  a  physical  examination  by 
means  of  auscultation  and  percussion  must  be 
made,  and  a  positive  conclusion  can  only  be 
based  on  the  result  of  this  examination.  If 
the  result  be  negative,  that  is,  if  none  of  the 
signs  of  structural  lesions  be  found,  the  infer- 
ence is  that  the  affection  is  functional.  In  or- 
der to  reach  this  conclusion  with  positiveness, 
of  course  the  physician  must  be  confident  in 
his  ability  to  recognize  the  signs  of  organic  dis- 
eases, and,  therefore,  to  exclude  them  by  find- 
ing no  physical  evidence  of  their  existence. 
— In  severe  attacks  of  functional  disorder,  re- 


HEART'S  CONTENT 

lief  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  narcotic  remedies, 
such  as  belladonna  or  opium ;  and  if  persistent, 
cardiac  sedatives,  especially  aconite,  are  useful 
as  palliatives.  An  alcoholic  stimulant  some- 
times affords  temporary  relief  and  also  the  so- 
called  antispasmodic  remedies,  such  as  valerian, 
asafoetida,  and  the  ethers.  With  a  view  to  per- 
manent relief  or  the  prevention  of  paroxysms, 
the  causes  which  have  been  named  are  to  be 
removed  whenever  these  are  ascertained ;  de- 
rangements of  the  digestive  system,  if  present, 
are  to  be  remedied  if  practicable ;  and  if  the 
patient  be  anemic,  it  is  important  to  restore 
the  normal  condition  of  the  blood. — A  re- 
markable affection  consists  in  a  persistent  fre- 
quency of  the  heart's  action,  associated  with 
enlargements  of  the  thyroid  gland  (goitre),  and 
in  some  cases  with  a  notable  projection  of  the 
eyeballs.  This  affection  has  received  different 
names.  It  is  often  called  "  Graves's  disease," 
from  the  fact  that  the  connection  between  the 
functional  affection  of  the  heart  and  the  goitre 
was  pointed  out  by  the  late  Dr.  Graves  of 
Dublin  in  1835.  The  German  writers  desig- 
nate it  Basedow's  disease,  after  a  German  ob- 
server who  described  it  in  1840.  Other  names 
are  exophthalmic  goitre,  exophthalmic  ca- 
chexia,  and  anaemic  protrusion  of  the  eyeballs. 
A  rapid  action  of  the  heart,  the  pulse  ranging 
in  different  cases  from  100  to  140  per  minute, 
may  continue  uninterruptedly  for  many  years. 
The  goitre  rarely  progresses  to  a  great  extent. 
The  projection  of  the  eyeballs  varies  in  differ- 
ent cases,  being  sometimes  so  great  that  the 
eyelids  are  unable  to  cover  them,  and  giving  to 
the  face  a  strikingly  ferocious  expression.  In 
most  cases  anaemia  exists  in  a  marked  degree, 
and  there  is  usually  much  nervous  irritabili- 
ty. The  pathology  of  the  affection  is  obscure, 
but  the  disorder  of  the  heart  always  precedes 
the  goitre  and  the  protrusion  of  the  eyeballs. 
With  our  present  knowledge,  it  is  very  little 
under  therapeutic  control.  Sedative  remedies 
to  moderate  the  frequency  of  the  heart's  ac- 
tion, and  measures  having  reference  to  the  im- 
poverished condition  of  the  blood,  are  indica- 
ted, together  with  hygienic  treatment  to  invig- 
orate the  system.  Complete  recovery  is  in 
general  not  to  be  expected;  but  the  affection 
does  not  tend  to  destroy  life,  and  may  be  tol- 
erated for  many  years.  The  long  persisting 
frequency  of  the  heart's  action  may  lead  at 
length  to  enlargement  of  the  organ.  More- 
over, the  affection  tends  to  impair  the  ability 
to  resist  any  important  disease  which  may  be- 
come developed. 

HEART'S  CONTENT,  a  seaport  of  the  district 
of  Trinity,  Newfoundland,  on  an  inlet  of  the 
E.  shore  of  Trinity  bay,  37  m.  N.  W.  of  St. 
John's  ;  lat.  47°  50'  N.,  Ion.  53°  20'  W. ;  pop. 
about  900.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  is  picturesque.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  engaged  in  fishing,  but  farm- 
ing and  ship  building  are  pursued  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  Atlantic  telegraph  cables  have  their 
western  terminus  here. 


HEAT 


567 


HEAT,  the  natural  force  or  principle  which 
is  known  by  its  effects  upon  matter,  causing 
it  to  expand,  or  to  assume  a  solid,  a  liquid,  or 
a  gaseous  condition,  according  to  the  degree 
with  which  it  acts  and  the  nature  of  the  body. 
It  is  also  known  by  its  effects  upon  the  sense 
of  feeling,  but  only  in  a  comparative  manner  ; 
because  a  body  at  the  same  temperature  may 
produce  a  sensation  of  heat  at  one  time,  and  at 
another  a  sensation  of  what  is  called  cold,  in 
consequence  of  a  variation  of  temperature  in 
the  organs  of  touch ;  and  a  body  may  at  the 
same  time  seem  cold  to  one  hand  and  warm 
to  the  other.  The  science  which  treats  of  the 
phenomena  and  properties  of  heat  is  called 
thermotics.  Two  general  theories  of  the  na- 
ture of  heat  have  been  held  from  the  earliest 
times :  one  regarding  it  as  a  kind  of  subtile 
matter  which  insinuates  itself  into  the  sub- 
stance of  bodies,  and  resides  there  with  a 
greater  or  less  manifestation  of  its  presence ; 
the  other  as  simply  a  condition  of  matter,  a 
force,  or  a  molecular  motion.  Some  of  the 
ancients  called  it  the  fourth  elenient,  which  by 
its  levity  rose  to  the  highest  place  in  the  heav- 
ens and  spread  itself  in  ethereal  lam  bent  flames 
over  the  universe ;  and  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers of  all  nations  generally  regarded  it  as  a 
subtile  efflux,  an  attribute  or  manifestation  of 
creative  power,  or  as  the  creative  power  itself, 
the  vital  spirit  of  the  universe ;  and  thus  the 
sun  was  by  many  nations  regarded  with  pecu- 
liar veneration,  and  adopted  as  the  chief  object 
of  worship,  forming  the  basis  of  religions  which 
have  been  preserved  by  some  peoples  till  the 
present  time.  Democritus  (born  460  B.  0.), 
regarded  as  the  originator  of  the  doctrine  of 
atoms  which  in  the  hands  of  John  Dalton 
twenty-two  centuries  later  was  elaborated  to 
a  highly  philosophical  theory,  and  which  since 
his  day  has  been  placed  upon  a  basis  of  al- 
most mathematical  precision,  conceived  heat  to 
be  an  efflux  of  minute  spherical  particles,  hav- 
ing a  rapid  motion  by  which  they  penetrated 
the  densest  substances.  He  believed  that  the 
finest  of  those  particles  formed  the  substance 
of  the  soul,  and  Lucretius  held  similar  views. 
Aristotle  considered  it  to  be  a  condition  of 
matter  rather  than  a  substance,  and  was  prob- 
ably the  first  to  suggest  an  immaterial  or  pure- 
ly mechanical  theory.  In  later  times  Francis 
Bacon  advocated  the  doctrine  of  its  immateri- 
ality, and  some  passages  in  his  Novum  Orga- 
num  are  remarkable  for  the  hints  they  contain 
of  the  dynamical  theory  of  heat;  he  says: 
"  Heat  is  a  motion  of  expansion,  not  uniformly 
of  the  body  together,  but  in  the  smaller  parts 
of  it ;  and  at  the  same  time  checked,  repelled, 
and  beaten  back,  so  that  the  body  acquires  a 
motion  alternate,  perpetually  quivering,  stri- 
ving, and  struggling,  and  irritated  by  repercus- 
sion, whence  springs  the  fury  of  fire  and  heat." 
Descartes  also,  in  his  Principia  Philosophica, 
has  some  observations  foreshadowing  the  vi- 
bratory theory,  in  which  he  speaks  of  heat  as 
being  the  motion  of  the  insensibly  small  par- 


ticles of  matter,  and  upon  this  theory  explains 
why  bodies  get  hot  under  concussion.  Locke, 
a  half  century  later,  places  the  theory  in  a  still 
clearer  light.  "  Heat,"  he  says,  "  is  a  very  brisk 
agitation  of  the  insensible  parts  of  an  object 
which  produces  in  us  that  sensation  from 
whence  we  denominate  the  object  hot ;  so  that 
what  in  our  sensation  is  heat,  in  the  object  is 
nothing  but  motion."  (Works,  vol.  iii.,  p.  327, 
London,  1823.)  The  ideas  of  the  old  philosophers 
on  the  subject  of  heat  possessed  a  good  deal 
of  vagueness,  and  were  derived  mainly  from 
speculation,  and  not  from  actual  experiment. 
They  were  not  even  put  to  the  test  of  inquiry 
as  to  their  adequacy  to  account  for  phenom- 
ena ;  and  although  they  contained  germs  of 
truth,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  much  more 
than  the  remarkable  opinions  of  great  minds, 
who  lacked  the  advantages  of  accurate  chemi- 
cal and  physical  investigations.  Between  the 
time  of  Descartes  and  Locke,  Becher,  a  Ger- 
man chemist  living  in  England,  proposed  a  the- 
ory, more  fully  elaborated  soon  after  Locke's 
time  by  Stahl  under  the  name  of  the  phlogis- 
tic theory,  which  held  that  phlogiston  is  the 
principle  of  heat,  and  that  combustible  mat- 
ter is  a  union  of  this  principle  with  ordina- 
ry matter,  and  that  when  this  is  burned  the 
phlogiston  is  expelled.  To  account  for  the  in- 
crease in  weight  of  metals  after  calcination,  it 
was  held  that  the  combination  with  phlogis- 
ton, in  consequence  of  its  buoyancy,  rendered 
them  lighter.  The  discovery  of  oxygen  by 
Priestley,  and  the  establishment  of  the  oxygen 
theory  of  combustion  by  Lavoisier,  overturned 
the  phlogistic  theory,  but  left  in  its  place  an 
equally  material  theory  which  regarded  ca- 
loric as  the  imponderable  element  which  con- 
stitutes heat.  Lavoisier  and  Black  were  the 
great  promulgators  of  the  material  doctrine, 
holding  that  caloric  is  an  actual  substance  hav- 
ing the  power  of  combining  with  ponderable 
matter  and  of  passing  from  one  body  to  anoth- 
er. The  caloric  theory  lasted  a  long  time,  and 
perhaps  did  not  obstruct  the  progress  of  sci- 
ence as  much  as  is  often  thought,  for  many  im- 
portant results  were  obtained  by  experiments 
which  were  made  under  a  belief  in  its  truth. 
It  was  easier  to  conceive  of  definite  quanti- 
ties of  a  substance  susceptible,  as  heat  was, 
of  measurement,  than  of  quantities  of  motion 
which  had  not  been  demonstrated,  and  of 
which  no  definite  conception  had  been  formed. 
The  doctrine  that  heat  could  not  be  produced, 
but  was  an  original  and  indestructible  element, 
passing  from  one  body  to  another,  was  also  a 
consequence  of  these  views,  and  any  experi- 
ments which  seemed  to  demonstrate  that  heat 
could  be  generated  by  mechanical  motion  were 
calculated  to  overturn  it.  Such  experiments 
were  made  by  Count  Rumford  in  1796-'8,  soon 
after  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  more  recent- 
ly by  Mr.  Joule  of  Manchester,  by  which  it 
was  demonstrated  that  mechanical  power  and 
heat  were  mutually  convertible  forces.  A  de- 
scription of  these  experiments,  and  a  discussion 


568 


HEAT 


of  the  doctrine  of  the  convertibility  of  forces, 
will  be  found  in  the  article  CORRELATION  OF 
FORCES.  The  experiments  of  Rumford  and 
Davy  were  made  about  80  years  ago,  but  were 
not  at  the  time  regarded  as  conclusive;  nor 
were  the  more  refined  demonstrations  of  Thom- 
as Young  of  the  truth  of  Huygens's  theory 
of  light.  It  seems  to  have  required  the  later 
investigations  of  Fresnel,  Cauchy,  Malus,  Mel- 
loni,  Tyndall,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  others, 
to  adapt  the  undulatory  theory  to  the  expla- 
nation of  all  the  phenomena  of  radiation,  to 
render  the  mechanical  demonstrations  accepta- 
ble. It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  clearness 
with  which  Rumford  and  Davy  so  long  ago  sta- 
ted their  views  upon  the  nature  of  heat.  In 
a  tract  published  in  1798,  giving  an  account  of 
his  experiments  at  Munich,  the  former  says : 
"  It  appears  to  me  to  be  extremely  difficult,  if 
not  quite  impossible,  to  form  any  distinct  idea 
of  anything  capable  of  being  excited  and  com- 
municated in  the  manner  that  heat  was  excited 
and  communicated  in  these  experiments,  ex- 
cept motion."  In  a  tract  contained  in  a  vol- 
ume "published  at  Bristol  in  1799,  Davy  says: 
"  Heat,  then,  or  that  power  which  prevents  the 
actual  contact  of  the  corpuscles  of  bodies,  and 
which  is  the  cause  of  our  peculiar  sensations  of 
heat  and  cold,  may  be  defined  a  peculiar  mo- 
tion, probably  a  vibration  of  the  corpuscles 
of  bodies,  tending  to  separate  them."  In  his 
"Chemical  Philosophy,"  published  in  1812,  he 
says:  "The  immediate  cause  of  the  phenome- 
non of  heat,  then,  is  motion,  and  the  laws  of 
its  communication  are  precisely  the  same  as 
the  laws  of  the  communication  of  motion." 
The  dynamical  theory  of  heat  may  therefore 
be  stated  in  almost  the  words  quoted  above. 
It  holds  that  heat  consists  in  the  vibratory 
motion  of  the  particles  of  matter,  and  that  it 
may  be  produced  by  mechanical  force,  such  as 
friction,  percussion,  or  compression,  or  by  the 
electric  current ;  or  that  it  may  be  communi- 
cated by  the  undulatory  ether,  the  medium  of 
radiation.  Its  communication  from  one  body 
to  another  when  they  are  in  contact,  or  through 
a  homogeneous  body,  from  particle  to  particle, 
constitutes  conduction. — Sources  of  Heat.  Ac- 
cording to  the  nebular  hypothesis  of  Laplace, 
heat  is  a  primal  force  which  caused  all  matter 
at  one  time  to  exist  in  a  gaseous  condition, 
which  by  the  action  of  gravitation  and  other 
forces  has  been  aggregated  into  masses  assu- 
ming solid  and  liquid  conditions.  But  the  opin- 
ion has  bee^i  advanced  by  J.  R.  Mayer  and 
Waterson,  and  more  recently  elaborated  by 
Helmholtz  and  Thomson,  that  the  sun  owes  its 
heat  to  the  force  of  gravitation  acting  upon  the 
particles  of  matter,  which  at  the  beginning 
are  assumed  to  have  been  at  considerable  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  and  causing  by  their 
clashing  together  the  evolution  of  heat.  Ac- 
cording to  either  theory,  the  sun  is  regarded 
as  a  vast  storehouse  of  radiant  heat  from  which 
the  earth  derives  its  supply,  and  has  done  for 
myriads  of  years,  through  most  of  the  geolo- 


gic ages.  Estimations  have  been  made  by  Pou- 
illet  which  show  that  the  sun  emits  a  quantity 
of  heat  per  hour  equal  to  that  which  a  layer 
of  anthracite  coal  10  ft.  thick  would  yield  in 
combustion.  Chemical  combination,  including 
the  combustion  of  fuel,  is  a  secondary  source 
of  heat,  originally  derived  from  the  sun,  which 
furnished  the  energy  necessary  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  fuel.  The  intensity  of  heat  pro- 
duced by  combustion,  attains  its  maximum  in 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  in  which  a  heat 
approaching  4000°  F.  is  reached.  Mechanical 
action,  either  in  the  form  of  compression,  per- 
cussion, or  friction,  develops  heat  in  quantities 
equivalent  to  the  force  converted  into  it.  The 
electric  current  is  another  source  of  heat,  and 
an  example  of  the  equivalent  conversion  of  one 
force  into  another.  When  the  current  is  pro- 
duced by  the  rotation  of  magnets,  there  is  a 
conversion  of  the  mechanical  force  expended 
in  effecting  the  rotation  into  electricity,  and 
this  under  proper  circumstances  into  heat. 
When  the  current  is  produced  by  the  chemical 
action  of  a  battery,  the  origin  of  whatever  heat 
is  obtained  may  be  considered  as  arising  from 
the  combustion  of  the  elements  in  the  battery. 
The  intensity  of  heat  obtained  by  the  electric 
current  is  considerably  higher  than  that  of  the 
oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  but  the  amount  cannot 
be  stated  with  any  degree  of  accuracy. — Gen- 
eral Effects  of  Heat.  The  most  obvious  effects 
of  heat  on  matter  are  to  cause  it  to  expand  and 
to  assume  different  states,  as  the  solid,  liquid, 
and  gaseous.  Thus,  under  the  ordinary  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  water  at  a  temperature  be- 
low 32°  F.  is  a  solid ;  between  32°  and  212°  it 
is  a  liquid ;  and  above  212°  it  is  in  a  gaseous  con- 
dition. With  a  few  exceptions,  an  increase  of 
heat  in  bodies  causes  them  to  expand.  Thus,  a 
metallic  bar  which  has  a  diameter  just  sufficient 
to  enable  it  to  be  passed  through  an  orifice, 
will  by  being  heated  become  too  large ;  the  heat 
vibrations  have  been  intensified,  and  the  bar  has 
increased  in  bulk.  In  what  this  slight  expan- 
sion consists  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  cer- 
tainty ;  whether  the  molecules  require  greater 
space  in  which  to  vibrate,  or  whether  they  ex- 
pand by  a  slight  separation  of  the  atoms  of 
which  they  are  composed,  is  not  known  ;  it  is 
possible  that  both  causes  unite  to  produce  the 
effect.  When,  however,  a  body  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  is  converted  into  vapor,  a  repul- 
sive force  is  generated  between  the  particles 
when  a  certain  temperature  is  reached  which 
produces  a  far  different  phenomenon  from  or- 
dinary expansion ;  an  active  repulsion  has  been 
generated,  which  may  exist  between  mole- 
cules, as  in  the  vapor  of  water  or  alcohol,  of 
between  the  atoms.  Moreover,  the  atoms  com- 
posing molecules  may  be  completely  separated, 
molecular  disintegration,  and  consequently  de- 
composition of  the  substance,  taking  place. 
Heat  when  it  has  such  an  effect  is  called  the 
heat  of  dissociation,  and  is  required  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  by  different  bodies.  (See  DIS- 
SOCIATION.) Thus,  the  atoms  composing  tho 


HEAT 


569 


molecules  of  oxide  of  silver  are  dissociated  at 
a  comparatively  low  temperature,  while  the 
molecules  of  water  require  a  white  heat  to  pro- 
duce dissociation  between  the  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  atoms  composing  it.  The  elements  of 
oxide  of  lead  are  also  dissociated  by  a  compar- 
atively low  temperature  when  oxygen  is  exclu- 
ded, while  to  cause  dissociation  between  the 
atoms  of  oxygen  and  iron  in  oxide  of  iron  re- 
quires so  high  a  heat  that  separation  is  difficult, 
except  in  the  presence  of  a  third  body,  an  ex- 
ample of  which  is  the  reduction  of  iron  ore  by 
charcoal  or  anthracite,  in  which,  however,  the 
heat  of  dissociation  is  not  reached.  Advan- 
tage is  taken  in  the  arts  of  the  expansion  which 
heat  produces  in  bodies  for  various  industrial 
operations,  such  as  the  placing  of  tires  on  wagon 
wheels  and  the  moving  of  immense  weights  or 
resistances,  as  the  drawing  toward  each  other 
of  the  walls  of  buildings.  (See  EXPANSION.) 
The  construction  of  instruments  for  the  mea- 
surement of  heat  is  also  founded  upon  the  prop- 
erty of  expansion.  (See  PYROMETER,  and  THER- 
MOMETER.) It  sometimes  occurs  that  at  the 
temperature  at  which  a  liquid  solidifies  there 
is  expansion  instead  of  contraction,  as  in  the 
solidification  of  iron  and  bismuth,  and  also  of 
water,  a  familiar  example,  in  which  the  expan- 
sion is  made  obvious  in  the  floating  of  the  less 
dense  ice  ;  and  mechanical  advantage  is  often 
taken  of  this  property  of  expansion  during  con- 
gelation to  rend  asunder  masses  of  rocks  or 
iron  vessels.  The  phenomena  and  philosophy 
of  combustion  are  treated  under  the  title  COM- 
BUSTION ;  the  expanding  force  of  heat,  particu- 
larly with  reference  to  liquids  and  solids,  un- 
der BOILING  POINT  and  EXPANSION  ;  the  trans- 
mission of  radiant  heat,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  diathermanous  properties  of  dif- 
ferent bodies,  under  DIATHERMANCY  ;  the  gen- 
eration of  heat  by  mechanical  means  and  by 
electricity,  and  its  correlation  with  these  forms 
of  energy,  under  CORRELATION  OF  FORCES,  ELEC- 
TRICITY, FRICTION,  and  GALVANISM  ;  and  the 
causes  of  solar  heat  and  its  continuance  or  dis- 
sipation, under  SUN.  The  remainder  of  this 
article  will  therefore  be  principally  devoted  to 
a  consideration  of  the- more  general  laws  of  ra- 
diant heat,  of  the  conduction  of  heat,  and  of 
specific  and  latent  heat.  I.  KADIANT  HEAT. 
The  undulatory  theory  of  radiation  will  be 
treated  in  the  article  LIGHT,  and  only  such  of 
its  laws  will  be  given  here  as  are  necessary  for 
the  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  some  of  the 
reasons  which  indicate  the  identity  of  the  two 
forces.  A  beam  of  light  from  the  sun,  or  from 
any  highly  incandescent  body,  consists  of  a 
great  number  of  rays  propagated  by  transverse 
vibrations  in- the  ethereal  particles.  These  vi- 
brations are  of  variable  amplitude,  correspond- 
ing to  the  particular  kinds  of  rays,  and  these 
rays  have  the  property  of  being  refracted  when 
passing  from  one  medium  to  another  in  an  ob- 
lique direction,  as  when  passing  from  air  into 
glass,  and  again  from  glass  into  air  or  any  other 
medium.  Those  rays  which  consist  of  vibra- 


tions of  greater  amplitude  have  been  found  the 
least  refrangible,  and  also  to  be  those  which 
in  a  greater  degree  than  the  others  produce 
the  effects  of  heat.  When  a  beam  of  light  is 
dispersed  by  a  triangular  prism  made  of  rock 
salt,  a  highly  diathermanous  substance,  there  is 
formed  a  luminous  spectrum  of  various  colors 
in  which  heat  is  more  or  less  distributed,  abound- 
ing more  in  the  red  or  least  refrangible  light 
than  in  other  portions ;  but  far  more  in  that 
part  of  the  spectrum  which  is  composed  of  in- 
visible rays  of  still  less  refrangibility  than  the 
red.  It  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  heat 
contained  in  the  invisible  or  non-luminous  part 
beyond  the  red  rays  is  more  than  seven  times 
as  great  as  that  in  the  luminous  part.  Here, 
then,  is  a  proof  that  rays  of  light  and  rays  of 
heat  are  transmitted  together  in  ordinary  ra- 
diation of  compound  light.  Now,  if  they  are 
found  to  travel  with  the  same  velocity,  their 
identity  becomes  probable,  and  this  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  during  an  eclipse  of  the  sun, 
at  the  conclusion  of  total  obscuration,  heat 
makes  its  appearance  simultaneously  with  the 
rays  of  light ;  and  finally,  when  it  is  found  that 
the  rays  of  light  and  heat  observe  the  same 
laws  of  reflection,  refraction,  interference,  and 
polarization,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible  that 
the  only  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the 
less  refrangible  rays  possess  the  greater  heating 
power.  Eadiation  of  both  light  and  heat  is 
propagated  in  straight  lines  in  a  homogeneous 
medium,  and  unlike  sound  may  be  transmitted 
through  a  vacuum,  a  fact  which  indicates  that 
it  employs  a  different  medium.  If  a  sphere  of 
glass,  a,  fig.  1,  have  a  thermometer,  5,  sealed 
into  it,  with  its  bulb  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  and  if  the  air  be  exhausted  through 
the  tube  c,  which  is  afterward  closed  by  the 
flame  of  a  blowpipe,  and  then  the  sphere  be 
surrounded  by  a  heated  body,  as  a  piece  of  tin 
foil,  the  thermometer  will  indicate  a  rise  of 
temperature.  The  radiation  of  heat  follows 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


three  important  laws :  1.  Its  intensity  is  pro- 
portional to  the  intensity  of  the  source.  2.  It 
is  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  3. 
Its  intensity  is  less  in  proportion  to  the  obli- 
quity of  the  surface  of  the  body  emitting  the 
rays.  The  first  law  is  demonstrated  by  placing 


570 


HEAT 


a  metallic  cubical  vessel  at  a  certain  distance 
from  the  blackened  bulb  of  a  thermometer,  and 
filling  it  successively  with  water  at  different 
temperatures,  as  for  instance  at  20°,  30°,  and 
40° ;  the  temperatures  indicated  by  the  ther- 
mometer will  be  in  the  same  ratio  as  those  of 
the  vessel  containing  the  water.  The  second 
law  follows  from  the  geometrical  principle  that 
the  surface  of  a  sphere  increases  as  the  square 
of  its  radius.  Let  c,  fig.  2,  be  a  centre  of  ra- 
diation ;  it  will  emit  a  certain  number  of  rays, 
all  of  which  will  fall  upon  the  inner  surface  of 
the  sphere  a  J,  or  in  the  absence  of  this,  upon 
the  inner  surface  of  the  sphere  d  e,  which  has 
a  radius  twice  as  great  as  a  &.  Therefore  the 
same  amount  of  heat  will  fall  upon  either  of 
the  spheres.  But  the  outer  sphere  has  a  sur- 
face four  times  as  great  as  the  inner  one ;  there- 
fore it  receives  upon  the  same  extent  of  sur- 
face only  one  fourth  as  much  heat.  The  same 
law  may  be  demonstrated  experimentally,  by 
a  method  invented  by  Tyndall.  He  placed  a 


FIG.  3. — Law  of  Inverse  Squares. 


thermo-electric  pile,  S,  fig.  3,  in  front  of  a 
rectangular  vessel  filled  with  hot  water  and 
having  its  face  coated  with  lampblack.  The 
pile  is  placed  in  the  small  end  of  a  hollow  cone, 
having  its  inner  surface  blackened,  to  prevent 
reflection.  The  distance  of  the  pile  from  the 
vessel  may  be  changed,  but  the  quantity  of  heat 
received  will  be  the  same.  If  the  distance  at 
S'  is  twice  that  at  S,  the  surface  of  the  cir- 
cle A'  B',  whose  rays  fall  upon  the  pile  at 
S',  will  have  twice  the  radius  and  four  times 
the  surface  of  the  circle  A  B,  whose  rays  fall 
upon  the  pile  at  S.  The  third  law  is  demon- 
strated as  follows  :  Place  a  cube,  a,  fig.  4,  filled 


FIG.  4. 


with  hot  water,  in  front  of  a  thermo-electric 
pile,  P,  and  also  place  a  screen,  S  S,  with 
an  opening,  between  the  cube  and  the  pile. 
If  the  cube  is  first  placed  with  its  face  per- 
pendicular to  the  rays  r,  r,  and  is  then  turned 
upon  its  axis  without  changing  the  distance 


of  the  centre  of  its  face,  but  giving  it  an  ob- 
lique position,  the  amount  of  heat  indicated  by 
the  pile  will  remain  the  same,  although  rays 
from  a  greater  extent  of  surface  on  the  cube 
will  pass  through  the  opening  in  the  screen. 
All  bodies  are  regarded  as  possessing  a  certain 
degree  of  that  molecular  motion  which  con- 
stitutes heat,  and  as  always  emitting  rays  of 
heat,  no  matter  what  their  temperature  may 
be.  Every  body  is  constantly  receiving  rays 
of  heat  from  all  other  bodies  within  the  limits 
of  radiation,  and  is  at  the  same  time  returning 
rays  of  heat  to  these  bodies.  But  the  hotter 
bodies  emit  rays  of  greater  intensity  than  those 
which  they  receive,  so  that  they  all  have  a  ten- 
dency to  arrive  at  a  condition  of  equilibrium. 
This  is  called  the  doctrine  of  exchanges,  and 
was  proposed  by  Prevost,  a  professor  at  Geneva 
about  the  year  1790,  under  the  name  of  the 
"  theory  of  mobile  equilibrium  of  tempera- 
ture." If  a  body  could  be  so  placed  that  it 
should  continue  to  radiate  more  heat  than  it 
absorbed,  there  would  come  a  time  when  its 
vibrations  would  cease,  and  it  would  possess 
no  heat  whatever ;  in  other  words,  it  would 
arrive  at  a  state  of  absolute  zero.  Modern 
physicists  have  assumed  such  a  theoretical 
zero,  and  have  calculated  it  to  be  at  459-13° 
below  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  or  272'85° 
below  that  of  the  centigrade.  Newton  was 
the  first  to  enunciate  a  law  of  cooling,  which 
was  that  "the  quantity  of  heat  lost  or  gained 
by  a  body  at  each  instant  is  proportional  to 
the  difference  between  its  temperature  and 
that  of  the  surrounding  medium ;"  but  it  has 
been  found  not  to  be  general,  and  only  applies 
when  the  differences  of  temperature  are  not 
more  than  15°  or  20°  C. ;  beyond  that  the  loss 
or  gain  is  greater  than  the  law  requires.  No 
definite  results  were  obtained  till  Dulong  and 
Petit  made  a  series  of  elaborate  investigations, 
in  which  they  placed  the  thermometer  both  in 
vacua  and  in  air.  A  large  thermometer  was 
used,  containing  about  three  pounds  of  mercu- 
ry, and  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  hollow 
globe  of  thin  copper  having  its  interior  surface 
covered  with  lampblack,  and  kept  at  a  uniform 
temperature  by  immersion  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  being  hotter  than 
the  globe.  The  following  are  the  results  ob- 
tained when  the  globe  was  at  the  temperature 
of  melting  ice :  • 

VELOCITY    OF  COOLING  AT   DIFFERENT  TEMPERA- 
TURES. 

Excess  of  temperature,  Velocity  of  cooling 

In  degrees  F.  per  minute. 

10-69° 


896  . 

8-S1 

860  

7-40 

824 

6'10 

288  

4-89 

252  

...  8-88 

216 

8-02 

180  . 

2-80 

144  .. 

.  1-74 

It  is  thus  shown  that  the  velocity  of  cooling 
at  300°  is  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  at 


HEAT 


571 


180°.  It  was  found  by  Dulong  and  Petit  that 
the  velocity  of  cooling  in  a  vacuum  for  a  con- 
stant excess  of  temperature  increases  in  a  geo- 
metrical progression  when  the  temperature  of 
the  surrounding  air  increases  in  an  arithmetical 
progression,  and  that  the  ratio  of  this  pro- 
gression is  the  same  whatever  may  be  the  ex- 
cess of  temperature.  The  experiments  of  MM. 
Provostaye  and  Desains  confirm  the  results 
of  Dulong  and  Petit.  Radiation  being  the 
propagation  in  the  lurniniferous  ether  of  un- 
dulations in  consequence  of  molecular  vibra- 
tions in  the  radiating  body,  it  would  be  ex- 
f  jcted  that  different  bodies  would  have  dif- 
ferent powers  of  radiation,  and  experiment 
shows  this  to  be  true.  The  apparatus  used  by 
Sir  John  Leslie  is  represented  in  fig.  6,  and  is 
the  same  that  he  employed  for  determining 
the  reflecting  powers  of  bodies.  In  experi- 
menting on  radiation,  the  plate  d  may  be  re- 
moved. The  cube  a  has  its  sides  coated  with 
different  substances,  which  may  be  turned  at 
pleasure  toward  the  mirror  &,  and  the  bulb 
of  a  differential  thermometer  may  be  placed  in 
the  focus  I.  Calling  the  radiating  power  of 
lampblack  100,  he  found  that  of  other  sub- 
stances as  follows : 


Varnished  lead  ...........  45 

Mercury  .................  20 

Polished  lead  .............  19 

Polished  iron  ............  15 


vary  with  the  sources  of  heat. — Reflection  of 
Heat.  That  dark  heat  rays  are  capable  of  re- 
flection, and  that  they  obey  the  same  laws  as 
the  luminous  rays  may  be  shown  by  placing  a 
metallic  ball,  A,  fig.  5,  heated  below  redness, 
in  the  focus  of  a  concave  mirror,  B  C,  and  the 


Whiting  .. 

100 

Paper 

98 

....    95 

White  glass  

90 

Tin,  gold,  silver 


12 


FIG.  5. 

bulb  of  a  thermometer,  D,  in  the  focus  of  a 
j  mirror,  E  F,  opposite  and  at  a  distance.  The 
temperature  indicated  by  the  thermometer  will 
approach  that  of  the  ball,  but  if  either  ther- 
!  mometer  or  ball  is  removed  from  its  position, 
the  temperature  will  fall.  The  following 
method  was  employed  by  Sir  John  Leslie  to 
determine  the  heat-reflecting  powers  of  dif- 
ferent substances.  The  source  of  heat,  which 
may  be  a  cubical  vessel  filled  with  hot  water,  or 


It  is  commonly  supposed  that  color  has  much 
influence  on  the  radiating  and  absorbing  power 
of  bodies,  but  this  is  only  true  of  luminous 
heat.  If  the  cube  used  in  the  above  experi- 
ment is  filled  with  hot  water,  and  three  of  its 
sides  are  covered,  one  with  white,  another 
with  red,  and  another  with  black  velvet,  all 
of  the  same  texture,  the  fourth  of  polished 
copper  being  left  uncovered,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  three  velvet  sides  will  radiate  alike, 
the  naked  side  radiating  the  least.  This  shows 
that  texture  or  molecular  structure,  rather  than 
color,  confers  radiating  power  upon  surfaces,  for 
obscure  heat.  The  power  of  a  body  to  absorb 
heat  is  precisely  proportional  to  its  power  of 
radiation;  or  in  other  words,  its  power  of 
propagating  undulations  in  the  ether  is  equal 
to  its  power  of  accepting  motion  from  the  un- 
dulations of  the  ether,  and  is  generally  pos- 
sessed in  a  greater  degree  by  opaque  than  by 
transparent  bodies,  although  there  are  remark- 
able exceptions,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to 
the  article  DIATHERMANCY.  The  method  em- 
ployed by  Leslie  in  determining  the  absorbing 
powers  of  bodies  was  to  cover  the  bulb  of  the 
differential  thermometer,  fig.  6,  with  the  sub- 
stance to  be  experimented  upon,  and  place  it 
in  the  focus,  removing  the  plate  d.  Tyndall 
has  made  elaborate  researches  upon  the  radia- 
ting and  absorbing  powers  of  gases,  vapors, 
and  flames,  and  has  found  them  proportional 
when  the  same  sources  of  heat  were  employed, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  their  transmitting 
powers;  but  he  also  finds  these  properties  to 


FIG.  6. 

a  metallic  ball,  a,  fig.  6,  is  supported  by  a  sliding 
standard  at  a  distance  in  front  of  a  concave 
metallic  reflector  at  5.  The  focus  of  the  mir- 
ror is  at  c  for  the  divergent  rays  which  come 
from  the  source  of  .heat,  but  a  reflecting  plate 
d  reflects  them  to  Z,  where  the  focus  is  really 
formed.  It  is  obvious  that  the  heat  at  the 
focus  I  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  reflecting 
power  of  the  plate  d.  By  using  plates  of  dif- 
ferent materials  he  ascertained  their  reflect- 
ing power.  Calling  polished  brass  100,  he  ob- 
tained the  following  results : 


Brass 

Silver , 
Tin... 

Steel . , 


100 

n 


Lead 60 

Amalgamated  tin 10 

Glass  10 

Lampblack 0 


This  shows  that  the  metals  which  are  the  best 
reflectors  of  light  are  also  the  best  reflectors  of 
heat.  Moreover,  when  it  is  remembered  that 
white  light,  which  contains  all  the  rays  of  the 


572 


HEAT 


solar  spectrum  (thoso  of  dark  heat,  those  of 
luminous  heat,  and  those  of  actinism),  is  re- 
flected from  polished  surfaces  without  any  de- 
composition, we  have  another  proof  of  the  fact 
that  the  laws  of  reflection  are  the  same  for 
each.  The  reflecting  power  also  of  a  surface 
for  heat  and  for  light  is  found  by  experiment  to 
be  the  same,  allowance  being  made  for  errors ; 
and  the  reflecting  power  of  different  substan- 
ces varies  with  the  angle  of  incidence  in  the 
same  degree  for  heat  as  for  light.  In  glass  it 
increases  rapidly  with  the  angle  of  incidence, 
while  in  metals  it  increases  slowly.  It  is  also 
found  that  heat  is  diffused  and  scattered  by  the 
same  surfaces  in  the  same  proportion  that  light 
is.  II.  CONDUCTION  OF  HEAT.  If  a  copper 
rod,  fig.  7,  is  placed  on  supports  and  a  flame 
applied  at  one  end,  heat  will  flow  along  it  to- 
ward the  other  end,  and  the  rate  may  be 
measured  by  thermometers  having  their  bulbs 
placed  in  cup-shaped  holes  containing  mercury 
along  the  upper  side  of  the  bar.  This  was  the 
method  of .  Despretz,  who  made 'the  first  im- 
portant series  of  experiments  on  the  subject. 


FIG.  7. 

If  an  iron  bar  is  substituted  for  the  copper, 
the  rate  of  flow  will  be  much  less,  and  a  bar 
of  platinum  will  be  found  a  poorer  conductor 
than  one  of  iron.  But  the  results  of  Despretz 
have  been  found  by  the  later  experiments  of 
Wiedemann  and  Franz  not  to  be  perfectly  ac- 
curate. The  results  obtained  by  these  investi- 
gators are  given  in  the  following  table,  which 
also  gives  the  electric  conductions  of  the  same 
metals,  according  to  Riess  and  Lenz,  these  being 
very  nearly  the  same  as  for  heat,  a  fact  which 
was  first  shown  by  Forbes  : 

KATES  OF  THERMAL  AND  ELECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY. 


METALS. 

TlU.l'.M  M 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

ELECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY. 

Wiedemann  and 
Franz. 

Rie». 

Lenz. 

Stiver 

100-0 
73-6 
53-2 
23-6 
14-5 
11-9 
8-5 
6-4 
1-8 

100-0 
66-7 
59-0 

18-4 

10-0 

12-0 
7-0 
10-5 

100-0 
78-3 
58-5 
21-5 
22-6 
18-0 
10-7 
10-8 
1-9 

Copper.  .  . 

Gold 

Brass 

Tin  

Iron  . 

Lead  

Platinum  
Bismnth  

One  of  the  sources  of  error  in  Despretz's  ex- 
periments was  the  employment  of  the  holes 


in  the  bar  containing  mercury,  and  another, 
a  want  of  sensitiveness  in  the  thermometer. 
Wiedemann  and  Franz  used  smooth  rods,  and 
measured  the  temperature  with  a  thermo-elec- 
tric pile  and  galvanometer.  Marble  and  mine- 
ral substances  generally  are  poorer  conductors 
than  any  of  the  metals,  and  porcelain  and  glass 
are  still  poorer.  The  property  of  the  thermal 
conductivity  of  metals  is  the  basis  of  the  inven- 
tion of  Davy's  safety  lamp  for  miners.  (See 
LAMP.)  The  unequal  conductivity  of  metals 
and  other  bodies  is  the  cause  of  an  interest- 
ing phenomenon,  which  is  beautifully  exhibit- 
ed by  what  is  known  as  Trevelyan's  experi- 
ment, but  which  had  been  previously  observed 
when  a  hot  metal  of  good  conducting  power 
was  laid  against  a  cold  one,  a  comparatively 
poor  conductor,  particularly  if  it  had  consider- 
able expansion,  as  a  copper  brazing  iron  laid 
upon  a  block  of  cold  lead.  When  the  heated 
metal  can  readily  acquire  a  slight  rocking  mo- 
tion, the  experiment  succeeds  the  best.  Tre- 
velyan's  apparatus  consists  of  a  "rocker" 
made  of  brass,  having  a  longitudinal  groove, 
and  lying  upon  the  cylindrical  surface  of  a 
block  of  lead.  When  the  rocker  is  heated  and 
placed  upon  the  lead,  the  ridges  on  each  side 
of  the  groove  are  alternately  thrown  upward 
by  the  expansion  in  those  parts  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  lead  which  are  heated  by  coming 
in  contact  with  the  hot  brass,  and  thus  a 
series  of  vibrations  having  a  musical  tone  is 
produced.  The  reason  why  the  heated  metal 
should  be  a  good  conductor  is  that  its  surface 
may  be  kept  hot  uniformly  with  the  mass,  and 
thus  be  in  a  condition  to  impart  sufficient  heat 
to  the  surface  of  the  lead  at  every  moment. 
The  advantage  of  employing  lead  as  the  other 
metal  consists  in  its  being  capable  of  consider- 
able expansion  by  heat,  and  in  its  being  a  poor 
conductor,  so  that  in  a  moment  the  superficial 
portions  may  acquire  enough  heat  to  cause  the 
requisite  expansion  to  throw  the  rocker  into 
vibrations.  The  same  effect  may  be  produced 
if,  instead  of  a  block  of  lead,  one  of  stone  is  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  sheet  of  metal  which  is  a  good 
conductor,  the  condition  required  being  one  fa- 
vorable to  the  rapid  expansion  of  the  surface,  as 
was  shown  by  Faraday.  Other  materials  be- 
sides metals  may  be  used,  as  various  rocks  and 
minerals. — Liquids  are  almost  non-conductors 
of  heat,  as  may  be  shown  by  pouring  a  small 
quantity  of  alcohol  upon  the  surface  of  water 
in  a  tumbler  and  igniting  it ;  a  long  time  will 
elapse  before  the  upper  layers  of  the  water 
become  sensibly  heated.  Despretz  employed 
an  apparatus  which  consisted  of  a  cylindrical 
wooden  vessel  about  3  ft.  in  height  and  8  or 
10  in.  in  diameter,  which  was  filled  with  water. 
Through  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  12  ther- 
mometers were  placed,  with  their  bulbs  one 
above  another  in  the  axis  of  the  column  of 
water.  A  metal  box,  which  was  kept  filled 
with  water  at  212°  F.,  rested  upon  the  top  of 
the  column  of  water.  In  this  manner  he  found 
that  the  conductivity  of  heat  for  liquids  follows 


HEAT 


573 


the  same  law  as  for  solids,  but  is  much  more 
feeble,  the  conductivity  of  water  being  only 
about  ¥V  that  °f  copper.  Liquids  are  readily 
heated  by  convection.  When  heat  is  applied 
beneath  vessels  containing  them,  the  stratum 
next  the  bottom  expands  by  heat,  and  in  rising 
the  particles  communicate  their 
excess  of  heat  to  those  through 
which  they  pass.  Gases  become 
heated  in  the  same  manner ; 
they  are  exceedingly  bad  con- 
ductors, but  from  the  mobility 
of  their  particles  it  is  difficult  to 
arrive  at  satisfactory  results  as 
to  their  conducting  power.  Po- 
rous substances  containing  con- 
fined air  are  bad  conductors  of 
heat,  wherefore  the  walls  of  well 
built  dwellings  intended  to  ex- 
clude the  heat  of  summer  and 
the  cold  of  winter  are  divided 
into  partitions  containing  con- 
fined air.  Plaster  of  Paris,  on 
account  of  its  porosity  after  set- 
ting with  water,  and  its  non- 
combustibility,  is  used  for  filling 
between  the  plates  of  fire-proof 
safes ;  and  the  efficiency  of  po- 
rous garments  in  protecting  the 
body  against  cold  and  heat  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation. 
FIG.  8.  There  is  a  remarkable  exception 
to  the  non-conductivity  of  gases 
in  the  case  of  hydrogen,  which,  although  the 
.ightest  of  all  of  them,  is  by  comparison  far 
the  best  conductor  of  heat.  This  is  proved  by 
the  following  experiment :  If  a  fine  platinum 
wire  is  passed  through  a  glass  tube,  as  shown 
in  fig.  8,  and  its  two  ends  placed  in  connection 
with  the  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery,  it  will  be- 
come incandescent  on  the  passage  of  a  moderate 
galvanic  current,  if  air  or  any  gas  besides  hy- 
drogen is  passed  through  the  tube,  though  not  to 
the  same  degree  as  in  a  vacuum ;  but  if  hydrogen 
gas  is  passed  through  the  tube,  the  incandes- 
cence disappears  in  consequence  of  the  heat 
being  conducted  away.  III.  SPECIFIC  HEAT. 
The  first  important  experiments  upon  the  spe- 
cific heat  of  bodies  were  made  by  Dr.  Black  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  and  the 
idea  of  measuring  specific  heat  originated  with 
him.  If  two  equal  measures  of  water  are 
placed  in  separate  vessels  of  the  same  material, 
all  being  at  the  same  temperature,  and  there  is 
immersed  in  one  an  iron  ball  of  a  certain 
weight,  and  of  a  temperature  higher  than  that 
of  the  water,  and  in  the  other  a  quantity  of 
mercury  of  equal  weight  and  temperature,  after 
a  time  each  of  the  vessels  with  their  contents 
will  have  come  to  an  equilibrium ;  but  it  will  be 
found  that  the  contents  of  the  vessel  in  which 
the  iron  was  placed  have  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  other,  showing  that  the  iron  has  com- 
municated to  the  water  a  greater  quantity  of 
heat  than  the  mercury.  If  the  iron  ball  and 
the  mercury  had  been  colder  than  the  water,  on 


the  attainment  of  equilibrium  the  water  con- 
taining the  iron  would  have  been  colder  than 
that  which  contained  the  mercury.  The  amount 
which  a  body  is  thus  capable  of  imparting  or 
absorbing  while  rising  or  falling  through  a  cer- 
tain range  of  temperature  is  called  its  specific 
heat.  The  term  first  used  to  denote  this  prop- 
erty was  "  capacity  for  heat,"  and  was  intro- 
duced by  Irvine,  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Black.  The 
term  specific  heat,  according  to  Whewell,  was 
proposed  by  Wilcke,  a  Swedish  chemist,  and 
according  to  others  by  Gadolin,  of  Abo,  in 
1784.  If,  in  the  experiment  just  mentioned, 
instead  of  an  iron  ball,  an  equal  weight  of 
water  at  the  same  temperature  had  been  used, 
the  quantity  of  heat  imparted  to  the  water 
already  in  the  vessel  would  have  been  very 
much  greater.  If  equal  w  eights  of  water  at 
different  temperatures  are  mingled,  the  result- 
ing temperature  will  be  a  mean  between  the 
two ;  but  when  equal  weights  of  iron  and  water 
at  different  temperatures  are  placed  together, 
the  resulting  temperature  will  be  nearer  that 
of  the  water.  In  making  experiments  in  spe- 
cific heat,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some  unit 
of  measure,  of  which  several  are  employed. 
The  gramme  degree  (centigrade)  is  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  required  to  raise  one  gramme  of 
water  1°  C. ;  the  kilogramme  degree,  some- 
times called  a  calorie,  is  the  heat  required  to 
raise  one  kilogramme  of  water  1°  C. ;  and  the 
pound  degree  is  the  amount  required  to  raise 
one  pound  avoirdupois  of  water  1°  F.  or  C. — 
Three  methods  have  been  employed  for  deter- 
mining specific  heat:  1,  the  method  of  fusion 
of  ice ;  2,  the  method  of  mixtures ;  and  3,  the 
method  of  cooling.  1.  The  method  of  fusion 
of  ice.  This  was  employed  by  Black,  and 
simply  consisted  in  making  a  deep  cavity  in  a 
block  of  ice,  fig.  9,  placing  the  substance  to  be 
experimented  on  in  it,  and  closing  the  cavity 
with  a  cover  of  ice.  The  substance  is  raised 
to  a  certain  temperature,  then  introduced,  and 
when  cooled  to  zero  is  removed,  and  both  it 
and  the  cavity  wiped  with  a  cloth  of  known 
weight ;  the  increase 
in  weight  shows  how 
much  of  the  ice  has  been 
melted.  Now,  as  will 
be  seen  further  on,  it  re- 
quires as  much  heat  to 
convert  a  pound  of  ice 
at  32°  to  a  pound  of 
water  at  32°,  as  it  does 
to  raise  a  pound  of  wa- 
ter from  32°  to  174° ; 
therefore  water  at  32° 

contains  142°  more  heat  than  ice  at  the  same 
temperature.  Let  m  denote  the  weight  of  wa- 
ter derived  from  the  ice  in  the  above  experi- 
ment, w  the  weight  of  the  body  under  experi- 
ment, s  its  specific  heat,  and  t  the  number 
of  degrees  it  has  fallen ;  then  there  will  re- 
sult the  following  equation:  w  t  s—l^m\  or 
S_142?  from  wllich  formula  the  specific  heat 


FIG.  9.— Black's  Ice-block 
Calorimeter. 


574 


HEAT 


of  any  substance  is  readily  ascertained.  A 
modification  of  this  apparatus,  which  gave 
more  accurate  results,  was  devised  by  Lavoisier 
and  Laplace,  and  called  an  ice  calorimeter,  of 
which  fig.  10  shows  a  perspective  and  a  sec- 
tional view.  It  consists  of  three  concentric 


FIG.  10.— Ice  Calorimeter. 

tin  vessels,  the  inner  one  for  holding  the  body 
under  experiment,  while  the  two  others  con- 
tain pounded  ice,  that  in  the  outer  one  to  pre- 
vent external  influence,  that  in  the  middle 
one  to  measure  the  heat  given  by  the  body 
under  experiment.  Stopcocks  are  supplied 
to  each,  that  connected  with  the  middle  ves- 
sel being  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  off  the 
water  which  has  been  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  experimental  body. 
The  manner  of  conducting  the 
experiment  is  similar  to  that 
employed  with  the  block  of  ice. 
The  principal  source  of  error  is 
the  difficulty  of  estimating  the 
quantity  of  ice  which  has  melt- 
ed, as  more  or  less  water  will 
adhere  to  the  lumps.  Bunsen 
has  devised  a  calorimeter  espe- 
cially adapted  to  cases  in  which 
only  small  quantities  are  experi- 
mented upon.  A  test  tube,  a, 
fig.  11,  which  receives  the  sub- 
stance to  be  tested,  is  fixed  in 
the  larger  leg  of  a  wide  U-shap- 
ed tube,  6  c,  the  part  &,  contain- 
ing the  test  tube,  being  filled 
with  water,  and  the  rest  with 
mercury.  A  graduated  smaller 
tube,  d,  open  at  the  top,  is  ad- 
justed to  the  top  of  the  leg  c, 
for  the  purpose  of  noting  the 
rise  or  fall  of  the  mercury  in  this 
leg,  which  it  is  obvious  will  be  effected  by  the 
expansion  or  contraction  of  the  contents  of  the 
leg  J.  In  making  the  experiment,  a  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  freezing  mixture  and  the  water 
frozen.  Then  the  substance  under  experiment 
is  raised  to  a  certain  temperature  and  placed 


FIG.  11.— Bun- 
sen's  Calori- 
meter. 


in  the  test  tube  ;  it  melts  a  certain  quantity  of 
ice,  and  thereby  causes  a  diminution  in  vol- 
ume of  the  contents  of  &,  and  consequently  a 
fall  of  the  mercury  in  e,  and  also  in  the  grad- 
uated tube  d.  In  this  way  the  weight  of  ice 
melted  may  be  estimated,  and  the  weight 
and  temperature  of  the  tested  substance  be- 
ing known,  the  specific  heat  may  be  readi- 
ly calculated  according  to  the  formula  which 
has  been  given.  2.  The  method  of  mix- 
tures. An  outline  of  this  method  was  given 
in  defining  specific  heat;  it  will  now  be  ap- 
plied in  making  determinations.  A  body  is 
weighed  and  raised  to  a  certain  temperature, 
and  then  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  cold 
water  whose  weight  and  temperature  are  also 
known.  Let  m  be  the  weight  of  the  body, 
n  its  temperature,  and  s  its  specific  heat ;  also 
let  w  be  the  weight  of  cold  water,  and  t  its 
temperature.  After  a  time  equilibrium  is  ob- 
tained, when  the  temperature  may  be  repre- 
sented by  e.  The  quantity  of  heat  which  the 
body  has  lost  will  therefore  be  m  s  (n—e),  and 
that  which  has  been  gained  by  the  water  will 
be  w  (e — £),  the  specific  heat  of  water  being 
unity.  Now,  as  the  quantity  of  heat  which  is 
absorbed  is  equal  to  that  which  is  given  out 
by  the  body  under  experiment,  m  s  (n—e)  =  w 

(e — £),  from  whence  s  =  w     ~  .     To  apply  this 

formula,  suppose  that  three  ounces  of  mer- 
cury at  212°  is  mixed  with  one  ounce  of  water 
at  32°,  and  that  the  resulting  temperature  is 
48-2°,  what  is  the  specific  heat  of  mercury? 
In  this  example  m  =  3,  e  =  48*2°,  and  n —  e  = 

163-8° ;  therefore  ,  =  ££=|f  =  ^-  =  '033,  the 

specific  heat  of  mercury,  which  is  therefore 
only  about  ^  that  of  water.  In  accurate 
experiments  corrections  are  required  for  er- 
rors, one  of  which  is  caused  by  the  absorp- 
tion of  a  small  amount  of  heat  by  the  con- 
taining vessel.  Regnault  devised  a  method 
of  mixtures,  using  a  calorimeter  capable  of 
yielding  more  accurate  results,  and  the  elabo- 
rate experiments  which  were  made  by  him 
have  been  of  great  value  in  the  arts ;  but  the 
method  given  above  sufficiently  illustrates  the 
principles  involved.  3.  The  method  of  cooling. 
Equal  weights  of  bodies  having  different  spe- 
cific heats  will  cool  through  different  degrees 
of  temperature  in  the  same  time,  the  body  hav- 
ing the  least  specific  heat  cooling  the  most 
rapidly.  If  two  thermometers  with  blackened 
bulbs  and  of  the  same  size  are  filled,  one  with 
mercury  and  the  other  with  water,  and  then, 
at  a  common  temperature,  are  placed  in  cool 
enclosures  of  the  same  construction  and  tem- 
perature, the  mercurial  thermometer  will  cool 
more  than  twice  as  rapidly  as  the  one  of  wa- 
ter, the  proportion  being  30  to  13,  because  the 
specific  heat  of  water  is  30  times  that  of  mer- 
cury, while  the  specific  gravity  of  mercury  is 
13  times  that  of  water.— Specific  Heat  of  Sol- 
ids. It  was  found  by  Dulong  and  Petit  that 
the  specific  heat  of  a  solid  is  greater  at  a  high 


HEAT 


>75 


than  at  a  low  temperature.     Their  results  are 
iown  in  the  following  table : 


Iron 

Mercury 

Zinc 

Antimony 
Silver 


the  above  table  it  may  be  seen  that  the  spe- 
cific heat  of  all  the  substances  is  greater  at 
high  than  at  low  temperature,  except  that  of 
platinum,  which  remains  the  same  within  the 
limits  of  the  experiment.  The  reason  given 
for  this  is  that  the  melting  point  of  platinum 
is  very  high,  far  higher  than  that  of  cast  iron, 
and  Regnault  has  found  that  the  increase  in 
its  specific  heat  becomes  more  rapid  as  it  ap- 
proaches its  melting  point.  Pouillet,  by  the 
method  of  mixtures,  obtained  the  specific  heat 
of  platinum  at  higher  temperatures  than  those 
employed  by  Dulong  and  Petit,  but  still  very 
far  below  the  melting  point.  The  following 
are  his  results,  which  differ  somewhat  from 
those  of  Dulong  and  Petit : 

MEAN   SPECIFIC   HEAT   OF   PLATINUM. 

Between  82"  and  212"  F . .  0-0335 

82      "     572        0-0343 


1292 
1832 
2192 


utrary  to  the  results  of  Dulong  and  Petit, 
Pouillet  found  there  was  a  variation  between 
32°  and  572°,  but  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
agree  as  to  the  increase  of  specific  heat  with 
increase  of  temperature.  The  specific  heat  of 
a  solid  depends  upon  its  molecular  conditions, 
which  may  be  considerably  changed  by  treat- 
ment, as  by  rate  of  cooling  after  fusion,  by 
hammering,  by  compression,  or  by  traction. 
An  increase  of  density  diminishes  the  specific 
heat,  while  expansion  increases  it;  for  which 
reason,  probably,  it  increases  with  the  temper- 
ature. The  following  table  of  specific  heats 
of  solids  is  by  Regnault,  the  range  being  be- 
tween 32°  and  212°  F. : 

Substances.  Sp.  heats. 

Cobalt 0-10696 

Zinc 0-09555 

Copper 0-09515 

Brass 0-09391 

Silver 0-05710 

Tin 0-05623 

Antimony 0-05077 

Mercury 0-03332 

Gold 0-03244 

Platinum 0-03244 

Bismuth 0-03084 

— Specific  Heat  of  Liquids.  The  specific  heat 
of  liquids  may  be  found  by  the  method  of  cool- 
ing, by  that  of  mixtures,  or  by  the  calorimeter 
of  Lavoisier  and  Laplace,  fig.  10,  already  de- 
397  VOL.  vm.— 37 


Substances. 
Animal  charcoal. 
Wood  charcoal.  .  . 
Sulphur  . 

Sp.  heats. 
...  0-260S5 
...  0-24111 
0-20259 

Graphite  .  . 

0-20187 

Glass  

Phosphorus 

...  0-19763 
0-18949 

Diamond  
Grav  iron  .... 
Steel. 

...  0-146S7 
...  0-129S3 
0-11750 

Iron  .  .  . 
Nickel  .  .  . 

...  0-11397 
..  0-10863 

scribed.  Regnault  employed  the  following 
method :  The  liquid  under  experiment  is  placed 
in  the  reservoir  a,  fig.  12,  and  this  is  immersed 
in  a  vessel  containing  water  at  a  certain  tem- 
perature ;  a  known  temperature  is  therefore 
given  to  the  liquid  in  the  reservoir  by  agitating 


FIG.  12.— Eegnault's  Method  for  Liquids. 

the  water  in  the  bath.  The  stopcock  d  is  then 
opened,  and  the  fluid  is  forced  into  the  vessel  e, 
contained  in  the  calorimeter  c.  The  water  in 
the  calorimeter,  which  is  cooler  than  the  fluid 
under  experiment,  has  its  temperature  raised  by 
the  introduction  of  the  latter.  The  increase  is 
measured  by  the  thermometer  £,  and  from  this, 
the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  calorimeter  and 
of  the  fluid  under  experiment  being  known, 
the  specific  heat  of  the  latter  is  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  method  given  above.  Gener- 
ally, a  substance  has  a  greater  specific  heat 
when  in  a  liquid  than  when  in  a  solid  state,  a 
fact  first  observed  by  Irvine.  Thus,  the  spe- 
cific heat  of  ice  is  only  half  that  of  water.  The 
specific  heat  of  liquids  also  increases  with  the 
temperature,  but  in  a  greater  ratio  than  that 
of  solids.  The  following  results  were  obtained 
by  Regnault  with  water : 

MEAN   SPECIFIC   HEAT   OF   WATER. 

From  82"  to  104°  F I'OOIS: 

"      32    "    176 1-0035 

"      82    "   248      1-0067 

"      82    "   820 1-0109 

"      82    "392      .  1-0160; 

"      32    "   446      1-0204: 

It  was  formerly  thought  that  water  had  a 
greater  specific  heat  than  any  other  liquid,  but 
the  researches  of  Dupre  and  Page  indicate  that 
the  specific  heat  of  a  mixture  of  water  and  al- 
cohol, containing  20  per  cent,  of  the  latter,  is 
probably  as  high  as  r05. — Specific  Heat  of 
Oases.  The  specific  heat  of  a  gas  at  a  constant 
volume  differs  from  that  at  a  constant  pressure ; 
in  other  words,  it  takes  a  greater  amount  of  heat 
to  raise  a  certain  quantity  of  a  gas  through  a 
certain  number  of  degrees  of  temperature  if  it 
is  allowed  to  expand  than  when  it  is  confined. 
The  specific  heat  under  constant  pressure  ex- 
ceeds that  of  constant  volume  by  the  amount 
which  would  be  consumed  in  producing  the  ex- 
pansion. The  first  important  researches  on  the; 


576 


HEAT 


specific  heat  of  gases  were  those  of  Delaroche 
and  Berard.  Their  method  consisted  in  passing 
known  volumes  of  a  gas  under  constant  pres- 
sure and  temperature  through  a  spiral  tube  im- 
mersed in  water,  and  making  their  calculations 
from  the  increase  in  its  temperature.  Re- 
gnault  afterward  made  more  exact  experiments 
with  a  modification  of  the  apparatus,  from 
which  he  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions : 
1.  The  specific  heat  of  a  given  weight  of  a  gas 
which  is  approximately  perfect,  or  non-conden- 
sible,  does  not  vary  with  the  temperature  of 
the  gas.  2.  The  specific  heat  of  a  given  weight 
of  such  a  gas  does  not  vary  with  the  pressure 
or  density,  and  therefore  the  specific  heat  of  a 
given  volume  does  vary  in  proportion  to  the 
density.  3.  The  specific  heats  of  equal  vol- 
umes of  simple  and  uncondensible  gases  and 
of  compound  gases  which  are  formed  without 
condensation,  such  as  hydrochloric  acid  and 
nitric  oxide,  are  equal.  4.  These  laws  do  not 
hold  for  condensible  gases,  either  simple  or  com- 
pound, as  chlorine,  bromine,  or  carbonic  acid 
gas,  the  specific  heat  of  which  increases  with  the 
temperature. — Specific  Heat  of  Atoms.  Before 
treating  of  latent  heat  it  will  be  convenient  to 
consider  the  law  of  atomic  heat,  or  the  specific 
heat  of  atoms,  which  was  discovered  by  Du- 
long  and  Petit  in  1819,  and  which  has  rendered 
the  knowledge  of  the  specific  heats  of  bodies 
of  so  much  importance  in  chemical  investiga- 
tions. This  law  may  be  exactly  enunciated  as 
follows :  The  specific  heats  of  elementary  bod- 
ies are  inversely  proportional  to  their  atomic 
weights ;  in  other  words,  the  product  of  the 
specific  heat  of  any  element  into  its  atomic 
weight  is  constant.  The  following  results  veri- 
fying this  law  are  due  to  Regnault ;  only  a  par- 
tial list  is  given : 


ELEMENTS. 

Sp.  heat. 

Atomic 
weight. 

Product,  or 
«p.  heat  of 
atoms. 

Sulphur  

0-1776 
0*2499 

82 
24 

5-6882 
5'9976 

Aluminum 

0*2148 

27-5 

5-8932 

Zinc  

0-0955 

65 

6'2075 

Cadmium  

0-0576 

112 

6-8504 

Cobult 

0-1070 

58-5 

6  -2595 

Nickel 

0-1091 

58-5 

6-8828 

Iron 

0-1188 

56 

6-8728 

Manganese  

0-1140 

55 

6-2700 

Copper 

0-0951 

68*5 

6-0389 

Silver  

0-0570 

108 

6-1560 

Gold  

0-0824 

196 

6-8504 

0-0508 

122 

6*1976 

Bismuth  .  .  . 

0*0808 

210 

6*4680 

Potassium     ... 

0-1696 

89 

6-6144 

Sodium  

0-2984 

28 

6  '7482 

Lithium  .  .  . 

0-9408 

7 

6-5856 

Lead 

0-0814 

207 

6*4998 

Platinum 

0-0324 

197 

6*8828 

Arsenic  

0'0814 

75 

6-1050 

Iodine  

0-0541 

127 

6-8707 

Bromine  (solid)  

0-0348 

80 

6-7740 

Mercury  (solid)  

0-0819 

200 

6*8800 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  products  are  not 
exactly  the  same,  but  there  are  the  strongest 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  variations  are 
owing  to  differences  in  physical  condition 
which  are  unavoidable  under  the  circumstan- 


ces in  which  the  experiments  are  made.  Assu- 
ming the  theory  to  be  correct,  it  follows  that 
all  elementary  atoms,  independent  of  their 
weight,  have  the  same  specific  heat,  and  there- 
fore that  masses  of  elementary  substances  con- 
taining the  same  number  of  atoms  and  under 
the  same  physical  conditions  require  the  same 
amount  of  heat  to  raise  them  through  an  equal 
number  of  degrees.  Thus,  the  atomic  weight 
of  iron  being  56,  and  that  of  mercury  200,  it 
will  require  the  same  amount  of  heat  to  raise 
56  pounds  of  iron  or  200  pounds  of  mercury 
through  the  same  number  of  degrees.  Neu- 
mann and  Regnault  have  also  found  that  the 
specific  heats  of  all  compound  bodies  of  similar 
atomic  composition  are  inversely  proportional 
to  their  atomic  weights.  The  following  are 
Regnault's  results  with  bichlorides : 


SUBSTANCES. 


Chloride  of  barium,  BaCl,  .  . 
"          strontium,  8rCla 
calcium,  CaCl2.. 


,  PbCL,  .....  . 

mercury,  HgCl2. 
zinc,  ZnCl2  ...... 

tin,  8nCl2  ....... 


Sp.  heat. 


0*1199 
0-1642 
0-1946 
0*0664 


0-1862 
0-1016 


At.  weight.        Product. 


Ill 

95 

278 
271 


18-64 
19-00 
18-28 
18*49 
18-46 
18-67 


19-20 


The  following  results  were  obtained  with  car- 
bonates : 


SUBSTANCES. 


Carbonate  of  lime,  CaCO3 

barytes,  BaCO,.. 
strontium,  8rC03. 


Sp.  heat. 


0-2086 
0*1104 
0*1448 
0-1934 


At.  weight. 


100 
197 
147-5 
116 


Product. 


20-86 
21-75 
21-86 
22-43 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  numbers  in  each  table 
agree  together  more  nearly  than  those  of  one 
with  the  other,  but  the  close  agreement  in  each 
group  justifies  the  adoption  of  the  law.  IV. 
LATENT  HEAT.  The  doctrine  of  latent  heat 
was  taught  by  Black  in  1762.  He  was  the 
first  to  observe  that  when  a  body  passes  from 
a  solid  to  a  liquid  state  a  quantity  of  heat  dis- 
appears. Thus,  if  ice  at  32°  has  heat  applied 
to  it,  and  the  resulting  water  as  well  as  the  ice 
is  stirred,  the  temperature  will  remain  at  32° 
until  all  the  ice  is  melted.  Thus,  all  the  heat 
which  has  during  this  time  been  absorbed  will 
have  disappeared,  and  was  said  by  Black  and 
his  contemporaries  to  have  become  latent. 
According  to  modern  theory,  this  is  not  strict- 
ly true,  unless  we  consider  its  conversion  into 
another  force  a  latent  power  which  may  be 
again  reconverted  into  heat  by  the  reconver- 
sion of  the  water  into  ice.  The  energy  which 
manifests  itself  in  heat  vibrations  is  expended 
in  maintaining  a  different  form,  or  performing 
a  certain  amount  of  internal  work,  as  it  is 
called. — Latent  Heat  of  Fusion.  If  a  pound 
of  water  at  212°  is  mixed  with  a  pound  of 
water  at  32°,  the  resulting  temperature  will  be 
a  mean,  viz.,  122° ;  but  if  a  pound  of  ice  at  32" 
is  mixed  with  a  pound  of  water  at  212°,  the 
result  will  be  two  pounds  of  water  at  51°. 


HEAT 


577 


There  is  thus  a  difference  in  the  heat  of  the 
two  mixtures  of  71°,  and  since  the  temperature 
of  one  of  the  constituents  in  each  mixture, 
viz.,  boiling  water,  was  the  same,  this  dif- 
ference of  71°  must  represent  the  heat  which 
is  required  to  liquefy  one  pound  of  ice,  and 
which  is  the  same  as  that  required  to  raise  two 
pounds  of  water  through  a  range  of  71°,  or  one 
pound  of  water  through  142°,  or  142  pounds 
of  water  through  1°.  If  we  take  as  a  unit  of 
heat  that  quantity  which  is  necessary  to  raise 
one  pound  of  water  through  1°,  the  latent  heat 
of  water  will  be  represented  by  142  on  Fahren- 
heit's scale,  and  by  78*88  on  the  centigrade 
scale.  The  experiment  may  be  varied  by  min- 
gling a  pound  of  ice  at  32°  with  a  pound  of 
water  at  174°,  when  the  resulting  temperature 
the  fusion  of  the  ice  will  be  found  to  remain 
32°,  showing  as  before  the  expenditure  of 
"  °,  which  is  the  latent  heat  of  water.  Ac- 
ling  to  the  experiments  of  M.  Person,  the 
latent  heat  of  water  is  more  nearly  142'65°,  or 
on  the  centigrade  scale  79*25°.  The  following 
are  his  results  with  other  liquids,  calling  the 
latent  heat  of  water  a  thermal  unit : 

TABLE  OF  LATENT  HEAT8. 

SUBSTANCES.  W=l.  In  deg.  F.          In  deg.  C. 


__  hur 

Nitrate  of  soda. . . . 
Nitrate  of  potash . . 
Tin 

Bismuth 
Lead 
Zinc ... 

Cadmium 

Silver , 

Mercury  . . . 


28- 
18-660 
21-070 
2-880 


— Latent  Heat  of  Vaporization.  Liquids  in 
ing  into  a  state  of  vapor  absorb  a  vast 
ount  of  heat.  The  conversion  into  vapor 
y  be  rapid,  as  in  boiling,  or  it  may  be  slow, 
when  water  evaporates  in  the  open  air  at 
mon  temperatures.  In  either  case  disap- 
arance  of  heat  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
evaporated  is  the  result.  If  a  flask  of  cold 
water  is  placed  over  a  lamp,  the  temperature 
will  continue  to  rise  until  it  reaches  212°  F., 
when  ebullition  will  commence ;  but  the  tem- 
perature will  remain  at  212°  until  the  water 
has  all  boiled  away.  If  the  water  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  operation  is  at  32°,  and  the 
supply  of  heat  is  uniform,  the  time  occupied  in 
evaporating  it  will  be  about  5£  times  that 
which  is  occupied  in  raising  it  to  the  boiling 
point,  although  the  temperature  has  not  risen 
above  212° ;  therefore  5£  times  as  much  heat 
is  absorbed  in  evaporating  a  given  quantity  of 
water  as  in  raising  it  through  180°.  The  la- 
tent heat  of  steam  is  therefore  about  5£  times 
180°,  or  990°  F.  If  the  steam  is  reconverted 
to  the  liquid  form,  precisely  this  amount  of 
heat  reappears;  in  other  words,  the  energy 
into  which  the  heat  was  converted  to  maintain 
state  of  vapor  is  reconverted  into  heat  when 


the  steam  is  reconverted  into  water.  This  is 
shown  in  the  method  of  Despretz  for  determin- 
ing the  latent  heat  of  vapors,  which  consists  in 
condensing  them  in  a  worm  immersed  in  water, 
and  estimating  the  quantity  of  heat  imparted 
to  the  latter.  The  retort  C,  fig.  13,  heated  by 


FIG.  13.— Desprctz's  Apparatus  for  Latent  Heat  of 
Vaporization. 

a  lamp,  contains  the  liquid  whose  vapor  is  the 
subject  of  experiment.  The  vapor  in  passing 
through  the  worm  S  is  condensed,  imparting 
its  latent  heat  to  the  water  in  the  vessel  R,  and 
being  collected  in  a  vessel  placed  under  the 
stopcock  r,  its  weight  can  be  found ;  and  that 
of  R,  or  the  calorimeter,  and  its  contents  being 
known,  and  also  their  temperature,  the  in- 
crease of  the  latter  furnishes  the  data  for  cal- 


.  14.— Faraday's  Apparatus  for  Liquefying  Gases. 


culating  the  latent  heat  of  the  vapor.  Re- 
gnault  used  more  elaborate  apparatus,  and  his 
results  were  rather  more  exact.  If  pressure^ 
applied  to  a  gas  confined  in  an  enclosure,  its 
temperature  will  be  raised,  and  if  the  pressure 
is  immediately  removed,  the  gas  will  return  to 


678 


HEAT 


the  temperature  it  had  before  compression ; 
but  if,  while  under  compression,  it  is  allowed 
to  cool  to  its  previous  temperature,  and  the 
pressure  is  then  removed,  it  will  fall  through 
as  many  degrees  as  it  had  been  raised  by 
compression.  Upon  the  principle  here  in- 
volved, gases  which  were  formerly  considered 
permanent  have  been  reduced  to  a  liquid 
and  to  a  solid  condition.  Faraday  employed 
the  following  method:  Introducing  materials 
for  producing  a  gas  in  one  end  of  a  bent  tube, 
fig.  14,  and  heating  it  previous  to  their  com- 
bination, and  then  applying  a  gentle  heat,  a 
vast  pressure  was  produced  by  the  gener- 
ated gases,  and  then  by  placing  the  other  end 
of  the  tube  in  a  freezing  mixture,  condensation 
was  effected.  Thilorier  in  1834  constructed 
on  this  principle  an  apparatus  which  was  ca- 
pable of  liquefying  large  quantities  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.  The  operation  requires  a  pressure 
of  about  50  atmospheres,  or  about  700  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch.  The  vessels  were  formerly 
made  of  cast  iron,  strengthened  with  wrought- 


FIG.  15.— Thilorier's  Apparatus  for  Liquefying  Carbonic 
Acid. 

iron  hoops;  but  explosions  occurring,  attended 
with  loss  of  life,  the  construction  was  modified 
by  using  leaden  vessels  surrounded  with  copper 
ones,  bound  with  strong  iron  hoops.  The  ap- 
paratus is  represented  in  fig.  15,  and  consists 
of  two  vessels,  one  a  condenser  and  the  other 
a  generator,  the  latter  being  -represented  in 
section.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  is  placed  in  the 
generator,  and  also  a  cylindrical  vessel  contain- 
ing sulphuric  acid.  The  generator  being  sup- 
ported by  pivots,  it  can  be  turned  to  spill  the 
acid.  The  resulting  gas,  evolved  in  large  quan- 
tities, is  forced  through  the  connecting  tube 
into  the  condenser,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
freezing  mixture,  and  is  there  condensed  into 
a  liquid.  When  some  of  the  liquefied  gas  is 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  air,  a  portion  ex- 
pands into  gas,  which  so  chills  the  remainder 
that  it  solidifies  and  forms  white  flakes,  like 
snow,  its  temperature  being  about  —129°  F. ; 
and  if  this  is  mixed  with  ether,  the  cold 
which  is  produced  is  so  intense  as  to  have 
an  effect  upon  the  skin  like  that  of  burning 
with  hot  iron.  By  placing  this  mixture  in 


the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air  pump,  Fara- 
day caused  the  temperature  to  fall  to  166° 
below  zero ;  and  M.  Natterer  by  the  use  of  a 
bath  of  nitrous  oxide  and  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
previously  liquefied  by  cold  and  pressure,  low- 
ered the  temperature  to  220°  below  zero  ;  and 
Despretz  succeeded  in  reducing  alcohol  to  a 
viscous  state.  Liquid  carbonic  acid  contained 
in  a  tube  and  placed  in  this  mixture  instant- 
ly becomes  solid,  assuming  the  appearance  of 
transparent  ice.  By  the  use  of  this  mixture 
and  very  high  pressure,  Andrews  reduced  air 
to  -5^-5-  of  its  original  volume,  oxygen  to  ^f1 
hydrogen  to  yi^,  carbonic  oxide  to  7fg-,  and 
nitric  acid  to  ^^,  but  without  producing  lique- 
faction. There  was  some  departure  from  Ma- 
riotte's  and  Boyle's  law  (see  ATMOSPHEBE),  but 
it  was  less  in  hydrogen  and  carbonic  oxide 
than  in  the  other  gases.  Freezing  on  a  large 
scale  by  Carre's  apparatus,  described  in  the 
article  FKEEZINO,  is  effected  on  the  principle 
of  absorption  of  heat  by  evaporation  and  ex- 
pansion. The  absorption  of  heat  by  lique- 
faction has  a  familiar  example  in  the  ordinary 
freezing  mixture  of  snow  or  pounded  ice  arid 
common  salt,  by  which  the  zero  tempera- 
ture of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  ob- 
tained.— An  interesting  experiment  in  the  ab- 
sprption  of  heat  by  liquefaction  and  its  reap- 
pearance on  solidification  is  made  by  dissolving 
sulphate  of  soda  in  water.  The  two. being 
mingled  at  the  same  temperature,  the  thermom- 
eter will  indicate  a  fall.  If  the  solution  is 
warmed  and  saturated,  and  then  allowed  to 
cool  while  perfectly  at  rest,  a  point  will  be 
reached  at  which  more  of  the  soda  will  re- 
main in  solution  than  could  have  been  dis- 
solved at  the  same  temperature.  The  polar 
relations  of  the  molecules  of  the  salt  by 
which  solution  is  maintained  require,  in  order 
that  solidification  may  take  place,  to  be  dis- 
turbed by  a  further  reduction  of  temperature 
or  by  a  mechanical  impulse.  The  condition 
of  solution  is  maintained  by  an  expenditure  of 
energy  which  when  solidification  or  crystalli- 
zation takes  place  resumes  the  condition  or 
motion  of  heat.  Agitation  of  the  vessel,  or  of 
its  contents  by  dropping  among  them  a  crystal 
of  the  salt,  will  cause  crystallization  to  com- 
mence ;  and  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  plunged 
into  the  mass  will  show  a  rise  of  temperature. 
— Prof.  James  Thomson,  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Eoyal  Society  of 
Edinburgh"  in  1849,  expressed  his  opinion,  de- 
duced from  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat, 
that  a  liquid  which  expands  in  solidifying,  like 
water,  must  have  its  melting  point  lowered  by 
increase  of  pressure.  Sir  William  Thomson 
soon  after  tested  the  question  by  experiment, 
and  proved  the  correctness  of  the  deduction. 
When  a  mixture  of  ice  and  water  was  subject- 
ed to  pressure,  the  temperature  fell,  returning 
again  to  32°  when  the  pressure  was  removed. 
The  addition  of  pressures  of  8'1  and  16*8  at- 
mospheres lowered  the  freezing  point  0*106° 
and  0-232°  F.  respectively  ;  results  which  very 


HEAT 


HEATH 


579 


nearly  agree  with  Prof.  James  Thomson's  pre- 
diction that  the  fall  should  be  0'0135°  for  each 
additional  atmosphere.  Mouson  has  since  then 
succeeded  by  enormous  pressure  in  reducing 
the  freezing  point  of  water  several  degrees. 
The  apparatus  in  which  pressure  was  effected 
was  placed  in  a  certain  position  and  charged 
with  water  into  which  a  piece  of  metal  was 
dropped.  The  water  was  then  frozen,  and 
cooled  to  zero,  or  32°  below  the  freezing  point. 
A  pressure  which  was  estimated  to  be  several 
thousand  atmospheres  was  then  applied,  after 
which  the  apparatus  was  inverted  and  the 
pressure  removed,  when  on  examination  the 
piece  of  metal  was  found  at  the  opposite  side 
of  the  enclosure,  thus  showing  that  the  ice  had 
been  melted.  Those  bodies  which,  unlike  ice, 
expand  during  liquefaction,  have  their  melting 
points  raised  instead  of  lowered  by  increase  of 
pressure.  In  this  manner  Bunsen,  Hopkins, 
and  Fairbairn  have  raised  the  melting  point 
of  spermaceti,  which  is  120°,  several  degrees ; 
a  pressure  of  519  atmospheres  raised  it  to 
140°,  and  one  of  792  atmospheres  to  176°. 
A  liquid  which,  like  water,  expands  on  con- 
gealing, has  its  particles  restrained  by  pres- 
sure, and  therefore  to  congeal  it  the  tempera- 
ture must  be  lowered;  but  one  which  con- 
tracts in  solidifying  will  have  its  particles  as- 
sisted by  pressure,  and  hence  its  melting  point 
will  be  raised. — Many  interesting  phenomena 
are  exhibited  by  liquids  and  gases  when  sub- 
jected to  great  heat  and  pressure,  such  as  the 
obliteration  of  the  line  of  demarkation  between 
the  liquid  and  vaporized  portion  in  which 
what  is  called  a  critical  temperature  is  con- 
cerned. The  subject  will  be  found  treated, 
with  that  of  the  tension  of  vapors,  in  the  arti- 
cle VAPORIZATION.  Chemical  action  being  al- 
ways accompanied  by  physical  change,  as  ex- 
pansion or  contraction,  liquefaction  or  solidifi- 
cation, it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  each.  In  general  it  may  be  held  that 
the  heat  of  chemical  combination  results  from 
the  intense  molecular  motion  imparted  by  the 
clashing  of  combining  molecules  with  each 
other,  and  moreover,  that  whatever  heat  is 
evolved  by  combination  will  be  absorbed,  or 
will  disappear  in  the  separation  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  compound  into  their  original  form ; 
and  it  is  found  that  generally  combination  pro- 
duces heat,  and  that  decomposition  produces 
cold.  But  the  heat  which  is  evolved  by  the 
physical  changes  which  accompany  chemical 
action  is  more  easily  accounted  for.  Take  for 
example  the  condensation  which  accompanies 
the  union  of  quicklime  with  water ;  the  re- 
sulting hydrate  has  less  bulk  than  the  sum  of 
the  constituents  previous  to  combination.  The 
energy  necessary  to  maintain  this  excess  of 
volume  among  particles  at  insensible  distances 
from  each  other  composing  liquids  or  solids,  is 
enormous;  consequently  a  reduction  of  the 
distances,  whether  accomplished  by  the  influ- 
ence of  chemical  affinity  or  by  mechanical 
pressure,  causes  a  conversion  of  this  energy 


into  another,  generally  heat.  The  first  change 
may  not,  however,  be  entirely  into  heat,  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  compression  of  certain 
crystals,  or  the  combination  of  a  metal  with  an 
acid  under  certain  conditions,  as  in  the  galvanic 
battery,  there  may  be  a  transformation  into 
electric  force,  but  which  is  supposed  finally 
to  become  resolved  into  heat.  Sir  William 
Thomson  has  advanced  the  opinion  that  there 
is  a  tendency  to  the  conversion  of  all  physical 
energy  into  the  condition  of  heat,  and  to  its 
uniform  diffusion  throughout  all  matter;  a 
condition  which  he  regards  as  involving  the 
cessation  of  all  physical  phenomena.  The  con- 
clusions of  Prof.  Thomson  are  founded  upon 
the  law  of  the  French  philosopher  Carnot, 
which  is  that  mechanical  energy  is  produced 
by  heat  only  when  it  is  transferred  from  a 
body  of  a  higher  to  one  of  a  lower  tempera- 
ture. The  subject  is  a  difficult  one,  as  there  are 
many  possible  circumstances  connected  with 
the  forces  and  matter  of  the  universe  which 
can  never  be  reduced  to  an  exact  basis  of  cal- 
culation.— The  following  are  the  most  impor- 
tant recent  works  on  heat :  "  Sketch  of  Ther- 
mo-dynamics,"  by  P.  G.  Tait  (Edinburgh,  1868) ; 
"  An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat,"  by  Bal- 
four  Stewart  (London,  1872);  "Theory  of 
Heat,"  by  J.  Clerk  Maxwell  (1871) ;  "  Heat  as 
a  Mode  of  Motion,"  and  "  Contributions  to  Mo- 
lecular Physics  in  the  Domain  of  Kadiant  Heat," 
by  John  Tyndall  (1873).  See  also  the  articles 
"  Heat "  and  "Radiation  "  in  Watts's  " Diction- 
ary of  Chemistry,"  and  various  articles  in  the 
reports  of  the  Smithsonian  institution. 

HEATH,  or  Heather,  the  common  name  of 
plants  of  the  genus  erica,  which  contains  about 
400  species,  besides  numerous  varieties  pro- 
duced by  cultivation.  The  greater  number  of 
species  of  heath  are  natives  of  western  Africa, 
some  are  peculiar  to  the  western  portion  of 
Europe  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  few 
extend  into  northern  Europe,  one  of  which 
is  sparingly  found  in  North  America.  While 
some  of  the  African  species  form  shrubs  8  or 
10  ft.  high,  those  of  northern  countries  are 
low,  much-branched  shrubs,  seldom  exceeding 
a  foot.  The  small  evergreen  leaves  are  entire, 
usually  revolute  at  the  margins  and  in  whorls 
of  three  or  four,  scattered  or  rarely  opposite. 
The  mostly  drooping  flowers  are  either  axillary 
or  in  short  terminal  clusters ;  the  calyx  of  four 
sepals,  sometimes  colored ;  corolla  ovoid,  globu- 
lar, bell-shaped,  or  sometimes  tubular,  more  or 
less  four-lobed,  and  drying  attached  to  the  cap- 
sule ;  stamens  eight,  the  anthers  with  two  ap- 
pendages at  the  back  and  opening  by  a  chink ; 
pistil  solitary ;  capsule  four-celled,  splitting  at 
maturity  into  four  or  eight  valves.  The  genus 
erica  comprises  species  of  great  beauty,  even 
the  most  humble  of  them  being  attractive,  and 
is  the  type  of  a  large  order,  the  ericacece  or  the 
heath  family,  noted  for  the  showy  character 
of  many  of  its  genera,  about  50  in  number,  in- 
cluding rhododendron,  azalea,  Tcalmia,  andro- 
meda,  and  others  well  known  for  the  beauty  of 


580 


HEATH 


their  flowers  and  highly  prized  as  ornamental 
plants.  Erica  is  the  ancient  name  of  a  plant, 
probably  of  this  genus ;  the  Anglo-Saxon  name 
heath  is  also  applied  to  localities  where  the 
plant  grows.  Six  species  of  heath  are  found  in 
Great  Britain,  some  of  them  covering  tracts 
many  miles  in  extent;  heaths  are  so  abundant, 
and  so  often  form  an  important  feature  in  the 
landscape,  that  allusions  to  heath  and  heather 
are  frequent  in  prose  and  poetry.  The  species 
found  in  this  country  is  the  commonest  of  those 
of  Great  Britain ;  it  is  also  known  as  ling,  and 
is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  all  heaths.  A 
few  years  ago  American  botanists  were  greatly 
excited  by  the  announcement  that  the  heath,  a 
plant  heretofore  unknown  to  our  flora,  had 
been  found  growing  wild  at  Tewksbury,  Mass. 
Many  visited  the  locality,  and  for  a  while  the 
question  whether  the  Tewksbury  heath  was 
indigenous  or  an  escape  from  cultivation  was 
warmly  discussed  in  scientific  and  other  jour- 
nals. Subsequent  discoveries  of  the  plant  in 
Maine,  and  its  occurrence  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
elsewhere  in  the  British  provinces,  leave  no 
doubt  that  the  heath  is  a  native  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent.  This  plant  was  named  erica 
vulgaris  by  Linnaaus,  and  many  botanists  still 
retain  this  name,  while  others  call  it  calluna 
vulgaris.  Its  leaves,  instead  of  being  whorled 
as  in  the  other  heaths,  are  opposite ;  its  deeply 
lobed  corolla  is  shorter  than  the  calyx;  and 
these  characters,  together  with  the  more  im- 
portant one,  a  different  structure  in  the  cap- 
sule, would  seem  sufficient  to  separate  it  from 
the  ericas  and  entitle  it  to  rank  as  a  genus 
to  which  the  name  calluna  (Gr.  KaXMveiv,  to 
sweep)  was  given  by  Salisbury.  The  common 


Common  Heath  (Erica  vulgnris). 

heath  is  of  slow  growth  and  has  strong,  slender 
stems ;  in  some  unusual  locations  specimens  3 
or  4  ft.  high  are  found,  but  upon  the  scanty 
soil  of  the  moors  it  is  seldom  above  a  foot. 
When  nothing  else  can  be  obtained,  cattle  and 
sheep  browse  upon  the  herbage  of  the  heath ; 


but  it  is  not  nutritious,  and  being  powerfully 
astringent  it  unfavorably  affects  the  health  of 
the  animals.  Those  who  live  where  heath  is 
abundant  make  it  useful  for  various  purposes ; 
the  branches  are  employed  for  thatching  hov- 
els and  making  wattled  fences,  and  are  even 
twisted  into  ropes ; 
they  also  serve  for 
making  baskets  and 
brushes  of  various 
kinds,  a  fact  which 
suggested  the  generic 
name.  Small  fagots 
of  heath  stems  are  im- 
ported into  this  coun- 
try in  considerable 
quantities,  and  sold 
for  scrubbing  kitchen 
utensils  and  similar 
uses.  The  common 
heath  frequently  va- 
ries, and  some  of  its 
forms  are  recognized 
as  named  varieties ; 
the  flowers  are  gener- 
ally rose-colored,  but 
they  are  found  pure 
white  and  deep  pur-  Scotch  Heath  (Erica  cinerea> 
plish  red ;  there  is  a 

form  with  variegated  foliage,  another  with 
double  flowers,  and  several  others  are  found 
in  European  gardens.  This  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean heath,  erica  carnea,  with  its  variety 
herbacea,  are  quite  hardy  near  the  city  of 
Few  York;  and  probably  the  Scotch  heath, 
E.  cinerea,  the  Cornish  heath,  E.  vagans,  and 
other  northern  species,  would  endure  our  ex- 
tremes of  temperature.  These  plants  are  de- 
serving of  more  attention  than  they  have  yet 
received  from  cultivators  in  this  country ;  their 
low  and  compact  growth  adapt  them  to  form 
beds  by  themselves,  or  to  serve  as  an  edging  to 
borders  containing  other  plants.  The  Medi- 
terranean heath  blooms  in  early  spring,  while 
the  common  species  opens  its  flowers  at  a  time 
of  scarcity  of  bloom,  July  and  August.  The 
greenhouse  species  and  varieties,  usually  known 
as  Cape  heaths,  are  almost  innumerable ;  they 
possess  delicacy  and  beauty  of  habit,  which 
united  with  great  freedom  of  flowering  render 
them  valuable  for  decorative  purposes.  The 
flowers  are  wonderfully  diversified  in  form 
and  tint,  and  will  reward  the  care  required  to 
produce  them  in  perfection.  They  are  com- 
paratively neglected  in  this  country,  but  in 
England,  where  the  climate  is  especially  favor- 
able, much  attention  is  given  to  their  cultiva- 
tion, especial  houses  being  frequently  devoted 
to  heaths  alone.  Their  roots,  being  exceeding- 
ly fine  and  thread-like,  demand  great  care  in 
providing  them  with  a  proper  soil  and  in  sup- 
plying them  with  water. 

HEATH,  William,  a  major  general  in  the 
American  revolution,  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
March  7,  1737,  died  there,  Jan.  24,  1814. 
When  the  Massachusetts  congress  in  1774 


£ 

In1 


HEATHFIELD 

voted  to  enroll  12,000  minute  men,  volunteers 
from  among  the  militia,  Heath,  then  a  farmer 
in  Roxbury,  was  commissioned  as  one  of  the 
generals.  On  June  22, 1775,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier  in  the  continental  army,  and  in  Au- 
gust, 1776,  became  major  general.  When  the 
troops  moved  to  New  York,  Heath  was  sta- 
tioned in  the  highlands  near  King's  Bridge. 
In  1777  he  was  transferred  to  Boston,  and  the 
prisoners  of  Saratoga  were  intrusted  to  him. 
In  June,  1779,  he  was  again  at  the  highlands, 
with  four  regiments,  and  he  was  stationed  near 

e  Hudson  till  the  close  of  the  war.     He  was 

e  last  surviving  major  general  of  the  revo- 
lutionary army,  and  published  "Memoirs  of 
Maj.  Gen.  Heath,  containing  Anecdotes,  De- 

ils  of  Skirmishes,  Battles,  &c.,  during  the 

merican  War  "  (1798). 

HEATHFIELD,  Lord.      See  ELIOTT,   GEOEGE 

TJGU8TUS. 

HEBBEL,  Friedrich,  a  German  lyric  and  dra- 
c  poet,   born  at  Wesselburen,   Holstein, 
"   18,  1813,  died  in  Vienna,  Dec.  13,  1863. 
was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  was  educated  at 
"elberg,  and  went  to  Hamburg,  where  in 
he  wrote  his  tragedy  of  Judith,  which 
immediately  successful.    He  then  visited 
penhagen,  Paris,  London,  and  Naples,  and 
1846  settled  in  Vienna,  where  he  married 
e  actress  Christine  Enghaus.      Among  his 
er  dramas  are  Genoveva  (1843),  Maria  Mag- 
(1844),  Der  Diamant  (1847),  E 'erodes 
Mariamne   (1850),  Julia  (1851),  Michel 
ngelo  (1855),  and  Die  Nibelungen  (2  vols., 
862).    A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
ed  at  Hamburg  in  12  vols.,  1865-'8.     They 
characterized  by  boldness,  vigor,  and  origi- 
nality, with  a  predilection  for  the  horrible. 
HEBE  (Gr.  ijp?),  youth),  in  mythology,  the 
dess  of  youth,  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and 
.o.     She  served  her  fellow  divinities  with 
ctar  at  their  festivals,  assisted  her  mother  in 
tting  the  horses  to  her  chariot,  and  bathed 
dressed  her  brother  Mars.     She  is  said 
have  been  married  to  Hercules  after  his 
theosis,  and  to  have  been  the  mother  of 
wo  sons  by  him. 

HEBEL,  Johann  Peter,  a  German  poet,  born 
Basel,  May  11,  1760,  died  at  Schwetzingen, 
ept.  22,  1826.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  and 
1791  was  appointed  professor  in  the  gymna- 
um  of  Carlsruhe.  He  became  in  1805  church 
imsellor,  and  in  1819  prelate.  His  works  in- 
.ude  Allemannische  Gedichte,  written  in  a 
wabian  sub-dialect  (llth  ed.,  Aarau,  1860), 
which  there  are  five  High  German  trans- 
ons;  Die  fiiblischen  Geschichten  (2  vols., 
ed.,  Stuttgart,  1824) ;  Der  rheinlandische 
rausfreund  (3d  ed.,  1827) ;  and  SchatzTcastlein 
rheinischen  Hausfreundes  (last  ed.,  1850). 
is  complete  works  were  issued  in  8  vols.  in 
1832-'4;  new  edition,  1871  etseq. 

HEBER.  I.  Reginald,  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Malpas,  Cheshire,  April  21,  1783,  died  in 
Trichinopoly,  India,  April  3,  1826.  At  the 
of  seven  he  had  translated  Phaedrus  into 


HEBER 


581 


English  verse.  In  1800  he  entered  Brasenose 
college,  Oxford,  and  his  Carmen  Seculare  ob- 
tained the  first  prize  for  Latin  verse.  In  1803 
he  wrote  his  prize  poem  "Palestine,"  which 
is  still  considered  the  best  of  the  kind  produced 
at  Oxford.  He  graduated  in  1804,  and  in  1805 
gained  the  bachelor's  prize  for  an  essay  on 
the  "  Sense  of  Honor."  In  1807  he  took  or- 
ders, and  was  presented  by  his  brother  Richard 
to  a  living  at  Hodnet  in  Shropshire,  on  which 
he  settled  in  1809,  immediately  after  his  mar- 
riage with  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Shipley,  dean 
of  St.  Asaph.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  re- 
lief of  the  sick  and  the  poor,  and  gave  his  lei- 
sure to  literature,  frequently  contributing  to  the 
"  Quarterly  Review,"  and  composing  hymns. 
His  "Poems  and  Translations"  (London,  1812) 
contains  many  original  hymns  written  to  par- 
ticular tunes ;  some  of  these  are  at  once  the 
most  popular  and  the  most  artistic  in  the  lan- 
guage. Heber  commenced  a  dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  which  he  was  compelled  by  other  duties 
to  relinquish,  and  in  1819-'22  edited  the  works 
of  Jeremy  Taylor,  with  a  copious  life  of  the 
author,  and  a  critical  examination  of  his  wri- 
tings. In  1822  he  was  appointed  preacher  at 
Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1823  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Calcutta,  a  see  which  at  that  time 
embraced  all  British  India,  Ceylon,  Mauritius, 
and  Australia.  He  started  for  Calcutta  in  June, 
1823,  and  12  months  later  entered  upon  the 
visitation  of  his  vast  diocese.  From  that  time 
until  his  death  he  was  occupied  with  the  duties 
of  his  office,  making  long  journeys  to  Bombay, 
Madras,  and  Ceylon,  and  showing  great  ener- 
gy and  capacity.  He  died  of  apoplexy.  His 
"  Narrative  of  a  Journey  through  the  Upper 
Provinces  of  India,  from  Calcutta  to  Bombay  " 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1828),  was  posthumous. 
In  1827  his  hymns  were  first  published  entire 
in  a  volume  entitled  "  Hymns  written  and 
adapted  to  the  Service  of  the  Church,"  of 
which  many  subsequent  editions  have  ap- 
peared. The  latest  edition  of  his  complete 
poems,  including  his  "Palestine,"  is  that  of 
1855  (8vo,  London).  The  Bampton  lectures 
entitled  "The  Personality  and  Office  of  the 
Christian  Comforter"  (8vo,  Oxford,  1813)  were 
his  only  sermons  published  during  his  life. 
Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  delivered  in 
England  and  India  were  published  posthu- 
mously, and  in  1830  appeared  the  "Life  and 
Unpublished  Works  of  Reginald  Heber,  by  his 
Widow"  (2  vols.  4to,  London).  II.  Richard, 
a  bibliomaniac,  half  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1773,  died  in  Octo- 
ber, 1833.  He  was  educated  at  Brasenose 
college,  Oxford.  At  19  he  edited  the  works 
of  Silius  Italicus  (2  vols.  12mo,  1792),  and  a 
year  later  prepared  for  the  press  an  edition  of 
Claudiani  Carmina  (2  vols.,  1793).  A  taste 
for  book  collecting  was  developed  in  him  in 
childhood,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  it 
became  a  ruling  passion.  Succeeding  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1804  to  large  estates  in 
Yorkshire  and  Shropshire,  which  he  consider- 


582 


HUBERT 


ably  augmented,  he  forthwith  devoted  himself 
to  the  purchase  of  rare  books.  After  ransack- 
ing England  he  travelled  extensively  on  the 
continent,  purchasing  everywhere,  and  leaving 
large  depots  of  books  in  Paris,  Antwerp,  Brus- 
sels, Ghent,  and  elsewhere  in  the  Netherlands 
and  Germany.  His  residence  in  Pimlico,  Lon- 
don, was  filled  with  books  from  top  to  bottom, 
and  he  had  another  house  in  York  street  laden 
with  literary  treasures,  and  a  large  library  in 
Oxford.  At  his  death  his  collection  in  Eng- 
land was  estimated  by  Dr.  Dibdin  at  105,000 
volumes,  exclusive  of  many  thousands  on  the 
continent,  the  whole  having  cost  upward  of 
£180,000.  Allibone  in  his  "Dictionary  of 
Authors"  computes  the  volumes  in  England 
at  113,195,  and  those  in  France  and  Holland 
at  33,632,  making  a  total  of  146,827,  to  which 
must  be  added  a  large  collection  of  pamphlets. 
This  immense  library  was  disposed  of  by  auc- 
tion after  the  owner's  death,  the  sale  lasting 
216  days  and  realizing  more  than  £60,000. 
Heber  was  elected  to  parliament  for  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  in  1821,  and  served  till  1826. 

HUBERT,  Antoine  Angnste  Ernest,  a  French  ar- 
tist, born  at  Grenoble,  Nov.  3, 1817.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  1835  to  study  law,  but  soon  devoted 
himself  to  painting.  In  1839  he  exhibited  his 
"  Tasso  in  Prison,"  which  was  bought  by  the 
government  for  the  Grenoble  museum,  and 
"The  Cup  found  in  Benjamin's  Sack,"  to 
which  was  awarded  the  great  prize  which 
gave  him  the  right  to  go  to  Home  for  five  years 
at  the  expense  of  the  government.  He  con- 
tinued eight  years  in  Italy,  and  made  much 
reputation  by  his  "  Malaria,"  exhibited  in  1850, 
representing  an  Italian  family  flying  from  the 
pestilence.  He  obtained  first  class  medals  in 
1851  and  1855;  and  in  1866  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  academy  of  France  at  Rome. 

HEBERT,  Jacques  Rene",  a  French  revolution- 
ist, known  also  under  the  assumed  name  of  PERE 
DUOHESNE,  born  in  Alencon  in  1755,  executed 
in  Paris,  March  24,  1794.  Of  low  parentage 
and  education,  he  went  when  very  young  to 
Paris,  where  he  led  an  obscure  life,  generally 
supporting  himself  by  dishonest  means.  When 
the  revolution  broke  out  he  took  to  pamphlet 
writing,  and  soon  established  a  scurrilous  news- 
paper called  Le  Pere  Duchesne,  which  had  con- 
siderable popularity  among  the  lowest  classes, 
and  was  instrumental  in  exciting  several  insur- 
rectionary movements.  After  Aug.  10,  1792, 
he  was  one  of  the  most  active  members  of 
the  self-constituted  revolutionary  commune, 
and  received  the  appointment  of  substitute  to 
the  procureur  syndic.  The  Girondists  hav- 
ing obtained  from  the  convention  an  order  for 
his  arrest,  he  was  liberated  in  consequence  of 
a  violent  outbreak  of  the  mob,  and  became 
more  popular  than  ever.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  commission  to  examine  Marie  Antoinette, 
and  uttered  the  most  outrageous  calumnies 
against  her.  In  conjunction  with  Chaumette, 
Anacharsis  Clootz,  and  others,  he  established 
the  worship  of  the  "goddess  Reason;"  and, 


HEBREWS 

relying  upon  the  support  of  the  commune  and 
the  club  of  Cordeliers,  organized  the  ultra- 
revolutionist  party  known  as  the  Hebertists 
or  enrages.  The  committee  of  public  safety, 
controlled  by  Robespierre,  had  them  arraign- 
ed by  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  convention; 
and  on  the  night  of  March  13,  1794,  Hebert, 
Chaumette,  Montmoro,  Ronsin,  Clootz,  and  14 
others,  were  conveyed  to  prison.  llebert 
evinced  great  cowardice  on  his  trial,  and  was 
executed  amid  the  jeers  of  the  populace.  The 
circulation  of  his  paper  had  been  immense. 
During  the  year  1793  he  received  from  the  gov- 
ernment 180,000  francs  for  copies  gratuitously 
distributed.  He  published  several  pamphlets  of 
a  similar  character  to  his  journal,  Les  mtres  cas- 
ses,  Catechisme,  Cantique  seculaire,  Almanack, 
&c.,  all  of  them  signed  "  Le  Pere  Duchesne." 

HEBREWS,  Israelites,  or  Jews  (Heb.  'Ibrim, 
Benei  Yisrael,  Yehudiiri),  a  people  of  Semitic 
race,  whose  ancestors  appear  at  the  very  dawn 
of  history  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  Jor- 
dan, and  Nile,  and  whose  fragments  are  now 
to  be  seen  in  almost  every  city  of  the  globe. 
Their  history  is  the  history  of  a  nation,  of  a 
religion,  and  of  a  literature,  and  must  thus 
exceptionally  be  treated.  For  its  chief  char- 
acteristic is  the  intimate  blending  and  joint 
working  of  the  national  and  religious  elements 
in  the  development  and  preservation  of  the 
people ;  and  Hebrew  literature  is  almost  en- 
tirely national  or  religious.  The  opening  event 
of  this  history,  as  recorded  in  Scriptures,  is 
the  emigration  (about  2000  B.  C.)  of  the  Sem- 
ite Abraham  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  (See 
CHALDEA.)  He  was  by  his  father  Terah  a 
descendant  of  Eber,  and  as  such  may  have 
borne  the  name  Ibri  (Hebrew),  but  more  like- 
ly he  was  first  designated  by  it  in  the  land 
west  of  the  Euphrates,  as  an  immigrant  from 
beyond  ^eher)  the  "  great  river."  The  name 
Israelite  was  applied  to  his  descendants  after 
a  surname  of  Jacob,  his  grandson,  and  that  of 
Yehudim  (Jews)  at  a  much  later  period  (first 
mentioned  about  712  B.  C.),  when,  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  house  of  Judah 
became  the  representative  of  the  whole  people. 
Separating  from  his  relatives,  who  were  idola- 
ters, Abraham  passed  over  from  Mesopotamia 
(Aram  Naharaim)  to  Canaan  or  Palestine,  where 
he  lived  the  life  of  a  nomad,  being  rich  in  herds, 
flocks,  and  attendants,  and  worshipping  the 
"  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,"  to  whose  ser- 
vice, "  to  walk  before  him  and  to  be  innocent," 
he  bound  himself  and  his  house,  in  after  life, 
by  the  covenant  of  circumcision.  Having  re- 
paired to  Egypt  during  a  famine  and  returned, 
he  rescued  his  nephew  Lot,  who  lived  in  the 
valley  of  the  lower  Jordan,  from  the  captivity 
of  Amraphel,  a  king  of  Shinar,  and  his  allies; 
lived  for  some  time  in  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines ;  and  finally  settled  near  Hebron,  where 
he  died,  leaving  his  main  inheritance  and  hia 
faith  to  Isaac,  his  son  by  his  relative  Sarah. 
Isaac  thus  became  the  second  Hebrew  patri- 
arch, while  his  brother  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Ha- 


HEBREWS 


583 


gar,  an  Egyptian  woman,  sought  a  separate 
abode  in  Arabia.     Of  the  two  sons  of  Isaac, 
only  Jacob  (afterward  Israel),  the  favorite  of 
their  mother  Rebecca,  imitated  the  peaceful 
and  pious  life  of  his  fathers  and  propagated 
the  Hebrew  line  in  Palestine,  while  his  brother 
ui  (or  Edom)  settled  in  the  mountainous  land 
of  Seir  (Idumaea).     Jacob  had  12  sons,  of  whom 
he  distinguished  Joseph,  the  child  of  his  favor- 
ite wife  Rachel.     This  excited  the  envy  of  the 
>thers,  who  secretly  sold  their  brother  as  a 
ive  to  Egypt,  where  he  rose  through  his  wis- 
lom  to  the  dignity  of  prime  minister  to  one  of 
the  Pharaohs.     The  latter  allowed  him  to  bring 
whole  family  of  his  father,  numbering  70 
lales,  over  from  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  to 
jttle  them  in  the  province  of  Goshen  (E.  of 
Pelusiac.  branch  of  the  Nile,  it  is  supposed), 
rhere  they  could  continue  their  pastoral  life, 
imolested  by  the  Egyptians,  who  held  that 
lode  of  existence  in  great  contempt,  and  where 
tiey  would  be  un contaminated  by  Egyptian 
lolatry.     Jacob  closed  his  life,  having  adopted 
two  sons  of  Joseph,  Manasseh  and  Ephra- 
for  his  own.     The  book  of  Genesis,  the 
record  of  that  earliest  period  of  Hebrew 
ry,  closing  with  the  death  of  Jacob  and 
Foseph,  also  contains  the  last  blessing  of  the 
former,  a  specimen  of  the  most  ancient  Hebrew 
>etry.     After  the  death  of  Joseph  the  He- 
jws  were  not  only  oppressed  but  degraded 
the  condition  of  slaves,  were  overtasked 
employed  in  the  public  works,  while  the 
of  their  joining  a  foreign  enemy  finally  led 
me  of  their  tyrants  to  decree  what  may  be 
lied  their  slow  extermination,  they  having  in 
the  mean  while  increased  to  a  prodigious  num- 
ber.    How  long  they  remained  in  the  "  house 
of  slaves  "  (for  the  Hebrews  were  not  the  only 
slaves  in  Egypt)  cannot  be  determined,  there 
being   Scriptural  testimony  for  430,  as  well 
as  for  about  210  years;  nor  can  the  precise 
date  of  their  arrival,  which  Bunsen  endeavors 
to  fix  almost  1,000  years  earlier  than  it  is  fixed 
by  Scriptural  chronology ;  nor  of  their  exodus, 
which,  according  to  some  of  the  most  celebra- 
ted Egyptological  critics,   took   place   about 
1300  B.  C.,  while  according  to  a  distinct  Bibli- 
cal passage  (1  Kings  vi.  1)  it  must  have  hap- 
med  early  in  the  15th  century.   (See  EXODUS.) 
lor  is  it  easier  or  more  important  to  find  the 
?igns  during  which  these  events  took  place. 
(See  EGYPT,  and  EXODUS.)    Some  writers  have 
ttempted  to  identify  the  Hebrews  with  the 
Hyksos,  which  is  little  less  absurd  than  the  fa- 
bles of  Manetho  mentioned  by  Josephus.     The 
last  named  Jewish  historian  has  also  some  tra- 
litional  additions  to  the  early  life  of  Moses,  con- 
cerning his  exploits  in  Ethiopia.     Born  at  the 
ime  when  the  oppression  of  his  people  had  been 
irried  to  its  extreme,  Moses,  the  younger  son 
)f  Amram,  a  descendant  of  Levi,  the  third  son 
)f  Jacob,  was  doomed  to  perish  in  the  Nile 
with  all  new-born  males  of  the  Israelites,  but 
TB.S  saved  by  the  love  of  his  mother  Jochebed 
and  his  sister  Miriam,  and  the  compassion  of  a 


daughter  of  the  Pharaoh.  Adopted  as  a  son 
by  the  princess,  who  gave  him  his  name,  but 
nursed  by  his  mother,  he  united  the  highest 
Egyptian  education  with  the  sentiments  of  a 
Hebrew.  And  "  when  Moses  was  grown  he 
went  out  unto  his  brethren,  and  looked  on  their 
burdens."  Seeing  an  Egyptian  man  smiting 
one  of  his  brethren,  he  killed  him,  fled  to  Mid- 
ian,  married  Zipporah,  the  daughter  of  Jethro, 
a  wise  priest  or  prince  of  that  country,  by 
whom  he  had  two  sons,  and  tended  the  flock 
of  his  father-in-law,  leading  it  into  the  desert, 
as  far  as  Mount  Horeb,  the  N.  E.  eminence  of 
Mount  Sinai,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  peninsula  be- 
tween the  two  gulfs  of  the  Red  sea.  It  was  not 
till  the  decline  of  his  life  that  he  returned  to 
Egypt  to  become  the  "shepherd  of  his  peo- 
ple." He  appeared  with  his  brother  Aaron,  his 
spokesman,  assembled  the  elders  of  Israel,  and 
announced  to  them  their  approaching  deliver- 
ance and  return  to  Canaan  in  the  name  of  the 
Everlasting  (Hebrew,  Yehovah,  Being)  and 
Unchangeable  (Ehyeh-asher-ehyeh,  I-am-that- 
I-am),  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
who  "  had  seen  their  affliction."  He  now  re- 
paired to  the  palace  of  the  king,  proved  superior 
to  his  priests,  gained  the  admiration  of  his  min- 
isters and  people  (Exod.  xi.  3),  and  finally  com- 
pelled him  to  grant  his  demand  by  a  series  of 
disasters,  the  last  of  which  was  the  sudden  de- 
struction at  midnight  of  all  the  first-born  Egyp- 
tians (possibly  then  a  privileged  class).  The  Is- 
raelites had  received  their  secret  instructions, 
and  immediately  departed  toward  the  desert. 
Moses  led  them  across  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  gulf  of  Akabah  or  Suez,  the  western 
prolongation  of  the  Red  sea  (Heb.  Yam  Suf, 
reedy  sea) ;  and  the  king  of  Egypt,  who,  repent- 
ing of  having  let  them  go,  pursued  them  with 
his  cavalry  and  heavy  war  chariots,  perished 
there  with  his  army.  The  "  song  of  Moses," 
which  celebrates  this  event  (Exod.  xv.),  is  an 
admirable  monument  of  ancient  Hebrew  poe- 
try, though  surpassed  in  grandeur  by  that 
which  closes  the  narrative  of  his  life  (Deut. 
xxxii.).  After  having  repulsed  an  attack  of 
the  Amalekites,  a  roving  and  predatory  Arabi- 
an tribe,  Moses  led  the  people  to  Mount  Sinai, 
which  from  the  delivery  of  the  ten  command- 
ments now  received  the  name  of  the  mountain 
of  God.  This  divine  decalogue  not  only  con- 
tained the  common  fundamental  points  of  every 
moral  and  legal  code  ("  Honor  thy  father  and 
mother,"  "Thou  shalt  not  murder,"  &c.),  but 
also  included  the  sublime  doctrine  of  monothe- 
ism, the  great  social  institution  of  the  sabbath, 
and  the  lofty  moral  precept,  "  Thou  shalt  not 
covet."  These  commandments,  which  formed 
the  basis  of  a  "covenant  between  God  and 
Israel,"  together  with  the  successively  promul- 
gated statutes,  precepts,  &c.  (according  to  the 
rabbis,  altogether  365  positive  and  248  negative 
obligations),  constitute  the  Mosaic  law  (Torath 
Mosheh),  which  is  contained  principally  in  the 
second  and  third,  and  repeated  in  the  fifth  book 
of  the  Pentateuch,  and  for  about  15  centuries 


584 


HEBREWS 


remained,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  strictly 
national  part  still  is,  the  general  code  of  the 
Hebrews.  Its  aims  are  the  moral  perfection 
of  the  individual  and  the  welfare  of  society. 
Its  means  are  chiefly  a  common  and  central 
worship,  under  the  direction  of  the  Aaronites 
(KoJienim),  whose  restrictive  obligations  are, 
however,  not  equalled  by  the  privileges  they 
enjoy ;  three  festivals  for  the  commemoration 
of  great  national  events,  thanksgiving  and  re- 
joicing, as  well  as  for  the  annual  gathering  of 
the  whole  people ;  a  fast  day  for  repentance ; 
periodical  readings  of  the  law  ;  general  educa- 
tion through  the  Levites  its  guardians  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  10) ;  a  weekly  day  of  rest  (sabbath)  for 
the  people  and  their  animals ;  the  seventh  year 
as  a  periodical  time  of  rest  for  the  earth,  as 
well  as  for  the  extinction  of  various  pecuniary 
claims ;  numerous  and  most  frequently  repeat- 
ed obligations  for  the  support  of  the  fatherless 
and  widow,  the  poor  and  the  stranger ;  an  organ- 
ized judiciary  and  police ;  a  severe  penal  code ; 
strict  rules  for  the  preservation  of  health  and 
cleanliness ;  circumcision  as  a  bodily  mark  of 
the  covenant;  and  numerous  other  rites  and 
ceremonies  designed  to  guard  the  nationality, 
or  to  lead  to  the  preservation  of  truths  and 
principles.  The  chief  principles  are :  self-sanc- 
tification  and  righteousness,  in  imitation  of 
God,  who  is  holy  and  righteous  (Lev.  xix.  2, 
&c.) ;  brotherly  love  and  equality,  for  all  peo- 
ple are  his  children  (Deut.  xiv.  1) ;  freedom, 
for  all  are  bound  exclusively  to  his  service 
(Lev.  xxv.  55) ;  limited  right  of  property,  for 
the  whole  land  belongs  to  him  (Lev.  xxv.  23). 
The  principal  promise  of  reward  is  the  nat- 
ural share  of  the  individual  in  the  happi- 
ness of  society  ;  the  principal  threat  of  celes- 
tial punishment,  his  natural  share  in  its  mis- 
fortunes. The  form  of  government  is  the  re- 
publican (though  a  limited  monarchy  may  be 
established  if  the  people  demand  it),  with  the 
moral  theocratic  dictatorship  of  a  prophet  (na- 
~bi)  like  the  lawgiver,  with  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people  who  judge  the  merits  and  claims  of 
the  prophet  above  it,  and  above  all  the  majesty 
of  the  divine  law,  which  can  be  explained  and 
developed,  but  not  altered.  The  whole  system 
is  entirely  practical,  containing  no  definitions 
of  supernatural  things,  except  in  a  negative 
form,  no  articles  of  belief,  no  formulas  of  prayer. 
— But  the  difficulties  of  introducing  this  system 
of  institutions  were  as  immense  as  those  of 
maintaining  the  nation  in  the  desert.  The  first 
census  showed  22,000  male  Levites  above  one 
year  of  age,  and  603,550  males  of  other  tribes 
over  20,  including  22,273  first  born.  Provisions 
were  scanty,  water  was  scarce,  dangers  were 
constant ;  the  people  were  an  unruly  mass  of 
freed  slaves,  who  often  regretfully  thought  of 
the  flesh  pots  of  Egypt  and  of  the  quiet  care- 
lessness of  bondage ;  a  multitude  of  non-Israel- 
ites who  had  joined  them  regretted  the  visible 
gods  of  their  former  worship ;  envy  and  am- 
bition often  augmented  the  existing  dissatis- 
faction. Moses  was  still  on  Mount  Sinai  when 


the  people  compelled  his  brother  Aaron  to  give 
them,  in  a  golden  calf,  an  imitation  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Apis,  a  visible  god.  Moses,  descending, 
broke  the  tablets  of  the  covenant  in  his  anger, 
and  restored  order  by  a  massacre  of  the  idola- 
trous rioters,  but  almost  despaired  of  his  mission 
and  desired  to  die.  A  pompous  worship  was 
now  introduced,  and  sacrifices  were  ordained, 
of  which  a  later  prophet,  Jeremiah  (vii.  22), 
significantly  says  in  the  name  of  God :  "  For  I 
spake  not  unto  your  fathers,  nor  commanded 
them  in  the  day  that  I  brought  them  out  of 
the  land  of  Egypt,  concerning  burnt  offerings 
or  sacrifices."  Moses  removed  his  tent  from 
the  camp.  All  difficulties,  however,  were  con- 
quered by  the  "  man  of  God,"  who  consoled 
himself  with  the  idea  that  a  generation  educated 
under  his  guidance  would  replace  that  of  the 
desert.  Having  passed  around  the  lands  of  the 
Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites,  he  con- 
quered those  of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites, 
and  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan  (Batansea),  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  giving  them  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad  and  to  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and 
died  on  Mount  Nebo  before  entering  the  land 
of  promise.  The  man  who  was  "  meek  above 
all  men  that  were  on  the  face  of  the  earth" 
died  in  voluntary  loneliness,  and  "  no  man 
knoweth  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day." 
Joshua,  his  pupil  and  appointed  successor,  an 
Ephraimite,  now  led  the  13  tribes  of  Israel, 
named  after  11  sons  of  Jacob  and  the  two 
sons  of  Joseph,  across  the  Jordan  into  Canaan 
(or  Palestine  proper),  which  was  conquered 
after  a  war  of  extermination,  and  allotted  to 
the  tribes  of  Judah,  Ephraim,  Manasseh  (the 
other  half),  Benjamin,  Simeon,  Zebulun,  Issa- 
char,  Asher,  Naphtali,  and  Dan.  The  Levites, 
who  were  to  live  by  tithes,  received  no  separate 
division,  but  a  number  of  cities  within  the  lim- 
its of  every  tribe,  among  others  the  historical 
places  of  Gibeon,  Geba,  Beth-horon,  Mahanaira, 
Heshbon,  Jaezer,  Hebron,  Shechem,  Golan,  Ke- 
desh,  and  Ramoth-Gilead ;  of  which  the  last 
five  together  with  Bezer  were  selected  as  towns 
of  refuge  for  involuntary  murderers,  while  Shi- 
loh  became  the  central  city,  receiving  the  tab- 
ernacle with  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Phine- 
has,  son  of  Eleazar,  the  zealous  priest,  and  Ca- 
leb, son  of  Jephunneh,  were  among  the  most 
distinguished  assistants  of  Joshua.  Before  his 
death,  Joshua  held  an  assembly  of  the  whole 
nation  at  Shechem,  in  which  he  called  upon 
them  to  choose  once  more  between  the  gods 
of  their  ancestors  beyond  the  Euphrates,  those 
of  the  conquered  Amorites,  and  the  God  whom 
he  was  determined  to  follow  with  his  house. 
The  people  chose  their  Deliverer  and  Preserver, 
and  confirmed  their  choice  by  a  new  covenant ; 
but  scarcely  were  the  elders  gone  who  had 
witnessed  the  whole  work  of  deliverance  and 
maintained  the  order  of  Joshua,  when  idolatry 
and  anarchy  became  general.  Parts  of  the 
country  remained  unconquered,  principally  in 
the  hands  of  the  Phoanicians  in  the  N.  W.,  of 
the  Philistines  in  the  S.  W.,  and  of  the  Jebusites 


HEBREWS 


585 


in  the  centre.  With  these,  and  with  other 
neighbors  on  the  borders,  frequent  warfare  had 
to  be  waged,  while  the  young  state,  forming  a 
loose  confederacy  of  12  (or,  counting  Manasseh 
as  two,  of  13)  almost  independent  members, 
had  neither  natural  boundaries  nor  a  capital, 
neither  a  hereditary  head  nor  an  elective  fed- 
eral government,  the  only  bond  of  union  being 
the  common  law,  and  the  only  centre  the  seat 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  whose  guardians 
probably  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  convoking  a 
general  assembly  of  the  people  in  cases  of  ur- 
gent necessity.  Such  national  assemblies  were 
often  held  at  Mizpah.  But  the  enmity  and  fre- 
quent attacks  of  the  surrounding  idolatrous 
tribes  was  less  pernicious  than  their  friendly 
relations  in  times  of  peace,  when  the  voluptuous 
rites  connected  with  the  worship  of  Ashtoreth 
and  other  divinities  of  the  Phoenicians,  Syrians, 
id  Philistines,  were  too  seductive  for  a  people 
an  undeveloped  state,  whose  own  religion 
quired  a  rigid  observance  of  a  strict  morality, 
remedy  these  evils,  heroic  men  arose  from 
to  time,  repulsed  the  enemies,  restored 
ler  and  the  law,  were  acknowledged  as  lead- 
rs  and  judges,  at  least  by  a  part  of  the  people, 
id  thus  revived  its  unity.  This  period  of  re- 
iblican  federalism  under  judges  (shophetim,  a 
which  also  designated  the  chief  magis- 
of  the  Carthaginians  in  their  language, 
i  was  also  Semitic)  is  described  in  the 
of  that  name,  a  continuation  of  that  of 
Foshua,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting 
ions  of  Hebrew  history.  But  criticism  la- 
in vain  to  arrange  chronologically  the 
dng  but  in  part  probably  contemporaneous 
events  of  the  narrative.  Othniel,  a  younger 
mother  or  nephew  of  Caleb,  of  the  tribe  of 
Fudah,  was  the  first  of  the  judges.  Ehud, 
Benjamite,  delivered  Israel  from  the  oppres- 
of  the  Moabites,  having  killed  with  his 
)wn  left  hand  Eglon,  the  king  of  the  invaders. 
'And  after  him  was  Shamgar,  the  son  of 
Anath,  who  slew  of  the  Philistines  600  men 
with  an  ox  goad,"  at  a  time  when  "  no  shield 
seen  or  a  spear  among  40,000  in  Is- 
rael." Barak,  a  Naphtalite,  inspired  by  Deb- 
ah,  a  female  prophet  and  judge,  who  after- 
ward celebrated  the  event  in  her  great  song 
(Judges  v.),  gained  together  with  her  a  signal 
victory  near  Mount  Tabor  and  the  brook  Kishon 
over  the  army  of  Sisera,  commander  of  Jabin, 
a  Canaanite  king  on  the  N.  of  Palestine,  which 
numbered  900  iron  war  chariots.  Sisera  fled, 
but  was  killed  in  sleep  by  Jael,  a  woman  of  the 
nomadic  and  neutral  Kenite  tribe,  in  whose 
tent  he  had  sought  refuge.  Gideon,  character- 
ized as  the  youngest  son  of  one  of  the  weakest 
families  in  Manasseh,  surprised  with  300  select 
men  the  immense  camp  of  the  Midianites  and 
Amalekites,  dispersed  them,  called  the  sur- 
rounding tribes  to  arms,  exterminated  the  in- 
vaders, appeased  the  Ephraimites,  who  were 
jealous  of  the  glory  gained  by  their  neighbors, 
and  refused  to  accept  the  royal  dignity  offered 
him  by  the  gratitude  of  the  people,  declaring, 


"  I  will  not  rule  over  you,  neither  shall  my  son 
rule  over  you:  the  Lord  shall  rule  over  you." 
Abimelech,  however,  his  son  by  a  concubine, 
gained  adherents  among  the  idolatrous  friends 
of  his  mother  in  Shechem,  destroyed  the  nu- 
merous family  of  his  father,  was  proclaimed 
king  in  that  city,  was  afterward  expelled,  but 
reconquered  the  city,  and  finally  perished  while 
besieging  the  tower  of  the  neighboring  Thebez 
by  a  piece  of  millstone  cast  from  its  top  by  a 
woman.  Jotham,  the  only  son  of  Jerubbaal 
(as  Gideon  was  called  from  his  destruction  of 
the  Baal  worship)  who  escaped  from  the  mas- 
sacre of  his  brothers,  had  predicted  the  bloody 
end  of  the  usurper  in  his  fable  of  "  the  trees 
that  went  forth  to  anoint  a  king  over  them  " 
(Judges  ix.),  which  is  probably  the  most  an- 
cient specimen  of  that  kind  of  poetry  now  ex- 
tant. Of  the  judges  Tola,  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char,  and  Jair,  from  Gilead  in  Manasseh  beyond 
the  Jordan,  little  more  is  preserved  than  their 
names.  Jephthah,  another  Gileadite,  of  ille- 
gitimate birth,  having  been  expelled  from  his 
home,  was  recalled  by  his  native  district  to 
combat  against  the  Ammonites,  who  had  at- 
tacked it,  carried  the  war  into  the  land  of  the 
enemy,  and  returned  after  a  signal  victory,  of 
which  his  daughter,  in  consequence  of  a  vow, 
became  a  victim.  The  Ephraimites,  who  had 
not  been  called  to  participate  in  the  combat, 
now  threatened  vengeance  on  the  conqueror, 
who,  unlike  Gideon,  terminated  the  quarrel 
with  a  bloody  defeat  of  the  troublesome  tribe, 
which  is  the  first  example  of  civil  war  among 
the  Israelites,  soon  to  be  followed  by  others. 
Ibzan  of  Bethlehem  in  Judah,  Elon,  a  Zebulun- 
ite,  and  Abdon,  an  Ephraimite,  are  next  briefly 
mentioned  as  judges.  Dan,  too,  gave  Israel  a 
judge  in  the  person  of  Samson,  who  braved  and 
humiliated  the  Philistines;  he  was  a  Nazarite 
of  prodigious  strength,  whose  adventurous  ex- 
ploits in  life  and  death  much  resemble  those  of 
the  legendary  heroes  of  Greece.  The  greatest 
anarchy  now  prevailed.  The  Danites  not  having 
yet  conquered  their  territory,  600  men  among 
them  made  an  independent  expedition  north, 
and  conquered  a  peaceful  town  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Laish,  which  was  by  them  named  Dan, 
and  is  henceforth  mentioned  as  the  northern- 
most town  of  the  whole  country,  the  opposite 
southern  point  being  Beersheba.  The  concu- 
bine of  a  Levite  having  been  outraged  to  death 
on  a  passage  through  Gibeah  in  Benjamin  by 
some  inhabitants  of  that  place,  her  lover  cut 
her  corpse  into  pieces  and  sent  them  to  all 
the  tribes,  calling  for  vengeance.  The  people 
assembled  at  Mizpah,  and  demanded  from  Ben- 
jamin the  surrender  of  the  criminals.  The 
Benjamites  refused,  and  a  bloody  civil  war  en- 
sued, in  which  they  were  nearly  exterminated. 
The  people  wept  over  their  fratricidal  victory, 
and  600  Benjamites  who  alone  survived  were 
allowed  to  seize  wives  (for  the  victors  had  sworn 
not  to  give  them  any)  from  among  the  girls 
dancing  in  the  valley  of  Shiloh,  on  a  sacred  fes- 
tival annually  celebrated  there.  The  little  book 


580 


HEBREWS 


of  Ruth,  which  contains  the  idyllic  narrative 
of  the  Moabitish  widow  of  that  name,  who, 
faithfully  sharing  the  fate  of  her  unfortunate 
mother-in-law,  adopted  her  Hebrew  home  and 
religion,  and  married  Boaz,  is  supplementary  to 
the  book  of  Judges.  The  first  book  of  Samuel 
begins  with  the  continuation  of  the  latter.  The 
priest  Eli,  who  died  suddenly  on  receiving  the 
news  of  the  defeat  of  his  people  by  the  Philis- 
tines, the  death  of  his  two  sons,  and  the  cap- 
ture of  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  his  pupil, 
the  prophet  or  seer  Samuel,  the  son  of  Elkanah 
and  the  pious  Hannah,  were  the  last  of  the 
judges.  The  latter  reestablished  the  exclusive 
worship  of  the  Lord,  routed  the  Philistines,  re- 
stored the  ark,  and  introduced  schools  of  proph- 
ets, residing  in  Ramah,  his  native  place,  and 
regularly  visiting  Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpah; 
and  when  he  finally  resigned  the  executive 
power,  he  could  say  to  the  assembled  people  at 
Gilgal,  "  Behold,  here  I  am ;  witness  against  me 
before  the  Lord :  Whose  ox  have  I  taken  ?  or 
whose  ass  have  I  taken  ?  or  whom  have  I  de- 
frauded ?  whom  have  I  oppressed  ?  or  of  whose 
hand  have  I  received  any  bribe  to  blind  mine 
eyes  therewith  ? "  And  the  people  testified  to 
the  purity  of  his  career.  But  his  sons,  whom 
he  appointed  in  his  old  age,  acted  very  differ- 
ently, and  their  corruption,  but  still  more  the 
desire  for  a  strong  military  head,  so  natural 
after  the  previous  long  period  of  war,  anarchy, 
and  disunion,  finally  decided  the  people  to  urge 
the  appointment  of  a  king  to  rule  them  "like 
all  other  nations."  The  seer,  deeply  grieved 
by  the  proposed  change  of  the  Mosaic  form  of 
government,  which  is  distinctly  branded  in  the 
narrative  as  a  repudiation  of  the  divine  rule 
itself,  in  vain  painted  to  the  people  all  the  op- 
pression, extortion,  and  degradation  insepara- 
ble from  monarchical  rule  (1  Sam.  viii.) ;  they 
persisted  in  their  demand,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  yield.  Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  was  appointed 
the  first  king  of  Israel,  and  the  constitution 
of  the  monarchy  (1  Sam.  x.  25)  was  written 
and  deposited  in  the  sanctuary.  The  new  rule 
was  strengthened  and  became  popular  by  a 
series  of  victories  over  the  Ammonites,  Moab- 
ites,  Idumaaans,  Syrians,  and  Philistines.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  king,  Jonathan,  distinguished 
himself  as  a  heroic  youth.  Abner,  a  cousin 
of  Saul,  became  commander  of  the  army.  Gib- 
eah  was  the  capital  of  the  monarchy.  But  an 
expedition  against  the  Amalekites,  though  suc- 
cessful, was  not  executed  according  to  the 
ordinance  of  Samuel,  who  now  turned  his  in- 
fluence against  Saul.  The  spirit  of  the  latter 
became  troubled,  and  David,  the  son  of  Jesse 
of  Bethlehem,  was  brought  to  soothe  his  tem- 
per with  music.  This  young  shepherd  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Saul  by  his  triumph  over  Go- 
liath, the  Philistine  giant,  which  decided  a 
campaign,  as  well  as  by  his  subsequent  suc- 
cesses when  he  married  the  princess  Michal, 
and  became  the  intimate  friend  of  her  brother 
Jonathan.  Foreseeing  the  future  destinies  of 
the  aspiring  youth,  Saul  repeatedly  attempted 


to  take  his  life,  and,  exasperated  by  his  failures, 
and  the  protection  bestowed  on  David  by  his 
children,  Samuel,  and  the  priests,  he  extermi- 
nated the  inhabitants  of  Nob,  a  city  of  the 
latter,  and  passed  his  life  in  pursuit  of  his 
rival,  who,  with  a  band  of  desperate  outlaws 
roving  on  the  southern  borders  of  the  country, 
baffled  every  attempt  to  capture  him.  The 
extermination  of  wizardship  was  one  of  the 
acts  of  Saul.  His  reign  was  terminated  by 
a  catastrophe.  A  battle  was  fought  against 
the  Philistines  at  Mount  Gilboa ;  the  Hebrews 
fled,  Jonathan  and  two  other  sons  of  Saul  fell, 
and  the  king  slew  himself  with  his  own  sword. 
David,  whose  skill  in  poetry  equalled  his  mu- 
sical genius,  honored  in  a  touching  elegy  the 
memory  of  his  fallen  friend  and  foe  (2  Sam.  i.), 
who,  "  lovely  and  pleasant  in  their  lives,  were 
even  in  their  death  not  divided :  they  were 
swifter  than  eagles,  they  were  stronger  than 
lions."  Repairing  to  Hebron,  he  was  anoint- 
ed there  by  his  own  tribe  of  Judah  as  king, 
while  Abner  proclaimed  a  surviving  son  of 
Saul,  Ishbosheth,  at  Mahanaim,  who  was  ac- 
knowledged by  all  the  other  tribes  (about  1055 
B.  0.).  Bloody  conflicts  stained  this  double 
reign,  David  continually  gaining  the  ascen- 
dancy through  his  heroic  officers,  the  brothers 
Joab,  Abisai,  and  Asahel,  until  the  assassina- 
tion of  Abner  and  soon  after  of  Ishbosheth, 
caused  by  private  revenge,  gave  him  the  whole 
kingdom.  He  now  conquered  Zion  from  the 
Jebusites,  made  Jerusalem  his  capital,  organ- 
ized the  national  worship  as  well  as  the  mil- 
itary power  of  the  state,  and  by  continual  vic- 
tories over  all  surrounding  neighbors,  except 
Phoenicia,  a  friendly  country,  extended  the 
limits  of  his  dominions  N.  E.  as  far  as  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  S.  W.  as  far  as  the  Red  sea.  Jus- 
tice was  strictly  administered ;  literature  and 
arts,  especially  poetry  and  music,  flourished. 
Asaph,  the  founder  of  a  family  of  sacred  sing- 
ers, rivalled  the  king  in  psalms ;  Nathan  and 
Gad  assisted  him  as  prophets,  Zadok  and 
Abiathar  as  priests ;  Joab  held  almost  contin- 
ually the  chief  command  of  the  army.  But 
the  palace  of  the  king  was  often  stained  with 
crimes;  David  himself  had  much  to  repent 
of;  the  infamous  deeds  of  his  sons  by  various 
wives,  Amnon,  Absalom,  and  Adonijah,  dis- 
tracted the  peace  of  his  house  and  kingdom, 
and  the  two  former  had  perished,  and  two 
great  insurrections  had  been  quelled,  when 
he  died  after  a  reign  of  40  years  (about  1015). 
Solomon,  his  son  (by  Bathsheba,  the  widow 
of  the  assassinated  patriot  Uriah),  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  commenced 
his  reign  with  the  execution  of  his  half  brother 
Adonijah  and  the  aged  Joab,  who  had  con- 
spired against  his  succession ;  but  he  soon  be- 
came famous  for  personal  wisdom  and  scientific 
attainments,  as  well  as  for  the  splendor  of  his 
court  and  the  prosperity  of  his  subjects.  He 
inherited  a  large  army  and  a  full  treasury,  but 
he  used  the  former  only  to  preserve  peace  and 
secure  tribute  from  his  neighbors,  and  the  lat- 


HEBREWS 


587 


ter  for  the  adornment  of  his  country  by  numer- 
ous gorgeous  public  structures.  He  built  the 
temple,  which  more  than  all  contributed  to  his 
glory,  and  a  royal  palace  (both  in  Jerusalem 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Tyrian  architects), 
an  armory,  Palmyra  (Tadmor)  in  the  desert, 
and  other  cities ;  made  common  naval  expedi- 
tions with  the  king  of  Tyre,  from  Ezion-geber, 
a  port  on  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  to 
the  distant  land  of  Ophir,  which  brought  back 
gold,  gems,  precious  woods,  and  rare  animals ; 
imported  horses  from  Egypt  for  his  numerous 
cavalry  and  war  chariots ;  and  introduced  gen- 
eral luxury.  The  fame  of  his  wisdom  attracted 
visitors,  among  them  the  queen  of  Sheba  (Sa- 
baea)  in  southern  Arabia.  The  authorship  of 
3,000  proverbs  and  1,005  songs  is  mentioned 
among  his  literary  merits ;  for  he  wrote  "of 
beasts,  of  fowl,  of  creeping  things,  and  of 
5,"  and  of  all  kinds  of  plants  from  the 
cedar  in  Lebanon  to  the  hyssop  on  the  wall; 
and  the  extant  philosophical  book  of  Proverbs 
and  the  graceful  Song  of  Songs  (the  latter  of 
which,  however,  criticism  assigns  to  a  much 
later  period)  bear  his  name.  But,  while  he 
was  teaching  wisdom  in  writings,  his  personal 
example  taught  extravagance  and  folly.  His 
court  was  as  corrupt  as  it  was  splendid.  The 
magnificence  which  he  exhibited  was  not  ex- 
clusively the  product  of  foreign  gold,  tribute, 
and  presents,  but  in  part  based  on  the  taxes 
of  his  subjects.  The  army  served  not  only 
to  secure  peace,  but  also  as  a  tool  of  oppres- 
The  public  structures  were  built  with 
the  sweat  of  the  people.  Near  the  national 
temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  altars  and  mounds 
were  erected  for  the  worship  of  Ashtoreth, 
Moloch,  and  other  idols,  introduced  by  some 
of  his  numberless  wives  from  their  native 
countries,  Phoenicia,  the  land  of  Ammon,  Idu- 
msea,  and  Egypt.  Rezon  was  suffered  to  es- 
tablish a  hostile  dynasty  in  Damascus,  and  Ha- 
dad  to  make  himself  independent  in  Idumaea. 
"When  Solomon  died,  after  a  peaceful  reign  of 
40  years,  the  people  felt  themselves  so  ex- 
hausted that  they  demanded  a  considerable 
change  from  his  son  Rehoboarn  before  they 
proclaimed  him  king  at  Shechem,  where  they 
had  assembled  for  the  purpose.  Jeroboam,  an 
Ephraimite  who  had  already  attempted  an  in- 
surrection against  the  late  king,  now  returned 
from  his  exile  in  Egypt  and  headed  a  deputa- 
tion of  the  most  distinguished  citizens.  Re- 
hoboaui  promised  an  answer  after  three  days. 
The  experienced  councillors  of  his  father  ad- 
vised him  to  yield  for  the  moment  in  order 
to  be  master  for  life;  but  the  advice  of  his 
younger  companions  better  suited  his  disposi- 
tion, and  his  reply  to  the  people  was  accor- 
dingly: "My  father  made  your  yoke  heavy, 
and  I  will  add  to  your  yoke ;  my  father  also 
chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I  will  chastise 
you  with  scorpions."  The  consequence  of  this 
was  an  immediate  defection  of  ten  tribes,  who 
proclaimed  Jeroboam  their  king,  while  only 
Judah  and  Benjamin  remained  faithful  to  the 


house  of  David.  Rehoboam,  having  fled  from 
Shechem,  where  his  receiver  general  of  taxes 
was  stoned  by  the  revolted  people,  returned  to 
Jerusalem  and  assembled  a  powerful  army  to 
reconquer  his  lost  dominions ;  but  the  prophet 
Shemaiah  dissuaded  the  people  in  the  name 
of  God  from  the  civil  war.  Thus  the  division 
of  the  state  into  two  separate  kingdoms  was 
consummated  (975).  The  northern,  comprising 
the  country  N.  of  Benjamin  and  all  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  was  called  Israel,  or,  from  its  principal 
members,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  house 
of  Joseph,  and  poetically  Ephraim  ;  its  capital 
was  Shechem,  subsequently  Tirzah,  and  finally 
Samaria  (Shomeron).  The  southern,  from  its 
chief  tribe  called  Judah,  had  the  advantage  of 
possessing  the  sanctuary  in  the  old  capital,  and 
being  supported  by  the  Levites  and  the  priests, 
who  gathered  around  it.  To  destroy  the  influ- 
ence of  the  religious  element  upon  his  own 
subjects,  who  according  to  the  Mosaic  law 
were  bound  to  repair  three  tunes  in  the  year  to 
the  chosen  sacred  spot,  Jeroboam  revived  the 
not  yet  extinct  Egyptian  superstitions  of  his 
people,  established  .two  golden  calves  as  em- 
blems of  their  divinity,  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  on 
the  N.  and  S.  boundaries  of  his  state,  admitted 
non-Levites  to  the  priestly  office,  and  intro- 
duced new  festivals  and  even  a  new  calendar. 
The  Mosaic  institutions  being  thus  systemati- 
cally excluded  from  the  state,  idolatry,  despot- 
ism, and  corruption  prevailed  throughout  the 
250  years  of  its  existence,  almost  without  in- 
terruption. While  these  evils  remained  per- 
manent, the  condition  of  the  people  was  made 
still  worse  by  a  continual  change  of  masters. 
Usurpation  followed  usurpation  ;  conspiracy,- 
revolt,  and  regicide  became  common  events. 
The  house  of  Jeroboam  was  exterminated  with 
his  son  Nadab  by  Baasha,  who  reigned  at  Tir- 
zah, and  whose  son  Elah  was  assassinated 
while  drunk  by  Zimri,  one  of  his  generals.  At 
the  same  time  another  of  his  officers,  who  com- 
manded an  army  besieging  Gibbethon,  a  city 
of  the  Philistines,  was  proclaimed  king  by  his 
troops,  marched  upon  Tirzah,  and  took  it,  and 
Zimri  after  a  reign  of  seven  days  burned  him- 
self with  his  palace.  A  part  of  the  people  now 
wanted  Tibni,  but  Omri  prevailed,  and  Tibni 
died.  Omri,  who  built  Samaria  and  made  it 
his  capital,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ahab, 
whose  wife  Jezebel,  a  Sidonian  princess,  was 
fanatically  zealous  in  propagating  the  worship 
of  the  Phoenician  Baal,  and  in  persecuting  the 
prophets  of  monotheism,  who  were  almost  ex- 
terminated. Ahab  having  died  of  a  wound  re- 
ceived in  the  battle  of  Ramoth-Gilead  against 
the  Syrians  under  Benhadad  II.  (897),  his  two 
sons  Ahaziah  and  Jehoram  successively  reigned 
after  him ;  but  with  the  latter  the  idolatrous 
house  of  Omri  was  exterminated  by  Jehu,  who 
was  proclaimed  king  by  the  officers  of  the 
army  which  he  commanded  against  Hazael  of 
Syria  in  Gilead  (884).  Jehu,  who  had  been 
anointed  by  the  prophet  Elisha,  abolished  the 
worship  of  Baal,  but  left  the  institutions  of 


588 


HEBREWS 


Jeroboam.  His  dynasty,  assisted  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Elisha,  was  in  many  respects  pros- 
perous. To  it  belonged  the  kings  Jehoahaz, 
Joash,  Jeroboam  II.,  and  Zechariah,  with 
whose  murder  by  Shallum  it  ended  (773). 
Shallum  met  with  the  same  fate  after  a  month 
through  Menahem,  whose  son  Pekahiah  was 
slain  and  succeeded  by  his  chariot  driver  Pe- 
kah.  The  murderer  of  the  latter,  Hoshea,  was 
the  last  of  the  usurpers,  and  the  last  king  of 
Israel.  This  state,  which  during  all  its  exis- 
tence was  exposed  to  violent  shocks  from  its 
neighbors,  Judah,  the  Philistines,  Moab,  which 
revolted,  and  especially  from  the  Syrians  of 
Damascus,  against  whom  its  possessions  be- 
yond the  Jordan  could  seldom  be  defended, 
had  recovered  some  strength  by  repeated  vic- 
tories under  Joash  and  Jeroboam  II. ;  but  soon 
after,  rotten  and  decayed  through  idolatry, 
despotism,  and  anarchy,  it  became  an  easy 
prey  to  the  growing  power  of  Assyria,  to  whose 
king  Phul  it  became  tributary  after  an  inva- 
sion in  the  reign  of  Menahem.  Tiglath-pileser 
conquered  its  E.  and  N.  provinces,  carrying 
off  the  inhabitants  to  Assyria,  in  the  time  of 
Pekah,  and  Shalmaneser  destroyed  it  entirely, 
conquering  the  capital,  Samaria,  after  a  siege 
of  three  years  (721),  taking  Hoshea  prison- 
er, and  dispersing  the  inhabitants  throughout 
the  K  E.  provinces  of  his  empire,  where  their 
idolatrous  habits  made  them  likely  to  lose 
their  nationality  and  soon  to  disappear  among 
their  neighbors,  though  scattered  remnants 
may  occasionally  have  emerged  at  later  peri- 
ods, and  in  various  countries,  as  representa- 
tives of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel.  The  proph- 
ets Ahijah  of  Shiloh,  who  contributed  to  the 
election  of  Jeroboam  I.,  Elijah,  the  hero  of 
the  Mosaic  religion  under  Ahab,  his  great  dis- 
ciple Elisha,  the  two  contemporaries  of  Jero- 
boam II.,  Amos  and  Hosea,  Micah,  who  lived 
in  the  last  period,  and  many  others,  strove  in 
vain  to  check  the  growing  power  of  evil  by 
appeals  to  the  conscience  of  rulers  and  peo- 
ple, boldly  denouncing  the  despotism,  hypoc- 
risy, and  licentiousness  of  kings,  princes,  and 
priests,  the  selfishness,  pride,  and  extravagance 
of  the  rich,  the  extortions,  deceptions,  and  se- 
ductions practised  on  the  people,  and  again 
and  again  kindling  the  spirit  of  justice,  truth, 
patriotism,  humility,  or  hope.  The  rival  state 
of  Judah  enjoyed  more  frequent  periods  of 
prosperity  and  lawful  order,  as  well  as  a  longer 
duration.  There  the  interest  of  the  dynasty, 
which  continued  in  a  direct  line  of  succession 
down  to  the  latest  period,  was  identical  with 
that  of  the  people.  Their  common  enemy  was 
the  idolatry  which  reigned  in  Israel.  Their 
common  safeguard  was  the  law,  which  was  here 
supported  by  the  Levites,  and  more  effectively 
defended  by  the  prophets.  Corruption,  how- 
ever, often  led  both  government  and  people 
to  break  down  their  only  wall  of  protection, 
and  to  imitate  the  pernicious  example  of  their 
neighbors.  This  tendency  prevailed  as  early 
as  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  the  most  important 


event  of  which  was  the  invasion  of  Shishak 
(Sheshonk),  king  of  Egypt,  who  pillaged  the 
temple  and  the  royal  palace.  War  against 
Jeroboam  was  almost  continually  waged  du- 
ring this  and  the  following  short  reign  of 
Abijam.  The  successor  of  the  latter,  Asa, 
abolished  idolatry,  checked  public  immorality, 
routed  an  invading  army  of  Ethiopians,  re- 
sisted the  attacks  of  Baasha  of  Israel  through 
an  alliance  with  the  king  of  Damascene  Syria, 
and  fortified  Gibeah  and  Mizpah  against  an 
invasion  from  the  north.  Jehoshaphat,  his 
son,  made  peace  with  Israel,  and  even  fought 
in  alliance  with  Ahab  against  Benhadad  of 
Syria  (897),  subdued  Idumaea,  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Moabites  and  their  allies, 
but  was  unfortunate  in  an  attempted  expe- 
dition to  Ophir.  Internally,  too,  his  reign  was 
one  of  the  most  successful,  the  salutary  re- 
forms of  his  father  being  further  developed. 
But  his  son  Jehoram,  having  married  Athaliah, 
a  sister  of  Ahab,  followed  the  example  of  the 
court  of  Samaria,  and  also  lost  his  father's 
conquest,  Idumaea,  by  a  revolt.  Ahaziah  was 
equally  attached  to  the  house  of  Ahab,  whose 
fate  he  shared.  Having  gone  to  visit  Jehoram, 
he  was  mortally  wounded  by  the  conspirators 
under  Jehu,  and  expired  on  his  flight  at  Megid- 
do  (884).  On  receiving  news  of  that  event, 
Athaliah  his  mother  usurped  the  government, 
exterminating  all  the  royal  princes  except  one, 
Joash,  a  child  of  one  year,  who  was  saved  by 
his  aunt  and  secreted  in  the  temple.  Six  years 
later  Jehoiada,  an  old  priest,  matured  a  con- 
spiracy, the  legal  heir  to  the  house  of  David 
was  produced  in  the  temple,  and  the  queen, 
who  hastened  thither,  w  as  slain.  The  altars  of 
Baal  were  now  destroyed,  and  the  temple  was 
repaired  under  the  influence  of  Jehoiada ;  but 
an  invasion  of  Hazael  from  Syria  could  not  be 
repulsed,  and  the  capital  itself  was  saved  only 
by  an  immense  ransom.  After  the  death  of 
Jehoiada  Joash  abandoned  his  teachings,  and 
even  the  son  of  his  benefactor,  Zechariah,  who 
boldly  reprimanded  him,  fell  a  victim  to  his 
tyranny,  which  was  ended  with  his  life  by  a 
conspiracy  (838).  His  successor  Amaziah  pun- 
ished the  murderers  of  his  father,  and  made 
a  successful  expedition  to  Idumsea,  but  was 
made  prisoner  in  a  battle  against  Joash,  king 
of  Israel,  which  he  had  wantonly  provoked 
by  a  challenge,  and,  having  returned  after  the 
death  of  that  king  to  his  conquered  and  un- 
fortified capital,  was  deprived  by  a  conspiracy 
of  his  throne  and  life.  The  following  reign 
of  Uzziah  or  Azariah  was  not  only  one  of 
the  longest  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
lasting  52  years,  but  also  distinguished  by 
victories  over  the  Philistines,  Arabians,  and 
Ammonites,  and  by  the  flourishing  condition 
of  husbandry,  mechanical  arts,  and  literature. 
Besides  Amos  and  Hosea,  who  were  active 
also  in  Judah,  Jonah  and  Joel  were  among  the 
prophets  of  that  period.  Of  the  last  we  still 
possess  a  beautiful  poetical  description  of  a 
dreadful  devastation  by  locusts,  perhaps  alle- 


HEBREWS 


589 


gorically  of  barbarians,  when  "the  land  was  as 
the  garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind 
them  a  desolate  wilderness."  Another  de- 
structive event  was  a  long  remembered  earth- 
quake. Jotham,  the  son  of  Uzziah,  who  du- 
ring the  last  years  of  his  reign  acted  as  regent, 
continued  after  his  father's  death  (759)  his 
beneficent  rule ;  but  his  son  Ahaz  again  in- 
troduced idolatry,  and  his  reign  was  disgrace- 
ful and  disastrous.  Kezin  and  Pekah,  allied 
against  him,  advanced  as  far  as  Jerusalem, 
which  was  saved  only  by  the  dearly  purchased 
aid  of  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who 
conquered  Damascus,  carried  its  inhabitants 
into  captivity,  and  slew  Eezin.  Ahaz  declared 
himself  the  subject  of  his  Assyrian  deliverer, 
and  also  suffered  attacks  by  the  revolted  Phi- 
listines, while  the  state  of  the  interior  of  the 
country  provoked  the  immortal  denunciations 
of  Isaiah  and  Micah.  But  these  prophets  ex- 
press in  no  less  glowing  words  their  hopes  of 
a  better  future,  which  seemed  to  be  realized  in 
the  succeeding  reign  of  Hezekiah  the  son  of 
Ahaz.  This  pious  king  followed  almost  en- 
tirely the  injunctions  of  Isaiah,  who  was  bold 
enough  to  advise  an  uncompromising  abolition 
of  ancient  abuses  and  restoration  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  war  against  the  Philistines,  independence 
of  Assyria,  and  at  the  same  time  the  rejection 
of  any  alliance  with  Egypt ;  and  was  powerful 
enough  to  brave  the  general  corruption,  to 
baffle  the  plots  of  the  court,  and  to  maintain 
the  courage  of  the  people  as  well  as  of  the  sick 
king  during  the  great  invasion  of  Sennacherib, 
rhen  the  state  was  on  the  brink  of  ruin.  Thus 
Judah  escaped  the  fate  of  her  sister  state, 
which  had  a  few  years  before  been  conquered 
and  devastated  by  the  Assyrians,  and  which 
now  began  to  be  repeopled  principally  by 
Cuthseans,  an  idolatrous  people  subject  to  their 
rule,  who,  mingling  their  rites  with  those  of 
their  new  territory  about  Samaria,  became  af- 
terward known  under  the  name  of  Samaritans 
(Kuthim),  while  scattered  portions  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  inhabitants  augmented  the  num- 
ber of  the  subjects  of  Hezekiah.  But  the 
reign  of  his  son  Manasseh,  longer  than  that 
of  Uzziah,  was  more  disgraceful  than  that  of 
Ahaz.  Idolatry  was  not  only  publicly  intro- 
duced, but  had  its  altars  even  on  Mount  Mo- 
riah.  The  most  abominable  practices  pre- 
vailed, including  the  bloody  worship  of  Moloch, 
and  Jerusalem  was  filled  with  the  blood  of  the 
innocent  victims  of  tyranny,  while  the  limits 
of  the  country  were  narrowed  by  hostile  neigh- 
bors. Amon,  the  son  of  Manasseh,  followed 
in  his  father's  footsteps,  but  was  murdered 
after  two  years.  Josiah,  his  successor,  how- 
ever, was  a  zealous  imitator  of  Hezekiah,  and 
was  assisted  in  his  radical  reforms  by  the  re- 
viving influence  of  the  prophets,  among  whom 
were  Nahum,  Zephaniah,  the  young  Jeremiah, 
and  their  female  colleague  Huldah.  Nahum 
celebrated  the  final  fall  of  Assyria,  and  the  de- 
struction of  Nineveh  its  capital,  "the  bloody 
city  full  of  lies  and  robbery,  (whence)  the  prey 


departeth  not,"  which  was  then  completed  by 
the  allied  Babylonians  and  Medes.  But  the 
power  of  Babylonia,  lately  founded  by  Nabo- 
polassar,  was  now  growing  to  a  threatening 
extent,  and  the  position  of  the  weak  kingdom 
of  Judah  between  this  and  the  rival  power 
of  Egypt  doomed  it  to  a  sudden  catastrophe. 
Pharaoh  Necho  having  commenced  a  campaign 
against  Babylonia  through  Philistia,  Josiah  op- 
posed his  march,  and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Me- 
giddo.  His  son  Jehoahaz  was  sent  prisoner  to 
Egypt,  and  the  younger  Jehoiakim  (or  Eljakim) 
appointed  king  in  his  stead.  The  great  victory 
of  the  Babylonians,  however,  over  Necho  on 
the  Euphrates,  soon  made  Jehoiakim  a  vassal 
of  their  empire.  He  afterward  revolted,  against 
the  advice  of  Jeremiah,  who  saw  the  impossi- 
bility of  resisting  the  sway  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, the  successor  of  Nabopolassar.  The  king 
was  as  little  inclined  to  listen  to  his  council 
in  his  foreign  as  he  was  in  his  domestic  policy. 
Jeremiah's  prophecies  were  burned.  Anoth- 
er prophet,  Uriah,  was  punished  for  the  bold- 
ness of  his  rebukes  with  death.  The  Chalde- 
ans soon  invaded  the  country,  and  were  joined 
by  its  neighboring  enemies.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  and  a  short  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
Jehoiachin  or  Jeconiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiakim, 
terminated  the  war  by  a  voluntary  surrender 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  sent  him  with  his  fam- 
ily, his  army,  and  thousands  of  the  most  im- 
portant citizens,  to  Babylonia  as  captives.  The 
treasures  of  the  temple  and  royal  house  were 
plundered.  Mattaniah,  an  uncle  of  the  dethron- 
ed king,  was  appointed  his  successor,  as  vassal 
of  the  conqueror,  under  the  name  of  Zedekiah 
(598).  It  was  the  last  reign  of  the  house  of  Da- 
vid. Zedekiah,  a  weak  prince,  was  induced  by 
a  misguided  patriotism  to  revolt  against  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Jeremiah  in  vain  exerted  all  his 
zeal  and  eloquence  to  dissuade  the  king  and  the 
people  from  this  pernicious  step.  He  was  per- 
secuted by  both ;  the  seductive  influence  of  false 
prophets  prevailed.  The  second  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Nebuchadnezzar  now  ensued  (588). 
It  fell  after  a  desperate  defence.  The  king, 
who  attempted  to  escape  with  the  remnants 
of  his  troops,  was  made  prisoner  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jericho,  was  deprived  of  his  eyes 
after  having  seen  the  slaughter  of  his  children, 
and  was  sent  in  chains  to  Babylon.  The  tem- 
ple was  burned,  its  vessels  were  plundered, 
the  walls  and  palaces  of  Jerusalem  destroyed, 
and  all  important  or  wealthy  citizens  carried 
into  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Jeremiah  was 
spared  and  allowed  to  remain  with  Gedaliah, 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  appointed  his  viceroy 
at  Mizpah,  and  around  whom  a  number  of  the 
remaining  people  soon  gathered.  But  this  last 
centre,  too,  was  soon  destroyed  by  the  assas- 
sination of  Gedaliah.  A  number  of  the  sur- 
viving officers  emigrated  with  their  followers 
and  Jeremiah,  'who  tried  in  vain  to  dissuade 
them,  to  Egypt,  whither  the  sword  of  the  Chal- 
deans still  followed  them.  The  annihilation 
of  the  state  of  Judah  was  complete.  The  book 


590 


HEBREWS 


of  Lamentations  contains  touching  elegies  on 
this  tragic  end.  Ezekiel  too  laments  the  disper- 
sion of  his  nation.  Providence  is  arraigned  by 
Habakkuk  and  Jeremiah,  and  also  in  the  book 
of  Job,  a  sublime  lyrical  drama,  which  numer- 
ous critics  regard  as  a  production  of  that  time. 
A  number  of  psalms,  too,  belong  to  the  last 
period  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  But  Baby- 
lonia, the  prison  of  the  Jewish  nation  (for  this 
name  had  now  become  the  most  familiar),  was 
destined  also  to  become  the  cradle  of  its  re- 
generation. The  most  eminent  of  the  people 
had  been  transplanted  there  with  Jeconiah,  and 
afterward,  among  others,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and 
his  pious  companions  at  the  court  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah ; 
and  their  activity  in  reviving  the  spirit  of  re- 
ligion and  nationality  is  evident  from  the  nu- 
merous contributions  to  the  Hebrew  literature 
of  that  period,  all  glowing  with  enthusiasm 
and  unconquered  hope.  The  court,  that  source 
of  corruption,  was  no  more ;  the  priests  of 
Baal  and  Moloch,  so  long  fattened  on  lies,  had 
disappeared  with  the  altars  of  their  idols ;  the 
voluptuous  groves  of  Ashtoreth  could  not  be 
transplanted  into  the  land  of  dreary  captivity ; 
Zion  was  regretfully  remembered,  and  the  true 
admonishers  of  the  people,  who  had  predicted 
all  this,  now  found  more  willing  ears.  Their 
consolations,  too,  and  the  deliverance  which 
they  promised,  were  soon  to  be  confirmed ;  and 
the  captives,  who  were  full  of  revengeful  ha- 
tred toward  their  oppressor,  the  profligate  and 
treacherous  mistress  of  the  world,  heard  with 
secret  delight  of  the  warlike  preparations  of  the 
Medo-Persian  empire  against  her.  The  last 
ruler  of  Babylon,  Belshazzar,  was  drinking  wine 
with  his  lords,  his  wives,  and  his  concubines, 
from  the  golden  and  silver  vessels  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  when  "  one  messenger  was 
running  to  meet  another  "  to  tell  him  "  that  his 
city  was  taken  at  one  end  "  (538).  The  Persian 
conqueror  did  not  disappoint  those  who  had  pre- 
dicted, and  perhaps  secretly  promoted,  his  tri- 
umph. He  allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to  their 
country,  where  they  could  be  useful  by  forming 
a  kind  of  outpost  against  Egypt,  and  to  rebuild 
their  capital  and  temple.  The  first  and  largest 
body  of  returning  patriots  consisted  of  more 
than  42,000  persons,  under  the  lead  of  Zerub- 
babel,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  David,  and  the 
high  priest  Jeshua.  But  the  idolatrous  Samari- 
tans, whom  the  Jews  would  not  admit  to  have 
a  share  in  the  new  temple,  exerted  themselves 
to  prevent  their  rebuilding  and  fortifying  Je- 
rusalem, calumniating  them  at  the  court  of 
Persia,  particularly  under  Cambyses  (529-'22) 
and  Pseudo-Smerdis  (522).  Darius,  however, 
fully  confirmed  the  permission  of  Cyrus  (521). 
The  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (assisted, 
perhaps,  by  Obadiah,  who  seems  to  have  been 
their  contemporary)  inspired  Zerubbabel,  the 

griests,  and  the  people  with  fresh  zeal,  and  after 
ve  years  the  new  temple  was  completed  (516). 
The  events  which  are  described  in  the  book  of 
Esther — the   elevation  of  the  Jewess  of  that 


name  (or  Hadassah)  to  the  dignity  of  Persian 
queen,  the  high  official  career  of  her  relative 
Mordecai,  the  schemes  of  Haman,  a  courtier  and 
personal  enemy  of  the  latter,  to  destroy  all  the 
Jews  of  the  Persian  empire,  his  fall,  and  the  al- 
most miraculous  escape  of  the  people  through 
Mordecai  and  Esther — probably  refer  to  the 
reign  of  Xerxes  (486-'65),  the  son  of  Darius, 
though  the  name  Ahasuerus  is  used  in  the  Scrip- 
tures to  designate  various  monarchs  of  the 
Persian  empire.  Under  the  following  reign  of 
Artaxerxes,  Ezra,  the  pious  scribe  (or  critic, 
sopher},  led  a  new  colony  of  Jews  from  beyond 
the  Euphrates  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  carried 
through  a  series  of  important  reforms,  com- 
pleting the  restoration  of  the  Mosaic  law,  for 
which  he  was  afterward  revered  as  the  second 
lawgiver  of  his  people.  The  condition  of  the 
Jews  in  Palestine,  however,  or  rather  in  Jeru- 
salem and  its  vicinity,  was  not  cheering.  The 
city  had  no  walls  or  gates,  and  poverty  pre- 
vailed. To  remedy  these  evils  Nehemiah,  the 
Jewish  cup-bearer  of  Artaxerxes,  started  from 
Susa  with  the  permission  of  the  monarch  and 
the  dignity  of  governor  (445).  The  wrork  of 
restoring  and  fortifying  Jerusalem  was  now 
carried  on  and  executed  with  the  utmost  zeal, 
though  the  laborers  were  often  obliged  to  work 
under  arms,  the  Samaritans  and  their  friends 
threatening  an  attack.  Notwithstanding  his 
dignity,  Nehemiah  voluntarily  shared  the  toils 
and  privations  of  his  brethren.  He  restored 
order,  assisted  the  poor,  abolished  the  abuses 
of  the  rich,  and  strengthened  the  observance 
of  the  law.  After  a  long  absence  at  the  royal 
court,  during  which  fresh  disorder  had  arisen, 
he  resumed  his  pious  and  patriotic  work,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Malachi,  the  last  of 
the  known  prophets.  The  enmity  of  the  Samari- 
tans, though  baffled  in  its  first  assaults,  remained 
active  down  to  a  much  later  period,  their  sep- 
aration having  been  sanctioned  by  a  rival  tem- 
ple on  Mount  Gerizim.  The  Jewish  temple  on 
Mount  Moriah  had  a  successive  line  of  hered- 
itary high  priests  in  the  direct  descendants  of 
Jeshua,  of  whom  Jaddua  held  that  most  influ- 
ential office  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the 
Persian  empire  by  Alexander,  whose  wrath  he 
is  said  to  have  diverted  from  Jerusalem  (332). 
The  names  of  the  Persian  governors  during 
the  last  century  of  that  empire  are  unknown, 
this  being  altogether  the  most  obscure  period 
in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  It  seems  to  have 
been  a  time  of  comparative  tranquillity  and 
prosperity;  at  least  it  included  no  particular 
national  disaster,  as  it  added  no  day  of  fasting 
to  those  recently  established  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  the  death  of  Geda- 
liah,  &c.  But  the  same  century,  together  with 
the  time  of  Ezra,  may  certainly  be  regarded  as 
the  period  of  the  most  important  religious  de- 
velopments, of  a  permanent  consolidation  of 
Judaism.  The  first  impulse  had  probably  been 
given  in  Babylonia,  during  the  active  literary 
period  of  the  captivity.  But  Ezra  the  sopher, 
his  contemporaries  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Nehe- 


HEBEEWS 


591 


miah,  and  others,  "  the  men  of  the  great  assem- 
bly "  (anshei  keneseth  haggedolah),  and  the 
successive  sopherim,  are  the  real  authors  of  the 
restoration  and  the  new  developments  connect- 
ed with  it.  The  sacred  Scriptures  were  col- 
lected, authenticated,  and  arranged  into  a  can- 
on, including  the  most  precious  remnants  of  a 
vast  literature,  among  the  lost  parts  of  which 
were  the  often  mentioned  and  quoted  Sepher 
hayashar  (in  the  English  version,  "book  of 
Jasher"),  probably  a  collection  of  historical 
songs,  the  book  of  the  "  Wars  of  the  Lord,"  the 
special  "  Chronicles  "  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and 
Israel,  the  prophecies  of  Nathan,  Ahijah,  Iddo, 
and  others,  the  "  History  of  Solomon,"  various 
works  of  this  king,  and  an  endless  multitude  of 
others ;  their  great  number  was  complained  of 
in  the  philosophical  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  a  work 
commonly  attributed  to  Solomon,  but  by  numer- 
ous critics  assigned  to  a  very  late  period.  The 
Pentateuch  was  publicly  read,  taught  in  schools, 
explained,  hermeneutically  expounded  (mid- 
rash),  and  translated  into  the  Chaldee  language, 
which  the  common  people  had  adopted  in  Bab- 
ylonia, together  with  various  eastern  notions 
concerning  angels,  spirits,  and  other  supernat- 
ural things.  The  legal  or  religious  traditions, 
explanatory  of  or  complementary  to  the  law  of 
Moses,  were  traced  back  through  the  prophets 
and  elders  to  that  lawgiver,  and  systematical- 
ly established  as  the  oral  law  (torah  or  debarim 
shebbeal  peh).  New  obligations  were  added  to 
form  a  kind  of  "fence  "  (seyag)  around  the  law, 
preventing  its  infraction,  and  founded  on  the 
authority  of  the  scholars  and  wise  men  of  the 
age  (dibrei  sopherim,  mitzvath  zekenim).  The 
following  century  and  a  half,  when  Judea  was 
a  province  of  the  successors  of  Alexander  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  the  Ptolemies  and  SeleucidaB, 
is  marked  by  new  features.  Greek  refinement, 
science,  and  philosophy  spread  among  the  Jews, 
particularly  among  the  flourishing  colonies  in 
Alexandria  and  other  cities  of  the  Ptolemies. 
A  part  of  the  people,  especially  the  wealthier, 
adopted  the  Epicurean  notions  of  the  demoral- 
ized Greeks  of  that  time,  and  were  finally  or- 
ganized as  a  sect,  denying  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  rejecting  the  authority  of  tradition, 
and  adhering  to  the  literal  sense  of  the  Mosaic 
law  ;  while  the  teachings  of  the  Stoics  agreed 
well  with  the  more  austere  life  of  the  followers 
of  the  "great  assembly,"  who  maintained  their 
preponderance  with  the  people.  Asa  sect  the 
former  were  called  Sadducees,  the  more  ascetic 
of  the  latter  Pharisees.  The  derivation  of  both 
these  names  is  as  little  settled  as  is  that  of  the 
name  of  the  Essenes,  who  appear  about  the  close 
of  this  period,  forming  secluded,  industrious, 
and  socialistic  communities,  and  engaged  in 
medical,  mystical,  and  ascetic  practices.  The 
Samaritans,  who,  adopting  in  part  the  Mosaic 
rites,  had  succeeded  in  attaching  to  their  tem- 
ple a  part  of  the  neighboring  Jews,  now 
followed  the  example  of  the  Hellenizing  cities 
of  Syria,  and  made  little  opposition  to  the 
spreading  worship  of  the  Greek  gods.  The 
398  VOL.  vm.— 38 


Greek  language  became  common  in  Judea,  and 
the  Greek  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  pre- 
pared under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  in  Egypt 
(the  Septuagint)  was  used  in  the  synagogues 
of  that  country.  A  Syrian  dialect  of  the  Ara- 
maic was  used  for  the  same  purpose  by  the 
Samaritans,  and  the  pure  Chaldee  prevailed 
among  the  Jews  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Polit- 
ically, no  less  than  in  matters  of  religion,  Ju- 
dea seems  to  have  been  ruled  by  the  high  priests, 
who  had  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Egyptian  or 
Syrian  kings,  and  the  sanhedrim  of  Jerusalem, 
a  college  of  TO,  with  a  president  (leth  din  hag- 
gadol,  high  court).  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander (323),  the  little  province  frequently 
changed  masters,  until  it  was  definitively  at- 
tached to  the  empire  of  Ptolemy  I.  Soter,  under 
whom  the  celebrated  Simon  the  Just  (or  Right- 
eous) officiated  as  high  priest,  and  Antigonus  of 
Socho  as  president  of  the  sanhedrim.  The  un- 
certainty of  possession  made  the  foreign  rulers 
more  lenient.  The  country  was  growing  in 
wealth  and  population,  in  spite  of  large  colonies 
drawn  to  Alexandria  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
Soter,  and  others.  These  were  particularly 
well  treated,  and  enjoyed  privileges  which 
made  them  an  object  of  envy.  They,  like  their 
brethren  of  Babylonia  and  other  countries  of 
Asia,  enriched  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  by 
their  gifts  and  visits  during  festivals.  Ptolemy 
II.  Philadelphus  (285-'47)  was  especially,  favor- 
able to  the  Jews.  Under  his  successors,  how- 
ever, Judea  grew  impatient  of  the  Egyptian 
rule,  and  when  Antiochus  the  Great  attacked 
the  young  Ptolemy  V.,  the  Jews  willingly  aided 
him  in  driving  the  Egyptians  from  their  land 
(198).  They 'soon  had  reason  to  regret  this 
change  of  dynasty.  The  Seleucidae  were  bent 
on  Hellenizing  their  empire,  and  were  offended 
by  the  determination  of  the  Jews  to  preserve 
their  own  national  and  religious  peculiarities. 
The  treasures,  too,  which  had  been  slowly  ac- 
cumulated in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  tempt- 
ed their  avarice,  while  they  also  augmented 
the  number  of  priestly  office-seekers.  Tyranny 
and  corruption  growing  together,  the  dignity 
of  high  priest  was  finally  converted  into  an 
office  for  sale.  One  Onias  was  robbed  of  it 
for  the  benefit  of  his  younger  brother  Jason, 
who  offered  360  talents  to  the  court  of  Syria ; 
a  third  brother,  Menelaus,  wrested  it  from 
him,  giving  300  more,  and  strove  to  maintain 
himself  in  his  usurpation  by  scandalously  pro- 
moting the  arbitrary  schemes  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Being  driven  from  the  city  by 
Jason  and  his  followers,  and  besieged  in  the 
citadel,  he  was  rescued  by  Antiochus,  who 
destroyed  a  part  of  the  city,  sold  many  of  his 
opponents  into  slavery,  and  robbed  the  temple 
(170).  But  worse  was  to  follow.  During  the 
second  expedition  of  the  Syrian  king  against 
Egypt,  a  false  report  of  his  death  spread  in 
Judea,  and  Jerusalem  immediately  rose  against 
his  officers.  But  the  Hellenizing  Jews  opened 
its  gates  to  the  returning  king,  and  an  unpar- 
alleled slaughter  of  the  religious  inhabitants 


592 


HEBREWS 


ensued  (169).  Not  satisfied  with  this,  Antio- 
chus  destroyed  the  walls  of  the  city,  garrisoned 
a  new  citadel  with  his  soldiers,  and  decreed 
the  general  and  exclusive  introduction  of  Greek 
idolatry.  The  image  of  the  king  was  placed 
in  the  temple,  swine  were  sacrificed  on  the 
altar,  new  altars  were  everywhere  erected  for 
the  obligatory  worship  of  the  Olympian  Jupi- 
ter, the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  burned,  cir- 
cumcision was  prohibited,  and  every  act  of 
opposition  made  a  capital  crime  and  punished 
with  extreme  cruelty.  Thousands  after  thou- 
sands were  dragged  into  captivity,  sold  as 
slaves,  or  butchered.  Finally  the  king  de- 
parted on  an  expedition  against  the  Parthians, 
leaving  the  completion  of  his  work  to  his  gen- 
eral Apollonius  (167).  The  latter  continued  it 
in  the  spirit  of  his  master,  but  soon  met  with 
a  sudden  check.  Mattathias,  an  old  priest  of 
the  village  of  Modin,  and  of  the  distinguished 
house  of  the  Asmoneans,  and  his  five  sons  John 
(Johanan),  Simon,  Judas,  Eleazar,  and  Jonathan, 
commanded  to  sacrifice  to  Jupiter,  drew  their 
swords  in  defence  of  their  religious  liberty,  and 
soon  after  were  able  to  defend  that  of  others. 
The  people  flocked  after  them  into  the  wilder- 
ness, whence  they  sallied  forth  to  destroy  the 
altars  of  their  oppressors.  Contempt  of  death 
gave  victory,  and  victory  created  new  warriors. 
The  work  of  liberation  was  successfully  com- 
menced when  the  old  patriot  died  (166),  leaving 
the  command  in  the  hands  of  Judas,  who  well 
deserved  by  his  overwhelming  victories  the 
surname  of  the  Hammer  (MalclcaV),  though  the 
name  of  Maccabees,  which  is  applied  to  the 
whole  house,  and  the  title  of  the  apocryphal 
books  of  their  history,  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  initials  of  a  supposed  Scriptural  sign, 
M(i),  K(amokha)  B(aelim)  Y(ehovah)  ("  Who  is 
like  thee  among  the  gods,  O  Everlasting?"), 
or  from  those  of  the  name  of  the  father,  Mat- 
tathias Kohen  (the  priest)  ben  (son  of)  Johanan. 
Terror  reigned  among  the  Syrians  in  Judea. 
Their  greatly  superior  forces  suffered  defeat  after 
defeat  under  Apollonius,  Seron,  Lysias,  Timo- 
theus,  Nicanor,  and  other  generals.  Jerusalem 
was  reconquered,  the  temple  purified,  a  treaty 
of  alliance  concluded  with  the  Romans,  the 
traitor  Menelaus  was  executed  by  order  of  An- 
tiochus,  and  the  latter  soon  after  died  (164). 
But  the  bold  struggle  of  the  heroic  brothers 
again  became  desperate.  Eleazar  (or  perhaps 
another  warrior  of  the  same  name),  rushing 
through  the  thickest  of  the  enemy  to  transpierce 
an  elephant,  on  which  he  supposed  the  young 
king  Eupator  himself  to  be  seated,  was  crush- 
ed to  death  under  the  falling  animal.  Judas, 
seeing  himself  deserted  by  most  of  his  follow- 
ers at  the  approach  of  an  immense  host  under 
Bacchides,  and  having  no  alternative  but  flight 
or  death,  chose  the  latter,  attacked  the  Syrians 
with  800  men,  broke  through  one  of  their  wings, 
but  was  surrounded  by  the  other,  and  perished 
with  all  his  companions  (160).  The  surviving 
brothers  again  fled  to  the  wilderness  of  the 
south,  carrying  on  a  desultory  warfare,  in  which 


John  soon  after  fell.  But  the  protracted  strug- 
gles for  succession  to  the  throne  of  Syria,  be- 
tween the  various  kings  and  usurpers  who  fol- 
lowed Eupator,  Demetrius  Soter  the  son  of 
Epiphanes,  his  pretended  brother,  Alexander 
Balas,  Demetrius  Nicator  the  son  of  Soter,  An- 
tiochus  the  son  of  Balas,  Antiochus  Sidetes  the 
son  of  Nicator,  and  Tryphon,  gave  Jonathan, 
who  now  commanded,  and  after  him  Simon, 
ample  opportunity  to  restore  the  fortune  of  the 
war.  Jonathan's  friendship  was  soon  sought 
by  the  rival  pretenders ;  he  made  peace  with 
the  one  or  the  other,  was  acknowledged  as 
high  priest,  strategus,  and  ethnarch  of  Judea, 
and  was  successful  in  his  long  wars,  but  was 
finally  enticed  to  an  interview  with  Tryphon, 
and  assassinated  with  his  sons.  Simon  con- 
quered the  citadel  of  Jerusalem,  renewed  the 
alliance  with  Rome,  and  was  proclaimed  an 
independent  prince.  The  independence  of 
Judea  was  successfully  defended  against  An- 
tiochus Sidetes  under  the  command  of  Jo! in 
and  Judas  his  sons,  but  the  old  man  was  soon 
after  assassinated  with  his  sons  Judas  and  Mat- 
tathias by  his  own  son-in-law  Ptolemy  (135). 
His  surviving  son,  John  Hyrcanus,  who  suc- 
ceeded him,  resisted  the  invasion  of  Antioelius 
Sidetes,  concluded  a  peace,  and  further  devel- 
oped the  independence  of  the  country,  extend- 
ing its  limits  by  the  conquest  of  Idumeea,  and 
of  the  city  of  Samaria,  which  he  destroyed,  as 
well  as  the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim.  The 
Samaritans  were  thus  crushed,  but  the  Sad- 
ducees  attained  great  influence  under  his  rei^n, 
and  the  religious  dissensions,  assuming  also  a 
civil  aspect,  gradually  undermined  the  founda- 
tions of  the  newly  restored  state.  John  Hyr- 
canus and  his  sons  Aristobulus  (106-'5)  and 
Alexander  Jannseus  (105-78),  belong  to  the 
small  number  of  Maccabees  who  died  a  natural 
death ;  for  the  race  of  priestly  warriors,  who 
conquered  their  dignity  by  the  sword,  were 
doomed  to  perish  by  the  sword,  and  only  the 
earlier  members  of  the  house  who  fought  for 
the  liberty  of  their  people  fell  in  glorious 
battles.  Aristobulus,  who  assumed  the  royal 
title,  ordered  the  murder  of  his  brother  Antig- 
onus,  while  their  mother  was  starved  in  a  dun- 
geon. Alexander  Jannaeus  proved  equally  bar- 
barous in  a  war  of  six  years  against  the  major- 
ity of  his  people,  who  abhorred  him  as  a  de- 
bauched tyrant  and  Sadducee,  and  stained  Ids 
victory  by  the  execution  of  800  of  the  most  im- 
portant rebels  before  the  eyes  of  his  revelling 
court.  Thousands  sought  refuge  in  flight,  and  he 
was  allowed  to  continue  his  reign  till  his  death, 
when  he  advised  his  wife  Alexandra  (or  Salome) 
to  follow  an  opposite  line  of  policy.  She  ac- 
cordingly chose  her  councillors  from  among  the 
distinguished  men  of  the  national  party,  and  re- 
called the  exiles.  Of  her  two  sons,  she  appoi  ntfd 
Hyrcanus  high  priest,  keeping  the  political  rule 
herself.  Dissatisfied  with  this  arrangement,  the 
younger,  Aristobulus,  sought  for  support  among 
the  Sadducees,  and  after  the  death  of  their 
mother  (71)  a  long  civil  war  was  waged  by  the 


HEBREWS 


593 


two  brothers,  which  was  terminated  only  by 

le  interference  of  the  Romans,  to  whom  both 
applied.  Scaurus,  the  lieutenant  of  Pompey 
the  Great  in  Syria,  decided  for  the  younger  of 
the  brothers  (63).  But  Pompey  soon  after  re- 
versed the  sentence,  besieged  Aristobulus  in 
Jerusalem,  took  the  city  and  the  temple,  enter- 
ing both  amid  streams  of  blood,  and  confirmed 
Hyrcanus  as  high  priest,  in  which  capacity  he 
became  tributary  ethnarch  of  the  Romans. 
Aristobulus  and  his  sons,  Alexander  and  Antig- 
onus,  were  carried  as  captives  to  Rome.  Judea, 
with  narrowed  limits,  was  now  a  province  of 

~ie  Roman  republic,  which  was  just  advancing 
to  its  furthest  boundary  in  the  East.  In  the 
name  of  Hyrcanus  it  was  governed  by  Antipater, 

iis  crafty  Idumsean  minister,  who  ruled  his 
feeble  master,  and  was  finally  himself  establish- 
by  Csesar,  after  the  fall  of  Pompey  (48),  as 

toman  procurator  of  Judea.  Aristobulus  and 
iis  two  sons  escaped  from  Rome,  and  made 
lesperate  efforts  to  recover  their  dignity,  but 

11  of  them  perished  in  the  successive  attempts. 

intigonus  procured  aid  from  the  Parthians, 
having  vanquished  Crassus  (53)  and  other 
)man  generals,  invaded  Judea  and  carried 

[yrcanus  into  captivity.  But  he  finally  suc- 
jumbed  to  the  son  of  Antipater,  Herod,  who 
his  flight  to  Rome  had  gained  the  favor  of 
new  triumvirs,  and  who  now  inaugurated 

ider  their  auspices,  as  a  powerful  indepen- 
lent  king,  the  last  dynasty  in  Judea,  the  Idu- 
3an  (39).  This  prince,  who  as  if  in  irony  has 
called  the  Great,  was  the  slave  of  his 
•dons,  as  well  as  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
)loody  master  of  his  subjects.  His  ambition 
ide  him  rival  in  splendid  structures,  among 

rhich  was  the  rebuilded  temple,  in  the  erec- 
tion of  new  fortresses,  citadels,  and  cities,  and 
unlimited  sway,  the  glory  of  King  Solomon, 
>ut  did  not  prevent  him  from  basely  cringing 
before  Mark  Antony,  his  mistress  Cleopatra  of 
~  rpt,  and  his  rival  Octavius,  and  from  sacri- 
icing  the  most  sacred  customs  and  usages  of 
the  people  in  order  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  his 
foreign  supporters.  Gladiatorial  games,  stat- 
ues, and  other  things  abhorred  by  the  Jews, 
were  introduced  in  their  cities,  and  the  Roman 
eagle  was  placed  on  the  top  of  the  new  temple. 
The  desire  of  the  people  for  the  national  house 
of  the  Maccabees  was  to  be  stifled  in  the  blood 
1  its  last  descendants,  though  Herod  was  him- 

ilf   the  husband   of   Mariamne,   the  grand- 

lughter  of  Hyrcanus  by  her  mother  Alexan- 

ra,  and  of  Aristobulus  by  her  father  Alexan- 

ler.  Antigonus  was  executed  by  the  Romans 
Damascus;  the  old  Hyrcanus  was  enticed 
>m  Babylon  to  share  the  same  fate  in  Jeru- 

ilem ;  the  young  and  beautiful  brother  of 
the  queen,  the  high  priest  Aristobulus,  was 
treacherously  drowned  while  bathing  with  the 
king.  Herod's  own  house  followed,  treacher- 
ous intrigues  and  the  dread  of  conspiracies  de- 
manding new  victims.  His  uncle  Joseph,  his 
frantically  beloved,  beautiful,  and  noble  Mari- 
amne, her  mother  Alexandra,  his  two  sons  by 


Mariamne,  the  favorites  of  the  people,  perished 
successively  at  his  order ;  and  finally,  five  days 
before  his  own  death,  his  son  by  another  wife, 
Antipas  or  Antipater,  next  to  Herod's  sister 
Salome  the  chief  cause  of  the  last  murders 
and  of  the  king's  dreadful  agonies.  The  blood 
of  many  other  innocent  persons  was  shed,  at- 
tempts at  insurrection  or  regicide  being  quelled 
or  punished  with  remorseless  rigor.  In  extent 
of  possessions,  however,  Herod's  reign  by  far 
surpassed  the  power  of  his  predecessors.  Au- 
gustus divided  his  territory  among  his  three  sur- 
viving sons.  Archelaus,  as  ethnarch,  received 
half  of  them,  viz. :  Judea  (proper),  Samaria  to 
the  north,  and  Idumsea  to  the  south  ;  Philip  and 
Herod  Antipas,  as  tetrarchs,  the  other  half—- 
the former,  Batansea,  Trachonitis,  and  Aurani- 
tis,  E.  of  the  Jordan  (Persea),  and  the  latter, 
Galilee  W.  of  the  Jordan  and  N.  of  Samaria, 
with  some  slight  additions.  Anarchy  was  a 
natural  consequence  of  this  arbitrary  arrange- 
ment, and  it  came  with  all  its  horrors. — Such 
was  the  political  condition  of  the  Jewish  state 
in  the  first  year  of  the  Christian  era,  about 
three  years  after  the  birth  of  the  founder  of 
the  Christian  religion,  for  an  account  of  whose 
life,  doctrine,  and  death  (in  the  year  33,  under 
the  sway  of  the  Roman  procurator  Pontius  Pi- 
late, the  possessions  of  Archelaus  having  been 
annexed  to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria)  we 
refer  the  reader  to  special  articles  under  the 
appropriate  heads.  The  religious  and  literary 
institutions  of  the  people  had  in  the  mean  while 
received  a  remarkable  development  during  the 
Asmonean  period,  on  the  basis  of  the  sopherim, 
and  principally  under  the  lead  of  the  successive 
schools  of  the  'haTchamim  (scholars)  Jose  of 
Zeredah  and  Jose  of  Jerusalem,  Joshua  ben 
Perachiah  and  Nittai  of  Arbel,  Judah  bon 
Tabbai  and  Simeon  ben  Shetah,  and  Shemaiah 
and  Abtalion ;  and  it  reached  a  most  flourishing 
condition  under  the  school  of  the  great  Hillel 
the  Babylonian,  president  of  the  sanhedrim  like 
all  the  first  of  the  above  named  pairs,  and  the 
rival  school  of  the  austere  Shammai,  in  the  reign 
of  Herod.  The  eminent  philosophical  book  of 
Ben  Sirach  and  the  first  book  of  the  Maccabees 
are  the  products  of  the  earlier  part  of  that 
period,  while  the  age  of  the  books  of  Tobit,  Ju- 
dith, Barucb,  and  other  apocryphal  writings,  is 
unknown.  The  simultaneous  literary  activity 
of  the  Jews  in  Africa  is  evinced  in  the  book  of 
Wisdom,  by  their  numerous  contributions  to 
Hellenistic  poetry  and  history  (Jason,  Alexander 
Polyhistor,  Ezekiel,  &c.),  and  especially  to  Pla- 
tonic philosophy,  from  Aristobulus,  the  Jewish 
teacher  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  to  Philo,  the 
distinguished  deputy  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews 
to  the  Roman  emperor  Caligula.  The  empe- 
rors were  already  becoming  the  exclusive  mas- 
ters of  Palestine.  Archelaus  was  carried  cap- 
tive to  Gaul  under  Augustus  (8),  and  separate 
procurators  ruled  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idu- 
msea.  Philip's  possessions  were  attached  to 
Syria  after  his  death  (35)  by  Tiberius,  but  af- 
terward given  by  Caligula  to  Herod  Agrippa, 


594 


HEBREWS 


a  grandson  of  Herod,  and  brother  of  Herodias, 
who,  being  unlawfully  married  by  Herod  An- 
tipas,  caused  the  deposition  of  the  latter,  and 
the  annexation  of  his  tetrachy  to  the  dominion 
of  Agrippa,  who  even  succeeded  in  reuniting 
for  a  short  time,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  the 
whole  of  Palestine!  After  his  death  (44)  his 
territory  was  again  ruled  by  procurators,  and 
only  a  small  portion  was  afterward  given  to 
his  son  Agrippa  II.  (53).  The  condition  of  the 
country  was  dreadful.  The  emperors,  at  that 
time  the  vilest  of  men,  demanded  divine  hon- 
ors, their  statues  were  erected  in  the  temple, 
the  procurators  grew  rich  by  extortions,  the 
petty  Herodian  courts  shamelessly  imitated 
the  licentiousness  of  the  imperial,  robbers  in- 
fested the  mountainous  regions,  impostors  and 
fanatics  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion,  and 
insurrections  led  to  new  oppression,  both  re- 
ligious and  civil.  Nero's  rule,  and  the  extor- 
tions of  his  procurator  Gessius  Florus,  finally 
drove  the  people  to  despair.  Death  to  the 
Romans  or  to  themselves  became  the  cry  of  the 
fanatics  and  the  poor.  The  Sadducees  and  the 
rich  opposed  it  in  vain,  though  aided  by  the 
troops  of  Agrippa.  The  temple  of  Jerusalem, 
the  ancient  capital  itself,  and  numerous  strong- 
holds in  the  country  were  taken  by  the  insur- 
gents (66).  The  Roman  governor  of  Syria, 
Cestius  Gallus,  who  hastened  to  Jerusalem, 
was  routed  near  that  city.  The  zealots  now 
organized  a  general  rising.  The  priest  Jose- 
phus,  the  historian,  was  sent  to  arm  and  de- 
fend Galilee.  But  one  of  Nero's  best  gener- 
als, Vespasian,  was  already  approaching  from 
the  north  (67) ;  and  Titus,  his  son,  brought 
new  legions  from  Egypt.  The  Jews  fought 
with  Maccabean  valor  near  Joppa,  at  Mount 
Gerizim,  in  the  streets  of  Gamala,  at  Jotapata, 
and  other  places.  But  Josephus's  army  per- 
ished in  the  struggle  about  Jotapata,  and  he 
was  made  prisoner ;  Galilee  was  lost,  and  civil 
carnage  raged  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
between  the  moderates  under  the  priest  El- 
eazar,  the  terrorists  under  John  of  Giscala, 
and  the  volunteers  commanded  by  Simon  the 
Idumsean.  Vespasian  now  advanced  and  took 
most  of  the  strongholds  (68).  The  events 
which  followed  the  death  of  Nero,  however, 
checked  his  progress.  Vespasian  himself  be- 
ing proclaimed  emperor  by  his  legions  (69),  Ti- 
tus took  the  command.  Jerusalem,  Masada, 
Machaerus,  and  Ilerodium  were  still  to  be  be- 
sieged. The  northern  part  of  Jerusalem,  Be- 
zetha,  was  first  taken  by  the  Romans  with  the 
external  wall.  The  middle  wall,  too,  fell  into 
their  hands,  but  the  defenders,  now  united  and 
heroically  fighting,  drove  them  out.  The  Ro- 
man resolved  upon  conquering  by  hunger,  and 
this  brought  pestilence  to  his  assistance.  Hay, 
leather,  and  insects  were  finally  consumed ;  the 
victims  could  no  longer  be  buried,  but  were 
thrown  over  the  wall.  Deserters  and  fugitives 
were  mutilated  by  the  besiegers  or  driven  back. 
The  castle  Antonia,  and  with  it  the  second  wall, 
were  finally  taken  (June,  70).  John  and  Simon 


still  refused  to  hear  of  surrender.  In  August 
the  temple  was  stormed,  and  Titus  was  unable 
to  prevent  its  becoming  a  prey  to  the  flames. 
The  last  defenders  retired  to  the  fortified  upper 
city,  which  fell  in  September.  Jerusalem  was 
razed  to  the  ground,  its  surviving  inhabitants 
were  slaughtered  by  thousands,  sold  into  sla- 
very, or  doomed  to  perish  in  public  fights  with 
wild  beasts  before  Romans  and  Greeks,  at  the 
command  of  the  future  amor  et  delicice  gene- 
ris humani.  Herodium,  Machaerus,  and  Ma- 
sada still  defended  themselves  for  a  time.  In 
the  latter  the  conquerors  found  only  a  few  chil- 
dren, the  last  men  having  died  by  their  own 
hands.  A  million  of  Jews  perished  in  this  war, 
which  found  an  eloquent  but  partial  historian 
in  the  learned  captive  Josephus.  The  later  and 
still  more  furious  risings  of  the  scattered  people 
in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian  in  Gyrene, 
Egypt,  Cyprus,  and  Palestine,  where  Bar-Co- 
kheba  for  years  victoriously  maintained  himself 
against  the  Roman  generals  until  he  fell  with 
his  last  stronghold  Bethar,  are  known  only  from 
scattered  passages  full  of  exaggerations,  dictated 
by  hatred  on  one  side  and  patriotic  admiration 
on  the  other. — The  last  insurrection,  and  the 
bloody  persecutions  which  followed  it,  finally 
broke  the  strength  and  spirit  of  the  people. 
Their  leaders  prohibited  every  attempt  at  in- 
surrection in  the  name  of  religion,  and  were 
obeyed.  Hadrian's  ^Elia  Capitolina  rose  on 
the  sacred  ground  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  de- 
crees forbade  the  Jews  to  enter  its  precincts. 
Its  environs  were  desolate.  The  land  of  Israel 
was  no  more ;  the  people  scattered  all  over 
the  world.  The  previous  invasions  and  con- 
quests, civil  strifes  and  oppression,  persecution 
and  famine,  had  carried  hosts  of  Jewish  cap- 
tives, slaves,  fugitives,  exiles,  and  emigrants, 
into  the  remotest  provinces  of  the  Medo-Per- 
sian  empire,  all  over  Asia  Minor,  into  Armenia, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  Cyrene,  Cyprus,  Greece,  and 
Italy.  The  Roman  conquest  and  persecutions 
completed  the  work  of  dispersion,  and  we  soon 
find  Jews  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  in  the 
regions  of  Mt.  Atlas,  on  both  sides  of  the  Py- 
renees, on  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  Palestine, 
however,  for  some  time  continued  to  be  a  na- 
tional centre  through  its  schools  of  religious 
science,  which  after  the  desolation  of  Jerusa- 
lem flourished  at  Jamnia,  Lydda,  Usha,  Se- 
phoris,  Tiberias,  and  other  places,  principally 
under  the  lead  of  the  presidents  of  the  sanhe- 
drim (patriarchs,  nesiim)  of  the  house  of  Hillel, 
of  whom  Gamaliel  Hazzaken  (the  Elder),  his 
son  Simeon,  his  grandson  Gamaliel,  and  great- 
grandson  Simeon,  with  their  celebrated  fellow 
tanaim  (teachers  or  scholars)  Johanan  ben 
Zakkai,  Eliezer,  Joshua,  Eleazar,  Ishmael,  Tar- 
phon,  the  great  Akiba,  and  others  had  been 
successfully  active  during  the  previous  disas- 
trous period.  The  succeeding  rabbis  (rabbi, 
my  master),  Ben  Azai,  Ben  Zoma,  the  five  pu- 
pils of  Akiba,  Eliezer,  Meir,  Jose,  Jehudah, 
Simeon,  Nathan,  and  others,  continued  their 
work  by  public  teaching,  as  well  as  by  collect- 


HEBREWS 


595 


ing,  elucidating,  systematizing,  and  further  de- 
veloping the  decisions  (halakhoth,  collectively 
termed  HalakhaK)  of  the  oral  law,  which  was 
finally  converted  into  a  written  code  or  com- 
pendium of  teachings  (Mishnah)  by  the  patri- 
arch Judah  the  Holy  and  his  school,  during 
the  mild  reigns  of  the  Antonines.  To  this 
were  added  the  partly  supplementary,  partly 
explanatory  works,  Tosephta,  Mekhilta,  Sa- 
phra,  and  SipJiri.  These  works  became  the 
basis  of  religious  study  in  the  subsequent  three 
centuries,  in  Palestine,  as  well  as  in  Babylo- 
nia, where  the  schools  of  Sura,  Pumbeditha, 
Nehardea,  and  others,  flourished  under  more 
favorable  circumstances,  the  most  renowned 
teachers  (in  this  period  amoraim)  of  both  coun- 
tries being  Rab,  Samuel,  Joshua  ben  Levi, 
Johanan,  Simeon  ben  Lakish,  the  patriarch 
Fehudah  II.,  Ame,  Ase,  Abahu,  Ele'azar,  Jehu- 
i,  Hunna,  Hisda,  Nahman,  Rabbah,  Joseph, 
Zera,  Jeremiah,  Abbaye,  Raba,  Pappa,  Ashe, 
Abina,  and  Mar  bar  (ben)  Ashe  (died  467). 
After  new  persecutions  by  the  Christian  em- 
3rors,  which  destroyed  the  schools  (353)  and 
patriarchate  (429)  of  Palestine,  and  by  the 
'ersian  kings  Yezdegerd  II.,  Hormuz,  Firuz, 
id  Kobad  in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century, 
rhich  destroyed  the  schools  of  Babylonia,  the 
suits  of  those  studies  were  also  collected, 
lough  in  chaotic  disorder,  in  the  two  Gemaras 
or  Talmuds  (literally,  studies),  the  Palestinian 
and  Babylonian.  Other  extant  products  of  the 
time  of  the  tanaim  and  amoraim  were  various 
jthical  treatises  (DereTch  eretz,  Aboih,  &c.),  his- 
torical, legendary,  and  cosmogonal  writings 
(haggadoth,  stories,  collectively  Haggadah,  a 
vast  branch),  prayers  (tepMlloiK),  additions  to 
the  Chaldee  paraphrase  (Targum)  of  Scriptural 
books,  a  new  calendar,  admirably  adapted  to 
the  religious  duties  of  the  people,  by  Hillel  (340), 
and  some  Greek  fragments  by  Aquila  and  Sym- 
machus.  The  Chaldee,  often  with  an  admixture 
of  Hebrew,  was  now  generally  used  in  literary 
works,  while  the  people  used  the  various  lan- 
guages of  the  countries  in  which  they  lived. 
More  and  more  oppressed  and  degraded  by  the 
emperors,  of  whom  only  Julian  was  favorable 
to  his  Jewish  subjects,  and  even  attempted 
to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Zion,  and  by  the  de- 
crees of  the  councils,  the  Jews  of  Palestine  once 
lore  hoped  to  recover  their  independence  when 
iey  assisted  the  Persians  in  conquering  Jeru- 
lem  (616),  but  were  soon  severely  chastised 
for  their  rash  attempt  by  the  victorious  emperor 
'leraclius.  But  a  new  power  springing  from  the 
ibian  desert  was  destined  to  humiliate  all  the 
>ntending  parties  and  sects  between  the  Tigris 
id  the  Nile,  the  Byzantine  emperors  and  the 
Sassanide  shahs,  Christians,  fire  worshippers, 
ind  Jews.  A  new  Semitic  prophet  arose  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Red  sea,  teaching  his  disciples 
and  people  a  monotheism  which  was  to  be  car- 
ried triumphantly  over  a  great  part  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Europe  (622).  Mohammed  him- 
self after  a  long  struggle  conquered  the  castles 
of  the  independent  Jews  in  Arabia,  who,  liv- 


ing  from  a  very  remote  period  in  that  country, 
were  masters  both  of  the  poetical  tongue  and 
the  sword  of  the  desert,  their  warlike  Samuel 
ben  Abdiah,  among  others,  being  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  early  poets  of  the  peninsula. 
Omar  and  his  generals  conquered  Jerusalem, 
Tiberias,  Damascus,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria 
from  the  Byzantines,  and  subdued  Persia,  thus 
bringing  most  of  the  eastern  Jews  under  the 
rule  of  Islam.  This  proving  comparatively 
mild,  and  the  later  caliphs  favoring  every  sci- 
ence, Jewish  studies  revived,  especially  in 
Babylonia,  where  the  Jews  lived  under  the 
immediate  rule  of  a  prince  of  the  captivity  (resJi 
gelutha),  and  where  their  great  schools,  having 
been  reorganized  under  the  seboraim  (thinkers), 
were  made  flourishing  under  the  geonim  (the 
eminent).  Of  these  Saadia,  the  translator  of 
the  Pentateuch  into  Arabic  (died  941),  and  Hai 
(died  1037),  the  son  of  Sherira,  and  son-in-law 
of  Samuel  ben  Hofni,  are  eminent  as  theolo- 
gical writers,  poets,  and  linguists.  Numerous 
works  of  Haggadah,  now  mostly  known  as 
midrashim,  and  ethical  writings,  were  com- 
posed ;  the  critical  notes  of  the  Masora  and 
the  "  Targum  of  Jerusalem  "  elaborated  ;  the 
admirable  system  of  Scriptural  vocalization  in- 
troduced ;  talmudical  compendiums  written ; 
medical,  astronomical,  and  linguistic  studies, 
and  also  cosmogonal  speculations  (KabbalaK), 
pursued.  An  anti-rabbinical  sect,  besides  the 
extinct  Sadducees  the  only  one  which  deserves 
that  appellation,  was  founded  about  the  middle 
of  the  8th  century  by  Anan  in  Babylonia,  re- 
ceiving from  their  strict  adherence  to  the  letter 
of  the  Bible  the  name  of  Karaites  (Scripturists). 
Their  scholars,  Salmon,  Jeshua,  and  Japheth, 
flourished  in  the  10th  century.  Scientific  pur- 
suits also  spread  among  the  Jews  in  Africa, 
who  with  slight  interruptions  enjoyed  peace 
under  the  Saracenic  princes;  and  among  the 
theological  writers  of  Fez  and  Kairowan  in 
that  period,  of  whom  Nissim  and  Hananel 
(both  in  the  first  half  of  the  llth  century)  are 
the  most  celebrated,  we  find  the  physician 
and  critic  Isaac  ben  Soleyman,  the  lexicogra- 
pher Hefetz,  and  the  grammarians  Ben  Koraish, 
Dunash,  and  Hayug.  The  Arabic  was  gener- 
ally used  by  the  scholars. — The  political  and 
intellectual  condition  of  the  Jews  was  worse 
in  the  Byzantine  empire  and  in  the  feudal 
states  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  West 
Roman.  Deprived  of  most  civil  rights,  they 
were  now  and  then  bloodily  persecuted,  as 
by  the  Franks  and  Visigoths  in  the  6th  and 
7th  centuries,  by  the  Byzantines  in  the  8th, 
when  many  of  them  fled  and  even  spread  their 
religion  among  the  Khazars  about  the  Caspian 
sea,  and  again  in  the  llth,  about  which  time 
they  appear  in  Russia,  though  only  for  a  short 
time,  and  in  Hungary.  More  tolerable,  how- 
ever, was  their  situation  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Sardinia,  where  they  often  found  protection 
through  the  influence  of  the  popes.  Bari  and 
Otranto  became  the  principal  seats  of  Jewish 
learning.  The  renowned  Eleazer  ben  Kalir 


596 


HEBREWS 


and  other  writers  of  piyutim  (liturgical  songs 
in  Hebrew  rhymed  verse),  the  historian  Josi- 
pon,  and  the  astronomer  Shabthai  Donolo, 
flourished  in  Italy  in  the  9th  and  10th  centu- 
ries, and  the  lexicographer  Nathan  in  the  llth. 
From  Italy  science  spread  to  the  cities  on  the 
Rhine,  to  Lorraine  and  France.  In  the  llth 
and  12th  centuries  we  find  in  Germany  Simeon, 
the  author  of  the  talmudical  Yalkut  ("  Glean- 
ing Bag  "),  the  poet  Samuel  the  Pious,  and  the 
writer  of  travels  Petahiah  ;  in  northern  France, 
Gerson,  surnamed  the  "light  of  the  exiled," 
the  liturgical  poet  Joseph  Tob  Elem,  the  re- 
nowned commentators  Solomon  Isaaki  and  his 
grandson  Solomon  ben  Meir,  and  the  authors 
of  the  talmudical  Tosafoth  ("Additions"), 
Isaac  ben  Asher,  Jacob  ben  Meir,  &c.  Spain, 
after  the  conquest  by  the  Saracens,  who  car- 
ried thither  culture,  science,  and  poetry,  was 
destined  to  develop  the  most  prosperous  and 
flourishing  condition  which  the  Jews  enjoyed 
in  the  middle  ages.  Persecutions  became  rare 
and  exceptional.  The  Jews  enjoyed  civil  rights 
and  rose  to  high  dignities  in  the  state  under 
the  Moorish  princes,  and  were  almost  as  well 
treated  by  the  Christian  monarchs ;  and  their 
culture  and  progress  in  science  not  only  kept 
pace  with  their  prosperity,  but  also  out- 
lived occasional  adversity.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tury we  see  there  the  lexicographer  Men- 
ahem,  the  astronomer  Hassan,  and  the  rich, 
liberal,  and  scientific  Hasdai,  the  friend  and 
physician  of  the  caliph  Abderrahman  III.,  at 
Cordova;  in  the  llth  the  talmudical  scholars 
Samuel  Hallevi  and  Isaac  Alfasi  (of  Fez),  the 
grammarian  Abulwalid,  the  philosopher  David 
Mokamez,  the  ethical  writer  Behai,  and  Solo- 
mon Gabirol,  equally  celebrated  as  Hebrew  po- 
et and  Arabic  philosopher ;  in  the  12th  the  the- 
ologian Abraham  ben  David,  the  astronomer  and 
geographer  Abraham  ben  Hiya,  the  poet  Mo- 
ses ben  Ezra,  the  traveller  Benjamin  of  Tudela, 
the  philosophical  poet  Jehudah  Hallevi,  whose 
glowing  songs  rival  the  beauties  and  purity  of 
the  Psalms,  the  great  critic,  philosopher,  and 
poet  Aben  Ezra,  and  finally  Moses  Maimonides, 
who  as  a  philosopher  and  writer  on  the  law 
by  far  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries.  The 
diffusion  of  science  among  the  Jews  now  at- 
tained its  height  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in 
Egypt,  whither  Maimonides  fled  after  a  perse- 
cution at  Cordova  (1157),  and  where  he  and 
his  son  Abraham  officiated  as  physicians  to  the 
court  of  the  sultan.  Spain  numbered  among 
its  vast  number  of  scholars  in  the  13th,  14th, 
and  15th  centuries,  the  poets  Harizi,  the  He- 
brew imitator  of  the  Arabian  Hariri,  and  Saho- 
la ;  the  astronomers  Aben  Sid,  one  of  the  au- 
thors of  the  Alfonsine  tables,  Israeli,  and  Al- 
hadev ;  the  philosophical  theologians  Palquera, 
Lattef,  Caspi,  Hasdai,  Albo,  and  Shemtob ;  the 
celebrated  commentators  Nahmanides,  Adde- 
reth,  Geruridi,  Behai,  Yomtob,  and  Nissim ;  the 
cabalists  Todros,  Gecatilia,  Abelafia,  and  De 
Leon.  In  Provence  and  Languedoc,  where 
high  schools  flourished  in  Lunel,  Nimes,  Nar- 


bonne,  Montpellier,  and  Marseilles,  from  the 
12th  to  the  15th  century,  we  find  the  three 
grammarians  Kimhi  and  their  follower  Epho- 
di ;  the  poets  Ezobi,  Jedaiah,  and  Calonymus ; 
the  commentators  Zerahiah  Hallevi,  Abraham 
ben  David,  and  Menahem  ben  Solomon ;  the 
philosophers  Levi  ben  Abraham,  Levi  ben  Ger- 
son, and  Vidal ;  the  four  Tibbons,  all  translators 
from  Arabic  into  Hebrew,  and  the  lexicogra- 
pher Isaac  Nathan.  Italy  had  in  the  13th,  14th, 
and  15th  centuries  the  poets  Immanuel,  an  im- 
itator of  Dante,  Moses  di  Rieti,  and  Messir 
Leon ;  the  talmudists  Trani  and  Colon ;  the 
cabalist  Recanate;  the  astronomer  Immanuel; 
various  grammarians  and  translators  from  Ar- 
abic and  Latin;  and  finally  the  philosopher 
Elias  del  Medigo.  Germany  had  in  the  same 
period  the  talmudists  Meir,  Mordecai,  Asher 
and  his  son  Jacob,  and  Isserlin,  the  cabalist 
Eleazar,  and  others.  The  Karaites,  too,  had 
a  number  of  scholars,  as  Hadassi,  the  two 
Aarons,  and  others.  During  the  earlier  part 
of  this  long  period  of  literary  activity  in  the 
West  the  Jews  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity, 
with  various  interruptions,  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
Italy,  Greece,  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
in  Hungary,  especially  under  the  national  kings, 
and  in  Poland,  which  hospitably  received  the 
numerous  exiles  from  all  neighboring  countries, 
under  the  Piasts,  particularly  the  last  of  them, 
Oasimir  the  Great ;  but  there  were  none  in 
Muscovy  and  in  .the  Scandinavian  states ;  and 
in  England,  where  they  appear  before  the  time 
of  Alfred,  in  France,  where  only  the  early  Car- 
lo vingians,  and  especially  Charlemagne,  favored 
them,  and  throughout  Germany,  their  condi- 
tion was  in  the  last  degree  deplorable.  Cir- 
cumscribed in  their  rights  by  decrees  and  laws 
of  the  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  power,  ex- 
cluded from  all  honorable  occupations,  driven 
from  place  to  place,  from  province  to  province, 
compelled  to  subsist  almost  exclusively  by  mer- 
cantile occupations  and  usury,  overtaxed  and 
degraded  in  the  cities,  kept  in  narrow  quarters 
and  marked  in  their  dress  with  signs  of  con- 
tempt, plundered  by  lawless  barons  and  penni- 
less princes,  an  easy  prey  to  all  parties  during 
the  civil  feuds,  again  and  again  robbed  of  their 
pecuniary  claims,  owned  and  sold  as  serfs 
(KammerTcnecJite)  by  the  emperors,  butchered 
by  mobs  and  revolted  peasants,  chased  by  the 
monks,  burned  in  thousands  by  the  crusaders 
(who  also"  burned  their  brethren  of  Jerusalem 
in  their  synagogue),  tormented  by  ridicule, 
abusive  sermons,  monstrous  accusations  find 
trials,  threats  and  experiments  of  conversion, 
the  Jews  of  those  countries  offer  in  their  me- 
diaeval history  a  frightful  picture  of  horrors 
and  gloom.  In  England  they  had  their  worst 
days  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  at  whose  coro- 
nation they  were  massacred  at  York  (1189), 
John,  Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I.,  who  expelled 
them  altogether  from  the  realm  (1290).  From 
France  they  were  for  the  last  time  banished 
under  Charles  VI.  (1395).  Germany,  where 
the  greatest  anarchy  prevailed,  was  the  scene 


HEBREWS 


597 


of  their  bloodiest  persecutions,  the  most  fright- 
ful of  which  took  place  in  the  cities  on  the 
Rhine  during  the  great  desolation  by  the  black 
plague  which  depopulated  Europe  from  the 
Volga  to  the  Atlantic  (1348-'50).  Pointed  out 
to  the  ignorant  people  as  having  caused  the 
pestilence  by  poisoning  the  wells,  the  Jews 
were  burned  by  thousands  on  the  public 
squares,  or  burned  themselves  with  their  fami- 
lies in  the  synagogues.  Almost  every  imperial 
city  had  a  general  persecution  of  the  Jews.  The 
Swiss  towns  imitated  their  neighbors,  almost 
all  banishing  their  Jews.  With  the  growing 
influence  of  the  inquisition,  the  Jews  of  southern 
Europe,  too,  suffered  the  same  fate.  The  pro- 
tection of  the  popes  being  gradually  withdrawn, 
they  were  banished  from  the  cities  of  Italy  into 
separate  quarters  (ghetti),  and  obliged  to  wear 
distinctive  badges;  persecutions  became  more 
frequent ;  in  1493  all  the  Jews  of  Sicily,  about 
20,000  families,  were  banished.  In  Spain,  du- 
ring a  long  drought  in  1391-'2,  the  Jewish  in- 
habitants were  massacred  in  many  cities.  The 
condition  of  the  Jews  grew  worse  in  the  fol- 
lowing century,  until  their  extirpation  from 
the  whole  country  was  determined  upon,  and, 
after  repeated  but  fruitless  attempts  at  con- 
version by  the  stake,  finally  carried  into  effect 
by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (1492).  More  than 
70,000  families  sought  refuge  in  Portugal, 
where  for  a  large  sum  of  money  the  fugitives 
were  allowed  to  remain  for  a  few  months,  in 
Africa,  Italy,  Turkey,  and  other  countries. 
Not  the  fifth  part  of  them  survived  the  hor- 
rors of  compulsory  expatriation,  shipwreck, 
and  subsequent  famine.  The  feeling  observer 
may  find  a  compensation  in  the  fact  that  while 
these  events  happened,  propitious  winds  car- 
ried three  small  caravels  across  the  Atlantic  to 
a  new  world,  whose  enervating  treasures  were 
destined  to  assist  the  inquisition  in  undermi- 
ning the  power  of  the  oppressors,  and  whose 
future  institutions  were  to  inaugurate  an  era 
of  freedom  to  the  descendants  of  the  oppressed. 
The  Jews  of  Portugal  were  banished  soon  after 
(1495)  by  King  Emanuel,  being  robbed  of  their 
children  under  14  years  of  age,  who  were  sent 
to  distant  islands  to  be  brought  up  as  Chris- 
tians. The  numerous  converted  Jews  of  the 
peninsula  and  their  descendants  were  still  per- 
secuted for  more  than  two  centuries  by  govern- 
ments, inquisitors,  and  mobs.  These  persecu- 
tions, which  eventually  carried  the  bulk  of  the 
European  Jewish  population  into  the  provinces 
of  Poland  and  Turkey,  similar  events  in  the 
East  during  the  crusades,  a  long  series  of  per- 
secutions in  Germany,  and  in  central  and  south- 
ern Italy  in  the  16th  century,  and  bloody  mas- 
sacres by  the  revolted  Cossacks  under  Chmiel- 
nicki  in  the  S.  E.  regions  of  Poland,  together 
with  a  general  and  minutely  developed  system 
of  petty  oppression,  extortion,  and  degradation, 
to  which  the  Jews  were  subjected  in  most  parts 
of  Europe  during  the  250  years  following  their 
expulsion  from  the  Iberian  peninsula,  could  not 
but  exercise  a  disastrous  influence  upon  the  cul- 


ture and  literature  of  the  people.  The  spirit  of 
cheerful  inquiry,  study,  and  poetry  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Spanish-Provencal  period,  was 
gone.  The  critical  knowledge  and  use  of  the 
Hebrew  was  neglected,  the  study  of  the  Talmud 
and  its  commentaries  became  the  almost  exclu- 
sive occupation  of  the  literary  youth,  and  ca- 
balistic speculations  replaced  philosophy,  pro- 
ducing in  Poland  various  schools  of  religious 
enthusiasts  called  'Hasidim  (pietists).  A  bold 
Turkish  Jew,  Shabthai  Tzebi,  who,  like  the 
Persian  Aldaud  or  Alroy  in  the  12th  century, 
was  proclaimed  by  his  cabalistic  followers  the 
expected  Messiah  of  Israel,  found  numerous 
adherents  even  in  various  parts  .of  Europe 
(1666),  whose  delusion  was  destroyed  only  by 
his  compulsory  conversion  to  Mohammedan- 
ism. Literature  and  science,  however,  still 
found  scattered  votaries,  especially  in  northern 
Italy,  Turkey,  and  Holland;  and  besides  the 
great  talmudists,  theologians,  or  commentators 
of  this  period,  Don  I.  Abarbanel,  I.  Arama,  J. 
and  L.  Habib,  Mizrahi,  O.  Bartenura,  O.  Sforno, 
I.  Luria,  J.  Karo,  the  author  of  the  talmudical 
abridgment  or  code  Shulhan  arukh,  E.  Ash- 
kenazi,  Alsheikh,  S.  Luria,  M.  Isserels,  M.  Ja- 
feh,  Sirks,  S.  Cohen,  Lion  of  Prague,  E.  Lent- 
schiitz,  J.  Trani,  J.  Hurwitz,  H.  Vital,  S.  Edels, 
Y.  Heller,  Shabthai  Cohen.  A.  Able,  D.  Op- 
penheimer,  the  collector  01  the  best  Hebrew 
library  (now  in  Oxford),  Tzebi  Ashkenazi,  H. 
Silva,  J.  Rosanis,  D.  Frankel,  J.  Eybeschutz, 
J.  Emden,  H.  Landau,  Elias  of  Wilna,  &c.,  we 
find  the  philosophers  and  men  of  science 
Bibago,  S.  Cohen,  Amatus,  Almosnino,  De 
Castro,  A.  Zacchuto,  J.  del  Medigo,  M.  Hefetz, 
and  Nieto;  and  among  the  poets,  grammari- 
ans, critics,  lexicographers,  and  historical 
writers,  De  Balmes,  Elias  Levita,  A.  Farissol, 
Solomon  ben  Melekh,  Jacob  ben  Hayim,  Geda- 
liah,  Yahiah,  A.  de  Rossi,  De'  Pomi,  D.  Gans, 
S.  Arkevolte,  Lonsano,  Manasseh  ben  Israel, 
the  defender  of  the  Jews  before  Cromwell,  S. 
Norzi,  S.  Luzzato,  Leo  de  Modena,  S.  Mortera, 
J.  Orobio,  Shabthai  ben  Joseph,  B.  Mussaphia, 
De  Lara,  J.  Cardoso,  J.  Abendana,  S.  Hanau, 
M.  H.  Luzzato,  J.  Heilprin,  Azulai,  and  others. 
Beyond  the  limits  of  the  Turkish  empire  there 
was  scarcely  any  trace  of  Jewish  literature  in 
the  East,  though  there  were  and  are  still  nu- 
merous Jewish  communities  in  Persia,  north- 
ern Arabia,  Independent  Tartary,  and  Afghan- 
istan, as  well  as  scattered  colonies,  mostly  of 
more  or  less  mixed  race  and  religion,  in  India, 
China,  Cochin  China,  Yemen,  Abyssinia,  and 
other  parts  of  Africa,  partly  of  very  ancient 
date,  partly  founded  by  escaped  Portuguese 
and  Spanish  New  Christians,  some  of  whom 
also  settled  in  parts  of  Brazil  and  Guiana  du- 
ring the  occupation  by  the  Dutch.  In  Europe 
the  last  of  the  three  great  religious  struggles, 
against  paganism,  against  Mohammedanism, 
and  between  the  contending  Christian  sects, 
all  of  which  were  destructive  to  the  Jews,  was 
terminated  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648). 
Catholicism  was  triumphant  in  the  south  and 


598 


HEBREWS 


in  France,  Protestantism  in  the  north  and 
northwest.  The  greater  persecutions  of  the 
Jews  now  ceased.  They  became  flourishing  in 
the  republics  of  Holland  and  Venice  and  their 
dependencies,  were  readmitted  into  England 
by  Cromwell  (having  also  entered  Denmark 
and  returned  into  France),  spread  with  the 
Dutch  and  English  to  various  parts  of  Amer- 
ica, reentered  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great 
(to  be  expelled  afterward),  were  admitted  in 
Sweden,  and  were  protected  and  often  em- 
ployed in  high  stations  by  the  sultans  of  Tur- 
key and  Morocco.  In  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, where  the  struggle  was  not  terminated 
by  any  decisive  triumphs,  the  mediaeval  treat- 
ment of  the  Jews  was  continued  longest,  its 
worst  features  being  maintained  and  developed 
in  Austria  (excepting  in  the  reign  of  Joseph 
II.).  In  this  empire,  down  to  the  revolution 
of  1848,  the  Jews  were  excluded  from  all  civil 
rights,  numerous  professions,  and  various  prov- 
inces, districts,  towns,  villages,  and  streets, 
paying  besides  a  tax  for  toleration  in  Hungary 
(in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  legisla- 
tures), a  tax  upon  their  sabbath  lights  in  Gali- 
cia,  and  a  residence  tax  when  visiting  Vienna, 
and  being  subject  to  Pharaonic  marriage  restric- 
tions in  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The  general 
progress  of  freedom  was  promoted  in  the  age 
of  philosophy  by  the  appearance  of  Spinoza 
and  of  Mendelssohn  (l729-'86)  among  this  long 
despised  people.  The  influence  of  the  latter 
upon  Jews  and  Christians  through  his  works, 
example,  fame,  and  friends  (the  great  Hebrew 
poet  Wessely,  Euchel,  Lowe,  Friedlander,  &c., 
among  Jews,  and  Lessing,  Dohm,  Abt,  Nicolai, 
Engel,  Ramler,  &c.,  among  Christians),  was 
immense;  and  his  admirers  could  say,  "Be- 
tween Moses  (the  lawgiver)  and  Moses  (Men- 
delssohn) there  was  only  one  Moses  (Maimoni- 
des)."  Progress  now  became  general  among 
the  Jews,  and  the  noble  philosopher  lived  to 
see  the  first  dawn  of  freedom  in  the  land  of 
Franklin  and  Jefferson.  The  great  revolution  in 
that  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  came  next,  and 
the  triumphs  of  republican  and  imperial  France 
destroyed  the  mediaeval  institutions  on  the 
Rhine  and  Po.  Liberty,  crushed  in  Poland  by 
the  Russians,  when  500  of  Kosciuszko's  Jewish 
volunteers  fell  fighting  to  the  last  on  the  ram- 
parts of  Praga  (1794),  was  successively  victori- 
ous in  the  West.  Proclaimed  in  the  United. 
States  and  France,  the  rights  of  the  Jews  were 
recognized  in  Holland,  Belgium,  Denmark,  parts 
of  Germany,  Canada,  and  Jamaica;  in  1848-'9 
throughout  Germany,  Italy,  and  Hungary  ;  and 
finally  in  Norway  and  England.  Among  the 
most  zealous  defenders  of  the  rights  of  the 
Jews  we  may  mention  the  Frenchman  Gr6goire, 
the  Pole  Czacki,  the  German  Welcker,  the  Irish- 
man O'Connell,  the  Englishman  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell, the  Italian  D'Azeglio,  and  the  Hungarian 
Eotvos,  all  Christians;  the  Jews  by  descent 
Borne  and  Disraeli,  and  the  professing  Jews 
Jacobssohn,  Riesser,  Philipssohn,  Montefiore, 
and  Cr6mieux.  The  revolutionary  movement 


of  1848-'9  proved  the  immense  progress  of  the 
Jews  as  well  as  of  public  opinion  since  Men- 
delssohn and  Lessing.  The  Jews  Cr6mieux, 
Goudchaux,  and  Fould  were  among  the  minis- 
ters of  the  French  republic;  Pincherle  was  a 
member  of  the  provisional  government  in  Ven- 
ice ;  Jacoby  of  Konigsberg  was  the  leader  of 
the  opposition  in  the  Berlin  parliament ;  Ries- 
ser was  vice  president  of  that  of  Frankfort; 
Dr.  Fischhof  stood  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  Vi- 
enna after  the  flight  of  the  court ;  Meisels,  the 
rabbi  of  Cracow,  was  elected  to  the  Austrian 
diet  by  Polish  patriots ;  and  Hungarian  barons 
and  counts  willingly  fought  under  Jewish  offi- 
cers. The  subsequent  reaction,  as  in  Austria, 
where  it  was  checked  by  the  events  of  1859, 
was  mostly  temporary,  and  the  Mortara  case 
in  Italy  in  1858  excited  a  very  general  expres- 
sion of  opposition  to  the  antique  legislation 
by  which  it  was  decided.  Of  the  vast  number 
of  Jewish  writers  after  Mendelssohn  (excluding 
all  converts  to  Christianity  like  Heine,  Nean- 
der,  or  Gans)  we  mention  only  a  few  :  the  tal- 
mudists  Jacob  of  Dubno,  Jacob  of  Slonim,  Pick, 
Jacob  of  Lissa,  Bonet,  Eger,  Sopher,  Chajes; 
the  Hebrew  poets,  philologists,  or  critics,  E. 
Luzzato,  S.  Cohen,  Satanow,  Wolfsohn,  Bensev, 
Pappenheim,  Troplowitz,  Heidenheim,  Lowi- 
sohn,  S.  Bloch,  Siinha  of  Hrubiesz6w,  Jeitteles, 
Landau,  Reggio,  Perl,  N.  Krochmal,  the  great 
rabbinical  critic  Rapoport,  S.  D.  Luzzato, 
Letteris,  Eichbaum,  P.  M.  Heilprin,  S.  Sachs, 
Kirchheim,  Schorr,  A.  Krochmal ;  the  histori- 
ans, critics,  or  publicists  on  Jewish  subjects  in 
modern  languages,  Zunz,  Jost,  Riesser,  Gei- 
ger,  Furst,  Philippson,  Salvador,  Munk,  Cahen, 
Dukes,  Frankel,  M.  Sachs,  Jellinek,  Herzfeld, 
Saalschutz,  Steinschneider,  Gratz,  Low,  Ber- 
nays,  Neubauer,  Harkawy,  Kayserling,  Raphall 
(New  York),  Leeser  (Philadelphia),  Wise  (Cin- 
cinnati) ;  the  conservative  theologians  Pless- 
ner,  Johlsohn,  Steinheim,  and  Hirsch ;  the  ad- 
vocates of  religious  reform  (besides  Geiger  and 
Herzfeld)  Chorin,  Creizenach,  Stein,  Herx- 
heimer,  Holdheim,  Hess,  Stern,  Einhorn  (New 
York),  Lilienthal  (Cincinnati) ;  the  pulpit  ora- 
tors Mannheimer,  Kley,  Salomon,  Frankfurter ; 
the  philosophers  Maimon,  Bendavid,  Frank; 
the  mathematicians  Witzenhausen,  Sklow,  A. 
Stern,  Cassel,  Hirsch ;  the  astronomers  W.  Beer, 
Stern,  Slonimski ;  the  ichthyologist  Bloch ;  the 
physiologist  Valentin;  the  anatomist  Hirsch- 
feld ;  the  botanist  Pringsheim ;  the  poets  Kuh, 
M.  Beer,  Frankl,  L6on  Halevy ;  the  miscella- 
neous writers  Auerbach,  Bernstein,  M.  M. 
Noah,  Grace  Aguilar,  Jules  Janin ;  the  orien- 
talists Weil,  Dernburg  (Derenbourg),  Oppert,  E. 
Deutsch,  Levy  (besides  Munk).  Politics,  law, 
medicine,  and  the  arts,  including  the  stage  (Mile. 
Rachel,  &c.),  have  had  numerous  representa- 
tives, and  especially  music  (Moscheles,  Meyer- 
beer, Halevy,  &c.). — The  number  of  Jews  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  is  hardly  less  than  6,000,000, 
or  more  than  7,000,000. — The  HEBREW  LAN- 
GUAGE (Heb.  IbritJi,  or  lasJion  Ibrith,  Hebrew 
tongue,  also  leshon  hakkodesJi,  sacred  tongue,  in 


HEBREWS 

post-Biblical  Jewish  works ;  Yehudith,  Jewish, 
in  the  Biblical  history  of  the  period  following  the 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes ;  in  Isaiah,  poetically, 
also  sefath  Kenyan,  language  of  Canaan),  to- 
gether with  scanty  remnants  of  the  Phoenician 
and  Punic,  belongs  to  the  so-called  Canaanitic 
branch  of  the   Semitic  family  of  languages. 
(See  SEMITIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES.)    In  the 
antiquity  of  its  extant  literary  remnants  the 
Hebrew   by  far  surpasses   all   other  Semitic 
idioms,  and  in  richness  and  development  ex- 
ceeds all  others  except  the  Arabic.     The  He- 
brew is  deficient  in  grammatical  technicalities, 
especially  in  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verb, 
and  consequently  also  somewhat  in  precision ; 
but  in  euphony,  simplicity,  brevity,  variety  of 
signification,  and  power  of  poetical  expression, 
is  hardly  excelled  by  any  tongue.     In  its  full 
rarity  the  Hebrew  appears  in  the  earlier  books 
>f  the  Bible,  in  the  mediaeval  poetical  works 
>f  Judah  Hallevi,  Aben  Ezra,  &c.,  and  in  the 
lodern   poems   of   Wessely,    S.    Cohen,    and 
lers.     The  prose  writings  posterior  to  the 
ibylonish  captivity  are  generally  tinged  with 
imaisms,  especially  the  Mishnah,  which  al- 
contains  numerous  Greek  words,  while  the 
lixed  idiom  of  the  Gemara  and  its  commen- 
may  be  termed  Chaldaic  rather  than 
[ebrew.     (See  TALMUD.)    In  the  middle  ages 
rare  Hebrew  was  used  only  in  poetry  and  poet- 
ical prose ;  in  modern  times  it  is  used  also  in 
imple  prose.     In  the  East  and  in  Poland  the 
ebrew  is  often  used  in  correspondence,  in 
ie  East  occasionally  also  as  a  medium  of  con- 
versation with  occidental  Jews.    Of  the  various 
lodes  of  Hebrew  pronunciation,  the  Sefaradic 
(improperly  Portuguese),  or  that  of  the  de- 
fendants of  the  exiles  from  Spain  and  Portu- 
il,  is  regarded  by  scholars  as  the  most  genu- 
le.    There  are  three  kinds  of  Hebrew  alpha- 
now  in  use :   the  square,  also  called  the 
Lssyrian  (properly  Babylonian),  which  is  gen- 
lly  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by 
Ezra,  the  most  common  in  print ;  the  rabbini- 
cal or  mediaeval,  used  chiefly  in  commentaries 
and  notes ;  and  the  cursive,  in  writing.     The 
lost  ancient  Hebrew,  however,  is  believed  by 
many  critics  more  to  have  resembled  the  Phoe- 
nician (see  ALPHABET),  and  to  be  best  repre- 
sented by  the  Maccabean  coins  and  the  alpha- 
bet of  the  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch, 
ie  writing  is  from  right  to  left.     The  alpha- 
consists  of  22  letters  or  consonants,  called 
tleph,  beth,  &c.  (see  ALPHABET),  the  vowels 
sing  expressed  by  marks  above  or  below  the 

otters,  thus :  N,  a  ;  a,  Ie  ;  a,  gi  ;  *•»,  do.    Five 

3rs  (kaph,  mem,  nun,  pe,  tsade)  have  a  sepa- 
final  form.     There  are  no  capital  letters, 
ie  accents  and  marks  of  punctuation  are  very 
lumerous.      The  following  examples  will  ex- 
libit  some  of  the  most  interesting  features  of 
e    language:    Kol,    (a)    voice,    haklcol,    the 
roice ;  gan,  garden,  haggan,  the  garden ;  shem, 
e,  hashshem,  the  name.    Dod,  uncle,  dodah, 
mt ;  dod  zaken,  an  old  uncle,  dodah  zelcenah, 


HEBREWS   (EPISTLE  TO  THE)      599 

an  old  aunt ;  dodim  zekenim,  old  uncles,  dodoth 
ze&enoth,  old  aunts ;  dod  e'had,  one  uncle,  do- 
dah a'hath,  one  aunt ;  shenei  dodim,  two  uncles, 
shetei  dodoth,  two  aunts.  Oznayim,  raglayim, 
alpayim,  two  (a  couple  of)  ears,  feet,  thou- 
sands. Banim,  sons,  banoth,  daughters ;  benei 
david,  benoth  david,  sons,  daughters  of  David. 
Ani  gadol,  I  am  great,  hu  gadol,  he  is  great, 
hem  gedolim,  they  are  great.  Roll,  my  voice, 
Icolo,  his  voice,  kolam,  their  voice,  Icolan,  their 
voice,  speaking  of  females.  Lemosheh,  to  Mo- 
ses, bemosheh,  in  Moses,  kemosheh,  like  Moses, 
middavid,  from  David.  Bo,  in  him,  lo,  to  him ; 
lanu,  in  us,  lanu,  to  us.  Bein,  between ;  bein 
mosheh  vedavid,  between  Moses  and  David; 
beini  ubeino,  between  me  and  him.  Min,  from ; 
gadol  middavid,  greater  than  David ;  haggadol 
baarets,  the  greatest  in  the  land.  Golyath 
raah  eth  david,  Goliath  saw  (looked  at)  David ; 
golyath  'hereph  eth  david,  Goliath  insulted 
(mocked  at)  David  ;  david  MlcTcaJi  eth  golyath, 
David  struck  (at)  Goliath.  Shamor,  to  guard ; 
eshmor,  I  shall  guard,  tishmor,  thou  wilt  guard, 
nishmor,  we  shall  guard;  shamarti,  I  (have) 
guarded,  shamarnu,  we  guarded,  shemartem, 
ye  guarded ;  ani  shomer  (I  am  guarding),  I 
guard,  hu  shomer,  he  guards,  hi  shomerah,  she 
guards,  hem  shomerim,  they  guard;  shamarr 
(he)  guarded,  nishmar,  was  guarded,  hishtam- 
mer,  guarded  himself;  lishmor,  to  guard,  bish- 
mor,  in  guarding ;  mosheh  shamar,  Moses  guard- 
ed ;  miry  am  shamerah,  Miriam  guarded  ;  she- 
marani,  (he)  guarded  me,  shemaro,  guarded  him ; 
yishmerenu,  will  guard  us;  shomer  (guarder), 
guardian,  mishmar,  guard,  watch,  confinement, 
ashmoreth,  night  watch,  mishmereth,  thing  to- 
be  watched,  observance,  trust.  Alchal,  (he)  ate, 
ikkel,  consumed,  JieeTchil,  caused  to  eat,  nee- 
TcJial,  was  eaten,  ukkal,  was  consumed. — Among 
the  eminent  modern  Christian  writers  (besides- 
the  Jewish  previously  mentioned)  on  Hebrew 
history,  literature,  or  language  are  Reuchlin, 
the  Buxtorfs,  Lowth,  Basnage,  Michaelis,  Eich- 
horn,  Herder,  Rosenmtiller,  Jahn,  Gesenius,  De 
Wette,  Ewald,  Quatremere,  Milman,  Robinson, 
Noyes,  Stuart,  Conant,  Bush,  and  Renan. 

HEBREWS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  the  canoni- 
cal books  of  the  New  Testament,  addressed 
to  converted  Jews,  and  designed  to  dissuade 
them  from  relapsing  into  Judaism  and  to  for- 
tify them  in  the  Christian  faith.  It  aims  to 
demonstrate  the  preeminence  of  Christ  over 
Moses  and  the  angels  of  the  Lord,  and  of  the 
gospel  over  the  law,  and  to  show  that  the  lat- 
ter was  typical  of  the  former,  and  was  abol- 
ished by  it.  The  epistle  was  addressed  to  a 
congregation  of  converted  Jews,  whether  at 
Jerusalem  or  at  some  other  place  is  still  a  con- 
troverted point.  It  is  the  opinion  of  most  com- 
mentators that  it  was  written  between  64  and 
66.  The  Greek  fathers  unanimously  ascribed 
the  epistle  to  Paul,  and  its  Pauline  authorship 
was  generally  accepted  in  the  western  church 
from  the  5th  century,  though  in  the  first  three 
centuries  no  Latin  writer  attributed  it  to  him. 
Among  modern  writers  its  Pauline  origin  has 


600 


HEBRIDES 


been  defended  by  Stuart,  Forster,  Hug,  and 
others.  In  Germany  the  tendency  of  opinion 
has  been  to  ascribe  it  to  some  other  author. 
Luther  suggested  Apollos,  and  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  Bertholdt,  De  Wette,  Bleek,  and 
Tholuck.  Bohme  and  Mynster  ascribe  it  to 
Silas ;  others  to  Clement,  Luke,  or  Barnabas. 
Among  the  best  modern  commentaries  on  this 
epistle  are  those  by  Stuart  (1827),  Bleek  (1828), 
Tholuck  (1836),  Delitzsch  (1850),  Ebrard  (in- 
cluded in  Olshausen's  commentary,  1850),  Tur- 
ner (1852),  Moll  (included  in  Lange's  commen- 
tary, 1861),  Reuss  (1862),  and  Ewald  (1870). 

HEBRIDES,  or  Western  Islands  (the  Ebudce  of 
Ptolemy  and  the  30  Hebudea  of  Pliny),  the 
general  name  of  the  islands  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Scotland,  lying  between  lat.  55°  26'  and  58° 
32'  N.,  and  Ion.  5°  and  8°  W. ;  pop.  about  99,000. 
They  are  usually  classed  as  the  outer  and  the 
inner  Hebrides.  The  outer,  which  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  and  the  inner  islands 
by  a  channel  called  the  Minch,  extend  from 
the  Butt  of  Lewis  on  the  north  to  Barra  head 
on  the  south,  forming  a  kind  of  natural  break- 
water 130  m.  long.  The  principal  ones  of  this 
group,  which  collectively  are  called  the  Long 
Island,  are  Lewis,  North  Uist,  Benbecula, 
South  Uist,  and  Barra.  The  inner  Hebrides 
are  irregularly  disposed  along  the  coast  and  in 
the  firth  of  Clyde,  the  principal  ones  being 
Skye,  Raasay,  Canna,  Rum,  Eigg,  Coll,  Tiree, 
Mull,  Ulva,  Staffa,  lona,  Lismore,  Kerrera, 
Scarba,  Colonsay,  Oronsay,  Jura,  Islay,  Arran, 
Bute,  and  the  Cumbrays.  The  total  area  of  all 
the  islands,  of  which  there  are  several  hundred, 
is  upward  of  3,000  sq.  m.  Of  this  surface  about 
200,000  acres  are  arable,  700,000  hill  pasture, 
and  65,000  in  fresh-water  lakes ;  the  remainder 
is  morass  and  peat  bogs,  barren  sands,  and 
rocks.  Only  about  120  of  them  are  inhabited. 
The  most  are  rugged  and  mountainous,  and  the 
coasts,  especially  of  those  fronting  the  Atlantic, 
are  bold  and  rocky  and  indented  with  numer- 
ous bays.  Arran,  Jura,  Mull,  and  Skye  have 
mountains  2,000  or  3,000  ft.  high.  The  lakes 
are  generally  small,  and  none  of  them  are  more 
than  three  or  four  fathoms  deep.  There  are 
many  small  streams,  which  in  the  larger  islands 
abound  in  salmon.  The  outer  Hebrides  are 
geologically  of  gneiss  formation  and  have  a 
poor  soil.  Of  the  inner  islands  the  more  north- 
erly are  trap,  the  southerly  ones  on  the  coast 
are  slate,  and  those  in  the  firth  of  Clyde  are 
trap,  sandstone,  and  limestone.  Marble,  lime- 
stone, and  slate  are  quarried,  the  last  in  con- 
siderable quantity.  Iron  ore  is  abundant  in 
many  of  the  islands,  some  copper  is  found,  and 
lead  is  worked  in  Islay  to  some  extent.  Coal 
also  exists,  but  is  not  mined,  peat  being  used 
for  fuel.  The  climate,  on  account  of  the  prox- 
imity of  the  Gulf  stream,  is  exceptionally  mild, 
pleasant,  and  healthful.  In  winter  the  tem- 
perature is  rarely  lower  than  27°  F.,  and  snow 
seldom  lies  long  on  the  lowlands ;  but  fogs  and 
mists  prevail  and  drizzling  rains  are  frequent. 
In  the  uplands  from  30  to  36  inches  of  rain 


falls  annually;  on  the  coast  about  25  inches. 
Violent  storms  from  the  southwest  are  preva- 
lent from  August  to  March.  There  is  little 
wood  on  any  of  the  islands,  and  on  many  none, 
although  they  were  mostly  clothed  with  forests 
several  centuries  ago ;  but  large  plantations 
have  been  successfully  made,  particularly  in 
Skye,  Islay,  and  Mull.  Oats,  barley,  and  po- 
tatoes are  the  staple  crops,  but  agriculture  is 
very  backward,  and  nothing  is  raised  for  ex- 
port. In  unproductive  seasons  the  harvest  is 
not  sufficient  for  home  consumption,  and  fam- 
ine has  visited  the  islands  more  than  once.  Ex- 
tensive improvements,  however,  have  been  in- 
troduced of  late  years  by  wealthy  proprietors. 
The  principal  industry  is  the  raising  of  kyloes 
or  black  cattle.  The  native  sheep  are  small, 
not  weighing  more  than  20  Ibs.,  but  the  Cheviot 
breed  has  been  introduced  with  success.  The 
horses  are  small,  hardy,  and  docile,  but  not 
so  handsome  as  the  Shetland  ponies.  Of  wild 
animals,  a  few  red  deer,  wild  cats,  and  foxes 
remain,  and  hares,  rabbits,  and  other  small 
game  are  plentiful.  Many  of  the  islands  swarm 
with  wild  fowl,  and  the  coasts  are  rich  in  fish 
and  mollusks.  The  tenure  of  land  is  unfavor- 
able to  enterprise,  much  of  the  soil  being  held 
by  tacksmen,  an  intermediate  class  between 
proprietors  and  cultivators.  Many  tenants  hold 
their  farms  at  will  or  on  short  leases,  and  sub- 
let on  the  same  terms  to  cottiers  and  crofters, 
most  of  whom  pay  rent  in  services.  Excepting 
where  the  population  has  been  thinned  to  make 
large  estates,  the  farms  are  generally  small, 
renting  at  from  £5  to  £50  each.  This  division 
of  the  arable  land  occasions  an  excess  of  pop- 
ulation in  some  of  the  islands,  which  the  pro- 
prietors have  attempted  to  remedy  by  encoura- 
ging emigration.  The  condition  of  the  people 
generally  is  much  depressed,  and  their  dwell- 
ings, which  are  clustered  along  the  coast,  are 
miserable.  In  some  of  the  southern  islands, 
such  as  Islay,  Arran,  and  Bute,  a  better  system 
prevails,  and  agriculture  is  in  an  advanced  state. 
Lines  of  steamers  have  been  established  be- 
tween Glasgow  and  the  Hebrides,  which  con- 
vey large  numbers  of  tourists  to  Fingal's  cave 
in  Staffa,  the  ruins  in  lona,  &c.  Gaelic  is  gen- 
erally spoken,  b.ut  English  is  gradually  super- 
seding it.  Both  languages  are  taught  in  the 
schools.  Politically  the  Hebrides  are  distrib- 
uted among  the  counties  of  Ross  and  Cromar- 
ty,  Inverness,  Argyle,  and  Bute.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  Stornoway  in  Lewis,  Portree 
in  Skye,  Tobermory  in  Mull,  and  Rothesay  in 
Bute. — The  name  Hebrides  is  a  corruption  of 
Pliny's  Hebudes.  The  islands  were  colonized 
originally  by  emigrants  from  Norway  about  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century.  They  remained 
subject  to  the  crown  of  Norway  till  1266,  when 
they  were  attached  to  Scotland.  They  were 
then  held  by  various  native  chieftains  in  vassal- 
age to  the  Scottish  crown,  but  in  1346  the  chief 
|  of  the  Macdonalds  reduced  them  to  subjection 
and  assumed  the  title  of  lord  of  the  isles.  They 
were  finally  annexed  to  Scotland  by  James  V. 


HEBRON 

in  1540 ;  and  the  abolition  of  hereditary  juris- 
dictions by  act  of  parliament  in  1748  gave  a 
final  blow  to  the  nominal  independence  of  the 
lords  of  the  isles. 

HEBRON  (originally  EirjatJi  Aria;  Arab. 
El-Khulil),  a  city  of  Palestine,  18  m.  S.  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  pop.  about  5,000.  Most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  Moslems ;  about  50  families  are  Jews ; 
there  are  no  resident  Christians.  The  city 
stands  partly  on  the  declivities  of  two  hills 
and  partly  in  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  of 
Mamre.  At  the  S.  extremity  of  the  town  is 
a  mosque,  which,  according  to  the  Arabs,  cov- 
ers the  cave  of  Machpelah,  with  the  tombs  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  their  wives. 
The  architecture  of  this  mosque  plainly  indi- 
cates its  original  use  as  a  Christian  church. 
Hebron  figures  in  the  history  of  Abraham,  who 


HECKER 


601 


Hebron. 

bought  Machpelah.  It  was  taken  by  Caleb 
at  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  became  the  residence  of  David  in  1055  B. 
C.  It  was  recovered  from  the  Edomites  by 
Judas  Macbabaeus,  and  burned  by  the  Romans 
under  Vespasian.  In  A.  D.  1167  it  became 
the  seat  of  a  Latin  bishopric.  It  was  taken 
by  Saladin  in  1187,  and  after  an  insurrection 
stormed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1834. 

HEBRUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  of 
Thrace.  See  MARITZA. 

HECATJEFS,  a  Greek  historian  and  geogra- 
pher, born  in  Miletus  about  550  B.  C.,  died 
about  476.  He  visited  Egypt  and  other  prov- 
inces of  the  Persian  empire,  Libya,  Greece, 
Italy,  and  other  countries.  On  his  return  he 
found  the  lonians  generally  meditating  a  revolt 
against  Persia,  which  in  spite  of  his  remon- 
strances was  carried  out,  and  ultimately  led  to 
the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece.  After  the  sup- 
pression of  the  revolt,  Hecatseus,  still  high  in 
the  esteem  of  his  countrymen,  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  the  satrap  of  the  great  king 
to  solicit  mercy  for  the  vanquished,  in  which 


he  succeeded.  He  was  the  author  of  a  geo- 
graphical work  entitled  Uepiodos  Tfj^  or  Tlepi^-y^ 
ai$,  and  of  a  historical  one  entitled  Teveahoyiai, 
or  'laropiat.  The  former  contained  a  descrip- 
tion of  various  countries  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa ;  the  latter  was  a  prose  account  of  the 
mythical  history  of  the  Greeks.  Some  frag- 
ments of  these  works  are  extant,  published  in 
various  collections  of  Greek  fragments. 

HECATE,  a  divinity  of  ancient  Greece,  who 
was  commonly  called  a  daughter  of  Perses  or 
Perseus  and  Asteria.  She  had  dominion  in 
heaven,  on  earth,  and  in  the  sea,  and  could  be- 
stow on  mortals  wealth,  victory,  and  wisdom. 
This  caused  her  to  be  confounded  with  Ceres, 
Rhea,  Diana,  and  Proserpine.  She  was  wor- 
shipped in  Samothrace  and  ^Egina,  and  at 
Athens,  where  small  statues  of  Hecate  were 
placed  in  front  of 
houses  and  at  cross 
roads.  Her  favorite 
sacrifices  were  dogs, 
honey,  and  black  ewe 
lambs.  In  works  of 
art  she  is  sometimes 
represented  as  a  sin- 
gle being,  sometimes 
as  a  three-headed 
monster. 

HECKER,  Friedrieh 
Karl  Franz,  a  German 
politician,  born  in 
Eichtersheim,  Baden, 
Sept.  28,  1811.  He 
early  acquired  dis- 
tinction as  a  lawyer 
and  politician,  and 
was  elected  to  the 
second  chamber  of 
Baden  in  1842.  In 
1845  he  travelled 
with  Itzstein  for  the 

purpose  of  disseminating  radical  views.  At 
Berlin  they  received  an  order  to  leave  Prussia 
in  24  hours.  In  the  diet  of  1846-'7  Hecker 
even  opposed  the  liberal  ministry  of  Bekk,  and 
voted  against  taxation  ;  but  not  being  sustained 
by  his  party,  he  resigned  his  seat  in  March, 
1847.  He  shortly  afterward  availed  himself 
of  a  fusion  between  the  democrats  and  libe- 
rals to  enter  the  assembly  again.  Having  al- 
lied himself  with  the  republican  and  socialist 
Struve,  and  taken  an  active  part  in  a  meeting 
at  Offenburg  (Sept.  12,  1847),  where  the  radi- 
cal programme  was  drawn  up,  he  was  about  to 
be  tried  for  treason,  but  was  allowed  to  retain 
his  place  in  the  chamber,  where  he  continued 
to  be  the  leader  of  the  extreme  left.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  provisional  Frankfort  par- 
liament in  1848,  but  as  his  party  was  here  left 
in  the  minority,  he  became  a  leader  with 
Struve  of  the  insurrection  of  April  in  the  south 
of  Baden,  the  object  of  which  was  the  repub- 
licanizing  of  Germany.  The  gathering  at  Do- 
naueschingen,  however,  which  they  announced 
by  proclamation  from  Constance,  proved  a  to- 


602 


BECKER 


tal  failure ;  Hecker  and  Struve  were  beaten  at 
Kandern ;  Freiburg,  which  the  insurrectionists 
had  occupied,  was  retaken  by  the  government 
troops ;  and  a  legion  of  German  volunteers 
from  France,  led  by  Herwegh,  was  dispersed 
at  Dossenbach.  Hecker  fled  into  Switzerland, 
where  he  established  the  Volksfreund.  In 
September  he  emigrated  to  America,  but  was 
recalled  by  the  provisional  government  of  Ba- 
den in  1849.  In  July  he  arrived  in  Strasburg, 
but,  finding  that  the  revolutionary  party  had 
been  completely  defeated,  returned  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  became  a  farmer  in 
Belleville,  111.  He  commanded  a  regiment 
during  the  civil  war,  was  wounded  at  Chancel- 
lorsville,  and  retired  to  his  farm  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Chattanooga. 

HECKER,  Isaac  Thomas,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  in  New  York,  Dec.  18, 1819.  He 
became  connected  in  1843  with  the  Brook 
Farm  association  at  West 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  sub- 
sequently spent  some 
time  with  the  "  conso- 
ciate  family"  at  Fruit- 
lands,  in  Worcester  co., 
Mass.  In  1845  he  was 
received  into  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church, 
and  in  1847  became  a 
member  of  the  congre- 
gation of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  London 
in  1849,  and  after  two 
years  of  missionary  la- 
bor in  England  he  re- 
turned to  New  York. 
In  1857  he  and  several 
of  his  brother  Redemp- 
torists  were  released 
from  obedience  to  their 
order,  and  founded,  with 
the  approbation  of  the 

archbishop  of  New  York,  a  missionary  so- 
ciety since  known  as  the  congregation  of  St. 
Paul  the  Apostle  (commonly  called  Paulists), 
having  its  first  house  in  New  York  city.  In 
1865  Father  Hecker  established  the  "Catho- 
lic World,"  a  monthly  magazine.  In  1869  he 
was  present  at  the  Vatican  council  as  procu- 
rator of  Bishop  Rosecrans,  of  Columbus,  O. 
In  1873,  on  account  of  ill  health,  he  travelled 
in  Europe  and  the  East.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Questions  of  the  Soul"  (12mo,  New  York, 
1855)  and  "Aspirations  of  Nature  "  (1857). 

HECKEWELDER,  John,  a  Moravian  missionary, 
born  in  Bedford,  England,  March  12, 1743,  died 
in  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Jan.  21,  1823.  At  the  age 
of  12  he  came  with  his  father  to  Pennsylvania. 
He  accompanied  Mr.  Post  in  1762  in  his  ex- 
pedition to  the  Indian  tribes  on  the  Ohio,  and 
in  1771  took  up  his  residence  among  them  as 
a  missionary.  After  40  years  of  missionary 
service,  he  went  to  Bethlehem,  the  principal 
establishment  of  the  Moravians  in  America, 


HECLA 

and  there  remained  till  his  death.  He  wrote 
several  memoirs  on  the  Delaware  and  Mohegan 
Indians,  the  principal  one  being  published  in 
the  "Transactions"  of  the  philosophical  soci- 
ety of  Pennsylvania  (1819).  See  Rondthaler's 
"Life  of  Heckewelder"  (Philadelphia,  1847). 

HECLA,  or  Hekla,  a  volcanic  mountain  of  Ice- 
land, situated  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
island,  in  the  district  of  Rangarvalla,  40  m. 
from  the  coast.  Hecla  rises  to  the  height  of 
5,104  ft.,  to  the  eastward  of  a  large  and  com- 
paratively fertile  plain  intersected  by  the  rivers 
Hvita  and  Thjorsa.  Its  approach  is  over  vast 
lava  beds  lying  irregularly  one  above  the  other. 
The  peak  or  cone  itself  surmounts  a  long  pala- 
gonite  ridge  2,000  ft.  high,  running  N.  E.  and 
8.  W.,  and  forming  in  reality  a  single  volcanic 
fissure  along  which  the  points  of  eruption  are 
continually  changing.  It  is  the  middle  one  of 
five  main  ridges  composing  the  Hecla  system,  all 


Mount  Hecla. 

dominated  by  the  conical  crest  of  the  volcano. 
This  is  built  up  with  scoriae,  slag,  and  ashes, 
kept  together  by  the  streams  of  lava.  Though 
above  the  snow  limit  (in  Iceland  from  2,000 
to  2,500  ft.  above  the  sea),  it  is  not  entirely 
covered  with  snow  in  summer.  Down  the 
western  side  slopes  a  snow  fond  of  consider- 
able dimensions.  The  top  of  the  mountain  is 
nearly  flat,  forming  a  broad  table  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  long  by  50  rods  across.  The  ground 
feels  warm ;  on  digging  to  the  depth  of  six 
inches  smoke  bursts  forth,  and  smoking  heaps 
of  lava  are  scattered  over  the  surface.  There 
are  five  craters  on  the  peak,  four  of  them  on 
its  side.  The  highest,  on  the  summit,  has  been 
quiescent  for  ages.  It  is  an  irregular  chasm 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  300  ft.  wide,  and 
250  ft.  deep.  The  bottom  is  covered  with  vol- 
canic sand,  moist  earth,  and  in  some  places  with 
snow ;  but  from  many  fissures  on  its  sides  issue 
smoke  and  hot  steam.  The  recent  craters  are 
filled  with  black  smoke,  red  scoriae,  and  sulphur. 


HECLA 


Of  the  86  volcanic  outbursts  to  which  Iceland 
has  been  subjected  since  874,  Hecla  has  con- 
tributed 39,  Katla  13,  and  the  submarine  vol- 
cano off  Cape  Reykjanes  12.  The  longest  pe- 
riod of  Hecla's  inactivity  has  been  79  years, 
and  the  shortest  6 ;  but  the  violence  of  the 
eruption  bears  no  proportion  to  the  preceding 
period  of  rest.  The  first  recorded  outbreak  of 
Hecla  occurred  in  1004,  the  last  in  1845.  The 
most  disastrous  began  on  April  6,  1766,  when 
enormous  columns  of  ashes  were  discharged, 
accompanied  with  thunder  and  lightning,  and 
in  the  space  of  two  hours  destroyed  five  farm 
houses  in  the  valley  of  Kangadalr;  scoriae  of 
two  feet  in  circumference  were  hurled  two 
miles,  large  extents  of  birch  copse  were  buried, 
and  the  pastures  almost  utterly  ruined ;  thick 
masses  of  slag  and  scoriae  covered  the  surface 
of  the  distant  Thjorsa  and  dammed  up  the 
Ranga  river,  causing  the  lowlands  to  be  inun- 
dated ;  and  the  prodigious  quantities  of  loose 
volcanic  matter  which  these  rivers  bore  down 
to  the  sea  hindered  the  prpgress  of  the  fishing 
boats,  and  covered  the  southern  coast  for  20 
miles,  in  some  places  to  a  depth  of  two  feet. 
At  noon  of  the  first  day  a  strong  southerly 
wind  carried  these  ashes  toward  the  northern 
districts,  turning  the  daylight  into  pitchy 
darkness,  while  deafening  reports  reverberated 
over  the  island.  On  April  9  a  stream  of  lava 
poured  down  toward  the  southwest,  issuing 
from  two  craters,  one  on  the  summit,  and  an- 
other toward  the  southwest.  On  the  21st  the 
column  of  ashes  from  the  main  craters  rose  to 
a  height  of  17,000  ft.  Continuous  and  disas- 
trous shocks  of  earthquake  accompanied  the 
eruption.  Epidemics  raged  among  human  be- 
ings and  cattle  ;  and  great  quantities  of  snow 
fell,  accompanied  by  storms  from  the  north- 
west, which  lasted  a  week.  The  eruption  of 
1845  was  preceded  by  unusual  atmospheric 
conditions.  The  snow  patches  on  Hecla's 
ridge  had  diminished  in  a  marked  way  during 
the  summer  ;  the  hot  springs  to  the  southeast 
of  the  mountain  had  increased  in  numbers  and 
activity.  On  the  morning  of  Sept.  2  dull  de- 
tonations were  heard,  and  a  slight  vibration 
of  the  earth  was  perceptible,  the  summit  of 
Hecla  remaining  shrouded  in  black  clouds, 
which  about  noon  spread  over  the  whole  sky, 
discharging  a  thick  rain  of  yellowish  gray, 
slaggy  pieces.  At  noon  it  was  dark  as  in  the 
deepest  winter  night;  then  a  dark,  shining 
volcanic  sand  began  to  fall,  lasting  until  noon 
on  the  3d.  •  Sounds  as  of  cannonading  were 
Heard  at  a  great  distance,  and  terrific  crashes  in 
the  vicinity,  which  were  succeeded  by  regular 
detonations,  and  then  a  violent  rumbling  noise. 
Exhalations,  brightly  illumined  by  the  glowing 
mass  in  the  crater,  canopied  the  ridge,  as  if  a 
steadily  increasing  sheet  of  flame  shot  out  from 
the  summit,  amid  which  glowing  masses  of  stone 
were  continually  hurled  up  and  down.  At 
nightfall  on  the  2d  a  lava  stream  issued  from 
the  N.  W.  side  of  Hecla ;  the  watercourses  to 
the  west  were  suddenly  swollen  by  the  melted 


HEDDING 


603 


snows,  and  carried  down  vast  quantities  of 
mud,  earth,  and  stone.  Ships  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Faroes,  the  Shetlands,  and  the 
Orkneys  were  overtaken  on  the  2d  and  3d  by 
a  shower  of  ashes  coming  from  the  northwest. 
The  flow  of  lava  continued  with  slight  inter- 
missions till  April  5,  and  on  the  following  day 
the  last  column  of  ashes  was  discharged.  As 
the  lava  only  covered  the  track  of  former 
eruptions,  no  dwellings  were  destroyed.  Sheep 
and  cattle  suffered  severely  from  want  of  grass. 
The  lava  stream  poured  forth  in  1845-'6  is  9 
m.  long,  2  m.  broad  in  some  places,  and  from 
50  to  100  ft.  high. 

HECTOR,  a  Trojan  hero,  and  the  noblest  char- 
acter of  the  Iliad.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Priam  and  Hecuba,  the  husband  of  Androm- 
ache, and  the  father  of  Astyanax.  He  disap- 
proved of  the  conduct  of  Paris,  and  advised  the 
surrender  of  Helen  to  Menelaus ;  but  when  his 
remonstrances  and  warnings  were  disregarded, 
he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  service  of  his 
native  city.  After  fighting  some  of  the  bravest 
of  the  Hellenic  warriors,  and  among  others 
slaying  Patroclus,  the  friend  of  Achilles,  he  was 
at  length  vanquished  and  killed  by  the  latter, 
who  dragged  his  corpse  to  the  Greek  fleet,  or 
according  to  later  tradition  thrice  around  the 
walls  of  Troy;  but  afterward  relenting,  he 
restored  it  for  a  ransom  to  Priam. 

HECUBA  (Gr.  'E/cd/fy),  a  daughter  of  Dymas 
of  Phrygia,  or  of  Cisseus,  king  of  Thrace, 
second  wife  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  and  the 
mother  of  Hector,  Paris,  Cassandra,  Cretisa, 
and  15  other  children.  According  to  Euri- 
pides, she  was  enslaved  by  the  Greeks  after 
the  capture  of  Troy,  and  carried  to  the  Thra- 
cian  Chersonesus,  where  she  saw  on  the  same 
day  her  daughter  Polyxena  sacrificed  and  the 
body  of  her  youngest  son  Polydorus  cast  on 
the  shore  after  he  had  been  murdered  by  Poly- 
mestor,  king  of  the  Chersonesus.  She  deter- 
mined on  revenge,  and,  sending  for  Polymes- 
tor  and  his  two  sons,  under  pretence  of  want- 
ing to  inform  them  of  hidden  treasure,  she 
slew  the  children  on  their  arrival,  and  tore  out 
the  eyes  of  their  father.  According  to  other 
accounts,  she  became  the  slave  of  Ulysses,  and 
in  despair  killed  herself  by  leaping  into  the  sea. 

BEDDING,  Elijah,  an  American  bishop,  born 
at  Pine  Plains,  N.  Y.,  June  7,  1780,  died  in 
Poughkeepsie,  April  9,  1852.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in 
1798,  and  commenced  his  labors  as  an  itinerant 
preacher  on  Essex  circuit,  Vermont.  He  was 
received  into  the  New  York  annual  conference 
in  1801,  and  sent  to  Plattsburgh.  In  1802  he 
labored  on  the  Fletcher  circuit,  Vermont,  which 
then  extended  from  the  Onion  river  to  15  or 
20  miles  beyond  the  Canada  line,  including  all 
the  territory  between  the  Green  mountains  and 
Lake  Champlain.  Here  he  was  accustomed  to 
travel  300  miles  a  month  on  horseback,  to  ford 
rivers,  to  sleep  in  log  cabins,  and  to  preach 
once  and  often  two  or  three  times  daily.  In 
1803  he  was  sent  to  Bridge  water  circuit,  New 


604 


HEDGE 


Hampshire,  which  then  embraced  13  towns. 
In  1804  he  was  at  Hanover,  N.  H. ;  in  1805  at 
Barre,  Vt. ;  and  in  1806  at  Cheshire,  Vt.  Du- 
ring 1807-'9  he  was  presiding  elder  of  the  New 
Hampshire  and  New  London  districts.  In  1808 
he  was  a  delegate  to  the  general  conference  at 
Baltimore,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  policy  of  a  delegated  general  con- 
ference. From  1809  to  1816  he  preached  in 
Nantucket,  Lynn,  and  Boston,  and  from  1816 
to  1824  in  Portland,  Lynn,  and  New  London, 
being  also  superintendent  of  the  Boston  district. 
In  1824  he  was  elected  bishop.  During  the 
26  years  of  his  administration  he  was  distin- 
guished for  his  clear  and  comprehensive  views 
of  the  doctrines  and  polity  of  the  church,  and 
for  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  ecclesiastical 
law.  His  manual  on  the  "Discipline"  is  of 
high  authority.  In  1848  he  was  chosen  to 
represent  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in 
the  British  conference.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  movers  in  the  founding  at  Boston  of 
"  Zion's  Herald,"  the  first  journal  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  church  of  the  United  States. — 
See  "  Life  and  Times  of  the  Kev.  E.  Hedding, 
D.  D.,"  byD.  W.  Clark,  D.  D.  (New  York,  1855). 
HEDGE,  a  fence  of  living  plants,  designed 
for  protection  or  for  ornament.  Hedges  are 
seldom  over  5  or  6  ft.  high,  and  are  kept  low 
and  compact  by  annual  trimming ;  where  trees 
are  set  near  together  and  allowed  to  grow  tall, 
to  protect  buildings  or  crops  from  prevailing 
winds,  they  are  called  screens  and  wind  breaks. 
In  the  early  attempts  in  this  country  at  hedg- 
ing, English  examples  were  followed  in  form- 
ing the  hedge  and  in  selecting  the  plants ; 
these  resulted  so  generally  in  failure  that  this 
method  of  fencing  fell  into  disrepute,  and  for 
many  years  was  almost  entirely  abandoned. 
With  the  settlement  of  the  woodless  prairies 
the  practice  of  hedging  was  revived,  and  it  is 
at  present  receiving  much  attention,  many  miles 
being  set  annually  in  some  of  the  western 
states ;  and  it  is  becoming  extensively  adopted 
in  some  of  the  older  states.  In  certain  parts 
of  Delaware  and  Maryland  one  may  travel  all 
day  over  the  country  roads  and  see  but  few 
fences.  The  hawthorn,  so  generally  used  for 
hedges  in  England,  is  entirely  worthless  in  this 
country  ;  its  foliage  appears  late,  becomes  in- 
jured by  the  hot  sun,  and  falls  early,  and  the 
plant  is  badly  infested  by  various  insects  ;  our 
several  native  thorns  are  but  little  better.  For 
a  protecting  hedge  there  are  but  two  plants 
employed  to  much  extent  in  the  northern  and 
two  others  in  the  southern  states.  The  Osage 
orange  is  more  used  than  any  other  plant. 
This,  the  Maclura  aurantiaca,  also  called  bo- 
dock  or  bois  d'arc  in  the  southwest,  where  it  is 
native,  is  a  handsome  tree,  with  glossy  leaves 
and  a  fruit  in  structure  like  a  dry  mulberry, 
of  the  size  and  shape  of  an  orange.  The  seed, 
obtained  by  rotting  the  balls  and  washing 
away  the  pulp,  is  scalded  and  kept  warm  and 
moist  until  it  sprouts ;  it  is  then  sowrn  in  rows 
and  kept  well  cultivated  during  the  season ;  at 


the  north  the  plants  are  taken  up  in  the  au- 
tumn, assorted,  and  buried  in  a  dry  place. 
The  hedge  row  being  well  prepared,  the  plants 
are  set  the  following  spring  six  inches  to  a  foot 
apart,  first  shortening  both  top  and  root.  It 
is  impossible  to  make  a  good  hedge  unless  the 
plants  are  carefully  cultivated  and  kept  free 
from  weeds  until  the  hedge  is  formed.  The 
after  treatment  varies.  Some  form  the  hedge 
by  a  systematic  cutting  made  each  year  to  in- 
duce a  dense  growth  at  the  base ;  this  course 
requires  five  years  to  form  the  hedge.  The 
other  method  is  to  allow  the  plants  to  grow 
without  pruning  for  three  or  four  years,  when 
they  are  laid  down  or  lopped ;  the  stem  of 
each  is  cut  half  way  through  close  to  the  base, 
and  the  top  laid  down  on  the  ground,  each 
plant  being  bent  down  upon  the  preceding  one ; 
this  is  done  in  spring,  and  by  autumn  an  abun- 
dance of  new  shoots  will  have  formed  an  im- 
penetrable thicket,  which  is  brought  into  prop- 
er shape  by  trimming. — The  Osage  orange  is 
hardy  in  the  climate  of  New  York  city,  but 
in  much  colder  localities  the  most  serviceable 
hedge  plant  is  the  honey  locust,  GleditscJiia 
triacanthos,  also  called  three-thorned  acacia, 
a  well  known  tree  of  the  leguminosm.  (See 
HONEY  LOCUST.)  The  seeds,  if  scalded  before 
sowing,  germinate  readily ;  they  are  sown  in  a 
seed  bed,  and  the  following  spring  the  plants 
are  set  in  the  hedge  rows;  they  are  brought 
into  shape  by  annual  cutting  back.  Several 
years  ago  there  was  much  discussion  as  to  the 
use  of  white  willow  as  a  hedge  plant,  but  it 
is  better  fitted  to  form  a  windbreak.  At  the 
south  one  of  the  best  hedge  plants  is  the  py- 
racanth  or  evergreen  thorn,  cratcegus  pyra- 
cantha,  from  southern  Europe ;  it  has  dense, 
dark-green  foliage,  white  blossoms,  and  bril- 
liant scarlet  fruit ;  it  is  propagated  by  cuttings 
and  by  seeds,  which  germinate  slowly.  This 
variety  is  not  hardy  at  the  north,  but  one  with 
light-colored  fruit,  lately  introduced,  survives 
the  winter  near  New  York.  The  Macartney 
rose,  rosa  bracteata,  is  a  favorite  at  the  south, 
as  it  forms  an  impenetrable  barrier  to  ani-. 
mals,  and  is  almost  constantly  in  bloom.  The 
buckthorn,  rhamnus  caiharticus,  and  the  com- 
mon barberry,  berberis  vulgaris,  are  used  for 
hedges  to  a  limited  extent.  For  ornamental 
hedges,  in  which  great  powers  of  resistance 
are  not  required,  a  large  number  of  plants  may 
be  used;  almost  any  shrub  or  tree  which 
grows  tall  enough  may  by  proper  pruning  be 
made  to  serve.  Among  evergreens,  the  most 
elegant  hedge  plant  is  the  hemlock  spruce,  abito 
Canadensis.  The  Norway  spruce,  A.  excelsa, 
and  the  arbor  vitae,  thvja  occidentalis,  are  also 
frequently  employed.  At  the  south  the  holly, 
English  and  Portugal  laurels,  and  many  other 
broad-leaved  evergreens,  including  the  camel- 
I  lia,  are  set  in  hedge  rows.  Of  the  deciduous 
plants,  the  privet,  ligustrum  vulgare,  the  Ja- 
pan quince,  cydonia  Japonica,  and  even  the 
beech  and  other  forest  trees,  and  the  pear  and 
other  fruit  trees,  are  sometimes  used. 


HEDGE 

HEDGE,  Frederick  Henry,  an  American  oler- 
man,  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  12, 
805.     His  father  was  for  a  long  time  profes- 
r  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  Harvard  col- 
In  1818  the  son  accompanied  Mr.  George 
ancroft  to  Germany,  and  there  studied  at  II- 
d  and  Schulpforte.     In  1823  he  returned  to 
merica,  and  in  1825  graduated  at  Harvard 
liege.    After  three  years  of  study  in  the  theo- 
ical  school,  he  entered  the  ministry  in  1828, 
"d  was  settled  in  the  Congregational  church 
at  West  Cambridge.     He  became  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  church  in  Bangor,  Me.,  in  1835,  of 
41  e  Westminster  church  in  Providence,  E.  I., 
1850,  and  of  the  first  Congregational  church 
Brookline,  Mass.,  in  1856.     In  1847-'8  he 
"e  the  tour  of  Europe,  revisiting  Germany, 
spending  a  winter  in  Italy.     In  1852  he 
ived  from  Harvard  college  the  degree  of 
D.,  and  in  1857  was  chosen  professor  of  ec- 
iastical  history  in  the  theological  school  jn 
bridge.     In  the  same  year  he  took  charge 
the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  then  the  organ 
the  Unitarian  body.     In  1859  he  was  made 
resident  of  the  American  Unitarian  associa- 
tion.    In  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  by  the 
Germans  of  Boston  to  deliver  an  oration  on  the 
centennial  anniversary  of  Schiller's  birth  (Nov. 
0).    In  1866  he  gave  at  the  annual  commence- 
int  of  Harvard   college  an  address  to  the 
nini,  in  which  he  advocated  changes  in  the 
system  of  study  which  have  since  been  partially 
adopted  by  the  government  of  that  university. 
1872  he  was  appointed  professor  of  German 
Harvard,  an  office  which  he  still  holds  (1874). 
s  largest  work  is  the  "  Prose  Writers  of  Ger- 
y"  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1848),  in  which  ex- 
ts  from  28  authors,  from  Luther  to  Cha- 
isso,  are  given,  each  series  preceded  by  a  care- 
1  original  sketch  of  the  author  and  estimate 
his  genius  and  influence.     A  large  portion 
the  extracts  were  translated  for  the  work 
iy  the  compiler.    Dr.  Hedge  has  also  published 
dons  of  many  of  the  minor  poems  of  emi- 
t  German  writers,  especially  Schiller  and 
the.    In  1853,  in  connection  with  the  Rev. 
.  Huntington  of  Boston,  he  published  a  vol- 
le  of  hymns,  many  of  the  best  of  which  are 
is  own  compositions  and  translations.     In  the 
.e  year  also  appeared  his  "Liturgy  for  the 
se  of  the  Church."     In  1865  he  published 
Reason  in  Religion,"  a  collection  of  essays 
the  philosophy  of  religion,  which  has  passed 
rough   several   editions.     In   1870  appeared 
"  Primeval  World  of  Hebrew  Tradition," 
which  a  German  translation  was  published 
Berlin  in  1873.     He  has  also  published  many 
mons,  orations,  and  reviews. 
HEDGEHOG,  an  insectivorous  mammal,  of  the 
us  erinaceus  (Linn.).     The  teeth  are  36  in 
mber,  but  have  been  differently  divided  by 
legists.     F.  Cuvier  gives  the  following :  in- 
ors  -f-if ,  canines  none,  false  molars  fzf ,  and 
true  molars  |~f- ;  according  to  Owen,  they  are 
developed  as  incisors  fzf,  premolars  |cf,  and 
molars  f~f .     The  central  incisors  of  the  upper 


HEDGEHOG 


605 


jaw  are  separated  from  each  other,  those  of 
the  lower  nearly  touching  ;  behind  the  first  up- 
per incisor  on  each  side  are  two  small  single- 
rooted  teeth,  resembling  false  molars,  but  evi- 
dently incisors  from  their  development  in  the 
intermaxillary  bone  ;  after  these,  and  separated 
from  them  by  a  small  interval,  are  three  false 
molars,  the  first  the  largest ;  then  the  four  true 
molars,  the  second  the  largest,  the  fourth  very 
small,  and  all  tuberculated  ;  in  the  lower  jaw, 
after  the  single  incisor  of  each  side,  are  three 
small  single-pointed  and  single-rooted  teeth  re- 
sembling false  molars,  and  after  these,  with  a 
short  interval,  four  molars,  the  second  and 
third  the  largest ;  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  lock 
into  each  other,  as  in  other  animals  preying 
chiefly  on  insects.  When  full  grown,  the  com- 
mon hedgehog  (E.  Europcem,  Linn.)  is  about 
9  in.  long,  of  a  heavy  form,  short  limbs,  and 
slow  plantigrade  motion ;  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  covered  with  sharp  prickles,  about  an 
inch  long,  arranged  in  clusters,  divergent  and 


Hedgehog  (Erinaceus  Europaeus). 

crossing  each  other,  of  a  brownish  black  with 
a  white  point ;  the  head  is  clothed  with  harsh 
brownish  hairs,  and  the  under  parts  of  the 
body  with  a  dirty  white  fur ;  the  ears  and  tail 
are  short ;  the  paws,  end  of  nose,  and  tail  are 
nearly  naked  ;  the  eyes  are  prominent,  and  the 
opening  of  the  ears  may  be  closed  by  a  valvu- 
lar arrangement  of  the  cartilages  ;  the  nose  is 
considerably  longer  than  the  jaws,  and  fringed 
at  the  end ;  the  lips  are  entire,  and  there  are 
no  cheek  pouches  ;  the  five  toes  are  armed  with 
long  nails,  the  middle  the  longest,  suitable  for 
digging ;  the  soles  are  covered  with  naked  tu- 
bercles, possessing  an  exquisite  sense  of  touch  ; 
the  mammae  are  ten,  six  pectoral  and  four  ven- 
tral. By  means  of  the  development  of  the  pan- 
niculus  camosus  muscle,  belonging  entirely  to 
the  skin,  the  animal  is  able  to  roll  itself  into  a 
ball,  and  preserve  this  attitude  as  long  as  it 
pleases  without  much  effort,  presenting  to  its 
enemies  a  thorny  mass  which  the  most  vora- 
cious and  powerful  dare  not  attack.  The  hedge- 
hog is  nocturnal,  concealing  itself  during  the 
day  in  burrows  or  natural  holes,  coming  out  at 


606 


11EDJAZ 


night  in  search  of  worms,  insects,  snails,  roots, 
and  fruits ;  though  possessing  very  limited  in- 
telligence, it  has  been  so  far  domesticated  as 
to  be  brought  up  in  gardens,  where  it  proves 
of  great  service  in  destroying  noxious  insects  ; 
the  flesh  is  said  to  be  good  eating.  The  young 
are  born  in  May,  covered  with  prickles,  with 
«yes  and  ears  closed,  and  about  two  inches 
long.  When  at  rest,  the  hedgehog  has  the 
power  of  lowering  the  prickles,  and  of  retain- 
ing them  smooth  on  a  level  with  the  body.  This 
species  occurs  throughout  temperate  Europe, 
and  was  well  known  to  the  ancients.  The 
popular  name  urchin  and  the  French  herisson 
are  evidently  derived  from  the  Latin  ericius, 
of  which  erinaceus  is  a  synonynie ;  it  is  the 
££m>?  of  the  Greeks.  The  prickles  were  for- 
merly used  to  hatchel  hemp.  A  second  species, 
the  long-eared  hedgehog  (E.  auritus,  Pall.), 
is  found  in  the  eastern  regions  of  the  Russian 
empire ;  the  ears  are  nearly  as  long  as  the 
head ;  the  body  and  limbs  are  more  slender, 
and  the  under  hair  finer,  than  in  the  preceding 
species.  Like  the  other  hedgehog,  it  hibernates 
in  winter  in  holes  a  few  inches  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground ;  it  can  eat  cantharides  and 
other  vesicating  insects  with  impunity ;  it  grows 
very  fat  in  autumn,  preparatory  to  hibernating. 
Other  species  are  described.  There  is  no  prop- 
er hedgehog  in  America ;  the  rodent  porcupine, 
similarly  armed  with  quills,  is  erroneously  so 
called  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

HEDJAZ,  a  dependency  of  the  Turkish  empire 
in  Arabia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea,  bounded 
N.  by  the  desert,  E.  by  the  desert,  Shomer, 
and  Nedjed,  S.  by  Yemen,  and  W.  by  the  Red 
sea,  and  its  arm  the  gulf  of  Akabah.  The  coast 
is  generally  low  and  sandy,  and  lined  with 
coral  reefs  and  islets,  which  afford  shelter  for 
small  vessels  in  all  weather.  Large  vessels  find 
good  anchorage  in  roadsteads,  but  there  are 
few  safe  harbors.  The  principal  seaports  are 
Jiddah  and  Yembo,  the  former  the  port  of 
Mecca,  the  latter  of  Medina.  A  range  of 
mountains  which  attain  in  some  places  an  ele- 
vation of  8,000  ft.,  often  covered  with  snow, 
traverses  Hedjaz  from  N.  to  S.  and  extends  into 
Yemen.  West  of  this  chain,  which  is  general- 
ly visible  from  the  coast,  and  sometimes  ap- 
proaches near  to  it,  is  a  tract  of  sandy  low- 
land (el-Tehama),  once  the  bed  of  the  sea ; 
east  of  it  is  a  highland  (nejed\  which  recedes 
gradually  into  the  desert,  excepting  near  lat. 
24°,  where  an  offshoot  from  the  range  extends 
N.  E.  to  Jebel  Shomer.  These  mountains  are 
of  granitic  formation,  but  porphyritic  rocks, 
supporting  sandstone  and  limestone,  occur  in 
many  places.  Traces  of  volcanic  fires  are  nu- 
merous throughout  the  Tehama,  and  porous 
lavas  are  found,  particularly  around  Medina. 
The  lowlands  are  scored  by  wadies  or  beds  of 
torrents,  which  are  rarely  filled,  as  but  little 
rain  falls  during  the  year.  There  are  no  rivers, 
but  a  few  small  streams  find  their  way  down 
from  the  mountains,  where  there  are  more  co- 
pious rains  and  consequently  well  watered  val- 


HEER 

In  the  Tehama  the  wild  plants  are  few 
and  offer  little  sustenance  for  animal  life.  In  the 
uplands,  various  cereals,  many  fruits,  and  the 
vegetables  peculiar  to  Arabia  are  raised.  Wild 
goats  abound  in  the  mountains,  and  hyaenas 
and  foxes  are  numerous  along  the  coasts,  where 
they  subsist  on  fish  which  they  find  on  the 
coral  reefs.  A  few  gazelles,  hares,  jerboas, 
and  lizards  are  found  on  the  plains.  Falcons 
are  the  principal  birds.  Fish  are  very  plentiful, 
and  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the 
inhabitants;  great  quantities  are  salted  and 
sold  in  the  markets  of  Mecca.  Three  species 
of  dolphin  are  taken  along  the  coast,  and  tor- 
toise shell  and  mother  of  pearl  are  abundant. 
The  climate  of  Hedjaz  is  generally  unhealthy. 
Fevers  are  prevalent  on  the  coast,  owing  to 
the  foulness  of  the  water;  and  in  the  interior 
the  humidity  and  rank  vegetation  of  the  irri- 
gated valleys  render  them  almost  equally  in- 
salubrious. The  heat  is  excessive,  and  is  tem- 
pered only  by  the  sea  breeze.  The  N.  part  of 
Hedjaz  has  few  towns  or  villages,  and  is  in- 
habited chiefly  by  wandering  Bedouins.  The 
pilgrim  route  from  the  norttyto  the  holy  cities 
is  guarded  by  isolated  castles.  At  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  the  gulf  of  Akabah  is  the  fortified 
village  of  the  same  name.  In  the  S.  part 
Medina  and  Mecca  are  the  chief  inland  places. 
Tayf,  about  60  m.  S.  E.  of  Mecca,  is  on  high 
ground,  and  is  defended  by  several  forts;  it 
supplies  Jiddah  and  Mecca  with  fruits,  which 
grow  abundantly  in  its  vicinity.  Gnnfudah  is 
a  coast  town  S.  of  Jiddah,  opposite  a  group 
of  islands  of  the  same  name.  Kali,  another 
small  coast  town  further  S.,  in  lat.  18°  35'  N., 
is  on  the  borders  of  Yemen.  Besides  these 
places  there  are  only  a  few  scattering  villages, 
mostly  in  the  highlands. — The  country  imme- 
diately around  Mecca  is  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  sherif  of  Mecca,  an  officer  elected  by  the 
sherifs,  or  nobles  who  claim  descent  from  the 
family  of  the  prophet;  but  he  is  subordinate 
to  the  representative  of  the  sultan,  who  resides 
at  Jiddah.  When  the  Wahabees  cut  off  the 
communication  between  Constantinople  and 
the  sacred  cities,  the  sherif  of  Mecca  revolted, 
attacked  the  Turkish  pasha  in  Jiddah,  and  re- 
moved him  by  poison.  The  Wahabees  soon 
checked  his  increasing  power,  and  they  in  turn 
were  driven  east  in  1818  by  the  troops  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  who  made  himself  master  of 
Hedjaz  and  assumed  the  protectorate  of  the 
holy  cities.  At  the  close  of  the  war  between 
Turkey  and  Egypt  in  1840,  the  sultan  recovered 
his  rights,  and  Hedjaz  now  constitutes  a  vilayet 
of  the  Turkish  empire.  The  great  caravans 
of  pilgrims,  which  were  frequently  intercepted 
and  despoiled  when  the  country  was  in  an  un- 
settled state,  are  now  comparatively  protected, 
although  still  subject  to  numerous  extortions. 

BEEMBKQUt.     See  HEMSKERK. 

HERK,  Oswald,  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Glarus,  Aug.  31,  1819.  He  went  to  Zurich  in 
1832,  and  has  been  engaged  there  for  more 
than  30  years  as  professor  of  botany  and  en- 


HEEREN 

mology,  and  as  director  of  the  botanical  gar- 
sn,  which  he  helped  to  establish.     He  was 
kewise  for  upward  of  20  years  a  member  of 
e  great  council  of  Zurich.     He  has  published 
Kafer  der  Schweiz   (2  vols.,   Solothurn, 
837-'40);  Fauna  Coleopterorum  Helvetica  (3 
ols.,   Zurich,  1839-'41) ;   Die  Inselctenfauna 
Tertidrgebilde  von  Oeningen  und  von  Ro- 
in  Kroatien  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1847-'53); 
tertiaria  Helvetia  (3  vols.,  Winterthur, 
854-'6) ;  Die  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbauten  (Zu- 
sh,  1865);    Die   Urwelt  der  Schweiz  (1869; 
ench   translation  by  Demole,  Geneva  and 
1,  1872);  and  Die  fossile  Flora  der  Po- 
Idnder  (2  vols.,  Winterthur,  1861-'7). 
HEEREN,  Arnold  Hermann  Lndwig,  a  German 
torian,  born  at  Arbergen,  near  Bremen,  Oct. 
1760,  died  in  Gottingen,  March  7,  1842. 
studied  at  Bremen  and  at  Gottingen  under 
guidance  of  Heyne,  whose  daughter  he  af- 
*ward  married,  and  of  Spittler,  and  was  ap- 
inted  professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1801 
history,   at  Gottingen.     He  was  for  some 
ie  one  of  the  editors  of  the  BibliotheTc  der 
ten  Literatur  und  Kunst,  and  after  the  death 
J.  G.  Eichhorn  in  1827  edited  the  Oottinger 
lehrte  Anzeigen.     The  subject  of  his  lectures 
the  university  was  chiefly  the  history  of 
reek  and  Roman  antiquities  and  of  literature, 
a  principal  merit  of  his  numerous  histori- 
writings  consists  in  an  original  elucidation 
the  commercial  affairs  and  relations,  as  well 
of  the  origin  and  political  development,  of 
e  ancient  states.     Besides  the  edition  of  Me- 
nder's De  Encomiis  (1785),  and  the  Eclogcz 
\ysicce  et  Ethicm  of  Stobseus  (4  vols.,  1792- 
801),  the  following  are  his  most  important 
orks :  Ideen  uber  die  Politilc,  den  Verkehr 
nd  den  Handel  der  vornehmsten  Vo'lker  der 
Iten  Welt  (2  vols.,  l793-'6 ;  4th  ed.,  6  vols., 
824-'6;  the  part  relating  to  Greece  transla- 
ed  into  English  by  George  Bancroft,  Boston, 
824) ;  Geschichte  des  Studiums  der  classischen 
'  teratur  seit  dem  Wiederaufleben  der  Wissen- 
(2  vols.,  1797-1802;  7th  ed.,  1822); 
'andbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Staaten  des  Al- 
thums  (1799;  5th  ed.,  1826;  translated  by 
ncroft,  Northampton,  1828)  ;   Geschichte  des 
ropdischen  Staatensy stems  und  seiner  Colo- 
ien  (1809  ;  5th  ed.,  1830  ;  translated  by  Ban- 
ft,   Northampton,   1829);    De  Fontibus  et 
uctoritate  Vitarum  Parallelarum  Plutarchi 
820);  all  of  which  were  published  in  Got- 
where  also  a  collection  of  his  histori- 
works  appeared  in  15  volumes  (1821-'6). 
mong  his  minor  writings  are  sketches  of  Jo- 
nnes  von  Milller,   Spittler,   and  Heyne,   a 
ise  on  the  influence  of  the  Normans  upon 
e  French  language  and  literature,  and  a  dis- 
rtation  on  the  crusades.     His  "Ideas"  were 
•anslated  into  English,  and  published  at  Ox- 
>rd  by  Talboys,  under  the  title  of  "  Historical 
earches."     A  uniform  edition  of  his  trans- 
d  works,  under  the  title  of  "Heeren's  His- 
rical   Researches,"   has  been  published  by 
hn  (7  vols.,  London,  1846-'54). 
399  VOL.  viii. — 39 


HEGEL 


607 


HEFELE,  Karl  Joseph  Ton,  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Unterkochen,  Wurtemberg,  March  15, 
1809.  He  studied  at  Ellwangen  and  Ehingen 
graduated  in  1834  at  the  university  of  Tubin- 
gen, and  became  in  1840  professor  of  theology 
there,  lecturing  successively  on  church  history, 
Christian  archaeology,  and  patristics.  From 
1842  to  1845  he  was  a  member  of  the  Wurtem- 
berg chamber  of  deputies.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Rottenburg  in  1869,  and  in  the  coun- 
cil of  the  Vatican  maintained  the  inopportune- 
ness  of  defining  the  pope's  official  infallibility, 
but  accepted  the  doctrine  when  it  was  defined. 
He  has  strenuously  opposed  the  new  legislation 
in  Germany  relating  to  the  religious  orders  and 
the  relations  of  church  and  state.  His  most 
important  works  are:  Die  Einfuhrung  des 
Ghristenthums  im  sudwestlichen  Deutschland 
(Tubingen,  1837) ;  Patrum  Apostolicorum  Op- 
era (1839;  4th  ed.,  1855);  Das  Sendschreiben 
des  Apostels  Barnabas  (1840);  Der  Cardinal 
Ximenes  und  die  Tcirchlichen  Zustdnde  Spa- 
niens  im  15.  Jahrhundert  (2  vols.,  1844 ;  2d  ed., 
1851 ;  English  translation  by  Canon  Dal  ton, 
London,  1860);  Chrysostomus- Postille,  selec- 
tions from  Chrysostom  (1845-'57) ;  Concilien- 
geschichte  (7  vols.,  Freiburg,  1855-'74;  Eng- 
lish translation  of  part  i.  by  W.  R.  Clark, 
Edinburgh,  1871);  Beitrdge  zur  Kirchenge- 
schichte,  Archdologie  und  LiturgiTc  (2  vols., 
1864-'5) ;  and  Die  Honorius-Frage  (1870). 

HEGEL,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Stuttgart,  Aug.  27,  1770, 
died  in  Berlin,  Nov.  14,  1831.  From  his  8th 
to  his  18th  year  he  was  thoroughly  trained  in 
philology,  mathematics,  and  history,  in  the 
gymnasium  of  his  native  town.  His  scholar- 
ship was  already  productive.  He  began  a  sys- 
tem, which  he  never  abandoned,  of  making 
and  arranging  copious  extracts  from  all  the 
books  and  even  journals  that  he  read ;  and  he 
was  always  a  great  reader  of  newspapers.  In 
1788  he  became  a  student  of  theology  at  Tu- 
bingen, having  a  stipend  on  a  ducal  founda- 
tion. He  heard  Storr  on  dogmatics,  Schnurrer 
in  exegesis,  Flatt  in  philosophy ;  and  was  also 
well  taught  in  botany,  anatomy,  and  other  sci- 
ences of  observation.  With  some  of  the  stu- 
dents he  read  Plato  and  Kant ;  but  his  subse- 
quent philosophical  fame  took  them  by  surprise. 
In  1790  Schelling,  then  15  years  old,  went  to 
Tubingen ;  he  and  Hegel  studied,  talked,  and 
roomed  together,  little  aware  of  that  strange 
destiny  by  which  the  younger  became  the 
leader  of  the  elder,  and  the  elder  supplanted 
the  younger,  and  the  younger  again  succeed- 
ed the  elder  in  the  development  of  German 
idealism.  After  quitting  the  university,  Hegel 
(like  Kant  and  Fichte)  was  for  a  long  time  a 
tutor  in  private  families ;  from  1793  to  1796  at 
Bern  in  Switzerland,  and  from  1797  to  1800 
in  a  more  eligible  position  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main.  His  studies  meanwhile  took  a  wide 
range.  He  read  Thucydides,  Montesquieu, 
Gibbon,  and  Hume,  and  thoroughly  pondered 
the  Greek  and  German  metaphysics.  He  be- 


COS 


HEGEL 


gan  a  "Life  of  Christ;"  wrote  and  rewrote  a 
"Criticism  of  Keligious  Ideas;"  and  corre- 
sponded with  Schelliug  about  his  essay  on  the 
Ego  (  Vom  Ich},  which  was  stirring  the  pulses 
of  ardent  thinkers.  He  passed  through,  in  his 
own  experience,  the  conflict  between  the  older 
supernaturalism  and  the  prevalent  rationalism, 
neither  of  which  harmonized  with  his  specula- 
tive tendencies.  Yet,  to  the  end  of  his  life,  he 
professed  accordance  with  the  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy, and  one  of  his  later  public  addresses  was 
a  eulogy  upon  the  principles  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  pronounced  as  rector  of  the  Berlin 
university  upon  the  tricentennial  celebration  in 
1830  of  the  adoption  of  that  instrument.  Be- 
fore 1800  he  had  drawn  up  the  outline  of  a  sys- 
tem of  philosophy  in  three  parts :  the  first  op 
logic  and  metaphysics  combined  ;  the  second 
on  the  philosophy  of  nature ;  the  third  on  the 
philosophy  of  mind  or  spirit.  Here  was  al- 
ready foreshadowed  that  identification  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  which  is  one  of  the  marked 
peculiarities  of  the  Hegelian  system.  But  as 
yet  he  had  not  clearly  mastered  the  idea  or 
the  method  of  his  scheme  ;  he  needed  sharper 
thought  and  conflict  to  know  whereto  all  this 
study  was  to  grow.  Hegel's  father  died  in 
1799,  leaving  him  a  patrimony  of  3,000  florins, 
and  he  at  once  determined  to  devote  himself 
to  philosophy  at  Jena.  This  university  had 
been  made  illustrious  in  literature  by  the  new 
romantic  school  of  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  and 
Tieck ;  Fichte  had  just  been  driven  thence  to 
Berlin  on  the  accusation  of  atheism  ;  Schelling 
was  now  there,  arousing  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
novices  in  the  mystery  and  marvel  of  the  new 
philosophical  intuition ;  and  here,  too,  Fries, 
Krause,  and  Ast  were  commencing  their  fruit- 
ful philosophical  career.  To  the  philosophical 
world  Hegel  presented  as  his  introduction  an 
essay  on  the  "  Difference  between  Fichte  and 
Schelling,"  advocating,  more  definitely  than 
the  latter  had  done,  the  position  that  this  dif- 
ference was  not  adequately  designated  by  say- 
ing that  the  former  taught  a  subjective  and 
the  latter  an  objective  idealism,  but  rather 
that  Schelling's  system  included  both.  This 
was  published  in  the  spring  of  1801 ;  in  the 
autumn  its  author  became  tutor  in  the  uni- 
versity. His  dissertation  on  his  appointment 
was  De  Orbitis  Planetarum,  a  zealous  advo- 
cacy of  the  German  Kepler  against  the  Eng- 
lish Newton,  containing  also  an  unlucky  pole- 
mic against  Bode's  law  about  the  proportional 
distances  of  the  planets ;  he  went  so  far  as  to 
suggest  that,  according  to  the  true  law,  the 
space  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  should  not  be 
filled  up,  ignorant  that  Piazzi  had  already  dis- 
covered the  asteroid  Ceres.  From  1801  to  1806 
(in  which  last  year  he  became  professor)  he 
lectured  on  logic,  the  philosophy  of  nature,  psy- 
chology, ethics,  &c.  His  first  course  was  giv- 
en to  four  auditors.  Awkward  in  his  deliv- 
ery, encumbered  by  his  thoughts,  he  failed  to 
interest  any  but  the  most  thoughtful.  "  He 
thinks  in  substantives,"  said  one  of  his  audi- 


tors ;  often  the  structure  of  his  sentences  was 
incomplete.  Carrying  to  his  lecture  a  mass  of 
loose  papers,  he  would  fumble  among  them, 
arranging  them  dialectically,  under  his  rigid 
categories,  as  he  went  along.  But  as  his  "  dry 
light "  became  warm,  his  eye  and  voice  would 
grow  keen,  and  he  would  often  break  out  into 
an  aphorism,  a  sarcasm,  or  a  pregnant  antithe- 
sis, long  to  be  repeated.  His  best  manuscripts 
were  copied  from  the  students'  notes.  At  Jena, 
too,  in  conjunction  with  Schelling,  he  edited  the 
Kritisches  Journal  der  Philosophic  ;  and  these 
two  philosophers  were  still  so  nearly  agreed, 
that  the  authorship  of  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant articles  was  afterward  claimed  by  both ; 
it  is  on  the  "Kelation  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Nature  to  Philosophy  in  General,"  and  is  in- 
cluded in  Hegel's  works.  Hegel's  lectures  at 
this  period  on  the  philosophy  of  history  con- 
tain some  of  the  strongest  statements,  after- 
ward modified,  implying  a  pantheistic  confusion 
of  God  and  the  world.  But  even  then  God 
was  to  him,  not  a  mere  substance  (as  in  Spi- 
noza), but  a  subject,  and  as  such  spiritual,  the 
absolute  spirit.  The  statement  that  Hegel 
identified  God  and  nothing,  and  that  this  is  the 
sense  of  the  system,  is  an  entire  misconcep- 
tion. His  career  in  Jena  was  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  French  invasion  of  1806.  In  the 
turmoil  of  that  campaign,  his  chief  solicitude 
was  about  the  fate  of  some  of  the  last  sheets  of 
his  "  Phenomenology,"  which  he  was  sending 
to  a  publisher  in  Bamberg.  The  manuscript  was 
saved,  but  the  philosopher's  house  was  sacked 
by  French  troops,  and  he  was  reduced  to  his 
last  penny.  In  1807-'8  he  was  editor  of  a  po- 
litical sheet  in  Bamberg,  and  there  he  pro- 
jected a  work  on  the  political  constitution  of 
Germany,  which  was  never  completed.  At 
Nuremberg  he  was  rector  of  the  gymnasium 
from  1808  to  1816,  and  gave  philosophical  lec- 
tures to  the  lads,  issued  as  the  18th  volume  of 
his  collected  writings  under  the  title  Propa- 
deutilc — a  simple,  clear  outline  of  the  main 
points  of  his  general  system,  in  a  style  as  pop- 
ular as  the  abstruse  subject  admits.  His  ad- 
ministrative ability  was  here  seen  to  be  of  a 
high  order ;  he  was  ever  punctilious  as  to  all 
fit  rules  and  observances.  In  September,  1811, 
he  married  Marie  von  Tucher,  of  an  ancient 
Nuremberg  family,  22  years  his  junior — a  lady 
of  refinement,  decided  in  her  Christian  convic- 
tions, indefatigable  in  her  daily  charities,  to 
whom  he  was  attached  with  singular  love  and 
tenderness.  To  his  constant  friend  Nietham- 
mer  he  wrote  that  "when  a  man  has  found  a 
position  and  a  wife  that  he  loves,  he  is  quite 
complete  for  life."  Often  would  he  praise  her 
in  verse,  and  his  best  letters  are  those  he  wrote 
her  on  his  journeys.  Two  sons,  Karl  and  Im- 
manuel,  were  born  to  them.  His  domestic 
affairs  were  carefully  arranged ;  his  family  life 
was  one  of  unbroken  peace ;  and  it  may  havej 
mitigated,  as  in  the  case  of  Comte,  the  ab- 
stractions of  his  system.  Some  of  the  severest 
parts  of  his  "  Logic,"  as  the  writer  happens  to 


HEGEL 


609 


know,  were  written  while  he  was  watching  as 
a  nurse  at  the  bedside  of  his  wife.     Hegel's 
"Phenomenology,"  which  he  used  to  call  his 
"voyage  of  discovery,"  was  issued  at  Bamberg 
in  1807.     The  object  of  this  work  is  to  describe 
the  stages  and  process  through  which  the  mind 
must  proceed  from  the  simplest  form  of  con- 
sciousness up  to  absolute  knowledge ;  and  to 
exhibit  this,  not  merely  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
but  also  as  a  (logically)  necessary  ascent.     One 
of  his  disciples  says  that  in  this  most  finished 
of  his  writings  he  is  the  Dante  of  philosophy, 
since  he  shows  how  consciousness  passes  from 
the  inferno  of  sense,  through  the  purgatory  of 
the  understanding,  into  the  paradise  of  philo- 
sophic freedom.     In  principle  and  method  it  is 
a  protest  against  Schilling's  imagination  of  a 
special  intellectual  intuition.     The  absolute  is 
not  "  shot  out  all  at  once,  like  a  ball  from  a 
Hstol ;"  it  is,  and  it  is  attained  by,  a  process. 
The  stadia  of  this  process  are,  simple  conscious- 
less,    self-consciousness,   reason,   spirit    (here 
used  as  equivalent  to  objective  morality),  reli- 
ion  (including  art),  and  absolute  knowledge, 
process  itself  is  necessary ;  the  method  is 
maanent  in  thought.     Its  moving  principle  is 
lat  of  contradiction  or  negation.     Each  lower 
ige  is  contradicted  or  negatived  in  thought ; 
lis  negation  does  not  give  zero  as  its  result, 
but  rather  an  opposite  or  antagonistic  princi- 
;  and  these  antagonistic  principles  struggle 
irough  (the  negation  of  the  negation)  to  a 
n'gher  unity;   and  so  on,  until  we  arrive  at 
"lat  absolute  knowledge  which  is  the  result 
it  was  the  source  of  these  evolutions,  in 
finch  all  these  antagonisms  are  both  abolished 
id  preserved.     Arrived  at  this  state  of  knowl- 
edge, the  spirit  knows  itself  to  be  identical 
rith  universal  reason ;  the  finite  self-conscious- 
less  and  the  absolute  self-consciousness  are 
one;  the  infinite  is  no  longer  foreign  to  and 
outside  of  the  finite.     With  a  knowledge  of  this 
high  consummation,  the  race  enters  upon  a  new 
epoch ;  the  old  has  passed  away ;  the  conflicts 
of  all  the  schools  are  adjusted.     Man  knows  the 
absolute  reason;   the  absolute  reason  knows 
itself  in  man.     To  this  all  history,  all  thought 
have  been  tending;  the  history  of  thought  is 
this  very  process;  the  completion  of  thought 
found  in  the  science  of  the  absolute.     Such 
was  the  daring  prophecy  with  which  a  secluded 
student,  in  the  ancient  and  quiet  city  of  Nu- 
remberg, heralded  a  revolution  in  the  world 
of  mind.     Nor  did  he  stop  with  the  proclama- 
tion.    In  his  "  Logic,"  published  in  two  vol- 
les,  three  parts,  between  March,  1812,  and 
July,  1816,  he  developed  his  system  in  its  most 
rigorous  and  abstract  form.     This  is  one  of  the 
boldest  and  subtlest  works  of  human  specula- 
tion.    It  is  designed  to  answer  the  question  to 
which  the  "  Phenomenology  "  led,  viz. :  What 
is  that  absolute  knowledge  which  has  been 
shown  to  be  necessary  ?     It  is  the  completion 
of  the  system  of  categories,  which  Kant  had 
elaborated,  after  Aristotle.      It  is  not  logic 
alone,  nor  metaphysics  alone;  it  is  both  to-  I 


gethcr.  It  is  not  the  science  of  thought  alone, 
nor  that  of  being  alone;  it  is  the  science  of 
both  thought  and  being,  viewed  as  identical 
and  pervaded  by  the  same  logical  law.  The 
whole  system  is  reason  itself,  or  the  absolute 
idea — absolute  idealism.  The  terms  logic,  idea, 
and  reason  are  used  in  an  unusual,  in  a  uni- 
versal sense.  Reason  and  idea  are  not  merely 
subjective ;  logic  gives  the  law  of  being  as  well 
as  of  thought.  That  Hegel  reduced  all  knowl- 
edge to  that  of  mere  relations  and  all  being  to 
mere  logic,  is  an  entire  misconception  of  his 
theory.  The  system  of  logic,  as  the  first  part 
of  philosophy,  contemplates  reason  (the  idea) 
as  it  is  in  itself,  and  not  in  its  manifestations. 
Hegel  used  to  T;all  it  "the  kingdom  of  the 
shades;"  his  "voyage  of  discovery"  led  him 
first  into  this  kingdom.  He  also  speaks  of  it 
as  equivalent  to  "  God  in  his  eternal  being,  be- 
fore the  finite  world  was  created."  In  Platonic 
phrase,  it  is  the  ideas  of  the  Divine  mind,  be- 
fore they  assume  finite  forms  and  modes.  These 
ideas  (this  idea)  are  developed  by  an  immanent 
law,  the  dialectic  process  of  which  we  have 
spoken  above;  and  herein  consists  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  work.  The  process  is  that  of  the 
idea  itself,  and  all  that  we  can  do  in  the  matter 
is  to  stand  by  and  see  how  it  is  done ;  though 
there  must  be  "speculation  in  the  eyes"  that 
see  this  process  carried  through  and  out.  Thus, 
we  begin  with  the  conception  of  being,  the 
most  universal  and  indeterminate  of  all.  As 
entirely  indeterminate,  it  is  the  same  as  noth- 
ing. Being  and  nothing  are  thus  the  same, 
but  they  are  also  different;  they  are  identical, 
but  antagonistic;  and,  as  such,  they  result  in 
a  process  of  becoming  (das  Werderi),  for  the 
very  idea  of  becoming  includes  being  and  not- 
being.  This  is  ingenious  and  acute  as  an  analysis 
of  the  conceptions ;  but  is  it  a  real  or  possible 
process  in  being  as  such  ?  The  whole  science 
of  logic  is  distributed  into  three  parts — being, 
essence,  and  conception ;  the  first  two  are  the 
ontological  logic,  the  third  is  the  subjective 
logic.  The  categories  that  fall  under  being  are 
three — quantity,  quality,  and  measure.  The 
categories  under  essence  are  also  three — es- 
sence in  itself,  phenomena  as  expressing  essence, 
and  actual  existence  as  the  union  of  the  other 
two.  Here  also,  of  course,  come  the  discus- 
sions about  the  antinomies  of  the  understand- 
ing. The  categories  of  the  third  part  of  logic, 
that  is,  of  conceptions  or  notions,  are  three — 
the  subjective  conception,  the  object,  and  last 
and  highest  of  all,  the  idea.  This  logic,  now, 
forms  the  first  great  division  of  Hegel's  whole 
scheme  of  philosophy.  This  was  fully  pre- 
sented, in  outline,  in  his  Encylclopadie  der  phi- 
losophischen  Wissenscha/ten,  published  in  1817", 
in  a  third  edition  in  1830,  and  issued  in  his 
collected  works  with  additional  notes  from  his 
lectures.  Here  the  categories  of  the  "Logic" 
are  applied  to  all  the  particular  sciences.  Of 
his  whole  system,  the  most  general  idea  is  that 
of  God  or  the  Absolute  Spirit.  This  spirit  is 
not  mere  substance,  as  in  Spinoza,  but  also 


610 


HEGEL 


subject,  and  as  such  contains  the  principle  and 
law  of  its  own  evolution.  This  law  is  a  per- 
petual trichotomy — thesis,  antithesis,  synthesis. 
Accordingly  the  "  Encyclopedia "  has  three 
main  parts,  viz.:  "Logic,"  the  "Philosophy 
of  Nature,"  and  the  "  Philosophy  of  Spirit." 
Each  of  these  has,  again,  a  threefold  division ; 
and  these  three  yet  other  three ;  and  this 
rhythm  of  triads  makes  the  harmony  of  the 
system.  Logic,  as  we  have  already  indicated, 
presents  this  absolute  spirit  or  idea,  as  it  is  in 
itself,  in  its  shadowy,  ghostly  form.  In  the 
"Philosophy  of  Nature"  we  have  the  same 
idea  in  its  objective  manifestation,  in  the  forms 
of  space  and 'time.  Here  the  idea  or  spirit  be- 
comes, as  it  were,  a  stranger  fo  itself,  yet  this, 
too,  by  an  inward  necessity.  How  it  comes  to 
do  this  is  one  of  the  knots  of  the  system ;  but 
that  it  does  so  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
nature  is.  Nature  is  here  reconstructed — or, 
Hegel  would  say,  we  see  how  it  is  constructed 
— according  to  the  high  a  priori  method,  in 
its  three  departments  of  mechanics,  physics, 
and  organized  beings.  These  refined  demon- 
strations have  not  had  much  effect  upon  the 
naturalists.  But  the  absolute  spirit,  having 
run  through  the  round  of  nature,  emerges 
into  its  third  sphere  (in  an  equally  recondite 
way),  that  of  mind  or  spirit  itself;  spirit  here 
finds  and  knows  itself,  of  course,  in  three  sta- 
dia. First,  it  is  subjective  spirit,  including  an- 
thropology, phenomenology,  and  psychology. 
Then  it  passes  over  into  objective  spirit,  or 
the  sphere  of  ethics,  which  has  three  sub- 
divisions:  1,  law  or  right;  2,  morality,  pri- 
vate and  personal;  3,  public  ethics,  including 
the  family,  society,  and  the  state.  In  fine, 
spirit  becomes  absolute  spirit,  and  as  such 
shows  itself  in  three  modes,  art,  religion,  and 
philosophy ;  and  in  the  last  the  circle  is  com- 
pleted, the  end  returns  to  the  beginning,  the 
absolute  spirit  knows  itself,  and  the  Hegelian 
system  is  all  in  all.  This  "  Encyclopaedia " 
was  first  issued  while  Hegel  was  in  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  became  a  professor  in  1816, 
declining  invitations  to  Erlangen  and  Berlin — 
the  latter,  it  is  said,  in  part  because  the  Prus- 
sian minister  proposed  that  he  should  be  ex- 
amined as  to  his  capacity  for  lecturing  after 
his  eight  years'  seclusion  in  Nuremberg.  His 
fame  now  rose  rapidly.  His  disciples  began  to 
be  ardent  and  prophetic.  His  system  was  pro- 
claimed as  completing  the  structure  of  German 
idealism.  Kant  had  critically  prepared  the 
way;  Fichte  had  taught  a  subjective  idealism; 
Schelling  had  not  risen  above  an  objective  ideal- 
ism; but  in  the  absolute  idealism  the  partial 
was  dethroned  and  the  universal  made  supreme. 
Cousin,  passing  through  Heidelberg,  proclaim- 
ed to  the  world  that  in  Hegel  (whose  "Logic" 
he  said  he  could  not  grasp)  he  had  found  a  man 
of  genius;  and  in  his  later  brilliant  course  at 
Paris,  in  1828,  he  availed  himself  of  the  gen- 
eralizations and  methods  of  the  great  idealist 
for  the  interpretation  of  history  and  the  his- 
tory of  philosophy.  A  second  invitation  to 


Berlin  in  1818,  urged  by  the  minister  Von 
Altenstein,  Hegel's  warm  personal  friend,  was 
welcomed  by  him.  He  was  now  in  the  ripe- 
ness of  his  manhood,  and  animated  by  the  con- 
sciousness that  all  thought  had  found  its  culmi- 
nation in  him.  As  the  devoted  Michelet  has 
it,  he  was  "  the  crown  of  the  whole  past  and 
the  seed  of  the  most  fruitful  future."  His 
new  position  was  most  favorable  for  the  prop- 
agation of  his  opinions.  Berlin  university  had 
always  been  enthusiastic  for  speculation.  His 
lectures  soon  became  the  rage.  Officers  of 
state  and  the  literati  and  savants  of  Berlin 
sat  on  the  students'  benches.  The  govern- 
ment provided  liberally  for  his  salary,  and  also 
for  journeys  to  Paris,  Holland,  &c.  He  took 
the  bearing  of  the  founder  of  a  new  and  great 
school.  Hegelianism  was  the  road  to  office. 
The  master  became  sometimes  overbearing; 
even  Varnhagen  von  Ense  says  that  he  was 
"  tyrannical."  Professor  Gans  was  one  of  his 
most  zealous  disciples,  but  Hegel  called  him  to 
a  sharp  account  for  having  dared  to  "  recom- 
mend," on  the  university  bulletin,  his  work  on 
ethics.  "  What  had  he  done,  that  Gans  should 
recommend  him !  "  He  mixed  more  freely  in 
general  society,  and  indulged  himself  in  his 
two  chief  relaxations,  snuff-taking  and  card- 
playing.  His  previous  lectures  on  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  philosophy  were  carefully  re- 
vised, and  he  wrote  two  new  courses,  on  the 
"Philosophy  of  Religion"  in  1821,  and  on  the 
" Philosophy  of  History"  in  1827,  in  both  of 
these  branches  introducing  an  original  and 
scientific  elaboration  of  the  materials.  His 
"Outlines  of  the  Philosophy  of  Right"  was 
issued  in  1821,  combining  in  one  exposition 
natural  rights,  ethics,  and  the  philosophy  of 
society  and  the  state.  Man's  moral  being  ex- 
presses itself  completely  in  the  state;  to  this, 
natural  rights,  private  morals,  and  even  the 
church,  are  rightfully  subordinate.  The  pref- 
ace to  this  work  aroused  more  controversy 
than  the  work  itself,  since  it  summed  up  its 
teachings  in  the  noted  aphorism :  "  The  ra- 
tional is  actual,  and  the  actual  is  rational." 
This  was  interpreted  in  an  ultra-conservative 
sense ;  explained  in  any  different  sense,  it  was 
a  mere  truism.  In  fact,  he  was  understood  as 
supporting  the  existing  Prussian  system  as  the 
perfection  of  reason  and  freedom.  This  for  a 
time  helped  his  metaphysics;  though  his  ex- 
treme disciples  soon  "changed  all  that."  He 
used  to  fight  his  battles  in  his  prefaces^  In  a 
preface  he  declared  against  the  position  of 
Schleiermacher,  that  the  feeling  of  absolute 
dependence  is  the  essence  of  religion.  These 
two  men  were  then  at  the  height  of  their  fame, 
both  at  Berlin ;  neither  liked  the  other,  and 
their  disciples  have  perpetuated  the  struggle  to 
the  present  time.  The  theologian  opposed  the 
admission  of  the  philosopher  into  the  academy 
of  science ;  and  the  philosopher  would  riot  al- 
low the  theologian  to  take  part  in  his  scientific 
journal.  The  real  difficulty  was  that  Schleier- 
macher tried  to  find  in  human  nature  a  foot- 


HEGEL 


611 


hold  for  religion  independent  of  philosophy, 
and  Hegel's  speculations  did  not  allow  this  to 
be  done.  His  system  received  concentration 
and  impulse  from  the  establishment,  with  the 
favor  of  government,  of  the  Berlin  JahrMcher 
fur  wissenschaftliche  Kritik  (1827).  All  things 
were  here  discussed  in  the  light  of  absolute 
knowledge.  The  school  became  haughty  and 
uncompromising;  they  had  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  the  universe,  and  nothing  remained  but 
to  bring  all  thoughts  into  subjection.  Ger- 
many was  alive  with  speculation;  it  had  nev- 
er known  such  a  philosophical  ferment.  Even 
orthodox  men  gave  in  their  adhesion,  and  He- 
gel was  not  loath  to  encourage  them.  Go- 
schel,  the  jurist,  wrote  "Aphorisms  on  Science 
and  Nescience,"  applying  Hegelianism  to  the 
defence  of  the  mysteries  of  Christianity ;  and 
Hegel  reviewed  the  work,  with  an  almost  ea- 
ger welcome,  in  the  Jahrbucher,  to  show  that 
his  system  was  the  same  thing  in  the  sphere 
of  speculation  that  the  Christian  religion  was 
in  the  sphere  of  faith.  In  the  preface  to  a 
new  edition  of  his  "Encyclopaedia,"  he  quoted 
from  Tholuck  on  the  oriental  trinities  to  show 
that  he  held  to  the  Trinity  more  thoroughly 
than  did  this  genial  divine.  The  mystics  he 
eulogized  with  Baader,  and  the  theosophic 
Boehm  he  declared  to  be  not  merely  fantasti- 
cal, but  also  profound.  The  rationalists  had 
no  more  violent  foe  than  this  prophet  of  the 
universal  reason;  he  defended  against  them 
the  truths  of  the  incarnation,  of  sin,  and  of 
redemption.  Conservative  rationalism  was  in- 
dignant; the  popular  philosophy  was  dumb 
with  amazement.  There  were  many  who  said 
the  long  conflict  between  philosophy  and  faith 
was  now  to  be  adjusted ;  the  absolute  idealism 
was  to  do  it,  and  it  was  to  be  done  in  Berlin. 
Enthusiastic  students  declared  that  the  refined 
ideas  of  the  "  Logic  "  were  "  the  new  gods  "  of 
a  new  Pantheon.  The  triumph  of  his  system 
seemed  to  be  coming  on.  In  1829  he  was  rec- 
tor of  the  university,  and  administered  its  af- 
fairs with  the  punctuality  and  painstaking  of 
an  accomplished  disciplinarian.  In  1831  Hegel 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  new  edition  of 
his  "Logic,"  and  revised  for  the  press  his  lec- 
tures on  the  "  Proof  of  the  Being  of  God."  In 
the  autumn  he  commenced  his  course  in  the 
university  with  more  than  usual  freshness  and 
vigor.  But  cholera  attacked  him  in  its  most 
malignant  form  on  Nov.  13.  On  the  next  day 
at  5  o'clock  he  was  dead.  He  was  buried  near 
Fichte  and  Solger,  and  over  his  remains  was 
celebrated  the  worship  of  genius  by  disciples 
almost  idolatrous. — Rosenkranz  has  written  a 
full  biography,  from  which  we  have  derived 
many  of  our  statements.  Every  subsequent 
philosophical  writer  of  note  in  and  out  of  Ger- 
many has  criticised  his  system.  The  fullest  ac- 
counts are  in  the  histories  of  philosophy  by 
Michelet,  Erdmann,  and  Willm;  the  ablest 
criticisms  are  those  of  Schelling,  Trendelen- 
burg,  Ulrici,  Weiss,  Fischer,  and  the  younger 
Fichte.  The  Hegelian  literature  would  make 


a  collection  of  several  hundred  volumes.  In 
Holland,  Van  Ghert,  Prof.  Sieber,  and  Dr. 
Krahl  espoused  his  system  ;  Heiberg  in  Copen- 
hagen ;  Tengstrom  and  Siendwall  in  Finland  ; 
a  Hungarian  wrote  to  him  that  he  was  learn- 
ing his  "Logic"  by  heart.  Apart  from  the 
main  peculiarity  of  his  system,  the  impulse 
which  this  extraordinary  thinker  communica- 
ted to  the  various  departments  of  philosophy 
was  almost  unexampled.  He  compelled  men  to 
think  for  him  or  against  him.  His  "  Logic  "  led 
to  the  treatises  of  Werder,  Weisse,  Erdmann, 
Trendelenburg,  and  Ulrici,  as  well  as  to  a  total 
revision  of  Schelling's  system.  His  "  Psycholo- 
gy "  was  followed  by  Massmann,  Wirth,  Erd- 
mann, Rosenkranz,  and  the  "  Anthropology  " 
of  Daub.  His  "Ethics"  gave  a  more  philoso- 
phical model  for  this  science,  and  produced  the 
treatises  of  Von  Henning,  Michelet,  Vatke, 
Daub,  and  Wirth,  and  influenced  the  systems 
of  Chalybaus,  Fichte,  and  Rothe.  In  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  History  "  he  made  the  boldest  at- 
tempt to  construct  the  whole  according  to  the 
evolution  of  the  idea  of  freedom.  His  "^Es- 
thetics  "  almost  transformed  the  science,  and 
led  to  the  works  of  Weisse,  Hotho,  Rotscher, 
and  Vischer.  In  the  "  History  of  Philosophy  " 
he  first  introduced  the  general  method  of  treat- 
ment, followed  by  Marbuch,  Michelet,  Bayr- 
hoifer,  Barchou  de  Penhoen,  Willm,  Zeller, 
and  Schwegler ;  his  criticism  of  Aristotle  has 
contributed  more  than  any  other  to  the  under- 
standing of  Aristotle's  real  metaphysical  sys- 
tem. Even  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  Nature," 
though  many  of  his  views  are  not  proved  by 
observation,  and  though  his  deductions  are  of- 
ten arbitrary,  he  has  yet  added  to  the  mate- 
rials for  a  truly  philosophical  construction  of 
the  cosmos;  he  early  advocated  Goethe's  the- 
ories about  colors  and  the  metamorphosis  of 
the  plants.  In  jurisprudence,  the  conserva- 
tive tendencies  of  his  system  were  soon  an- 
nulled by  his  more  advanced  followers,  and 
the  most  radical  German  revolutionists  of  1848 
expressed  their  extreme  views  in  the  dialect 
of  the  absolute  idealism ;  e.  g.,  Ruge  in  the 
ffallische  Jahrbucher  (1838).  But  the  chief 
conflicts  were  in  theology,  and  in  the  relations 
of  his  system  to  Christianity.  Soon  after  his 
death  his  school  fulfilled  the  master's  predic- 
tion, and  illustrated  his  theory  of  antagonisms. 
His  lectures  on  the  "Philosophy  of  Religion" 
were  twice  edited :  first  in  a  conservative 
sense  by  Marheineke,  and  then  in  a  revolu- 
tionary sense  by  Bruno  Bauer.  Passages  in 
his  "History  of  Philosophy,"  from  his  lectures 
of  1805,  were  declared  to  be  much  more  pan- 
theistic than  his  matured  views;  Strauss 
thought  that  he  was  opposing  Hegel  until  these 
lectures  were  published.  The  conflicting  ele- 
ments came  out  at  first  in  discussions  upon 
three  points,  the  personality  of  God,  immortal- 
ity and  the  person  of  Christ.  Strauss's  "  Life 
of'jesus"  (1835)  brought  the  last  decisive 
point  to  an  articulate  statement ;  and  in  his 
subsequent  controversial  writings  he  ranged 


612 


HEGEL 


HEGIRA 


the  school,  after  the  French  political  pattern, 
in  three  divisions,  the  right,  the  centre,  and 
the  left.  This  division  was  first  made  in  ref- 
erence to  Christianity.  The  right  wing  as- 
serted that  llegelianism  and  orthodoxy  were 
harmonious ;  Goschel,  Gabler,  Erdmann,  Mar- 
heineke,  and  Bruno  Bauer  for  a  time,  stood 
here.  The  middle  was  represented  by  Rosen- 
kranz,  Gans,  and  Vatke.  On  the  left  stood 
Michelet,  Strauss,  Ruge,  the  radicals  in  reli- 
gious opinion,  who  denied  immortality,  the 
divine  personality,  and  the  incarnation  as  spe- 
cific in  the  person  of  Christ.  The  Tubingen 
school  of  F.  C.  Baur  has  worked  in  the  inter- 
ests of  a  destructive  criticism.  Against  all 
these  modifications  of  the  system  the  great 
body  of  the  German  divines,  especially  the 
school  of  Schleiermacher,  have  protested  from 
the  beginning,  evidently  believing  that  the 
tendencies  of  Hegel's  speculations  were  panthe- 
istic, whatever  judgment  might  be  formed  about 
his  personal  opinions.  The  transformation  of 
Hegelianism  into  naturalism  by  Feuerbach  and 
others,  and  the  direction  taken  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  natural  sciences,  have  placed  He- 
gel's philosophy  in  the  heart  of  the  materialis- 
tic controversies  of  recent  times.  Even  Hart- 
mann's  "Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious  "  (1869) 
has  embraced  the  main  doctrines  of  Hegel. — 
The  leading  works  of  Hegel  appeared  in  the  fol- 
lowing order:  Phenomenologie  (1807);  Logik 
(1812-'16);  Encyclopadie  der  philosophischen 
Wissenschaften  (1817);  Orundlinien  der  Phi- 
losopMe  des  Rechts  (1821).  His  collected  works 
were  published  in  18  vols.  in  1832-'54.  Recent 
works  of  note  on  the  Hegelian  philosophy  are 
Haym's  Hegel  und  seine  Zeit  (Berlin,  1857) ; 
J.  F.  K.  Rosenkranz's  Apologie  Hegels  gegen 
Dr.  R.  Haym,  and  Dr.  Aloys  Schmid's  Ent- 
wickelungsgeschichte  der  HegeVschen  Logik 
(1858);  F.-Reiff's  Ueber  die  HegeVsche  Dialek- 
iik  (1866) ;  Rosenkranz's  edition  of  the  En- 
cyclopadie with  Einleitung  und  Erlauterung, 
Hegel  als  deutscher  Nalionalphilosoph  (1870), 
and  Hegel1 8  Naturphilosophie  und  ihre  Erlau- 
terung durcli  den  italienischen  Philosophen  A. 
Vera  (1868);  C.  L.  Michelet's  Hegel,  der  unwi- 
derlegte  Weltphilosoph,  Max  Schasler's  Hegel, 
Populdre  Gedanken  aus  seinen  Werken,  Karl 
Kostlin's  Hegel  in  philosophischer,  politischer 
und  nationaler  Beziehung  fitr  das  deutsche 
Volk  dargcstellt,  and  F.  *G.  Biedermann's 
Kant's  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft  und  die 
Hegel  sche  Logik  (1870);  and  Stirling's  "Se- 
cret of  Hegel"  (1865).  Important  transla- 
tions of  Hegel  are  Ch.  Benard's  Cours  d'esthe- 
tique  (1840-'43)),  and  La  poetique  (1855);  A. 
Vera's  Logique  (1859),  Philosophic  de  la  na- 
ture (1863-'5),  and  Philosophic  de  Vesprit 
(1867-70) ;  and  II.  Sloman  and  J.  Walton's  La 
logique  subjective  (1854).  English  translations 
are  the  "  Subjective  Logic,"  by  II.  Sloman  and 
J.  Walton  (1855);  the  "Philosophy  of  His- 
tory," by  J.  Sibree,  in  Bonn's  "Philosophical 
Library"  (1857);  and  "The  Logic  of  Hegel," 
translated  by  W.  Wallace  (1874).  "  The  Jour- 


nal of  Speculative  Philosophy "  (St.  Louis) 
contains  many  admirable  translations  and  ex- 
positions of  Hegel's  philosophy,  by  W.  T.  Har- 
ris and  others. 

IIEGIRA  (Arabic,  hejrah,  emigration,  usually 
but  incorrectly  translated  "flight;"  the  full 
expression  is  hejrat  al-ndbi,  the  migration  of 
the  prophet),  the  migration  of  Mohammed 
from  Mecca  to  Medina.  The  most  probable 
date  assigned  to  this  event  is  Sept.  13,  622. 
Mohammed  died  in  632,  and  seven  or  eight 
years  afterward  the  caliph  Omar,  with  the 
aid  of  Harmozan,  a  Persian,  instituted  a  new 
calendar  founded  upon  the  hegira.  But  in- 
stead of  commencing  the  new  era  with  the 
actual  date  of  the  hegira,  he  began  it  with  the 
first  day  of  Moharrem,  the  first  month  of  the 
Arabic  year,  corresponding  to  July  16,  622. 
The  Arabian  astronomers  maintain  that  it  was 
one  day  earlier,  but  their  opinion  has  never 
been  adopted  in  either  official  or  popular  prac- 
tice. This  date,  July  16,  is  in  most  books  of 
chronology  given  erroneously  as  the  date  of  the 
hegira  itself.  The  Mohammedan  calendar  is 
regulated  entirely  by  the  moon,  without  regard 
to  the  sun  or  the  seasons.  The  year  consists 
of  12  lunar  months.  The  odd  months  contain 
each  30  days,  the  even  months  each  29  days 
except  in  intercalary  years,  when  the  12th 
month  also  contains  30  days.  The  year  thus 
consists  of  354  or  355  days.  Whether  a  given 
year  consists  of  one  or  the  other  number  of 
days  is  decided  as  follows  :  the  time  from  the 
commencement  of  the  era  is  divided  into  cycles 
of  30  years.  The  year  1873,  being  the  1290th 
of  the  hegira,  was  the  last  year  of  the  43d  cycle. 
In  each  of  these  cycles  the  2d,  5th,  7th,  10th, 
13th,  16th,  18th,  21st,  24th,  26th,  and  29th 
years  consist  of  355  days,  one  day  being  added 
to  the  12th  month.  The  other  years  of  the 
cycle  consist  each  of  354  days.  The  Moham- 
medan year  is  thus  on  an  average  10  days,  21 
hours,  and  15  seconds  shorter  than  the  tropical 
year,  and  consequently  the  first  day  of  each 
Mohammedan  year  comes  10  or  11  days  earlier 
than  it  did  the  preceding  year,  and  thus  retro- 
grades through  all  the  different  seasons.  Hence 
the  exact  transfer  of  a  Mohammedan  date  to 
our  calendar  is  a  very  difficult  and  complica- 
ted operation.  But  the  year  can  be  fixed  with 
sufficient  accuracy  in  a  simple  manner.  There 
are  11,694  days  in  33  Mohammedan  years,  and 
11,688  days  in  32  Christian  years ;  hence  we 
may  assume  that  33  Mohammedan  are  equal 
to  32  Christian  years,  and  we  have  the  follow- 
ing rule  :  subtract  from  the  year  of  the  hegira 
its  33d  part,  and  add  622  ;  the  result  is  the 
year  of  the  Christian  era.  Thus  to  find  the 
year  corresponding  to  1290  of  the  hegira: 
1290-39  (L  e.,  1290-1-33)  +  622  =  1873  A.  D. 
To  turn  a  year  of  the  Christian  era  into  a  year 
of  the  hegira,  subtract  622  and  add  to  the  re- 
mainder the  32d  part  of  itself.  Thus  Constan- 
tinople was  taken  by  the  Moslems  in  1453  ;  in 
what  year  of  the  hegira  was  it?  1453—622  = 
831 ;  adding  26  (i.  e.,  831-7-32),  we  have  857. 


HEIBERG 

IIEIBERC,  Joliann  Ludwig,  a  Danish  author, 
born  in  Copenhagen,  Dec.  14,  1791,  died  there, 
Aug.  25,  1860.     He  entered  the  university  in 
lis  native  city  in  1809  to  study  medicine,  hut 
in  1814  gave  that  up  and  devoted  himself  to 
Iramatic  literature.     When  23  years  old,  he 
>rought  out  a  version  of  the  story  of  Don  Juan, 
id  a  play  entitled  "  The  Potter  "  (1814).     He 
low  familiarized  himself  with    the    Spanish 
rama,  making  a  journey  into  Spain  for  that 
)urpose,   and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
jmained  three  years.     On  his  return  to  Den- 
mrk  in  1822,  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
university  of  Kiel.     In  1824  he  went  to 
jrlin,  and  studied  the  system  of  Hegel  and  his 
>llowers,  returning  home  in  1825.     He  is  the 
lost  popular  dramatic  author  of  Denmark,  and 
is  plays  were  all  translated  into  German  by 
legiesser.    He  was  director  of  the  royal 

^^^^•~--:-—T^~^^-=~=~^^-~-------- 

__,;;:    -_•---•- 


HEIDELBERG 


613 


theatre  in  Copenhagen  from  1849  to  1856,  and 
afterward  censor  of  the  theatre.  He  published 
a  complete  edition  of  his  poetical  works  (8 
vols.,  1845-'7),  and  one  of  his  prose  writings 
(3  vols.,  1841-'4).  An  edition  of  his  complete 
works  was  brought  out  after  his  death  (22 
vols.,  Copenhagen,  ISei-'S). 

HEIDELBERG  (Lat.  Edelberga ;  anc.  Myrti- 
letum),  a  city  of  Baden,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neckar,  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Mannheim,  and  31  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Carlsruhe ;  pop.  in  1871,  19,988. 
It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  university, 
founded  by  the  elector  Rupert  toward  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  and  reformed  by  the 
grand  duke  Charles  Rupert  in  1803  under  the 
title  of  Ruperto-Carolina.  The  university  libra- 
ry, containing  200,000  volumes  and  2,000  manu- 
scripts, is  exceedingly  rich  in  antique  works 
and  early  editions.  After  the  capture  of  Hei- 


Heidelberg. 


delberg  by  Tilly  in  1622,  the  library,  which  at 
that  time  numbered  besides  the  printed  books 
3,500  manuscripts  (exclusive  of  the  French), 
was  presented  by  the  duke  of  Bavaria  to  Pope 
Gregory  XV.,  and  by  the  latter  made,  under 
the  name  of  Bibliotheca  Palatina,  a  special 
sction  of  the  Vatican  library.    In  1797  Na- 
)leon  gave  38  of  the  best  manuscripts,  ob- 
lined  at  the  peace  of  Tolentino,  to  the  Paris 
library ;    but  in   1815    these,   as   well  as  all 
~      Old  German  manuscripts  of  the  Palatina, 
fere  restored  to  Heidelberg.     The  university 
very  complete  in  details,  embracing  a  mu- 
sum   of   natural    history   and    antiquities,   a 
)hysiological  cabinet,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a 
ying-in  asylum,  two  botanical  gardens,  a  col- 
lege of  agriculture  and  forestry,  an  observa- 
tory, and  a  philological,  theological,  pedagogi- 
cal, homiletical,  and  Biblical  seminary.     It  was 
attended  in  1873  by  707  students,  under  108 


professors.  A  chair  of  English  literature,  the 
first  of  the  kind  in  Germany,  was  established  in 
1873.  There  are  also  an  excellent  gymnasium 
and  two  female  schools  of  high  reputation. 
The  situation  of  Heidelberg,  in  a  picturesque 
and  fertile  country,  not  far  from  the  junction 
of  the  Neckar  with  the  Rhine,  having  on  one 
side  the  Konigstuhl  and  on  the  opposite  the 
Heiligenberg,  the  hills  covered  with  vineyards, 
and  its  curious  bridge,  renders  it  attractive  to 
the  tourist.  To  travellers  its  greatest  attrac- 
tion is  the  ruined  castle,  which  presents  in  its 
different  portions  every  phase  of  architecture 
from  the  14th  to  the  17th  century.  Having 
been  restored  in  1718-'20,  it  was  set  on  fire  by 
lightning  in  1764,  and  it  has  never  been  re- 
built or  tenanted  since.  In  its  vaults  is  the 
celebrated  Heidellerger  Pass  (tun),  once  the 
largest  in  the  world.  The  principal  manufac- 
ture of  Heidelberg  is  beer ;  its  trade  is  confined 


614: 


HEIDENHEIM 


HEINE 


chiefly  to  linseed  oil  and  tobacco. — Heidelberg 
was  attached  in  1362  to  the  Palatinate.  Ru- 
pert I.  enlarged  it  and  made  it  an  electoral 
residence.  In  1384  the  emperor  Wenceslas 
signed  here  the  union  of  Heidelberg,  by  which 
the  different  leagues  of  German  cities  were 
united  in  one.  Heidelberg  was  plundered  and 
partly  ruined  by  Tilly  in  1622,  by  Turenne  in 
1674,  by  Melac  in  1688,  and  by  Marshal  de 
Lorges  in  1693.  These  misfortunes  led  to  its 
decline  in  political  importance,  which  was 
finally  completed  by  the  residence  of  the  elec- 
tors being  removed  to  Mannheim  in  1719.  It 
was  united  to  Baden  in  1802. 

IIEIDENHEDI,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg,  46  m. 
E.  S.  E.  of  Stuttgart;  pop.  in  1871,  5,167.  It 
has  manufactories  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
cloth,  tobacco,  yarn,  and  machines.  An  im- 
portant trade  is  carried  on  in  corn  and  cattle. 
The  town  is  connected  by  railway  with  Aalen 
and  the  Stuttgart  and  Nordlingen  railway. 
Ruins  of  the  castle  of  the  lords  of  Hellenstein, 
to  whom  Heidenheim  and  the  neighboring 
country  belonged  till  1307,  are  still  to  be  seen 
on  the  rock  which  overlooks  the  town. 

HEIGHTS,  Measurement  of.  See  BAROMETRI- 
CAL MEASUREMENT. 

HEILBROM,  a  fortified  town  of  Wurtem- 
berg, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Neckar,  26  m. 
N.  of  Stuttgart,  with  which  city  it  is  connected 
by  railway;  pop.  in  1871,  18,955.  It  has  a 
gymnasium  with  a  library  of  12,000  volumes, 
and  three  Catholic  and  two  Protestant  churches, 
among  which  the  church  of  St.  Kilian  is  re- 
markable for  the  pure  Gothic  architecture  of 
its  choir  and  its  beautiful  tower,  220  ft.  high. 
It  stands  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  station.  In 
its  vicinity  is  the  castle  in  which  Gotz  von 
Berlichingen  was  imprisoned  in  1525.  Heil- 
bronn  was  a  free  imperial  city  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century.  In  1633  Oxen- 
stiern  here  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  allies 
of  Sweden  for  the  continuation  of  the  thirty 
years'  war. 

HEILIGENSTADT,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Saxony,  47  m.  N.  W.  of  Erfurt,  on 
the  Leine;  pop.  in  1871,  4,882.  The  town  is 
regularly  built,  and  surrounded  by  walls,  with 
three  gates.  It  has  a  castle,  a  Protestant  and 
two  Catholic  churches,  a  gymnasium,  formerly 
a  Jesuit  college,  a  workhouse,  a  hospital,  and 
an  orphan  asylum.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  of  woollen  yarns  and  wooden  clocks; 
it  has  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle.  In  the 
neighborhood  is  the  famous  Calvarienberg. 
Heiligenstadt  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Dagobert  around  the  tomb  of  Bishop  Aureus 
of  Mentz,  who  was  slain  by  the  Thuringians; 
it  was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  principality 
of  Eichsfeld.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1333, 
and  was  captured  in  1478  by  Count  Henry  the 
younger  of  Schwarzburg,  and  in  1525  by  Duke 
Henry  of  Brunswick.  From  1807  to  1813  it 
belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia. 

IIEIM,  Francois  Joseph,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Belfort,  Dec.  16,  1787,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  2, 


1865.  He  decorated  the  ceiling  of  the  gallery 
of  Charles  X.  in  the  Louvre  with  a  represen- 
tation of  Vesuvius  receiving  from  Jupiter  the 
fire  which  was  to  destroy  Pompeii  and  Ilercu- 
laneum.  His  allegory  of  the  renaissance  of 
the  arts,  on  the  ceiling  of  the  French  gallery 
in  the  same  building,  was  much  admired. 

HEINE,  Heinrieh,  a  German  poet  and  critic, 
of  Jewish  parentage,  born  in  Diisseldorf,  Dec. 
12,  1799,  or  as  Steinmann  asserts  in  1797,  died 
in  Paris,  Feb.  17,  1856.  His  first  poem  was 
written  on  Napoleon's  visit  to  Diisseldorf  (Nov. 
2,  1810).  At  the  lyceum  of  Dusseldorf  he 
made  great  progress  in  the  regular  studies, 
mastering  also  English,  French,  and  Italian. 
In  1815  he  was  sent  to  Frankfort  to  qualify 
himself  for  mercantile  life,  but  showed  such 
repugnance  to  it  that  in  1819  he  was  sent  to 
Bonn  to  study  law,  but  studied  everything  ex- 
cept law.  In  September,  1820,  he  went  to 
Gottingen,  which  he  learned  to  dislike  and 
satirized  bitterly  in  after  years.  He  next  re- 
moved to  Berlin,  where  his  character  and  feel- 
ings rapidly  assumed  that  satirical  indifferency 
and  reckless  audacity  now  identified  with  his 
name.  While  in  Berlin  he  earnestly  studied 
philosophy  under  Hegel,  and  became  intimate 
with  Chamisso,  Fouque,  Bopp,  and  Grabbe. 
'Here  in  1822  appeared  his  Gedichte,  subse- 
quently published  as  "  Youthful  Sorrows  "  in 
his  "  Book  of  Songs."  Though  favorably  re- 
ceived by  eminent  critics,  they  attracted  at 
the  time  but  little  attention.  A  single  sorrow, 
the  early  disappointment  of  Heine  in  his  love 
for  his  cousin  Evelina  van  Geldern,  runs  through 
all  these  poems.  He  also  published  at  this 
period  his  plays  Almansor  and  Radcliff,  with 
the  Lyrisches  Intermezzo.  In  the  summer  of 
1822  he  made  a  journey  to  Poland.  He  re- 
turned to  Gottingen  in  1823,  was  made  doctor 
of  law  in  1825,  and  in  the  same  year  went  to 
Heiligenstadt,  where  on  June  28  he  is  said  to 
have  been  baptized  into  the  Lutheran  church. 
Heine  had  taken  his  legal  degree  because  his 
uncle,  the  eminent  Hamburg  banker  and  phil- 
anthropist Salomon  Heine,  had  made  it  a  con- 
dition of  giving  him  his  education.  He  how- 
ever continued  to  aid  him  in  his  chosen  literary 
career.  He  now  went  to  Hamburg,  where  in 
1826  he  published  the  Harzreise,  the  first  part 
of  his  Reiselilder.  Very  few  books  ever  ex- 
cited in  Germany  such  an  extraordinary  sen- 
sation. In  1827  he  went  to  Munich  to  edit 
with  Dr.  Lindner  the  PolitiscJie  Annalen.  In 
1829  he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  here  occurred 
the  famous  quarrel  with  the  poet  Platen,  who, 
having  satirized  Heine,  received  in  return  the 
most  bitter  sarcasm  "and  withering  abuse. 
Literature  hardly  affords  any  parallel  to  this 
cynical  retort.  In  1831  Heine  went  to  Paris, 
having  become  so  obnoxious  to  the  Prussian 
government  as  a  liberal  writer  that  he  had  to 
choose  between  exile  and  imprisonment.  From 
this  time  till  1848  his  influence  in  Germany 
was  very  great,  and  he  acquired  in  France  the 
reputation  of  being  the  wittiest  French  writer 


HEINE 

since  Voltaire.  In  1831  he  wrote  a  series  of 
articles  on  the  state  of  France  for  the  Augsburg 
Allgemeine  Zeitung,  which  were  collected  and 
published  both  in  French  and  German.  In  1833 
appeared  his  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  neu- 
ern  schonen  Literatur  in  Deutschland  (2  vols., 
Hamburg),  and  L 'Allemagne,  a  characteristic 
and  daring  work,  in  which  he  attacked  with 
relentless  severity  the  romantic  writers,  the 
philosophers,  and  in  fact  nearly  everybody. 
This  book  created  a  storm  of  fury  in  Germany, 
where  democrats,  pietists,  Teutomaniacs,  and 
state  officials  united  in  denouncing  it ;  while  in 
France  no  other  work  has  done  so  much  to  stop 
the  current  of  romanticism.  In  1840  he  publish- 
ed a  violent  work  on  his  former  friend  Borne, 
then  dead.  This  involved  him  in  a  duel  with 
the  husband  of  a  lady  who  was  stigmatized  in 
the  book  as  having  entertained  illicit  relations 
with  Borne.  In  1843  he  paid  his  last  visit  to 
Germany  to  see  his  mother.  His  public  bitter- 
ness and  literary  cruelties  were  in  strange  con- 
trast with  his  personal  good  qualities.  He  was 
generous,  even  self-sacrificing,  especially  to  poor 
literary  men,  and  during  the  cholera  risked  his 
life  by  remaining  to  nurse  a  sick  cousin.  In 
1847  he  was  attacked  by  a  painful  spinal  com- 
plaint, which  tormented  him  almost  without 
cessation  until  his  death.  By  his  own  request 
all  religious  rites  were  omitted  at  his  funeral. 
The  bold  infidelity,  the  reckless  licentiousness, 
and  the  unqualified  faith  in  the  world  and  the 
flesh,  which  characterized  Heine's  life  as  well  as 
lis  writings,  were  counterbalanced  by  such  sin- 
cere belief  in  his  own  doctrines,  such  sympathy 
for  suifering,  and  such  acute  perception  of  the 
beautiful  in  every  form,  that  it  is  difficult  for 
those  unfamiliar  with  the  social  developments 
of  modern  continental  European  life  and  liter- 
ature to  appreciate  his  true  nature  or  position. 
He  received  from  the  French  government  an  an- 
nual pension  of  4,000  francs  from  1836  to  1848, 
but  did  not  criticise  it  the  less  severely  in  his 
writings.  In  his  later  years  Heine  returned 
from  unbounded  skepticism,  if  not  to  an  evan- 
gelical faith,  at  least  to  theism,  the  Bible  being 
constantly  read  by  him,  and  appearing  to  him, 
as  he  said,  like  a  suddenly  discovered  treasure. 
As  he  still  retained  his  love  of  paradox  and  of 
mystification,  the  real  degree  of  his  conversion 
became  the  subject  of  no  little  controversy  and 
comment.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Heine 
married  "Mathilde,"  of  whom  he  often  speaks 
tenderly  in  his  writings.  His  works,  in  addition 
to  those  mentioned,  are :  Franzosische  Zustdnde 
(Hamburg,  1833) ;  Der  Salon  (1834-'40) ;  STialc- 
speare's  MddcTien  und  Frauen  (Leipsic,  1839); 
Neue  Gedichte  (Hamburg,  1844)  ;  Ballade  uber 
die  ScUacht  von  Hastings  and  Atta  Troll  (1847) ; 
Romanzero  (1851) ;  Doctor  Faust,  ein  Tanzpoem 
(1851);  VermiscUe  Schriften  (1854) ;  and  Les 
aveux  d'unpoete  de  la  nouvelle  A llemagne,  in  the 
JKevue  des  Deux  Mondes  (1854).  A  collection 
of  his  works  was  published  in  German  at  Phil- 
adelphia in  1856  (6  vols.  8vo;  new  ed.,  7  vols. 
12mo,  1865),  and  a  complete  edition  at  Ham- 


HEINICKE 


615 


burg  in  1861-7  (21  vols.  8vo).  There  is  also 
a  French  version  executed  by  Heine  himself, 
under  the  revision  of  Gerard  de  Nerval  and 
others,  and  several  translations  of  special 
poems  have  appeared.  The  following  works 
on  Heine  have  appeared  since  his  death :  Hein- 
rich  Heine,  Erinnerungen,  by  Alfred  Meissner 
(Hamburg,  1856) ;  H.  Heine's  Wirlcen  und  Stre- 
len,  by  Strodtmann  (1857) ;  H.  Heine's  Denk- 
wurdigkeiten  aus  meinem  Leben  mit  ihm,  by 
Steinmann  (1857) ;  UeberH.  Heine,  by  Schmidt- 
Weissenfels(1857);  H.  Heine's  Leben  und  Werlce, 
by  Strodtmann  (1867-'8)  ;  Heinrich  Heine  und 
seine  Zeit,  by  his  niece,  Helene  Hirsch  (pub- 
lished simultaneously  in  German  and  French, 
1873);  and  "Life  and  Opinions  of  Heine,"  by 
William  Stigant  (2  vols.,  1873).  English  ver- 
sions of  Heine's  works  are:  the  "Pictures 
of  Travel,"  translated  by  Charles  G.  Leland 
(Philadelphia,  1856) ;  the  "  Book  of  Songs  " 
by  J.  E.  Wallis  (London,  1856),  and  by  C.  G. 
Leland  (Philadelphia,  1864);  the  "Poems  of 
Heine,  complete,  translated  in  the  Original 
Metres,"  by  Edgar  Alfred  Bowring  (London, 
1859);  and  "Scintillations  from  the  Prose 
Works  of  Heinrich  Heine,"  translated  by  S.  A. 
Stern  (New  York,  1873). 

HEINECCIFS,  Johann  Gottlieb,  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  Eisenberg,  Saxony,  Sept.  11,  1681, 
died  in  Halle,  Aug.  31, 1741.  He  was  educated 
at  Leipsic  and  at  Halle,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  1713,  and  of  law  in 
1721.  He  went  to  Franeker  in  1723  and  to 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1727,  but  resumed 
his  professorship  at  Halle  in  1733.  His  works 
are  very  numerous  and  of  great  value  to  the 
legal  student.  A  collective  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  Geneva  under  the  title  of  Opera  ad 
Universam  Jurisprudentiam,  Philosophiam,  et 
Liter  as  Humaniores  Pertinentia  (9  vols.  4to, 
1769). 

HEINECKEN,  €hristian  Heinrieb,  a  precocious 
child  of  Liibeck,  born  Feb.  6, 1721,  died  June  27, 
1725.  He  could  speak  at  the  age  of  10  months, 
recite  the  principal  events  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment two  months  afterward,  and  had  com- 
mitted to  memory  the  history  of  antiquity  when 
little  over  two  years  old,  besides  speaking  flu- 
ently Latin  and  French.  At  three  years  he 
was  familiar  with  universal  history  and  geog- 
raphy. From  all  sides  people  came  to  see  him, 
and  on  the  invitation  of  the  king  of  Denmark  he 
visited  Copenhagen.  His  constitution  was  very 
delicate,  and  until  four  years  old  he  was  sup- 
ported only  by  the  milk  of  his  nurse.  His  bi- 
ography was  written  by  his  teacher,  Christian 
von  Schonerich. 

HEIMCKE,  Samuel,  a  German  educator,  born 
at  Nautschiitz,  near  Weissenfels,  April  10, 
1729,  died  in  Leipsic,  April  30,  1790.  At  21 
years  of  age  he  joined  the  life  guards  of  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  in  which  he  served  four 
years,  and  taught  himself  Latin  and  French. 
He  afterward  engaged  in  teaching,  studied  for 
a  time  at  Jena,  became  a  private  tutor  in  Ham- 
burg, and  in  1768  chorister  in  Eppendorf.  He 


616 


HEINSE 


HEIR 


had  several  years  previously  been  successful  in 
teaching  deaf  mutes,  and  now  taught  a  deaf 
and  dumb  boy  to  speak.  Large  numbers  of 
do:if  mutes  were  consequently  put  under  his 
care,  and  his  reputation  became  so  great  that 
the  elector  of  Saxony  solicited  him  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  went  to  Leipsic,  and 
on  April  14,  1778,  opened  the  first  institution 
for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in 
Germany.  He  also  took  great  interest  in  pub- 
lic education,  and  vigorously  attacked  the  old 
system  of  learning  by  rote.  After  his  death 
his  wife  continued  to  direct  the  institution. 
His  principal  writings  are :  Beobachtungen 
uber  Stumme  und  die  menschlicke  Sprache 
(Hamburg,  1778) ;  Ueber  die  Denlcart  der  Taub- 
stummen  (Leipsic,  1780) ;  Ueber  alte  und  neue 
LeJirarten  (1783)  ;  and  Wichtige  EntdecTcungen 
und  Beitriige  zur  Seelenlelire  und  zur  mensch 
lichen  Sprache  (1784). 

II KINS K.  Johann  Jakob  Wilhclm,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  at  Langewiesen,  Schwarzburg-Son- 
dershausen,  about  1749,  died  in  Mentz,  July 
22,  1803.  His  first  publication  was  a  very  free 
translation  of  Petronius  Arbiter,  followed  by 
Laldion,  an  apotheosis  of  the  voluptuous  and 
beautiful  in  art.  Heinse  defended  himself 
against  the  charge  of  indecency,  while  Goethe, 
impressed  by  the  extraordinary  merit  of  Lal- 
dion, apart  from  its  immorality,  praised  it 
highly.  In  1776  he  left  Gleim  to  accompany 
Jacobi  to  Diisseldorf,  whom  he  there  assisted 
in  editing  a  periodical  entitled  Iris.  In  1780 
he  went  to  Italy,  proceeded  in  1782  with  the 
artist  Kobel  to  Naples,  and  returned  with  An- 
gelica Kauffmann  to  Rome.  Having  returned 
to  Germany,  principally  on  foot,  he  became 
librarian  to  the  elector  of  Mentz,  and  published 
the  famous  romance  of  Ardinghello.  This  was 
succeeded  by  Anastasia,  a  romance  consisting 
of  problems  in  chess  and  scenes  turning  on  the 
game ;  and  this  by  Hildegard  von  Hohenthal, 
the  conclusion  of  Ardinghello.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  he  wrote  Sinngedichte  (Halberstadt, 
1771),  and  translated  Ariosto's  "  Orlando"  and 
Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered." 

HEINSIUS,  Antonio*,  grand  pensionary  of  Hol- 
land, born  in  1641,  died  at  the  Hague,  Aug.  13, 
1720.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  and  confi- 
dential agent  of  Prince  William  III.  of  Orange, 
and  during  40  years  was  the  moving  spirit  of 
Dutch  politics.  After  William  became  king  of 
England  (1689),  Heinsius  managed  for  him, 
greatly  to  his  satisfaction,  the  affairs  of  Hol- 
land, and  was  instrumental  in  rendering  the 
states  general  favorable  to  friendly  action  with 
England.  The  grand  alliance  on  the  subject 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  between  the  em- 
peror, the  kings  of  England,  Prussia,  and  Den- 
mark, Holland,  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  elec- 
tor of  Hanover,  against  Louis  XIV.  and  Philip 
V.,  was  in  great  measure  due  to  the  exertions 
of  the  grand  pensionary.  The  defeats  of  Blen- 
heim (1704),  Ramillies  (1706),  and  Turin  (1706), 
with  their  results,  compelled  Louis  XIV.  to 
open  negotiations.  He  made  overtures  to  Hol- 


land ;  but  Heinsius  answered  that  the  Holland- 
ers were  inseparably  bound  to  their  allies,  and 
exacted  as  a  preliminary  condition  the  recog- 
nition of  the  right  of  the  house  of  Austria  to 
the  Spanish  succession.  To  this  France  refused 
to  accede ;  the  war  was  continued  disastrously 
for  her,  and  in  1709  her  renewed  application 
met  with  the  same  response.  Louis  XIV.  now 
consented  to  treat  on  this  basis,  and  negotia- 
tions were  commenced ;  but  the  allies  demand- 
ing still  greater  sacrifices,  he  renewed  the  war, 
and  after  the  defeat  of  Malplaquet  (1709)  con- 
ferences were  again  opened  at  the  castle  of 
Gertruidenberg  and  continued  unsuccessfully 
for  four  months,  Heinsius  obstinately  adhering 
to  his  terms.  France,  everywhere  beaten,  was 
in  great  danger  when,  in  1711,  Queen  Anne  of 
England  secretly  offered  peace  to  Louis  XIV. 
The  congress  of  Utrecht,  opened  in  January, 
1712,  resulted  in  England's  ceasing  hostilities; 
but  Prince  Eugene,  the  Hanoverians,  and  the 
Dutch  persevered  in  the  war,  and  took  Le 
Quesnoy,  July  4.  The  defeat  of  the  allies  at 
Denain  (July  24)  changed  the  whole  state  of 
the  war.  In  a  few  days  several  important 
places  were  recaptured  by  the  French,  and 
armistices  were  separately  concluded  with 
England  and  Portugal.  Notwithstanding  these 
reverses,  Heinsius  did  all  in  his  power  to  pre- 
vent a  general  peace.  In  spite  of  his  efforts, 
one  was  agreed  upon  and  signed  at  Utrecht, 
April  11.  1713,  but  the  signature  of  Heinsius 
was  the  last  affixed.  He  died  seven  years  later, 
while  vigorous  in  mind  and  body. 

HEINSIUS.  I.  Daniel,  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  in  Ghent,  June  9,  1580,  died  in  Leyden, 
Feb.  25,  1655.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  where  in  his  25th  year  he 
succeeded  Joseph  Scaliger  as  professor  of  poli- 
tics and  history.  In  1618  he  acted  as  secretary 
to  the  synod  of.Dort.  He  edited  the  principal 
Greek  and  Latin  classics,  and  wrote  two  Lathi 
tragedies  entitled  Auriacus  and  Herodes  Infan- 
ticida  ;  Exer  citation  es  Sacra  ad  N.  T.  Libros 
(Leyden,  1639,  and  Cambridge,  1640) ;  a  poem 
in  four  books  styled  De  Contemptu  Mortis; 
and  various  other  valuable  works.  II.  Nieo- 
laus,  a  Dutch  poet,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Leyden,  July  29,  1620,  died  at  the  Hague, 
Oct.  7,  1681.  He  was  educated  at  the  univ< 
sity  of  his  native  city.  In  1649  he  went  to 
Sweden  at  the  invitation  of  Queen  Christim 
and  settled  at  Stockholm,  where  he  remain* 
till  his  father's  death  in  1655.  His  latter  days 
were  unhappy,  and  passed  for  the  most  part  in 
his  native  land.  He  was  the  author  of  Latii 
poems,  the  graceful  style  of  which  gained  fo 
him  the  appellation  "  swan  of  Holland." 

HEIR  (Lat.  hceres),  in  law,  one  entitled 
descent  and  right  of  blood  to  lands,  tenements, 
or  other  hereditaments.  There  are  two  ways 
in  law  in  which  the  title  to  real  estate  may 
pass,  by  purchase  and  by  descent.  It  is  said 
to  be  by  purchase  when  it  is  transferred  by  the 
owner  by  any  species  of  gift,  grant,  or  convey- 
ance, to  take  effect  either  in  his  lifetime  or  by 


HELDER 


way  of  testamentary  disposition  ;  and  it  is  by 
descent  when,  by  reason  of  his  dying  intestate, 
it  passes  to  such  relative  or  relatives  as  by  law 
are  designated  to  succeed  to  his  real  property 
in  that  contingency.     The  word  heir  is  some- 
times used  in  a  popular  sense  as  signifying  any 
one  to  whom  property  of  any  description  is  to 
pass  on  the  death  of  its  owner,  whether  by  con- 
veyance or  by  operation  of  law ;  and  when  it 
is  thus  employed  in  wills  or  other  instruments, 
the  law  seeks  to  give  effect  to  the  instrument 
according  to  the  real  intent  of  the  party,  though 
the  word  is  misapplied.     In  a  legal  sense  no 
le  is  heir  to  personal  property,  and  though 
the  law  in  this  country  usually  gives  the  real 
and  personal  property  of  an  intestate  to  the 
ne  persons,  the  latter  goes  first  to  the  admin- 
rator,  through  whom  it  is  distributed  after 
debts  are  paid.     In  the  Roman  civil  law, 
le  word  Ticeres,  which  we  translate  heir,  meant 
one  called  to  the  succession,  by  blood,  de- 
dse,  or  bequest,  and  whether  the  property  to 
rhich  he  succeeded  was  fixed  or  movable. — An 
leir  apparent  is  one  who  must  be  the  heir  if 
le  survive  the  owner,  as  the  eldest  son  in  Eng- 
or  all  the  children  in  the  United  States. 
5ut  the  phrase  "  heir  apparent "  is  not  strictly 
ipplicable  here.    In  England,  the  birth  of  a 
rounger  son  cannot  affect  the  rights  of  inher- 
fcance  of  the  eldest  son,  for  they  are  fixed,  and 
alone  can  be  heir  by  descent.     But  in  this 
mtry  the  younger  son  has  an  equal  right 
dth  an  elder  son ;  and  therefore  the  exclusive 
of  inheritance  can  never  be  fixed  in  any 
lildren  living. — An  heir  presumptive  is  one 
rho,  if  things  do  not  change,  will .  be  the  heir 
the  death  of  the  owner,  as  the  elder  son  of 
,  deceased  brother  in  England,  or  all  the  chil- 
Iren  of  a  brother  in  the  United  States,  where 
owner  has  no  children ;  for  they  will  be 
jirs  if  he  dies  without  issue.     As  an  heir  pre- 
iptive  may  lose  his  heirship  by  a  change  of 
rcumstances,  he  does  not  become  an  heir  ap- 
parent so  long  as  this  change  is  legally  probable, 
although  physically  or  naturally  impossible. 

HELDER,  The,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of  Hol- 
land, at  the  N.  extremity  of  the  province  of 
North  Holland,  40  m.  N.  W.  of  Amsterdam  ; 
).  in  1871,  17,296.    From  an  obscure  fishing 
village  Napoleon  I.  converted  this  place  into  a 
fortress  of  the  first  rank,  capable  of  containing 
garrison  of  10,000  men.     Its  batteries  com- 
mnd  at  once  the  entrance  to  the  Zuyder  Zee 
md  that  of  the  harbor  of  the  ship  canal  at 
rieuwe  Diep.     It  is  connected  with  Amster- 
lam  by  a  canal  50  m.  long,  125  ft.  broad,  and 
Jl  ft.  deep.    The  port  and  coasts  are  protected 
rom  the  aggressions  of  the  ocean  by  dikes,  one 
of  which  is  6  m.  long  and  40  ft.  broad,  and  has 
excellent  road  on  its  summit. 
HELEN  (Gr.  'm^ ;  Lat.  Helena),  in  Greek 
legends,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and  the  most 
beautiful  woman  of  her  time.     Her  parentage 
is  variously  assigned  to  Jupiter  and  Leda,  the 
wife  of  King  Tyndareus,  to  Jupiter  and  Nem- 
esis, and  to  Tyndareus  and  Leda.     Before  Hel- 


HELENA 


617 


en  was  10  years  of  age  she  was  carried  off 
by  Theseus,  who  concealed  her  at  Aphidnee, 
under  the  care  of  his  mother  ^Ethra.  Her 
brothers  Castor  and  Pollux  released  her,  and 
carried  her  back  to  Sparta  with  ^Ethra  as  her 
slave.  She  now  had  suitors  from  all  parts 
of  Greece,  among  whom  was  Ulysses.  By 
the  advice  of  this  hero  Tyndareus  left  the 
choice  to  Helen,  and  she  accepted  Menelaus, 
to  whom  she  bore  Hermione,  and  according 
to  some  Nicostratus  also.  Three  years  after 
this  marriage  she  was  seduced  by  Paris,  the 
son  of  Priam,  and  fled  with  him  to  Troy.  The 
Grecian  princes,  in  accordance  with  an  oath 
which  they  had  taken  when  suitors  together 
at  the  court  of  Tyndareus,  took  up  arms  to 
restore  to  Menelaus  his  wife,  and  the  Trojan 
war  was  the  consequence.  Paris  wras  killed 
during  the  siege,  and  Helen  then  married  Dei- 
phobus,  another  son  of  Priam ;  but  when  the 
city  was  taken,  she  treacherously  introduced 
the  Greeks  into  his  chamber  in  order  to  appease 
Menelaus.  She  returned  to  Sparta,  and  received 
her  first  husband's  forgiveness.  The  accounts 
of  her  death  differ.  According  to  one,  after 
the  death  of  Menelaus,  she  was  driven  into 
exile  by  Nicostratus  and  Megapenthes,  and  re- 
tired to  Rhodes,  where  the  queen  of  that  island, 
Polyxo,  whose  husband  Tlepolemus  had  been 
killed  in  the  Trojan  war,  caused  her  to  be  seized 
while  bathing,  tied  to  a  tree,  and  strangled. 
The  Rhodians  commemorated  the  murder  by 
a  temple  raised  to  Helena  Dendritis,  or  Helen 
tied  to  a  tree.  The  Spartans  honored  her  as  a 
goddess,  and  built  a  temple  to  her  at  Therapne, 
which  had  the  power  of  conferring  beauty  upon 
all  ugly  women  who  entered  it. 

HELENA,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Phillips 
co.,  Arkansas,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  about  100  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Little 
Rock,  and  80  m.  below  Memphis,  Tenn. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,249,  of  whom  1,109  were  colored. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Arkansas  Central,  the 
Helena  and  Iron  Mountain,  and  the  Mobile  and 
Northwestern  railroads,  is  rapidly  improving, 
and  is  an  important  commercial  point.  It  con- 
tains a  court  house,  a  jail,  two  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers,  four  schools,  and  seven 
churches. — In  the  summer  of  1863  Helena  was 
held  by  a  Union  force  of  about  4,000,  com- 
manded by  Gen.  Prentiss,  strongly  intrenched, 
the  river  also  being  commanded  by  a  gunboat. 
On  July  4  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  seize  the 
place  was  made  by  a  confederate  force  of  about 
7,600,  under  Gen.  Holmes.  The  confederate 
loss  in  the  engagement  was  officially  reported 
as  173  killed,  687  wounded,  and  776  missing, 
in  all  1,636 ;  but  Gen.  Prentiss  reported  that 
he  had  buried  300  confederate  dead  and  made 
1,100  prisoners.  The  entire  loss  of  the  Union 
force  did  not  exceed  250  in  killed  and  wounded, 
with  no  prisoners. 

HELENA,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke  co.,  Montana,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  val- 
ley of  Prickly  Pear  and  Ten  Mile  creeks,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  15  m.  W.  of  the 


618 


HELENA 


HELIGOLAND 


Missouri  river,  and  110  m.  N.  of  Virginia  City; 
lat.  46°  35'  36"  N.,  Ion.  111°  52'  45"  W. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  3,106,  of  whom  641  were  Chinese.  It 
is  the  largest  town  of  the  territory,  and  is  con- 
nected by  stage  with  Virginia  City  and  Corinne, 
Utah,  on  the  Central  Pacific  railroad,  445  m. 
S.  It  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  rich  quartz 
and  placer  gold  mines  in  the  vicinity.  The 
neighboring  mountains  are  covered  with  for- 
ests of  pine  and  fir,  which  supply  several  saw 
mills.  The  streams  and  mountain  springs  fur- 
nish abundant  water.  About  4  m.  N.  W.  of 
the  town  are  medicinal  hot  springs.  A  large 
portion  of  the  buildings  are  constructed  of 
brick,  granite,  and  blue  limestone,  obtained  in 
the  vicinity.  The  town  contains  a  court  house, 
jail,  almshouse,  masonic  hall,  and  the  offices  of 
the  United  States  surveyor  general,  register  and 
receiver  of  lands,  collector  of  customs,  and  mar- 
shal. There  are  3  cabinet  factories,  2  carriage 
factories,  1  foundery,  3  assay  offices,  4  brew- 
eries, 1  distillery,  5  bakeries,  4  hotels,  2  na- 
tional banks  with  a  capital  of  $200,000,  about 
60  stores,  4  schools,  2  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, 6  religious  societies,  and  3  churches. 
Helena  was  settled  in  1864.  It  has  been  visited 
by  several  conflagrations,  the  last  and  most  de- 
structive of  which  occurred  Jan.  9,  1874. 

HELENA,  Saint,  an  island.    See  SAINT  HELENA. 

HELENA,  Saint,  wife  of  the  emperor  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus  and  mother  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  born  in  Drepanum  (Helen opolis),  Bi- 
thynia,  in  247,  died  in  Nicomedia  about  327. 
She  was  probably  of  obscure  parentage,  though 
some  historians  pretend  that  she  was  a  British 
princess.  "When  her  husband  was  made  Caesar 


in  292,  he  put  her  away  and  espoused  Theodora, 
stepdaughter  of  the  emperor  Maximian ;  but  in 
his  will  he  acknowledged  Constantine,  his  son 
by  Helena,  as  his  sole  heir.  Constantine  on 
assuming  the  purple  (306)  brought  his  mother  to 
reside  in  the  imperial  palace  at  Treves,  loaded 
her  with  honors,  gave  her  the  title  of  Augusta, 
and  conferred  her  name  upon  several  cities  of 
the  empire.  She  erected  and  endowed  a  num- 
ber of  churches,  and  at  the  age  of  79  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  where,  according  to 
the  earliest  Byzantine  historians,  she  discover- 
ed the  true  cross. .  (See  CEOSS.)  She  died  in 
the  arms  of  her  son,  and  her  body  was  carried 
to  Rome,  where  a  mausoleum  was  raised  to  her. 

UELIANTHUS.     See  SUNFLOWER. 

HELICON,  a  mountain  range  of  Greece,  in 
Bceotia,  between  Lake  Copais  and  the  Corin- 
thian gulf.  Its  loftiest  summit,  now  called 
Paleo-Vuno,  is  5,738  ft.  high.  In  antiquity 
the  slopes  and  valleys  of  Helicon  were  re- 
nowned for  their  fertility,  and  it  was  consid- 
ered the  favorite  abode  of  the  muses.  Above 
Ascra  was  a  grove  sacred  to  them,  and  near 
it  the  famous  fountain  of  Aganippe,  which  was 
believed  to  inspire  those  who  drank  of  it. 
About  two  miles  higher  up  was  the  fountain 
of  Hippocrene,  produced,  according  to  the  le- 
gends, by  Pegasus's  striking  the  ground  with 
his  hoofs. 

HELIGOLAND,  or  Helgoland  (holy  land),  an  isl- 
and in  the  North  sea,  belonging  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, 40  m.  N.  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe ; 
lat.  of  its  lighthouse,  54°  11'  36"  N.,  Ion.  7° 
53'  12"  E. ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,912.  Heligoland  is 
triangular,  about  a  mile  long  from  N.  to  S.  and 


Heligoland. 


£  m.  broad  from  E.  to  W.  It  was  formerly 
much  broader,  but  the  action  of  the  sea  is 
continually  wearing  it  away.  There  is  a  good 
port  on  the  N.  side,  and  another  on  the  S. 
About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  portion 
was  separated  from  the  main  island,  and  is 
now  known  as  Sandy  island ;  this  is  much  re- 
sorted to  for  its  fine  sea  bathing.  The  highest 
part  of  the  island,  its  W.  side,  is  200  ft.  above 
the  sea.  Heligoland  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  island  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  where  the 
German  goddess  Hertha  was  worshipped.  St. 


"Wilbrord  preached  Christianity  there  early  in 
the  8th  century,  and  gave  it  its  present  name. 
In  1714  it  was  taken  from  the  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  by  the  Danes,  from  whom  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  English  in  1807,  for  whose  fleets 
it  served  as  a  station  during  the  war  with 
France,  and  as  a  depot  for  their  manufactures, 
whence  they  were  smuggled  into  Germany. 
It  was  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1814. 
The  inhabitants  are  descendants  of  Frisians, 
and  speak  the  Frisian  language  as  well  as 
the  Low  German.  The  men  are  mostly  fisher- 


HELIODORUS 


men  and  pilots,  and  leave  nearly  all  domestic 
and  agricultural  labor  to  the  women.  The 
trading  part  of  the  population  are  chiefly 
emigrants  from  the  mainland  of  Germany. 
The  chief  products  are  haddocks  and  excel- 
lent lobsters,  which  are  exported  to  Germany. 
The  islanders  own  100  small  fishing  vessels  and 
several  larger  ones,  which  make  voyages  to 
England  and  the  Baltic  ports.  The  soil  is 
very  rich,  and  grain  and  vegetables  are  raised, 
though  most  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  the 
sustenance  of  flocks  of  sheep,  which  are  fed 
on  fish  in  winter.  There  are  a  few  trees  and 
two  or  three  springs  on  the  island,  but  most 
of  the  people  depend  on  rain  for  their  supply 
of  water.  Of  late  the  inhabitants  have  be- 
gun to  turn  their  attention  to  building  houses 
for  rent  to  summer  visitors,  with  whom  it  is  a 
favorite  bathing  place.  The  government  con- 
sists of  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown, 
aided  by  an  executive  council ;  a  form  of  gov- 
ernment established  by  the  queen  in  1868. — 
See  "  Heligoland,  an  Historical  and  Geographi- 
cal Description  of  that  Island,  its  Ancient  For- 
tunes and1  Present  Opportunities  as  a  British 
Colony,"  by  William  Bell  (London,  1856). 

HELIODOIUS,  a  Greek  romance  writer,  born 
in  Emesa,  Syria,  flourished  at  the  close  of  the 
4th  century  A.  D.  In  his  latter  days  he  be- 
came a  Christian,  and  bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thes- 
saly,  where  he  introduced  the  regulation  that 
every  priest  should  be  deposed  who  did  not  re- 
pudiate his  wife.  His  jEthiopica,  written  in 
early  life,  treats  of  the  loves  and  adventures  of 
^heagenes  and  Chariclea.  Its  style  is  simple 
and  elegant.  Translations  of  it  now  exist  in 
all  the  European  languages,  but  before  the  16th 
century  its  very  existence  was  unknown  to  Eu- 
rope. The  best  edition  of  the  Greek  text  is 
that  of  Paris,  2  vols.  8vo,  1804. 

HELIOGABALIS.     See  ELAGABALUS. 

HELIOMETER  (Gr.  ijhiog,  the  sun,  and  utrpov, 
measure),  an  instrument  to  measure  the  diame- 
ter of  the  sun,  or  other  small  arc  in  the  heavens. 
Several  instruments  receive  this  name,  but  it 
is  now  usually  applied  to  a  telescope  whose 
object  glass  is  divided  into  two  parts,  capable 
of  sliding  by  each  other,  so  that  they  may  be 
directed  to  opposite  edges  of  the  sun.  Two 
images  of  it  are  thus  formed,  tangent  to  each 
other,  and  the  displacement  of  the  parts  of  the 
object  glass  measures  the  diameter  of  the  sun. 

HELIOPOLIS  (Gr.,  city  of  the  sun ;  called  in 
old  Egyptian  On  or  An  and  Ha-Ra,  in  Hebrew 
Bethshemesh,  and  by  the  modern  inhabitants 
MatariyeK),  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Egypt,  below  the  S.  E.  point  of  the  delta,  on 
the  E.  side  of  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile, 
near  the  canal  which  connected  that  river  with 
the  Red  sea,  about  8  m.  N.  E.  of  the  site  of 
modern  Cairo.  From  the  remotest  epoch  it 
was  renowned  for  its  temples  and  priesthood. 
It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Egyptian  worship 
of  the  sun,  and  also  of  the  sacred  bull  Mnevis ; 
and  the  legends  of  the  wonderful  bird  phosnix 
centred  about  it.  Its  priests  were  the  most 


HELIOS 


619 


learned  in  the  land,  and  so  important  that  they 
sent  one  third  of  all  the  deputies  to  the  great 
council  which  assisted  the  Pharaohs  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice.  Those  belonging  to 
each  temple  were  organized  among  themselves 
with  great  exactness,  and  the  office  of  the  high 
priest,  who  was  one  of  the  first  persons  of  the 
state,  was  hereditary.  The  Hebrew  Joseph 
married  Asenath,  the  daughter  of  one  of  these 
high  priests.  To  the  Heliopolite  priests  re- 
sorted foreigners  who  wished  to  learn  the  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians.  Solon,  Thales,  Eudoxus, 
and  Plato  all  studied  under  them ;  and  when 
Strabo  visited  the  place  (24  B.  C.)  he  was 
shown  the  halls  which  Plato  was  said  to  have 
occupied  for  13  years.  After  being  for  ages 
a  sort  of  university  city,  Heliopolis  had  much 
declined  as  early  as  the  invasion  of  Cambyses 
(525  B.  C.),  and  was  a  city  of  ruins  when  visit- 
ed by  Strabo.  Abdallatif,  an  Arab  physician 
of  the  12th  century,  described  among  its  ruins 
colossal  figures  in  stone,  standing  or  sitting, 
.and  more  than  30  cubits  high.  An  obelisk  of 
red  granite,  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Osor- 
tasen  I.,  whose  date  is  fixed  at  about  3000 
B.  C.,  still  remains,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
ancient  known  specimen  of  Egyptian  sculp- 
ture ;  there  are  also  some  fragments  of  sphinxes 
and  of  a  colossal  statue  which  adorned  the 
ancient  temple  of  the  sun.  Near  the  hamlet 
of  Matariyeh,  which  occupies  a  part  of  the 
site  of  Heliopolis,  Kleber  gained  a  victory  over 
Turkish  troops,  March  20,  1800.  (For  Heli- 
opolis in  Syria,  see  BAALBEK.) 

HELIOS  (the  Sol  of  the  Romans),  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  god  of  the  sun,  the  son  of  Hy- 
perion and  Thea,  and  the  brother  of  Selene 
(Luna)  and  Eos  (Aurora).  Helios  gave  light 
both  to  gods  and  to  men.  He  rose  in  the  east 
from  Oceanus,  ascended  to  the  highest  point 
in  the  heavens,  and  then  descending  arrived 
in  the  evening  at  the  west,  and  returned  to 
Oceanus.  He  had  two  magnificent  palaces, 
one  in  the  east,  the  other  in  the  west,  where 
he  sat  enthroned  surrounded  by  ministering 
Hora3.  The  horses  that  drew  the  chariot  in 
which  he  made  his  daily  journey  were  pastured 
in  the  islands  of  the  blessed,  and  the  golden 
boat  in  which  he  voyaged  nightly  from  the  west 
to  the  east  was  the  work  of  Hephaestus  (Vul- 
can). Helios  saw  everything.  The  island  of 
Sicily  was  sacred  to  him,  and  he  there  had  flocks 
of  sheep  and  herds  of  oxen,  which  never  in- 
creased or  diminished  in  number,  and  which 
were  tended  by  his  daughters,  Phaetusa  and 
Lampetia.  In  later  times  Helios  was  frequent- 
ly confounded  with  Apollo,  though  originally 
they  were  quite  distinct.  Among  the  Greeks 
this  identification  was  never  fully  carried  out ; 
for  no  Hellenic  poet  ever  made  Apollo  to  ride 
in  the  chariot  of  Helios,  and  the  representation 
of  Apollo  with  rays  around  his  head  belongs 
to  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire.  Temples  of 
Helios  existed  in  Greece  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  subsequently  his  worship  was  established  in 
Corinth,  Argos,  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and  vari- 


620 


HELIOSCOPE 


HELLAS 


ous  other  places.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  him 
were  rams,  boars,  bulls,  goats,  lambs,  white 
horses,  and  honey.  Among  the  animals  sacred 
to  him  the  cock  was  preeminent.  Helios  was 
usually  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  four  horses. 

HELIOSCOPE.     See  TELESCOPE. 

IIELIOSTAT,  and  Heliotrope,  instruments  used 
by  surveyors  for  rendering  distant  stations  vis- 
ible. The  heliostat  was  invented  by  's  Grave- 
sande  about  150  years  ago,  and  consists  of  a 
mirror  turned  by  clockwork  in  the  pathway 
of  the  sun,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  re- 
flect his  rays  in  a  certain  direction.  A  mirror 
of  only  one  inch  diameter  can  be  seen  eight 
miles,  and  appears  as  a  brilliant  star  at  a  dis- 
tance of  two  miles.  The  heliotrope  is  simply 
a  mirror  fixed  permanently  at  a  station  so  as 
to  throw  its  rays  to  another  station,  or  always 
in  one  direction.  This  requires  of  course  that 
an  observation  should  be  taken  at  a  certain 
moment,  as  the  direction  of  the  reflected  beam 
is  constantly  changing.  For  most  observations 
the  latter  instrument  answers  all  the  purposes 
of  the  former,  and  is  much  less  expensive. 

HELIOTROPE  (heliotropium,  Linn.),  the  name 
of  annual  or  perennial  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  ~boraginacece.  H.  curassamcum  is 
a  smooth  annual  found  in  Virginia,  Illinois,  and 
southward.  H.  Europceum  occurs  sparingly  in 
the  southern  states  as  an  introduced  weed.  The 
species  in  cultivation  are  H.  Perumanum  and 
H.  corymbosum ;  these  have  woody  stems,  ob- 
long hairy  leaves  of  a  pale  green  color,  and 
terminal,  branching  flower  stalks.  The  pleas- 
antly fragrant  flowers  are  small,  but  they  grow 
compactly  in  the  recurved  spikes.  The  corolla 


lleaotrope. 

is  intersected  at  its  mouth  with  five  folds, 
and  is  of  a  purple-lilac  color,  with  a  greenish 
white  throat.  The  principal  difference  be- 
tween the  two  species  is  that  the  last  named 
has  larger,  darker  colored,  and  less  strongly 
scented  flowers.  Numerous  seedling  varieties 


have  been  .raised,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
tint  of  the  corolla,  a  yellowish  or  pure  white 
throat,  or  else  by  the  greater  size  of  the  spikes 
or  "trusses."  Heliotropes  are  readily  propa- 
gated from  cuttings  of  tender  shoots,  and  great 
numbers  are  raised  annually  by  florists  for 
sale  as  bedding  plants;  though  it  is  a  shrub, 
small  plants  from  the  unripe  wood  will  flower 
freely.  Plants  for  the  greenhouse  may  be 
trained  as  standards  or  pyramids,  or  they  may 
be  trained  to  the  wall  of  a  greenhouse ;  thus 
treated  they  will  grow  4  or  5  ft.  high.  The 
odor  of  the  heliotrope  is  compared  by  some  to 
that  of  vanilla ;  in  England  it  is  frequently 
called  "  cherry  pie "  on  account  of  its  fra- 
grance. Pliny  and  Dioscorides  assert  that  the 
flowers  of  the  heliotrope  turn  toward  the  sun, 
whence  its  ancient  and  generic  name.  For  the 
same  reason  it  has  also  been  called  turnsole 
and  girasole. — False  heliotrope  (Tournefortia 
Tieliotropioides)  is  a  garden  annual,  with  flow- 
ers closely  resembling  those  of  the  heliotrope 
in  everything  except  odor ;  the  plant  when 
bruised  is  disagreeably  scented ;  in  some  south- 
ern gardens  where  it  has  been  raised  for  orna- 
ment it  has  established  itself  as  a  weed.  In- 
dian heliotrope  (JieliopJiytum  Indicum)  is  a 
coarse  hairy  annual  with  much  the  aspect  of  a 
heliotrope,  which  has  been  introduced  from  In- 
dia, and  is  found  in  waste  places  in  Illinois  and 
southward. 

HELIX  (Gr.  e^f,  a  whorl  or  coil),  in  archi- 
tecture, a  spiral  winding  around  a  central  axis, 
according  to  some  authorities  without  ap- 
proaching it,  in  which  case  it  would  be  desig- 
nated a  spiral.  The  little  volutes  under  the 
flowers  of  the  Corinthian  capital  are  also  called 
helices. — In  electro-magnetism,  a  helix  is  a  coil 
of  wire  wound  around  any  body  which  is  to  be 
magnetized  by  the  passage  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent through  the  wire.  The  power  is  increased 
with  the  number  of  turns,  the  wire  being  in- 
sulated, so  as  to  prevent  lateral  discharge,  by 
winding  cotton  thread  about  it. 

HELIX,  in  conchology.     See  SNAIL. 

HELL,  Maximilian,  a  Hungarian  astronomer, 
born  in  Schemnitz,  May  15,  1720,  died  in  Vi- 
enna, April  14,  1792.  At  18  years  of  age  he 
entered  the  society  of  Jesus,  and  in  1745  was 
made  assistant  astronomer  at  the  observatory 
in  Vienna  belonging  to  the  order,  and  keeper 
of  the  museum  of  experimental  philosophy. 
In  1751  he  took  holy  orders.  Subsequently  he 
filled  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Klausenburg 
in  Transjlvania  for  four  years,  and  in  1756  was 
appointed  astronomer  and  director  of  the  new 
observatory  in  Vienna.  In  April,  1768,  he  un- 
dertook a  journey  to  Vardohuus  in  Lapland  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  June  3,  1769,  in 
which  he  succeeded  perfectly,  and  returned 
to  Vienna  in  August,  1770.  His  chief  work 
is  a  series  of  Ephemerides,  commenced  with 
Ephemeridcs  Anni  1757  ad  Meridianum  Vin- 
dobonemem  Calculi*  definite,  continued  to  the 
year  1791  (35  vols.  8vo,  Vienna). 

HELLAS.     See  GEEECE. 


HELLE 


flELLE,  in  Greek  legends,  a  daughter  of 
Athamas,  king  of  Thebes,  by  the  goddess  Ne- 
phele.  When  her  brother  Phrixus  was  about 
to  be  sacrificed,  the  mother  rescued  him,  and 
lacing  the  two  children  on  the  back  of  the 
•am  with  the  golden  fleece,  which  she  had  re- 
ceived from  Mercury,  fled  with  them  to  Asia ; 
but  between  Sigeum  and  the  Chersonesus  Helle 
fell  into  the  sea,  and  thenceforward  that  part 
of  it  was  called  Hellespontus,  the  sea  of  Helle. 

HELLEBORE,  in  pharmacy,  the  roots  of  the 
arious  species  of  the  genus  helleborus,  of  the 
atural  order  ranunculacece,  and  of  the  vera- 

um  album  and  V.  mride,  natural  order  melan- 

acece,  now  considered  a  suborder  of  liliacece. 


HELLEBOEE 


621 


Black  Hellebore  (TIelleborus  niger). 

The  black  hellebore,  helleborus  niger,  is  a 
plant  growing  wild  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  southern  and  central  Europe,  and  culti- 
vated in  gardens  for  the  sake  of  its  beautiful 
rose-like  flowers,  which  bloom  in  midwinter 
and  give  to  the  plant  the  name  of  the  Christ- 
mas rose.  In  the  United  States  its  time  of 
blooming  is  very  early  in  spring.  The  fibres 
of  the  roots  are  used  for  preparing  the  extract, 
decoction,  or  tincture.  They  are  exceedingly 
acrid  and  burning  to  the  taste,  and  when  fresh 
produce  inflammation  and  even  vesication  on 
being  applied  to  the  skin.  They  are  irritant 
to  all  mucous  membranes  with  which  they 
may  be  brought  in  contact.  The  extract  is  a 
drastic  purgative  and  emetic,  but  it  is  now 
seldom  prescribed,  except  as  an  emmenagogue. 
Gradual  paralysis  and  convulsions  are  among 
its  poisonous  eifects  upon  the  human  system. 
Until  the  discovery  of  the  H.  orientalis  it  was 
supposed  to  be  the  same  that  furnished  the 
black  hellebore  or  melampodium,  a  famous 
medicine  with  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Eo- 
mans,  who  used  it  in  the  belief  that  it  gave 
clearness  and  activity  to  the  mental  faculties ; 
and  the  most  celebrated  philosophers  are  said 
to  have  drunk  its  infusion  for  this  purpose.  It 
was  also  employed  in  mania,  dropsy,  and  va- 


ious  other  affections. — H.  fcetidus,  or  bear's 
?oot,  is  a  perennial  European  plant  of  extreme- 
ly acrid  properties,  a  powerful  emetic  and  ca- 
thartic, and  long  used  in  Great  Britain  as  a  do- 
mestic remedy  for  worms.  It  has  even  been 
known  to  cause  the  expulsion  of  the  tapeworm. 
— White  hellebore  is  the  rhizoma  of  veratrum 
album,  an  herbaceous  plant  indigenous  to  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  and  imported  from  Ger- 
many. Its  virtue  resides  in  the  alkaloid  vera- 
tria,  which  however  is  usually  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  veratrum  sabadilla,  growing  in 
Mexico.  This  alkaloid,  which  has  the  formula 
iHsaNaOie,  is  a  powerful  irritant  when  ap- 
plied externally,  and  when  absorbed  dimin- 
ishes the  activity  of  the  heart  and  the  irritabil- 
ity of  the  nerves  and  muscles.  It  is  also  emetic 
and  cathartic.  It  is  seldom  used  in  medicine 
except  as  an  external  application,  in  the  form 
of  an  ointment,  in  gout,  rheumatism,  and  neu- 
ralgia. It  has  of  late  become  an  important 
horticultural  appliance,  as  it  is  found  to  be  the 
most  effective  destroyer  of  the  currant  worm, 
abraxas  ribearia,  which  in  some  localities  defo- 
liates the  plants  and  destroys  the  crop  of  fruit. 
The  powdered  white  hellebore  is  sifted  upon 
the  leaves,  or  stirred  with  water  and  applied 


White  Hellebore  (Veratrum  album). 

with  a  syringe. — American  hellebore  is  the  rhi- 
zoma of  V.  viride,  or  Indian  poke,  a  common 
plant  in  the  swamps  and  meadows  of  the  north- 
ern and  middle  states.  It  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean species  in  its  violent  action  as  an  emetic, 
and  also  in  stimulating  the  secretions.  It  acts 
powerfully  upon  the  nervous  system,  producing 
vertigo  and  dimness  of  vision,  arid  dilating  the 
pupils.  The  frequency  and  force  of  the  pulse 
are  diminished  under  its  influence.  By  careful 
management  it  may  be  used  for  reducing  the 
pulse  in  inflammatory  diseases  without  the  un- 
pleasant effects  just  mentioned.  Its  action  is 
supposed  to  depend  upon  two  alkaloids,  vera- 
troidia,  very  similar  to  if  not  identical  with 


622 


HELLEN 


IIELMHOLTZ 


veratria  and  viridia,  which  produces  the  sedative 
effect  upon  the  circulation  just  mentioned,  and 
very  little  if  any  emetic  or  cathartic  action. 
The  fluid  extract  and  tincture  of  V.  viride 
have  been  largely  employed,  in  doses  of  one, 
two,  or  three  drops  frequently  repeated,  in  dis- 
eases attended  with  fever.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  the  curative  effect  over  the 
disease  corresponds  to  the  lowering  of  the 
pulse.  Pneumonia,  peritonitis,  and  cardiac 
diseases  are  the  affections  in  which  it  has  been 
most  employed. 

HELLEN.    See  GREECE,  vol.  viii.,  p.  187. 

HELLER,  Joseph,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Bamberg,  Sept.  22,  1798,  died  there,  June  4, 
1849.  He  left  mercantile  pursuits  for  the  study 
of  art,  made  extensive  collections,  and  wrote 
biographies  of  Lucas  Cranach,  Albrecht  Dtirer, 
and  other  artists.  Among  his  other  works  are 
Geschichte  der  Holzschneidekunst  (Bamberg, 
1822),  and  Handbuch  far  JTupferstichsamm- 
lung  (3  vols.,  1823-'36). 

HELLER,  Karl  Kartliolomans,  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Moravia  in  1824.  In  1845  he 
made  collections  of  natural  history  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America  for  the  horticultural  so- 
ciety of  Vienna,  and  on  his  home  journey  in 
1848  he  visited  Cuba  and  the  United  States. 
In  1851  he  became  adjunct  and  in  1853  titular 
professor  of  natural  history  at  the  university 
of  Gratz.  His  publications  include  Beitrdge 
zur  ndheren  Kenntniss  Mittelamerikas  (Gratz, 
1853),  Rei&en  in  Mexico  (Leipsic,  1853),  and 
Das  dioptrische  Mikroslcop  (Vienna,  1856). 

HELLER,  Stephan,  a  German  composer,  born 
in  Pesth,  Hungary,  May  15,  1814.  At  the  age 
of  nine  he  played  in  public  with  his  teacher 
Dussek's  concerto  for  two  pianos.  He  went 
soon  after  to  Vienna,  and  received  lessons  from 
Czerny  and  Hrflm.  In  1827  and  1828  he  gave 
concerts  in  Vienna,  and  in  1829  went  on  a  con- 
cert tour  through  Hungary  and  Germany.  At 
the  age  of  16  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Augs- 
burg, remaining  there  until  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1838,  where  he  has  since  for  the  most  part 
resided.  His  compositions  are  almost  exclu- 
sively for  the  pianoforte,  and  are  distinguished 
by  originality  of  thought  and  treatment,  eleva- 
tion of  style,  and  poetic  refinement.  Fe"tis 
ranks  him  as  a  composer  for  the  pianoforte 
above  Chopin.  While  this  praise  may  be  ex- 
aggerated, it  is  nevertheless  true  that  Heller  is 
one  of  the  most  poetic  and  captivating  writers 
for  that  instrument.  His  published  works 
number  about  150,  including  many  admirable 
arrangements  for  piano  of  the  songs  of  Schu- 
bert, Mendelssohn,  and  other  composers,  and 
such  original  series  as  the  Nuits  blanches  and 
the  Wanderstunden. 

HELLESPONT  (Gr.  'E/atfenrovrof,  sea  of  Helle), 
in  ancient  geography,  the  narrow  strait  (now 
the  Dardanelles)  connecting  the  ^Egean  sea 
with  the  Propontis  (sea  of  Marmora),  and  sepa- 
rating the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (peninsula  of 
Gallipoli)  from  Asia  Minor. 

HELL  GATE.     See  BLASTING,  vol.  ii.,  p.  702. 


HELLIN,  a  town  of  Murcia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  35  m.  S.  by  E.  of  the  city  of  Alba- 
cete,  situated  on  the  slope  of  the  Segura  moun- 
tain chain,  near  the  E.  bank  of  the  Mundo ; 
pop.  about  10,000.  It  contains  a  large  square 
and  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  a  fine  old  parish 
church,  and  remains  of  a  Roman  castle.  Trade 
is  carried  on  in  various  goods  manufactured 
here,  in  grain,  wine,  and  silk,  but  chiefly  in 
sulphur,  from  celebrated  mines  about  13  in. 
distant,  which  belong  to  the  government,  and 
were  known  to  the  Romans.  Near  the  town 
is  the  hermitage  of  San  Rosario,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  6  m.  the  springs  of  Azaraque. 
HELM.  See  STEERING  APPARATUS. 
II ELMERS,  Jan  Frederik,  a  Dutch  poet,  born 
in  Amsterdam  in  1767,  died  Feb.  26,  1813. 
His  principal  work  is  his  national  poem  De 
Hollandsche  natie  ("The  Dutch  Nation") 
(Amsterdam,  1812,  and  many  later  editions), 
which  has  been  translated  into  French  by 
Auguste  Clavereau.  He  published  a  collection 
of  his  poems  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1809-'10), 
and  his  posthumous  writings  appeared  in  Haar- 
lem in  1814-'15. 

HELMET  SHELL  (cassis),  a  genus  of  gastero- 
pod  mollusks,  separated  by  Lamarck  from  the 
Linna3an  genus  luccinum.  About  40  species 
are  described,  living  in 
shallow  tropical  seas  in 
the  East  and  West  In- 
dies, on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  in  the  Pa- 
cific, and  in  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  nearly  as 
many  fossil  species 
have  been  found  in 
the  eocene  of  Chili  and  France.  The  shell  is 
ventricose,  with  irregular  rows  of  protuberan- 
ces on  the  whorls ;  spire  short ;  aperture  long, 
with  the  outer  lip  reflected  and  toothed,  and 
the  inner  lip  spread  over  the  body  whorl. 
The  species  are  of  considerable  size,  and  many 
are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cameos,  the 
different  colors  of  the  layers  of  the  shells  ren- 
dering them  well  adapted  for  this  purpose.  In 
the  C.  cornuta  the  cameo  would  be  white  on 
an  orange  ground ;  in  C.  tiiberosa  and  Madagas- 
cariemis  (the  queen  conch  of  Madagascar), 
white  on  a  dark  claret  color ;  in  C.  ritfa,  pale 
salmon  color  on  orange.  (See  CAMEO.) 

HELMHOLTZ,  Hermann  Lndwig  Ferdinand,  a  Ger- 
man physicist  and  physiologist,  born  in  Potsdam, 
Aug.  31,  1821.  At  the  age  of  17  he  was  admit- 
ted to  the  royal  military  school  in  Berlin,  and 
commenced  the  study  of  medicine.  In  1842,  in 
his  graduating  thesis  entitled  De  Fabrica  Sys- 
tematis  Nervosi  Evertebratum,  he  endeavored 
to  prove  the  existence  of  an  anatomical  con- 
nection between  the  nerves  of  motion  and 
those  of  sensation  through  the  intermediate 
means  of  ganglion  cells,  and  presented  the  re- 
sults of  numerous  examinations  of  the  delicate 
nerve  fibres  of  bugs,  spiders,  crab?,  and  many 
lower  animals.  Until  1843  he  was  assistant 
physician  at  the  Charite"  hospital,  and  then  be- 


Helmct  ShelL 


HELMHOLTZ 


623 


ie  military  surgeon  stationed  at  Potsdam. 
During  the  five  years  following  he  practised 
medicine,  contributed  a  great  number  of  arti- 
cles on  mathematical  and  physical  science  to 
various  periodicals,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
his  scientific  reputation  by  a  finished  work 
"On  the  Conservation  of  Force"  (Berlin, 
1847).  He  was  at  once  recognized  as  one  of 
the  chief  investigators  and  promoters  of  the 
new  philosophy  of  force.  A  popular  lecture 
on  the  same  subject,  delivered  some  years 
later  in  Konigsberg,  was  translated  by  Prof. 
Tyndall  of  London  for  the  "Philosophical 
Magazine,"  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of  at- 
tention throughout  the  world.  In  1843  he 
had  written  "  On  the  Nature  of  Putrefaction 
and  Fermentation"  (Miiller's  Archiv  fur 
Anatomie,  Physiologic  und  wissenschaftliche 
Mediciri),  proving  putrefaction  to  occur  inde- 
pendently of  microscopical  living  beings,  but 
modifiable  thereby  and  then  constituting  fer- 
mentation ;  in  1845,  "  On  Animal  Heat,"  with 
especial  consideration  of  the  question  whether 
the  living  animal  body  gives  off  as  much  heat 
as  is  produced  by  the  combustion  and  change 
of  the  food  it  takes  in  (Berliner  encyklopd- 
disches  Worterbuch'  der  medicinischen  Wissen- 
schaften)  ;  also,  "  On  the  Consumption  of  Tis- 
sue during  Muscular  Action  "  (Mtiller's  Archiv, 
1845) ;  and  "Proof  of  a  Development  of  Heat 
during  Muscular  Action"  (Miiller's  Archiv, 
1848).  He  for  the  first  time  proved  by  actual 
experiments  a  difference  of  chemical  compo- 
sition in  the  active  and  in  the  quiescent  muscle. 
In  1848  he  returned  to  Berlin  as  prosector  of 
anatomy  and  tutor  in  the  art  academy,  and  in 
1849  became  professor  of  physiology  in  the 
university  of  Konigsberg.  Soon  afterward  he 
began  his  celebrated  investigations  as  to  the 
rapidity  of  propagation  of  nerve  excitation. 
The  first  report  of  them  appeared  in  the 
Berichte  liber  die  Verhandlungen  der  Kbnig- 
lichen  Preussischen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaf- 
ten  zu  Berlin  under  date  of  Jan.  21, 1850;  and 
he  published  two  elaborate  articles  in  Mtiller's 
Archiv  for  1850  and  1852.  By  means  of  in- 
genious methods  for  ascertaining  exceedingly 
small  differences  of  time,  he  demonstrated  that 
thought  is  not  instantaneous,  that  when  we 
touch  anything  with  the  hand  it  takes  a  defi- 
nite period  to  become  conscious  of  the  fact, 
and  that  when  we  determine  to  make  a  move- 
ment a  certain  measurable  time  elapses  be- 
tween willing  the  movement  and  executing  it ; 
he  succeeded  in  accurately  measuring  these 
small  fractional  portions  of  a  second.  He  was 
also  the  first  who  gave  the  correct  explanation 
of  the  fact  that  on  looking  at  a  person's  eye 
the  pupil  appears  black,  and  why  we  cannot 
under  ordinary  circumstances  see  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  eye;  and  in  1851  he  invented 
the  ophthalmoscope,  an  instrument  by  means 
of  which  the  retina  of  the  living  eye  can  be 
inspected,  and  which  has  completely  revolu- 
tionized the  knowledge  of  its  condition  in 
health  and  disease,  and  saved  thousands  of 
400  VOL.  vin. — 40 


persons  from  blindness.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
led  to  this  invention  by  reflecting  on  the  cir- 
cumstance that  while  it  is  impossible  during 
the  daytime  to  see  clearly  into  a  room  on  the 
opposite  side  of  a  street,  it  can,  however,  be 
done  at  night,  when  the  room  is  illuminated, 
and  also  during  the  day  by  throwing  into  it 
sunlight  reflected  by  a  mirror  or  a  sun  glass. 
His  original  invention  is  described  in  a  sepa- 
rate work  "  On  the  Ophthalmoscope  "  (Berlin, 
1851),  an  improvement  in  the  Archiv  fur 
physiologische  EeilTcunde  (1852),  and  the  oph- 
thalmometer  in  the  Archiv  fur  Ophthalmolo- 
gie  (1854).  In  1855  Helmholtz  became  profes- 
sor of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  Bonn,  in 
1858  of  physiology  in  Heidelberg,  and  since 
1871  he  has  been  professor  of  physics  in  Ber- 
lin. He  is  the  author  of  two  books,  each  of 
which  forms  an  era  in  the  branch  of  science 
to  which  it  relates.  The  first,  entitled  Eand- 
lucli  der  physiologischen  Optik  (Leipsic,  1867), 
is  in  very  many  respects  a  'pioneer  labor.  In 
addition  to  the  anatomical  description  of  the 
eye,  it  contains  three  divisions,  "  Dioptrics  of 
the  Eye,"  of  which  two  sections  were  first 
published  in  1856,  "Doctrine of  Visual  Sensa- 
tions "  (I860),  and  "  Doctrine  of  Visual  Per- 
ceptions," finished  in  1866.  Helmholtz  traces 
his  subject  from  the  remote  past,  establishes 
the  so-called  empirical  theory  of  vision,  and 
not  only  clearly  points  out  the  knowledge  at- 
tained, but  also  shows  the  way  in  which  fur- 
ther advance  is  to  be  made.  The  author's 
original  researches  in  this  work  include  every 
portion  of  the  subject,  from  the  investigation 
of  the  limits  of  human  power  of  perception 
to  that  of  the  details  of  vision,  and  the  analy- 
sis, combination,  and  appreciation  of  colors. 
His  second  important  work  is  entitled  Die 
Lehre  von  den  Tonempfindungen,  als  phy- 
siologische Grundlage  fur  die  Theorie  der 
Musik  (Brunswick,  1862 ;  3d  ed.,  1870).  In 
this  he  throws  the  light  of  natural  science 
upon  the  inmost  principles  of  music  and  ros- 
thetics.  In  vain  had  philosophers  and  mu- 
sicians for  more  than  2,000  years  endeavored 
to  explain  musical  harmony ;  the  discovery  of 
its  cause,  an  achievement  of  the  most  recent 
times,  is  mainly  due  to  Helmholtz.  He  invented 
the  method  of  analyzing  sound,  thereby  fur- 
nishing us  a  means  of  acquiring  knowledge 
until  then  unthought  of.  The  invention  essen- 
tially consists  in  the  use  of  hollow  bodies, 
called  resonators,  the  volume  of  air  in  which 
vibrates  in  the  presence  of  a  previously  deter- 
mined sound.  Investigation  by  means  of  res- 
onators may  in  the  future  lead  to  discoveries 
more  important  still  than  those  hitherto  at- 
tained; but  it  has  already  solved  many  puz- 
zling questions  of  the  past.  Thtas  it  had  long 
been  known  that  the  note  of  many  musical  in- 
struments is  accompanied  by  its  octave  and  the 
fifth  of  its  octave ;  but  by  the  employment  of 
resonators  it  has  been  found  that  every  scrund, 
as  it  generally  occurs  in  nature,  and  as  it  is 
produced  by  most  of  our  musical  instruments 


624 


IIELMHOLTZ 


or  the  human  voice,  is  not  a  simple  single 
sound,  but  a  compound  of  several  tones  of  dif- 
ferent intensity  and  pitch,  all  of  which  differ- 
ent tones  combined  are  heard  as  one.  Helm- 
holtz discovered  that  the  difference  of  quality  or 
timbre  of  the  sounds  of  different  musical  instru- 
ments resides  in  the  different  composition  of 
these  sounds,  i.  e.,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  different 
compound  sounds  may  contain  the  same  funda- 
mental tone,  but  differently  mixed  with  other 
tones.  He  also  discovered  the  acoustic  cause  of 
the  vowel  sounds  of  human  speech,  and  not  only 
analyzed  or  decomposed  them  into  their  con- 
stituent elementary  tones,  but  also  imitated  or 
rather  artificially  produced  vowel  sounds  from 
elementary  tones  of  tuning  forks.  Helmholtz 
has  propounded  a  hypothesis  of  the  manner  of 
excitation  of  the  acoustic  nerve  which  in  its 
physiological  aspect  has  been  generally  ac- 
cepted, although  its  anatomical  basis  is  not  yet 
sufficiently  established.  He  has  demonstrated 
that  beats  occasion  dissonance,  and  that  the 
perception  of  the  relationship  of  two  musical 
sounds  is  due  to  the  sensation  of  one  or  more 
common  simple  sounds  in  them,  and  the  per- 
ception of  that  of  two  chords  to  the  sensation 
of  one  or  more  common  compound  sounds; 
shown  how  beats  and  foreign  ingredients  in 
sounds  produce  an  intermittent  excitation  of 
certain  fibres  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and  there- 
by become  unpleasant;  and  suggested  a  rea- 
sonable explanation  of  the  adaptability  of  mu- 
sic for  emotional  expression.  A  list,  proba- 
bly incomplete,  of  his  contributions  to  various 
periodicals,  published  lectures,  &c.,  enumer- 
ates more  than  70  articles  besides  those  al- 
ready mentioned.  Some  of  the  more  im- 
portant are:  "Course  and  Duration  of  cer- 
tain Electric  Currents,"  "  Theorem  on  the 
Distribution  of  Electric  Currents,"  "Analysis 
of  Sunlight,"  "  On  the  Theory  of  Composite 
Colors,"  "  On  the  Accommodation  of  the 
Eye,"  "  Comparison  of  the  Luminousness  of 
Different  Colors,"  "Explanation  of  the  Stereo- 
scopic Phenomena  of  Lustre,"  "  On  Combina- 
tion Tones,"  "  On  the  Persistence  of  Visual 
Impressions,"  "  On  the  Notes  of  Various  Mu- 
sical Instruments,"  "On  the  Normal  Move- 
ments of  the  Human  Eye,"  "Intermittent 
Movements  of  Liquids,"  "  On  the  Friction  of 
Liquids,"  "  The  Mechanism  of  the  Ear  Ossicles 
and  Tympanic  Membrane,"  "  On  a  Theorem 
concerning  geometrically  similar  Motions  of 
Fluid  Bodies,  applied  to  the  problem  of  gui- 
ding aerial  balloons,"  and  "  On  the  Limits  of  the 
Power  of  the  Microscope."  Helmholtz's  readi- 
ness and  ability  to  present  to  the  public  at 
large  in  intelligible  language  the  results  of  his 
researches,  sometimes  the  most  abstruse,  have 
contributed  largely  to  his  fame.  He  has  been 
delivering  popular  scientific  lectures  for  more 
than  25  years.  One  on  human  vision  was  de- 
livered in  Konigsberg  in  aid  of  Kant's  monu- 
ment (Leipsic,  1855),  and  in  May,  1853,  ap- 
peared one  on  Goethe's  labors  in  natural  sci- 
ence. This,  together  with  three  others,  was 


HELMONT 

issued  in  book  form  (Brunswick,  1865 ;  second 
series,  1871).  All  these  have  been  translated 
by  Prof.  E.  Atkinson,  under  the  title  of  "  Pop- 
ular Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects,"  with  an 
introduction  by  Prof.  Tyndall  (London  and 
New  York,  1873).  The  French  academy  ad- 
mitted him  to  foreign  membership  in  1870, 
after  a  discussion  during  which  a  well  known 
author  said:  "You  will  place  yourselves  in 
the  worst  light  before  the  world  if,  for  any 
reason,  you  refuse  to  admit  Helmholtz,  the 
foremost  and  greatest  naturalist  of  the  age;" 
adding,  "  Nothing  is  wanting  to  his  glory,  but 
he  is  wanting  to  ours." 

HELMINTHS.     See  ENTOZOA. 

HELMONT,  Jan  Baptista  Tan,  a  Flemish  physi- 
cian, born  in  Brussels  in  1577,  died  near  Vil- 
voorden,  Dec.  30,  1644.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Louvain  with  a  view  to  the 
church,  but  refused  to  take  orders,  and  spent 
several  years  in  the  universities  of  Italy  and 
France,  studying  chemistry,  natural  philoso- 
phy, and  medicine.  On  returning  home  he 
settled  upon  his  estate  near  Vilvoorden.  Dis- 
satisfied with  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  Galen, 
and  Paracelsus,  he  attempted  a  reform  in  medi- 
cine. His  system  is  mingled  with  considerable 
mysticism,  but  he  did  much  to  introduce  ex- 
actness into  science.  He  was  the  first  to  ap- 
ply the  term  gas  to  the  elastic  fluids  which  re- 
semble air  in  physical  properties.  His  gas 
syUestre  was  what  is  now  known  as  carbonic 
acid,  for,  he  says,  it  is  evolved  during  the  fer- 
mentation of  wine  and  beer,  and  when  char- 
coal is  burned  in  the  air,  and  also  when  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  dissolved  in  vinegar  or  nitric 
acid.  To  the  combustible  gases  found  in  the 
intestines  he  gave  the  names  gas  pingue,  gas 
iiccum,  and  go*  fulginosum.  He  had  no  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  gases  which  he  pro- 
duced or  examined,  but  made  the  important 
discovery  that  air  diminishes  in  bulk  when 
bodies  are  burned  in  it.  He  believed  that 
respiration  consisted  in  the  drawing  of  air  into 
the  pulmonary  arteries  and  veins,  which  caused 
a  fermentation  necessary  for  its  revivification. 
He  believed  with  Paracelsus  in  the  existence 
of  an  archceus,  or  spiritual  essence  or  power 
which  presided  over  digestion  and  fermenta- 
tion. Water  he  considered  capable  of  furnish- 
ing all  the  material  of  plants,  and  ultimately 
of  fish  and  other  animals,  and  also  that  it  pro- 
duced elementary  earth  or  pure  quartz,  and 
the  chemical  principles  salt,  sulphur,  and  mer- 
cury. He  excludes  fire  from  the  number  of 
the  elements  because  it  is  not  a  substance. 
The  archssus  has  the  power  to  draw  all  bodies 
from  water  where  a  ferment  exists.  This  fer- 
ment preexists  in  the  seed  which  is  developed 
by  it.  The  ferment  expels  an  odor  which  at- 
tracts the  generating  spirit  of  the  archffius. 
This  spirit  consists  of  an  aura  vitalis,  which 
forms  matter  after  its  own  idea.  In  man  the 
seat  of  the  archseus  is  in  the  stomach,  and  it 
presides  also  over  the  spleen;  and  in  conse- 
quence of  its  influence  man  is  much  nearer  to 


HELMSTEDT 


the  realm  of  spirits  than  to  the  earth.    As  all 
diseases  were  in  his  opinion  caused  by  the  ar- 
chfflus,  his  treatment  consisted  in  calming  it, 
relying  upon  dietetics  and  the  imagination  of 
his  patients.    Mercurials,  antimonials,  opium, 
and  wine  he  believed  to  be  agreeable  to  the 
archaaus.    His  preference  for  chemical  reme- 
dies raised  chemistry  to  a  higher  rank  in  the 
jpinion  of  the  medical  men  of  his  time.     On 
rant  of  the  extraordinary  cures  that  he  was 
>elieved  to  have  made,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
rrested  as  a  sorcerer.     The  most  important 
)f  his  works  is  his  Ortus  Medicince,  id  est  Ini- 
Physicm  inaudita,  Progressus  Medicines  no- 
ins  in  Morborum  ultionem  ad  Vitam  longam, 
rhich  was  published  by  Ms  son  four  years 
jr  his  death,  and  translated  into  Dutch, 
mch,  German,  and  English.    A  volume  of 
islations  of  some  of  his  works  was  pub- 
shed  by  W.  Charlton  in  1650,  entitled  "The 
Ternary  of  Paradoxes,"  "  The  Magnetic  Cure  of 
founds,"  "The  Nativity  of  Tartar  of  Wine," 
id  "  The  Image  of  God  in  Man." 
HELMSTEDT,  or  Helmstadt,  a  town  of  Ger- 
r,  in  the  duchy  and  21  m.  E.  of  the  city  of 
runswick ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,469.     It  contains 
ive  squares,  two  churches,  a  town  house,  a 
rmnasium,  several  schools,  and  three  hospi- 
tals.   The  university  of  Helmstedt  was  founded 
in  1575  by  Duke  Julius  of  Brunswick,  and  for 
some  time  held  a  high  rank  among  the  schools 
of  Germany,  but  was  abolished  in  1809.     The 
chief  manufactures  are  flannel,  hats,  soap,  vin- 
egar, and  liqueurs.     There  is  a  trade  in  cattle. 
HELMPND,  or  Helmend,  a  river  of  Afghanis- 
tan, which  rises  between  two  ridges  belonging 
to  the  offshots  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  35  m.  W. 
of  Cabool,  upward  of  10,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
After  flowing  S.  W.  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
course,  it  gradually  sweeps  round  to  the  north- 
west and  west,  enters  the  plain  of  Seistan,  and 
flows  by  several  branches  into  the  lake  of  Ha- 
moon,  or  Zurrah.     Its  entire  length  is  about 
650  m.     Its  principal  affluent  is  the  united 
stream  of  the  Urgundab  and  Turnuk,  from  the 
east.    Even  in  dry  seasons  the  Helmund  has  a 
consjderable  volume  of  water. 

HELOiSE,  abbess  of  the  Paraclete,  born  prob- 
ably in  Paris  in  1101,  died  at  the  convent  of 
the  Paraclete,  Champagne,  May  16,  1164.  Of 
her  parentage  nothing  is  certainly  known.  In 
1116  she  was  living  with  her  uncle  Fulbert, 
canon  of  Notre  Dame,  on  the  island  of  the 
Cite  in  Paris.  At  this  time  Pierre  Abelard 
was  at  the  height  of  his  renown  as  a  teacher, 
and  Fulbert  invited  him  to  complete  the  edu- 
cation of  his  niece.  The  teacher  and  pupil 
fell  in  love  with  each  other,  and  Abelard  was 
compelled  to  conceal  their  guilt  by  conducting 
his  pupil  to  the  home  of  his  parents  in  Brit- 
tany, where  she  became  the  mother  of  a  son, 
who  was  christened  Pierre  Astrolabe.  (See 
ABELARD.)  To  appease  Fulbert,  they  were 
married,  and  at  once  separated ;  but  to  avoid 
hindering  Abelard's  ecclesiastical  advancement, 
TI61oise  denied  the  marriage,  and  was  then 


HELOTS 


625 


obliged  to  fly  from  her  enraged  uncle.  Abe- 
lard placed  her  in  the  convent  of  Argenteuil, 
where  she  took  the  vows,  and  soon  became 
abbess.  Here  she  remained  for  nine  or  ten 
years,  until  a  decree  of  the  king,  confirmed  by 
the  pope,  alienated  the  property  of  this  among 
other  convents,  and  compelled  the  nuns  to 
find  a  retreat  elsewhere.  The  vacant  oratory 
of  the  Paraclete  in  Champagne  was  formally 
made  over  to  them  by  Abelard,  at  that  time 
abbot  of  a  monastery  in  Brittany,  and  Heloise 
became  the  first  of  a  long  line  of  noble  ab- 
besses. Some  years  later  a  papal  bull  con- 
firmed the  gift.  The  rule  adopted  by  the  new 
convent  was  that  of  St.  Benedict ;  but  Abelard 
became  the  spiritual  adviser  and  the  father 
confessor  of  his  friend,  and  added  some  statutes 
of  his  own  to  the  ancient  rule.  Only  one  per- 
sonal interview  was  held;  but  a  correspon- 
dence arose  which  was  continued  for  several 
years.  Abelard  died  in  1142.  Heloise  lived 
22  years  longer,  devoting  herself  wholly  to 
the  enlargement  and  the  discipline  of  her  re- 
ligious house.  She  was  universally  regarded 
as  a  saint,  and  gifts  of  every  kind  were  brought 
to  her  convent.  Her  remains,  after  many  re- 
movals, have  rested  since  1817  with  those  of 
her  husband  in  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise 
in  Paris.  The  letters  of  Heloise  and  Abelard 
have  been  many  times  published.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  the  originals  is  by  Victor 
Cousin  (4to,  Paris,  1849).  They  form  a  unique 
monument  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  internal 
evidence  of  their  authenticity  is  so  strong  as  to 
set  aside  the  supposition  of  their  forgery.  The 
letters  of  Heloise  especially  are  called  by  Hal- 
lam  "  the  first  book  that  gives  any  pleasure  in 
reading  produced  in  Europe  for  600  years, 
since  Boethius's  '  Consolations.' " — Besides  the 
works  mentioned  under  AB£LARD,  see  ISHis- 
toire  d"1  Heloise  et  d>  Abelard,  by  Marc  de  Mon- 
tifaud  (Paris,  1873). 

1IELOS,  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Laconia,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain 
near  the  Eurotas  and  the  sea.  Its  foundation 
was  ascribed  to  Helius,  the  youngest  of  the 
sons  of  Perseus,  and  in  very  early  times  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  principal  town  of  that 
region.  On  being  taken  by  the  Dorians,  its 
inhabitants,  as  a  punishment  for  the  obstinacy 
of  their  resistance,  were  reduced  to  slavery, 
and  their  name,  according  to  some  writers, 
became  in  time  the  general  designation  of  the 
Spartan  bondmen.  In  the  age  of  Strabo  Helos 
had  dwindled  into  a  small  village,  and  in  that 
of  Pausanias  it  was  a  heap  of  ruins.  Its  site 
was  probably  near  Bizani,  where  there  are 
some  Hellenic  remains. — Helos  at  the  present 
day  is  the  name  of  a  district  in  the  plains  on 
the  banks  of  the  Eurotas,  extending  from  the 
mountain  of  Bizani  to  the  frontier  of  Maina. 
Most  of  the  villages  of  the  district  are  on  the 
low  hills  which  encircle  the  plain. 

HELOTS  (Gr.  Mwref),  slaves  of  the  Spar- 
tans, serfs  bound  to  the  soil,  and  tilling  it  for 
the  benefit  of  the  proprietors.  The  three 


626 


HELPS 


HELSINGFORS 


classes  in  Sparta  were  the  Spartans,  the  Pe- 
rioeci,  and  the  helots.  The  first  two  were 
united  and  constituted  one  national  aggregate, 
known  by  the  common  name  of  Lacedaemonians; 
but  the  last  was  for  ages  an  entirely  separate 
and  inferior  class.  Several  derivations  of  the 
name  helots  are  given,  including  that  from 
Helos,  the  Laconian  town,  but  perhaps  the 
most  probable  is  that  from  eAm>,  to  take,  ma- 
king the  name  signify  captives.  They  were  re- 
garded as  the  property  of  the  state,  which 
reserved  the  power  of  emancipating  them, 
and  were  attached  to  the  soil,  each  Spartan 
citizen  receiving  the  number  that  belonged  to 
his  allotment  of  land,  without  any  power  to 
sell  or  free  them.  With  the  exception  of  the 
few  who  lived  in  the  city  as  domestic  servants, 
the  helots  occupied  rural  villages  apart  from 
their  masters,  and  with  only  the  obligation  to 
till  the  land  and  pay  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  produce  to  their  masters  as  rent.  The 
amount  of  rent  was  82  medimni  (about  120 
bushels)  of  barley  and  a  proportionate  amount 
of  wine  and  oil  for  each  allotment,  which  was 
inhabited  by  six  or  seven  families.  This  rent 
had  been  established  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  any  increase  of  the  amount  was  impera- 
tively forbidden.  Their  number  has  been  va- 
riously estimated,  but  it  is  certain  that,  though 
few  at  first,  they  increased  through  the  con- 
quest of  rebel  towns,  till  they  far  exceeded  the 
Lacedaemonians  themselves.  O.  Muller  com- 
putes their  number  to  have  been  about  224,000, 
at  a  time  when  the  Lacedaemonians  numbered 
but  156,000.  They  were  liable  to  service  in  time 
of  war,  generally  as  light-armed  troops,  and  a 
certain  number  of  them  attended  on  each  Spar- 
tan. They  were  also  in  later  times  much  em- 
ployed in  the  navy.  Only  in  particular  emer- 
gencies did  they  serve  as  heavy-armed  troops, 
and  then  they  were  generally  emancipated  after 
the  war.  The  manumitted  helots  were  not  re- 
ceived into  the  Perioeci,  but  still  were  a  sepa- 
rate class,  under  the  name  of  neodamodes,  or 
newly  enfranchised.  Particularly  liable  to  sus- 
picion, they  were  often  employed  on  foreign 
service,  or  among  the  different  trades  at  Sparta. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  Messenian  war,  668 
B.  C.,  the  Messenians  were  reduced  to  slavery 
and  incorporated  with  the  helots.  In  464  the 
helots  revolted,  and  marched  directly  against 
Sparta,  which  they  nearly  succeeded  in  taking. 
After  long  and  obstinate  struggles  they  were 
finally  subdued.  They  were  constant  subjects 
of  apprehension  to  the  Spartans,  and  were 
sometimes  cruelly  massacred,  in  order  to  keep 
down  their  numbers,  the  young  men  being 
sent  out  secretly  to  slaughter  them.  The  most 
noted  of  these  massacres  was  in  424,  when 
2,000  of  the  helots  who  had  rendered  distin- 
guished services  in  war  were  slain. 

HELPS,  Sir  Arthur,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1817.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  entered  the  public  service 
as  prirate  secretary  to  Lord  Monteagle,  chan- 
xselloj  of  the  exchequer,  and  was  appointed 


commissioner  of  French,  Danish,  and  Spanish 
claims.  He  was  afterward  secretary  to  Lord 
Morpeth,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  in  1859  be- 
came clerk  of  the  privy  council,  and  was  knight- 
ed in  1872.  His  earlier  publications,  all  of 
which  appeared  anonymously,  are:  "Thoughts 
in  the  Cloister  and  the  Crowd  "  (London,  1835) ; 
"Essays  written  in  the  Intervals  of  Business" 
(1841) ;  two  dramas  entitled  "  King  Henry  II." 
and  "Catharine  Douglas"  (1843);  and  "The 
Claims  of  Labor"  (1844).  A  work  which 
much  enhanced  his  reputation  as  a  subtle  thinker 
and  graceful  writer  was  entitled  "  Friends  in 
Council,  a  Series  of  Headings  and  Discourses 
thereon  "  (1847 ;  2d  series,  1859),  a  collection 
of  essays  with  conversations  interspersed.  It 
was  followed  by  a  similar  work  entitled  "  Com- 
panions of  my  Solitude  "  (1851).  His  "  Con- 
querors of  the  New  World,  and  their  Bonds- 
men" (2  vols.,  1848-'52)  was  enlarged  into 
"  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America  "  (3  vols., 
1855-'7),  in  which  he  narrates  the  origin  and 
growth  of  negro  slavery.  His  later  works  are : 
"Eealmah"  (1868);  "The  Life  of  Pizarro" 
(1869)  ;  "  Casimir  Maremma  "  and  "  Brevia,  or 
Short  Essays  and  Aphorisms  "  (1870) ;  "  Con- 
versations on  "War  and  general  Culture,"  "  Life 
of  Cortes,"  and  "  Thoughts  upon  Government " 
(1871) ;  "  Life  and  Labors  of  Mr.  Brassey " 
(1872);  "Oulitathe  Serf,  a  Tragedy"  (1873); 
and  "  Ivan  de  Biron,  or  the  Russian  Court  in 
the  Middle  of  the  Last  Century  "  (1874).  All 
his  writings  are  marked  by  a  philosophical 
tone  and  moral  fervor,  and  Ruskin  confesses 
his  obligations  to  "  the  beautiful  quiet  English 
of  Helps."  He  is  understood  to  have  assisted 
Queen  Victoria  in  the  preparation  of  her 
"  Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  our  Life  in  the 
Highlands"  (London,  1869). 

HELSINGBORG,  a  town  of  Sweden,  in  the  Ian 
and  32  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  the  town  of  Malmo,  at 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  Sound;  pop.  in 
1871,  7,560.  It  lies  just  opposite  Elsinore,  with 
which  there  is  regular  communication.  Sev- 
eral battles  have  been  fought  here,  and  several 
Swedish  diets  held. 

HELSINGFORS,  a  city  of  Russia,  capital  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Finland,  on  the  gulf  of 
Finland,  180  m.  W.  by  N.  of  St.  Petersburg; 
pop.  in  1870,  32,113.  It  was  founded  by  Gus- 
tavus  I.  of  Sweden  in  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century,  burned  by  the  Russians  in  1728, 
taken  by  them  in  1742  and  again  in  1808,  and 
finally  ceded  to  them  with  the  whole  of  Fin- 
land in  1809.  The  government  was  transferred 
from  Abo  to  Helsingfors  in  1819,  and  a  few 
years  later  the  town  was  almost  rebuilt.  The 
streets  were  laid  out  with  great  regularity, 
public  buildings  were  erected,  and  it  has  risen 
to  be  a  large  and  handsome  city.  It  has  a  fine 
harbor,  capable  of  containing  60  or  70  men-of- 
war,  protected  by  the  fortress  of  Sveaborg, 
built  on  seven  islands,  presenting  a  front  of 
about  a  mile,  and  mounting  about  800  cannon. 
In  1827,  Abo  having  been  burned,  the  emperor 
Nicholas  reestablished  its  university  atHelsing- 


HELSINGO'R 

fors.  It  is  now  called  the  Alexander  university, 
and  has  four  faculties,  more  than  50  professors, 
and  about  500  students.  In  the  senate  house  is 
a  large  and  valuable  library.  The  town  con- 
tains a  military  academy  with  about  140  stu- 
its,  a  Finnish  society  of  art  and  one  of  sci- 


HELVETIUS 


627 


ice,  fine  museums  of  mineralogy  and  zoolo- 
gy, botanical  gardens,  an  observatory,  and  sev- 
eral journals.    There  are  manufactories  of  lin- 
en, sail  cloth,  and  tobacco.     The  exports  are 
fish,  iron,  timber,  and  grain.    The  trade  in  grain 
and  in  naval  stores  is  active  during  summer. 
IIELSINGOR,     See  ELSINOEE. 
HELST,  Bartholomew  van  der,  a  Dutch  por- 
trait painter,  born  in  Haarlem  in  1613,  died  in 
Amsterdam  about  1670.     His  picture  in  the 
town   house   at  Amsterdam,  representing  30 
full-length  figures  of  a  train  band,  with  the 
Spanish  ambassador  in  the  midst,  was  called  by 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  "the  first  picture  of  por- 
raits in  the  world."    He  occasionally  painted 
listorical  pictures,   but    his   reputation  rests 
Imost  exclusively  upon  his  portraits,  which 

numerous  in  the  Netherlands. 
HELVELLYN,    a  mountain    of   Cumberland, 
igland,  between  Keswick  and  Ambleside.    It 
one  of  the  highest  mountains  in  England,  its 
imit  being  3,313  ft.  above  the  sea. 
HELVETII,  an  ancient  people  of  Celtic  origin, 
o  in  historical  times  occupied  the  country 
tween  the  Rhine,  the  lake  of  Constance,  the 
i6ne,  the  lake  of  Geneva,  and  the  Jura;  that 
somewhat  less  than  the  territory  of  modern 
^  ritzerland  (Helvetia).     They  first  appear  in 
istory  toward  the  close  of  the  2d  century  B. 
.,  when  one  of  their  divisions,  the  so-called 
Tigurinus,  joined  the  Cimbri  on  their 
larch  to  invade  Italy,  and  defeated  the  Roman 
consul  Lucius  Cassius  (107).     After  the  de- 
feat of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons  by  Marius,  they 
retired  to  their  territory,  where    they  num- 
12  towns  and  400  villages.     They  left  it 


again  at  the  time  of  the  first  triumvirate,  in- 
vading Gaul,  which  had  been  assigned  as  a  prov- 
ince to  Caesar,  under  the  command  of  Orgeto- 
rix,  one  of  their  chiefs.  Caesar  routed  them  at 
Bibracte  (Autun  in  Burgundy),  and  the  survi- 
vors returned  beyond  the  Jura.  Numerous 
Roman  castles  and  col- 
onies were  now  planted 
in  their  land,  which  was 
known  as  Ager  Helve- 
tiorum,  until  it  was 
attached  to  Transalpine 
Gaul.  Having  refused 
to  acknowledge  Vitel- 
lius  as  emperor,  they 
were  rigorously  chas- 
tised by  his  generals. 
After  that  the  Helvetii 
almost  disappear.  Their 
territory  was  occupied 
by  the  Alemanni,  and  in 
its  S.  W.  part  by  the 
Burgundians  during  the 
last  period  of  the  West 
Roman  empire.  (See 

SWITZEELAND.) 

HELVETII  S,  Claude 

idrlen,  a  French  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Paris  in 
January,  1715,  died  Dec. 

26,  1771.  He  was  of  German  descent,  and  his 
name  was  a  translation  of  Schweitzer.  His 
father  was  physician  to  Queen  Maria  Lecsz- 
czynska  of  France.  When  scarcely  23  years 
old,  he  was  appointed  farmer  general  with  an 
annual  revenue  of  about  $60,000.  He  became 
the  patron  of  philosophers,  wits,  and  men  of 
letters,  and  associated  with  Voltaire,  Montes- 
quieu, and  Buffon.  In  order  to  devote  himself 
exclusively  to  study,  he  resigned  his  office  in 
1750,  married  a  few  months  later  the  countess 
de  Ligniville,  and  led  a  retired  life,  mostly  at 
his  country  seat  of  Vore,  in  the  province  of 
Perche.  Here,  while  engaged  in  the  composi- 
tion of  his  philosophical  works,  he  labored  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  peasantry.  In 
1758  he  published  anonymously,  under  the  title 
De  V esprit,  a  free  and  bold  exposition  of  mate- 
rialism, the  last  word,  as  an  eminent  French  his- 
torian designates  it,  of  the  philosophical  move- 
ment of  his  age,  which  was  translated  into  the 
principal  foreign  languages.  The  work  was 
proscribed  by  the  pope,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the 
parliament,  and  burned  by  the  common  hang- 
man ;  but  Helv6tius  lost  nothing  of  his  popu- 
larity at  home,  where  his  private  life  and  char- 
acter offset  his  doctrine.  When  he  visited 
England  and  Germany,  princes,  nobles,  and 
literary  men  vied  with  each  other  to  wel- 
come him ;  he  was  treated  with  special  dis- 
tinction by  Frederick  II.,  who  received  him  in 
his  own  palace.  On  his  return  to  Vore,  he  com- 
pleted a  poem,  Le  "bonheur,  in  six  cantos,  and  a 
philosophical  treatise,  De  thomme,  de  sesfacul- 
tes  intellectuelles  et  de  son  education,  both  of 
which  were  published  after  his  death,  the  latter 


628 


HELVOETSLUIS 


IIEMIGALE 


by  Prince  GaUitzin  (1772).  The  best  edition 
of  his  complete  works  is  that  published  under 
the  supervision  of  Lefebvre  de  La  Roche,  by 
P.  Didot  (14  vols.  18mo,  Paris,  1795).— His 
wife,  who  contributed  much  to  make  his  life 
happy  and  his  home  agreeable  to  friends  and 
visitors,  survived  him ;  she  retired  to  Auteuil, 
near  Paris,  and  her  house  was  still  open  to  phi- 
losophers. Dying  in  August,  1800,  at  the  age 
of  81,  she  bequeathed  her  property  to  her 
friend,  the  celebrated  physician  Cabanis. 

HELVOETSLFIS,  or  Hellevoetsluis,  a  strongly 
fortified  seaport  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
the  province  of  South  Holland,  on  the  island 
of  Voorne,  and  on  the  Haringvleet  and  the 
Voorne  canal,  6  m.  S.  of  Briel;  pop.  in  1867, 
3,810.  It  is  a  very  important  naval  station, 
with  large  docks.  Thousands  of  vessels  enter 
the  port  annually,  including  the  largest  India- 
men,  which  pass  through  the  Voorne  canal  on 
their  way  to  Rotterdam.  Helvoetsluis  was  in 
former  times  the  great  point  of  departure  for 
English  ports,  and  generally  for  Harwich ;  and 
William  of  Orange  embarked  here  for  England 
Nov.  1, 1688,  with  50  war  ships  and  14,000  men. 

11KLYOT,  Pierre,  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1660,  died  Jan.  5,  1716.  He  was  de- 
scended from  an  English  Catholic  family  that 
took  refuge  in  France,  and  in  1683  entered  the 
third  order  of  St.  Francis  in  the  convent  of 
Picpus  at  Paris  as  Pere  Hippolyte.  He  was 
twice  sent  to  Eome  on  affairs  of  his  order,  and 
there  projected  the  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known,  a  history  of  the  various  religious  orders. 
He  was  assisted  in  his  researches  by  Anquetil, 
Hardouin,  Mabillon,  Ruinart,  and  other  scholars. 
Two  volumes  were  published  in  1714  (4to, 
Paris),  entitled  Histoire  des  ordres  monastiques, 
religieux  et  militaires,  et  des  congregations  se- 
culi&res  de  Tun  et  de  Tautre  sexe.  The  six  re- 
maining volumes  appeared  in  1715,  1718,  and 
1719.  It  was  reprinted  in  1721  and  1792.  An 
inferior  edition,  edited  by  Philippon  de  la  Ma- 
deleine, appeared  at  Paris  in  1838;  and  an  edi- 
tion in  five  volumes  in  Migne's  Encyclopedic 
theologique,  with  a  continuation  to  the  time 
of  publication  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1847).  The  vol- 
umes that  appeared  after  Helyot's  death  were 
edited  by  Maximilian  Bullot.  Helyot  wrote 
also  Le  Chretien  mourant  (Paris,  1705). 

HEMANS,  Fellda  Dorothea,  an  English  poetess, 
born  in  Liverpool,  Sept.  25,  1794,  died  near 
Dublin,  May  12, 1835.  Her  father,  a  merchant 
named  Browne,  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  but 
her  mother  was  of  Venetian  descent.  "When 
she  was  five  years  of  age  commercial  disasters 
compelled  the  family  to  remove  to  an  old  man- 
sion at  Gwryrch,  in  Denbighshire,  Wales,  where 
her  childhood  was  passed.  A  collection  of  her 
juvenile  poems  was  published  in  1808,  under 
the  title  of  "  Early  Blossoms,"  and  met  with 
harsh  treatment  from  the  critics.  A  second 
volume,  entitled  "The  Domestic  Affections," 
published  in  1812,  was  more  successful.  In 
the  same  year  she  married  Capt.  Hemans,  by 
whom  she  became  the  mother  of  five  sons.  In- 


compatibility of  tastes  and  temperaments  ren- 
dered the  union  unfortunate,  and  after  Capt. 
Hemans  went  to  Italy  in  1818  to  recover  his 
health  they  never  again  met,  although  letters 
frequently  passed  between  them  with  reference 
to  the  education  of  their  children.  Mrs.  He- 
mans  now  rejoined  her  mother  in  Wales,  and 
commenced  an  active  literary  life.  She  studied 
German  and  the  languages  of  southern  Europe, 
translated  from  Camoens  and  Herrera,  and  con- 
tributed numerous  pieces  in  prose  and  verse  to 
the  magazines  and  annuals.  About  this  time 
she  published  "Tales  and  Historic  Scenes," 
"  Modern  Greece,"  "Dartmoor,"  a  prize  poem, 
and  "  The  Skeptic."  At  the  suggestion  of  Regi- 
nald Heber  she  wrote  her  play  of  "  The  Ves- 
pers of  Palermo,"  which  failed  on  the  London 
stage,  but  was  well  received  in  Edinburgh. 
Her  works  gained  her  the  friendship  of  many 
distinguished  men.  She  visited  Scott  at  Ab- 
botsford  and  Wordsworth  at  Rydal  Mount.  In 
1831,  after  a  temporary  residence  near  Liver- 
pool for  the  benefit  of  her  children,  she  re- 
moved to  Dublin,  where  one  of  her  brothers 
was  living.  Her  last  poem  was  "  A  Sabbath 
Sonnet,"  dedicated  to  her  brother.  In  1839 
appeared  the  first  collective  edition  of  her 
poems,  with  a  memoir  by  her  sister  (7  vols. 
12mo),  followed  in  1848  by  one  chronologi- 
cally arranged  (1  vol.  8vo),  and  by  another  in 
6  vols.  in  1850.  In  1836  were  published  "  Me- 
morials of  Mrs.  Hemans,1'  by  H.  F.  Chorley 
(2  vols.  12mo).  Her  popularity  in  the  United 
States  dates  from  1826,  when  an  edition  of  her 
poems,  accompanied  by  a  notice  of  the  author- 
ess, was  published  by  Prof.  Andrews  Norton. 
Numerous  other  editions  have  been  published 
here,  one  (1850)  including  an  essay  on  her 
genius  by  H.  T.  Tuckerman.  Freiligrath  has 
published  an  admirable  German  version  (Das 
WaldJieiligthum)  of  her  "  Forest  Sanctuary." 

HEMATINE  (Gr.  ai/aa,  blood),  the  coloring  mat- 
ter of  the  red  globules  of  the  blood.  Hematine 
belongs  to  substances  of  the  albuminoid  class, 
consisting  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen,  with  which  is  associated  a  small  pro- 
portion of  iron.  It  forms  a  little  over  1£  per 
cent,  of  the  substance  of  the  blood  globules,  but 
even  in  this  small  proportion  is  sufficient  to 
communicate  to  them,  and  to  the  whole  mass 
of  the  blood  in  which  they  are  suspended,  the 
strong  and  rich  deep  red  color  by  which  they 
are  so  readily  distinguished.  It  is  rapidly  al- 
tered in  hue  by  the  action  of  chemical  substan- 
ces, and  has  not  therefore  been  made  available 
in  the  arts  for  the  production  of  dye-stuffs.  It 
is  soluble  in  water,  and  a  very  small  quantity 
of  hematine  will  communicate  a  distinctly  red 
tinge  to  a  very  large  quantity  of  fluid. 

HEMATITE.     See  IRON  ORES. 

IIEMIGALE,  a  mammal  of  the  family  vhcrri- 
da,  coming  near  the  ichneumons,  so  named 
from  its  weasel-like  body.  The  grayish  brown 
fur  is  marked  on  the  back  by  six  or  seven  wide 
dark  stripes,  arranged  sad  die- wise,  broad  above 
and  narrowing  toward  the  ribs ;  the  head  is 


HEMIPTERA 


629 


pointed,  ears  short,  hind  limbs  stout,  and  tail 
long.     It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is  about 


Homigale  Hnrdwickii. 

the  size  of  the  ichneumon,  and  feeds  on  eggs 
and  small  birds  and  mammals. 

HEMIPTERA,  an  order  of  insects,  including 
what  are  generally  called  bugs,  harvest  flies, 
tree  hoppers,  plant  lice,  &c.  They  are  sucking 
insects,  having  neither  mandibles  nor  maxillae 
proper,  but  a  horny  beak,  curved  along  the 
breast  when  not  in  use,  containing  in  its  groove 
delicate  sharp  bristles  by  which  their  punctures 
are  made.  They  have  four  wings,  of  which 
the  upper  are  generally  thick  at  the  base  and 

^mbranous  at  the  ends,  being  as  it  were  half 
elytra  and  half  wings,  whence  the  name  of  the 
order  (from  qfiiavg,  half,  and  Trrepdv,  wing) ;  in 
a  few  all  the  wings  are  membranous,  and  some 
are  wingless,  as  the  bedbug.  The  eyes  are 
large,  the  antennae  generally  small,  and  the 
tarsi  in  most  three-jointed.  They  undergo  a 
partial  transformation,  the  larvae  and  pupae  re- 
sembling the  adults  except  in  the  absence  of 
wings  and  the  smaller  size;  in  all  the  stages 
they  live  in  the  same  way,  and  in  all  are  equally 
active.  The  bugs  or  true  hemiptera  (K.  Jie- 
teroptera)  have  the  semi-opaque  wing  covers 
laid  horizontally  on  the  top  of  the  back,  cross- 
ing each  other  obliquely  at  the  end ;  their 
wings  are  horizontal  and  not  plaited ;  the  beak 
issues  from  the  fore  part  of  the  head,  and  is 
bent  abruptly  backward  beneath  the  breast. 
English  entomologists  have  separated  the  har- 
vest flies,  tree  hoppers,  plant  lice,  &c.,  under 
the  name  of  H.  homoptera,  because  the  wing 
covers  are  of  the  same  texture  throughout, 
either  transparent  or  opaque;  they  do  not 
cross  each  other,  are  not  horizontal,  but  with 
the  wings  are  more  or  less  inclined  at  the  sides 
of  the  body ;  the  beak  issues  from  the  under 
side  of  the  head  ;  the  insects  of  this  division 
live  on  vegetable  juices,  while  those  of  the 
eding  live  also  upon  animal  fluids.  In  the 
first  division,  the  family  geocorisce  (Latr.),  or 
earth  bugs,  have  the  antennae  exposed  and 
longer  than  the  head ;  most  are  terrestrial,  but 


some  live  on  the  surface  of  water ;  many  emit 
a  disagreeable  odor.  The  genus  pentatoma 
(Oliv.),  or  wood  bugs,  occur  chiefly  in  warm 
countries,  where  they  attain  a  considerable  size, 
and  are  marked  with  brilliant  colors;  they 
live  on  vegetable  juices,  and  sometimes  on 
those  of  other  insects ;  they  exhale  a  disagree- 
able odor,  and  adhere  to  whatever  they  touch ; 
De  Geer  relates  that  the  young  of  the  P.  gri- 
seum  (Linn.)  in  troops  of  30  or  40  follow  their 
mother  on  trees  as  chickens  follow  a  hen.  In 
the  genus  corem  (Fab.)  the  head  is  generally 
triangular,  sunk  without  apparent  neck  into 
the  thorax ;  the  eyes  small  but  prominent ;  the 
legs  long  and  slender ;  they  feed  both  on  vege- 
table and  animal  juices,  exhale  a  strong  odor, 
and  present  often  strange  forms  and  spiny 
armature.  Here  belongs  the  well  known  squash 
bug  (0.  tristis,  De  Geer),  which  emits  a  power- 
ful odor  when  handled.  In  the  genus  lygcew 
(Fab.)  belong  the  chinch  bugs,  so  destructive 
in  the  fields  of  corn  and  wheat  at  the  south 
and  west;  the  white-winged  species  (L.  leu- 
copterus,  Say)  is  provided  with  wings,  and  is 
about  -/$  of  an  inch  long ;  the  general  color  is 
black,  with  white  wing  covers  margined  with 
black,  and  reddish  yellow  legs,  beak,  and 
hinder  edge  of  thorax ;  the  young  and  wing- 
less ones  are  bright  red.  Small  plant  bugs  of 
the  genus  pJiytocoris  are  very  destructive  in 
flower  and  vegetable  gardens ;  one  species  in 
particular  enters  into  the  long  list  which  have 
been  erroneously  supposed  to  produce  the  po- 
tato rot.  The  genus  syrtis  (Fab.)  have  a  sin- 
gle claw  on  the  anterior  feet,  with  which  they 
seize  flies  and  other  insects;  the  "tiger"  so 
destructive  to  pear  trees  in  Europe  belongs 
to  the  genus  tingis  (Fab.) ;  the  bedbug  (cimex 
lectularius)  has  been  described  under  EPIZOA  ; 
a  species  of  reduvivs  is  destructive  to  the  cot- 
ton crop,  staining  the  balls  red,  and  causing 
them  to  fall  prematurely ;  hydrometra  and 
some  allied  species  run  upon  the  surface  of 
water,  and  have  been  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  mid  ocean  in  the  tropics.  In  the 
family  hydrocorism,  or  water  bugs,  belongs  the 
genus  nepa  (Linn),  commonly  called  water 
scorpions,  from  having  the  anterior  legs  in  the 
form  of  hooked  nippers ;  they  prey  upon  other 
insects,  and  are  very  voracious ;  in  some  tribes 
the  posterior  legs  are  much  ciliated,  resem- 
bling oars,  enabling  them  to  swim  with  great 
swiftness,  and  often  on  their  backs. — In  the 
homopterous  division,  the  three  principal  tribes 
are  the  cicadadm,  already  described  under  HAR- 
VEST FLY  ;  aphidida,  or  plant  lice,  noticed  under 
APHIS  ;  and  the  coccidce,  or  bark  lice,  described 
under  COCHINEAL.  In  some  of  the  cicadadai, 
according  to  Dufour,  the  stomach  or  chylific 
ventricle  is  remarkably  long,  with  many  convo- 
lutions of  an  intestine-like  tube  ascending  and 
reopening  into  its  cavity — a  remarkable  physi- 
ological fact.  The  lantern  fly  (fulgora},  said 
to  give  forth  a  light  from  the  end  of  its  pro- 
longed snout,  has  been  alluded  to  under  FIRE- 
FLY. The  tree  hoppers  (membracis,  Fab.) 


630 


IIEMLING 


HEMLOCK  SPRUCE 


have  the  habits  of  the  harvest  flies,  but  they 
make  no  drumming  sound,  and  leap  and  fly  to 
a  considerable  distance,  even  to  250  times  their 
length  ;  they  pass  their  time  on  plants,  always 
placed  lengthwise  of  the  limbs,  with  the  head 
toward  the  end  of  the  branches ;  from  their 


1,  i  Tree  Hopper  (Membracis).    8.  "Water  Scorpion  (Kepa). 

conical  shape,  dark  color,  and  fixed  position, 
they  look  much  like  the  thorns  of  a  tree ;  lo- 
cust and  oak  trees  and  many  vines  suffer  from 
the  abstraction  of  their  sap  by  these  insects 
and  from  the  injury  done  to  their  leaves.  Tree 
hoppers  are  often  surrounded  by  ants,  for  the 
Bake  of  their  droppings  or  for  the  sap  which 
oozes  from  their  punctures.  The  frog  hoppers 
(cercopis,  Fab.)  possess  still  greater  leaping 
powers;  the  larva  extract  the  sap  of  alders, 
willows,  &c.,  in  such  quantity  that  it  oozes 
from  their  bodies  continually  in  little  bubbles, 
whose  white  foam  completely  covers  them  du- 
ring the  period  of  their  transformation ;  this  is 
called  frog  spittle  and  cuckoo  spittle.  The  leaf 
hoppers  (tettigonia,  Geoffr.)  are  very  small, 
but  handsome,  agile,  and  destructive  to  vege- 
tation; vines,  rosaceous  plants,  beans,  &c., 
suffer  much  from  their  exhausting  punctures ; 
tobacco  fumigations  and  the  application  of 
whale-oil  soap  in  solution  are  the  best  reme- 
dies. Some  plant  lice  have  the  power  of  leap- 
ing, though  both  sexes,  when  mature,  are 
winged ;  these  belong  to  the  genus  psylla 
(Geoffr.),  live  on  pear  and  other  trees,  sucking 
the  juices  of  the  young  twigs,  and  are  far  less 
prolific  than  the  aphides;  these  sap  suckers 
are  attended  by  swarms  of  ants  and  flies,  at- 
tracted by  the  sweet  fluid  which  flows  from 
their  bodies ;  young  trees  are  often  killed  by 
them.  From  the  family  coccida  are  obtained 
the  scarlet  grain  and  cochineal  of  commerce, 
now  ascertained  to  be  insects  or  bark  lice  of 
the  genus  coccus  (Linn.)  (see  COCHINEAL)  ;  the 
mealy  bug  of  our  greenhouses  is  the  C.  Adoni- 
dum ;  the  C.  hesperidum  infests  the  myrtle. 
These  lice  are  destroyed  by  the  wren,  chick- 
adee, and  ichneumon  flies;  strong  soap  and 
alkaline  solutions  will  also  kill  them. 

HEM  LING.     See  MEMLING. 

HEMLOCK,  a  name  applied  to  conium  macu- 
latum  (see  COXIUM)  and  cicuta  maculata  (see 
CICUTA),  as  well  as  to  abies  Canadensis  (see 


HEMLOCK  SPRUCE).  It  is  probable  that  the 
hemlock  or  Kuveiov  which  caused  the  death  of 
Socrates  was  identical  with  the  plant  now 
known  as  conium. 

HEMLOCK  SPRITE,  the  common  name  of  the 
tree  able*  Canadensi*,  of  the  order  conifera, 
which  is  quite  as  frequently  called  hemlock 
simply.  The  hemlock  spruces  mainly  differ 
from  the  spruces  proper  in  having  flat  two- 
ranked  leaves,  and  the  cells  of  the  anthers 
opening  transversely  instead  of  lengthwise; 
from  the  firs  they  differ  in  having  persistent 
cones  and  in  the  wing  of  the  seed  remaining 
attached  to  it;  while  in  the  firs  the  scales  faU 
from  the  axis  of  the  cone  and  the  seed  sepa- 
rates from  its  wing.  On  account  of  these 
differences  Carri£re  proposed  to  place  the  hem- 
lock spruces  in  a  separate  genus,  to  which  he 
gave  the  barbaric  name  tiuga  ;  botanists  do  not 
accept  his  views,  and  regard  the  firs  (picca), 
the  spruces  (abie*\  and  the  hemlock  spruces 
(tsuga)  as  subgenera  of  abitt.  The  hemlock 
spruce  is  essentially  a  northern  tree.  Making 
its  appearance  in  the  southern  states  only  on 
the  mountain  ranges,  it  increases  in  frequency 
toward  the  northern  borders  of  the  United 
States,  where  large  forests  of  it  are  not  rare, 
while  in  Canada  it  covers  vast  tracts  often 
without  the  presence  of  any  other  species,  and 
extends  to  the  northernmost  limits  of  arbo- 
rescent vegetation,  and  across  to  the  Pacific. 
It  grows  in  almost  every  situation  except  in 
a  very  dry  one.  The  hemlock  spruce  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  our  native  conifers,  reaching  the 
height  of  60,  80,  and  not  rarely  100  ft. ;  when 
it  occurs  as  a  solitary  specimen,  it  appears  as 
a  fine  pyramid  of  verdure,  being  furnished 


Hemlock  Spruce  (Abies  Canadensis). 

from  the  ground  to  the  top  with  long  grace- 
;  fully  drooping  branches;  but  when  it  grows 

in  the  forest  the  straight  trunk  is  without 
|  branches  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length. 
,  The  smaller  branches  and  twigs  are  very 
I  slender ;  the  leaves,  about  half  an  inch  long 


HEMLOCK  SPRUCE 


with  very  short  petioles,  spread  horizontally 
in  two  directions,  and  appear  as  if  in  two 
rows.  They  are  flat,  dark  green  above,  and 
glaucous  beneath.  The  cones  are  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  few  scales,  green- 
ish when  young,  but  turning  brown  with  age, 
and  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  pendent  branches 
of  the  preceding  year.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
is  coarse,  splits  irregularly,  and  when  exposed 
to  the  weather  decays  rapidly;  yet  with  all 
these  disadvantages  it  affords  a  large  share  of 
the  lumber  of  commerce,  and  as  the  white  pine 
disappears  hemlock  lumber  comes  more  and 
more  into  use.  It  is  stronger  than  white  pine, 
and  gives  a  better  hold  to  nails,  and  for  all 
work  not  exposed  it  is  preferred  to  pine ;  for 
beams,  rafters,  roof  sheathing,  and  all  parts  of 
a  house  to  be  covered  over,  hemlock  lumber 
is  largely  consumed,  as  it  is  for  a  great  deal  of 
other  rough  work.  The  great  economical  value 
of  the  hemlock  is  in  its  bark,  which  is  largely 
used  for  tanning  leather,  either  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  oak  bark;  large  forests  have 
been  destroyed  by  stripping  the  bark  from  the 
trunks,  which  were  left  to  decay.  As  an  or- 
namental tree  the  hemlock  is  not  excelled  in 
beauty  by  any  native  or  exotic  conifer.  As 
single  specimens,  in  a  screen,  or  in  a  hedge,  it 
is  unequalled.  For  an  ornamental  hedge  it 
has  the  advantage  over  deciduous  plants,  as  it 
retains  its  beauty  at  all  seasons ;  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  bears  cutting  is  a  sufficient 
refutation  of  the  common  but  erroneous  belief 
that  plants  which  naturally  grow  to  large  trees 
are  unfit  for  hedges.  The  hemlock  may  be 
raised  from  seeds,  but  nurserymen  get  their 
supplies  from  the  forest;  young  seedlings  a 
foot  high  are  taken  up  and  planted  closely  to- 
gether under  a  temporary  screen  of  brush  to 
shade  them;  those  which  survive  the  first 
summer  are  then  planted  in  nursery  rows,  and 
afterward  may  be  removed  with  safety.  Hem- 
lock gum,  incorrectly  so  called,  is  a  resinous 
exudation  of  the  hemlock  spruce.  The  tree 
while  growing  contains  but  little  resinous 
juice ;  but  when  it  begins  to  decay,  resinous 
exudations  in  the  form  of  nodules,  from  the  size 
of  a  walnut  to  nearly  that  of  a  hen's  egg,  are 
found  upon  the  surface.  The  bark  and  chips 
to  which  these  nodules  adhere  are  boiled  in 
water  and  the  melted  resin  dipped  off.  It  has 
a  limited  use  in  the  preparation  of  stimulating 
plasters.  In  some  localities  this  resin  is  largely 
used  by  the  young  for  chewing,  and  was  former- 
ly sold  for  this  purpose ;  but  at  present  the  most 
approved  "chewing  gum"  is  made  from  pa- 
raffin e.  The  young  shoots  and  leaves  afford  a 
volatile  oil  by  distillation,  which  has  a  local 
reputation  as  a  rubefacient.  It  has  been  used 
to  produce  abortion,  with  fatal  results  to  the 
mother. — The  Indian  hemlock  spruce  (A.  Bru- 
noniana),  from  Xepaul,  A.  tsuga,  from  Japan,  J 
A.  Ifertentiana,  A.  Hoolceriana,  and  A.  ATJber-  \ 
tiana,  from  the  X.  W.  coast,  are  species  of 
hemlock  spruce  to  be  found  in  collections  of 
rare  evergreens. 


HEMP 


C31 


HEJIP,  the  common  name  of  the  plant  eanna- 
bis  satita,  of  the  order  canndbinece,  which  is 
by  some  botanists  included  in  the  nettle  family 
(urtwaceae)  as  a  suborder.  The  same  name  is 
applied  to  the  fibre  of  the  inner  bark,  which 
is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage. 
It  is  also  used  for  the  fibres  of  plants  of  widely 
different  genera ;  for  the  most  important  of 
these,  see  MAXILA,  JUTE,  and  RAMIE.  The  true 
hemp  is  an  annual  plant,  probably  a  native  of 
India,  which  has  been  in  cultivation  from  very 
early  tunes ;  it  grows  from  4  to  12  ft.  high,  with 
a  branching,  angular,  rough  stem ;  the  lower 
leaves  are  opposite,  the  upper  alternate,  and 
all  digitately  divided,  with  five  or  more  coarse- 
ly toothed  leaflets ;  the  flowers  are  dioecious, 
and  without  petals;  the  staminate  flowers  in 
drooping  panicles,  each  with  five  sepals  and 
stamens,  the  pistillate  clustered  in  erect  spikes, 
each  consisting  of  an  ovary  with  two  styles  em- 
braced by  a  calyx  of  one  sepal.  Hemp  is  a 
plant  influenced  in  a  remarkable  degree  by 


Stamina**  and  Ptstflbte  Flowers  of  Hemp. 

climate,  soil,  and  other  conditions;  in  India 
it  produces  a  resinous  exudation  of  a  marked 
character  (to  be  presently  mentioned),  which 
is  entirely  wanting  in  the  plant  grown  in  north- 
ern climates,  and  there  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  hemp  produced  upon  the  plains  and  the 
mountainous  regions  in  the  same  latitude; 
when  the  plant  is  so  grown  that  seeds  may  be 
developed,  the  fibre  is  nearly  worthless.  In 
many  countries  hemp  is  an  important  agricul- 
tural product.  The  principal  hemp-producing 
countries  are  Russia,  Italy,  Holland,  Turkey, 
Great  Britain,  the  East  Indies,  and  the  United 
States.  St.  Petersburg  exports  this  product 
largely,  receiving  it  from  various  parts  of  Rus- 
sia. Special  attention  is  given  to  its  storage 
and  shipment,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  bundles  from  becoming  damp,  in  which 
'  condition  the  hemp  would  be  liable  to  ferment 
as  in  the  rotting  process.  The  best  Russian 
hemp  is  said  to  be  that  of  Riga,  which  is  brought 


632 


HEMP 


down  the  Duna.  That  known  as  "  Italian  gar- 
den hemp,"  the  fibre  of  which  is  obtained  from 
plants  raised  by  spade  culture,  is  of  unusual 
fineness  and  length,  and  superior  to  all  other 
kinds.  English  hemp  is  chiefly  woven  into 
coarse  sheeting  and  shirting  for  laboring  men, 
and  into  the  cloth  called  huckaback,  of  which 
coarse  towels  and  table  cloths  are  made.  The 
material  improves  in  whiteness  as  it  is  worn, 
and  the  finer  varieties  of  it  much  resemble 
Irish  linens. — Attempts  were  made  at  a  very 
early  period  to  cultivate  both  flax  and  hemp 
in  the  Plymouth  colony,  the  seeds  being  or- 
dered there  in  1629.  In  Virginia  hemp  was 
raised  and  spun  by  Capt.  Matthews  previous 
to  1648.  In  1651  its  culture  was  encouraged 
by  bounties  offered  by  the  government,  as  was 
that  of  flax  in  1657.  But  the  greater  profit 
derived  from  tobacco  has  always  operated 
against  the  culture  of  hemp.  In  Pennsylvania 
also  the  bounties  offered  by  the  government 
of  the  colony  in  1730  failed  to  render  this  an 
important  crop.  Its  culture  has  proved  most 
successful  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Indiana,  and 
more  recently  in  Missouri.  It  has  also  pros- 
pered to  considerable  extent  in  the  other  north- 
ern, and  in  the  northeastern  states.  In  the 
northern  part  of  New  York  the  crop  is  valued 
chiefly  for  the  seed,  of  which  from  20  to  more 
than  40  bushels  are  obtained  to  the  acre.  But 
little  American  hemp  has  ever  been  exported. 
The  product  to  the  acre  is  from  700  to  1, 000 
Ibs.  According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the 
total  production  of  the  United  States  was  12,- 
746  tons,  of  which  Kentucky  produced  7,777, 
Missouri  2,816,  and  Tennessee  1,033  tons.— 
The  soil  best  suited  to  hemp  is  a  rich  alluvial 
loam,  but  it  will  thrive  in  a  moderately  tena- 
cious one  if  it  is  well  pulverized.  It  is  usually 
sown  broadcast  as  early  as  possible  without 
the  risk  of  exposing  the  young  plants  to  late 
frosts  ;  four  to  six  pecks  are  sown  to  the  acre, 
but  if  sown  in  drills  less  is  required.  As  the 
plants  soon  completely  shade  the  ground,  no 
after  cultivation  is  required.  It  is  custom- 
ary to  sow  at  intervals,  that  the  harvesting 
may  not  all  come  at  once.  The  crop  is  ready 
to  harvest  when  the  blossoms  turn  yellow  and 
the  leaves  begin  to  drop  ;  formerly  the  plants 
were  pulled,  but  now  they  are  cut  by  means 
of  a  heavy  cradle,  or  where  they  are  tall  and 
heavy  by  means  of  a  sickle  or  hook  something 
like  a  brush  scythe.  The  stalks  are  made 
to  fall  evenly,  and  at  the  end  of  three  days 
they  are  bound  into  sheaves  and  put  up  in 
stacks  or  large  ricks,  so  capped  as  to  prevent 
rain  from  penetrating.  To  separate  the  fibre, 
the  hemp  is  dew-rotted  or  water-rotted.  In 
the  former  process  the  hemp  is  spread  upon  the 
ground  in  October  or  a  month  or  two  later, 
according  to  the  climate  ;  when  the  lint  readily 
separates  upon  breaking  a  stalk,  the  process, 
which  requires  about  two  months,  is  completed ; 
if  hemp  were  exposed  in  this  manner  in  warm- 
er weather,  there  would  be  danger  of  injuring 
the  fibre.  In  water-rotting  the  hemp  is  im- 


mersed in  water  for  ten  days  or  more,  accord- 
ing to  the  season ;  this  is  done  in  streams,  in 
artificial  pools  made  near  the  margin  of  a  river, 
or  in  large  wooden  vats  under  cover  ;  the  last 
mentioned  method  gives  the  brightest  and  best 
fibre ;  when  rotted  in  vats,  the  hemp  is  sub- 
jected to  a  partial  breaking  which  lessens  its 
bulk.  After  the  hemp  is  rotted  and  dried  it 
is  taken  to  the  break,  which  is  either  a  rude 
affair  worked  by  hand  like  a  flax  break,  or  an 
improved  machine  operated  by  steam  or  other 
power;  100  Ibs.  is  an  ordinary  day's  work 
with  the  hand  break.  After  breaking,  the 
hemp  is  twisted  into  bundles  and  baled  for 
market. — When  hemp  is  raised  for  the  seed, 
the  cultivation  is  quite  different  from  that  when 
raised  for  the  fibre.  A  richer  soil  is  selected, 
and  prepared  as  for  a  crop  of  corn  ;  hills  are 
marked  off  about  3£  ft.  apart  each  way,  and 
a  dozen  or  more  seeds  put  in  each  and  lightly 
covered;  the  ground  is  from  the  beginning 
kept  clear  of  weeds  by  use  of  the  cultivator 
and  hoes ;  when  well  up  the  plants  are  thinned 
to  seven  or  eight  in  each  hill,  and  when  a  foot 
or  more  high  they  are  again  thinned  to  leave 
but  four  to  a  hill ;  subsequently  the  plants  in 
the  hill  are  reduced  to  three.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  have  sufficiently  developed  to  allow  the 
male  or  staminate  ones  to  be  distinguished, 
these  are  so  far  removed  as  to  leave  but  one 
to  every  four  hills,  and  after  these  have  shed 
their  pollen  they  are  cut  away.  When  ripe 
the  seeds  are  threshed  out,  and  if  intended  for 
sowing  are  kept  spread  in  a  thin  layer  until 
cold  weather  to  prevent  them  from  heating, 
which  on  account  of  their  oily  nature  they  are 
apt  to  do.  The  Russians  and  Poles  roast  the 
seeds  and  eat  them  upon  bread  as  a  condiment ; 
they  are  used  as  food  for  cage  birds,  and  are 
said  to  greatly  improve  the  brilliancy  of  their 
plumage,  and  in  the  case  of  the  bullfinch  and 
some  others  to  cause  it  to  turn  black.  Hemp 
seeds  upon  expression  furnish  about  25  per 
cent,  of  hempseed  oil,  the  commercial  supply 
of  which  comes  principally  from  Russia ;  it  is 
a  drying  oil,  greenish  yellow  at  first,  turning 
yellow,  with  an  acrid  odor  but  a  mild  taste ;  it 
is  very  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  but  requires 
30  parts  of  cold  alcohol  for  its  solution ;  it  so- 
lidifies at  17°  F.  It  is  used  in  preparing  soap, 
in  mixing  paint,  for  making  varnish,  and  for 
burning,  but  on  account  of  its  drying  tendency 
it  is  apt  to  form  a  viscid  varnish  upon  the  wick. 
— INDIAN  HEMP.  The  hemp  produced  in  India 
and  other  eastern  countries  is  covered  with  an 
adhesive  resinous  exudation,  which  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances  is  so  abundant  as  to  come 
off  and  adhere  to  the  hands  if  the  plant  be  han- 
dled. For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that 
this  was  a  different  species  from  the  common 
hemp,  and  the  name  canndbis  Indica  was  given 
to  it;  but  Royle  and  other  eastern  botanists 
were  unable  to  find  any  difference  between  it 
and  the  European  plant ;  and  from  this  and 
the  fact  that  hemp  grown  in  some  portions 
of  India  is  almost  without  this  resin,  botanists 


HEMP 


633 


now  regard  the  Indian  hemp  as  only  a  form 
of  the  common,  though  as  a  matter  of  conve- 
nience the  term  C.  Indica  is  retained  in  the  phar- 
macopoeias. The  stimulant  and  narcotic  prop- 
erties of  Indian  hemp  have  heen  known  from 
early  times ;  it  is  known  in  India  by  various 
names  expressive  of  these  qualities,  such  as 
"  causer  of  the  reeling  gait,"  "laughter  mover," 
&c. ;  and  Eoyle  ("  Materia  Medica  ")  suggests 
that  it  is  as  likely  as  any  other  plant  to  have 
been  the  nepenthe,  the  "  assuager  of  grief,"  of 
the  ancients.  The  plant  and  its  preparations 
are  found  in  the  eastern  bazaars  in  several 
forms,  some  of  which  are  imported.  Gunjah 
is  the  dried  plant,  collected  after  flowering,  and 
consists  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  petioles  press- 
ed together ;  it  is  also  called  guazah.  Bang, 
also  suljee  or  sidhee,  consists  of  the  larger 
BS  and  seed  vessels  without  the  stalks. 
Hashish  is  the  tops  and  the  tender  parts  of  the 
plant  gathered  after  flowering;  this  name  is 
also  applied  to  some  preparations  of  the  plant. 
Churrus  is  the  resinous  exudation  collected  by 
men  clad  in  leather,  who  go  through  the  fields 
and  beat  the  hemp  violently ;  the  resinous  mat- 
ter adheres  to  the  leather,  and  is  afterward 
scraped  off.  A  finer  kind,  collected  by  press- 
ing the  plant  in  the  hands  and  removing  the 
adhering  resin,  is  known  as  the  Momeea  or 
waxen  churrus ;  this  is  the  most  highly  prized 
and  costly  variety.  Extract  of  hemp  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  the  adhesive  tops  in  alcohol, 
which  is  afterward  distilled  off,  leaving  a  resin- 
ous extract  which  has  a  somewhat  fragrant 
odor,  and  a  warm,  bitterish,  acrid  taste ;  this 
extract  is  imported,  as  also  is  gunjah.  An  elec- 
tuary, made  of  the  resin  with  musk,  essence  of 
roses,  and  other  aromatics,  and  an  oleaginous 
extract  made  with  butter  or  oil,  are  among  the 
forms  in  which  different  eastern  nations  pre- 
pare the  hemp  for  intoxicating  purposes.  The 
effect  of  Indian  hemp  upon  different  persons  is 
as  various  as  that  of  alcohol ;  with  some  it  sim- 
ply produces  stupor,  while  others  experience  a 
mental  ecstasy  and  see  the  most  pleasurable 
visions.  The  habitual  use  of  the  drug  is  accom- 
>anied  by  both  physical  and  mental  imbecility. 
?he  effects  of  hashish  have  been  frequently  de- 
jribed  by  those  who  have  experienced  them. 
(See  ASSASSINS.)  Indian  hemp  has  long  been 
used  medicinally ;  a  Chinese  surgeon  is  said  to 
have  employed  it  as  an  anesthetic  as  long  ago 
A.  D.  220,  and  to  have  operated  upon  pa- 
tients while  they  were  under  its  influence.  It 
is  employed  as  an  anodyne  and  narcotic,  and 
to  affect  the  mental  functions ;  it  is  considered 
safer  than  opium,  belladonna,  and  similar  rem- 
edies, and  it  does  not  check  the  secretions,  or 
impair  the  digestion;  its  action  seems  to  be 
exerted  chiefly  upon  the  cerebrum,  producing 
but  little  effect  upon  the  functions  even  of  the 
other  portions  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is 
given  in  the  form  of  the  extract,  in  doses  of  a 
quarter  of  a  grain  to  several  grains,  or  in  tinc- 
ture from  10  to  15  drops. — This  name  is  also 
applied  to  an  American  fibrous  and  medicinal 


plant,  apocynum  cannabinum.  (See  INDIAN 
HEMP.)— SISAL  HEMP  is  the  fibre  of  the  leaves 
of  agave  Sisalana,  a  large  species  of  Yucatan, 
closely  related  to  the  American  aloe  or  cen- 
tury plant.  (See  AGAVE.)  Under  the  name 
of  Sisal  hemp  or  jenequen  are  included  the 
fibres  of  probably  several  species  of  agave 
and  one  or  more  of  Fourcroya,  the  name  re- 
ferring to  the  product  rather  than  the  plants 
which  yield  it.  An  attempt  to  give  the  native 
names  of  several  of  the  fibre-producing  plants 
of  Yucatan  may  be  found  in  the  report  of  the 
United  States  department  of  agriculture  for 
1869,  but  it  gives  little  botanical  light  upon 
the  subject.  Fibres  of  different  agaves  and 
related  plants  were  in  use  by  the  Indians  long 
before  the  Spaniards  planted  colonies  on  this 
continent,  and  the  Spanish  Americans  have 
since  been  content  with  the  rude  methods  by 
which  the  aborigines  extracted  the  fibre,  which 
was  simply  to  lay  the  large  fleshy  leaves  upon  a 
flat  stone  and  beat  them  with  a  billet  of  wood 
or  rude  mallet,  and  afterward  to  scrape  away  the 

a  and  bruised  thick  epidermis  with  a  blunt 
3.  After  numerous  failures,  Americans 
have  contrived  machines  to  separate  the  fibre 
successfully  and  rapidly.  A.  Sisalana,  which 
is  propagated  readily  from  suckers,  has  been 
introduced  into  Florida,  and  become  natural- 
ized in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state.  Si- 
sal hemp  is  used  for  coarse  bagging  and  for 
cordage. — Pita  is  another  name  applied  indefi- 
nitely to  fibres ;  in  Mexico  it  is  the  fibre  of 
agave  Americana,  while  in  Central  America  it 
is  that  of  some  Bromelia.  Istle  or  ixtle  is 
another  term  for  the  bromelia  fibre. — SUNN 
HEMP,  also  called  Bengal  and  Bombay  hemp, 


Sunn  Hemp  (Crotalaria  juncea). 

is  the  fibre  of  crotalaria  juncea,  an  annual  legu- 
minous plant,  8  to  12  ft.  high,  with  silvery- 
hairy  leaves  and  bright  yellow  flowers.  The 
fibre  is  extracted  by  beating  and  washing  the 
stems  after  they  have  been  steeped  in  water 
for  a  few  days.  It  is  employed  for  all  the  pur- 


C34 


HEMPEL 


HENBANE 


poses  of  ordinary  hemp,  to  which  it  is  consid- 
ered equal  if  not  superior. 

HEMPEL,  Charles  Jnlhis,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Solingen,  Prussia,  Sept.  5,  1811. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  in  1835  em- 
igrated to  the  United  States,  where  he  has 
since  resided.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
of  New  York,  and  practised  medicine  in  that 
city  according  to  the  system  of  Hahnemann. 
In  1857  he  was  appointed  professor  of  materia 
medica  and  therapeutics  in  the  homoeopathic 
medical  college  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadel- 
phia. He  has  published  "  A  Grammar  of  the 
German  Language  "  (1842);  "  True  Organiza- 
tion of  the  New  Church  "  (1848) ;  and  trans- 
lations of  Hahnemann's  Materia  Medica  Pura 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1846),  of  Jahr  and  Possart's  "New 
Manual  of  the  Homoeopathic  Materia  Medica  " 
(1849),  and  of  Jahr's  "  New  Manual "  (2  vols.), 
to  which  a  third  volume  was  added  by  Dr. 
Hempel  as  a  separate  work,  under  the  title  of 
"Complete  Repertory  of  Homoeopathic  Mate- 
ria Medica"  (1853).  He  has  also  published 
"•  A  Comprehensive  System  of  Homoeopathic 
Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics"  (1859), 
"  Homoeopathic  Theory  and  Practice,  with  the 
Homoeopathic  Treatment  of  Surgical  Diseases," 
with  Dr.  I.  Beakley  (1865),  and  "  The  Science 
of  Homoeopathy  "  (1874). 

HEMPSTEAD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Little  Missouri,  and  S. 
W.  by  Red  and  Little  rivers ;  area,  about  1,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,768,  of  whom  6,329 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly,  the  soil 
sandy  and  fertile.  Red  river  is  navigable  by 
steamboats.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  1,608  bushels  of  wheat,  683,425  of  Indian 
corn,  40,541  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  10,664  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,706  horses,  1,354 
mules  and  asses,  9,399  cattle,  1,986  sheep,  and 
23,393  swine.  Capital,  Washington. 

HEMSKERK,  or  Heemskerk,  Martin  van,  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  the  village  of  Heemskerk  in 
1498,  died  in  Haarlem,  Oct.  1,  1574.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  mason  named  Van  Veen,  who 
placed  him  under  the  instructions  of  a  painter 
at  Haarlem,  but  afterward  employed  him  in  his 
own  trade.  Martin  ran  away,  found  a  teacher 
in  Jan  Lucas,  a  painter  of  Delft,  and  then  enter- 
ed the  studio  of  J.  Schorel,  who  had  recently 
returned  from  Rome.  At  this  time  Hemskerk 
painted  his  "  Saint  Luke  painting  the  Virgin 
and  the  Child  Jesus,"  which  he  presented  to 
the  painters'  society  of  Haarlem.  He  afterward 
spent  three  years  in  Italy.  When  in  1573 
Haarlem  was  surrendered  to  the  Spaniards, 
Hemskerk's  house  was  destroyed,  and  his  best 
works  were  ruined  ;  consequently  his  paintings 
are  rare,  but  there  are  many  engravings  of 
them  by  himself  and  others.  At  his  death  he 
left  a  sum  of  money  to  his  parish,  to  furnish  a 
marriage  portion  for  a  certain  number  of  young 
girls  each  year,  on  condition  of  their  dancing 
over  his  grave  on  their  wedding  day. 

HEMSTERHIIYS.  I.  Tiberias,  a  Dutch  critic  and 
philologist,  born  in  Groningen,  Jan.  9,  1685, 


died  in  Leyden,  April  7, 1766.  He  entered  the 
university  of  Groningen  at  the  age  of  14.  At 
19  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics 
and  philosophy  at  Amsterdam,  where  in  1706 
he  published  his  edition  of  the  Onomasticon  of 
Pollux.  In  1720  he  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Franeker,  and  in  1740  of  Greek  history  at 
Leyden.  His  works  include  editions  of  Lu- 
cian's  "Dialogues"  and  "Timon"  (1708),  and 
of  the  "Plutus"  of  Aristophanes  (1744),  and 
"Notes  and  Emendations  on  Xenophon  of 
Ephesus  "  (1784).  II.  Frans,  a  philosopher,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Groningen  in  1722, 
died  at  the  Hague  in  1790.  He  was  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  Provinces  as  first  assistant 
to  the  secretary  of  state.  He  was  a  laborious 
student,  and  spent  his  leisure  hours  in  cultiva- 
ting belles-lettres  and  philosophy.  His  com- 
plete philosophical  works  were  published  at 
Paris  in  1792. 

HEN.     See  COOK. 

HENBANE  (hyoscyamw,  Tournefort),  a  some- 
what rare  but  highly  dangerous  weed,  belong- 
ing to  the  nightshades  (solanacece),  seen  in 


Henbane  (Hyoscyamus  niger). 

waste  places  and  on  rubbish  heaps,  and  on  the 
sites  of  old  houses ;  remarkable  for  the  singu- 
lar beauty  of  its  flowers,  as  well  as  for  its  fetid, 
viscid  stems,  and  clasping,  sinuate-toothed,  and 
angled  leaves.  There  are  many  species  of  hen- 
bane, but  the  one  most  common  in  the  United 
States  is  an  adventitious  weed  from  Europe,  H. 
niger.  Its  seeds  are  small,  flat,  kidney-shaped, 
resembling  beans,  and  suggesting  the  classic 
name  of  hyoscyamus,  i.  e.,  swine  beans,  being, 
it  is  said,  eaten  with  impunity  by  the  hog, 
though  avoided  by  other  creatures. — Hyoscy- 
amus is  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  a  tinc- 
ture, extract,  and  fluid  extract.  Its  action  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  belladonna  and  stramo- 
nium, at  first  diminishing  and  then  increasing 
the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  and  producing  dry- 


HENDERSON 

of  the  throat,  headache,  delirium,  and  di- 
lated pupils.  The  tendency  of  large  doses  to 
produce  coma,  and  of  small  ones  to  cause  sleep, 
seems,  however,  somewhat  greater  than  with 
belladonna,  though  by  no  means  equalling 
opium  in  this  respect.  It  is  used,  though  not 
very  extensively,  in  certain  nervous  affections, 
as  in  some  forms  of  neuralgia  and  insomnia, 
and  occasionally  to  diminish  the  irritability  that 
leads  to  cough.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  suc- 
cedaneum  of  opium,  though  far  inferior  in  pow- 
er to  that  drug,  and  having  less  action  upon 
the  secretions.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  place 
of  belladonna  for  dilating  the  pupil.  Its  activ- 
ity is  due  to  an  alkaloid,  hyoscyamia,  which  is 
white  and  crystalline,  and  forms  crystallizable 
salts  with  the  acids.  The  dose  of  the  tincture 

a  fluid  drachm  or  less ;  of  the  solid  extract, 
two  or  three  grains;  of  the  fluid  extract,  five 
to  ten  drops. 

HENDERSON,  the  name  of  five  counties  in 
the  United  States.  1.  A  S.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  South  Carolina,  bounded 
S.  by  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  drained  by  French 
Broad  river;  area,  425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,706,  of  whom  1,208  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  hilly,  and  the  soil  adapted  chiefly  to 
grazing.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
4,348  bushels  of  wheat,  22,298  of  rye,  212,914 
of  Indian  corn,  21,101  of  oats,  14,960  of  pota- 
toes, 22,886  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  14,434  of  wool, 
82,916  of  butter,  and  417  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  825  horses,  2,249  milch  cows,  4,347  other 
cattle,  6,235  sheep,  and  9,817  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Hendersonville.  II.  A  N.  E.  county  of 
Texas,  bounded  E.  by  the  Neches  and  S.  W. 
by  Trinity  river  ;  area,  934  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,786,  of  whom  1,654  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile  and 
well  watered.  There  is  some  timber,  but 
the  greater  portion  of  the  county  is  prairie. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  156,804 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  23,075  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  2,967  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
1,538  horses,  5,109  milch  cows,  11,828  other 
cattle,  1,345  sheep,  and  15,980  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Athens.  III.  A  W.  county  of  Tennessee, 
drained  by  Beech  and  Big  Sandy  rivers,  and 
other  streams;  area,  780  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,217,  of  whom  2,408  were  colored.  It  has  a 
nearly  level  surface,  is  well  timbered,  and  has 
a  fertile  soil,  suitable  for  grain,  grass,  and  the 
vine.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  touches 
the  S.  W.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  41,274  bushels  of  wheat,  547,805  of 
Indian  corn,  30,736  of  sweet  potatoes,  15,134 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  15,923  of  wool,  142,847  of  but- 
ter, and  4,191  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
2,816  horses,  1,679  mules  and  asses,  3,649  milch 
cows,  1,308  working  oxen,  5,318  other  cattle, 
10,168  sheep,  and  32,559  swine.  Capital,  Lex- 
ington. IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Kentucky, 
separated  from  Indiana  on  the  N.  by  the  Ohio 
river,  and  drained  also  by  Green  river ;  area, 
725  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,457,  of  whom 
5,990  were  colored.  It  abounds  in  coal,  has  a 


HENDRICKS 


635 


hilly  surface,  and  is  fertile  in  grain  and  tobac- 
co. The  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad 
runs  through  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  47,586  bushels  of  wheat, 
739,652  of  Indian  corn,  6,600,506  Ibs.  of  to- 
bacco, 19,985  of  wool,  and  84,174  of  butter. 
There  were  2,867  horses,  1,656  mules  and 
asses,  2,664  milch  cows,  4,355  other  cattle, 
7,681  sheep,  and  19,652  swine.  Capital,  Hen- 
derson. V.  A  W.  county  of  Illinois,  bordering 
on  Iowa,  bounded  W.  by  the  Mississippi,  and 
drained  by  Henderson  river  and  other  streams ; 
area,  390  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,575.  It  has 
a  diversified  surface,  occupied  by  fertile  prairies 
and  tracts  of  timber.  Coal  and  limestone  are 
found.  The  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
railroad  and  Carthage  branch,  and  the  Rock- 
ford,  Rock  Island,  and  St.  Louis  railroad  trav- 
erse the  county.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  230,174  bushels  of  wheat,  96,430  of 
rye,  1,712,901  of  Indian  corn,  229,286  of  oats, 
59,711  of  potatoes,  23,317  Ibs.  of  wool,  267,268 
of  butter,  and  12,326  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,075  horses,  4,485  milch  cows,  8,797  other  cat- 
tle, 6,146  sheep,  and  27,762  swine;  10  manu- 
factories of  carriages,  6  of  saddlery  and  har- 
ness, 1  of  woollen  goods,  3  distilleries,  6  flour 
mills,  and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Oquawka. 

HENDERSON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Hen- 
derson co.,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  river,  about 
200  m.  below  Louisville,  and  150  m.  W.  of 
Frankfort;  pop.  in  1870,  4,171,  of  whom  1,489 
were  colored.  It  is  situated  in  a  well  timbered 
region,  productive  of  grain  and  tobacco,  and 
abounding  in  coal  and  salt.  Steamers  run  reg- 
ularly to  Louisville,  Memphis,  and  other  points, 
and  the  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad 
furnishes  communication  with  St.  Louis  and 
Nashville.  Large  quantities  of  tobacco,  corn, 
and  wheat  are  shipped,  and  there  are  16  to- 
bacco stemmeries,  a  cigar  factory,  four  manu- 
factories of  wagons,  two  of  carriages,  two  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  a  foundery,  car  works, 
a  brewery,  two  distilleries,  and  three  flour 
mills.  The  city  has  handsome  fair  grounds, 
water  works,  six  hotels,  a  fine  station  house, 
court  house  and  jail,  two  public  school  houses, 
three  weekly  newspapers,  and  11  churches. 

HENDRICKS,  a  central  county  of  Indiana, 
drained  by  White  and  Eel  rivers ;  area,  389  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,277.  It  has  a  level  and 
well  timbered  surface,  and  a  fertile  soil.  The 
Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis  and  the  Indianapo- 
lis, Bloomington,  and  Western  railroads  trav- 
erse it,  and  the  Indianapolis  and  Vincennes 
line  touches  the  S.  E.  corner.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  376,992  bushels  of 
wheat,  975,825  of  Indian  corn,  53,501  of  oats, 
47,620  of  potatoes,  70,233  Ibs.  of  wool,  218,526 
of  butter,  and  12,180  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,500  horses,  1,176  mules  and  asses,  5,492 
milch  cows,  13,946  other  cattle,  21,460  sheep, 
and  30,380  swine;  16  manufactories  of  car- 
riages, 11  of  bricks,  5  of  cooperage,  10  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  3  of  woollen  goods,  13  flour 
mills,  and  15  saw  mills.  Capital,  Danville. 


636 


HENDRICKS 


HENGSTENBERG 


HENDRICKS,  Thomas  Andrews,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Muskingum  co.,  Ohio, 
Sept.  7,  1819.  In  1822  his  father  settled  in 
Shelby  co.,  Indiana.  Thomas  graduated  at 
South  Hanover  college  in  1841,  studied  law  at 
Chambersburg,  Pa.,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
there  in  1843,  and  returned  to  Indiana  to  prac- 
tise. In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  in  1850  a  delegate  to  the  state  con- 
stitutional convention.  From  1851  to  1855  he 
represented  the  Indianapolis  district  in  con- 
gress, from  1855  to  1859  was  commissioner  of 
the  general  land  office,  and  from  1863  to  1869 
was  a  member  of  the  United  States  senate,  in 
which  he  was  regarded  as  the  democratic 
leader.  In  the  democratic  national  conven- 
tion of  1868  in  New  York,  he  was  strongly 
supported  for  the  nomination  to  the  presi- 
dency. As  candidate  for  governor  of  Indiana 
he  was  defeated  in  1860  and  in  1868,  but  was 
elected  in  1872  for  the  term  ending  Jan.  1, 
1877.  He  continued  the  practice  of  law  till 
his  election  as  governor. 

HENGIST,  a  Jutish  prince,  founder  of  the 
kingdom  of  Kent,  who  is  said  to  have  died  about 
488,  but  whose  very  existence  is  doubted  by  re- 
cent historians.  He  was  a  reputed  descendant 
of  Woden  or  Odin,  and  in  company  with  his 
brother  Horsa,  with  300  men  in  three  vessels, 
landed  in  449  on  the  British  coast  at  Ebbsfleet, 
near  Richborough,  in  the  isle  of  Thanet.  Find- 
ing the  British  chieftains  in  need  of  assistance 
against  the  Picts  and  Scots,  the  Saxons  agreed 
to  assist  in  repelling  the  northern  invaders, 
and,  having  been  reenforced  by  1,300  of  their 
countrymen,  they  defeated  them  with  such 
slaughter  as  effectually  put  a  stop  to  their  in- 
cursions. Hengist  and  his  brother,  perceiving 
the  feebleness  of  their  employers,  forthwith 
sent  envoys  to  their  native  country,  who  re- 
turned shortly  with  an  army  of  5,000  men. 
They  brought  with  them  also  Rowena,  the 
daughter  of  Hengist,  who  acted  as  cup-bearer 
at  a  feast  given  by  her  father  to  Vortigern, 
the  principal  British  king.  Vortigern  became 
enamored  of  the  Saxon  beauty,  and  demanded 
her  in  marriage,  to  which  Hengist  consented. 
The  Britons,  alarmed  at  these  proceedings, 
intimated  to  their  auxiliaries  that  the  time  was 
now  arrived  for  their  departure.  But  Hengist 
and  Horsa  allied  themselves  with  the  northern 
tribes  whom  they  had  lately  repelled,  and 
made  war  upon  the  Britons,  spreading  havoc 
and  desolation,  according  to  the  Venerable 
Bede,  from  the  "  East  sea  to  the  West."  The 
Britons  formed  a  more  vigorous  system  of  de- 
fence, and,  having  deposed  Vortigern,  marched 
under  the  leadership  of  his  son  Vortimer. 
Hengist  and  Horsa  were  defeated  in  three  bat- 
tles, Horsa  was  slain  in  action  at  Eaglesford, 
now  Aylesford  (455),  and  Hengist  then  with- 
drew to  his  native  country.  On  the  death  of 
Vortimer,  Hengist  returned  with  his  forces 
much  augmented.  He  is  represented  as  soli- 
citing a  treaty  of  peace  with  Vortigern,  who 
had  been  restored  to  power  among  the  Britons. 


The  latter,  trusting  in  the  honor  of  the  Saxon, 
invited  his  people  to  a  great  feast  at  Stone- 
henge,  where,  at  a  signal  from  Hengist,  a  fear- 
ful massacre  took  place.  The  life  of  Vortigern 
was  spared ;  but  the  result  was  the  speedy  con- 
quest of  the  whole  southern  country.  Mean- 
while Ambrosius,  a  Briton  of  Roman  descent, 
endeavored  to  reunite  his  countrymen.  Hen- 
gist  received  large  reinforcements,  under  the 
command  of  his  brother  Octa,  and  of  Ebissa 
the  son  of  Octa,  who  occupied  Northumberland. 
He  remained  himself  in  the  south,  completing 
his  conquests  in  a  great  battle  at  Cray  ford, 
in  457.  The  Britons  fled  in  terror  to  London, 
having  lost  the  flower  of  their  warriors,  and 
abandoned  Kent.  The  kingdom  which  bore 
this  name  under  Hengist  is  said  to  have  con- 
sisted of  the  county  so  called,  Middlesex,  Es- 
sex, Sussex,  and  part  of  Surrey,  though  Sharon 
Turner  restricts  it  to  Kent  proper.  The  victor 
established  his  court  at  Canterbury,  and  reigned 
about  30  years.  The  Britons  meanwhile  had 
made  several  desperate  exertions  to  expel  him. 
Their  last  effort  (473)  was  conclusive  of  their 
destinies,  as,  suffering  a  more  signal  defeat  than 
ever,  they  are  declared  to  have  fled  from  the 
Saxons  as  from  fire.  The  romantic  character 
of  the  British  tradition  of  Hengist  and  Horsa 
has  been  established  by  modern  historians ; 
and  Lappenberg  shows  that  the  Anglo-Saxon 
stories  on  the  subject  are  purely  mythical. 

HENGSTENBERG,  Ernst  Wilhelm,  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Frondenberg,  Westphalia, 
Oct.  20,  1802,  died  in  Berlin,  May  28,  1869. 
He  studied  philology,  especially  the  oriental 
languages,  at  Bonn.  In  1823  he  went  as  a 
private  tutor  to  Basel,  in  1824  became  Privat- 
docent  of  theology  at  the  university  of  Berlin, 
in  1826  extraordinary  professor,  and  in  1828 
ordinary  professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis. 
He  soon  acquired  a  commanding  influence  in 
the  church  by  the  publication  of  the  Evange- 
lische  Kirchenzeitung  (1827),  which  was  start- 
ed as  the  organ  of  the  evangelical  party  in 
the  church  and  the  conservative  aristocratic 
party  in  the  state.  Hengstenberg  soon  fell  out 
with  the  theologians  who  were  attached  more 
to  evangelical  Biblical  than  to  orthodox  Lu- 
theran principles,  and  his  journal  became  more 
and  more  the  organ  of  a  high-church  Lutheran 
party*  The  order  of  freemasons,  although 
the  prince  of  Prussia  was  known  to  be  one 
of  its  chief  patrons,  was  denounced  by  him 
as  infidel.  His  principal  works  are  devoted 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  and  to  the 
defence  of  its  genuineness,  integrity,  inspira- 
tion, and  divine  authority,  against  the  attacks 
of  modern  critical  and  skeptical  schools.  The 
most  celebrated  among  them  is  his  Christologie 
des  Alien  Testaments  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1829-'35 ; 
2d  ed.,  1854-7;  translated  by  Dr.  Reuben 
Keith,  3  vols.,  Alexandria,  1836-'9).  His  Com- 
mentar  uber  die  Psalmen  (4  vols.,  1842-'5  ;  2d 
ed.,  1849-'52;  translated  into  English)  is  re- 
garded as  a  masterpiece  of  orthodox  exegetical 
theology.  His  other  works  are :  Beitrage  zur 


HEN  HAWK 


Einleitung  ins  Alte  Testament  (3  vols.,  1831- 
'9) ;  Die  Bucher  Mosis  und  Aegypten  (1841 ; 
English  translation  by  R.  D.  0.  Bobbins,  An- 
dover,  1843) ;  Die  wichtigsten  und  schwierig- 
sten  Abschnitte  des  Pentateuchs  (1842);  Com- 
mentar  uber  die  Offenbarung  des  Jieiligen  Jo- 
hannes (2  vols.,  1850-'51 ;  2ded.,  1861-'3) ;  Das 
Etangelium  des  Jieiligen  Johannes  erlautert 
(1862-'3 ;  2d  ed.,  1867) ;  Das  Hohelied  Salo- 
monis  ausgelegt  (1853)  ;  Die  Weissagungen  des 
Propheten  Ezechiel  (2  vols.,  1867-'8);  Ge- 
schichte  des  JSeiches  Gottes  unter  dem  alten 
Bunde  (2  vols.,  1869-70) ;  and  Das  Buck  Hiob 
erlautert  (1870). 

HEN  HAWK.     See  HAEEIEB. 

HENLE,  Friedrich  Gnstav  Jakob,  or  Julins,  a 
German  physiologist,  born  in  Fiirth,  Bavaria, 
July  9,  1809.  He  studied  medicine  at  Heidel- 
berg and  at  Bonn,  receiving  his  degree  of  doc- 
tor in  the  latter  place  in  1832,  and  went  to  Ber- 
lin, where  he  was  appointed  assistant  at  the 
anatomical  museum.  In  1834  he  became  pro- 
sector to  the  medical  faculty  of  the  univer- 
sity, but  having  been  convicted  of  affiliating 
with  the  secret  societies  of  the  students  called 
the  Burschenschaften,  he  was  imprisoned,  and, 
though  soon  pardoned  and  released,  was  not 
able  till  1837  to  establish  himself  in  the  univer- 
sity as  a  private  tutor.  For  three  years  he  gave 
instructions  in  pathology  and  in  microscopic 
anatomy,  the  latter  a  branch  of  science  which 
he  was  the  first  to  develop ;  and  in  1840  he 
accepted  the  professorship  of  anatomy  and  later 
of  physiology  in  the  university  of  Zurich.  Pre- 
vious to  this  he  had  been  a  contributor  to  the 

Annual  Reports"  of  Oanstatt,  and  had  pub- 
lished Ueber  Schleim-  und  Eiterbildung  (Ber- 
lin, 1838) ;  VergleicTiende  Anatomie  des  Kehl- 
Jcopfes  (Leipsic,  1839),  describing  the  develop- 
ment of  the  larynx  in  animals,  from  man  down 
to  the  lowest  types  of  creation  ;  and  Patholo- 
gische  Unter suchung en  (Berlin,  1840),  a  series 
of  observations  on  the  nervous  system,  the  peri- 
odical nature  of  certain  maladies,  miasma,  &c. 
While  at  Zurich  he  aided  Pfeufer  in  establish- 
ing the  Journal  de  medecine  rationelle.  Be- 
tween 1844  and  1852  he  filled  the  chair  of  anat- 
omy, physiology,  pathology,  and  anthropology 
at  Heidelberg.  Within  this  period  appeared 
his  most  important  work,  Handbuch  der  ra- 
tionellen  Pathologie.  In  1852  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  director  of  the  anatomi- 
cal institute  at  Gottingen.  His  employment 
of  the  achromatic  microscope  for  anatomical 
purposes  opened  a  wide  and  interesting  field 
of  observation  to  scientific  men.  Among  his 
remaining  works  are  Handbuch  der  allgemeinen 
Anatomie  (Berlin,  1841),  and  Handbuch  der 
systematischen  Anatomie  des  Menschen  (3  vols., 
Brunswick,  1855-'64,  and  1868). 

HENLEY,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  better 
known  as  "  Orator  Henley,"  born  at  Melton 
Mowbray,  Aug.  3,  1692,  died  Oct.  4,  1756. 
He  entered  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  at 
the  age  of  17,  and  while  an  undergraduate  ad- 
dressed to  the  "  Spectator"  two  letters  which 


HENNA 


637 


were  published  in  numbers  396  and  518.  Hav- 
ing taken  orders,  he  was  made  assistant  curate 
of  the  parish  of  Melton.  Soon  afterward  he 
was  chosen  assistant  preacher  at  Ormond  street 
and  Bloomsbury  chapels,  London.  In  1723  he 
obtained  the  living  of  Chelmondiston,  Suffolk, 
with  the  privilege  of  non-residence;  but  re- 
ports having  been  spread  damaging  to  his  repu- 
tation, the  bishop  ordered  him  to  remove  to 
his  parish,  whereupon  he  resigned  the  living. 
He  now  rented  a  building  in  Newport  market, 
and  fitted  it  up  as  a  place  of  worship.  "  The 
Oratory,"  as  he  called  it,  was  opened  hi  1726, 
and  for  about  30  years  he  lectured  twice  a  week 
to  large  audiences,  mainly  of  the  lowest  classes 
of  the  people.  All  except  those  who  rented 
seats  were  charged  a  shilling  for  admittance. 
He  endeavored  to  found  a  new  sect  to  be  called 
Henleyarians,  and  drew  up  a  form  of  prayer 
under  the  title  of  the  "Primitive  Liturgy," 
discarding  the  Nicene  and  Athanasian  creeds. 
He  also  conceived  the  idea  of  connecting  with 
his  system  an  enlarged  course  of  liberal  educa- 
tion. For  some  time  he  edited  a  weekly  jour- 
nal of  nonsense  called  the  "  Hyp-Doctor,"  de- 
signed to  ridicule  the  arguments  of  the  "  Crafts- 
man," for  which  he  received  from  Sir  Kobert 
Walpole  £100  a  year.  When  this  gratuity  was 
withdrawn,  he  became  so  violent  an  opponent 
of  government  that  in  1746  some  adherents  of 
the  ministry  broke  up  one  of  his  Sunday  even- 
ing meetings  and  caused  him  to  be  arrested, 
but  he  was  soon  set  at  liberty.  He  used  to  put 
forth  the  most  preposterous  announcements. 
On  one  occasion  he  advertised  to  teach  shoe- 
makers a  short  way  of  making  shoes,  which 
was  by  cutting  off  the  tops  of  ready-made  boots. 
He  interlarded  his  orations  with  satire,  invec- 
tive, and  buffoonery,  and  accompanied  them 
with  all  the  extravagances  of  a  theatrical  de- 
livery. Pope  apostrophized  him  in  the  "  Dun- 
ciad."  Yet  Henley  was  a  man  of  learning  and 
a  diligent  student.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"  Esther,"  which  is  said  to  contain  fine  pas- 
sages; a  "Compleat  Linguist,  or  a  Universal 
Grammar  of  all  the  Considerable  Tongues  in 
Sweden;"  a  number  of  pamphlets,  various 
controversial  pieces,  and  the  "  Oratory  Trans- 
actions "  published  in  numbers. 

HENLOPEN,  €ape.     See  CAPE  HENLOPEN. 

HENNA,  the  East  Indian  name  for  a  shrub 
of  the  genus  Lawsonia  (Willdenow),  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  lythracece,  found  in  Asia 
and  Africa.  The  genus  consists  of  but  a  single 
species,  L.  alba,  which,  being  variable,  has  re- 
ceived other  names.  It  is  8  or  10  ft.  high,  and 
bears  abundantly  corymbose,  white,  and  very 
fragrant  flowers ;  the  leaves  are  ^  smooth,  op- 
posite, oval,  and  lanceolate.  It  is  cultivated 
in  India,  Egypt,  and  other  eastern  countries, 
where  it  has  been  in  use  as  a  cosmetic  from 
very  early  times,  the  yellow  color  on  the  nails 
of  some  of  the  Egyptian  mummies  being  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  henna.  It  is  used 
by  the  women  to  color  their  finger  and  toe 
nails,  the  tips  of  their  fingers,  the  palms  of  the 


638 


HENNEPIN 


hands,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet ;  the  men  use 
it  to  color  their  beards,  and  the  manes  and 
tails  of  their  horses.  It  produces  a  reddish- 
orange  color,  which  it  is  said  the  subsequent 
application  of  indigo  will  turn  to  black.  The 
leaves  and  young  twigs  are  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  made  into  a  paste  with  hot  water, 
and  spread  upon  the  part  to  be  dyed,  where  it 
is  usually  left  over  night.  The  shrub  is  grown 
in  greenhouses  as  the  Egyptian  privet,  and  is 
naturalized  in  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is 
called  Jamaica  mignonette. 

HEMEPIN,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Mississippi,  N.  W.  by  Crow 
river,  and  S.  by  the  Minnesota;  area,  about 
600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  81,666.  It  has  an 
undulating  surface,  covered  with  good  timber, 
and  contains  Minnetanka  lake.  The  St.  Paul 
and  Pacific,  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  and 
the  Minneapolis  and  Sioux  •  City  Junction  rail- 
roads pass  through  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  379,063  bushels  of  wheat,  259,418 
of  Indian  corn,  226,361  of  oats,  98,863  of  po- 
tatoes, 333,146  Ibs.  of  butter,  89,414  of  maple 
sugar,  62,800  of  flax,  and  25,454  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  3,633  horses,  5,361  milch  cows, 
1,318  working  oxen,  5,449  other  cattle,  5,672 
sheep,  and  5,592  swine ;  6  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  2  of  bags,  8  of  boots 
and  shoes,  2  of  bricks,  10  of  carriages,  11  of 
clothing,  2  of  confectionery,  8  of  barrels  and 
casks,  16  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  castings,  7  of 
machinery,  1  of  vegetable  oil,  2  of  paper,  5  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  6  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  1  of  soap  and  candles,  8  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen  goods, 
14  flour  mills,  4  breweries,  3  planing  and  23 
saw  mills,  and  5  pork-packing  establishments. 
Capital,  Minneapolis. 

HEMEPIN,  Louis,  a  Franciscan  (Recollect) 
missionary  and  explorer  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  born  at  Ath,  Belgium,  about  1640,  died 
in  Holland  subsequent  to  1701.  After  his  en- 
trance into  the  Franciscan  order,  he  made  a 
tour  through  Germany  and  Italy,  at  the  close 
of  which  he  was  settled  for  a  year  as  preacher 
at  Halles  in  Belgium.  His  superiors  then  sent 
him  to  Artois,  whence  he  journeyed  to  Holland, 
and  for  eight  months  had  charge  of  a  hospital 
at  Maastricht.  At  the  battle  of  Senef,  between 
the  prince  of  Conde  and  William  of  Orange,  in 
1674,  he  was  present  as  regimental  chaplain. 
The  next  year  he  was  ordered  to  Canada,  and 
embarked  in  company  with  Bishop  Laval, 
whose  favor  he  managed  to  secure  on  the 
voyage,  and  with  the  sieur  de  la  Salle.  He 
preached  for  a  while  at  Quebec.  In  1676  he 
went  to  the  Indian  mission  at  Fort  Frontenac, 
whence  he  visited  the  Mohawk  country.  In 
1678  he  was  attached  to  La  Salle's  expedition, 
and  accompanied  the  chevalier  de  Tonty  and 
the  sieur  de  la  Motte  from  Fort  Frontenac  to 
Niagara,  where  La  Salle  constructed  the  Grif- 
fin, a  vessel  for  navigating  the  lakes  above  the 
falls.  This  accomplished,  La  Salle  on  Aug.  7, 
1679,  began  his  voyage.  He  passed  through 


Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and  Michigan,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  Joseph's  river,  ascended  this  in  canoes 
to  the  portage,  carried  them  five  or  six  miles 
to  the  Kankakee,  and  floated  down  this  stream 
and  the  Iroquois  to  the  Illinois,  on  which  they 
built  Fort  Crevecceur,  a  little  below  the  present 
site  of  Peoria.  Hearing  no  tidings  of  the  Grif- 
fin, which  he  had  sent  back,  La  Salle  returned 
to  Fort  Frontenac  for  supplies,  charging  Michel 
Acau,  Father  Hennepin,  and  one  other  with  a 
voyage  of  discovery,  the  precise  object  of  which 
is  unknown,  but  making  the  mouth  of  the  Wis- 
consin a  rendezvous.  Hennepin  set  out  in  a 
canoe,  Feb.  29,  1680,  and  followed  the  Illinois 
to  its  mouth.  The  party  then  explored  the 
Mississippi  till  April  11,  when  they  were  taken 
by  a  party  of  Sioux  and  carried  up  the  river  to 
their  villages.  During  this  time  Hennepin  dis- 
covered and  named  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony. 
Daniel  Greysolon  du  Luht  had  penetrated  to. 
the  Sioux  country  by  way  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  made  peace  with  the  tribe.  Hearing  that 
three  Frenchmen  were  held  prisoners,  he  ad- 
vanced to  where  they  were,  and  rescued  them 
in  July.  He  took  them  down  the  Mississippi 
to  the  Wisconsin,  and  passed  up  that  river 
and  down  the  Fox,  and  so  through  Green 
bay  to  Lake  Michigan.  From  Quebec  Henne- 
pin sailed  for  France,  where  he  published  in 
1683  his  Description  de  la  Louisiane,  nouxelle- 
ment  decouverte  au  sud-ouest  de  la  Nouvelle 
France,  &c.  (I2mo,  Paris),  containing  the  fullest 
published  account  of  La  Salle's  first  expedition, 
and  of  Hennepin's  own  explorations,  with  a 
description  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  Notwith- 
standing the  writer's  vanity  and  fondness  for 
exaggeration,  this  work  is  valuable.  Hennepin 
was  now  appointed  guardian  of  a  convent  at 
Renti  in  Artois ;  but  refusing  to  return  to 
America  in  obedience  to  his  ecclesiastical  su- 
periors, he  was  compelled  to  leave  France,  and 
proceeding  to  Holland  in  lay  dress  sought  the 
favor  of  William  III.  of  England.  In  1697,  10 
years  after  La  Salle's  death,  Hennepin  pub- 
lished his  extraordinary  Noutelle  decouverte 
d*un  tres  grand  pays  situe  dans  TAmerique 
entre  le  Nouveau  Mexique  et  la  Mer  Glaciale, 
&c.  (12mo,  Utrecht).  In  this  work,  which  em- 
bodies his  Description  de  la  Louisiane,  writ- 
ten anew  and  enlarged,  he  asserts  that  he  de- 
scended to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
was  the  first  European  who  floated  on  that 
river.  He  gives  a  journal,  description  of  the 
scenery,  Indian  tribes,  and  the  distances  along 
the  route,  identical  with  that  of  Pere  Membr6 
published  by  Le  Clercq.  Hennepin  explained 
his  long  silence  on  this  important  point  by 
saying  that  he  feared  the  enmity  of  La  Salle, 
who  had  ordered  him  to  follow  a  different 
course,  and  who  prided  himself  upon  being  the 
first  who  descended  the  Mississippi  to  the  gulf 
of  Mexico.  Notwithstanding  the  utter  impos- 
sibility of  reconciling  the  dates  given  in  Hen- 
nepin's narrative,  the  story  obtained  general 
credence  until  its  falseness  was  exposed  by 
Jared  Sparks.  (See  "Life  of  La  Salle,"  by 


HENNINGSEN 


Sparks,  in  the  "  Library  of  American  Biogra- 
phy.") His  third  work,  published  at  Utrecht 
in  1698,  Nouveau  voyage  dans  un  pays  plus 
grand  que  VEurope,  was  a  compilation  de- 
scribing La  Salle's  voyage  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi.  Of  these  three  works  at  least  24 
editions  appeared  in  various  languages.  He 
endeavored  to  return  to  Canada  in  1699,  but 
Louis  XIV.  ordered  his  arrest  if  he  arrived 
there.  He  is  said  to  have  been  at  Rome  in 
1701,  seeking  to  establish  a  mission  on  the 
Mississippi. 

HENNINGSEN,  Charles  Frederick,  an  English 
soldier  and  author,  of  Scandinavian  extraction, 
born  in  1815.  In  1834  he  left  England  to  en- 
ter the  service  of  Don  Carlos  in  Spain,  was  a 
captain  in  the  body  guard  of  Zumalacarregui, 
and  afterward  was  made  a  colonel.  Being 
taken  a  prisoner,  he  was  liberated  on  parole. 
He  then  entered  the  Russian  army,  and  served 
in  Circassia.  Returning  to  England,  he  wrote 
"  Revelations  of  Russia,"  which  was  translated 
into  French  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1845).  He  after- 
ward took  part,  on  the  national  side,  in  the 
Hungarian  war  of  1848-'9.  After  its  termi- 
nation he  visited  Kossuth  at  Kutaieh  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  followed  him  to  the  United  States. 
In  1856  he  joined  Walker's  force  of  filibusters 
in  Nicaragua.  During  the  civil  war  he  served 
in  the  confederate  army,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier  general.  Subsequently  he  resided 
in  Washington,  and  became  interested  in  the 
cause  of  Cuba.  His  principal  writings  are : 
"  Twelve  Months'  Campaign  with  Zumalacar- 
regui" (Philadelphia,  1836);  "The  Past  and 
Future  of  Hungary  "  (Cincinnati,  1852)  ;  "  The 
White  Slave,"  a  novel;  "Eastern  Europe;" 
"Sixty  Years  Hence,"  a  novel  of  Russian 
life;  and  "Analogies  and  Contrasts." 

HENRICO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bounded 
S.W.  by  James  river,  and  N.  E.  by  the  Chicka- 
hominy ;  area,  291  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  66,179, 
of  whom  31,031  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
diversified  with  hills  of  no  great  height ;  bitu- 
minous coal  abounds  in  the  W.  part,  but  most 
of  the  soil  is  light  and  poor.  The  James  river 
and  Kanawha  canal  has  its  E.  terminus  in  this 
county,  and  five  railroads,  viz.,  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio,  the  Richmond,  Danville,  and  Pied- 
mont, the  Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and 
Potomac,  the  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  and 
the  Richmond  and  York  River,  radiate  from 
Richmond.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
81,502  bushels  of  wheat,  127,166  of  Indian 
corn,  89,601  of  oats,  37,634  of  Irish  potatoes, 
10,228  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  2,112  tons  of  hay. 
The  value  of  live  stock  on  farms  was  $216,497. 
The  principal  manufactories  were  5  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  8. of  tobacco  boxes,  16  of 
bread,  &o.,  13  of  carriages,  4  of  cars,  81  of 
clothing,  27  of  furniture,  1  of  gas,  10  of  iron, 
10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  20  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  38  of  tobacco  and  snuff, 
1 9  of  cigars,  9  printing  establishments,  3  flour 
mills,  1  distillery,  2  breweries,  and  2  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Richmond,  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 
401  VOL.  vni.— 41 


HENRIETTA  MARIA 


639 


HENRIETTA  ANNA,  duchess  of  Orleans,  daugh- 
ter of  Charles  I.  of  England  and  Queen  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  born  in  Exeter,  June  16,  1644, 
died  at  St.  Cloud,  June  29,  1670.  She  was 
carried  to  France  while  an  infant  and  reared 
by  her  mother  in  a  convent  at  Chaillot.  As 
she  grew  up  she  did  not  please  the  young  king, 
Louis  XIV.,  her  cousin,  and  was  consequently 
regarded  with  indifference  by  the  rest  of  tfetu 
court.  But  when  her  brother  Charles  II.  was 
restored  to  the  throne  of  England,  a  marriage 
was  arranged  between  her  and  the  French  king's 
only  brother,  Philip,  duke  of  Orleans.  She  re- 
turned to  France  from  England,  whither  she 
had  accompanied  her  mother,  and  where  she 
first  displayed  those  powers  of  fascination  for 
which  she  became  celebrated.  Her  marriage 
took  place  on  March  31,  1661,  at  the  Palais 
Royal,  and  she  at  once  became  the  delight  of 
the  French  court.  But  the  charms  of  madame, 
as  she  was  called,  produced  no  impression  on 
her  husband,  and  his  coolness  was  changed  into 
aversion  after  the  attentions  of  the  count  de 
Guiche  and  of  the  king  himself  had  become  so 
marked  as  to  attract  notice.  In  1670  the  king 
induced  her  to  visit  her  brother's  court,  and 
through  her  influence  England  was  detached 
from  the  alliance  with  Holland  and  Sweden 
which  had  been  formed  in  opposition  to  the  in- 
terests of  France.  Shortly  after  her  return  she 
died  suddenly  in  great  suffering  and  in  the  be- 
lief that  she  had  been  poisoned.  The  discourse 
which  Bossuet  pronounced  at  her  funeral  was 
considered  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  his 
eloquence.  Her  memoirs  were  written  by 
Madame  de  La  Fayette. 

HENRIETTA  MARIA,  queen  of  England,  born 
in  Paris,  Nov.  25,  1609,  died  at  Colombes,  near 
that  city,  Sept.  10, 1669.  She  was  the  youngest 
child  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  by  his  second 
wife,  Maria  de'  Medici,  and  on  March  30,  1625, 
was  married  at  Paris  by  proxy  to  Charles  I., 
king  of  England,  a  few  days  after  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  She  soon  secured  the  affection 
of  her  husband  and  acquired  great  influence 
over  him,  but  became  obnoxious  to  the  English 
nation  by  her  undisguised  partiality  for  the 
Catholic  faith.  She  was  charged  by  the  king's 
opponents  with  being  the  adviser  of  his  arbi- 
trary policy  and  the  enemy  of  English  liberties. 
Her  unpopularity  was  increased  by  her  partici- 
pation in  the  strife  between  Charles  and  the 
parliament.  In  1642  she  went  to  Holland,  and 
procured  money  and  troops,  which  she  under- 
took to  bring  to  England.  Notwithstanding  a 
violent  storm,  which  drove  her  fleet  toward 
the  continent,  she  landed  her  forces  at  Brid- 
lington,  and  joined  her  husband  at  Oxford.  In 
1644,  a  few  days  after  being  delivered  of  Hen- 
rietta Anna,  her  last  child,  at  Exeter,  she  nar- 
rowly escaped  being  taken  prisoner  by  Essex, 
and  went  to  Falmouth,  whence  she  sailed  to 
France  on  board  a  Dutch  ship.  During  her  resi- 
dence in  France  she  suffered  from  the  effects  of 
the  hardships  she  had  undergone,  and  although 
granted  a  pension  by  the  French  government 


640 


IIENRIQUEL-DUPONT 


HENRY 


she  was  rendered  uncomfortable  through  the 
civil  dissensions  of  the  country.  When  Charles 
II.  was  recalled  to  England  in  1660,  she  paid 
him  a  visit  with  her  daughter  Henrietta  Anna, 
but  soon  returned  to  France,  where  she  con- 
tinued in  retirement  at  her  house  in  Colombes. 
She  died  suddenly,  and  her  remains  were  bu- 
ried in  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  her  heart,  which  was  intrusted  to  the 
nuns  of  Ste.  Marie  de  Chaillot.  Bossuet  deliv- 
ered a  funeral  oration  in  her  honor.  The  pri- 
vate correspondence  of  Henrietta  and  Charles 
I.  during  the  civil  war  was  published  at  Lon- 
don in  1857,  edited  by  Mrs.  Green. 

HENRIQUEL-DUPONT,  Lonis  Pierre,  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris,  June  13,  1797.  After 
attending  for  several  years  the  school  of  Pierre 
Gu6rin  the  painter,  he  took  to  engraving  under 
the  direction  of  Bervic.  His  principal  works 
are:  a  full-length  portrait  of  a  lady  and  her 
daughter,  after  Vandyke  (1822);  Gustavus 
Vasa,  after  Hersent  (1831),  the  more  valuable 
since  the  original  painting  was  destroyed  in 
1848  at  the  Palais  Royal ;  a  full-length  portrait 
of  Louis  Philippe,  after  Gerard  (1837) ;  "  Lord 
Strafford  on  his  Way  to  the  Scaffold,"  after 
Delaroche  (1840);  "Christ  the  Consoler," 
after  Scheffer  (1841) ;  portrait  of  Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia,  after  Delaroche  (1842);  the 
"Hemicycle"  of  the  palais  des  fieaux-arts, 
after  Delaroche's  fresco  (1853);  the  "Virgin 
and  Child,"  after  Raphael  (1855);  the  "En- 
shrouding of  Our  Saviour,"  after  Delaroche 
(1856);  "Moses  on  the  Nile,"  after  the  same 
(1858);  the  "Mystic  Marriage  of  St.  Catha- 
rine," after  Correggio,  the  "Pilgrims  of  Em- 
maus,"  after  Paul  Veronese,  and  others  (1867) ; 
and  the  "  Disciples  at  Emmans,"  after  Paul  Ve- 
ronese (1869).  He  is  one  of  the  most  eminent 
engravers  of  France,  and  succeeded  Richomme 
as  member  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  in  1849. 
At  the  exhibitions  of  1853  and  1855  he  ob- 
tained the  grand  medal  of  honor,  and  in  1863 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  copperplate  en- 
graving at  the  school  of  fine  arts.  He  is  also 
a  skilful  draughtsman,  and  his  exquisite  crayon 
portraits  are  much  sought  after  by  amateurs. 

HENRY,  the  name  of  ten  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  North  Carolina,  and  drained  by 
Smith's  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Dan ;  area, 
358  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,303,  of  whom 
5,581  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  23,651 
bushels  of  wheat,  154,794  of  Indian  corn,  75,- 
229  of  oats,  and  1,129,617  Ibs.  of  tobacco. 
There  were  865  horses,  536  mules  and  asses, 
1,747  milch  cows,  2,379  other  cattle,  3,442 
sheep,  and  7,448  swine,  and  4  tobacco  factories. 
Capital,  Martinsville.  II.  A  N.  W.  central 
county  of  Georgia,  bounded  N.  E.  by  South 
river,  a  branch  of  the  Ocmulgee,  and  drained 
by  several  affluents  of  the  latter  stream ;  area, 
594  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870,  10,102,  of  whom 
3,833  were  colored.  The  surface  is  diversified 
and  well  wooded,  and  the  soil  is  of  middling 


quality.  Iron,  quartz,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
gold  are  found.  The  Macon  and  Western  rail- 
road passes  through  the  W.  part.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  45,488  bushels  of 
wheat,  166,210  of  Indian  corn,  16,619  of  oats, 
22,714  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  4,888  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  860  horses,  1,125  mules 
and  asses,  1,897  milch  cows,  2,903  other  cat- 
tle, 3,525  sheep,  and  7,648  swine.  Capital, 
McDonough.  III.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Alabama, 
bounded  S.  by  Florida,  separated  from  Geor- 
gia on  the  E.  by  the  Chattahoochee  river, 
here  navigable  by  steamboats,  and  drained  by 
the  east  branch  of  the  Choctawhatchee  riv- 
er; area,  975  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,191,  of 
whom  4,657  were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified 
surface,  and  a  light,  sandy,  but  very  fertile 
soil,  drained  by  many  small  streams,  and  in 
some  parts  overgrown  with  pine  forests.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  248,470  bush- 
els of  Indian  corn,  48,988  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  7,127  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,240 
horses,  1,061  mules  and  asses,  3,551  milch 
cows,  7,231  other  cattle,  3,953  sheep,  and 
22,186  swine.  Capital,  Abbeville.  IV.  A  N. 
W.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Ken- 
tucky, bounded  E.  partly  by  Tennessee  river 
and  partly  by  the  Big  Sandy ;  area,  600  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,380,  of  whom  5,204  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  rich. 
The  Louisville  and  Nashville  and  Great  South- 
ern railroad  traverses  the  county,  and  the 
Nashville  and  Northwestern  line  passes  near 
the  S.  W.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  98,435  bushels  of  wheat,  767,220  of 
Indian  corn,  26,816  of  oats,  31,882  of  sweet 
potatoes,  1,715,001  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  16,459  of 
wool,  174,000  of  butter,  and  2,385  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  3,658  horses,  2,722  mules 
and  asses,  3,600  milch  cows,  4,631  other  cat- 
tle, 10,878  sheep,  and  34,384  swine  ;  8  manu- 
factories of  carriages,  2  of  cotton  goods,  6  of 
tobacco,  6  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  es- 
tablishments, and  7  saw  mills.  Capital,  Paris. 
V.  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  N.  E. 
by  the  Kentucky  river,  which  is  here  naviga- 
ble by  steamboats ;  area,  260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870, 11,066,  of  whom  2,438  were  colored.  It 
has  an  undulating  surface,  partly  covered  with 
forests,  and  a  fertile  soil  of  limestone  forma- 
tion. The  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Lexington 
railroad  passes  through  it.  Drennon  Springs, 
on  the  Kentucky  river,  is  noted  as  a  fashion- 
able resort.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  57,123  bushels  of  wheat,  25,516  of  rye, 
591,528  of  Indian  corn,  63,913  of  oats,  1,375,- 
364  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  26,501  of  wool,  114,160  of 
butter,  and-  2,879  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
3,595  horses,  2,376  milch  cows,  4,203  other 
cattle,  6,389  sheep,  and  19,080  swine;  2  flour 
mills,  2  saw  mills,  and  1  woollen  factory.  Cap- 
ital, Newcastle.  VI.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Ohio, 
traversed  by  Maumee  river  and  drained  by 
several  of  its  branches;  area,  410  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  14,028.  It  has  a  level  surface  and  a 
rich  soil.  The  Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  and 


HENRY 

e  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western,  and  the 
Dayton  and  Michigan  railroads  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  175,- 
151  bushels  of  wheat,  145,522  of  Indian  corn, 
78,190  of  oats,  67,347  of  potatoes,  80,482  Ibs. 
of  wool,  297,973  of  butter,  and  11,311  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  3,764  horses,  3,958  milch 
cows,  4,735  other  cattle,  14,692  sheep,  and 
9,359  swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages,  4 
of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  wool- 
len goods,  2  flour  mills,  and  25  saw  mills.  Cap- 
ital, Napoleon.  VII.  An  E.  county  of  Indiana, 
having  a  level  or  rolling  surface,  originally  cov- 
ered with  dense  forests ;  area,  385  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  22,986.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
watered  by  several  small  streams.  The  Pitts- 
burgh, Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Fort 
Wayne,  Muncie,  and  Cincinnati  railroads  trav- 
erse it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
610,721  bushels  of  wheat,  1,152,164  of  Indian 
corn,  98,677  of  oats,  52,599  of  potatoes,  64,953 
Ibs.  of  wool,  384,481  of  butter,  and  10,000  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  6,894  horses,  4,985  milch 
cows,  9,385  other  cattle,  17,089  sheep,  and 
33,847  swine;  18  manufactories  of  carriages, 
6  of  barrels  and  casks,  4  of  bricks,  12  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  2  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
5  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  wool- 
len goods,  11  flour  mills,  and  17  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Newcastle.  VIII.  A  N.  W.  county  of 
Illinois,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Bock  river,  and 
drained  also  by  its  affluents,  Green  and  Ed- 
wards rivers;  area,  830  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
35,413.  It  has  an  undulating  surface,  diversi- 
fied with  forests  and  fertile  prairies,  and  con- 
tains good  building  stone  and  coal.  The  Chi- 
cago, Burlington,  and  Quincy  railroad  and  the 
Galva  and  Keithsburg  branch,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Peoria  and 
Rock  Island  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  462,824  bushels  of 
wheat,  35,766  of  rye,  2,541, 683  of  Indian  corn, 
668,367  of  oats,  65,760  of  barley,  156,734  of 
potatoes,  40,991  Ibs.  of  wool,  644,494  of  but- 
ter, and  37,229  tons  of  hay.  There  were  11,- 
960  horses,  8,872  milch  cows,  15,780  other 
cattle,  6,266  sheep,  and  34,843  swine  ;  11  man- 
ufactories of  carriages,  2  of  barrels  and  casks, 

5  of  furniture,  13  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  2  of  soap  and  candles, 

6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  brew- 
ery, and  5  flour  mills.     Capital,   Cambridge. 
IX.    A  S.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  traversed  by 
Skunk  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Mississippi ; 
area,  432  sq.  m. ;   pop.  in  1870,  21,463.     The 
surface  is  undulating  and  diversified  by  prai- 
ries and  timber  land.     Coal  and  limestone  are 
abundant,  and  the  soil  is  of  excellent  quality. 
The  Burlington  and  Missouri  River  railroad 
passes  through  it.     The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  219,474  bushels  of  wheat,  1,095,846 
of  Indian  corn,  231,631  of  oats,  99,459  of  po- 
tatoes, 129,187  Ibs.  of  wool,  490,181  of  butter, 
and  27,991  tons  of  hay.     There   were   9,400 
horses,  7,003  milch  cows,  11,214  other  cattle, 
30,805  sheep,  and  30.855  swine ;  2  manufacto- 


HENRY  I.  (ENGLAND) 


641 


ries  of  agricultural  implements,  2  of  boots  and 
shoes,  19  of  carriages,  4  of  furniture,  7  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  1  of  woollen  goods,  1  tannery,  8 
flour  mills,  and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Mount 
Pleasant.  X.  A  W.  central  county  of  Mis- 
souri, drained  by  Grand  river,  an  affluent  of 
the  Osage;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
17,401,  of  whom  642  were  colored.  It  has  a 
diversified  surface,  abounds  in  coal,  timber, 
and  water  power,  is  mostly  fertile,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  stock  raising.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  239,828  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,167,590  of  Indian  corn,  298,581  of  oats,  34,- 
117  of  potatoes,  181,945  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
5,167  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,066  horses, 
1,256  mules  and  asses,  5,262  milch  cows,  12,- 
157  other  cattle,  12,162  sheep,  and  27,252 
swine;  2  manufactories  of  bricks,  C  of  car- 
riages, 5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen 
goods,  and  9  flour  mills.  Capital,  Clinton. 

HENRY,  the  name  of  several  sovereigns  of 
England,  France,  and  Germany. 

L   ENGLAND. 

HENRY  I.,  surnamed  BEAUCLERO,  the  third 
English  monarch  of  the  Norman  line,  and  first 
prince  of  that  line  of  English  birth,  born  at 
Selby,  Yorkshire,  in  1068,  died  near  Rouen, 
Dec.  1,  1135.  Having  received  from  his  father, 
William  the  Conqueror,  who  died  when  Henry 
was  19  years  old,  £5,000  in  silver,  he  bought 
from  his  brother  Robert  the  district  of  Coten- 
tin,  comprising  one  third  of  Normandy.  On 
the  belief  that  he  was  leagued  with  William 
Rufus  of  England,  Robert  imprisoned  him, 
but  released  him  at  the  intercession  of  the  Nor- 
man nobles.  When  William  attacked  Robert 
in  1090,  Henry  sided  with  the  latter,  and  dis- 
played great  energy,  courage,  and  cruelty.  In 
the  following  year  William  and  Robert  became 
reconciled  and  turned  their  combined  forces 
against  Henry,  compelling  him  to  surrender 
all  his  possessions.  For  some  years  he  lived 
in  seclusion,  when  the  people  of  Domfront,  one 
of  Robert's  strongest  places,  called  him  to  rule 
over  them.  He  made  other  acquisitions  at 
Robert's  expense,  became  reconciled  with  Wil- 
liam, and  went  to  England.  On  Aug.  2,  1100, 
he  was  hunting  in  the  New  forest  when  Wil- 
liam was  there  slain ;  and,  riding  immediately 
to  Winchester,  he  claimed  and  obtained  the 
crown,  to  the  prejudice  of  Robert,  who  was 
then  in  the  Holy  Land,  a  leader  in  the  first 
crusade.  Three  days  later  his  coronation  took 
place.  He  owed  his  success  in  part  to  ^his 
boldness,  and  in  part  to  his  liberal  promises 
and  concessions.  He  conciliated  the  clergy, 
inviting  Anselm  back  to  England.  He  promised 
to  remedy  abuses  and  to  maintain  the  old  An- 
glo-Saxon laws  and  usages,  the  charter  he 
granted  becoming  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
reforms.  By  marrying  Matilda  of  Scotland, 
daughter  of  Malcolm  Canmore  and  Margaret, 
and  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  he  conciliated  the 


642 


HENRY  II.   (ENGLAND) 


Saxon  but  disaffected  the  Norman  portion  of 
his  subjects.  Robert,  returned  from  the  East, 
landed  at  Portsmouth  (1101)  with  a  consider- 
able force,  -and  summoned  Henry  to  surrender 
to  him  possession  of  England.  A  negotiation 
ensued,  and  Robert,  having  been  guaranteed 
the  undisturbed  possession  of  Normandy,  re- 
signed his  pretensions  to  the  English  throne. 
But  Henry  occupied  himself  for  several  years 
in  strengthening  his  position  in  England,  and 
in  1105  called  upon  Robert  to  yield  up  Nor- 
mandy also.  Robert  indignantly  refused, 
whereupon  Henry  invaded  Normandy  and 
captured  several  places  of  importance.  The 
next  year  he  renewed  his  invasion  and  laid 
siege  to  the  castle  of  Tinchebrai.  Robert  has- 
tened to  its  relief,  and  a  severe  battle  was 
fought  beneath  its  walls.  Henry  was  victo- 
rious and  took  Robert  prisoner.  The  latter 
having  attempted  to  escape,  Henry,  according 
to  some  authorities,  put  out  his  eyes ;  it  is  cer- 
tain that  he  kept  him  in  prison  28  years.  Hen- 
ry's right  to  the  throne  was  disputed  by  Rob- 
ert's son,  whose  claims  were  supported  by  the 
counts  of  Flanders  and  Anjou  and  the  king  of 
France.  Peace  was  made  with  France  in  1113, 
and  tranquillity  was  maintained  for  some  years. 
The  question  of  investiture  led  to  trouble  with 
Rome,  which  was  aggravated  by  the  papal 
claim  to  send  legates  to  England.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  continued  troubles  in  Normandy, 
and  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  the  French 
king,  Henry  passed  much  of  his  time  in  France, 
to  the  discontent  of  the  English.  In  1114  he 
married  his  daughter  Matilda  to  Henry  V., 
emperor  of  Germany.  The  victory  of  Brenne- 
ville  decided  the  war  with  France  favorably 
for  Henry  (1119),  and  peace  was  made,  so  that 
in  1120  his  power  was  established.  The  same 
year  his  son  William  was  lost  while  sailing 
from  France  to  England,  and  the  king  never 
recovered  from  the  shock.  Queen  Matilda  had 
died  in  1118,  and  Henry  married  Adelicia, 
daughter  of  the  count  of  Lou  vain  ;  no  children 
followed  from  this  union.  New  difficulties  on 
the  continent  caused  Henry  to  return  there  in 
1123 ;  success  again  attended  him,  and  peace 
was  restored.  The  death  of  his  nephew  Wil- 
liam in  1128  relieved  him  from  an  active  enemy. 
His  daughter  Matilda  returned  to  England  on 
the  emperor's  death,  and  in  1126  her  father 
prevailed  on  a  numerous  assemblage  of  the 
clergy  and  laity  to  swear  that,  in  the  event  of 
his  death  without  male  issue,  she  should  be 
recognized  as  queen  and  duchess.  In  1127  Ma- 
tilda was  privately  married  to  Geoffrey  Planta- 
genet,  count  of  Anjou,  and  the  quarrels  between 
them  caused  the  king  much  annoyance.  The 
nobility,  too,  declared  that  the  marriage  had 
absolved  them  from  their  oath.  The  Welsh 
having  given  him  much  trouble  throughout  his 
reign,  he  was  about  to  attempt  their  conquest 
when  he  died.  His  death  was  attributed  to 
over-indulgence  in  his  favorite  dish,  lampreys. 
HENRY  II.,  founder  of  the  Plantagenet  dy- 
nasty, grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son  of 


Geoffrey  Plantagenet  and  the  ex-empress  Matil- 
da, born  in  Le  Mans  in  March,  1133,  died  at  the 
castle  of  Chinon,  July  6,  1189.  On  the  death 
of  Henry  I.,  his  nephew  Stephen,  count  of 
Blois,  usurped  the  thrones  of  England  and 
Normandy.  A  long  series  of  contests  followed, 
in  the  latter  part  of  which  Prince  Henry  much 
distinguished  himself.  These  were  terminated 
by  an  arrangement  in  1153,  by  which  it  was 
settled  that  Henry  should  succeed  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne  on  Stephen's  death,  which  event 
took  place  Oct..  25,  1154.  Henry  had  become 
duke  of  Normandy  in  1150,  and  count  of  Anjou 
and  Maine  in  1151 ;  and  by  marrying  Eleanor, 
duchess  of  Aquitaine,  who  had  been  divorced 
from  Louis  VII.  of  France,  he  obtained  in 
1152  possession  of  nearly  the  whole  of  southern 
France.  He  was  his  wife's  junior  by  upward 
of  ten  years.  They  were  crowned  at  Westmin- 
ster, Dec.  19,  1154.  Henry's  continental  pos- 
sessions comprised  more  than  a  third  of  France, 
including  Normandy,  Maine,  Touraine,  An- 
jou, Poitou,  Guienne,  and  other  provinces; 
and  in  a  few  years  he  made  himself  master  of 
Brittany.  He  brought  to  the  throne  a  high 
reputation  for  talent  and  courage.  He  restored 
the  coinage,  revoked  improper  grants,  dis- 
missed mercenaries,  suppressed  lawlessness,  and 
destroyed  many  of  the  feudal  castles  which  had 
been  erected  in  Stephen's  reign.  But  for  his 
troubles  with  the  church,  he  would  have  been 
the  greatest,  as  he  was  one  of  the  ablest,  of 
English  monarchs.  These  disputes  began  in 
1162.  Henry  had  resolved  to  curb  the  clergy, 
and  made  Thomas  a  Becket,  upon  whom  he 
thought  he  could  rely  for  assistance,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  he  having  held  the 
chancellorship  since  1158.  But  Becket  be- 
came the  most  austere  of  churchmen  and  the 
most  vehement  champion  of  the  independence 
of  his  order,  and  placed  •  himself  in  direct  op- 
position to  the  king.  The  first  open  collision 
between  them  occurred  at  an  assembly  of  bish- 
ops called  by  the  king  at  Westminster  in  1163, 
in  which  the  prelates,  following  Becket's  lead, 
refused  to  yield  to  Henry  the  customary  juris- 
diction of  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  This  led 
to  an  attempt  to  overthrow  the  whole  system 
of  clerical  immunities,  and  for  that  purpose  a 
convocation  of  bishops  and  barons  was  held  at 
Clarendon,  Jan.  25,  1164.  The  primate,  who 
since  the  former  assembly  had  been  induced  to 
promise  unconditional  acquiescence,  now  de- 
manded of  the  king  to  make  known  what  these 
"customs"  were,  which  he  and  his  brother 
bishops  were  to  observe.  A  committee  of  in- 
quiry was  thereupon  appointed,  and  the  six- 
teen constitutions  or  "  customs"  of  Clarendon 
were  drawn  up.  By  these  it  was  enacted  that 
clerks  charged  with  crime  should  be  tried  in 
the  civil  courts;  that  no  appeals  in  spiritual 
causes  should  be  carried  beyond  the  king 
without  his  consent;  that  if,  in  any  lawsuit 
between  a  clergyman  and  a  layman  concerning 
a  tenant,  it  was  disputed  whether  'the  land 
were  a  lay  or  an  ecclesiastical  fee,  this  should 


HENRY  II.   (ENGLAND) 


HENRY  III.   (ENGLAND)  643 


nc 

• 


decided  by  the  verdict  of  twelve  lawful  .men, 
d  if  found  to  be  a  lay  fee,  the  cause  should 
be  determined  by  the  civil  courts ;  that  laics 
should  not  be  accused  in  spiritual  courts,  ex- 
cept by  legal  and  reputable  witnesses;  that 
no  chief  tenant  of  the  crown  should  be  excom- 
unicated,  nor  his  lands  be  put  under  an  in- 
rdict,  except  with  the  king's  consent ;  that 
.o  person,  particularly  no  clergyman,  should 
leave  the  kingdom  without  that  consent ;  that 
the  civil  courts  should  decide  all  suits  concern- 
ing the  advowson  and  presentation  of  church- 
««• ;  that  the  churches  belonging  to  the  king's 
should  not  be  granted  in  perpetuity  with- 
t  his  consent ;  that  the  revenues  of  vacant 
sees  should  belong  to  the  king,  that  the  election 
to  such  sees  should  be  held  by  the  king's  con- 
sent and  in  his  chapel,  and  that  the  bishop 
elect  should  do  homage  to  the  crown;  that 
goods  forfeited  to  the  king  should  not  be  pro- 
tected in  churches  or  churchyards ;  and  that 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  other  spiritual  digni- 
taries should  be  regarded  as  barons  of  the 
realm,  possessing  the  privileges  and  subject  to 
the  burdens  belonging  to  that  rank,  and  bound 
to  attend  the  king  in  his  great  councils,  and  as- 
sist at  all  trials.  The  power  of  excommunica- 
tion was  lessened,  the  clerical  privileges  re- 
specting the  collection  of  debts  were  annulled, 
and  the  sons  of  villeins  were  forbidden  to  be 
ordained  clerks  without  the  consent  of  their 
lords.  Three  copies  of  these  were  the  next 
day,  Jan.  26,  presented  for  subscription.  When 
the  primate  was  asked  to  affix  his  seal,  he  re- 
fused, saying  that  he  had  performed  all  that 
he  had  promised.  When,  afterward,  the  pope 
officially  disapproved  of  these  constitutions, 
Becket  retracted  his  former  promise.  The 
quarrel  between  him  and  the  king  was  renewed, 
and  lasted  for  seven  years,  when  Becket  was 
killed  by  four  Norman  barons  (Dec.  29,  1170). 
During  the  quarrel  Becket  was  banished,  the 
king  of  France  began  hostilities  with  England, 
and  the  war  lasted  three  years.  The  murder 
of  Becket  annoyed  Henry,  as  he  feared  the 
pope  would  carry  out  his  threat  of  excommu- 
nication ;  but  his  negotiators  succeeded  in  con- 
fining the  papal  anathemas  to  those  who  had 
committed  the  crime.  In  1171  Henry  under- 
took the  conquest  of  Ireland,  the  expedition 
being  approved  of  by  a  papal  bull  in  1156,  and 
a  few  of  his  subjects  having  already  waged  a 
successful  war  in  that  island.  He  met  with 
little  resistance.  Having  taken  a  solemn  oath 
that  he  had  not  instigated  Becket's  murder, 
and  having  made  various  concessions  to  the 
church,  he  was  confirmed  by  Rome  in  the 
grant  of  Ireland.  The  troubles  in  his  family, 
which  clouded  the  latter  portion  of  his  life, 
now  commenced.  He  had  associated  with  him 
his  eldest  son,  Henry,  in  the  government  of 
England,  Normandy,  Anjou,  and  other  territo- 
ries; Richard  was  made  ruler  of  Guienne  and 
Poitou  ;  Geoffrey  was  to  be  duke  of  Brittany ; 
and  John  was  to  receive  Ireland.  But  from 
1173  these  sons  gave  him  much  vexation,  be- 


ing encouraged  to  rebel  by  their  mother,  who 
was  enraged  by  Henry's  conjugal  infidelities, 
by  the  French  king,  who  was  the  father-in-law 
of  the  eldest,  and  by  the  nobles  in  various 
parts  of  his  dominions.  Henry  now  did  pen- 
ance at  the  tomb  of  Becket,  fasting  and  pray- 
ing there,  and  submitting  to  flagellation  at  the 
hands  of  the  monks.  The  Scots,  having  in- 
vaded England,  were  defeated,  and  the  rebels, 
including  his  sons,  returned  to  obedience.  The 
king  of  Scotland  did  homage  to  him,  and  sur- 
rendered portions  of  his  dominion.  In  the  in- 
terval of  quiet  that  followed,  Henry  made  sev- 
eral legal  reforms.  The  disputes  that  broke 
out  in  his  family  were  fatal  to  his  peace.  His 
sons  quarrelled  with  him  and  with  each  other. 
The  eldest  died  in  1183,  and  Geoffrey  was 
killed  in  1186.  In  1188  Richard  rebelled,  and 
was  aided  by  France,  though  both  Henry  and 
the  French  king  had  taken  the  cross,  intending 
to  embark  for  Palestine.  Henry  was  beaten, 
and  submitted  to  the  terms  dictated  by  his 
enemies.  Shortly  after  he  died  of  a  fever 
brought  on  by  mental  irritation. 

HENRY  III.,  son  of  John,  king  of  England, 
and  of  Isabella  of  Angouleme,  born  Oct.  1, 
1207,  died  at  Westminster,  Nov.  16,  1272.  He 
became  king  Oct.  17,  1216,  being  then  but  nine 
years  old.  The  desperate  state  to  which  Eng- 
land had  been  reduced  by  the  misgovernment 
of  John  makes  the  period  of  the  accession  of 
Henry  III.  the  darkest  in  English  history; 
but,  owing  to  the  talents  and  wisdom  of  the 
earl  of  Pembroke,  who  was  protector,  the 
state  of  the  country  was  rapidly  improved. 
He  confirmed  Magna  Oharta,  conciliated  the 
discontented  barons,  defeated  the  French  both 
by  sea  and  land,  and  restored  peace.  Pem- 
broke soon  dying,  power  passed  to  the  hands 
of  the  bishop  of  Winchester  and  Hubert  de 
Burgh,  the  latter  being  justiciary  and  having 
most  weight  in  the  government.  They  had 
not  the  influence  of  Pembroke,  and  could  not 
control  the  barons.  War  was  made  with  France, 
but  it  was  found  impossible  to  recover  the 
French  provinces  lost  by  John.  In  1231  the  jus- 
ticiary, who  had  received  large  gifts  and  been 
made  earl  of  Kent,  was  overthrown,  and  Win- 
chester, an  able  but  unprincipled  man,  monopo- 
lized power.  He  was  a  Poitevin,  and  many  of 
his  countrymen  going  over  to  England,  they 
were  intrusted  with  office,  to  the  discontent 
of  the  English  of  all  ranks,  whom  they  op- 
pressed and  plundered.  This  evil  was  aggra- 
vated by  the  marriage  of  the  king  in  1236  with 
Eleanor  of  Provence,  many  of  whose  country- 
men came  to  England,  and  shared  in  the  king's 
bounty.  An  expedition  into  France  in  1242 
terminated  disastrously.  The  pope  offered  Hen- 
ry the  crown  of  Sicily  for  his  son  Edmund,  and 
the  king  was  involved  in  debt  by  his  endeavors 
to  support  the  claim.  The  chief  interest  of  his 
reign  belongs  to  the  disputes  between  the  king 
and  the  barons.  These  came  to  a  head  in  1258, 
when  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  was 
chief  of  the  baronial  party  and  held  possession 


644          HENRY   IV.    (ENGLAND) 


HENRY     V.     (ENGLAND) 


of  the  king's  person.  The  "  provisions  of  Ox- 
ford," enacted  by  the  parliament  which  met 
there  in  that  year,  provided  for  the  election  of 
knights  of  the  shire,  four  from  each,  for  three 
sessions  of  parliament  in  each  year,  and  for  the 
annual  election  of  sheriffs.  Measures  hostile 
to  foreigners  were  also  adopted.  Government 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  barons,  who  lost 
the  popularity  they  had  once  enjoyed.  Louis 
IX.  of  France  made  a  treaty  with  Henry  in 
1259,  on  terms  favorable  to  the  latter.  Cir- 
cumstances enabling  the  king  to  renew  the  con- 
test with  the  barons,  war  ensued,  and  the  roy- 
alists were  defeated  at  Lewes,  May  13,  1264, 
Henry  being  taken  prisoner.  Prince  Edward 
was  compelled  to  make  the  treaty  of  Lewes 
with  Montfort,  and  himself  to  become  a  hos- 
tage. In  January,  1265,  a  new  parliament 
assembled  in  London,  called  by  Montfort,  to 
which  were  summoned  two  knights  from  each 
county,  and  two  deputies  from  each  of  cer- 
tain cities  and  boroughs,  such  deputies  never 
having  previously  been  summoned;  and  the 
writs  were  addressed,  not  to  the  sheriffs,  but  to 
the  boroughs.  This  was  the  commencement  of 
the  house  of  commons.  Prince  Edward  having 
escaped  from  Leicester,  the  royal  party  renewed 
the  war,  and  Leicester  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  Evesham,  Aug.  4, 1265.  The  king's  author- 
ity was  reestablished,  and  tranquillity  restored. 
Henry's  reign  lasted  56  years,  the  longest  in 
English  history  except  that  of  George  III. 

HENRY  IV.,  founder  of  the  royalty  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster,  supposed  to  have  been  born 
at  Bolingbroke,  Lincolnshire,  April  4,  1366, 
died  in  Westminster,  March  20,  1413.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, fourth  son  of  Edward  III.,  and  of 
Blanche,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  Plan- 
tagenet,  duke  of  Lancaster,  great-grandson  of 
Henry  III.  His  first  title  was  earl  of  Derby. 
At  the  age  of  15  he  married  Mary  Bohun, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford,  who  was  de- 
scended from  Edward  I.  In  his  youth  Henry 
delighted  in  tdurnaments  and  adventures.  In 
1390  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Teutonic 
knights,  serving  in  Prussia  and  Lithuania.  He 
then  went  to  Barbary.  Returning  to  England 
for  a  season,  lie  set  out  on  a  journey  to  Pales- 
tine in  July,  1392.  He  travelled  by  the  way 
of  Dantzic,  Konigsberg,  Vienna,  Friuli,  and 
Venice,  sailing  from  the  last  named  place  for 
Rhodes,  whence  he  returned  to  England  in  1393, 
visiting  on  the  way  Venice,  Milan,  Piedmont, 
Savoy,  and  France.  Richard  II.  made  him 
duke  of  Hereford  in  1397.  In  1398  he  brought 
an  accusation  of  traitorous  designs  against  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  who  denied  it,  and  appealed 
to  the  trial  by  battle.  The  arrangements  for 
fighting  were  all  completed,  when  the  king  put 
an  end  to  the  contest,  banishing  both  parties, 
Norfolk  for  life,  and  Hereford  for  ten  years. 
Subsequently  Hereford's  term  of  exile  was  re- 
duced to  six  years ;  but  when,  on  his  father's 
death,  he  became  duke  of  Lancaster,  Richard 
banished  him  for  life,  and  seized  his  immense 


possessions.  Lancaster  resolved  to  return 
home,  ostensibly  to  assert  his  claim  to  his 
property,  but  with  the  intention  of  obtaining 
the  crown.  This  course  was  advised  by  his 
friends.  He  landed  at  Ravenspur,  July  4,  1399, 
with  a  small  force,  the  king  being  absent  on  an 
expedition  in  Ireland,  and  declared  that  his  only 
object  was  to  establish  his  right  to  his  hereditary 
possessions ;  but  he  became  immediately  the 
chief  of  the  opposition  that  had  been  created  by 
Richard's  follies  and  crimes,  and  was  joined  by 
persons  of  all  classes,  from  the  Percies  to  the 
humblest  commoners.  Success  followed  his 
movements;  and  when  Richard  returned  he 
was  unable  to  resist,  and  became  Lancaster's 
prisoner,  resigning  the  crown,  which  parliament 
conferred  upon  the  duke,  who  thus  became 
Henry  IV.  (Sept.  30,  1399).  The  only  person 
who  objected  was  the  bishop  of  Carlisle.  The 
new  king  affected  to  trace  his  right  to  the 
crown  to  his  descent  from  Edmund  of  Lancas- 
ter, who  was  said  to  have  been  the  elder  brother 
of  Edward  L,  but  to  have  lost  his  inheritance 
from  some  personal  deformity.  This  claim  was 
not  valid,  and  Henry  had  only  such  right  as 
came  from  conquest  and  parliamentary  elec- 
tion. This  defect  in  his  title  led  him  to  court 
the  clergy,  who  were  now  troubled  by  the 
Lollards;  and  though  his  father  had  been 
the  greatest  patron  and  supporter  of  Wyclifte, 
Henry  became  the  persecutor  of  the  reform- 
ers. The  statute  de  hceretico  comburendo  (for 
the  burning  of  heretics)  was  adopted  in  1401, 
and  it  was  not  allowed  to  remain  a  dead 
letter.  Henry's  reign  was  mostly  passed  amid 
conspiracies  and  civil  and  foreign  war,  and 
he  spared  few  of  his  enemies.  He  found  the 
Welsh  his  constant  foes,  and  was  more  than 
once  attacked  by  the  Scots.  The  Percies  broke 
with  him  in  1403,  though  they  had  been  the 
chief  instruments  in  his  elevation ;  and  the 
battle  of  Shrewsbury  was  fought  in  July,  1403, 
and  Henry  Percy,  called  Hotspur,  defeated  and 
slain.  Other  attempts  were  made  to  depose 
him,  but,  though  not  without  great  difficulty, 
the  king  triumphed  over  his  enemies,  Glen- 
dower  in  Wales  alone  proving  unconquerable, 
though  much  reduced.  An  English  vessel  took 
the  ship  on  board  of  which  Prince  James,  heir 
apparent  of  the  Scotch  crown,  was  going  to 
France,  and  the  prince  remained  a  captive  for 
many  years.  The  feeling  between  France  and 
England  during  this  reign  was  extremely  bitter, 
because  Richard,  who  had  espoused  for  his  sec- 
ond wife  a  daughter  of  the  French  king,  was 
popular  in  the  former  country.  Henry  became 
unpopular  shortly  after  his  elevation  to  the 
throne,  though  as  a  subject  he  had  been  the 
favorite  of  all  classes.  His  first  wife  died  in 
1394,  leaving  four  sons,  who  were  among  the 
most  eminent  men  of  that  age,  and  two  daugh' 
ters.  His  second  wife  wras  Joanna  of  Navarre, 
widow  of  the  duke  of  Brittany,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  1403,  and  by  whom  he  had  no  issue. 

HENRY  V.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  second 
king  of  the  Lancaster  branch  of  the  Plantagej 


HENRY  V.   (ENGLAND) 


645 


born,  it  is  supposed,  in  Monmouth,  Aug. 
9,  1388,  died  at  Vincennes,  France,  Aug.  31, 
1422.  But  little  is  known  of  his  childhood. 
On  his  father's  banishment  Henry  was  seized 
by  Richard  II.,  who  took  him  with  the  expedi- 
tion to  Ireland,  and  knighted  him.  When  Rich- 
ard returned  to  England,  to  meet  the  youth's  fa- 
ther, he  placed  him  in  the  castle  of  Trim.  His 
father  caused  him  to  be  liberated  and  brought 
to  London ;  and  he  was  created  prince  of  Wales, 
Oct.  15,  1399.  He  took  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings against  the  insurgent  Welsh  in  1401,  while 
he  was  still  a  boy.  He  was  then  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  royal  forces  in  Wales, 
and  was  made  lieutenant  of  Wales  in  1403.  He 
had  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Shrews- 
bury. On  March  11,  1405,  he  defeated  the 
rebels  at  Grosmont.  The  constant  rebellion 
that  prevailed  in  England  prevented  the  king 
from  sending  much  assistance  to  his  son,  and 
he  was  thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  which 
tended  to  the  development  of  his  character  and 
prowess ;  and  the  speaker  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons in  1406  bore  testimony  to  his  good  quali- 
ties as  a  son  and  as  a  man.  At  the  close  of 
1407  he  commanded  an  expedition  that  was 
sent  into  Scotland,  and  after  some  successes 
made  a  truce  with  the  Scotch.  The  house  of 
commons  thanked  him  for  his  conduct,  at  the 
instance  of  his  father.  His  immediate  connec- 
tion with  Wales  is  believed  to  have  ceased  in 
1409.  He  was  made  warden  of  the  cinque  ports 
and  constable  of  Dover  the  same  year,  and  cap- 
tain of  Calais  in  1410.  The  king  gave  him  his 
house  of  Coldharbor,  in  London,  which  accounts 
for  the  prince's  connection  with  the  city. 
Councils  were  there  held,  at  which  the  prince 
presided,  as  he  did  when  they  were  held  at 
other  places.  The  stories  respecting  his  irregu- 
larities, loose  life,  and  association  with  high- 
waymen rest  upon  very  insufficient  evidence. 
The  prince  seems  to  have  been  in  theory  and 
action  above  the  average  morality  of  his  time. 
The  popular  idea  of  him  is  taken  from  Shake- 
speare, whose  "  Prince  Hal "  is  not  the  histori- 
cal Henry  of  Monmouth,  but  almost  as  ideal  a 
character  as  Hamlet  himself.  Henry  V.  was 
proclaimed  March  21,  1413,  the  day  after  his 
father's  death.  His  accession  caused  great  re- 
joicings. Parliament  voluntarily  tendered  the 
oath  of  fealty  and  allegiance,  an  act  without 
precedent.  He  behaved  with  magnanimity  to- 
ward the  enemies  and  rivals  of  his  house,  par- 
ticularly in  the  instance  of  the  earl  of  March, 
who  was  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  crown.  His 
legislation  is  not  open  to  the  same  praise.  He 
continued  the  persecution  of  the  Lollards;  he 
was  attached  to  Catholicism  both  from  convic- 
tion and  from  supposed  interest;  and  he  sent 
representatives  to  the  council  of  Constance  to 
help  to  heal  the  schism  in  the  church.  He  de- 
termined to  renew  the  claim  of  the  English  sov- 
ereigns to  the  crown  of  France,  though  it  was 
far  less  strong  in  his  person  than  it  was  in  that 
of  Edward  III. ;  and  his  determination  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  advice  of  the  clergy,  who  wished 


to  draw  off  the  attention  of  the  people  from 
church  questions,  and  to  save  the  church's  pat- 
rimony, the  seizure  of  which  had  been  called 
for  by  the  house  of  commons.  He  first  claimed 
the  entire  kingdom  of  France  when  negotiating 
an  alliance  for  a  marriage  with  Catharine, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI. ;  and  when  that  claim 
was  scouted,  the  English  envoys,  waiving  it 
without  prejudice  to  their  principal's  rights, 
"demanded  the  sovereignty  of  the  duchies  of 
Normandy  and  Touraine,  the  earldom  of  Anjou, 
the  duchy  of  Brittany,  the  earldom  of  Flanders, 
with  all  other  parts  of  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine, 
the  territories  which  had  been  ceded  to  Ed- 
ward III.  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  and  the 
land  between  the  Somme  and  Gravelines ;  to 
be  held  by  Henry  and  his  heirs,  without  any 
claim  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  Charles  or 
his  successors.  To  these  demands  were  added 
the  cession  of  Provence,  and  payment  of  the 
arrears  of  the  ransom  of  King  John,  amount- 
ing to  1,600,000  crowns.  It  was  also  intima- 
ted that  the  marriage  with  Catharine  could 
not  take  place  unless  a  firm  peace  were  also 
established  with  France,  and  that  2,000,000 
crowns  would  be  expected  as  her  dower." 
These  monstrous  terms  were  rejected  by  the 
French,  who  however  offered  to  make  great 
concessions.  The  English  parliament  strong- 
ly supported  the  king,  and  the  guilt  of  one  of 
the  most  unjust  wars  ever  waged  lies  rather 
upon  the  nation  than  upon  its  sovereign.  Par- 
liament commenced  the  system  of  loans  for  the 
support  of  this  war.  French  ambassadors  were 
sent  to  England  to  labor  for  peace,  but  with- 
out success.  A  powerful  force  was  assembled 
at  Southampton ;  and  a  conspiracy  was  there 
detected,  which  was  the  first  act  in  the  con- 
test between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter. The  earl  of  Cambridge,  a  grandson  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  and  the  husband  of  the  sister  of  the 
earl  of  March,  was  at  the  head  of  the  plot, 
which  had  for  its  object  the  restoration  of  the 
crown  to  the  legitimate  line  of  Clarence. 
Cambridge  and  others  suffered  for  their  con- 
duct. The  expedition  sailed  from  Southamp- 
ton, Aug.  11,  1415,  and  reached  France  in  two 
days.  Harfleur  was  taken,  Sept.  22,  after  a 
siege  of  five  weeks.  Henry  challenged  the  dau- 
phin to  a  personal  conflict,  to  decide  the  issue 
of  the  war,  but  his  proposition  was  not  accept- 
ed. Resolving  to  return  to  England  by  the 
way  of  Calais,  Henry  left  Harfleur  with  a  small 
army,  his  forces  having  suffered  from  sickness, 
and  on  Oct.  25  encountered  a  great  French 
army  at  Agincourt,  which  he  totally  defeated. 
In  a  moment  of  panic,  he  caused  his  prisoners 
to  be  massacred.  He  returned  to  England 
Nov.  17.  The  English  rejoiced  much  over  the 
victory,  but  they  found  the  war  very  burden- 
some, and  it  was  not  vigorously  prosecuted. 
Sigismund,  emperor  of  Germany,  sought  to 
mediate,  and  visited  both  France  and  Eng- 
land ;  but  failing,  he  joined  the  latter.  Little 
was  done  in  1416.  In  1417  Henry  invaded 
France  again,  and  met  with  considerable  sue- 


046 


HENRY  VI.   (ENGLAND) 


cess.  The  French  vainly  sought  peace.  The 
Scots  invaded  England,  and  were  beaten. 
Lord  Cobham  was  captured  in  Wales,  and  ex- 
ecuted as  a  traitor  and  a  heretic.  Rouen  was 
besieged,  and,  after  a  long  and  terrible  de- 
fence, was  taken  Jan.  19,  1419.  The  duke  of 
Brittany,  following  the  example  of  the  duke 
of  Burgundy,  joined  Henry.  An  interview  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  authorities  hav- 
ing produced  no  effect,  the  war  was  renewed, 
victory  remaining  with  Henry.  The  murder 
of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  by  partisans  of  the 
dauphin  caused  the  French  king  to  denounce 
his  own  son,  and  to  resolve  that  Henry  should 
be  made  regent  of  France.  At  the  end  of  No- 
vember, 1419,  an  arrangement  was  made  that 
Charles  VI.  should  remain  king  while  he  lived, 
but  that,  because  of  his  insanity,  Henry  should 
become  regent,  and,  marrying  the  princess 
Catharine,  should  succeed  him  on  his  death. 
An  armistice  was  concluded,  from  which  the 
dauphin  and  his  party  were  excluded.  The 
two  kingdoms  were  to  be  united,  and  a  treaty 
was  made  at  Troyes,  May  21, 1420.  The  same 
day  Henry  and  Catharine  were  affianced,  and 
their  marriage  took  place  June  2.  A  large 
part  of  France  continued  faithful  to  the  dau- 
phin, and  he  was  aided  by  the  Scots,  but  the 
successes  of  the  English  continued.  Henry 
returned  to  England,  where  Catharine  was 
crowned,  Feb.  24,  1421.  He  made  a  journey 
to  the  north,  during  which  he  received  news 
of  the  battle  of  Beauge,  in  which  the  French 
and  Scots  defeated  and  killed  his  brother  Clar- 
ence. Making  his  brother  Bedford  regent,  he 
returned  to  France  in  the  summer,  where  his 
usual  good  fortune  in  war  awaited  him ;  but 
nothing  could  overcome  the  stubborn  resistance 
of  the  loyal  portion  of  the  French  nation. 
Henry  had  planned  a  crusade  when  he  was 
seized  with  a  fatal  illness,  the  exact  nature  of 
which  is  unknown.  "  Memorials  of  Henry 
the  Fifth,  King  of  England,"  edited  by  Charles 
Augustus  Cole,  of  the  public  record  office, 
were  published  in  London  in  1858  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  lords  commissioners  of  the 
treasury,  under  the  direction  of  the  master  of 
the  rolls.  UA  History  of  Henry  V.,"  by  G. 
M.  Towle,  was  published  in  New  York  in  1866. 
HENRY  VI.,  son  of  the  preceding  and  of 
Catharine  of  France,  and  last  monarch  of  the 
Lancastrian  dynasty,  born  in  Windsor,  Dec.  6, 
1421,  believed  to  have  been  killed  in  the  tower 
in  May,  1471.  His  reign  is  reckoned  as  having 
begun  Sept.  1,  1422,  the  day  after  his  father's 
death,  when  he  was  only  nine  months  old. 
Parliament  declared  him  king  of  France  and 
England,  and  lord  of  Ireland,  and  created  his 
father's  eldest  brother,  the  duke  of  Bedford, 
protector,  defender,  and  chief  counsellor  of 
the  kingdom  and  church,  and  provided  that 
whenever  the  duke  of  Bedford  was  absent,  his 
father's  younger  brother,  the  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, should  act  in  his  place.  The  care  of  his 
person  and  education  was  confided  to  the  earl 
of  Warwick  and  to  Bishop  (afterward  Cardinal) 


Beaufort.  Charles  VI.  of  France  having  died 
soon  afterward  (October,  1422),  Henry  was 
also  proclaimed  king  of  France  in  all  those 
parts  of  that  country  which  were  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  English,  while  Charles  VII. 
was  crowned  by  the  French  the  same  year  at 
Poitiers.  A  long  struggle  ensued  between 
the  supporters  of  Henry  and  those  of  Charles, 
in  which  the  English  had  the  advantage  until 
Joan  of  Arc  turned  the  scale.  Henry  was 
crowned  at  London  in  1429  and  at  Paris  in 
1431,  the  protectorate  then  ending.  During 
his  minority  there  had  been  much  conten- 
tion between  Cardinal  Beaufort  and  the  duke 
of  Gloucester,  and  the  king's  coronation  was 
a  triumph  of  the  former,  who  then  gave  to 
the  government  a  strong  ecclesiastical  ten- 
dency, which  was  offensive  both  to  the  people 
and  to  the  aristocracy.  It  was  found  that 
Henry  had  inherited  none  of  the  martial  quali- 
ties of  his  father.  The  Beaufort  party  ar- 
ranged a  match  between  him  and  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  daughter  of  Rene"  of  Provence.  The 
marriage,  which  took  place  April  22,  1445, 
was  unpopular  in  England,  both  on  account  of 
Margaret's  relationship  to  the  French  king,  and 
because,  in  return  for  her  hand,  Maine  and 
Anjou  were  surrendered  to  her  father,  who 
claimed  them  by  right  of  inheritance.  A  truce 
which  had  been  negotiated  with  France  was 
prolonged  upon  terms  considered  disadvantage- 
ous to  England.  In  1447  both  Beaufort  and 
Gloucester  died,  and  the  earl  of  Suffolk  be- 
came the  most  powerful  person  in  the  king- 
dom ;  he  was  first  created  marquis,  then  duke, 
and  received  other  high  offices  and  prefer- 
ments. But  as  through  him  both  the  marriage 
and  the  truce  had  been  negotiated,  he  was 
greatly  disliked.  The  ill  will  with  which  he 
was  regarded  was  aggravated  by  disasters  suf- 
fered in  France  when  hostilities  were  renewed. 
Finally  his  enemies  procured  his  banishment 
from  England,  pursued  him  after  he  had  left  it, 
and  had  him  murdered  (1450).  His  death  did  < 
not  allay  the  popular  dissatisfaction,  which 
rendered  Jack  Cade's  insurrection  temporarily 
successful.  Meanwhile  the  English  continued 
to  lose  ground  in  France.  In  1451  they  had 
lost  all  their  French  possessions  except  Calais. 
Popular  attention  began  to  be  directed  toward 
Richard,  duke  of  York,  as  the  rightful  heir  to 
the  throne.  He  was  descended  from  Lionel, 
duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Edward  III., 
while  Henry  himself  was  descended  from  John, 
duke  of  Lancaster,  Edward  II I.  's  fourth  son. 
Henry's  weakness,  and  the  general  unpopular- 
ity of  the  government,  encouraged  York,  who 
was  much  loved  because  of  his  bravery,  mild- 
ness, and  good  conduct  both  in  public  and  pri- 
vate life,  to  put  forward  his  claims.  His  im- 
mense possessions  gave  him  vast  influence. 
His  wife  was  a  Neville,  and  he  had  the  sup- 
port of  the  ablest  members  of  that  family,  the 
earls  of  Salisbury  and  Warwick,  father  and 
son.  So  long  as  no  offspring  followed  from  the 
marriage  of  Henry  and  Margaret,  it  was  believed 


HENRY  VII.   (ENGLAND) 


647 


that  York  would  peaceably  succeed  to  the 
throne  on  the  king's  death.  But  in  1453  Mar- 
garet gave  birth  to  a  son  whose  legitimacy 
was  doubted;  and  about  the  same  time  the 
king  became  imbecile.  The  Yorkists  seized  the 
government,  overthrowing  Somerset,  who  had 
succeeded  to  Suffolk ;  and  the  duke  was  made 
protector  by  parliament.  On  recovering  his 
health,  Henry  restored  Somerset  to  office, 
whereupon  York  levied  an  army,  and  demand- 
ed reform  in  the  government.  The  war  of  the 
roses  then  began.  The  first  battle  of  St.  Al- 
bans  was  fought  May  22, 1455,  and  the  Yorkists 
or  party  of  the  white  rose  were  victorious. 
The  administration  passed  into  York's  hands, 
and  he  was  king  in  fact,  but  Henry's  authority 
was  restored  in  1456.  A  partisan  quarrel  in 
1459  renewed  the  war ;  and  in  1460  the  Lan- 
castrians were  defeated  by  Warwick,  and  the 
king  was  captured,  at  Northampton.  York 
now  demanded  the  throne,  and  parliament  de- 
cided that  he  should  succeed  to  it  on  Henry's 
death,  and  the  duke  in  the  mean  time  adminis- 
ter the  government.  The  queen  raised  an  army 
in  opposition  to  this  arrangement,  with  which 
she  won  the  victory  of  Wakefield,  Dec.  30, 
1460,  in  which  York  was  slain.  The  second 
battle  of  St.  Albans,  Feb.  17,  1461,  restored 
Henry  to  the  hands  of  his  friends ;  but  the 
victory  of  Towton,  won  by  Edward,  duke  of 
York,  now  Edward  IV.,  March  29,  1461,  com- 
pelled him  to  fly,  with  his  wife  and  son,  to 
Scotland.  Margaret,  through  foreign  assistance, 
renewed  the  war  in  1463,  but  was  defeated  in 
1464,  and  Henry  was  captured  in  1465.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  the  tower  till  1470,  when 
Warwick  restored  him  to  the  throne  after  his 
quarrel  with  Edward  IV.  On  the  return  of 
Edward,  Henry  again  became  a  prisoner,  and 
died  about  May  21,  1471. 

HENRY  VII.,  founder  of  the  Tudor  dynasty 
of  English  kings,  born  at  Pembroke  castle,  in 
South  Wales,  July  26, 1456,  died  at  Richmond, 
April  21, 1509.  On  the  death  of  Henry  V.,  his 
widow,  Catharine  of  France,  married  Owen 
ap  Tudor,  a  Welsh  gentleman  of  ancient  lin- 
eage, but  of  moderate  fortune.  Of  the  four 
children  born  of  this  marriage,  the  eldest  was 
Edmund  Tudor,  who  was  created  earl  of  Rich- 
mond by  Henry  VL,  his  half  brother;  and 
Richmond  in  1455  married  Margaret  Beaufort. 
John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  fourth  son 
of  Edward  III.,  had  married  for  his  third  wife 
Catharine  Swynford,  who  had  long  been  his 
mistress.  None  of  their  offspring  were  born 
in  wedlock,  but  he  obtained  the  legitimation  of 
them  all  by  a  papal  bull,  a  charter  from  Richard 
II.,  and  an  act  of  parliament.  John  Beaufort, 
duke  of  Somerset,  grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt 
and  Catharine  Swynford,  married  Margaret, 
widow  of  Sir  Oliver  St.  John,  nee  Beauchamp, 
and  their  only  child  was  Margaret  Beaufort, 
who  was  married  to  the  earl  of  Richmond  in 

1455,  and  became  countess  dowager  Nov.  1, 

1456,  three  months  after  the  birth  of  her  son. 
For  some  years  Henry  of  Richmond  resided  at 


Pembroke  castle,  even  after  that  place  had 
been  given  to  the  Herberts,  the  chief  of  whom 
had  charge  of  him.  He  was  attainted  soon 
after  the  crown  passed  to  the  house  of  York. 
His  education  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  a 
woman  of  piety  and  learning ;  and  he  grew 
up  a  thoughtful  and  serious  boy,  much  inclined 
to  religion.  When  the  house  of  Lancaster  was 
restored  in  1470,  Richmond  was  placed  in  Eton 
college,  where  he  was  seen  by  Henry  VL,  who 
predicted  that  he  would  be  king.  The  next 
year  saw  the  return  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the 
death  of  Henry  VI.  and  his  only  son,  when 
Richmond  became  chief  of  the  Lancastrian 
party.  By  letters  patent  from  Richard  II.  in 
1397,  granted  to  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  the 
Beauforts  were  to  be  "  admitted  to  all  honors 
and  dignities,"  which  placed  them  in  the  line 
of  succession  to  the  crown ;  but  when  Henry 
IV.  ratified  the  act  of  Richard  II.,  he  added, 
after  the  words  "all  honors  and  dignities,"  the 
words  "except  to  the  royal  dignity."  Thus 
the  Beauforts  were  not  from  the  first  excluded 
from  claims  to  the  throne,  and  Henry  of  Rich- 
mond had  plausible  ground  for  asserting  that 
he  was  the  lineal  heir  of  John  of  Gaunt,. and 
head  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Henry  was 
sent  to  Pembroke  castle  after  the  triumph  of 
the  Yorkists,  and  going  to  Tenby,  sailed  thence 
to  France.  Landing  in  Brittany,  he  was  seized 
by  the  duke  of  that  country,  who  held  him  a 
prisoner  many  years,  refusing  to  surrender  him 
to  Edward  IV.  In  1484,  when  the  usurpation 
of  Richard  III.  had  caused  much  discontent  in 
England,  Henry  was  recognized  as  chief  of  all 
parties  opposed  to  the  government,  and  a  mar- 
riage was  arranged  between  him  and  Elizabeth, 
eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  The  duke  of 
Brittany  finally  liberated  him,  and  with  a  small 
force  he  sailed  for  England.  He  was  unsuc- 
cessful, his  fleet  dispersed,  and  his  party  in  Eng- 
land was  crushed  for  the  time  by  Richard.  Af- 
ter a  variety  of  romantic  adventures,  he  raised 
a  larger  force,  sailed  from  Harfleur  in  the  be- 
ginning of  August,  1485,  and  landed  at  Milford 
Haven.  The  victory  of  Bosworth  (Aug.  22) 
and  the  death  of  Richard  III.  made  him  king. 
He  was  crowned  at  Westminster  Oct.  30.  Par- 
liament settled  the  succession  on  his  heirs.  He 
married  the  princess  Elizabeth  in  January,  1486, 
but  her  coronation  did  not  take  place  until  the 
close  of  1487.  Henry's  reign  was  much  dis- 
turbed by  pretenders  and  plots.  The  first  pre- 
tender was  Lambert  Simnel,  who  claimed  to 
be  the  earl  of  Warwick.  The  true  earl  was  a 
prisoner,  and  the  pretender  was  exposed ;  but 
an  army  was  raised,  which  at  Stoke  (June  16, 
1487)  disputed  the  day  with  the  royal  forces, 
and  placed  the  Tudor  cause  in  great  peril.  Vic- 
tory at  length  declared  for  Henry,  and  the 
Yorkists  lost  all  their  leaders  on  the  field.  The 
king,  with  good-natured  contempt,  made  Simnel 
a  turnspit.  A  more  formidable  competitor  was 
Perkin  Warbeck,  who  claimed  to  be  Richard, 
duke  of  York,  second  son  of  Edward  IV. ; 
and  the  assistance  he  received  from  Burgundy, 


648 


HENRY  VIII.    (ENGLAND) 


France,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  alarmed  Henry. 
He  detected  a  conspiracy  among  the  nobility, 
and  put  the  leaders  to  death,  including  Sir 
William  Stanley,  to  whom  he  owed  the  vic- 
tory of  Bosworth  and  the  throne.  A  Cornish 
rebellion,  caused  by  taxation,  was  put  down 
at  Blackheath,  June  22,  1497.  To  revive  this 
rebellion,  Perkin  went  to  Cornwall,  but  failed, 
and  fell  into  the  king's  hands.  Henry  had  him 
set  in  the  stocks,  and  forced  him  to  admit  that 
he  was  an  impostor,  he  reading  the  confession 
which  he  had  written  with  his  own  hand  to 
the  people  assembled  in  Cheapside.  He  was 
then  confined  in  the  tower,  and,  after  an  at- 
tempt to  escape,  was  hanged  at  Tyburn  in 
1499.  Warwick,  who  had  shared  in  the  at- 
tempt, and  had  been  the  object  of  a  third 
plot,  was  beheaded,  a  deed  as  foul  as  any  that 
has  been  attributed  to  Richard  III.  Henry's 
motive  was  to  satisfy  Ferdinand  of  Aragon, 
who  would  not  give  his  daughter  Catharine 
to  the  prince  of  Wales  while  any  Yorkist 
prince  remained  on  earth.  The  son  in  behalf 
of  whom  this  act  was  committed  died  in  1502. 
Henry  became  very  avaricious  in  his  last  years, 
and  by  the  revival  of  old  laws  and  other  means 
amassed  £1,800,000,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, which  are  perhaps  exaggerated.  He 
extorted  money  from  his  subjects  under  pre- 
tence of  making  war  on  France,  which  they 
demanded,  but  which  he  knew  better  than  to 
undertake.  He  sold  pardons,  and  drove  a 
trade  in  offices  of  the  court  and  the  church. 
The  two  most  noted  instruments  of  his  avarice 
were  Empson  and  Dudley.  In  the  llth  year 
of  his  reign  the  statute  for  the  security  of  the 
subject  obeying  and  aiding  a  king  de  facto  was 
passed,  which  was  made  necessary  by  the  ju- 
dicial slaughter  that  had  occurred  among  the 
aristocracy  while  the  contest  between  the 
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  distracted  Eng- 
land. Seven  years  earlier  was  passed  the  stat- 
ute of  fines,  which  was  but  a  copy  of  that 
of  Richard  III.,  and  probably  redacted  only 
to  give  validity  to  that  monarch's  laws.  The 
clergy  were  not  friendly  to  Henry,  and  in  each 
case  of  a  pretender  a  priest  was  concerned. 
Yet  he  followed  the  policy  of  the  house  of 
Lancaster,  causing  at  least  two  Lollards  to  be 
burned,  and  severely  persecuting  many  others. 
He  sought  the  reform  of  the  church,  and  in  his 
reign  we  find  the  first  indications  of  that  course 
which,  in  his  successor's  time,  ended  in  the 
English  reformation.  Henry  encouraged  com- 
merce and  patronized  voyages  of  discovery. 
His  foreign  policy  was  judicious;  and  by  mar- 
rying his  eldest  daughter  to  James  IV.  of  Scot- 
land, he  furthered  the  ultimate  union  of  the 
two  kingdoms.  Worn  out  with  anxiety  and 
care,  he  died  before  the  end  of  his  53d  year. 

HENRY  VIII.,  second  king  of  England  of  the 
Tudor  dynasty,  and  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding king  and  Elizabeth  of  York,  born  at 
Greenwich  palace,  June  28,  1491,  ascended  the 
throne  April  22,  1509,  died  Jan.  28,  1547.  His 
father  intended  that  he  should  become  the 


head  of  the  English  church,  and  was  educating 
him  for  the  office  of  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
when  the  death  of  his  elder  brother.  Arthur' 
made  him  heir  apparent,  April  2,  1502.  Ar- 
thur had  married  Catharine  of  Aragon,  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  receiving  with 
her  200,000  crowns,  one  half  of  which  was  paid 
down;  and  on  his  death  her  parents  desired  that 
she  might  be  sent  home,  and  the  money  refund- 
ed. Henry  VII.  objected,  and  proposed  that 
Catharine  should  marry  the  new  prince  of 
Wales,  who  was  five  years  her  junior;  and  she 
was  betrothed  to  him,  June  25,  1503.  Two 
years  later  the  prince  read  and  signed  a  pro- 
test against  this  contract,  in  presence  of  his 
father's  councillors,  declaring  that  he  did  not 
mean  to  fulfil  it.  This  was  the  work  of  his 
father,  who  wished  to  marry  Juana,  widow 
of  Philip  I.  of  Castile,  and  elder  sister  of 
Catharine.  Henry  VII.  probably  altered  the 
date  of  the  protest  at  a  later  period,  so  as  to 
disguise  its  object.  The  prince  of  Wales  was 
at  that  time  attached  to  Catharine,  and  a  dis- 
pensation had  been  granted  by  the  pope  as 
early  as  1504,  allowing  them  to  marry,  on  the 
ground  that  the  marriage  with  Prince  Arthur 
had  not  been  consummated.  The  king,  who 
was  always  conscientious  when  ill,  appears  at 
times  to  have  had  some  scruples  on  the  subject 
of  the  marriage,  and  would  have  restored  the 
princess  to  her  parents,  but  that  he  could  not 
bear  to  part  with  her  portion.  He  died,  and 
in  less  than  two  months  Henry  VIII.  and 
Catharine  were  married.  This  hasty  marriage 
was  made,  in  the  first  instance,  at  the  king's 
desire,  but  it  was  probably  urged  on  by  most 
of  the  statesmen  around  him  because  of  their 
anxiety  to  establish  the  succession.  The  wars 
of  the  roses  in  the  preceding  century  had  made 
an  indelible  impression  on  the  English  mind, 
the  effect  of  which  was  visible  throughout 
the  entire  history  of  England  during  the  exist- 
ence of  the  house  of  Tudor,  and  to  which  must 
be  attributed  much  of  their  vicious  conduct. 
Should  Henry  VIII.  die  without  an  heir, 
there  would  ensue  an  immediate  contest  for 
the  crown  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Tudor,  both  represented  by  women;  the  for- 
mer by  the  countess  of  Salisbury,  a  daughter 
of  the  last  duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  and  the  latter  by  the  daughters  of 
Henry  VII.  Archbishop  Warham  opposed  the 
marriage,  on  the  ground  of  their  relationship. 
Bishop  Fox  argued  in  its  favor,  though  it  was 
under  his  direction  that  the  king  when  prince 
of  Wales  had  protested  against  it.  The  privy 
council  recommended  the  marriage.  It  was 
solemnized  at  Greenwich,  June  7,  1509,  and 
they  were  crowned  June  24.  Few  monarchs 
have  been  more  popular  than  was  Henry 
at  his  accession.  He  was  the  heir  of  both 
branches  of  the  old  royal  house,  his  father 
representing  that  of  Lancaster,  and  his  mother 
that  of  York.  His  person  was  eminently  hand- 
some, his  mind  had  been  highly  cultivated,  and 
he  was  fond  of  martial  pleasures.  He  gave  up 


HENRY  VIII.   (ENGLAND) 


649 


Empson  and  Dudley,  the  obnoxious  ministers 
of  the  late  king,  to  vengeance,  together  with 
their  instruments.     He  returned  fines  that  had 
been  unjustly  or  oppressively  exacted.     Much 
was  hoped  and  expected  of  him,  and  not  alto- 
gether in  vain.     Though  addicted  to  pleasure, 
he  was  not  unmindful  of  business,  and  paid 
special  attention  to  foreign  affairs.     His  man- 
lers  were  pleasing,  yet  he  evinced  at  an  early 
jriod  not  a  little  of  that  obstinacy  which  be- 
came his  chief  trait  in  later  life.     He  is  often 
spoken  of  as  a  lavish  prince,  but  Wolsey  said 
that  he  was  the  most  avaricious  man  in  the 
world.     Had  he  died  within  20  years  from  his 
accession,  he  would  have  been  the  most  popu- 
monarch  in  English  history.     His  foreign 
connections  began  early.     In  1510  he  received 
the  golden  rose  from   Pope  Julius  II.,   who 
wished  to  obtain  his  aid  to  expel  the  French 
from  Italy;   but  at  first  he  was  disposed  to 
be  moderate,  and  to  pursue  substantially  the 
>olicy  of  his  father.     He  made  a  treaty  with 
ranee,   and   then   entered  into   engagements 
nth  his  father-in-law,  guaranteeing  his  Span- 
sh  dominions  against  the  French,  and  sent  an 
imbassador  to  Eome  to  promote  a  pacifica- 
ion.     Gradually  he  was  drawn  into  the  war 
the  side  of  the  pope  and  Ferdinand,  and 
English  forces  were  sent  to  their  assistance. 
Late  in   1511    a  league  was   formed    against 
rrance  by  the  pope,  the  emperor,  Aragon,  and 
Venice.     Henry  led  a  large  army  into  France 
in  1513,  after  his  fleet  had  been  checked  and 
the  French  had  threatened  the  English  coast, 
[aximilian  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  served 
inder  him  as  a  volunteer.     Great  things  were 
expected   from   this  invasion,    but   were  not 
ilized.     The  French  were  beaten  in  the  bat- 
le  of  the  spurs  (at  Guinegate),  an  unimpor- 
mt  skirmish,  remarkable  only  because  Bayard 
ras  then  captured  ;  and  the  English  took  The- 
>uanne  and  Tournay.     Henry  then  returned 
lome  with  most  of  his  forces.      Louis  XII., 
loping  to  intimidate    Henry,  had  called  the 
luke  of  Suffolk,  one  of  the  nephews  of  Edward 
"V.,  to  France,  whereupon  Henry  caused  Suf- 
Ik's  brother  to  be  put  to  death,  after  he  had 
>ng  been  detained   a  prisoner.      While   the 
:ing  was  in  France,  James  IV.  of  Scotland  led 
great  army  into  England,  which  was  totally 
lefeated  at  Flodden  by  the  earl  of  Surrey,  Sept. 
),  1513,  and  the  Scottish  king  slain.    Being  de- 
rted  by  his  allies,  Henry  made  peace  with 
)uis  XIL,  who  married  his  sister,  Mary  Tu- 
lor ;  but  the  French  king  soon  died,  and  Mary 
larried    Charles    Brandon,    duke  of  Suffolk. 
7olsey,  whose  career  had  commenced  in  the 
preceding  reign,  was  now  high  in  favor  with 
the  king,  and  his  course  on  many  occasions 
*ave  much  offence  to  the  nobility. '  The  suc- 
cesses of  Francis  I.  in  Italy  alarmed  Europe, 
id  the  German  emperor  sought  to  engage 
lenry  to  act  against  France  by  holding  out 
lopes  of  being  made  his  successor ;  and  Fran- 
jis,  in  retaliation,  formed  plans  for  an  invasion 
"  England  in  support  of  Suffolk's  claim  to  the  j 


throne.  This  pretender  was  an  object  of  ter- 
ror to  the  English  government  until  he  was 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Pavia.  The  successes  of 
the  Turks  continuing  to  alarm  the  western  na- 
tions, Henry  listened  to  the  pope's  plans  for  a 
crusade.  On  the  death  of  Maximilian  I.  Henry 
thought  of  becoming  a  competitor  for  the  im- 
perial crown,  but  soon  discovered  that  he  had 
no  chance  of  success.  The  election  of  Charles 
of  Spain  to  the  imperial  throne  caused  Henry 
and  Francis  to  become  friendly,  and  in  1520  a 
meeting  was  arranged  between  them.  Before 
it  could  be  held,  Charles  V.  visited  England,  and 
there  gained  the  influence  of  Wolsey,  by  affect- 
ing to  favor  his  aspirations  to  the  popedom. 
Francis  and  Henry  then  met  near  Ardres,  on 
territory  belonging  to  the  latter,  though  in 
France.'  The  meeting  was  so  magnificent  that 
the  place  of  it  was  known  as  the  field  of  the 
cloth  of  gold.  Henry  visited  the  emperor  at 
Gravelines,  where  Charles  completed  his  con- 
quest of  Wolsey  by  conferring  Castilian  sees 
upon  him.  War  breaking  out  between  Charles 
and  Francis,  Henry  was  induced  by  Wolsey  to 
favor  the  former,  and  to  enter  into  an  offensive 
alliance  with  him.  In  1521  Henry  received 
from  Leo  X.  the  title  of  defender  of  the  faith, 
for  having  written  a  book  against  Luther  and 
his  doctrines.  The  same  year  occurred  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  one  of  the 
greatest  nobles  of  the  realm,  and  descended  in 
the  female  line  from  Edward  III.  His  death 
was  attributed  to  Wolsey,  but  it  was  due  to  the 
jealous  rage  of  Henry,  who  could  not  bear 
about  him  any  one  who  had,  or  could  pretend 
to  have,  claims  to  the  succession  in  the  event 
of  his  dying  without  issue.  The  death  of  Leo 
X.  and  the  elevation  of  Adrian  VI.  endangered 
the  alliance  between  Charles  V.  and  Henry,  be- 
cause of  Wolsey's  disappointment ;  but  the  em- 
peror visited  England,  soothed  the  cardinal, 
and  prevailed  upon  the  king  to  declare  war 
against  France.  An  English  army,  command- 
ed by  Surrey,  invaded  France,  but  did  nothing 
beyond  burning  and  pillaging  a  few  places  of 
little  note.  Francis  I.  again  called  forth  the 
pretender  Suffolk,  and  threatened  England 
with  invasion ;  and  these  threats,  and  the 
alarm  they  caused,  show  that  the  party  of  York 
was  still  formidable  in  that  country,  a  fact  that 
palliates  many  of  the  king's  acts.  Henry  was 
a  party  to  the  conspiracy  of  the  constable  de 
Bourbon  against  Francis  in  1523 ;  and  from 
this  conspiracy  he  expected  to  become  as  pow- 
erful in  France  as  Henry  V.  had  been.  But 
the  failure  of  the  plot  ruined  Bourbon,  while 
an  English  army,  commanded  by  Brandon, 
duke  of  Suffolk,  performed  as  little  in  France 
as  had  been  done  by  that  of  Surrey.  The  death 
of  Adrian  VI.  in  1523  excited  anew  the  hopes 
of  Wolsey,  but  Charles  V.  threw  his  influence 
into  the  scale  of  Cardinal  de'  Medici,  who  be- 
came Clement  VII.  This  disappointment  de- 
termined Wolsey  to  withdraw  his  master  from 
the  imperial  alliance ;  but  not  until  after  the 
battle  of  Pavia  was  he  able  to  accomplish  his 


650 


HENRY   VIII.   (ENGLAND) 


purpose.  Henry  was  at  first  disposed  to  pros- 
ecute the  war  more  vigorously  than  ever  against 
France,  and  Bourbon  showed  that  he  could  ob- 
tain the  crown  of  that  country ;  but  Wolsey's 
policy  prevailed,  much  aided  by  the  emperor's 
conduct,  as  he  evinced  a  disposition  hostile  to 
English  aggrandizement.  A  treaty  of  peace 
was  made  with  France  in  August,  1525,  on 
terms  advantageous  to  England.  In  1527  Hen- 
ry and  Francis  formed  an  alliance  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  imperialists  from  Italy,  and  the 
deliverance  of  the  pope,  who  was  the  empe- 
ror's prisoner.  Henry  renounced  all  claims  to 
the  French  throne,  and  Francis  agreed  to  pay 
50,000  crowns  annually  to  Henry  and  his  suc- 
cessors. Wolsey  made  a  magnificent  journey 
to  France,  which  the  public  associated  with 
the  thought  of  Henry's  divorce,  with  a  view  to 
his  marriage  with  a  French  princess ;  and  from 
this  time,  the  spring  of  1527,  the  question  of 
divorce  becomes  the  leading  incident  of  Hen- 
ry's reign.  His  marriage  with  Catharine  had 
not  been  productive  of  heirs.  During  the  first 
nine  years  of  their  union,  the  queen  had  thrice 
miscarried,  two  sons  died  immediately  after 
birth,  and  a  third  son  was  still-born.  The  only 
child  that  lived  was  the  princess  Mary,  born  in 
1516.  Henry,  who  was  superstitious  even  to 
fanaticism,  was  much  impressed  by  these  re- 
peated misfortunes,  and  believed  they  were 
punishments  for  having  married  his  brother's 
wife.  The  idea  of  a  divorce  had  perhaps  been 
maturing  in  his  mind  for  years,  when  accident 
gave  it  sudden  prominence.  The  marriage  of 
the  princess  Mary  with  a  French  prince  being 
spoken  of  as  probable,  the  legitimacy  of  the 
princess  was  questioned  by  the  French  envoy, 
the  bishop  of  Tarbes.  This  the  king  asserted 
in  council,  but  it  has  been  doubted  whether 
the  bishop  ever  raised  any  such  question.  At 
this  time  the  pope  was  suffering  from  the  at- 
tack of  the  imperialists,  and  soon  became  a 
prisoner  of  the  emperor,  and  Wolsey  deter- 
mined to  procure  a  divorce,  in  the  hope  of  be- 
ing able  to  commit  Henry  thoroughly  to  the 
cause  of  the  ancient  church,  which  was  be- 
ginning to  feel  the  attacks  of  the  reformers. 
Apart  from  the  theological  reasons  which  de- 
terred the  pope  from  granting  a  divorce,  he 
had  to  dread  the  resentment  of  the  emperor, 
who  was  Catharine's  nephew.  Wolsey  aimed  • 
at  a  reformation  of  manners  in  England,  and  he 
hated  the  emperor  because  of  his  repeated  dis- 
appointments respecting  the  papacy ;  and  in 
both  the  ends  he  proposed  to  effect,  the  moral 
reformation  and  the  divorce,  he  had  a  good 
right  to  count  upon  the  pope's  assistance,  as 
matters  stood  in  1527.  But  it  was  impossible 
that  the  pope  should  continue  to  be  the  open 
enemy  of  the  emperor ;  and  unless  he  should 
so  continue,  his  aid  in  the  divorce  question 
could  not  be  counted  upon.  The  alliance  with 
the  emperor  was  popular  in  England,  he  being 
ruler  of  Flanders,  with  which  country  England 
had  a  great  and  profitable  commerce.  The  em- 
peror himself  was  at  that  time  popular  in  Eng- 


land: with  the  reformers,  because  he  was  at 
war  with  the  pope  ;  with  the  conservatives,  be- 
cause they  knew  his  position  necessarily  made 
him  the  champion  of  the  old  order  of  things, 
though  circumstances  had  for  the  time  made 
him  their  apparent  enemy  ;  and  generally,  be- 
cause he  was  the  foe  of  France,  England's  old 
rival.  Wolsey  triumphed  over  all  these  ob- 
stacles, by  convincing  Henry  that  by  a  change 
of  foreign  policy  he  could  cause  the  pope  to 
grant  the  divorce  he  so  much  desired ;  and  in 
his  correspondence  with  the  English  agent  at 
Rome,  he  declared  that  the  king  would  dis- 
regard the  wishes  of  his  subjects  and  the  pri- 
vate interests  of  his  realm,  to  attach  himself 
cordially  and  constantly  to  the  holy  see,  pro- 
vided the  pope  should  prove  his  friend  in  the 
matter  he  had  so  much  at  heart.  That  Hen- 
ry was  in  part  governed  by  religious  feeling, 
and  also  by  considerations  growing  out  of 
the  subject  of  the  succession,  cannot  reason- 
ably be  doubted ;  but  his  attachment  to  Anne 
Boleyn,  which  began  some  years  before  the 
open  agitation  of  the  divorce  question,  was  the 
real  occasion  of  his  wish  to  put  away  his  wife, 
Anne  being  resolute  in  her  determination  not 
to  be  his  mistress.  Wolsey  was  opposed  to  the 
proposed  marriage  with  Anne,  and  the  king, 
without  his  minister's  knowledge,  sent  his  sec- 
retary to  Rome,  with  a  private  proposition  that 
a  dispensation  should  be  granted,  allowing  him 
to  take  a  second  wife,  the  former  marriage  to 
stand  with  no  definite  sentence  passed  upon  it; 
or,  if  that  were  impossible,  leaving  the  pope 
to  proceed  after  his  own  ideas,  the  main  object 
to  be  kept  always  in  view.  Wolsey's  plan  was 
that  the  pope  should  extend  his  (Wolsey's) 
legatine  authority  so  far  as  to  grant  him  full 
power  to  act  as  English  vicegerent  so  long  as 
Rome  should  be  held  by  the  emperor's  forces. 
Soon,  however,  the  public  and  private  agents 
acted  together,  and  the  pope  was  urgently  de- 
sired to  do  that  which  Henry  asked.  For  years 
he  played  a  double  game,  though  warned  by 
Wolsey  and  others  of  the  evil  that  must  follow 
to  Rome  from  his  failure  to  favor  Henry.  In 
1528  Cardinal  Campeggio  was  appointed  to 
proceed  to  England,  to  hear  the  cause  in  con- 
junction with  Wolsey;  but  he  purposely  de- 
layed his  journey,  and  had  instructions  not  to 
decide  the  cause.  He  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  king  to  give  up  his  wish,  and  failing,  sought 
to  induce  Catharine  to  take  the  vows  of  chas- 
tity, and  to  retire  from  the  contest ;  but  that 
lady,  who  was  singularly  tenacious  of  her 
rights,  would  consent  only  on  condition  that 
the  king  should  take  the  same  vows.  Henry, 
now  convinced  that  only  bold  measures  would 
answer,  avowed  his  intention  to  make  Anne 
Boleyn  his  wife,  and  installed  her  in  Green- 
wich palace.  He  sent  a  relative  of  the  lady  to 
Rome,  to  announce  that  his  request  must  be 
granted,  menacing  that,  if  he  failed  with  the 
pope,  the  whole  matter  should  be  laid  before 
parliament.  The  emperor  sought  to  intimidate 
the  king ;  but  Henry  summoned  a  meeting  of 


HENRY  VIII.   (ENGLAND) 


651 


obles,  merchants,  and  others,  at  London,  be- 
fore whom  he  placed  the  reasons  of  his  con- 
duct, and  appealed  to  the  patriotism  of  his  sub- 
jects, with  success.  The  imperial  threats  and 
intrigues  proved  very  injurious  to  the  queen's 
cause.  The  legatine  court  was  prevented  by 
trickery  from  acting  until  May,  1529,  and  then 
Catharine  appealed  to  Rome,  to  which  Henry 
was  summoned.  Against  this  Wolsey  protest- 
ed, declaring  that  if  Henry  should  go  to  the 
court  of  Rome,  it  would  be  with  such  a  force  as 
should  be  formidable  to  the  pope  and  all  Italy. 
A  parliament  was  immediately  called,  and 
power  passed  into  the  hands  of  new  men, 
though  of  the  old  aristocracy,  and  Wolsey's  en- 
emies, and  opposed  to  the  rule  of  the  church, 
yet  not  reformers  in  every  case.  At  that  time 
there  were  three  parties  in  the  country :  the 
English  party,  in  whose  hands  was  power,  and 
who  were  determined  upon  a  secular  revolt ; 
the  papal  party,  the  chief  member  of  which 
as  Sir  Thomas  More,  now  chancellor;  and 
e  doctrinal  Protestants,  who  were  disliked 
y  both  the  others.  "Wolsey  gave  up  the  seals 
ct.  IT,  1529,  and  parliament  met  Nov.  3.  The 
fact  that  the  opening  speech  was  made  by 
More,  an  extreme  Catholic,  standing  at  the 
king's  right  hand,  shows  that  Henry  had  even 
then  no  wish  to  break  with  Rome.  Wolsey 
was  coarsely  reflected  on  by  the  chancellor. 
Parliament  was  left  to  pursue  its  own  course, 
and  it  proceeded  to  denounce  the  clergy  in  a 
formal  "  act  of  accusation,"  or  petition,  which 
ntained  the  germ  of  the  English  reforma- 
on.  Henry  submitted  this  to  the  bishops, 
who  replied  at  length,  but  ineffectually,  as  the 
commons  passed  several  laws  respecting  the 
powers  and  privileges  of  the  clerical  order; 
and  the  lords  concurred,  though  the  clergy 
formed  a  majority  of  the  upper  house,  which 
shows  that  the  pressure  was  great  from  with- 
out. The  divorce  question  continued  under 
discussion,  and  the  pope  issued  two  inhibitions, 
threatening  Henry  with  spiritual  censures  if  he 
should  proceed.  The  king  thought  at  one  time 
of  giving  way,  and  most  of  the  council  agreed 
with  him  ;  but  Thomas  Cromwell  induced  him 
to  persevere.  Henry  hoped  the  conduct  of 
parliament  would  intimidate  the  papal  court. 
The  right  of  the  pope  to  grant  that  dispensa- 
tion under  which  the  marriage  of  Henry  and 
Catharine  had  taken  place  was  called  in  ques- 
tion, the  object  being  to  transfer  the  matter 
to  a  broader  court,  and  to  obtain  in  some  way, 
as  through  an  appeal  to  a  council,  a  decision 
against  the  marriage.  This  is  said  to  have 
been  suggested  by  Cranmer,  who  made  him- 
self very  prominent  in  obtaining  the  opinions 
of  universities  and  learned  men  on  the  subject, 
and  who  belonged  to  the  embassy  of  the  earl 
of  Wiltshire,  sent  to  the  emperor  at  Bologna 
in  1530.  This  embassy  failed  to  move  Charles. 
The  pope  still  affected  impartiality,  and  allow- 
ed free  expression  of  opinion  on  the  marriage 
in  Italy;  but  his  sole  object  was  delay,  and 
Spanish  influence  was  exerted  in  the  queen's 


behalf.  In  Catholic  countries,  the  sentiments 
of  learned  men  and  other  authorities  on  the 
dispensing  power  were  about  equally  divided. 
The  Protestants,  including  Luther,  were  gener- 
rally  hostile  to  Henry.  In  France  and  England 
Henry's  cause  triumphed,  because  all  the  influ- 
ence of  both  governments  was  used  in  its  be- 
half. The  entire  proceedings  were  scandalous. 
Wolsey  had  been  prosecuted  under  the  statute 
of  provisors,  and  had  died  in  disgrace ;  and  it 
was  determined  to  proceed  against  the  higher 
clergy,  but  less  in  the  spirit  of  justice  (for  the 
whole  nation  shared  in  their  guilt)  than  to  ob- 
tain an  opportunity  to  strip  them  of  some  of 
their  property,  and  to  lessen  their  power.  Con- 
vocation met  in  1531,  and  consented  to  pay  a 
fine  of  £118,000.  In  the  preamble  to  their 
subsidy  bill  the  clergy  were  compelled  to 
acknowledge  Henry  as  "protector  and  only 
supreme  head  of  the  church."  They,  were 
then  pardoned.  The  divorce  question  was  first 
brought  before  parliament  in  1531,  when  the 
opinions  of  the  universities  were  communicated 
to  it.  The  house  of  peers  sent  a  remonstrating 
letter  to  the  pope,  warning  him  of  what  would 
follow  if  a  divorce  should  not  be  granted. 
Catharine  was  asked  if  she  would  withdraw 
her  appeal  to  Rome,  and  on  her  firm  refusal 
she  was  removed  from  the  court.  In  1532 
parliament  proceeded  in  the  work  of  clerical 
reform,  taking  its  first  step  toward  a  breach 
with  Rome  by  the  abolition  of  annates,  which 
originated  with  the  clergy,  who,  to  preserve 
their  own  power  at  home,  were  ready  to  go 
any  length  against  Rome,  eveli  while  persecu- 
ting Protestants  most  intolerantly.  Parliament 
was  more  moderate,  and  passed  the  act  condi- 
tionally. From  this  time  dates  "  the  Anglican 
schism,"  the  convocation  praying  to  the  king, 
"  May  it  please  your  highness  to  ordain  in  this 
present  parliament  that  the  obedience  of  your 
highness  and  of  the  people  be  withdrawn  from 
the  see  of  Rome;"  that  is,  if  the  pope  should 
insist  upon  the  payment  of  annates.  But  this 
did  not  prevent  parliament  from  limiting  the 
legislative  power  of  the  convocation,  in  spite 
of  the  clergy's  opposition.  Meantime  the  nun 
of  Kent  and  other  fanatics  were  inciting  the 
people  to  opposition  to  the  government,  and  a 
powerful  party  hostile  to  change  was  forming 
itself.  Sir  Thomas  More  resigned  the  chancel- 
lorship ;  and  Archbishop  Warham,  after  pro- 
testing against  the  doings  of  parliament,  died. 
An  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between 
Francis  and  Henry  was  formed  in  1532;  the 
former  agreed  to  send  15,000  troops  to  Eng- 
land, should  the  emperor  invade  that  country ; 
and  he  assisted  Henry  in  various  ways.  Scot- 
land gave  England  much  trouble  at  this  time. 
The  English  court  visited  that  of  France  at 
Boulogne,  and  Francis  made  great  promises  of 
support,  and  advised  Henry  to  marry  Anne 
Boleyn  on  his  return  to  England.  New  efforts 
were  made  to  move  the  pope,  but  though  he 
often  affected  to  favor  the  king,  and  made 
some  suggestions  implying  a  desire  to  gratify 


652 


HENRY    VIII.     (ENGLAND) 


him,  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  do  any- 
thing. At  length  Henry  married  Anne  Bo- 
leyn,  Jan.  25,  1533,  according  to  the  generally 
received  account,  though  it  was  believed  that 
a  secret  marriage  had  taken  place  in  the  pre- 
ceding November.  A  papal  brief  soon  ap- 
peared, declaring  Henry  and  Anne  excom- 
municated, unless  they  should  avoid  all  inter- 
course pending  the  decision  of  the  divorce,  the 
marriage  being  kept  secret.  Parliament  met, 
and  passed  the  act  of  appeals  (April  12),  di- 
rected against  the  papal  authority,  and  intend- 
ed to  bear  against  Catharine's  appeal  to  Rome. 
This  took  the  matter  before  the  convocation, 
and  that  body,  on  Cranmer's  application,  de- 
cided that  Pope  Julius  II.,  in  granting  a  license 
for  the  marriage  of  Henry  and  Catharine, 
had  exceeded  his  authority,  and  that  the  mar- 
riage was  therefore  ab  initio  void.  Cranmer 
then  demanded  the  king's  permission  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  case,  which  being  granted,  he 
opened  his  court  at  Dunstable,  and  summoned 
Catharine  to  appear.  She  refused,  and  was 
pronounced  contumacious,  and  the  trial  pro- 
ceeded. Judgment  was  rendered  May  23,  1533, 
the  marriage  being  declared  null  and  void  from 
the  beginning.  Nine  days  later  the  coronation 
of  Anne  took  place,  and  it  was  announced  to 
Catharine  that  she  should  no  longer  be  called 
queen,  but  princess  dowager.  There  was  much 
discontent,  and  the  emperor,  whom  Henry  in 
vain  sought  to  appease,  believed  there  would 
be  an  insurrection,  and  urged  Catharine  not  to 
carry  out  her  design  of  flying  to  Spain  with  her 
daughter.  On  May  12  Henry  was  summoned 
to  appear  at  Rome,  but  he  appealed  to  a  gen- 
eral council.  News  of  the  divorce  threw  the 
pope  into  a  rage,  yet  he  contented  himself  at 
the  time  with  a  conditional  excommunication, 
declaring  Cranmer's  judgment  illegal,  and  giv- 
ing Henry  more  than  two  months  for  repent- 
ance and  restitution.  Henry  stood  firm,  but 
Francis  failed  to  support  him,  and  he  had  to 
look  to  the  German  Protestants  for  sympathy ; 
and  he  sent  an  envoy  to  the  elector  of  Saxony, 
with  no  effect.  The  princess  Elizabeth  was 
born  Sept.  7,  1533.  Conspiracies  against  the 
king  were  formed,  implicating  both  Catharine 
and  her  daughter  Mary ;  and  the  throne  was 
in  much  danger  from  the  ambition  of  some  par- 
ties and  the  fanaticism  of  others.  Government 
acted  vigorously,  and  it  was  determined  to  form 
a  Protestant  league.  Parliament  met  in  Janu- 
ary, 1534,  and  took  a  variety  of  measures  to  in- 
crease the  separation  of  Rome  and  England, 
under  Cromwell's  lead.  The  papal  authority 
was  conditionally  abolished  in  England.  An 
act  of  succession  was  passed,  settling  the  crown 
upon  the  children  of  Henry  and  Anne.  At 
length  the  pope  gave  sentence,  deciding  against 
Henry,  declaring  him  excommunicate,  and  free- 
ing his  subjects  from  allegiance.  The  emperor 
was  to  enforce  the  sentence,  and  invade  Eng- 
land within  four  months ;  and  preparations  to 
that  end  were  at  once  begun.  Francis  showed 
himself  friendly  to  Henry,  and  a  meeting  be- 


tween them  was  prevented  only  by  the  latter'8 
fear  that  a  rebellion  might  break  out  during 
his  absence.  A  French  fleet  guarded  the  chan- 
nel through  the  summer.  Henry's  conduct 
was  very  energetic.  Convocation  declared 
that  the  pope  had  no  more  authority  in  Eng- 
land than  any  other  bishop;  convicted  con- 
spirators were  executed ;  military  preparations 
were  made ;  the  oaths  of  allegiance  under  the 
statute  of  succession  were  taken ;  and  More 
and  Fisher  were  imprisoned,  and  ultimately 
executed,  for  refusing  to  admit  the  king's  su- 
premacy. The  act  of  supremacy  was  passed, 
making  Henry  the  head  of  the  church,  which 
act  has  been  described  as  "  the  epitome  of  all 
the  measures  which  had  been  passed  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  spiritual  powers 
within  and  without  the  realm,"  and  as  being 
"  at  once  the  symbol  of  the  independence  of 
England,  and  the  declaration  that  thenceforth 
the  civil  magistrate  was  supreme  within  the 
English  dominions  over  church  as  well  as 
state."  A  new  and  sweeping  treason  act  was 
passed.  The  first  fruits  were  transferred  to 
the  crown.  The  new  pope,  Paul  III.,  who  as 
Cardinal  Farnese  had  been  on  Henry's  side, 
showed  a  desire  for  reconciliation,  and  the 
French  king  labored  in  the  same  direction ; 
but  the  hour  for  England's  divorce -from  Rome 
had  come,  and  all  negotiation  was  now  useless. 
The  execution  of  Fisher  and  More  created  a 
great  sensation  among  Catholics.  The  pope 
issued  a  bull  of  interdict  and  deposition  against 
the  king.  The  union  of  the  Protestants  was 
now  more  earnestly  sought  than  before,  Henry 
aiming  at  the  formation  of  a  grand  league.  The 
visitation  of  the  monasteries  commenced  in 

1535,  and  the  first  suppression  took  place  the 
next  year.     Catharine  died  at  the  beginning  of 

1536,  and  the  fall  of  Anne  Boleyn  occurred 
four  months  later,  when  Henry  married  Jane 
Seymour.     On  Anne's  deatli   new   overtures 
came  from  Rome  for  a  reconciliation,  which 
failed  principally  through  the  indiscretion  of 
Reginald  Pole.     The  pilgrimage  of  grace  oc- 
curred   in   1536,   being  a  popular  outbreak, 
principally  due  to  the  suppression  of  the  mon- 
asteries and  to  the  social  changes  that  were 
going  on.     The  dispute  was  settled  by  com- 
promise, the  government  yielding  to  some  of 
the  demands  of  the  insurgents.     A  second  out- 
break was  put  down  by  force,  and  many  per- 
sons were  executed.     Edward,  prince  of  Wales, 
was  born  Oct.  12,  1537,  and  Queen  Jane  died 
12  days  later.     During  1538  there  were  con- 
spiracies against  the  crown,  for  which  many 
persons  suffered,  at  the  head  of  whom  stood 
the  marquis  of  Exeter,  a  grandson  of  Edward 
IV.     The  final  dissolution  of  the  monasteries 
took  place  in  1539,  the  same  year  that  the  six 
articles  were  adopted,  forming  the  new  church 
in  England,  and  embracing  the  real  presence, 
communion  in  both  kinds  not  necessary  to  sal- 
vation, forbidding  the  marriage  of  priests,  up- 
holding vows  of  chastity,  declaring  that  private 
masses  should  be  continued,  and  providing  for 


HENRY   VIII.   (ENGLAND) 

the  continuance  of  auricular  confession.  This 
was  followed  by  a  persecution  of  the  reform- 
ers. At  the  beginning  of  1540  Henry  married 
Anne  of  Cleves,  a  marriage  that  had  been  ne- 
gotiated by  Cromwell,  with  a  view  to  uniting 
the  Protestants  of  England  and  Germany  ;  but 
the  lady's  unprepossessing  appearance  so  dis- 
gusted the  king  that  he  soon  procured  a  divorce, 
and  in  a  few  months  Cromwell  was  sent  to  the 
scaffold.  Henry  took  for  his  fifth  wife  Cath- 
arine Howard,  niece  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
who  was  soon  attainted  and  executed  for  adul- 
tery. He  married  a  sixth  time  (1543),  taking 
Catharine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord  Latimer,  who 
survived  him.  The  countess  of  Salisbury,  last 
of  the  Plantagenets,  was  executed  in  1541. 
A  war  broke  out  between  England  and  Scot- 
land, in  which  the  latter  met  with  nothing  but 
disgrace.  England  and  the  empire  drew  to- 
gether again,  and  war  was  made  by  both  with 
France.  The  emperor  made  peace  with  France 
in  violation  of  his  faith  to  England  ;  but  peace 
between  England  and  France  was  not  restored 
till  1546.  In  the  mean  time  Henry  continu- 
ed to  persecute  both  Catholics  and  reformers, 
and  many  persons  suffered  death.  Internal  re- 
form, however,  also  went  on,  and  among  other 
changes  worship  was  performed  in  English. 
Extreme  men  on  both  sides  were  offended  by 
the  king's  course,  who  sought  to  trim  between 
them.  An  act  of  parliament  vested  the  prop- 
erties of  all  hospitals,  colleges,  and  chantries 
in  the  crown,  but  this  was  to  prevent  the  re- 
sumption of  such  properties  after  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  monasteries,  and  not  as  preliminary 
to  confiscation.  Toward  the  close  of  Henry's 
reign  the  conservatives  obtained  the  ascen- 
dancy in  his  councils,  and  persecuted  Protes- 
tants with  considerable  zeal,  though  Henry, 
in  his  very  last  speech  to  parliament  (Decem- 
ber, 1545),  spoke  as  favorably  of  toleration  as 
any  statesman  of  that  age  could  speak  of  it. 
Some  of  the  worst  deeds  of  his  reign  occurred 
at  this  time.  Anne  Askew  was  racked  and 
burned,  Latimer  was  arrested,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  against  the  queen.  Henry's  inter- 
ference put  a  stop  to  the  last  of  these  doings, 
and  he  was  on  the  point  of  going  as  far  for- 
ward in  his  work  as  Elizabeth  afterward  went, 
when  his  reign  came  to  an  end.  The  danger 
to  which  Protestantism  was  exposed  in  1546, 
through  the  course  of  the  emperor,  alarmed 
him,  and  he  suggested  to  the  Germans  an  of- 
fensive and  defensive  league,  to  be  called  "the 
league  Christian,"  of  which  he  should  be  the 
head.  He  was  ready  to  settle  all  minor  dif- 
ferences with  the  Germans  on  religion,  and  to 
present  a  solid  front  to  Rome.  Home  changes 
were  to  be  made,  the  chief  of  which  was  the 
change  of  the  mass  into  the  modern  commu- 
nion. The  Germans  did  not  respond  well  to  his 
offers,  and  were  overthrown  by  the  emperor. 
Henry  was  now  very  ill,  being  unable  either  to 
stand  or  to  walk,  and  he  prepared  to  settle  the 
government  that  should  exist  during  his  son's 
minority.  The  Catholic  party  was  then  con- 


'  HENRY   I.   (FRANCE) 


653 


spiring  to  get  possession  of  all  power,  headed 
by  the  earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  accused  of  trea- 
son, condemned,  and  executed  a  few  days  be- 
fore Henry's  death ;  and  his  father,  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  was  attainted  by  parliament,  which  met 
Jan.  14,  1547,  and  is  supposed  to  have  escaped 
the  scaffold  only  because  of  the  king's  death, 
which  happened  at  1  o'clock  on  the  morning 
of  the  28th.  As  Henry's  end  approached  he 
signified  his  wish  to  see  Cranmer,  who  did  not 
arrive  until  the  king  had  become  speechless. 
The  archbishop  spoke  to  him,  and,  asking  him 
to  give  him  some  token  that  he  put  his  faith 
in  God  through  Jesus  Christ,  the  king  wrung 
his  hand  hard,  and  died.  His  will,  which  pro- 
vided that  daily  masses  should  '"  be  said  perpet- 
ually while  the  world  shall  endure,"  at  an  altar 
to  be  erected  near  his  tomb  and  that  of  Queen 
Jane,  had  been  completed  four  weeks  before  his 
decease.  He  bequeathed  the  crown  to  his 
son  and  his  issue,  and,  failing  them,  to  such 
issue  as  he  might  have  of  his  queen  Catharine 
(Parr),  or  any  other  lawful  wife  whom  he 
might  marry.  Failing  such  issue,  it  was  to 
descend  to  Mary  and  her  heirs,  and  then  to 
Elizabeth  and  her  heirs,  provided  they  mar- 
ried not  without  the  consent  of  their  brother, 
or  of  the  council  appointed  for  his  guardian- 
ship. Finally,  and  passing  over  the  Scottish 
line,  it  was  to  go  to  the  children  of  his  sister 
Mary's  two  daughters.  The  government  se- 
lected for  Edward's  minority  was  composed 
of  men  from  both  parties.  Henry's  reign  has 
often  been  called  a  tyranny,  but  more  than 
once  he  had  to  yield  to  the  bold  expression 
of  the  popular  will.  He  was  allowed  to  do 
as  he  pleased  with  the  aristocracy,  and  he 
never  encountered  opposition  when  he  glutted 
the  scaffold  with  the  noblest  of  victims.  His 
reign  was  the  seedtime  of  modern  English 
parties,  and  its  history  has  been  written  in  a 
partisan  spirit  which  has  obscured  it.  James 
Anthony  Froude  is  his  ablest  apologist.  A 
collection  of  the  papers  of  Henry  VIII.  was 
commenced  by  J.  S.  Brewer  in  1862,  of  which 
seven  volumes  had  been  published  in  1873. 

II.    FRANCE. 

HENRY  I.,  the  third  French  king  of  the 
Capetian  dynasty,  born  about  1011,  died  Aug. 
4,  1060.  As  early  as  1027  he  was  associated  in 
the  government  by  Robert,  his  father,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1031,  notwithstanding  the  re- 
bellion raised  against  him  by  his  stepmother 
Constance.  This  he  quelled  through  the  as- 
sistance of  Robert  the  Devil,  duke  of  Norman- 
dy. Henry's  weakness  encouraged  his  vassals 
to  rebel,  and  more  than  once  he  had  to  take 
the  field  against  them;  and  toward  the  end  of 
his  reign  he  was  even  embroiled  in  a  war  with 
his  former  ally,  the  duke  of  Normandy.  The 
hostilities  were  soon  terminated  by  a  treaty 
of  peace,  but  were  the  beginning  of  the  ill 
feeling  which  lasted  so  long  between  the  kings 
of  France  and  the  English  descendants  of  the 
dukes  of  Normandy.  During  his  reign,  France 


654 


HENKY  II.   (FBANCE) 


HENRY  III.   (FRANCE) 


was  afflicted  by  a  dreadful  famine  and  by  many 
private  wars.  The  church  attempted  to  allay 
the  latter  curse,  by  enforcing  agreements 
known  as  the  "peace  of  God"  and  "truce  of 
God ;"  but  Henry  declined  to  abide  by  them. 
By  Anna,  daughter  of  Yaroslav,  grand  duke  of 
Russia,  he  had  Philip,  who  was  his  successor, 
and  Hugh,  who  became  count  of  Vermandois. 
HENRY  II.,  tenth  king  of  the  Valois  family, 
born  in  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  March  31,  1519, 
died  in  Paris,  July  10,  1559.  The  only  survi- 
ving son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  queen  Claude  of 
France,  he  succeeded  his  father,  March  31, 
1547,  adhering  to  whose  policy,  he  engaged 
abroad  in  the  great  struggle  to  destroy  the 
ascendancy  of  the  house  of  Austria,  while  he 
persecuted  the  Protestants  at  home.  Being 
entirely  under  the  control  of  his  mistress, 
Diana  of  Poitiers,  who  acted  in  concert  with 
the  great  constable  Montmorency  and  the 
brothers  Guise,  he  had  many  of  the  Protes- 
tants arrested,  tried,  and  burned  at  the  stake 
in  Paris,  Lyons,  Angers,  Blois,  and  Bordeaux. 
By  his  edicts  of  Chateaubriant  (1552)  and 
Ecouen  (1553)  the  punishment  of  death  was 
decreed  for  attendance  at  secret  religious 
meetings.  In  1557  ecclesiastics,  under  the 
title  of  inquisitors,  were  introduced  into  the 
parliaments  to  sit  as  judges  in  all  cases  against 
heretics.  Finally,  in  1559,  two  members  of 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  Du  Faur  cle  Pibrac 
and  Anne  du  Bourg,  having  been  bold  enough 
to  advocate  in  his  presence  the  liberty  of  con- 
science, were  incarcerated,  and  Du  Bourg  was 
publicly  hanged  and  burned.  These  bloody 
measures  were  the  forerunners  of  religious 
wars.  Henry's  foreign  policy  was  partially 
successful.  The  English,  who  were  then  in 
alliance  with  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  were 
desirous  of  securing  the  union  of  Scotland 
by  the  marriage  of  young  Edward  VI.  with 
Mary  Stuart ;  French  troops  were  sent  to  Scot- 
land, and  Mary  was  brought  to  France  and 
affianced  to  the  dauphin  Francis.  Meanwhile 
Boulogne  was  besieged,  and  England  gave  it 
up  in  1550,  for  one  third  of  the  sum  which 
had  been  stipulated  for  its  surrender.  In  Italy, 
Henry  protected  Ottavio  Farnese,  duke  of  Par- 
ma, against  the  imperial  troops ;  and  in  1552  he 
became  the  ally  of  Maurice  of  Saxony  and  the 
other  Protestant  princes  who  were  struggling 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Charles  V.,  and  soon 
after  seized  the  episcopal  cities  of  Metz,  Toul, 
and  Verdun.  Charles,  having  concluded  the 
treaty  of  Passau  with  his  German  opponents, 
tried  to  reconquer  those  cities,  and  in  1553  made 
a  fruitless  attack  upon  Metz,  which  was  de- 
fended by  Francois  de  Guise,  and  avenged  his 
defeat  by  pillaging  Picardy,  but  was  once  more 
defeated  at  Renty  in  1554.  The  French  at  the 
same  time  were  successful  in  Italy,  where  Bris- 
sac  conquered  Savoy  and  Piedmont.  Charles 
having  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Philip  II., 
a  five  years'  truce  was  signed  at  Vauxcelles  in 
February,  1556.  Henry  II.,  however,  soon  re- 
newed the  war,  but  unsuccessfully ;  the  duke 


of  Guise  was  foiled  in  his  attempt  against  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  by  the  superior  ability  of 
the  duke  of  Alva,  and  the  constable  Montmo- 
rency was  totally  defeated  near  St.  Quentin, 
in  1557,  by  Duke  Philibert  Emmanuel  of  Savoy. 
Had  Philip  II.  improved  the  opportunity,  Paris 
would  have  been  taken;  but  his  delay  gave 
time  to  his  rival  to  make  preparations  for  de- 
fence; and  Guise,  being  recalled  from  Italy, 
revenged  the  disgrace  of  Montmorency's  defeat 
by  the  conquest  of  Calais  in  1558,  the  only 
place  that  the  English  still  possessed  on  French 
soil.  But  the  Spanish  troops  under  Egmont 
having  won  a  new  victory,  Henry  II.,  weary 
of  war  and  yielding  to  the  entreaties  of  his 
mistress,  concluded,  April  2,  1559,  the  disas- 
trous peace  of  Cateau-Cambr6sis.  He  kept  Ca- 
lais, Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  but  consented  to 
restore  all  his  conquests  in  Italy  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, including  nearly  200  strong  places. 
Henry's  daughter  Elizabeth  was  to  be  married 
to  Philip,  and  his  sister  Margaret  to  the  duke 
of  Savoy.  During  the  celebration  of  the  peace 
and  the  double  marriage,  Henry  II.  was  mor- 
tally wounded  in  a  tilt  with  the  count  de  Mont- 
gomery, the  captain  of  his  guards,  and  his 
sceptre  passed  to  his  eldest  son,  Francis  II., 
the  husband  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots. 

HENRY  III.,  the  last  king  of  the  Valois  fam- 
ily, born  in  Fontainebleau,  Sept.  19,  1551,  died 
Aug.  2,  1589.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Henry 
II.,  and  the  favorite  of  his  mother,  Catharine 
de'  Medici,  and  before  his  accession  bore  the 
title  of  duke  of  Anjou.  Being  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Catholic  army  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IX.,  he  won  in  1569  the  victories  of 
Jarnac  and  Moncontour  over  the  Protestants. 
He  participated  in  the  councils  that  brought 
about  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre  in  1572. 
His  military  reputation,  aided  by  his  mother's 
intrigues,  procured  his  election  to  the  throne  of 
Poland  in  1573 ;  but  his  refined  and  effeminate 
habits  were  distasteful  to  the  Poles,  while  he 
disliked  their  independent  spirit  and  coarse 
manners.  On  hearing  of  the  death  of  his  bro- 
ther Charles  IX.  in  1574,  he  secretly  escaped 
and  returned  to  France,  passing  through  Vienna 
and  Venice.  His  arrival  was  marked  by  the 
renewal  of  civil  war.  The  Protestant  party, 
being  strengthened  by  their  alliance  with  that 
party  of  Catholics  known  as  the  politiques,  had 
taken  up  arms ;  but  their  German  auxiliaries 
were  defeated  at  Dormans,  Oct.  11,  1575,  by 
the  duke  of  Guise ;  and  the  king,  fearful  of  the 
growing  popularity  of  that  prince,  hastened  to 
conclude  the  peace  of  Beaulieu,  in  May,  1576, 
the  terms  of  which  were  so  favorable  to  the 
Protestants  as  to  be  considered  a  betrayal  of 
the  Catholic  cause.  This  gave  rise  to  the  holy 
league,  which,  under  pretence  of  protecting  re- 
ligion, aimed  chiefly  at  furthering  the  ambitious 
designs  of  the  house  of  Guise.  Henry  attempted 
to  avert  the  danger  by  declaring  himself  chief 
of  the  league  during  the  session  of  the  states 
general  which  met  at  Blois  in  December,  1576 ; 
but  the  association  clung  faithfully  to  Guise  as 


HENRY  III.   (FRANCE) 


HENRY  IV.   (FRANCE) 


655 


their  leader,  and  made  use  of  their  majority  in 
the  states  to  curtail  the  prerogatives  of  the 
king  and  force  him  into  another  war  against 
the  Protestants.  After  reluctantly  carrying 
it  on  for  a  few  months,  he  ended  it  by  the 
treaty  of  Bergerac,  Sept.  17,  1577,  and  tried 
hy  conciliatory  measures  to  win  over  the  most 
influential  of  the  Catholics.  This  policy  was 
of  little  avail;  the  so-called  "lovers'  war" 
broke  out,  which  he  succeeded  in  bringing  to 
an  early  conclusion  by  the  treaty  of  Fleix, 
Nov.  26,  1580.  A  momentary  lull  occurred; 
but  the  king  became  more  and  more  unpopu- 
lar by  his  unbounded  licentiousness  and  prodi- 
gality. On  the  death  of  his  younger  brother, 
the  duke  of  Alencon,  by  which  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown  reverted  to  the  Protes- 
tant Henry  of  Navarre,  the  spirit  of  the 
league  rekindled  ;  the  association  extended  all 
over  the  provinces,  and  became  more  formi- 
dable than  ever;  the  majority  of  the  nation 
was  indeed  adverse  to  accepting  as  heir  apparent 
a  prince  who  was  not  a  Catholic.  Henry  III., 
although  not  sharing  this  popular  prejudice, 
was  obliged  to  go  to  war  with  Henry  of  Na- 
varre, and  assembled  four  armies.  By  thus  in- 
creasing its  burdens  he  hoped  to  make  the  na- 
tion weary  of  the  contest,  while  he  exerted 
his  ingenuity  to  make  such  combinations  as 
would  thwart  the  projects  of  the  league.  But 
his  favorite  Joyeuse  was  defeated  by  the  king 
of  Navarre  at  Coutras  in  1587,  and  his  own 
unpopularity  increased,  the  league  making  him 
answerable  for  the  reverses  which  befell  the 
Catholic  party.  On  all  sides  he  was  denounced 
as-  a  traitor,  and  his  deposition  was  publicly  ad- 
vocated. The  duke  of  Guise  was  recalled  to 
Paris  by  his  adherents,  and,  notwithstanding 
repeated  orders  from  the  king,  triumphantly 
entered  the  capital.  Henry  having  summoned 
troops  for  his  own  defence,  the  Parisians  raised 
a  formidable  rebellion;  barricades  were  con- 
structed, May  12,  1588;  and  the  king  barely 
escaped  from  his  ambitious  rival.  He  immedi- 
ately convoked  the  states  general  at  Blois,  in 
the  hope  of  finding  support  among  them ;  but 
the  majority  was  still  against  him ;  his  life  and 
crown  were  at  stake;  he  resorted  to  violent 
means,  and  on  Dec.  23,  1588,  caused  the  duke 
of  Guise  to  be  murdered  in  his  own  apartment 
by  his  body  guards,  the  "forty-five."  This 
was  a  new  incentive  to  the  league.  Henry, 
branded  as  an  assassin,  anathematized  by  the 
pope,  deposed  by  decrees  of  the  Sorbonne  and 
the  parliament,  had  no  resource  but  to  unite 
with  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  they  marched  in 
concert  against  Paris,  the  principal  seat  of  the 
league.  During  the  siege  of  that  city  a  Do- 
minican monk,  Jacques  Clement,  whose  fanati- 
cism had  been  encouraged  by  Guise's  own  sis- 
ter, the  duchess  of  Montpensier,  presented 
himself  at  St.  Cloud  to  the  king  as  the  bearer 
of  an  important  letter,  Aug.  1,  1589,  and  stab- 
bed him  with  a  knife,  inflicting  a  wound  of 
which  he  died  on  the  following  day.  With 
Henry  III.  the  Valois  family  became  extinct. 
402  VOL.  viii.— 42 


HENRY  IV.,  the  first  French  king  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon,  born  at  the  castle  of  Pau,  Dec. 
14,  1553,  assassinated  in  Paris,  May  14,  1610. 
The  son  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon  and  Jeanne 
d'Albret,  queen  of  Navarre,  he  was  brought 
up  by  his  mother  in  the  Protestant  religion, 
carefully  educated,  and  inured  to  hardship. 
As  early  as  1569  she  took  him  to  the  Protes- 
tant army  before  La  Rochelle,  and  placed  him 
under  the  control  of  Admiral  Coligni.  He 
was  present  at  the  battles  of  Jarnac  and  Mon- 
contour,  both  disastrous  to  his  party.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  military  operations 
in  southern  France,  which  were  terminated  by 
the  peace  or  edict  of  St.  Germain  in  1570. 
The  seeming  reconciliation  of  the  Protestant 
and  Catholic  parties  was  to  be  sealed  by  the 
marriage  of  young  Henry  with  Margaret,  the 
sister  of  King  Charles  IX. ;  it  was  agreed  to 
in  April,  1572,  and  notwithstanding  the  sud- 
den and  unexpected  death  of  Jeanne  of  Na- 
varre, which  occurred  in  June  under  very  sus- 
picious circumstances,  the  ceremony  was  per- 
formed on  Aug.  17,  seven  days  before  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  A  number  of 
eminent  Huguenots  had  congregated  in  Paris 
to  participate  in  the  matrimonial  festivities, 
and  were  slaughtered  during  the  bloody  24th. 
Henry  himself,  a  prisoner  in  the  Louvre,  saved 
his  life  by  abjuring  his  faith.  For  nearly 
four  years  he  was  detained  at  court,  strictly 
watched,  dissembling  his  real  sentiments  un- 
der the  cover  of  levity.  In  February,  1576, 
he  escaped,  took  refuge  first  in  Alencon,  then 
crossed  the  Loire  at  the  head  of  a  number 
of  his  adherents,  revoked  his  abjuration,  took 
command  of  the  Protestant  troops,  and  suc- 
cessfully carried  on  hostilities  against  the 
Catholics,  which  brought  about  the  peace  of 
Beaulieu  in  May,  1576.  The  states  general  at 
Blois  having  issued  coercive  decrees  against 
the  Huguenots,  Henry  took  up  arms  again,  but 
peace  was  concluded  at  Bergerac,  Sept.  17, 
1577.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  "lovers' 
war"  in  1580,  of  which  he  gave  the  signal, 
he  inspired  his  adherents  with  confidence  and 
ardor,  and  accomplished  deeds  of  heroic  valor 
at  the  siege  of  Cahors,  which  city  he  stormed 
after  a  tremendous  fight  of  four  days'  dura- 
tion. He  thus  gained  a  high  position,  not  only 
among  his  own  party,  but  in  the  eyes  of  his 
opponents.  The  death  of  his  mother  in  1572 
had  left  him  king  of  Navarre;  and  on  the 
death  of  the  duke  of  Alencon,  or  rather  An- 
jou,  youngest  brother  of  Henry  III.,  June  10, 
1584,  he  became  heir  apparent  to  the  French 
crown.  He  was  then  in  his  31st  year.  As  he 
was  deserted  by  Henry  III.,  proscribed  by  the 
Catholic  party  and  the  league  as  a  heretic,  and 
shortly  after  excommunicated  by  Pope  Sixtus 
V.,  his  cause  seemed  desperate ;  but  though  his 
troops  scarcely  numbered  one  tenth  as  many 
as  the  Catholic  army,  he  soon  took  the  field 
with  his  wonted  courage.  The  victory  of 
Coutras,  Oct.  20, 1587,  greatly  bettered  his  for- 
tunes, although  it  was-  followed  by  the  defeat 


656 


HENRY  IV.   (FRANCE) 


of  several  auxiliary  troops  sent  to  him  by  the 
German  princes.  Thejournee  des  barricades, 
when  Henry  III.  was  compelled  to  leave  his 
metropolis  in  the  hands  of  the  rebellious  duke 
of  Guise,  brought  about  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  kings  of  France  and  Navarre,  who 
united  their  forces  to  oppose  the  league,  and  in 
concert  laid  siege  to  the  capital.  The  assassi- 
nation of  Henry  III.  greatly  increased  the  diffi- 
culties of  Henry  of  Navarre.  He  was  at  once 
deserted  by  the  Catholic  nobles  who  supported 
the  cause  of  his  predecessor,  but  who,  notwith- 
standing their  devotion  to  royalty,  would  not 
accept  a  Protestant  king;  the  league  at  the 
same  time  raised  against  him  his  uncle,  the 
cardinal  de  Bourbon,  whom  they  proclaimed 
king  under  the  title  of  Charles  X. ;  and  the 
nation  itself  evinced  no  partiality  for  Henry. 
He  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Paris,  was 
pursued  through  Normandy  by  the  duke  of 
Mayenne,  and  seemed  to  be  in  imminent  dan- 
ger, when  he  thwarted  the  hopes  of  his  ene- 
mies by  his  heroic  stand  near  the  castle  of 
Arques ;  notwithstanding  their  large  superior- 
ity in  numbers,  they  were  obliged  (Oct.  6, 1589) 
to  beat  a  retreat,  leaving  from  1,000  to  1,200 
men  on  the  field.  Henry,  quickly  returning 
to  Paris,  seized  its  suburbs,  but  could  not  take 
the  city  itself  for  want  of  artillery.  Another 
and  more  decisive  victory  over  Mayenne,  that 
of  Ivry,  which  he  won  March  14,  1590,  once 
more  opened  before  him  the  road  to  the  capi- 
tal, which  he  blockaded  for  several  months, 
and  had  reduced  to  the  last  extremities,  when 
it  was  relieved  by  the  approach  of  a  Spanish 
army  under  Alexander  Farnese,  duke  of  Par- 
ma. For  two  years  longer  the  war  was  car- 
ried on  with  varied  success,  Henry  being  more 
than  once  worsted  by  his  opponents,  but,  amid 
the  most  trying  circumstances,  showing  such 
perseverance,  ingenuity,  and  valor  as  to  uphold 
the  drooping  spirits  of  his  followers.  A  favor- 
able change  in  his  fortunes  became  apparent 
during  the  year  1593.  Discord  prevailed  among 
his  enemies ;  the  ambitious  designs  of  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  who  openly  manifested  his  desire  of 
placing  his  daughter  on  the  throne  of  France, 
inspired  the  French  Catholics,  and  even  the 
leaguers,  with  distrust  and  anger.  A  better 
feeling  grew  up  among  the  people,  who,  being 
weary  of  so  protracted  a  war,  instinctively 
leaned  toward  the  prince  from  whom  alone 
peace  could  be  expected.  Everything  showed 
him  that  the  tune  had  come  for  a  decisive  step ; 
and  he  therefore  abjured  Protestantism  at  St. 
Denis  in  July,  1593,  and  was  crowned  at  Char- 
tres,  Feb.  27,  1594.  The  majority  of  the  na- 
tion at  once  sided  with  him.  Paris  surrender- 
ed March  22,  and  within  a  few  months  most  of 
the  Catholic  governors  of  the  provinces  and 
cities  also  submitted.  Mayenne  still  held  Bur- 
gundy with  the  assistance  of  Spanish  troops; 
but  the  high  constable  of  Castile  having  been 
defeated  at  Fontaine-Francaise,  June  5,  1595, 
negotiations  were  entered  into,  and  the  duke, 
•swearing  allegiance  to  Henry,  kept  the  gover- 


norship of  the  province.  Picardy  was  mean- 
while in  the  hands  of  Spain,  against  which  war 
had  been  formally  declared ;  the  king  led  his 
army  against  Amiens,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
presence  of  the  Spanish  army  under  the  arch- 
duke Albert,  forced  that  city  to  capitulate 
(1597),  and  the  next  year  brought  to  submission 
the  duke  de  Mercceur,  who  had  heretofore 
acted  as  an  independent  sovereign  in  Brittany. 
France  was  now  wholly  under  his  control ;  he 
gave  her  peace  at  home  by  the  celebrated  edict 
of  Nantes,  April  13,  1598,  and  abroad  by  the 
treaty  of  Vervins  with  Spain,  May  2.  Henry 
now  perseveringly  pursued  the  policy  of  re- 
storing order  and  prosperity  to  his  kingdom, 
strengthening  the  royal  authority,  and  placing 
France  in  a  respectable  position  abroad.  In 
this  laborious  task  he  was  especially  assisted  by 
the  duke  de  Sully.  Agriculture,  mining,  com- 
merce, and  manufactures  were  encouraged; 
roads  were  opened  and  repaired ;  the  army  re- 
ceived a  better  organization,  while  strong  for- 
tresses were  built  along  the  N.  and  E.  frontiers ; 
the  navy,  which  had  been  neglected,  was  im- 
proved, and  attention  was  paid  to  the  French 
colonies  in  America.  In  short,  improvements 
were  made  in  every  branch  of  the  public  ser- 
vice. The  ambitious  aspirations  of  provincial 
governors  were  effectually  checked ;  political 
conspiracies  were  severely  punished ;  munici- 
pal franchises  and  immunities,  that  had  been 
revived  or  extended  during  the  civil  wars,  were 
curtailed;  and  obedience  to  the  king  became 
the  order  of  the  day.  After  the  death  of  his 
celebrated  mistress,  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  hav- 
ing procured  the  dissolution  of  his  marriage 
with  Margaret  of  Yalois,  December,  1599,  Hen- 
ry married  Maria  de'  Medici,  the  niece  of 
the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  which  secured  his 
influence  among  the  Italian  princes.  A  short 
war  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  put  him  (1601)  in 
possession  of  several  valuable  districts  on  the 
E.  frontier.  A  formidable  conspiracy  having 
been  plotted  by  the  duke  de  Bouillon  and  the 
count  d'Auvergne,  in  conjunction  with  Marshal 
Biron,  who  also  maintained  secret  relations 
with  Spain  and  Savoy,  Henry  had  the  latter,  his 
old  companion  in  arms,  arrested,  tried  before 
the  parliament,  and  beheaded,  July  31,  1602. 
A  few  years  later  the  count  d'Auvergne,  hav- 
ing engaged  in  new  intrigues,  was  incarcerated 
in  the  Bastile ;  and  the  duke  de  Bouillon,  the 
constant  promoter  of  rebellions  among  the 
Protestants,  was  dispossessed  of  his  principali- 
ty of  Sedan,  and  would  have  lost  his  life  but 
for  Queen  Elizabeth's  entreaties.  His  power 
being  thus  firmly  established,  Henry  resumed 
the  political  designs  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry 
II.,  concerted  extensive  schemes  with  Barne- 
veldt,  the  grand  pensionary  of  Holland,  form- 
ed alliances  with  German  Protestant  princes, 
and  made  preparations  for  a  fresh  war  against 
the  house  of  Austria.  It  is  even  said  that 
he  aimed  at  nothing  short  of  an  entire  re- 
organization of  Europe.  However  this  may 
have  been,  he  was  on  the  eve  of  leaving  Paris 


£ 

XI 


HENRY  I.   (GERMANY) 

take  command  of  the  French  army  in  the 
north,  when,  riding  through  the  city,  May  14, 
1610,  he  was  stabbed  to  the  heart  by  the 
fanatic  Francois  Ravaillac.  His  death  was  re- 
garded as  a  national  calamity.  Henry's  chil- 
dren, by  his  second  wife,  were  his  successor 
Louis  XIII. ;  Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans ;  Eliza- 
beth, who  married  Philip  IV.  of  Spain ;  Chris- 
tine, who  became  duchess  of  Savoy ;  and  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  the  wife  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land. Ce"sar,  his  natural  son  by  Gabrielle 
d'Estrees,  was  the  founder  of  the  house  of 
Vendome,  and  grandfather  of  the  celebrated 
ke  who  distinguished  himself  under  Louis 
IV. — The  high  capacities  of  Henry  IV.,  as 
well  as  his  shortcomings  and  "  amiable  faults," 
have  always  been  well  known ;  but  it  is  only 
in  recent  years  that  his  ready  wit  and  charming 
style  as  a  writer  have  come  to  be  fully  appre- 
ciated, through  the  publication  of  his  letters 
(9  vols.  4to)  by  M.  Berger  de  Xivrey  in  the 
Documents  inedits  sur  Vhistoire  de  France. 
Motley's  "Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barne- 
veld"  (London,  1874)  throws  much  light  on 
Henry's  last  diplomatic  transactions,  and  dis- 
plays the  occasional  frivolity  of  his  motives  in 
his  most  important  enterprises.  See  also  Hen- 
ri IV.,  by  M.  H.  de  Lescure  (Paris,  1874). 

III.    GERMANY. 

HE1VRY  I.,  king  of  Germany,  surnamed  the 
Fowler  or  Falconer  (der  Finlcler  or  Vogler), 
the  first  of  the  line  of  Saxon  sovereigns  of 
Germany,  born  in  876,  died  in  936.  He  was 
the  son  of  Otho  the  Illustrious,  duke  of  Sax- 
ony, on  whose  death  he  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
doms of  Saxony  and  Thuringia.  His  father 
had  been  elected  in  911  to  the  sovereignty  of 
Germany,  but  had  caused  Conrad,  duke  of  the 
Franks,  to  be  elevated  in  his  stead.  This  sov- 
ereign undertook  to  deprive  Duke  Henry  of 
part  of  his  inherited  estates,  but  the  latter 
fought  his  enemy  at  Eresburg  (modern  Stadt- 
berge),  and  compelled  him  to  acknowledge  all 
the  ducal  rights  of  Saxony  and  Thuringia. 
Conrad  discovered  the  great  qualities  of  his 
opponent,  and,  having  been  mortally  wounded 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Hungarians,  desig- 
nated Henry  as  his  successor,  and  sent  messen- 
gers to  make  known  his  choice.  The  envoys, 
it  is  said,  found  the  duke  in  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains, with  a  falcon  upon  his  wrist,  and  this 
was  the  origin  of  his  surname.  Henry's  elec- 
tion was  formally  declared  in  919,  by  the  no- 
bles of  Franconia  and  Saxony.  The  dukes  of 
Swabia  and  Bavaria  refused  their  homage,  but 
were  speedily  brought  to  submission.  Henry 
also  conquered  Lorraine,  which  had  hesitated 
to  accept  him.  He  erected  the  fief  into  a 
duchy,  giving  his  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Duke  Giselbert ;  and  having  thus  consolidated 
the  sovereignty  of  Germany,  he  turned  all  his 
attention  to  arresting  the  Slavic  and  Hunga- 
rian inroads.  In  924  the  Hungarians  advanced 
into  the  very  heart  of  Saxony.  Their  leader 
was  captured,  and  in  exchange  for  him  Henry 


HENRY  II.  (GERMANY)  657 

obtained  a  truce  of  nine  years.  He  made  the 
most  of  the  truce  by  organizing  his  army, 
building  castles,  fortifying  cities,  and  reducing 
Brandenburg,  together  with  the  tribes  on  the 
Eider  and  the  Elbe,  and  extending  his  rule  to 
Prague.  From  this  period  dates  the  fealty  of 
the  Bohemian  princes  to  Germany  (929).  On 
the  expiration  of  the  truce  war  with  the  Hun- 
garians was  renewed,  and  Henry  gained  a 
complete  and  decisive  victory  on  the  banks  of 
the  Saale  (933),  which  for  the  time  relieved 
Germany  from  all  danger  of  invasion.  In  934 
he  defeated  the  Danes,  who  were  ravaging 
the  coasts  of  his  northern  provinces.  Henry 
reigned  nearly  18  years,  and  left  his  kingdom 
powerful  and  prosperous.  The  municipal  priv- 
ileges which  he  granted  were  the  foundation 
of  the  Germanic  corporations. 

HENRY  II.,  Saint,  surnamed  the  Lame,  em- 
peror of  Germany,  great-grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  May  6,  972,  died  at  Grone,  near 
Gottingen,  July  13, 1024.  His  surname  of  the 
Lame  was  derived  from  an  accident  which  be- 
fell him  at  Pavia  in  1004.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  duke  of  Bavaria  in  995,  was  elected 
successor  to  Otho  III.  at  Mentz,  June  6,  1002, 
and  marched  immediately  against  Hermann  of 
Swabia,  his  competitor,  whom  he  defeated. 
After  ravaging  Swabia,  Thuringia,  Saxony,  and 
Lorraine,  he  had  himself  crowned  a  second 
time  at  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  he  married  Cune- 
gunda  (Kunigunde),  daughter  of  Sigfried,  first 
count  of  Luxemburg,  and  had  her  crowned  at 
Paderborn  in  1003.  In  the  following  year  he 
passed  into  Italy,  defeated  Arduin  of  Ivrea, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Csesar,  and  on 
May  15  was  crowned  in  Pavia  with  the  iron 
crown  of  the  Lombard  kings.  Returning  to 
Germany,  he  drove  the  Poles  out  of  Bohemia 
in  1006,  confirmed  Stephen  of  Hungary  in  his 
new  royal  dignity  in  1007,  and  in  1008  be- 
stowed the  duchy  of  Lorraine  upon  Godfrey, 
count  of  Ardennes.  The  continued  ill  success 
of  his  arms  against  Boleslas  of  Poland  inspired 
him  in  1011  with  the  resolution  to  embrace  a 
monastic  life ;  but  his  counsellors  dissuaded 
him  from  his  purpose,  and  he  soon  afterward 
concluded  a  peace  with  Poland  and  secured 
the  frontiers  of  Bohemia.  At  this  time  Cune- 
gunda,  being  publicly  accused  of  adultery,  un- 
derwent the  ordeal  of  walking  on  red-hot 
ploughshares.  In  1013  Henry  defeated  Arduin 
a  second  time,  and  having  restored  Pope  Ben- 
edict VIIL,  he  and  Cunegunda  received  at  his 
hands  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome,  Feb.  14, 
1014.  Historians  accuse  him  of  having  on  this 
occasion  promised  fealty  to  the  pope,  thereby 
sowing  the  seeds  of  future  dissensions  between 
church  and  state.  Having  pacified  Lombardy, 
Henry  returned  to  Germany,  and  on  his  way 
assumed  the  monastic  habit  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Vannes  at  Verdun,  and  vowed  obedience 
to  the  abbot.  But  the  latter  forthwith  com- 
manded him  to  resume  his  imperial  state  and 
attend  to  the  government  of  the  empire.  He 
was  defeated  anew  by  the  Poles  in  1015,  and 


658 


HENRY   III.   (GERMANY) 


HENRY   IV.   (GERMANY) 


the  war  with  them  continued  till  1018.  Henry 
was  about  retiring  to  the  cloister,  when  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  pope  in  1021  he  returned  to 
Italy  to  repel  the  Saracens.  In  1022  he  pre- 
sided at  the  council  of  Seligenstadt,  and  in 
1023,  at  an  interview  with  the  king  of  France 
near  Sedan,  he  concluded  an  advantageous 
peace.  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of 
Bamberg  founded  by  himself,  and  with  him 
ended  the  imperial  Saxon  line.  He  founded 
many  monasteries  and  schools,  which  became 
centres  of  learning.  He  was  canonized  by 
Eugenius  III.  in  1152,  and  his  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  July  14.  Cunegunda  was  also  can- 
onized in  1201.  Henry's  life,  written  probably 
by  Adebold,  bishop  of  Utrecht,  was  inserted 
with  the  annotations  of  Basnage  in  the  The- 
saurus Monumentorum  Ecclesiasticorum  of 
Oanisius  (Antwerp,  1725),  and  is  reproduced 
in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  for  July. 

HENRY  III.,  emperor  of  Germany,  of  the 
Franconian  line,  surnamed  the  Black,  the 
Bearded,  the  Old,  and  the  Pious,  born  in  1017, 
died  in  1056.  He  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  emperor  Conrad  II.,  having  been  elect- 
ed during  his  father's  life,  and  ascended  the 
throne  in  1039.  He  repeatedly  and  successful- 
ly interfered  in  the  affairs  of  Hungary,  and  a 
portion  of  that  country  (from  the  Kahlenberg 
to  the  Leitha)  was  definitively  united  with 
Austria.  Three  claimants  at  this  time  were 
contesting  the  papal  tiara.  Henry  summoned 
a  council  at  Sutri  in  1046,  set  them  all  aside, 
and  created  a  German  bishop  of  Bamberg 
(Suidger)  pope,  under  the  title  of  Clement  II. 
He  subsequently  gave  three  successive  Ger- 
man popes  to  Rome,  reserving  to  himself  a 
thorough  control  of  the  spiritual  administra- 
tion. He  held  the  temporal  princes  at  the 
same  time  in  subjection,  transforming  the  Ger- 
man empire  into  a  monarchy  of  which  the 
elected  sovereign  was  absolute  ruler.  He  pro- 
moted education,  and  encouraged  art  and  sci- 
ence. His  first  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Canute, 
king  of  Denmark  and  England. 

HENRY  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1050,  died  in  Lie"ge,  Aug. 
7,  1106.  He  was  about  six  years  old  when 
his  father  died,  and  the  regency  was  intrusted 
to  his  mother,  Agnes  of  Aquitaine;  but  her 
authority  was  overthrown  by  the  nobles,  and 
she  retired  to  Rome,  while  Henry  was  taken 
to  Cologne  by  the  archbishop  Hanno.  Shortly 
afterward  he  became  the  pupil  and  ward  of 
Archbishop  Adalbert  of  Bremen,  from  whom 
he  imbibed  a  feeling  of  hostility  against  the  tem- 
poral lords,  especially  those  of  Saxon  descent, 
which  embittered  his  whole  reign.  At  15  he 
was  declared  of  age,  and  in  the  following  year 
(1066)  was  removed  by  the  nobles  from  the  im- 
mediate control  of  Adalbert.  The  counsel  and 
instructions  of  the  archbishop,  however,  were 
never  forgotten,  and  Henry  soon  manifested  a 
hatred  of  the  Saxons  by  acts  of  oppression  and 
violence.  He  had  espoused  Bertha,  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  Italian  prince  of  Susa,  and  now  sought 


to  be  divorced  from  her.  The  pope  manifested 
opposition,  and  Henry,  after  vainly  resorting  to 
unworthy  means  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
wishes,  at  length  became  reconciled  to  his 
young  wife,  whose  noble  conduct  subsequently 
won  and  retained  his  affection.  Meanwhile 
the  exasperated  nobles  of  Saxony  rose  against 
the  emperor,  who  was  driven  from  several 
strongholds  in  succession,  and  finally  wandered 
three  days  in  the  Hartz  without  food.  Under 
the  guidance  of  a  mountaineer  he  escaped  to 
the  Rhine,  assembled  an  army,  defeated  the 
Saxons,  and  desolated  their  country  with  fire 
and  sword.  Other  princes  of  the  empire  now 
interfered,  and  the  Saxon  nobles,  after  public 
humiliation  upon  their  knees,  were  admitted  to 
mercy,  though  many  of  them  were  retained  as 
prisoners,  and  their  fiefs  made  over  to  other 
vassals.  Henry  rebuilt  his  Saxon  fortresses, 
and  by  his  arrogance  and  extortion  planted 
anew  the  seeds  of  revolt.  Meanwhile  he  was 
suddenly  commanded  by  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
(Hildebrand)  to  appear  at  Rome  to  answer  for 
crimes  laid  to  his  charge,  on  penalty  of  excom- 
munication. Henry's  indignation  vented  itself 
for  the  moment  in  a  missive  addressed  to  the 
"  false  monk  Hildebrand,"  informing  him  of  his 
deposition  by  the  German  prelates  (Worms, 
1076),  and  of  his  excommunication  by  judgment 
of  the  same  assembly.  The  pope  immediately 
issued  sentence  of  excommunication.  Henry 
soon  learned  the  necessity  of  submission.  De- 
serted and  threatened  by  the  majority  of  the 
German  princes,  he  hastened  to  Italy,  accom- 
panied by  his  wife  and  a  single  attendant,  and 
humbled  himself  before  the  pope  in  the  most 
penitential  manner.  Clad  in  a  shirt  of  hair, 
and  barefooted,  he  was  compelled,  it  is  said,  to 
pass  three  whole  days  in  an  outer  court  of  the 
castle  of  Canossa,  in  midwinter,  awaiting  Greg- 
ory's permission  to  appear  before  him.  On  the 
fourth  day  he  was  admitted  and  received  ab- 
solution. With  this,  after  finding  adherents 
among  the  Lombards,  his  courage  and  resent- 
ment alike  revived.  He  began  a  war  with  the 
sword  and  with  the  pen,  which  for  30  years  he 
sustained  with  the  greatest  skill  and  determi- 
nation, and  in  which  for  the  most  part  he  main- 
tained the  ascendancy.  Such  were  the  opening 
scenes  of  the  long  and  violent  contest  concern- 
ing investitures — a  conflict  between  state  and 
church  which  was  destined  to  rage  for  half  a 
century,  and  which,  subsequently  resumed,  was 
protracted  till  1268.  During  Henry's  absence 
the  German  princes  had  deposed  him,  and  elect- 
ed Rudolph  of  Swabia,  in  a  diet  at  Forchheim 
(March,  1077);  but  there  were  yet  cities  and 
bishoprics  in  Germany  which  remained  faith- 
ful, and  Rudolph  was  forced  to  retire  from 
Swabia,  which  duchy,  together  with  the  hand 
of  his  daughter  Agnes,  Henry  bestowed  upon 
a  bold  adherent,  Count  Frederick  of  Biircn, 
who  soon  built  his  castle  on  the  summit  of  Mt. 
Staufen,  and  founded  the  race  of  Hohenstaufen. 
The  war  raged  fiercely  meanwhile  in  the  fair- 
est regions  of  Germany.  The  pope,  who  was 


HENRY  V.   (GERMANY) 


not  sorry  to  find  the  rival  emperors  consuming 
their  strength  against  each  other,  is  supposed  to 
have  fostered  the  quarrel  for  his  own  purposes. 
At  length,  influenced  by  the  Saxons,  he  sent  the 
crown  to  Rudolph,  and  again  excommunicated 
Henry.     The  latter,  in  turn,  again  declared  the 
deposed,  and  caused  an  antipope,  Clem- 
ent III.,  to  be  elected.     At  this  period  (1079) 
fortune  appeared  to  favor  Henry ;  but  in  the 
following  year  he  lost  a  great  battle  near  Gera. 
In  the  action,   however,  Rudolph  was  slain 
by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  the  hero  of  the  first 
crusade.     The  fall  of  Rudolph,  although  his 
army  was  victorious,  was  considered  a  judg- 
ment of  God,  and  the  effect  was  to  enlist  an 
iinense  increase  of  numbers  in  the  service 
Henry,  who  now  marched  upon  Rome,  and 
jsieged  it  with  short  intervals  during  three 
jars.     Gregory  retreated  into  the  castle  of 
it'  Angelo,  and  Henry  contented  himself 
rith  a  coronation  by  his  own  pope,  Clement 
1084).     Robert  Guiscard,  the  Norman  duke 
f  Calabria,  at  length  approached  from  lower 
Italy,  and  Henry  retired,  leaving  Rome  to  be 
jlundered  by  the  Normans,  and  Gregory  to  be 
iscued  by  them  from  his  own  people,  who  had 
lid  siege  to  the  castle.     Hermann  of  Luxem- 
)urg  succeeded  Rudolph  in  the  rival  emperor- 
"lip,  and  Victor  succeeded  Gregory  in  the  ri- 
papacy  (1085)  ;  but  neither  could  withstand 
le  power  of  Henry.    Hermann  soon  abdicated, 
id  his  successor,  Egbert  of  Thuringia,  having 
3en  assassinated,  the  Saxons  submitted.  Hen- 
r's  eldest  son,  Conrad,  whom  he  had  named 
ing  of  the  Romans,  was  now  gained  over  by 
the  papal  party.     He  was  deposed,  and  died  in 
1101.     His  defection  was  followed  by  that  of 
his  brother  Henry,  who,  in  view  of  the  renew- 
al of  the  papal  ban  against  his  father  by  the 
popes  who  had  in  turn  succeeded  Victor,  re- 
solved to  support  the  church.     He  pretended 
a  reconciliation,  however,  and  the  emperor, 
having  been  treacherously  seized  and  carried 
prisoner  to  Ingelheirn,  was  compelled  by  the 
prince  to  resign  his  throne.     Henry  escaped, 
and  sought  refuge  at  Liege,  where  he  died. 

HENRY  V.,  emperor  of  Germany,  surnamed 
the  Young,  second  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1081,  died  in  Utrecht,  May  23,  1125.  His 
filial  ingratitude  and  treachery  are  noticed  in 
the  account  of  Henry  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1106.  Notwithstanding  his  revolt  against 
his  father,  he  acted  from  the  outset  of  his  reign 
according  to  the  principles  of  the  late  emperor, 
and  in  defiance  of  the  pope  he  claimed  the  right 
of  investiture.  He  espoused  Matilda,  daughter 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  was  enabled  by 
her  dowry  to  go  to  Italy  with  great  magnifi- 
cence and  a  strong  military  force,  to  be  crowned 
by  the  pope.  The  pontiff,  Paschal  II.,  had  made 
propositions  of  compromise  in  regard  to  the 
dispute  concerning  investitures,  and  the  subject 
was  to  be  adjusted  in  solemn  assembly  in  the 
church  of  St.  Peter ;  where,  however,  an  an- 
gry discussion  among  the  bishops  was  followed 
by  the  seizure  and  imprisonment  of  the  pope 


HENRY  VI.   (GERMANY)          659 

and  cardinals.  Henry's  army,  encamped  around 
the  church,  was  attacked  by  the  enraged  Ro- 
mans, and  in  a  furious  battle  the  emperor's  life 
was  with  difficulty  saved  by  Count  Otho  of 
Milan,  at  the  expense  of  his  own.  The  Romans 
were  driven  into  the  city,  and  after  Henry  had 
ravaged  the  surrounding  country,  the  pope  pur- 
chased his  own  liberty  and  the  safety  of  the 
city  by  consenting  solemnly  to  the  imperial 
right  of  investiture,  declaring  at  the  same  time 
that  Henry  should  not  be  excommunicated. 
The  latter  clause  was  incorporated  in  the 
treaty,  and  the  emperor  was  crowned  in  St. 
Peter's,  April  13,  1111.  But  scarcely  had  he 
taken  his  departure,  when  Paschal  denounced 
the  treaty  as  having  been  extorted  by  force. 
The  dispute,  thus  renewed,  was  protracted  with 
great  animosity  for  ten  years.  Henry  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  successors  of  Paschal,  and 
defeated  in  northern  Germany,  where  the  prin- 
ces refused  obedience.  In  Saxony  also  the  empe- 
ror lost  all  authority.  In  1116  he  led  a  second 
expedition  against  Rome,  created  an  antipope, 
Gregory  VIII.,  but  at  length  saw  the  necessity 
of  abandoning  his  claim,  and  subscribed  the  fa- 
mous concordat  of  Worms  (1122),  by  which  he 
surrendered  the  investiture  with  ring  and  cro- 
sier as  tokens  of  spiritual  jurisdiction,  and 
agreed  to  permit  the  free  choice  of  the  German 
bishops,  whose  election,  however,  was  to  take 
place  in  presence  of  the  emperor  or  of  his  plen- 
ipotentiary. It  was  also  agreed  that  in  doubt- 
ful elections,  or  in  electoral  disagreements,  the 
decision  should  lie  with  the  emperor,  whose 
imperial  authority,  in  connection  with  the  tem- 
poral possessions  of  the  churchmen,  was  at  the 
same  time  solemnly  acknowledged.  The  con- 
cordat, virtually  a  compromise,  was  received 
throughout  Europe  with  great  joy,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  Henry's  reign  was  passed  in  peace 
with  the  church;  but  dissensions  prevailed 
throughout  his  dominions.  He  formed  plans 
for  strengthening  the  imperial  power,  and  be- 
gan a  war  with  France,  but  was  cut  off  sudden- 
ly by  a  contagious  disease.  With  him  ended 
the  race  of  Salian  or  Franconian  princes.  His 
hereditary  possessions  fell  to  the  sons  of  his 
sister  Agnes,  Frederick  and  Conrad  of  Hohen- 
staufen ;  and  the  imperial  crown  was  conferred 
upon  Lothaire  of  Saxony. 

HENRY  "VI.,  surnamed  the  Cruel,  emperor  of 
Germany,  son  and  successor  of  Frederick  I. 
(Barbarossa),  born  in  1165,  died  in  Sicily,  Sept. 
28,  119V.  He  had  been  crowned  king  by  the 
Lombards  in  1185,  and  was  also  during  his 
father's  lifetime  named  successor  to  the  impe- 
rial throne.  In  1186  he  married  the  Norman 
heiress,  Constance  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  On 
the  death  of  Frederick  in  Cilicia  (1190),  Henry, 
who  had  been  invested  with  the  government 
during  his  father's  absence,  succeeded  with- 
out opposition.  But  the  return  from  England 
of  Henry  the  Lion  of  Saxony,  who  had  been 
temporarily  exiled  by  Frederick,  provoked 
new  wars,  which  were  terminated  by  the  mar- 
riage of  the  son  of  the  duke  with  Agnes,  prin- 


660          HENRY   VII.   (GERMANY) 


HENRY 


cess  palatine,  cousin  to  Henry.  In  1192  Rich- 
ard Cceur  do  Lion  was  arrested  while  going 
through  Germany  in  disguise,  and  with  his 
ransom  Henry  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  Italy. 
Naples  surrendered,  and  he  was  crowned  at 
Palermo  in  October,  1194-;  but  his  cruelty  to 
the  Italian  nobles  who  had  rebelled,  and  his 
extortion,  rendered  him  so  odious  that  his 
sudden  death  is  generally  attributed  to  poison. 
Constance  has  been  accused  of  the  murder. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  preparing  for 
an  expedition  against  the  Greek  empire,  pre- 
liminary to  a  new  crusade. 

IIE.VRY  VII.,  of  Luxemburg,  emperor  of 
Germany,  born  in  1262,  died  at  Buonconven- 
to,  near  Siena,  Aug.  24, 1313.  He  was  elected 
emperor  in  1308,  after  an  interregnum  of  four 
months  which  followed  the  death  of  Albert  I. 
After  punishing  the  murderers  of  his  prede- 
cessor, and  after  the  marriage  of  his  son  John 
with  the  heiress  of  Bohemia,  he  went  to  Italy, 
which  was  distracted  by  the  wars  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines;  and  having  com- 
pelled the  Milanese  to  consent  to  his  corona- 
tion with  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  he  re- 
duced the  whole  of  northern  Italy,  and  con- 
tinued his  march  to  Rome,  of  which  King 
Robert  of  Naples  held  military  possession. 
After  the  reduction  of  that  city,  and  the  impe- 
rial coronation  by  cardinals  (the  pope,  Clement 
V.,  having  transferred  the  holy  see  to  Avignon 
in  1309),  Henry  placed  Robert  under  the  ban 
of  the  empire,  and  was  about  to  march  against 
Naples  when  he  died  suddenly,  of  poison,  it 
was  affirmed,  administered  in  the  eucharist. 

HENRY,  Caleb  Spragne,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Rutland,  Mass.,  Aug.  2,  1804.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1825,  and, 
after  a  theological  course  at  Andover  and  New 
Haven,  settled  in  1828  as  a  Congregational- 
ist  minister  at  Greenfield,  Mass.  In  1831  ill 
health  obliged  him  to  suspend  his  ministry,  and 
he  spent  two  years  at  Cambridge  in  the  study 
of  philosophy.  In  1833  he  was  settled  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.  In  1834  he  published  a  pamphlet 
on  the  "  Principles  and  Prospects  of  the  Friends 
of  Peace."  About  this  time  he  also  established 
a  journal  called  the  "  American  Advocate  of 
Peace,"  which  after  the  first  year  became  the 
organ  of  the  American  peace  society.  In  1835 
he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  took  or- 
ders in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church.  Soon 
afterward  he  was  appointed  professor  of  in- 
tellectual and  moral  philosophy  in  Bristol  col- 
lege, Pa.  In  1837  he  returned  to  New  York, 
and  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Hawks  founded 
the  "  New  York  Review."  In  1839  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  history  in  the  New 
York  university.  He  published  in  1845  a 
translation  of  the  abb6  Bautain's  "Epitome  of 
the  History  of  Philosophy,"  with  a  continua- 
tion from  the  time  of  Reid  down  to  the  date  of 
its  publication.  He  has  also  published  "  Cousin's 
Psychology,"  being  a  translation  of  Cousin's 
lectures  on  Locke's  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Un- 


derstanding," with  notes  and  additional  pieces 
(Hartford,  1834 ;  4th  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged, 
1856).  In  1847  he  became  rector  of  St.  Clem- 
ent's church,  New  York.  On  account  of  failing 
health  he  resigned  this  post  in  1850,  and  his 
professorship  in  1852.  In  1870  he  took  charge 
of  St.  Michael's  church,  Litchfield,  Conn.,  where 
he  continued  for  four  years,  when  he  removed 
to  Stamford,  where  he  now  resides  (1874). 
Dr.  Henry  has  published,  besides  the  works 
above  mentioned,  "  Compendium  of  Christian 
Antiquities"  (8vo,  1837);  "Moral  and  Philo- 
sophical Essays"  (1839);  "Guizot's  General 
History  of  Civilization,  with  Notes;"  "House- 
hold Liturgy;"  Taylor's  "Manual  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  History,"  revised,  with  a  chapter 
on  the  history  of  the  United  States  (New 
York,  1845) ;  "Dr.  Oldham  at  Greystones,  and 
his  Talk  there"  (1860;  3d  ed.,  1872);  "Con- 
siderations on  some  of  the  Elements  and  Con- 
ditions of  Social  Welfare  and  Human  Pro- 
gress," and  "About  Men  and  Things:  Papers 
from  my  Library  Table  Drawer"  (1873);  and 
numerous  addresses  and  pamphlets. 

HORY,  Joseph,  an  American  physicist,  born 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1797.  He  received 
a  common  school  education,  and  after  a  course 
of  study  in  the  Albany  academy,  in  1826  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
that  institution.  In  1827  he  began  a  series 
of  experiments  in  electricity,  and  in  1828 
published  an  account  of  various  modifications 
of  electro-magnetic  apparatus.  He  was  the 
first  to  prove  by  actual  experiment  that  in  the 
transmission  of  electricity  for  great  distances 
the  power  of  the  battery  must  be  proportioned 
to  the  length  of  the  .conductor.  He  was  also 
the  first  actually  to  magnetize  a  piece  of  iron 
at  a  distance,  and  invented  the  first  machine 
moved  by  the  agency  of  electro-magnetism. 
(See  ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.)  In  March,  1829, 
he  exhibited  to  the  Albany  institute  electro- 
magnets which  possessed  magnetic  power  su- 
perior to  that  of  any  before  known,  and  sub- 
sequently he  constructed  others  on  the  same 
plan,  one  of  which,  now  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
college  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  will  sustain  3,600 
pounds,  with  a  battery  occupying  about  a  cubic 
foot  of  space.  In  1831,  in  some  experiments 
at  the  Albany  academy,  he  transmitted  signals 
by  means  of  the  electro-magnet  through  a 
wire  more  than  a  mile  long,  causing  a  bell  to 
sound  at  the  further  end  of  the  wire.  An  ac- 
count of  these  experiments  and  of  his  electro- 
magnetic machine  was  published  in  Silliman's 
"  American  Journal  of  Science  "  in  1831,  vol. 
xix.,  in  which  Prof.  Henry  pointed  out  the  ap- 
plicability of  the  facts  demonstrated  by  his  ex- 
periments to  the  instantaneous  conveyance  of 
intelligence  between  distant  points  by  means 
of  a  magnetic  telegraph,  several  years  before 
such  a  telegraph  was  brought  into  practical 
operation  by  Prof.  Morse.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  college  of  New  Jersey  at  Princeton,  where 
he  continued  his  experiments  and  researches. 


HENRY 


661 


am 

5 


n  his  first  course  of  lectures  in  that  institution 
1833  he  mentioned  the  project  of  the  elec- 
tro-magnetic telegraph,  and  demonstrated  that 
the  electro-magnet  might  be  used  to  produce 
mechanical  effects  at  a  distance.     In  February, 
1837,  he  went  to  Europe,  and  in  April  of  that 
year  visited  Prof.  Wheatstone  of  King's  college, 
London,  to  whom  he  explained  his  discoveries 
and  his  method  of  producing  great  mechani- 
effects  at  a  distance,  such  as  the  ringing 
church  bells  100  miles  off,  by  means  of  the 
electro-magnet.     In  1846,  on  the  organization 
of  the  Smithsonian  institution  at  Washington, 
if.   Henry  was  appointed  its  secretary,   a 
it  which  he  still  holds  (1874),  and  which 
ves  him  the  principal  direction  of  the  insti- 
tion.    His  discoveries  in  physics  are  numer- 
7  some  of  the  most  important  of  which  are 
escribed  in  various  scientific  articles  in  this 
ork.     He  is  the  author  of  "  Contributions  to 
ectricity  and  Magnetism "  (4to,  Philadelphia, 
839),  and  many  papers  in  the  "  American  Phi- 
3sophical  Transactions,"  in  Silliman's  "  Jour- 
al,"  in  the  "Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
te,"  and  in  other  scientific  periodicals. 
HENRY,  Matthew,  an  English  Biblical  com- 
entator,  eon  of  Philip  Henry,  born  at  Broad 
ak,  Flintshire,  Oct.  18,  1662,  died  in  Nant- 
ich,  June  22, 1714.    He  studied  law  for  some 
me,  but  preferred  the  ministry,  succeeded  as 
preacher,  and  was  soon  invited  to  Chester, 
where,  being  ordained  in  1687,  he  drew  around 
im  a  large  congregation,  to  which  he  minis- 
for  25   years.     During  this  period  he 
ore  than  once  went  through  the  entire  Bible 
a  course-  of  expository  lectures,  which  he 
intinued  at  Hackney,  whither  he  removed  in 
712.    He  thus  gradually  completed  his  cele- 
rated  "Exposition"  of  the  Bible.     The  first 
llective  edition  was  published  in   1710  (5 
vols.  fol.,  London),  and  it  has  been  many  times 
printed.     Henry's  other  works  include  "  Life 
id  Death  of  Rev.  Philip  Henry"  (1698); 
"  Method  of  Prayer  "  (1710) ;  "  Treatise  on  Bap- 
tism ;"  "Communicant's  Companion"  (1731). 
collection  of  his  miscellaneous  works,  in 
one  volume,  appeared  in  London  in  1830.     See 
"Life  of  Matthew  Henry,"  by  W.  Tong  (1716), 
d  also  by  Williams  prefixed  to  the  "  Expo- 
ition  "  (3  vols.,  London,  1828). 
HENRY,  Patrick,  an  American    orator  and 
esman,  born  at  Studley,  Hanover  co.,  Va., 
ay  29,  1736,  died  at  Red  Hill,  Charlotte  co., 
une  6,  1799.     His  father,  John  Henry,  was  a 
ve  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  and  a  nephew 
of  Robertson  the  historian.     His  mother  was 
rst  married  to  Col.  John  Syme,  and  afterward 
John  Henry,  who  was  colonel  of  a  regiment, 
>unty  surveyor,  presiding  magistrate,  and  a 
man  of  liberal  education  and  conspicuous  loy- 
alty.    A  few  years  after  the  birth  of  the  boy, 
Col.  John   Henry  removed  from  Studley  to 
~  .ount  Brilliant  in  the  same  county,  where  the 
childhood  and  early  youth  of  the  future  orator 
were  passed.     He  was  sent  first  to  an  "old 
field  school,"  where  at  that  period  tuition  was 


chiefly  confined  to  the  English  and  primary 
departments,  with  perhaps  a  smattering  of  the 
classics.    Under  his  father,  who  taught  a  gram- 
mar school  in  his  own  house,  he  acquired  a 
competent  English  education,  and  some  ac- 
quaintance with  Latin  and  mathematics.    But 
hunting  and  angling  early  grew  to  be  passions 
with  him ;  he  would  desert  his  books  at  any 
moment  to  seek  the  forest  with  his  gun,  or 
the  neighboring  streams  with  his  fishing  rod. 
At  the  age  of  14  he  heard  the  celebrated  Pres- 
byterian preacher  Samuel  Davies,  whose  elo- 
quence produced  a  powerful  effect  upon  the 
boy  and  opened  a  new  world  for  him.     Henry 
spoke  of  him  throughout  life  in  terms  of  un- 
bounded admiration,  and  declared  that  any 
success  which  he  himself  had  achieved  was 
due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  great  orator  of 
the  Presbyterian  church.    About  this  time  his 
father  became  embarrassed,  and  required  assis- 
tance from  his  sons.    Patrick  was  accordingly 
placed  behind  the  counter  of  a  country  mer- 
chant, and  the  year  after,  at  the  age  of  16,  his 
father  set  him  up  in  business  with  his  elder 
brother  William.     The  future  orator  possessed 
none  of  the  traits  which  secure  success  in  trade. 
He  was  indolent,  careless,  slovenly  in  bis  dress, 
and  awkward  in  manners,  but  humorous  and 
attractive  in  conversation;    and  his  fondness 
for  social  pleasures  was  rather  an  obstacle  than 
an  advantage.    William  Henry  was  even  less 
energetic  than  his  brother,  and,  after  a  year's 
experience,   abandoned  the  business.     After 
this  Patrick  became  still  more  indolent.     His 
social   and  sporting  propensities  grew  upon 
him.     The  hunter's  horn  and  the  cry  of  the 
hounds  often  drew  him  away;   and  he  ex- 
pended on  the  violin  and  the  flute  the  energies 
which  should  have  been  given  to  his  business. 
At  other  times  he  gratified  the  dry  humor  which 
characterized  him  by  exciting  debates  among 
the  country  people  who  hung  around  the  store. 
He  would  relate  stories,  real  or  fictitious,  and 
derive  his  own  amusement  from  the  emotions 
exhibited  by  the  simple  auditors.    If  to  these 
idle  pursuits  be  added  the  fact  that  he  could 
not  refuse  any  one  credit,  the  result  of  the 
mercantile  venture  may  without  difficulty  be 
understood.    In  two  or  three  years  the  store 
was  closed,  and  Patrick  Henry  was  insolvent. 
He  had  just  married  Miss  Shelton,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  respectable  farmer.    With  the  assis- 
tance of  his  father  and  father-in-law  he  began 
farming  upon  a  small  scale,  but  in  two  years 
abandoned  it  in  despair,  and  selling  his  scant 
property  turned  again  to  merchandise.     But 
experience  and  misfortune  had   taught   him 
nothing.    The  violin,  the  flute,  his  old  pastime 
of  telling  stories  and  watching  the  expression 
of  his  auditors,  were  cultivated  with  renewed 
ardor.    He  studied  geography,  read  translations 
of  Latin  and  Greek  authors,  Livy  being  his  fa- 
vorite, and,  when  weary  of  books,  shut  up  his 
store,  and  went  hunting  or  fishing.  The  former 
result  duly  followed.    He  again  became  T^ank- 
nipt  and  began  to  study  law.    At  the  age  of 


662 


HENRY 


24,  after  only  six  weeks'  study,  he  presented 
himself  before  the  judges,  who  granted  him  a 
license  with  hesitation,  and  only  after  a  promise 
to  study  further  before  commencing  practice. 
It  is  said  that  at  this  time  he  was  unable  to 
draw  a  declaration,  or  perform  the  simplest 
duties  of  his  profession.  He  could  obtain  no 
practice,  and  the  distress  of  his  family  was  ex- 
treme. He  was  living  with  his  father-in-law, 
who  then  kept  the  tavern  at  Hanover  Court 
House,  and  Henry  assisted  him  in  the  business, 
filling  the  place  of  Mr.  Shelton  in  the  tavern 
when  he  was  compelled  to  be  absent.  Other- 
wise he  was  as  idle  as  ever.  But  events  were 
rapidly  hastening  toward  the  commencement 
of  the  great  political  struggle  in  which  he  was 
to  bear  so  glorious  a  part.  His  first  appearance 
in  public,  as  in  every  great  movement  of  his 
career,  was  on  the  side  of  popular  rights.  At 
the  age  of  27  he  was  retained,  for  want  of  a 
better  advocate,  in  what  seemed  a  desperate 
struggle — the  celebrated  "  parsons'  cause,"  the 
history  of  which  was  briefly  as  follows.  In 
1755,  a  year  of  great  drought,  and  serious  pub- 
lic embarrassment  from  the  expenses  of  the 
French  war,  the  house  of  burgesses  had  enacted 
that  all  debts  due  in  tobacco,  then  a  species  of. 
currency,  should  be  paid  either  in  kind  or  in 
money,  at  the  rate  of  16s.  8d.  for  the  100  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  or  2d.  per  pound.  The  law  was 
universal  in  its  application,  and  was  to  remain 
in  force  for  ten  months.  Its  effect  was  to  reduce 
all  fees  and  salaries  to.  a  moderate  amount  in 
money,  and  it  bore  especially  upon  the  clergy 
of  the  established  church.  They  were  entitled 
by  law  to  16,000  Ibs.  of  tobacco  per  annum 
each,  and  the  act  deprived  them  of  about  66 
per  cent,  of  their  due.  There  was  much  dis- 
satisfaction, but  no  resistance.  When,  how- 
ever, in  1758,  a  similar  law  was  passed,  an  acri- 
monious controversy  arose  between  the  plant- 
ers and  the  clergy.  The  latter  appealed  finally 
to  the  king  in  council,  and  the  act  was  declared 
void.  Suits  were  immediately  instituted  by 
the  clergy  in  the  different  counties  to  recover 
the  amount  of  loss  which  they  had  suffered  by 
the  "  twopenny  act."  The  county  of  Hanover 
was  selected  as  the  theatre  of  the  struggle,  the 
decision  in  one  case  being  regarded  as  a  fair 
test  of  the  question.  The  court,  on  demurrer, 
decided  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  the  Rev.  John 
Maury ;  and  the  case  now  stood  upon  a  com- 
mon writ  of  inquiry  of  damages.  The  contest 
was  considered  at  an  end,  and  Patrick  Henry 
seems  to  have  been  employed  by  the  defendants 
merely  as  a  matter  of  form.  They  had  calcu- 
lated without  the  popular  feeling  against  the 
clergy,  who  were  hated  by  a  great  part  of  the 
people.  A  large  crowd  assembled  to  witness 
the  trial  of  the  question  of  damages.  On  the 
bench  sat  more  than  twenty  of  the  clergy, 
among  them  many  of  the  most  learned  men  in 
the  colony.  Their  case  was  lucidly  and  calmly 
stated  by  Peter  Lyons,  a  distinguished  coun- 
sellor of  the  time ;  and  Patrick  Henry  rose  to 
reply.  The  array  before  him  was  terrifying  to 


a  youthful  and  inexperienced  man,  and  the 
presence  of  his  father  in  the  chair  of  the  presi- 
ding magistrate  did  not  lessen  the  embarrass- 
ment of  his  position.  His  exordium  was  awk- 
ward and  confused.  He  visibly  faltered.  The 
crowd,  whose  sympathies  were  all  on  the  side 
which  he  represented,  hung  their  heads  and 
gave  up  the  contest.  The  clergy  smiled  and 
exchanged  glances  of  triumph.  The  father  of 
the  speaker  almost  sank  back  in  his  seat.  But 
a  change  suddenly  took  place  in  the  demeanor 
of  every  one.  All  eyes  were  drawn  to  the 
youthful  orator.  His  confusion  had  passed 
away;  his  form  rose  erect;  and  the  "myste- 
rious and  almost  supernatural  transformation 
of  appearance  "  which  his  contemporaries  spoke 
of  passed  over  him.  Those  who  heard  the  un- 
known young  man  in  this  his  first  speech  said 
that  he  "  made  their  blood  run  cold  and  their 
hair  to  rise  on  end."  Under  his  terrible  invec- 
tive the  clergy  disappeared  hastily  from  the 
bench ;  and  the  jury,  after  retiring  for  an  in- 
stant, brought  in  a  verdict  of  one  penny  dam- 
ages. A  motion  was  made  by  Mr.  Lyons  for 
a  new  trial,  but  it  was  overruled ;  and  Patrick 
Henry,  thenceforth  the  "man  of  the  people," 
was  caught  up  by  the  crowd,  drawn  out  of  the 
court  house,  and  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
multitude.  Thus,  at  a  single  step,  Henry  rose 
to  the  first  rank  among  the  Virginia  orators  of 
the  time.  His  success  in  the  parsons'  cause 
brought  him  profit  as  well  as  fame.  lie  no 
longer  suffered  from  want  of  business,  and 
seems  to  have  addressed  himself  to  the  prose- 
cution of  his  profession  with  industry  and  en- 
ergy. The  law  was  not,  however,  destined  to 
monopolize  his  genius.  He  entered  the  house 
of  burgesses  in  the  spring  of  1765,  at  the  mo- 
ment when  England  consummated  her  long 
series  of  oppressions  upon  the  American  colo- 
nies by  the  passage  of  the  stamp  act.  The  bill 
received  the  royal  sanction  in  March  of  that 
year,  and  in  May  it  came  up  for  discussion  be- 
fore the  burgesses.  The  character  of  that  body 
was  anomalous — its  action  difficult  to  predict. 
It  had  opposed  consistently  and  with  stubborn- 
ness all  encroachments  of  the  home  govern- 
ment from  the  earliest  times ;  it  had  repeatedly 
denied  the  right  of  the  English  parliament  to 
lay  imposts  upon  the  American  colonies,  and 
had  systematically  contended  that  taxation  and 
representation  were  inseparable.  But  peculiar 
elements  and  considerations  entered  into  the 
struggle  about  to  take  place.  An  open  rupture 
with  England  was  extremely  repugnant  to  the 
dominant  party  in  the  house.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  burgesses  were  opulent  planters 
of  the  tide-water  region,  attached  to  the  mother 
country  by  a  thousand  ties.  They  regarded 
Magna  Charta,  the  established  church,  arid  the 
common  law  as  a  part  of  their  inheritance; 
and  a  dissolution  of  the  ties  which  bound  them 
to  Great  Britain  seemed  a  relinquishment  of  the 
part  which  they  had  in  these  great  institutions. 
Thus  socially  and  politically  the  ruling  classes 
in  Virginia  were  opposed  to  extreme  measures, 


and  in  the  house  which  assembled  in  the  spring 
of  1765  they  were  represented  by  their  most 
powerful  names.     These  gentlemen  held  back, 
hesitated,  and  advocated  renewed  protests  and 
petitions.     It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  gen- 
eral indecision  and  doubt  that  Patrick  Henry 
startled  the  assembly  by  his  celebrated  resolu- 
tions.   He  was  almost  unknown  to  the  mem- 
bers, and  the  first  sentiment  of  the  richly  clad 
planters  was  scorn  and  indignation  at  the  pre- 
sumption of  the  slovenly  and  awkward  youth, 
in  leather  knee   breeches    and  a   homespun 
coat,   who  ventured  to  assume  the  post  of 
leader  in  an  assemblage  so  august  and  at  a 
moment  so  critical.     His  resolutions,  which  he 
had  hastily  written  on  the  leaf  of  a  law  book, 
contained  none  of  the  old  formal  and  submis- 
sive phrases.     They  suggested  no  new  petition 
or  protest.     They  declared  that  the  house  of 
burgesses  and  the  executive  had  "  the  exclu- 
sive right  and  power  to  lay  taxes  and  imposts 
upon  the   inhabitants  of  this   colony;"   and 
that,  consequently,  the  stamp  act,  and  all  other 
acts  of  parliament  affecting  the  rights  of  the 
American  colonies,  were  unconstitutional  and 
void.    The  best  patriots  received  the  resolu- 
tions with  a  tempest  of  opposition.    They  were 
declared  extreme,   impolitic,   and  dangerous. 
"Many  threats  were  uttered,"   says  Henry, 
"  and  much  abuse  cast  on  me  by  the  parties  for 
submission."     Thomas  Jefferson,  who  heard 
the  debate,  says  that  it  was  "most  bloody." 
But  the  nerve  and  resolution  of  the  young  bur- 
gess were  as  great  as  his  eloquence.     In  the 
midst  of  the  debate  he  thundered  :  "  Csesar  had 
his  Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell,  and 
George   the  Third  "— "  Treason  I"    cried  the 
speaker,    "Treason,   treason!"    echoed  from 
every  part  of  the  house — "  may  profit  by  their 
example !    If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of 
it ! "    The  resolutions,  in  spite  of  a  bitter  oppo- 
sition, were  carried,  the  last  by  a  majority  of 
one.    The  young  man  had  thus  achieved  at  the 
age  of  29  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest 
orator  and  political  thinker  of  a  land  abound- 
ing with  public  speakers  and  statesmen.    He 
had  suddenly  become  a  "power  in  the  state;" 
and  the  sceptre,    departing  from  the  hands 
of  the  wealthy  planters,  was  wielded  by  the 
county  court  lawyer.     The  mouthpiece  of  re- 
sistance, the  authoritative  representative  of  the 
masses  as  distinguished  from  the  aristocracy, 
and  soon  to  be  the  advocate  of  revolution,  Pat- 
rick Henry  thenceforth   occupied  a  post  of 
strength  from  which  his  enemies  were  unable 
to  drive  him.     From  the  pursuits  of  his  profes- 
sion, to  which  he  returned,  he  was  soon  again 
recalled  to  the  stage  of  public  events.     The 
stamp  act  had  been  repealed,  but  the  policy  of 
laying  burdens  upon  the  colonies  had  not  been 
abandoned.     In  1767  the   act  levying  duties 
upon  tea,  glass,  paper,  and  other  articles,  threw 
the   country  into  renewed  ferment.     In  the 
spring  session  of  1769  the  leading  advocates  of 
resistance  in  the  house  of  burgesses,  of  whom 
Patrick  Henry,   Thomas   Jefferson,   and    the 


HENEY 


663 


Lees  were  the  most  active  and  determined, 
offered  a  series  of  resolutions  which  caused  the 
dissolution  of  the  body  by  Lord  Botetourt. 
Henry  and  his  friends  immediately  assembled 
at  the  old  Raleigh  tavern  in  Williamsburg, 
and  drew  up  articles  of  association  against  the 
use  of  British  merchandise,  which  were  gen- 
erally signed  by  the  burgesses.  Here  termi- 
nated for  a  time  the  struggle,  and  Henry  re- 
turned to  his  profession,  though  he  continued  a 
member  of  the  burgesses.  In  this  year  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  general  court,  where 
his  appearance  was  respectable,  but  not  dis- 
tinguished. He  was  not  a  good  "  case  lawyer," 
from  defective  study ;  but  in  jury  trials,  where 
his  wonderful  powers  of  oratory  could  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  passions  of  men,  he 
excelled  all  his  contemporaries.  For  four 
years  Henry  continued  to  occupy  a  seat  in  the 
house  of  burgesses,  and  to  practise  his  profes- 
sion. Then  the  struggle  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  colonies  commenced  in  earnest. 
It  was  plain  that  both  sides  were  greatly  em- 
bittered, and  there  is  evidence  that  Patrick 
Henry,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  other  advocates 
of  uncompromising  resistance  desired  to  take 
advantage  of  the  public  sentiment  and  precipi- 
tate the  rupture.  Early  in  the  session  of  1773, 
Henry,  Jefferson,  the  two  Lees,  and  Dabney 
Carr  met  in  the  Raleigh  tavern  and  originated 
that  great  machine,  the  "  committee  of  corre- 
spondence, for  the  dissemination  of  intelligence 
between  the  colonies."  The  burgesses  prompt- 
ly acted  upon  the  suggestion,  and  were  as 
promptly  dissolved  by  Lord  Dunmore,  who  had 
succeeded  Botetourt.  They  were  all  reflected 
by  the  people,  and  resumed  their  seats  in  the 
spring  of  1774.  Massachusetts  had  already 
made  her  courageous  stand  against  parliament. 
The  tea  of  the  East  India  company  had  been 
thrown  overboard  in  Boston  harbor,  and  a  col- 
lision between  England  and  the  colonies  was 
now  in  the  highest  degree  probable.  The 
most  determined  patriots  were  therefore  sum- 
moned to  the  public  councils  in  Virginia.  The 
Boston  port  bill,  closing  Boston  harbor  on  June 
1,  speedily  arrived.  The  leaders  of  the  bur- 
gesses again  met  in  secret  consultation,  and  the 
result  was  a  resolution  that  the  1st  of  June 
should  be  set  apart  as  "  a  day  of  fasting,  humil- 
iation, and  prayer"  throughout  the  province. 
The  burgesses  passed  the  resolution,  and  Dun- 
more  duly  dissolved  them.  They  retired  to  the 
Raleigh  tavern  as  before  (May,  1774)  ;  but  pub- 
lic feeling  was  too  deeply  aroused  to  content 
itself  with  protests  or  "  articles  of  association." 
The  meeting  resulted  in  two  resolves  of  the  ut- 
most importance.  The  first  was  that  the  dif- 
ferent counties  should  be  recommended  to  elect 
deputies  to  assemble  at  Williamsburg,  Aug.  1, 
to  consult  for  the  good  of  the  colony.  The 
second  was  that  the  committee  of  correspon- 
dence should  propose  immediately  to  all  the 
colonies  a  general  congress,  to  meet  annually 
and  deliberate  upon  the  common  welfare  ;  "the 
ftrst  recommendation  of  a  general  congress," 


HENRY 


says  Irving,  "by  any  public  assembly."  The 
deputies  accordingly  assembled  on  Aug.  1,  sub- 
scribed a  new  and  more  thorough  non-impor- 
tation agreement,  and  appointed  delegates  to  a 
general  congress,  to  meet  at  Philadelphia  in 
September.  Among  these  delegates  was  Pat- 
rick Henry,  and  his  voice  was  the  first  to  break 
the  silence  of  the  august  assembly.  His  fame 
had  preceded  him.  He  was  recognized  and 
greeted  as  the  great  champion  of  constitutional 
liberty — the  man  who,  more  than  any  other, 
had  aroused  public  sentiment  in,  and  directed 
the  councils  of,  the  great  province  of  Virginia. 
His  extraordinary  eloquence  astonished  all  lis- 
teners. It  was  "  Shakespeare  and  Garrick  com- 
bined." "When  he  took  his  seat,  there  was  no 
longer  a  doubt  in  any  mind  that  he  was  the 
greatest  orator  of  America,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  of  any  land  or  age.  A  petition  to  the 
king,  and  an  address  and  memorial  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Great  Britain,  were  the  chief  re- 
sults of  the  congress,  which  adjourned  in  Octo- 
ber. Henry  returned  home  with  his  brother 
delegates,  and,  when  asked  who  was  "  the  great- 
est man  in  congress,"  replied  that  Mr.  Rut- 
ledge  of  South  Carolina  was  the  greatest  orator, 
but  Col.  George  Washington  the  greatest  man 
— an  instance  of  his  powers  of  penetrating  into 
the  depths  of  human  character.  With  the 
spring  of  the  next  year,  1775,  all  things  ad- 
vanced rapidly  toward  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween peace  and  war.  In  March  the  second 
convention  met  in  Richmond,  and  here  again 
Henry  assumed  a  position  very  far  in  advance 
of  his  associates.  He  rose  and  moved  that  the 
militia  should  be  organized,  and  the  "  colony  be 
immediately  put  in  a  state  of  defence."  The 
resolutions  met  with  strong  opposition,  as  had 
been  the  case  with  his  stamp  act  resolutions  ten 
years  before  in  the  house  of  burgesses.  The 
leading  and  greatest  patriots  warmly  opposed 
them  as  precipitate  and  ill  advised.  Henry's 
speech  in  reply  was  one  of  extraordinary  elo- 
quence and  power.  With  the  vision  of  a 
prophet  almost,  he  exclaimed:  "There  is  no 
retreat  but  in  submission  and  slavery.  Our 
chains  are  forged!  Their  clanking  may  be 
heard  on  the  plains  of  Boston.  .  .  .  The  next 
gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to 
our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding  arms.  .  .  . 
I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take ; 
but  as  for  me — give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death !  "  The  resolutions  were  passed  without 
a  dissenting  voice,  and  the  convention  rose. 
Ere  long  arrived  the  news  of  the  battles  of 
Lexington  and  Concord.  The  contest  was  not 
to  be  long  delayed  on  the  soil  of  Virginia.  In 
compliance  with  general  orders  from  England, 
Lord  Dunmore  had  on  the  night  of  April  20 
removed  clandestinely  from  the  magazine  in 
Williamsburg  all  the  powder  of  the  colony. 
The  alarm  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  prov- 
ince, and  the  people  flew  to  arras.  Seven  hun- 
dred men  assembled  at  Fredericksburg,  but, 
receiving  an  assurance  that  the  powder  would 
be  restored,  were  disbanded.  Patrick  Henry 


saw  the  favorable  moment  thus  about  to  pass. 
He  determined  to  act  boldly.  Summoning 
the  militia  of  Hanover,  he  placed  himself  at 
their  head,  despatched  a  troop  to  arrest  the 
king's  receiver  general,  and  marched  upon 
Williamsburg.  Lord  Dunmore's  agent  met 
him  on  the  way,  and  paid  £330  for  the  pow- 
der ;  and  on  his  return  home  Henry  found 
himself  and  his  friends  denounced  in  a  pub- 
lic proclamation  as  "  deluded "  arousers  of 
sedition.  But  the  whole  province,  indeed  all 
the  land,  was  equally  deluded.  The  defiance 
had  been  given  by  Henry ;  the  authority  of  the 
king,  in  the  person  of  his  representative,  men- 
aced with  an  armed  force.  There  was  no  choice 
thenceforth  but  between  submission  and  open 
resistance.  In  June  Lord  Dunmore  fled  with 
his  family  from  Williamsburg  on  board  a  man- 
of-war,  and  in  July  a  convention  met  at  Rich- 
mond which  organized  a  committee  of  safety, 
consisting  of  11  gentlemen,  endowed  with  al- 
most dictatorial  powers.  Two  regiments  were 
directed  to  be  immediately  raised,  and  Patrick 
Henry  was  elected  colonel  of  the  first  and  com- 
mander of  all  forces  to  be  enrolled ;  William 
Woodford,  colonel  of  the  second.  Lord  Dun- 
more  at  this  time  was  ravaging  the  shores  of 
the  Chesapeake  and  threatening  Norfolk,  and 
the  committee  of  safety  were  compelled  to  act 
promptly.  They  detached  Col.  Woodford  at 
the  head  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  forces 
against  the  enemy,  and  the  result  was  the  bat- 
tle of  Great  Bridge,  in  which  the  raw  Virginia 
recruits  drove  back  the  best  trained  English 
grenadiers  and  gained  a  victory,  sending  Dun- 
more  back  to  his  ships.  The  action  of  the 
committee  in  passing  over  Henry  was  violent- 
ly inveighed  against  by  his  friends,  and  the 
venerable  Edmund  Pendleton,  the  president, 
was  especially  assailed.  The  censure  seems 
to  have  been  wholly  unjust.  The  right  of  the 
committee  to  assign  a  separate  command  to 
Col.  Woodford  was  formally  stated  in  Henry's 
commission,  and  Woodford's  military  experi- 
ence determined  the  action  of  the  committee 
in  selecting  him  for  this  critical  undertaking. 
The  ardent  feelings  of  Henry  and  his  disap- 
pointment doubtless  betrayed  him  into  re- 
signing his  commission,  which  he  speedily 
did,  though  between  Pendleton  and  himself 
there  was  never  any  quarrel.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  which  met  in  May, 
1776,  and  instructed  the  Virginia  deputies 
to  the  general  congress  to  propose  to  that 
body  to  "  declare  the  united  colonies  free 
and  independent  states."  In  the  same  year  he 
was  elected  the  first  republican  governor  of 
Virginia,  and  from  this  time  his  career  was 
rather  that  of  the  statesman  and  minister  of 
public  affairs,  than  the  ardent,  imposing,  almost 
dazzling  orator  of  revolution.  He  filled  the 
office  of  governor  by  successive  reflections  till 
1779,  when  he  was  no  longer  eligible.  During 
this  trying  period  he  was  eminently  serviceable 
in  sustaining  public  spirit  and  seconding  the 
efforts  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  revolution. 


HENRY 


665 


returned  to  the  legislative  body,  where  he 
jrved  throughout  the  war,  at  the  termination 
of  which  he  was  again  elected  governor,  and 
served  until  the  autumn  of  1786,  when  he  re- 
signed. In  1788  he  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention to  ratify  the  federal  constitution,  an 
instrument  whose  adoption  he  opposed  with 
all  the  strength  and  eloquence  of  his  youth. 
Although  this  opposition  afterward  abated  in 
a  measure,  he  always  remained  fearful  that 
the  final  result  would  be  the  destruction  of  the 
rights  of  the  states.  In  1794  he  retired  from 
the  bar,  and  removed  to  his  estate  of  Red  Hill 
in  Charlotte.  In  1795  Washington  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state,  in  place  of  Edmund 
Randolph,  who  had  resigned ;  but  Henry  de- 
clined the  appointment,  as  he  did  that  of  envoy 
to  France  afterward  offered  him  by  Mr.  Adams, 
and  that  of  governor  offered  him  in  1796.  In 
March,  1799,  yielding  to  the  request  of  Wash- 
ington and  other  distinguished  persons,  and  de- 
sirous of  doing  his  part  to  avert  what  he 
feared  would  be  the  disastrous  results  of  the 
"resolutions  of  '98  "  just  passed  by  the  Vir- 
ginia house,  he  ran  for  the  state  senate  in 
his  district.  The  great  orator  had  only  to  in- 
dicate his  wishes  to  fill  any  public  position, 
and  was  easily  elected ;  but  he  never  took  his 
seat.  The  speech  at  Charlotte  Court  House 
was  his  last,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  worthy 
of  his  fame.  He  died  less  than  three  months 
afterward. — Patrick  Henry  was  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  an  ex- 
traordinary epoch.  In  the  house  of  burgess- 
es he  bore  away  the  palm  from  Edmund  Pen- 
dleton,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  George  Mason, 
and  the  most  powerful  men  of  the  time.  In 
the  general  congress,  the  men  of  the  north  ac- 
knowledged that  Henry  was  the  greatest  ora- 
tor whom  they  had  ever  heard.  Of  this  con- 
spicuous endowment  there  are  countless  proofs, 
anecdotes,  and  traditions ;  and  it  is  established 
beyond  a  rational  doubt  that  Henry  possessed 
a  natural  genius  for  moving  men  such  as  has 
rarely  been  bestowed  upon  humanity.  Jeffer- 
son said  that  he  seemed  to  him  to  speak  "as 
Homer  wrote."  Undoubtedly  a  large  part  of 
his  wonderful  success  was  due  to  his  moral 
courage.  To  that  mysterious  eloquence  which 
swayed  and  took  captive  all  minds,  he  uni- 
ted a  nerve  and  resolution  which  when  tho- 
roughly aroused  were  indomitable.  There 
was  a  hard  stubborn  fibre  in  his  moral  organ- 
ization which  resisted  all  attacks,  and  defied 
whatever  attempted  to  move  him.  As  a  mere 
logician,  apart  from  the  advocate,  Henry  had 
no  conspicuous  talent.  He  was  not  a  great 
lawyer,  and  his  name  remains  connected  with 
no  large  measures  of  policy  under  the  new  or- 
der of  things,  like  that  of  Jefferson.  He  lives 
and  will  always  live  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
revolution,  the  voice  which  uttered  most  bold- 
ly and  clearly  the  principles  of  human  free- 
dom. He  was  a  man  of  the  revolution,  the 
representative  of  a  convulsed  epoch  and  an 
indignant  people ;  the  words  which  he  uttered 


were  those  which  trembled  upon  the  lips  of 
millions.  In  person  Henry  was  rather  striking 
than  prepossessing.  Nearly  six  feet,  spare, 
rawboned,  and  slightly  stooping  in  the  shoul- 
ders, he  gave  no  indication  of  the  majesty  and 
grace  which  characterized  his  appearance  when 
his  genius  was  aroused.  His  complexion  was 
sallow ;  his  countenance  grave,  thoughtful, 
stern  in  repose,  and  marked  with  the  lines  of 
deep  and  painful  reflection.  His  brows  were 
habitually  contracted,  and  communicated  to 
his  features  an  air  of  forbidding  sternness  and 
severity.  The  mouth,  with  closely  compressed 
lips,  and  deep  furrows  at  the  corners,  was  set 
in  an  expression  of  unyielding  resolution. 
When  he  spoke,  however,  a  wonderful  change 
passed  over  him.  His  person  rose  erect,  his 
head,  instead  of  stooping,  was  held  proudly 
aloft,  and  the  whole  man  seemed  to  undergo 
a  transformation.  The  power  which  he  pos- 
sessed of  expressing  feeling  by  a  simple  move- 
ment of  feature  was  extraordinary.  The  stern 
face  would  relax  and  grow  soft,  pensive,  and 
gentle;  or  a  withering  rage  would  burn  in 
the  fiery  eyes ;  or  eyes,  mouth,  and  voice  would 
convey  to  the  listener  emotions  of  the  tender- 
est  pathos.  In  private  life  he  was  kindly, 
good-humored,  and  agreeable.  He  possessed 
a  dry  humor  which  was  very  attractive.  He 
indulged  in  none  of  the  vices  of  high  living 
then  prevalent ;  temperate,  frugal,  rarely  drink- 
ing anything  but  water,  he  presented  a  strong 
contrast  to  his  contemporaries.  His  reading 
was  not  extensive,  but  serious  and  solid.  Livy 
was  his  favorite  historian  ;  but  his  reading  was 
chiefly  confined  to  the  Bible.  He  was  a  devout 
Christian,  and  when  governor  printed  and  cir- 
culated at  his  own  expense  Soame  Jenyn's 
"View  of  Christianity"  and  Butler's  "Anal- 
ogy." Sherlock's  sermons  he  read  every  Sun- 
day evening  to  his  family,  after  which  all  joined 
in  sacred  music,  while  he  accompanied  them 
upon  the  violin.  All  the  accounts  of  his  per- 
sonal bearing  represent  it  as  simple,  plain,  and 
cordial.  There  was  an  honest  good  feeling  in 
his  manner  which  induced  the  commonest  per- 
sons to  approach  him  with  confidence.  By 
this  class  he  was  almost  idolized ;  and  through- 
out his  career  he  retained  their  unbounded  ad- 
miration, attachment,  and  respect. — The  life 
of  Patrick  Henry  has  been  written  by  William 
Wirt  (8vo,  1817),  and  by  A.  H.  Everett,  in 
Sparks's  "  American  Biography." 

HENRY,  Philip,  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  in  Whitehall,  London,  Aug.  24, 
1631,  died  June  24,  1696.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  school  and  at  Christchurch, 
Oxford,  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  at  Worth- 
enbury,  Flintshire,  in  1657,  was  one  of  the 
clergymen  who  left  the  church  of  England  in 
1662  in  consequence  of  the  act  of  uniformity, 
and  lived  in  seclusion  till  in  1687  he  was  per- 
mitted again  to  preach  by  the  declaration  of 
King  James  in  favor  of  liberty  of  conscience. 
From  that  time  he  held  public  religious  ser- 
vices near  his  residence  at  Broad  Oak,  and  also 


666 


HENRY 


preached  frequently  elsewhere.  His  biogra- 
phy, by  his  son  Matthew  Henry  (London,  1698), 
has  passed  through  many  editions. 

HKMH ,  Robert,  a  Scottish  historian,  born  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Ninian's,  Stirlingshire,  Feb. 
18,  1718,  died  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  24,  1790. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  afterward  master  of  the  gram- 
mar school  of  Annan  till  in  1746  he  was  li- 
censed as  a  preacher.  He  was  pastor  of  a 
Presbyterian  congregation  at  Carlisle  from 
1748  to  1760,  at  Berwick-upon-Tweed  from 
1760  to  1768,  and  afterward  in  Edinburgh. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  Great 
Britain"  (6  vols.,  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1771-'93).  It  extended  to  the  death  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  was  continued  to  the  accession  of 
James  I.  by  J.  P.  Andrews  (London,  1794). 

HENRY,  William,  an  English  chemist,  born  in 
Manchester,  Dec.  12,  1775,  died  Sept.  2,  1836. 
He  studied  under  Dr.  Black  of  Edinburgh. 
Though  he  practised  in  Manchester  as  a  phy- 
sician, he  gave  particular  attention  to  chem- 
istry. In  1803  he  published  the  law  "that 
water  takes  up  of  gas  condensed  by  one,  two, 
or  more  additional  atmospheres,  a  quantity 
which  would  be  equal  to  twice,  thrice,  &c.; 
the  volume  absorbed  under  the  common  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere."  His  "Elements  of 
Experimental  Chemistry"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1810)  reached  its  llth  edition  in  1829. 

HENRY  THE  HERMIT,  or  Henry  of  Lausanne, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Henricians,  born 
probably  in  Italy,  died  at  Clairvaux,  France, 
in  1149.  He  lived  at  first  as  an  anchorite, 
but  about  1113  abandoned  his  hermitage,  and 
travelled  through  northern  Italy,  preaching 
his  peculiar  views.  It  is  said  that  he  rejected 
a  great  part  of  the  Scriptures,  baptized  only 
adults,  denied  the  real  presence,  suppressed 
the  mass,  declared  churches  and  altars  use- 
less, and  forbade  the  use  of  the  cross  as  a 
symbol  of  worship,  and  prayers  for  the  dead, 
lie  was  tall  and  poorly  clad,  wore  a  hair  shirt, 
shaved  his  beard,  and  walked  barefoot.  He 
was  eloquent  and  earnest,  and  gained  many 
disciples,  having  a  reputation  for  piety  and  de- 
votion. Driven  by  persecution,  he  crossed  the 
Alps  to  Lausanne,  and  his  reputation  spread 
throughout  France.  He  was  invited  to  Le 
Mans,  but  first  sent  two  disciples,  and  then 
followed  them.  He  there  excited  a  great  op- 
position of  the  people  to  the  priests,  and  the 
archbishop  Hildebert  interposed,  forbidding 
him  to  preach,  and  ordering  him  to  leave  the 
diocese.  Henry  then  went  to  Poitou,  Langue- 
doc,  and  Guienne,  and  made  many  disciples  at 
Poitiers  and  Bordeaux.  Driven  still  by  perse- 
cution, he  went  to  Dauphiny,  where  he  met 
Peter  de  Bruys,  whom  he  acknowledged  as  his 
master.  His  doctrines  were  so  widely  adopt- 
ed, that  Pope  Eugenius  III.  in  1147  sent  Car- 
dinal Alberic,  bishop  of  Ostia,  to  combat  this 
heresy,  accompanied  by  Geoffroy,  bishop  of 
Chartres,  and  St.  Bernard,  and  asked  the  in- 
terference of  temporal  princes,  especially  of 


HENRY  THE  LION 

the  king  of  France  and  the  duke  of  Savoy. 
Peter  de  Bruys  was  arrested  and  burned  at 
the  stake,  but  Henry  escaped  to  Toulouse,  and 
continued  to  spread  his  doctrines  in  Gascony 
and  the  adjacent  countries.  Bernard  spoke 

r'nst  him,  but  without  persuading  the  peo- 
who  cherished  Henry  and  his  doctrines. 
He  was  cited  several  times  before  the  legate, 
but,  admonished  by  the  fate  of  Peter  de  Bruys, 
fled  from  city  to  city.  He  was  taken  at  length, 
carried  before  the  bishop  of  Toulouse,  and 
finally  before  the  council  of  Rheims  in  1148, 
and  convicted.  Eugenius  III.  would  not  allow 
him  to  be  burned,  but  condemned  him  to  prison, 
where  he  soon  died.  His  followers  made  com- 
mon cause  with  the  Vaudois  and  Albigenses. 

HENRY  THE  LION,  duke  of  Saxony  and  Ba- 
varia, born  in  1129,  died  in  Brunswick  in  1195. 
His  father,  Henry  the  Haughty,  had  been  out- 
lawed and  despoiled  of  his  possessions  for  re- 
fusing to  acknowledge  the  election  of  the  em- 
peror Conrad  III.  He  died  soon  after,  leaving 
his  son,  10  years  of  age,  to  whom  (as  the 
Saxons  had  never  succumbed  to  the  decision 
of  Conrad  respecting  their  late  duke)  Saxony 
was  speedily  restored.  In  the  diet  at  Frank- 
fort (1147)  Henry  formally  demanded  restitu- 
tion of  all  his  possessions,  Bavaria  having  been 
bestowed  upon  Leopold,  margrave  of  Austria. 
Conrad  refused,  and  a  war  ensued,  the  results 
of  which  in  the  main  were  favorable  to  Henry. 
Frederick  Barbarossa  meanwhile  succeeded 
Conrad  (1152),  and  one  of  his  first  acts  was  to 
restore  to  Henry  the  Bavarian  duchy.  Hen- 
ry's dominions,  including  part  of  modern 
Pomerania,  now  extended  from  the  Baltic  and 
North  sea  to  the  Alps.  He  was  the  head  of 
the  house  of  Guelph,  and  in  all  respects  the 
most  considerable  of  the  German  princes.  He 
triumphed  over  a  confederacy  of  church  poten- 
tates who  conspired  against  him  in  his  own 
dominions;  and  in  1168  he  espoused  Matilda 
(or  Maud)  of  England,  sister  of  Richard  Cceur 
de  Lion.  Under  him  Lubeck,  which  had  been 
founded  a  few  years  before,  was  built  up  into  a 
powerful  city.  Hamburg,  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  Wends,  was  rebuilt ;  Munich  was 
founded;  and  improvements  were  everywhere 
encouraged  in  education  and  industry.  But 
Henry  had  become  unpopular  with  neighboring 
princes  and  bishops,  who  threatened  to  arrest 
his  growing  importance.  He  attacked  them, 
devastated  Thuringia,  reconquered  Bremen, 
and,  having  restored  tranquillity  along  his 
frontiers,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land 
(1172).  Feeling  now  sufficiently  powerful  to 
decline  service  in  the  imperial  expeditions  in 
Italy,  he  withdrew  his  forces  at  a  critical  mo- 
ment; and  the  immediate  consequence  was 
the  overthrow  of  the  emperor  at  Legnano 
(1 176).  On  Frederick's  return  from  Italy,  after 
the  peace  of  Venice  (1177),  he  summoned  the 
duke  to  appear  before  him  in  a  diet  at  Worms. 
The  summons,  thrice  repeated,  was  unheeded, 
and  the  contumacious  prince  was  declared  de- 
posed and  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  His 


I 


HENRY  THE  NAVIGATOR 


fiefs  were  parcelled  out  among  other  princes, 
who  marched  in  league  to  take  possession. 
Henry  beat  them  off,  but  the  arrival  of  the  em- 
peror with  overwhelming  forces  compelled  him 
to  retire  to  Liibeck,  and  at  length  into  Hoi- 
stein.  He  was  forced  soon  after  to  humble 
himself  at  the  feet  of  Frederick  (1181),  who 
banished  him  for  three  years  to  England,  where 
he  became  the  father  of  a  son  from  whom  the 
British  Hanoverian  sovereigns  trace  their  de- 
scent. He  was  meanwhile  reinstated  in  his 
hereditary  possessions  of  Brunswick  and  Lime- 
burg,  and  at  the  end  of  the  three  years  re- 
crossed  the  channel  to  take  personal  posses- 
sion. In  consequence  of  asserted  violation  by 
the  imperial  authorities  of  his  hereditary  do- 
minions, he  undertook  a  war  (1189)  for  their 
absolute  recovery.  Frederick  died  in  1190; 
when,  after  making  peace  and  entering  into  a 
family  alliance  with  Henry  VI.,  by  the  mar- 
riage of  his  son  with  Agnes,  cousin  of  the  em- 
peror, Henry  at  length  found  repose. 

HENRY  THE  NAVIGATOR,  a  Portuguese  prince, 
born  March  4,  1394,  died  at  Sagres,  Nov.  13, 
1460.  He  was  the  fourth  son  of  King  John 
I.  of  Portugal  and  Philippa,  daughter  of  John 
of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  While  still  a 
youth  he  displayed  his  courage  in  war  with 
the  Moors  of  Barbary,  and  was  knighted  for 
his  bravery  in  the  expedition  which  achieved 
the  conquest  of  Ceuto  in  1415.  On  his  return 
from  this  expedition  he  fixed  his  residence  at 
Sagres  in  Algarve,  near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and 
occupied  himself  with  sending  out  vessels  to 
cruise  against  the  Moors  and  to  harass  the  coast 
of  Africa,  where  he  made  three  campaigns. 
He  was  distinguished  for  learning,  particularly 
for  mathematical  and  geographical  knowledge, 
and  founded  at  Sagres  an  observatory  and  a 
school  where  young  noblemen  were  instructed 
in  the  sciences  connected  with  navigation. 
The  first  use  of  the  compass  in  European  navi- 
gation, and  in  part  the  invention  of  the  astro- 
labe, are  ascribed  to  him.  His  studies  and 
inquiries  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
coast  of  Africa  did  not  end,  as  was  then  com- 
monly supposed,  at  Cape  Nun,  and  that  great 
and  valuable  discoveries  might  be  made  by 
tracing  its  line  to  the  southward  into  the  un- 
known and  dreaded  torrid  zone.  The  first 
expedition  he  sent  for  this  purpose  consist- 
ed of  two  vessels  commanded  by  Joao  Gon- 
calves  Zarco  and  Tristram  Vaz,  who  set  out 
to  pass  Cape  Nun,  but  were  driven  off  the 
coast  by  storms,  and  accidentally  discovered 
the  little  island  of  Porto  Santo  near  Madeira. 
In  the  next  year  (1419)  the  same  captains  dis- 
covered and  subsequently  colonized  Madeira. 
Prince  Henry  during  the  next  12  years  sent 
vessel  after  vessel  down  the  coast  of  Africa, 
some  of  which  passed  Cape  Nun  and  reached 
Cape  Bojador,  300  m.  further  south.  But  that 
cape,  from  the  failure  of  repeated  attempts  to 
double  it,  was  now  popularly  considered  the 
limit  of  the  habitable  world,  and  there  began 
to  be  much  complaint  in  Portugal  at  the  ex- 


HENRYSON 


667 


pense  and  hazard  of  these  fruitless  expeditions. 
But  the  prince  persevered,  and  at  length  Gil 
Eannez,  whom  he  sent  out  in  1433,  succeeded 
in  passing  Cape  Bqjador,  an  achievement  that 
created  great  excitement  at  the  time,  and 
which  forms  an  era  in  the  history  of  maritime 
discovery.  The  Azores  had  been  visited  short- 
ly before.  From  1434  to  1441  Prince  Henry 
was  chiefly  occupied  with  the  domestic  affairs 
of  Portugal,  which  were  involved  in  much  con- 
fusion. In  1441  the  pope,  at  the  request  of 
Prince  Henry,  granted  to  the  Portuguese  crown 
all  that  it  could  conquer  from  Cape  Bojador 
to  the  Indies.  The  discoveries  of  the  Portu- 
guese had  by  this  time  been  extended  to  the 
mouth  of  a  river  nearly  200  m.  S.  of  Cape  Bo- 
jador. In  1445  the  prince  sent  a  vessel  under 
command  of  Diniz  Dyaz  or  Diniz  Fernandez, 
who  sailed  down  the  coast  till  he  reached 
Cape  Verd ;  the  longest  advance  at  one  effort 
that  had  yet  been  made  by  Europeans  in  Af- 
rican navigation.  By  this  time  the  popular 
feeling  had  changed  with  regard  to  these  voy- 
ages, many  of  which  brought  not  only  honor 
and  fame  but  profitable  returns  in  gold  and 
slaves,  and  numbers  of  enterprising  men  were 
ready  to  engage  in  them.  In  1447  a  fleet  of 
14  vessels  was  fitted  out  at  Lagos,  and  the 
command  given  by  Prince  Henry  to  Lancarote, 
and  sent  to  the  African  coast,  but  without  any 
greater  result  than  extending  the  limit  of  dis- 
covery to  the  river  Gambia.  Several  other 
expeditions  in  the  same  direction  were  subse- 
quently sent  out  by  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment, under  the  advice  and  control  of  Prince 
Henry,  one  of  which  just  before  his  death 
reached  Sierra  Leone.  The  Portuguese  his- 
torian Faria  y  Sousa,  in  his  Asia  Portugueses 
(Lisbon,  1666),  thus  sums  up  the  character  of 
Prince  Henry:  "He  was  bulky  and  strong; 
his  complexion  red  and  white ;  his  hair  coarse 
and  shaggy.  His  aspect  produced  fear  in  those 
who  were  not  accustomed  to  him ;  not  in  those 
who  were,  for,  even  in  the  strongest  current 
of  his  vexation  at  anything,  his  courtesy  al- 
ways prevailed  over  his  anger.  He  was  pa- 
tient in  labor,  bold  and  valorous  in  war,  versed 
in  arts  and  letters ;  a  skilful  fencer ;  in  the 
mathematics  superior  to  all  men  of  his  time ; 
generous  in  the  extreme,  and  zealous  in  the  ex- 
treme for  the  increase  of  the  faith.  No  bad 
habit  was  known  in  him.  He  did  not  marry, 
nor  was  it  known  that  he  ever  violated  the 
purity  of  continency." 

HENRYSON,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet  of  the 
15th  century.  Of  the  particulars  of  his  life 
and  the  time  of  his  death  little  or  nothing  is 
known.  Dunbar,  in  his  "Lament"  (1508), 
speaks  of  "gude  Mr.  Robert  Henryson"  as 
among  the  departed  poets.  He  seems  to  have 
been  chief  schoolmaster  at  Dunfermline,  and 
was  not  unlikely  an  ecclesiastic,  and  perhaps  a 
Benedictine  monk.  One  account  identifies  him 
with  Henryson  of  Fordell,  father  of  James 
Henryson,  who  perished  in  the  battle  of  Flod- 
den.  His  principal  work  is  his  collection  of 


668 


HENSEL 


HEPATICA 


"Fables,"  13  in  number,  which  was  edited  by 
Dr.  Irving  in  1832.  Among  his  other  writings 
are  the  tale  of  "  Orpheus  Kyng,  and  how  he 
geid  to  Hewyn  and  Hel  to  seik  his  Quene" 
(Edinburgh,  1508) ;  "  Testament  of  Cresseid  " 
(1593),  a  poem  which  was  suggested  by  and 
was  a  sequel  to  Chaucer's  "  Troilus  and  Cres- 
seide,"  in  connection  with  which  it  generally 
appears;  "Robin  and  Makyne,"  printed  in 
Percy's  "Reliques;"  and  several  smaller  po- 
ems, printed  in  different  works. 

HEXSEL.  I.  Wllhelm,  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Trebbin,  Prussia,  July  6,  1794,  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Nov.  26,  1861.  He  studied  five  years  in 
Italy,  and  on  his  return  to  Berlin  in  1828  be- 
came professor  at  the  academy  of  fine  arts. 
He  died  from  injuries  received  while  assisting 
a  stranger  who  was  thrown  out  of  an  omnibus. 
One  of  his  best  pictures  is  "  Christ  before  Pi- 
late." II.  Fanny,  a  German  pianist,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Hamburg,  Nov.  14,  1805, 
died  in  Berlin,  May  14,  1847.  She  was  the 
sister  of  Mendelssohn,  and  wrote  in  imitation 
of  his  style  small  compositions  for  the  piano, 
and  a  few  songs.  She  possessed  a  fine  musical 
organization.  Mendelssohn  was  devoted  to 
her,  and  never  rallied  from  the  effect  of  her 
death. — Her  sisters  LUISE  and  WILHELMINE 
wrote  poetry  which  was  collectively  published 
by  Kletke  (Berlin,  1857). 

HENSELT,  Adolph,  a  German  pianist,  born  at 
Schwabach,  Bavaria,  May  12,  1814.  He  first 
studied  the  violin,  but  abandonetd  it  for  the 
piano.  At  the  age  of  17  he  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  through  whose  aid 
he  was  enabled  to  go  to  Weimar  and  place  him- 
self under  the  instruction  of  Hummel.  From 
Weimar  he  went  to  Vienna  in  1832,  to  study 
counterpoint  under  Sechter.  He  practised  at 
the  piano  10  hours  a  day,  and  soon  injured  his 
health  by  excess  of  work.  For  change  of  air 
he  went  to  Berlin  in  1836,  and  from  thence 
to  Dresden  and  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was 
made  pianist  to  the  empress.  Here  he  contin- 
ued to  reside,  making  in  20  years  only  one 
journey,  which  extended  to  London  and  the 
principal  capitals  of  Europe.  He  holds  the 
first  rank  among  pianists,  though  his  timidity 
has  hindered  him  from  playing  much  in  pub- 
lic. He  has  not  composed  much,  nor  are  his 
works  of  a  high  merit.  The  most  important  is 
a  concerto  in  F  minor  for  piano  and  orchestra, 
a  composition  of  much  technical  difficulty. 

IIKNSIIAU ,  John  Prentiss  Kewley,  an  American 
bishop,  born  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  June  13, 
1792,  died  at  Frederick,  Md.,  July  20,  1852. 
He  entered  Middlebury  college,  Vermont, 
when  he  was  12  years  old,  and  graduated  in 
1808.  Though  educated  a  Congregationalist, 
he  was  led  to  become  an  Episcopalian,  was 
baptized  when  on  a  visit  to  his  native  place, 
and  became  a  lay  reader  in  Middlebury,  and 
later  in  Marblehead,  Mass.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1813,  and  priest  in  1816.  He  served 
for  several  years  in  St.  Ann's  church,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  in  1817  was  called  to  Balti- 


more, where  he  was  rector  of  St.  Peter's 
church  for  26  years.  Being  elected  bishop 
of  Rhode  Island,  he  was  consecrated  Aug. 
11,  1843,  and  became  also  rector  of  Grace 
church,  Providence.  In  the  summer  of  1852 
he  was  requested  to  perform  episcopal  duties 
in  Maryland,  during  the  absence  of  Bishop 
Whittingham  on  account  of  ill  health.  While 
actively  engaged  in  this  work  he  was  strick- 
en with  apoplexy.  His  publications  include 
"  Theology  for  the  People"  (1840)  ;  " Memoir 
of  Bishop  R.  C.  Moore  "  (1842) ;  "  Inquiry  con- 
cerning the  Second  Advent "  (1842) ;  and 
"Lectures  on  the  Terms  Priest,  Altar,  Sacri- 
fice, as  used  in  the  Prayer  Book  "  (1843). 

lIEiVSLER,  Eliza.  See  FERDINAND  (AUGUSTUS 
FRANCIS  ANTHONY). 

HEATZ,  Caroline  Lee,  an  American  authoress, 
born  at  Lancaster,  Mass.,  in  1800,  died  at 
Mariana,  Fla.,  Feb.  11,  1856.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Gen.  John  Whiting,  and  married 
in  1825  Mr.  N.  M.  Hentz,  who  was  afterward 
appointed  professor  at  Chapel  Hill  college, 
N.  C.  At  Covington,  Ky.,  whither  they  re- 
moved from  Chapel  Hill,  she  wrote  "  De  Lara, 
or  the  Moorish  Bride,"  a  play  which  obtained 
a  prize  of  $500.  She  lived  successively  in 
Cincinnati,  Florence,  Ala.,  Tuscaloosa,  Tuske- 
gee,  and  Columbus,  Ga.  Her  writings  include 
"Aunt  Patty's  Scrap  Book"  (1846);  "The 
Mob  Cap"  (1848);  "Linda,  or  the  Young 
Pilot  of  the  Belle  Creole"  (1850);  "  Rena,  or 
the  Snowbird"  (1851);  "Marcus  Marland,  or 
the  Long  Moss  Spring"  (1852);  "Eoline,  or 
Magnolia  Vale "  (1852);  "  Wild  Jack"  (1853); 
"  Helen*  and  Arthur,  or  Miss  Thusa's  Spinning 
Wheel"  (1853);  "The  Planter's  Northern 
Bride"  (1854) ;  and  " Ernest Linwood  "  (1856). 

HENZEY,  Leon  Alexandra,  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  in  Rouen  in  1831.  He  studied  at 
the  normal  school  in  Paris  and  at  the  French 
school  in  Athens,  and  became  professor  of  his- 
tory and  archseology  at  the  school  of  fine  arts. 
He  published,  as  the  result  of  his  personal 
researches,  Le  Mont  Olympe  et  VAcarnanie 
(1860) ;  and  Napoleon  III.  having  sent  him  to 
Macedonia  and  adjoining  regions,  he  published 
with  M.  Daumet,  Mission  archeologique  de  Ma- 
cedoine:  fouilles  et  recJierches  executees  dans 
cette  contree  et  dans  les  parties  adjacentes  de 
la  Thrace,  de  la  Thessalie,  de  Vlllyrie  et  de 
Vtipire  en  1861  (1864  et  seq.\  In  1872  he 
published  Un  palais  grec  en  Macedoine,  nar- 
rating his  discovery  at  Palatitza. 

HEPATIC1,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
ranunculacece,  so  closely  allied  to  anemone  that 
some  botanists  place  it  as  a  section  of  that 
genus.  The  common  name  is  liver-leaf,  and  it 
is  sometimes  incorrectly  called  liverwort,  a 
name  that  should  be  restricted  to  a  family  of 
cryptogamous  plants.  The  botanical  name  and 
its  popular  one  both  have  reference  to  a  fan- 
cied resemblance  in  shape  between  the  leaves 
of  the  plant  and  the  liver.  The  old  herbalists, 
who  believed  in  the  doctrine  of  signatures,  as- 
sumed that  each  medicinal  plant  indicated  in 


HEPHZESTION 

manner  the  disease  it  would  cure  or  the 
portion  of  the  body  it  would  affect,  and  hepa- 
tica  was  at  one  time  used  for  liver  complaints; 
but  it  is  nearly  destitute  of  active  properties, 
being  at  most  a  demulcent.  The  hepaticas  are 
stemless  perennials,  with  numerous  radical, 
heart-shaped,  three-lobed,  thick,  persistent 
leaves,  from  among  which  there  rise  in  early 
spring  numerous  hairy  scapes,  each  bearing  a 
single  flower ;  the  flowers  are  without  petals, 
the  colored  calyx  appearing  like  a  corolla,  and 
the  three-leaved  involucre  is  so  close  to  the 
flower  as  to  appear  like  a  calyx ;  the  sepals  in 
the  wild  state  are  six  to  nine,  blue,  purple,  or 
even  white;  stamens  and  pistils  numerous. 
The  commonest  species,  H.  triloba,  is  widely 
distributed  in  the  cooler  portions  of  both  hemi- 
spheres; H.  acutiloba  has  the  lobes  of  the 
leaves  pointed,  while  in  the  other  they  are  very 
obtuse  and  rounded,  and  may  be  only  a  variety 
of  the  preceding ;  it  is  found  from  Vermont  to 


HERACLEA 


669 


Hepatica  triloba. 

Wisconsin.  Both  species  grow  in  rich  woods 
among  the  fallen  leaves,  and  lift  up  their  bright 
flowers  soon  after  the  snow  has  gone.  The 
single-flowered  H.  triloba,  w-ith  several  double 
varieties,  with  flowers  of  various  shades  of 
red,  blue,  purple,  and  crimson,  as  well  as  white- 
flowered  ones,  are  in  cultivation  in  Europe. 
In  this  country  they  do  not  succeed,  exposed 
to  the  heats  of  our  long  summers,  unless  in  a 
moist  rich  soil.  The  double  varieties  are  in- 
creased by  division.  A  species  or  a  marked 
variety,  H.  angulosa,  has  recently  been  brought 
into  cultivation  from  Transylvania  ;  it  is  much 
larger  than  ours,  the  flowers  being  sometimes 
two  inches  across. 

HEPHJ1STION,  a  Macedonian,  the  friend  and 
companion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  with  whom 
he  had  been  brought  up.  When,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  his  Asiatic  expedition,  Alexander 
visited  the  site  of  Troy,  Hephaestion  accompa- 
nied him.  He  was  frequently  intrusted  with 


commands  of  great  importance,  and  for  his  ser- 
vices was  rewarded  with  a  golden  crown  on 
his  arrival  at  Susa,  and  received  in  marriage 
Drypetis,  the  daughter  of  Darius  and  sister  of 
Statira.  From  Susa  he  accompanied  Alexander 
to  Ecbatana,  where  he  died  of  fever  after  an 
illness  of  seven  days  (325  or  324  B.  C.).  Alex- 
ander's grief  was  excessive.  His  body  was  trans- 
ported to  Babylon,  where  a  magnificent  pyre 
and  monument  were  erected ;  and  orders  were 
issued  for  a  general  mourning  throughout  the 
empire,  and  divine  honors  to  the  deceased  hero. 

HEPHAESTUS.    See  VULCAN. 

HEPTARCHY.    See  ENGLAND,  vol.  vi.,  p.  607. 

HEPWORTH,  Gtorge  Hnghes,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Boston,  Feb.  4,  1833.  He 
graduated  at  the  theological  school  of  Harvard 
university  in  1855,  and  was  called  to  the  Uni- 
tarian church  in  Nantucket,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  In  1858  he  removed  to  Boston 
and  became  pastor  of  the  church  of  the  Unity. 
In  December,  1862,  he  was  appointed  chap- 
lain of  the  47th  regiment  of  Massachusetts 
volunteers,  and  in  1863  served  on  the  staff  of 
Gen.  Banks  in  Louisiana.  In  1870  he  accepted 
the  pastorate  of  the  church  of  the  Messiah, 
New  York,  but  resigned  it  in  1872,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  change  of  religious  belief  in  the 
direction  of  Trinitarianism.  He  afterward  or- 
ganized and  is  now  (1874)  pastor  of  the 
"  Church  of  the  Disciples  "  in  New  York.  He 
has  published  "  Whip,  Hoe,  and  Sword  "  (Bos- 
ton, 1864),  and  "Rocks  and  Shoals"  (1870). 

HERA.    See  JUNO. 

HERACLEA,  the  name  of  several  ancient 
Greek  cities,  the  most  important  of  which 
were :  I.  A  city  of  Magna  Grgecia,  in  Lucania, 
near  the  Tarentine  gulf,  founded  by  a  colony 
of  Thurians  and  Tarentines  about  432  B.  C.  It 
was  the  place  for  the  general  assembly  of  the 
Italiote  Greeks,  until  Alexander,  king  of  Epi- 
rus,  transferred  it  to  Thurii.  Heraclea  was  the 
scene  of  the  first  conflict  between  Pyrrhus  and 
the  Romans,  the  consul  Lsevinus  being  defeated 
there  in  280.  In  278  an  advantageous  treaty 
was  made  with  Rome,  which  was  maintained 
as  long  as  the  republic  lasted,  and  Heraclea 
was  flourishing  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  Its 
site  is  now  marked  by  heaps  of  rubbish,  where 
many  coins  and  bronzes  have  been  discovered ; 
and  near  there  were  discovered  in  1732  the 
celebrated  tabulae  Heracleenses,  now  in  the 
national  museum  at  Naples.  These  are  frag- 
ments of  two  bronze  tables,  containing  on  one 
side  Greek  inscriptions  with  reference  to  cer- 
tain fields  sacred  to  Bacchus  and  Minerva,  and 
on  the  other  side  a  Latin  inscription  relating 
to  the  municipal  regulations  of  Heraclea,  which 
is  in  fact  a  copy  of  the  more  general  lex  Julia 
municipalis  issued  in  45  B.  C.  The  Latin  in- 
scription was  explained  by  Savigny  in  his  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  geschichtliche  Rechtswissenschaft, 
and  both  inscriptions  were  published  and  illus- 
trated by  Mazocchi  in  his  In  Eegii  Hereula- 
nensisMuscei  Tabulas  Heracleenses  Commentarii 
(Naples,  1754-'5).  II.  A  city  of  Sicily,  on  the 


670 


HERACLES 


HERACLIUS 


S.  "W.  coast  of  the  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Halycus,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Minos,  and  hence  surnamed  Minoa.  About 
510  B.  C.  Euryleon  came  to  Sicily  with  the 
Spartan  prince  Dorieus  to  reclaim  the  territo- 
ry of  Hercules,  and,  escaping  from  the  defeat 
of  Dorieus,  subdued  Heraclea,  which  prob- 
ably received  its  name  from  him.  It  rose 
rapidly  in  prosperity,  but  was  destroyed  by 
the  Carthaginians,  and  was  for  many  years 
an  insignificant  place,  subject  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians or  to  Agathocles.  It  revolted  in  307, 
but  was  soon  subdued.  It  was  taken  by  Pyr- 
rhus,  and  in  260  by  Hanno,  and  made  a  ren- 
dezvous for  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  which  there 
suffered  a  great  defeat  from  Regulus  and  Man- 
lius.  It  was  alternately  held  by  the  Romans 
and  Carthaginians,  and  held  out  against  Mar- 
cellus  even  after  the  fall  of  Syracuse.  III.  A 
city  of  Bithynia,  surnamed  Pontica  (now  Eregli 
or  Erelcli),  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Euxine.  It 
had  two  good  harbors,  the  smaller  made  arti- 
ficially. It  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Megari- 
ans  and  Boeotians,  and  rose  to  supremacy  over 
the  neighboring  regions.  During  the  reign 
of  Dionysius,  one  of  its  tyrants,  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  it  reached  great  prosper- 
ity. It  suffered  from  the  kings  of  Bithynia 
and  from  the  Galatians,  and  in  the  war  of  the 
Romans  against  Mithridates  it  was  partly  de- 
stroyed by  Aurelius  Cotta.  (See  EREGLI.) 

HERACLES.     See  HERCULES. 

HERACL1DJ3.     See  GREECE,  vol.  viii.,  p.  187. 

HERACLITFS,  a  Greek  philosopher  who  flour- 
ished at  the  close  of  the  6th  century  B.  C.  He 
was  a  native  of  Ephesus,  and  from  his  gloomy 
disposition  was  styled  the  "  weeping  philoso- 
pher." In  his  youth  he  travelled  extensively, 
and  on  his  return  to  Ephesus  was  offered  the 
chief  magistracy  of  the  city,  but  declined  it 
because  of  the  bad  morals  of  the  Ephesians, 
and  employed  himself  in  playing  at  dice  near 
the  temple  of  Diana,  declaring  even  that  to  be  a 
more  profitable  occupation  than  attempting  to 
govern  his  fellow  citizens.  Afterward  he  be- 
came a  confirmed  recluse,  retiring  for  a  time 
to  the  mountains,  and  living  on  herbs.  His 
philosophical  creed  was  embodied  in  a  work 
commonly  entitled  Tlepi  <H<rew?,  "  On  Nature." 
The  most  remarkable  tenets  of  this  creed  were 
that,  by  the  operation  of  a  light  ethereal  fluid, 
constantly  active,  self-changing,  and  all-trans- 
forming, which  he  denominated  fire,  all  things 
in  the  universe,  animate  and  inanimate,  mate- 
rial and  immaterial,  were  created  and  shaped, 
and  that  acquiescence  in  the  decrees  of  the  su- 
preme law  was  the  great  duty  of  man.  His 
style  was  so  obscure  that  the  Greeks  surnamed 
him  "  the  unintelligible."  He  was  regarded  in 
antiquity  as  the  antipodes  of  Democritus,  the 
"laughing  philosopher."  The  fragments  of 
his  treatise  were  published  by  Schleiermacher 
in  Wolf  and  Buttmann's  Museum  der  Alter- 
thumswmewchftft,  and  by  Ferdinand  Lassalle 
in  his  Die  Philosophic,  HeraTcleitos1  des  Dun- 
Tccln  von  Ephesos  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1858). 


HERACLIUS,  a  Roman  emperor  of  the  East, 
born  in  Cappadocia  about  A.  D.  575,  died  early 
in  641.  He  was  the  son  of  Heraclius,  exarch 
of  Africa,  and  first  appeared  in  a  public  capa- 
city in  610,  when  his  father  sent  him  with  a 
fleet  to  besiege  Constantinople,  and  dethrone 
the  tyrant  Phocas.  This  enterprise  he  accom- 
plished, and  was  himself  chosen  to  fill  the  va- 
cant throne.  At  the  accession  of  Heraclius, 
the  empire  was  in  a  deplorable  condition.  The 
barbarians  of  the  north  were  laying  waste  its 
European  provinces,  while  the  Persians,  under 
Chosroes  II.,  were  overrunning  and  ravaging 
those  of  the  east.  The  first  object  of  the  new 
emperor  was  to  protect  his  European  dominions 
and  to  make  provision  for  their  future  secu- 
rity. The  king  of  the  Avars  having  withdrawn 
from  before  Constantinople,  after  treacherously 
slaying  or  taking  captive  immense  numbers  of 
citizens  who  had  come  out  to  witness  an  inter- 
view between  him  and  Heraclius,  the  latter 
allotted  that  part  of  Illyricum  bordering  on 
the  Adriatic  and  the  Danube,  which  had  been 
depopulated,  to  the  Serbs  and  Croats,  in  order 
that  they  might  serve  as  a  barrier  to  his  N". 
W.  frontier.  Then,  turning  his  attention  east- 
ward, as  soon  as  he  considered  his  army  suf- 
ficiently disciplined  to  take  the  field,  he  placed 
himself  at  its  head,  and  sailing  from  the  Bos- 
porus in  622,  landed  in  Cilicia,  and  encamped 
on  the  plain  of  Issus,  where  he  defeated  a  large 
Persian  force.  From  Cilicia  he  fought  his  way 
into  Pontus,  and  afterward  returned  to  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  following  spring  he  land- 
ed at  Trapezus  (Trebizond)  with  another  army, 
whence,  marching  through  the  regions  of  the 
Caucasus,  he  penetrated  into  Media,  forming 
alliances  and  destroying  the  temples  of  the  Ma- 
gi as  he  proceeded.  This  campaign  was  closed 
by  a  second  brilliant  victory  over  the  Persians 
commanded  by  Chosroes  in  person.  In  625  he 
invaded  Mesopotamia,  and  returning  through 
Cilicia,  gained  a  third  great  victory  over  the 
Persians  on  the  river  Sarus,  where  he  slew  with 
his  own  hand  a  gigantic  barbarian  whom  all 
feared  to  encounter.  The  last  campaign  of  this 
war  was  by  far  the  most  glorious.  Constanti- 
nople was  besieged  by  a  great  host  of  Persians 
and  Avars,  but  instead  of  going  to  its  relief 
Heraclius  marched  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
Persian  empire,  overthrew  the  enemy  in  a 
great  battle  near  Nineveh  in  December,  627, 
took  Dastagerd,  the  favorite  residence  of  Chos- 
roes, and  plundered  the  royal  palaces  in  the 
vicinity  of  untold  treasure.  In  628,  Chosroes 
having  been  put  to  death  by  his  son  Si  roes, 
the  latter  acceded  to  a  treaty  which  closed  the 
war  and  restored  to  Heraclius  the  provinces 
wrested  from  his  predecessor.  But  at  Edessa, 
as  he  was  returning  from  the  war,  an  ambas- 
sador from  Mohammed  summoned  him  to  em- 
brace the  faith  of  the  prophet.  Heraclius  made 
a  treaty  of  amity  with  the  Arabian  potentate ; 
but  in  a  little  time  a  war  broke  out  between 
the  Arabs  and  the  eastern  emperor,  in  which 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt  were  wrested  from 


**-• 


Shield.  Or.  Argent.         Gules.  Azure.          Sable.  Vert.  Purpure. 


Per  Pale.      Per  Fess.       Ermine.       Erminois.         Vair.          Potent.       Per  Bend.      Quarterly. 


-t  c-  u*      <?uar,terly.    Per  Saltier.     Gyronny.    Per  Chevron.      Chief, 
of  Eight.     Quartered. 


Pale.  Bend. 


Bend  Sinister.    Baton.  Fess.          Chevron.        Cross.        '  Saltier.        Bordure.          Orle. 


Inescutcheon.  Quarter.        Canton.         Gyron.          Billet.  Pall.  Pile.          Flanch, 


inn 


Lozenge.       Mascle.        Rustre.          Fusii.  Fret.          Roundle.       Gouttes.        Paly. 


Barry.          Bendy.      Paly  Bendy.  Barry  Bendy.    Lozengy.       Chequy.        Pretty.          Label. 


Crescent.        Mullet.        Martlet.        Annulet.     Fleur-de-Lys.      Rose.      Cross  Moline.  n  D°ub'e.. 

(juatretoil. 


• 


Statant.       Passant.      Rampznt.       Saliant.        Sejant.       Couchant.     Demi-Lion.  Combattant. 


At  Gaze.      Trippant.       Lodged.      Caboched.     Displayed.       Rising.     Double  Eagle.     Close. 


Pelican.         Natant.       Hauriant.      Urinant.      Embowed.        Wavy.          Mowed.        Involved, 


Griffin.         Dragon.      Cockatrice.     Wyvern.        Phoenix.       Peacock.      Manche.      Carbuncle. 


Chess  Rook.      Pheon.       Portcullis.       Trellis.   Waterbougets.  Escallop.  Mullet-perce.  StarorEtoile. 


Trefoil.      QuatrefoiU      Lure      Hand  Sinister.     Galley.          Garb.  Bugle.        Over  All. 

Cinquefoil. 


HERALDRY 


671 


latter.     Heraclius  took  no  part  personally 
this  contest,  but  spent  his  latter  days  in  luxu- 
rious ease  in  Constantinople. 

HERALDRY,  the  art  or  science  of  blazoning 
>r  describing  in  appropriate  technical  terms 
of  arms,  badges,  and  other  heraldic  and 
lorial  insignia.     The  use  of  distinctive  de- 
both  national  and  personal,  is  very  an- 
cient.    The  eagle  was  the  emblem  of  Persia 
id  of  imperial  Rome,  the  ox  of  Egypt,  the 
>wl  of  Athens ;  and  the  dragon  has  served  as 
national  symbol  of  China  and  Japan  from 
the  most  remote  times.    The  warriors  of  Greece 
bore  distinguishing  symbols  on  their  shields, 
id  at  Rome  the  families  of  those  who  had 
held  a  curule  office  had  the  right  to  display 
waxen  images  of  their  ancestors  as  a  mark 
of  hereditary  distinction.     But  heraldry,  in  the 
present  acceptation  of  the  term,  is  a  compara- 
'ively  modern  invention,  and  cannot  be  traced 
a  system  to  a  time  earlier  than  the  close  of 
e  12th  century.     It  is  generally  admitted  to 
ive  had  its  origin  in  the  necessity,  in  battles 
id  in  tournaments,  of  using  some  device  to 
istinguish  persons  concealed  by  their  armor, 
[t  was  gradually  elaborated  during  the  cru- 
les  in  the  time  of  Richard  I.,  and  it  was  prob- 
ibly  systematized  to  some  extent  by  the  Ger- 
but  to  the  French  is  due  the  credit  of 
jrfecting  it  and  reducing  it  to  a  strict  system, 
and  the  technical  nomenclature  invented  by 
them  was  adopted  with  slight  modifications  by 
ther  nations.     By  the  end  of  the  13th  century 
jraldry  had  become  bound  by  strict  rules  and 
jrms,  and  from  this  time  onward  arms  were 
lisplayed  on  coins,  monumental  brasses,  and 
>mbs,  and  in  architectural  decorations,  and 
borne  on  shields,  banners,  and  military 
joats.     From  their  use  on  garments  is  de- 
ied  the  phrase  "  coat  of  arms." — The  rules 
heraldry,  as  now  practised,  are  comparatively 
lern,  and  differ  somewhat  in  different  coun- 
38.    The  general  principles  however  are  the 
^  le,  and  as  it  will  be  impossible  to  enter  into 
linor  details,  this  article  will  be  confined  to 
English  heraldry.    According  to  early  authori- 
ies  arms  are  divisible  into  ten  classes,  but  these 
be  reduced  to  three :  arms  of  states,  of 
im unities,  and  of  persons  and  families.  Arms 
'  states  are  those  assumed  by  sovereign  princes 
by  governments  as  distinguishing  badges  for 
ieir  respective  kingdoms,  empires,  or  states, 
irms  of  communities  include  those  of  ecclesi- 
tical,  lay,  and  municipal  corporations.    Arms 
persons  and  families  are  insignia  borne  by 
idividuals  and  families,  generally  by  right  of 
iheritance  or  of  grant.     All  these  classes  of 
is  follow  the  same  general  heraldic  rules, 
id  are  displayed  on  a  shield  or  escutcheon. 
'iere  is  no  prescribed  form  for  the  shield, 
rhich  has  differed  in  different  ages  and  among 
'erent  nations,  but  the  shape  usually  adopted 
that  in  the  accompanying  plate.    The  shields 
maids  and  widows  are  in  the  form  of  a  loz- 
enge.    The  face  of  the  shield,  on  which  the 
are  blazoned,  is  technically  called  the 
403  VOL.  vni. — 43 


field.  To  facilitate  description,  heralds  divide 
this  into  nine  parts  (see  plate),  viz. :  A,  the 
dexter  chief;  B,  middle  chief;  0,  sinister  chief; 
D,  honor  point ;  E,  fess  point ;  F,  nombril  or 
navel  point ;  G,  dexter  base ;  H,  middle  base ; 
and  I,  sinister  base.  The  shield  is  always  de- 
scribed with  reference  to  the  position  of  the 
bearer,  which  brings  the  dexter  or  right  side 
opposite  the  left  hand  of  the  observer.  Fields 
are  diversified  by  tinctures,  lines  of  division, 
and  charges.  Tinctures  are  composed  of  met- 
als, colors,  and  furs.  Metals  are  or  (gold)  and 
argent  (silver).  Colors  are  gules  (red),  azure 
(blue),  sable  (black),  vert  (green),  and  purpure 
(purple).  The  furs  are  ermine,  vair,  and  po- 
tent. Ermine  is  a  field  argent  with  spots  or 
tails  sable.  When  this  is  reversed,  a  field  sable 
with  spots  argent,  it  is  termed  ermines.  Er- 
minois  is  a  field  or  with  spots  sable,  and  pean 
a  field  sable  with  spots  or.  Vair  (Lat.  va- 
rius),  supposed  to  represent  the  skin  of  the 
squirrel,  is  expressed  by  several  rows  of  little 
shields  or  bells,  alternately  argent  and  azure, 
the  base  of  the  argent  ones  against  the  base  of 
the  azure.  In  counter  vair  the  bells  of  the  same 
tincture  are  placed  base  against  base  and  point 
against  point,  or  counterplaced,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called.  Potent,  though  classed  as  a  fur, 
signifies  a  crutch  or  gibbet  (Fr.  potenee).  The 
crutches,  argent  and  azure,  are  placed  as  in 
the  plate.  In  potent  counter  potent  the  crutch- 
es are  counterplaced.  If  the  colors  used  in 
vair  and  potent  are  other  than  argent  and  azure, 
they  must  be  specified ;  if  not,  it  is  unneces- 
sary. In  drawings  and  engravings  the  tinc- 
tures are  designated  by  dots  and  lines.  Thus 
or  is  known  by  the  shield  being  filled  with  dots, 
argent  by  a  plain  shield,  gules  by  vertical  lines, 
azure  by  horizontal  lines,  &c.  This  invention 
is  attributed  to  both  the  French  heraldist  De 
la  Columbine  and  the  Italian  Silvestro  di 
Petrasancta.  The  earliest  example  in  England 
of  this  method  of  indication  is  found  on  some 
of  the  seals  attached  to  the  death  warrant  of 
Charles  I.— The  field  being  often  of  a  combi- 
nation of  colors,  it  is  variously  divided  by  lines. 
When  the  division  is  into  two  equal  parts  by  a 
vertical  line,  it  is  said  to  be  parted  or  party 
per  pale ;  by  a  horizontal  line,  per  fess ;  by  a 
dexter  diagonal  line,  per  bend;  by  a  sinister 
diagonal  line,  per  bend  sinister ;  by  a  vertical 
and  a  horizontal  line  crossing  at  right  angles,  per 
cross  or  quartered ;  by  diagonal  lines  crossing, 
per  saltier ;  by  two  lines  starting  from  the  sides 
in  the  dexter  and  sinister  bases  and  meeting  in 
an  angle  in  the  fess  point,  per  chevron ;  and 
by  vertical,  horizontal,  and  diagonal  lines  into 
eight  equal  parts,  gironny.  When  a  shield  is 
quartered,  the  several  quarters  are  numbered, 
the  dexter  upper  quarter  being  called  the  first, 
the  sinister  upper  the  second,  the  dexter  base 
the  third,  and  the  sinister  base  the  fourth.  If 
one  or  more  of  these  divisions  is  subdivided 
into  quarters,  it  is  said  to  be  quarterly  quar- 
tered, and  the  quarter  thus  quartered  is  called 
a  grand  quarter.  A  shield  divided  into  any 


672 


HERALDRY 


\S\T\J\XVT 
WW\AAA 

/W\ 


Engrailed. 

Invected. 

Wavy. 

Embattled. 

Nebuly. 

Raguly. 

Indented. 

Dancette. 

Dovetailed. 


Partition  Lines. 


number  of  parts  by  lines  drawn  through  it  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  is  said  to  be  quar- 
terly of  the  number ;  thus,  if  divided  into  eight 
parts  by  three  vertical  lines  crossed  by  one  hori- 
zontal, it  is  said  to  be  quarterly  of  eight.  All 
of  these  divisions  are  multiplied  by  the  use  of 
a  variety  of  lines,  the  principal  of  which  are 
called  engrailed,  invected,  wavy,  embattled, 
nebuly  raguly,  indented,  dancette,  and  dove- 

tailed-v  When  any of 

these  lines  are  used  in 
the  division  of  a  shield 
instead  of  straight 
lines,  it  must  be  de- 
scribed, as  party  per 
pale  wavy,  party  per 
fess  indented,  &c.  The 
term  parted  or  party 
may  be  omitted  as  su- 
perfluous,  it  being  un- 
derstood in  phrases 
like  the  preceding. — A 
charge  is  any  emblem  or  figure  borne  in  a  field, 
and  the  field  thus  blazoned  is  said  to  be  charged. 
Charges  are  divided  into  honorable  ordinaries, 
subordinaries,  and  common  charges.  The  hon- 
orable ordinaries,  which  are  the  principal  char- 
ges in  heraldry,  are  nine,  viz. :  the  chief,  pale, 
bend,  bend  sinister,  fess,  bar,  chevron,  cross, 
and  saltier,  the  most  of  which  have  diminu- 
tives. The  chief  occupies  the  upper  one  third 
of  the  shield,  determined  by  a  horizontal  line. 
Its  diminutive  is  the  fillet,  one  fourth  its  width 
and  occupying  its  lower  edge.  The  pale  is 
formed  by  two  parallel  vertical  lines  drawn 
from  the  middle  chief  to  the  middle  base,  and 
occupying  one  third  of  the  field.  It  has  two 
diminutives,  the  pallet  of  one  half  its  width 
and  the  endorse  of  one  fourth  its  width,  which 
frequently  accompany  the  pale.  The  bend  is 
formed  by  two  diagonal  lines  drawn  from  the 
dexter  chief  to  the  sinister  base,  and  is  one 
fifth  the  width  of  the  field.  Its  diminutives 
are  the  bendlet  or  garter  of  one  half  its  width, 
the  cost  or  cotise  of  one  fourth  its  width,  and 
the  riband  of  one  eighth  its  width  and  couped  or 
cut  off  at  the  ends.  The  bend  sinister  is  like 
the  bend,  but  is  drawn  from  the  sinister  chief 
to  the  dexter  base.  Its  diminutives  are  the 
scarpe  of  one  half  its  width,  and  the  baton  of 
one  fourth  its  width  and  couped  at  the  ends. 
The  baton  and  the  riband  are  generally  consid- 
ered to  indicate  illegitimacy.  The  fess  is  formed 
by  two  parallel  horizontal  lines  drawn  through 
the  middle  of  the  field  and  occupying  one 
third  of  it.  The  bar  is  similar  to  the  fess,  but 
occupies  only  one  fifth  of  the  field,  and  differs 
from  it  in  that  it  is  not  confined  to  the  middle, 
but  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of  the  field ; 
there  may  be  also  several  bars  in  a  field.  Its 
diminutives  are  the  barrulet  of  one  half  its 
width,  and  the  closet  of  one  fourth  its  width. 
The  latter  is  never  borne  single.  The  chevron 
is  a  figure  formed  of  two  bars  drawn  from  the 
dexter  and  sinister  bases  and  meeting  in  an 
angle  in  the  fess  point.  Its  diminutives  are 


the  chevronel  of  one  half  its  width,  and  the 
couple-close  of  one  fourth  its  width.  The  latter 
is  borne  in  couples,  generally  one  on  each  side 
of  the  chevron.  The  cross  is  a  combination  of 
the  pale  and  the  fess.  This  is  the  Greek  cross, 
which  is  the  only  one  included  in  honorable 
ordinaries.  All  variations  of  it  are  common 
charges.  The  saltier  is  a  combination  of  the 
bend  and  the  bend  sinister.  All  of  the  honor- 
able ordinaries  may  be  engrailed,  wavy,  indent- 
ed, &c.,  and  may  themselves  be  charged  or  borne 
between  charges. — The  subordinaries  are  the 
bordure  or  border,  orle,  inescutcheon,  quarter, 
canton,  gyron,  billet,  paile  or  pall,  pile,  flanch 
or  flanque,  lozenge,  mascle,  rustre,  fusil,  and 
fret.  The  bordure  is  a  stripe  surrounding  the 
shield,  and  is  one  fifth  the  width  of  the  field. 
It  passes  over  all  the  ordinaries  except  a  chief, 
a  quarter,  and  a  canton.  When  divided  into 
squares  of  alternate  metal  and  color,  it  is  said 
to  be  compony  or  gobony ;  when  into  two 
rows  of  squares,  counter-compony ;  when  into 
three  or  more  rows,  chequy.  The  bordure  is 
often  used  to  distinguish  different  branches  of 
a  family,  and  the  bordure  wavy  is  now  the 
general  mark  to  denote  illegitimacy.  The  orle 
is  one  half  the  width  of  the  bordure,  and  is 
borne  within  the  shield  and  not  extending  to 
its  edge.  The  inescutcheon  is  a  small  escutch- 
eon borne  within  the  shield.  The  quarter  is 
a  square  occupying  the  upper  dexter  quarter 
of  the  field.  The  canton  is  like  the  quarter 
but  smaller,  and  occupies  the  dexter  chief;  if 
placed  in  the  sinister  chief,  it  must  be  described 
as  a  canton  sinister.  The  gyron  is  formed  by 
intersecting  the  quarter  by  a  diagonal  line 
bendwise.  The  billet  is  an  oblong  rectangular 
figure  twice  as  long  as  broad.  The  pall  is  a 
figure  like  the  letter  Y,  representing  the  pall 
of  an  archbishop.  The  pile  is  a  wedge-like 
figure  issuing,  unless  otherwise  specified,  from 
the  middle  chief,  and  extending  to  the  nombril 
point  or  lower.  Flanches,  which  are  always 
borne  in  pairs,  are  formed  by  curved  lines 
drawn  from  the  upper  angles  to  the  respective 
base  points.  The  lozenge  is  a  figure  of  four 
equal  sides,  the  upper  and  lower  angles  of 
which  are  acute  and  the  others  obtuse.  The 
mascle  is  a  lozenge  perforated  so  as  to  make  it 
only  a  narrow  border.  The  rustre  is  a  lozenge 
with  a  circular  perforation.  The  fusil  is  an 
elongated  lozenge.  The  fret  is  formed  by  the  in- 
terlacing of  a  figure  like  a  saltier  with  a  mas- 
cle.— A  distinct  group  of  charges  are  called 
roundles  and  guttae  or  gouttes,  both  of  which 
may  be  of  different  tinctures.  The  roundle  is 
circular,  the  goutte  is  round  at  the  bottom  and 
pointed  at  the  top.  Roundles  of  or  are  called 
bezants,  of  argent  plates,  of  gules  torteaux,  of 
azure  hurtes,  of  sable  pellets  or  ogresses,  of 
vert  pommes,  of  purpure  golpes.  A  roundle 
barry  wavy  of  six,  argent  and  azure,  is  called 
a  fountain.  Gouttes  of  or  are  called  d'or,  of 
argent  d'eau,  of  gules  de  sang,  of  azure  de 
larmes,  of  sable  de  poix,  of  vert  d'olive.-— 
Charges  and  tinctures  may  be  varied  so  as  to 


HERALDKY 


673 


cover  the  entire  field.  When  the  field  is  divi- 
ded into  an  even  number  of  partitions  palewise, 
it  is  said  to  be  paly,  the  number  being  always 
specified,  as  paly  of  six/paly  of  eight,  &c.  When 
divided  bendwise  it  is  called  bendy,  and  when 
barwise  barry.  If  there  are  more  than  eight 
bars,  it  is  said  to  be  barruly.  Paly  -bendy  is  when 
the  field  is  divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of 
the  pale  and  bend ;  barry-bendy,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bar  and  bend.  Gyronny,  lozengy, 
fusilly,  and  chequy  indicate  that  the  field  is 
divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  the  sides  of 
these  several  figures.  The  pales,  gyrons,  checks, 
&c.,  thus  formed,  are  varied  with  different  tinc- 
tures. A  shield  is  said  to  be  fretty  when  the  field 
is  covered  with  narrow  bars  in  the  direction 
of  the  bend  and  bend  sinister,  and  interlaced. — 
Common  charges  are  every  device  on  a  shield 
other  than  the  ordinaries  and  subordinaries. 
These  include  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  shells,  rep- 
tiles, insects,  the  human  figure,  imaginary  be- 
ings, celestial  bodies,  trees,  plants,  and  flowers, 
and  miscellaneous  inanimate  objects.  The 
principal  beasts  in  heraldry  are  the  lion,  bear, 
tiger,  leopard,  bull,  boar,  wolf,  antelope,  stag, 
goat,  fox,  badger,  talbot  or  hound,  horse,  bea- 
ver, and  squirrel.  The  lion  is  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  most  frequent  of  charges,  and  pre- 
vious to  the  13th  century  constituted  almost 
the  sole  armorial  device.  He  is  represented 
in  many  attitudes,  as  sejant,  passant,  rampant, 
&c.,  and  may  be  of  a  metal,  fur,  or  color.  He 
is  said  to  be  guardant  when  his  head  is  affronte" 
or  full-faced,  and  reguarclant  when  his  head  is 
turned  toward  the  sinister  side.  All  charges 
must  be  represented  as  moving  toward  the 
dexter  side  of  the  field,  unless  otherwise  speci- 
fied ;  if  moving  toward  the  sinister  side,  they 
must  be  described  as  contourne.  Beasts  of 
prey  are  said  to  be  armed  of  a  tincture  when 
their  teeth,  talons,  or  claws  are  of  that  tinc- 
ture. When  the  tongue  is  shown,  they  are 
said  to  be  langued  of  that  tincture;  animals 
with  hoofs  tinctured  are  unguled  of  that 
tincture,  and  stags  and  other  docile  animals, 
whose  horns  are  colored,  are  attired  of  that 
tincture.  When  the  heads  or  other  parts  of 
are  borne  as  charges,  if  cut  off  smooth 
sy  are  said  to  be  couped ;  if  with  a  jagged 
ge,  erased.  The  principal  birds  used  as 
larges  are  the  eagle,  falcon,  swan,  game- 
cock, chough,  pelican,  heron,  popinjay  or  par- 
rot, crow,  goose,  sheldrake,  ostrich,  raven,  owl, 
love,  peacock,  and  bat.  The  eagle,  as  the  no- 
)lest  of  birds,  is  one  of  the  most  honorable  of 
jharges.  It  is  generally  represented  as  dis- 
played, but  sometimes  as  rising  or  close.  The 
iouble-headed  eagle,  adopted  by  the  Russian, 
German,  and  Austrian  emperors  as  the  succes- 
sors of  the  Roman  emperors,  is  supposed  to 
have  symbolized  the  union  of  the  eastern  and 
western  empires.  A  pelican  sitting  on  her 
nest  feeding  her  young  is  called  "in  her  pie- 
ty," and  a  peacock  with  tail  displayed  "in  his 
pride."  Of  fish,  the  dolphin  is  the  most  com- 
mon charge ;  in  France  its  use  was  formerly 


restricted  to  the  dauphin.  Other  fish  used  are 
the  lucie  or  pike,  roach,  salmon,  sturgeon,  eel, 
trout,  and  herring.  Of  shells,  only  the  escal- 
lop and  whelk  are  found  among  charges;  the 
former  dates  from  the  crusades.  The  reptiles 
and  insects  most  commonly  used  are  the  ser- 
pent, tortoise,  scorpion,  bee,  butterfly,  and 
grasshopper.  The  human  figure  often  occurs 
in  charges,  either  whole  or  in  parts,  naked 
or  vested.  The  parts  used  are  heads,  arms, 
legs,  &c.,  and  these  may  be  either  couped  or 
erased.  Of  imaginary  beings,  the  griffin,  dra- 
gon, unicorn,  cockatrice,  wyvern,  triton,  and 
mermaid  are  common.  The  celestial  bodies, 
trees,  plants,  and  flowers  of  many  kinds,  and 
many  miscellaneous  objects,  such  as  helmets, 
swords,  arrows,  horseshoes,  and  buckles,  are 
also  used  as  charges.  The  numerous  varia- 
tions of  the  Greek  cross  are  usually  ranked  as 
common  charges.  According  to  Guillim,  there 
are  39  varieties,  to  Leigh  46,  to  Edmondson 
109,  to  Robson  222,  and  to  Berry  385.  For 
some  of  the  principal  ones  see  the  plate. — 
Charges  are  blazoned  either  on  the  field  or  on 
an  ordinary  or  other  charge.  When  on  the 
latter,  they  are  said  to  be  in  fess,  in  pale,  in 
cross,  in  orle,  &c.  Sometimes  an  ordinary  is 
placed  over  a  charge,  when  the  latter  is  said 
to  be  debruised  by  the  former.  When  repre- 
sented of  its  natural  color,  a  charge  is  called 
proper.  It  is  considered  false  heraldry  to  put 
metal  on  metal  or  color  on  color ;  but  this  rule 
does  not  hold  when  a  field  consists  of  two 
tinctures,  as  of  metal  and  color.  In  such  a 
case  a  charge  placed  on  it  is  sometimes  coun- 
tercharged, which  implies  that  the  field  and 
the  charge  are  of  the  same  tinctures,  but  re- 
versed, so  that  metal  may  be  on  color  and 
color  on  metal.  A  charge  is  said  to  be  over  all 
when  it  is  placed  on  top  of  all  other  charges. 
A  series  of  nine  emblems  called  differences 
or  marks  of  cadency  are  used  to  distinguish 
the  several  sons  in  a  family  and  the  subor- 
dinate branches  of  each  house.  The  eldest 
son  bears  in  his  arms  the  label,  the  second 
the  crescent,  the  third  the  mullet,  the  fourth 
the  martlet,  the  fifth  the  annulet,  the  sixth  the 
fleur-de-lys,  the  seventh  the  rose,  the  eighth 
the  cross  moline,  the  ninth  the  double  quatre- 
foil.  In  England  none  but  the  label  is  used  to 
distinguish  younger  sons  of  the  royal  family,  it 
being  varied  by  additional  pendants  and  by 
charges.  When  marks  of  cadency  are  used  to 
distinguish  subordinate  branches  of  each  house, 
they  are  charged  with  the  same.  For  instance, 
the  first  son  of  the  second  house  bears  a  cres- 
cent charged  with  a  label,  the  second  son  of 
the  second  house  a  crescent  charged  with  a 
crescent,  &c. — Marshalling  of  arms  is  the  or- 
derly arrangement  of  a  number  of  coats  of 
arms  within  one  shield,  by  impaling  or  quar- 
tering. A  married  man  has  the  right  to  im- 
pale his  wife's  paternal  arms,  by  placing  them 
on  the  sinister  side  of  his  own  shield.  The 
joining  of  one  half  of  his  own  coat  with  one 
half  of  his  wife's  in  the  same  shield  is  called 


674 


HERALDRY 


HERAT 


dimidiation,  but  this  has  now  fallen  into  dis- 
use. If  the  wife  is  an  heiress,  her  arms  may 
be  borne  on  an  escutcheon  over  his  own,  called 
an  escutcheon  of  pretence.  A  widow  impales 
her  father's  and  her  husband's  arms  in  a 
lozenge;  but  if  an  heiress,  she  may  bear  her 
father's  arms  in  an  escutcheon  of  pretence 
over  her  husband's.  Where  several  coats  of 
arms  have  been  acquired  by  intermarriages  of 
ancestors  with  heiresses,  they  are  quartered  in 
one  shield.  According  to  some  authorities, 
only  eight  quarterings  should  be  admitted  in  a 
family  escutcheon;  others  admit  sixteen,  but 
more  than  100  shields  have  sometimes  been 
quartered  in  one  field. — Besides  the  devices 
borne  on  the  shield,  a  coat  of  arms  has  often  a 
number  of  exterior  ornaments,  viz. :  the  crown 
or  coronet,  helmet,  mantlings,  wreath,  crest, 
scroll  and  motto,  and  supporters.  The  crown 
or  coronet  is  borne  above  the  shield  by  those 
privileged  to  bear  it.  (See  CORONET.)  Helmets 
are  of  four  kinds.  Those  of  kings  and  princes 
of  the  blood  royal  are  of  gold,  full  faced, 
with  the  beauvoir  divided  by  six  projecting 
bars  and  lined  with  crimson ;  of  nobles,  steel 
with  five  gold  bars,  and  inclining  to  a  profile ; 
of  knights  and  baronets,  steel  with  visor  open 
and  without  bars,  and  full  faced ;  and  of  es- 
quires and  gentlemen,  steel  with  visor  closed, 
and  in  profile.  The  mantling  or  lambrequin  is 
a  kind  of  scrollwork,  flowing  from  the  helmet. 
The  wreath  is  formed  of  the  two  principal  col- 
ors of  the  arms,  and  surrounds  the  top  of  the 
helmet  like  a  fillet.  Out  of  it  rises  the  crest 
(Lat.  crista,  a  comb),  the  uppermost  device  of 
a  coat  of  arms.  The  crest  is -almost  as  ancient 
as  devices  upon  shields,  and  was  worn  on  the 
helmet  by  those  of  high  rank  or  of  noted  valor 
as  a  means  of  distinguishing  them  in  battle, 
from  which  it  was  sometimes  called  a  cog- 
nizance. Unless  stated  to  be  on  a  chapeau  or 
ooronet,  it  is  always  on  a  wreath.  No  crest  is 
allowed  to  a  female.  The  scroll  and  motto  are 
placed  beneath  the  shield.  Supporters  are  fig- 
ures standing  on  the  scroll  on  each  side  of  the 
shield  which  they  seem  to  support. — The  offices 
of  heraldry  are  performed  by  heralds,  whose 
chief  duties  consist  in  the  blazoning  of  arms, 
the  preservation  of  heraldic  records  and  of 
pedigrees,  and  the  conducting  of  public  cere- 
monials, such  as  coronations,  the  creation  of 
peers,  marriages,  funerals,  &c.  In  England 
heralds  are  merged  in  a  corporation  called  the 
college  of  arms  or  heralds'  college,  which  was 
instituted  by  Richard  III.  in  1483.  At  the 
head  of  the  college  is  the  earl  marshal  of  Eng- 
land, a  dignity  which  has  been  hereditary  since 
1672  in  the  family  of  Howard,  dukes  of  Nor- 
folk. The  royal  commands  are  directed  to 
him,  and  under  his  care  are  prepared  the  pro- 
grammes for  public  ceremonies.  Under  him  are 
three  kings-at-arms,  styled  Garter,  Clarencieux, 
and  Norroy.  Their  subordinates  are  six  her- 
alds, called  respectively  Chester,  Lancaster, 
Richmond,  York,  Windsor,  and  Somerset,  and 
four  pursuivants,  portcullis,  rouge-dragon,  blue- 


mantle,  and  rouge-croix.  The  Bath  king-at- 
arms,  attached  to  the  order  of  the  Bath,  is  not 
a  member  of  the  college  of  heralds.  In  Scot- 
land the  principal  heraldic  official  is  the  Lyon 
king-at-arms,  who  holds  the  position  by  com- 
mission under  the  great  seal.  He  has  six  subor- 
dinate heralds,  styled  Rothesay,  Marchmont, 
Albany,  Ross,  Snowdon,  and  Islay,  and  six 
pursuivants,  Kintyre,  Dingwall,  Carrick,  Or- 
mond,  Unicorn,  and  Bute.  The  chief  officer 
for  Ireland  is  the  Ulster  king-at-arms,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  crown.  He  has  two  heralds, 
Cork  and  Dublin,  and  two  pursuivants,  Athlone 
and  St.  Patrick. — The  following  are  a  few  of 
the  principal  works  on  heraldry:  Guillim, 
"Display  of  Heraldry"  (London,  1610) ;  Dug- 
dale,  "  The  Ancient  Usage  in  bearing  Arms  " 
(London,  1682) ;  Nisbet,  "  System  of  Herald- 
ry" (Edinburgh,  1722);  Berry,  "Complete 
Body  of  Heraldry"  (2  vols.  folio,  London, 
1780),  and  "Encyclopaedia  Heraldica"  (3  vols., 
1828);  Robson,  "British  Heraldry"  (London, 
1830) ;  Von  Biedenfeld,  Die  Heraldilc,  &c.  (4to, 
Weimar,  1846)  ;  Burke,  "  General  Armory  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland "  (London,  1847) ; 
Saladini,  Teatro  araldico  (8  vols.  4to,  Milan, 
1841)  ;  Grandmaison,  Dictionnaire  heraldique 
(8vo,  Paris,  1852) ;  De  Magny,  La  science  du 
Mason  (8vo,  Paris,  1858-'60);  Piferrer,  No- 
liliario  de  los  reinos  y  senorws  de  Espana,, 
ilustrado  con  un  diccionario  de  herdldica  (6 
vols.  8vo,  Madrid,  1857-'60) ;  Bouton,  Nouveau 
traite  du  blason  (Paris,  1862) ;  and  Boutell, 
"  English  Heraldry  "  (London,  1867).  But  the 
most  important  heraldic  work  of  modern  times 
is  Siebmacher's  Grosses  und  attgemeines  Wap- 
penbuch,  begun  by  Von  Hefner  and  continued 
by  Grenser  and  others  (Nuremberg) ;  it  is  to 
consist  of  160  parts,  of  which  113  had  been 
published  up  to  1874. 

HERAPATH,  William,  an  English  chemist,  born 
in  Bristol,  May  26,  1796,  died  there,  Feb.  6, 
1868.  His  father  was  a  brewer,  and  William 
succeeded  to  the  business.  From  the  study 
of  chemistry  in  its  application  to  brewing  he 
turned  his  attention  to  that  of  the  science 
in  general.  His  first  paper,  "  On  the  Specific 
Gravity  of  the  Metallic  Oxides,"  was  pub- 
lished in  the  "Philosophical  Magazine."  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  chem- 
ical society,  and  was  elected  in  1828  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  Bristol  medical  school. 
He  retired  from  the  business  of  brewing  in 
1830,  and  in  connection  with  his  professorship 
was  employed  in  making  chemical  analyses. 
He  was  eminent  in  toxicology. 

HERAT,  or  Herant,  a  city  of  Afghanistan,  on 
the  Heri,  360  m.  W.  of  Cabool,  and  190  m.  S. 
E.  of  Meshed;  pop.  about  50,000.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  plain  2,500  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  The  streets  are 
ill  built,  narrow,  and  dirty.  The  principal  pub- 
lic edifices  are  the  citadel,  mosques,  bazaars, 
caravansaries,  baths,  and  the  palace  of  the 
khan.  It  is  divided  by  four  bazaars,  which  run 
from  four  gates,  and  one  of  which  is  1,300 


HERAT 

yards  long  and  roofed  with  arched  brickwork. 
The  staple  articles  of  commerce  are  saffron 
and  asafoetida,  and  the  manufactures  include 
carpets,  cloaks,  caps,  shoes,  saddlery,  harness, 
sables,  and  dressed  sheep  skins.  Herat  is  a 
place  of  great  military  and  commercial  impor- 
tance, being  the  N.  W.  "gate  of  India,"  and 
the  point  where  the  shawls,  chintzes,  mus- 
lins, indigo,  &c.,  of  India  and  Afghanistan  are 
exchanged  for  the  products  of  China,  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Persia. — At  the  close  of  the  18th 
century  Herat  belonged  to  the  dominions  of 
Zemaun  Shah,  the  sovereign  of  Afghanistan. 
But  there  were  two  rival  families  in  the  state 
— that  of  the  king,  of  the  Suddosi  tribe,  and 
that  of  Futteh  Khan  and  his  20  brothers,  of 
whom  Dost  Mohammed  was  one  of  the  young- 
est. The  family  of  Futteh  Khan  eventually 
triumphed  over  their  rivals,  and  divided  Af- 
ghanistan among  themselves,  except  Herat, 
which  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  brother 


The  Citadel,  Herat. 

of  Zemaun  Shah.  In  1837,  under  the  vizier- 
ship  of  Yar  Mohammed,  the  Persians  appeared 
before  Herat  and  subjected  it  to  one  of  the 
most  memorable  sieges  in  modern  times,  last- 
ing from  Nov.  22, 1837,  to  Sept.  9,  1838,  which 
the  town  was  able  to  resist  in  consequence 
of  the  exertions  of  Lieut.  Pottinger  of  the 
Bombay  artillery.  In  May,  1843,  when  Kam- 
ran,  the  chieftain  of  Herat,  died,  Yar  Moham- 
med made  himself  master  of  the  town,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Kamran's  son.  At  his  death  in 
1851  he  transmitted  his  power  to  his  son  Mo- 
hammed Said,  whose  conduct  became  so  un- 
satisfactory that,  with  the  consent  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  military  assistance  of  the  shah  of 
Persia,  he  was  supplanted  by  Yusuf,  a  prince 
of  the  Suddosi  family,  who  in  1855  captured 
Herat  and  proclaimed  himself  chief  as  the 
vassal  of  Persia.  He  acted  under  Russian  and 
was  opposed  to  English  influence.  The  pro- 
posed expulsion  of  an  agent  of  the  English 


HERAULT  DE  SECHELLES      675 

government  and  the  dictatorial  attitude  of  the 
Persian  shah  fomented  discord,  in  consequence 
of  which  Yusuf  was  driven  from  power  by 
Esa  Khan,  who  usurped  it.  The  Persians  then 
besieged  the  town,  and  captured  it,  Oct.  26, 
1856.  This  led  to  war  between  Persia  and 
England,  since  the  latter  government  looked 
upon  the  capture  of  Herat  as  a  breach  of 
the  treaty  of  1853.  The  Persians  were  de- 
feated on  several  occasions,  and  compelled  to 
sign  a  treaty  at  Teheran,  April  14,  1857,  by 
which  the  shah  renounced  all  claims  on  Herat ; 
but  he  installed  Ahmed  Khan  as  its  ruler,  who 
was  recognized  by  the  British  government. 
Soon  afterward  this  ruler  captured  Furrah, 
which  the  amir  of  Cabool  quickly  recaptured, 
and  then  laid  siege  to  Herat.  After  holding 
out  10  months,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm, 
May  26,  1863.  It  has  since  been  reannexed 
to  the  Afghan  dominions.  The  struggle  of 
Russia  and  Great  Britain  for  the  ascendancy  in 
central  Asia  has  given 
to  Herat  an  even  great- 
er political  importance 
than  it  had  before. 

HERAULT,  a  S.  de- 
partment of  France,  in 
Languedoc,  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  departments 
of  Gard,  Aveyron,  Tarn, 
and  Aude;  area,  2,393 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
429,878.  The  surface 
is  mountainous  in  the 
north,  but  in  the  south 
are  plains,  which  slope 
to  the  sea.  Between 
the  mountains  and  the 
plains  there  runs  from 
E.  to  W.,  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  de- 
partment, a  band  of 
stony  earth  which  al- 
lows of  no  cultivation 

but  that  of  the  olive  and  the  vine.  The  princi- 
pal river  is  the  H6rault,  which  flows  nearly  S. 
through  the  department  to  the  Mediterranean 
at  Agde.  There  are  several  canals.  The  cli- 
mate is  dry  and  very  warm,  and,  except  near 
the  marshes  on  the  S.  coast,  healthy.  Olives 
and  grapes  are  the  chief  agricultural  products. 
Excellent  white  and  red  wines  are  made. 
Brandies,  cloths,  woollens,  silks,  liqueurs,  per- 
fumes, paper,  pottery,  and  candles  are  manu- 
factured ;  there  are  mines  of  iron,  copper,  and 
coal,  and  marble  quarries.  It  is  divided  into 
the  arrondissements  of  Be"ziers,  Lodeve,  Mont- 
pellier,  and  St.  Pons.  Capital,  Montpellier. 

HERAULT  DE  SECHELLES,  Marie  Jean,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760,  guillotined 
there,  April  5, 1794.  He  was  a  lawyer,  and  was 
advocate  general  at  the  Chatelet.  When  the 
revolution  broke  out  he  embraced  its  principles 
with  ardor,  and  distinguished  himself  by  per- 
sonal bravery  at  the  siege  of  the  Bastile.  In 


676 


HERBARIUM 


IIERBELOT 


September,  1791,  he  was  elected  by  tbe  city  of 
Paris  to  the  legislative  assembly,  where  he  at 
once  joined  the  extreme  left.  Having  been  re- 
turned to  the  convention  by  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  he  was  chosen  president  of  that 
body,  Nov.  2,  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners sent  to  organize  the  department  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  while  absent  from  Paris  on 
this  mission  signed  a  letter  voting  for  the  "  con- 
demnation "  of  the  king,  after  the  words  "  to 
death  "  had  been  stricken  from  it  at  the  request 
of  one  of  his  colleagues,  the  abb6  Gregoire. 
He  joined  Danton  and  Lacroix  in  demanding 
the  trial  of  Henriot,  and  presided  at  the  well 
known  sitting  of  June  2,  1793,  when  he  pro- 
claimed the  proscription  of  the  Girondists.  On 
June  10  he  presented  a  report  from  the  com- 
mittee of  public  safety  on  the  proposed  consti- 
tution, which  had  been  drawn  up  mainly  by 
himself,  but  it  was  not  accepted.  He  also  pre- 
sided at  the  -great  fete  of  Aug.  10,  1793.  He 
was  an  uncompromising  democrat,  and  as  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  public  safety  proposed 
many  measures  of  great  severity.  When  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Alsace  in  September,  1793,  he 
wrote:  "I  have  planted  guillotines  on  my 
route,  and  find  that  they  have  produced  good 
effects."  The  consideration  he  enjoyed  pro- 
voked the  jealousy  of  Robespierre,  and  on  a 
frivolous  pretext  he  was  imprisoned.  On 
March  31,  1794,  St.  Just  accused  him  in  the 
convention  of  being  a  noble  by  birth  and  of 
having  protected  the  emigres.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  with  Danton,  Desmoulins,  and 
others,  and  met  his  fate  with  calmness.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  works,  among  which 
were  Visite  d  Buff  on  (Paris,  1785),  and  The- 
orie  de  V ambition  (1802),  written  during  his 
last  imprisonment. 

HERBARIUM,  a  collection  of  dried  plants,  for- 
merly called  a  hortus  nccus.  In  collecting  spe- 
cimens, the  whole  plant,  including  root,  is 
taken  if  not  over  15  in.  high,  if  possible  se- 
lecting those  which  present  both  flower  and 
fruit.  With  larger  plants  such  portions  are 
taken  as  will  accurately  represent  the  whole ; 
if  the  leaves  vary  in  form,  specimens  of 
each  kind  should  be  included,  as  well  as 
young  shoots,  buds,  flowers,  and  fruit.  The 
specimens  are  dried  between  sheets  of  bibu- 
lous paper,  which  are  changed  more  or  less 
frequently  according  to  the  climate  and  the 
character  of  the  plants.  When  thoroughly 
dry,  the  flowers  and  soft  parts  are  poisoned, 
to  prevent  their  destruction  by  insects,  by 
sprinkling  them  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  and  keeping  them  between 
papers  until  this  is  dry.  The  specimens  are 
finally  mounted  upon  sheets  of  heavy  white 
paper  by  gluing  them  down,  or  by  fastening 
them  by  means  of  small  straps  of  gummed  pa- 
per ;  one  species  only  is  placed  upon  a  sheet, 
but  several  small  specimens  of  the  same  species 
in  different  stages,  or  from  different  localities, 
are  put  upon  the  same  sheet.  The  name  of 
the  plant  is  written  at  the  lower  right-hand 


corner,  or  a  ticket  containing  it  is  pasted  there. 
The  species  of  each  genus  are  placed  together 
in  a  fold  of  heavy  manila  paper,  upon  the 
lower  left-hand  corner  of  which  the  name  of 
the  genus  is  written.  The  specimens  in  their 
genus  covers  are  then  placed  in  a  cabinet  or 
case  with  pigeonholes  large  enough  to  allow 
them  to  lie  flat,  which  should  close  tightly  to  ex- 
clude dust  and  insects.  The  genera  are  gather- 
ed into  families  or  orders,  following  whatever 
lineal  arrangement  may  be  preferred.  The  size 
of  the  paper  is  a  matter  of  importance ;  great 
annoyance  results  from  having  it  too  small, 
and  if  needlessly  large  it  increases  the  expense. 
Most  American  botanists  adopt  the  size  of 
Hi  by  16£  in.;  the  herbarium  of  Linnseus  is 
on  ordinary  foolscap  sheets.  Among  the  cele- 
brated collections  of  Europe  are  the  Kew,  the 
Linnsean,  and  the  Banksian  herbaria,  the  last 
at  the  British  museum.  The  herbaria  of  the 
Paris  museum,  of  Berlin,  of  St.  Petersburg, 
and  many  others,  are  of  great  extent  and  value. 
In  this  country,  the  Gray  herbarium  at  Har- 
vard, the  Torrey  and  Meisner  herbaria  at  Co- 
lumbia college,  and  that  of  the  academy  of 
natural  sciences  at  Philadelphia,  are  the  most 
important ;  and  there  are  many  smaller  ones, 
including  those  of  botanists  who  study  in  spe- 
cial departments,  of  great  scientific  interest. 

HERBART,  Johann  Friedrieh,  a  German  philos- 
opher, born  in  Oldenburg,  May  4,  1776,  died  in 
Gottingen,  Aug.  14,  1841.  At  an  early  age  he 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  philosophical  sys- 
tems of  Wolf  and  Kant,  and  subsequently  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  Fichte  at  Jena.  After 
teaching  at  Bern,  where  he  was  intimate  with 
Pestalozzi,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  his  system 
of  education,  he  went  in  1802  to  Gottingen, 
and  in  1805  was  appointed  extraordinary  pro- 
fessor. In  1809  he  accepted  the  chair  of  phi- 
losophy at  Konigsberg,  whence  he  was  recalled 
in  1833  to  Gottingen.  His  philosophy  was  a 
reaction  against  the  reigning  idealism,  and  par- 
takes at  once  of  the  empiricism  of  Locke  and 
Condillac,  the  monadism  of  Leibnitz,  the  criti- 
cism of  Kant,  and  the  mathematical  idealism 
of  Bardili.  His  principal  works  are  :  LeJirbuch 
zur  Einleitung  in  die  Philosophic  (Konigsberg, 
1813 ;  4th  ed.,  1837)  ;  Lehrluch  zur  Psychologie 
(1816;  3d  ed.,  1834);  Psychologie,  als  Wissen- 
scJiaft  neu  gegrundet  aufErfahrung,  Metaphy- 
sik  und  Mathemathik  (2  vols.,  1824-'5) ;  All- 
gemeine  Metaphysik  nebst  den  Anfangen  der 
philosophischen  Naturlehre  (2  vols.,  1828-'9) ; 
and  the  EncyTclopadie  der  Philosophic  aut 
praktischen  Gesichtspunkten  (Halle,  1831 ;  2d 
ed.,  1841).  His  minor  philosophical  writings, 
j  with  a  biography  by  Hartenstein,  were  pub- 
|  lished  at  Leipsic  (3  vols.,  1841-'3);  his  com- 
i  plete  works  were  edited  by  Hartenstein  (12 
I  vols.,  Leipsic,  1850-'52). 

IIERBELOT,  Barthelemy  d>,  a  French  oriental- 
ist, born  in  Paris  in  December,  1625,  died  there, 
Dec.  8,  1695.  He  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  Persian,  and  Turkish, 
twice  visited  Italy  to  obtain  instruction  from 


HERBERT 


677 


ie  orientals  who  frequented  Genoa,  Leghorn, 
and  Venice,  and  in  the  last  years  of  his  life 
he  was  professor  of  Syriac  at  the  college  de 
France.  He  left  several  inedited  works,  of 
which  the  Bibliotheque  orientate,  ou  Diction- 
naire  universel,  contenant  tout  ce  qui  fait 
connaitre  les  peuples  de  I1  Orient  (fol.),  was 
published  in  Paris  two  years  after  his  death. 

HERBERT,  Edward,  Baron  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury,  an  English  philosopher,  born  at  Mont- 
gomery, Wales,  in  1581,  died  in  London,  Aug. 
20,  1648.  He  was  married  at  15,  completed 
his  education  at  Oxford,  and  in  1600  went  to 
London.  In  1608  he  visited  France.  In  1610 
he  joined  the  English  auxiliaries  in  the  Nether- 
lands under  the  command  of  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
prince  of  Orange,  and  served  in  the  siege  of 
Jlilich.  In  1614,  under  the  same  commander, 
he  served  in  a  second  campaign  against  the 
Spaniards.  He  distinguished  himself  in  these 
wars  by  great  intrepidity.  He  then  went  to 
Italy,  where  the  duke  of  Savoy  intrusted  him 
with  the  guidance  of  4,000  Languedoc  Protes- 
its  into  Piedmont.  In  1618  he  was  appoint- 
by  King  James  ambassador  extraordinary  to 
France,  to  renew  the  alliance  between  France 
and  England.  Very  sensitive  on  all  points  of 
honor,  he  was  involved  in  many  duels,  and  es- 
pecially offended  the  duke  de  Luynes,  a  favor- 
ite of  the  king,  at  whose  instigation  he  was  re- 
called to  England.  On  the  death  of  De  Luynes 
(1 621)  he  was  sent  again  to  France,  and  while 
there  published  his  first  work,  Tractatus  de 
Veritate  (Paris,  1624).  In  1625  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  created  baron  of  Castle 
Island  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland,  and  from  this 
time  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  duties  of 
his  station  and  to  literature.  In  1631  he  was 
elevated  to  the  English  peerage,  under  the  title 
of  Baron  Herbert  of  Cherbury.  He  was  op- 
posed to  Bacon  and  Hobbes,  and  taught  that 
human  knowledge  is  derived  from  a  rationalis 
iwtinctus  or  instinct  of  the  reason,  and  that  by 
the  action  of  outward  objects  upon  the  mind 
certain  communes  notiones  or  universal  princi- 
ples are  educed.  He  believed  that  religion 
rests  upon  innate  ideas,  man's  own  conscious- 
ness being  the  standard  by  which  revealed  re- 
ligion should  be  tested.  In  the  disturbances 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  he  sided  first  with 
the  parliament,  and  afterward  with  the  king. 
Among  his  works  are  the  following,  all  of 
which  appeared  after  his  death :  De  Eeligione 
Gentilium,  Errorumque  apud  eos  Causis  ;  Ex- 
peditio  (BucMnghami  Duds)  in  Ream  Insu- 
lam;  and  the  "Life  and  Reign  of  King  Henry 
VIII."  His  autobiography  was  printed  by 
Horace  Walpole  in  1764. — See  Lord  Herbert  de 
CJierbury,  by  Charles  de  Remusat  (Paris,  1874). 
HERBERT,  George,  an  English  poet,  fifth 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Montgomery 
castle,  Wales,  April  3,  1593,  died  at  Bemerton, 
England,  in  February,  1632.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  and  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  elected  fellow  of  the  college  in 
1615,  and  in  1619  public  orator,  which  in 


those  days  was  a  great  honor.  King  James, 
whose  favor  he  had  gained  by  an  elegant  let- 
ter to  him  in  Latin,  presented  him  with  a  sine- 
cure office  worth  £120  a  year.  The  death  of 
two  of  his  most  powerful  friends,  the  duke  of 
Richmond  and  the  marquis  of  Hamilton,  soon 
followed  by  that  of  the  king,  induced  him  to 
take  holy  orders,  and  he  was  made  by  Bishop 
Williams  prebendary  of  Leighton  Bromswold, 
or  Layton  Ecclesia,  in  1626.  In  1630  Charles 
I.  presented  him  with  the  living  of  Bemerton, 
near  Salisbury,  and  here  he  remained  till  his 
death.  As  a  pastor  he  was  most  exemplary 
and  zealous,  and  he  was  generally  known  as 
"  holy  George  Herbert."  His  verses  are  quaint 
and  full  of  imagery,  with  many  beautiful 
thoughts  and  holy  precepts.  They  are  of  the 
same  school  as  those  of  Quarles  and  Donne. 
Herbert  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Henry 
Wpttpn,  Dr.  Donne,  and  Lord  Bacon.  His 
principal  works  are :  "  The  Temple,  Sacred 
Poems  and  Private  Ejaculations  "  (Cambridge, 
1631) ;  "  Outlandish  Proverbs,  Sentences,  &c." 
(London,  1640);  " Quadripartit  Devotions" 
1647);  "The  Priest  to  the  Temple,  or  the 
Character  of  a  Country  Parson  "  (1652) ;  and 
"Remains,"  prose  writings  (1652).  His  life 
was  written  by  Izaak  Walton. 

HERBERT,  Henry  William,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  London,  April  7,  1807,  died  by 
his  own  hand  in  New  York,  May  17,  1858. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  Hon.  and  Rev.  William 
Herbert,  dean  of  Manchester,  and  graduated 
at  Caius  college,  Cambridge,  in  1828.  He 
came  to  New  York  in  1831,  and  until  1839  was 
teacher  of  Greek  in  a  private  school.  During 
this  time  he  began  to  write  for  the  public,  and 
from  1833  to  1836  was  editor  of  the  "Ameri- 
can Monthly  Magazine,"  at  one  time  in  con- 
nection with  C.  F.  Hoffman.  In  1834  he  pub- 
lished his  first  historical  novel,  "  The  Brothers, 
a  Tale  of  the  Fronde,"  followed  by  "  Crom- 
well" (1837),  "Marmaduke  Wyvil"  (1843), 
"  The  Roman  Traitor  "  (1848),  "  The  Miller  of 
Martigny,"  "  Guarica,  or  the  Carib  Bride," 
"Sherwood  Forest,  or  Wager  of  Battle" 
(1855),  and  others.  His  historical  works  were 
"  The  Captains  of  the  Greek  Republics,"  "The 
Captains  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  "Henry 
VIII.  and  his  Six  Wives,"  and  "  The  Royal 
Maries  of  Mediaeval  History."  Some  of  these 
enjoyed  in  their  time  great  popularity.  For 
several  years  previous  to  his  death  Mr.  Herbert 
resided  near  Newark,  N.  J.  He  made  ver- 
sions of  several  French  romances,  of  Weiss's 
"  Protestant  Refugees  "  (New  York,  1854),  of 
the  "Prometheus"  and  "Agamemnon"  of 
^Eschylus,  and  of  poetry  from  French  and  Ital- 
ian authors.  His  most  celebrated  and  charac- 
teristic works,  however,  were  on  sporting,  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonyme  of  Frank  Fores- 
ter namely:  "  The  Field  Sports  of  the  United 
States  and  British  Provinces  "  (1849)  ;  "  Frank 
Forester  and  his  Friends"  (London,  1849); 
"The  Fish  and  Fishing  of  the  United  States," 
&c.  (New  York,  1850);  "Young  Sportsman's 


678 


HERBERT 


HERCULANEUM 


Complete  Manual;"  "The  Horse  and  Horse- 
manship of  the  United  States  and  British 
Provinces  of  North  America"  (2  vols.  4to, 
1857) ;  and  "  American  Game."  Mr.  Herbert 
also  edited  various  works,  and  was  a  versatile 
contributor  to  literary  magazines  and  journals. 
As  a  writer  on  field  sports  he  was  the  first  in 
America  to  give  prominence  to  a  department 
of  literature  which  has  of  late  years  become 
both  copious  and  popular. 

HERBERT,  John  Rogers,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Maldon,  Essex,  Jan.  23,  1810.  Hebe- 
came  a  student  in  the  royal  academy  while  a 
boy,  and  before  the  age  of  24  had  acquired 
considerable  reputation.  About  1839  he  be- 
came a  convert  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
He  was  employed  on  the  decoration  of  the  new 
houses  of  parliament,  and  among  his  frescoes 
there  are  nine  subjects  taken  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  illustration  of  justice  on  earth 
and  its  development  in  law  and  judgment. 
Since  the  death  of  his  son  in  1856,  a  young 
painter  of  great  promise,  his  subjects  have 
been  almost  entirely  religious.  He  was  elected 
associate  of  the  royal  academy  in  1841  and 
academician  in  1846. 

HERBERT,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  York  about  1606,  died  there  in  1682. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  in 
1626  accompanied  Sir  Dodmore  Cotton  on  his 
embassy  to  Persia.  He  returned  to  England 
at  the  end  of  four  years,  after  having  visited 
Persia,  northern  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies, 
and  in  1634  published  "Some  Yeares  Travels 
into  Africa  and  the  Great  Asia,  especially  the 
Territories  of  the  Persian  Monarchy."  In  the 
civil  war  Herbert  took  the  side  of  the  parlia- 
ment, was  one  of  the  commissioners  of  Hali- 
fax, and  was  sent  by  parliament  among  the 
deputies  to  Newcastle 
to  receive  the  king  from 
the  Scotch.  Charles 
was  so  won  by  his  kind 
and  courteous  behavior 
that,  though  he  was  a 
Presbyterian,  he  retain- 
ed him  to  the  last,  after 
his  other  attendants  had 
been  dismissed.  Her- 
bert, for  his  services  to 
the  king,  was  rewarded 
by  Charles  II.  with  the 
title  of  baronet.  To- 
gether with  some  oth- 
ers, he  wrote  the  Thre- 
nodia  Carolina,  an  ac- 
count of  the  last  two 
years  of  the  life  of 
Charles  I.  (1678  and 
1813). 

HERBERT,  William, 
third  earl  of  Pembroke, 

an  English  poet,  born  at  Wilton,  Wiltshire, 
April  8,  1580,  died  in  London,  April  10,  1630. 
He  was  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford, 
a  knight  of  the  garter,  for  some  time  governor 


of  Portsmouth  and  lord  chamberlain  of  the 
royal  household,  a  contributor  to  the  Bodleian 
library  of  valuable  Greek  MSS.,  and  gave  his 
name  to  Pembroke  college,  Oxford.  He  wrote 
poems  of  little  merit,  and  some  of  a  licentious 
character,  but  great  interest  is  attached  to  his 
name  on  account  of  the  supposition  that  he 
was  the  W.  H.  of  Shakespeare's  sonnets.  Hal- 
lam,  in  his  "  Literature  of  Europe,"  favors  this 
belief.  Herbert,  whose  character  is  drawn  by 
Clarendon  in  his  "  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
was  learned,  noble,  gallant,  and  licentious. 

HERBIVORA  (plant-eaters),  an  order  of  mam- 
mals, ungulate  or  hoofed,  having  molar  teeth 
for  grinding,  and  no  clavicles.  Owen  divides 
them  into:  1.  Artiodactyls,  or  even- toed,  with 
19  dorso-lumbar  vertebrae,  and  horns,  if  any,  in 
pairs ;  including  ruminants,  two-toed,  which 
chew  the  cud,  as  the  cow,  sheep,  and  camel ; 
and  omnivores,  four- toed,  like  the  hog.  2.  Pe- 
rissodactyls,  odd-toed,  one,  three,  or  five,  with 
more  than  19  dorso-lumbar  vertebrae,  and  horns, 
when  any,  never  in  pairs ;  including  the  solid- 
ungulates  or  solid-hoofed,  one-toed,  like  the 
horse,  ass,  and  hipparion ;  multungulates,  three 
or  five-toed,  like  the  tapir,  rhinoceros,  and 
palseotherium ;  and  proboscidia,  like  the  ele- 
phant and  mastodon,  with  five  toes,  a  proboscis, 
and  tusks  in  one  or  both  jaws.  They  form  one 
of  the  three  orders  of  the  eighth  class,  or  mam- 
mals, in  Prof.  Agassiz's  classification,  the  other 
two  being  marsupials  and  carnivora;  of  course, 
thus  including  rodents,  many  edentates,  bats, 
and  monkeys.  This  extension  of  the  term  is 
likely  to  introduce  confusion  into  the  general- 
ly followed  classifications. 

HERCULANEUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Campania, 
Italy,  situated  at  the  N.  W.  base  of  Mt.  Vesu- 
vius, about  5  m.  S.  E.  of  Naples,  and  entirely 


llerculaneum. 

overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
A.  D.  79.  Its  foundation  was  ascribed  to  Her- 
cules, and  Ovid  called  it  Herculea  iirbs.  It  is 
said  by  Strabo  to  have  been  occupied  in  turn 


HERCULES 


679 


Oscans,  Pelaegians,  Tyrrhenians,  and  Sam- 
ites, but  its  history  is  obscure,  and  it  was 
jver  of  great  importance.     The  inscriptions 
tow  that  under  the  Romans  it  had  the  rights 
a  municipium,  and  that  it  was  governed 
dth  its  own  laws  by  demarchs  and  archons. 
Strabo  describes  it  as  situated  on  a  projecting 
leadland,  and  Sisenna  as  built  on  elevated 
)und  between  two  rivers,  and  surrounded 
)y  low  walls.     Its  healthy  situation  rendered 
a  place  of  resort  for  wealthy  Romans,  who 
lilt  magnificent  villas  in  the  city  and  its  sub- 
rbs.    It  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake 
A.  D.  63,  and  Seneca  said  then  that  what 
~mained  was  not  safe.     In  August,  79,  Vesu- 
dus  threw  out  for  eight  days  and  nights  tor- 
•ents  of  mud,  filling  the  city  to  the  roofs  of  the 
louses,  and  afterward  showers  of  ashes  and 
rents  of  lava,  forming  a  deposit  varying 
n  70  to  112  ft.  in  depth.    A  second  settle- 
lent  formed  near  the  site  of  the  buried  city 
let  with  a  similar  fate  in  472.     Thereafter 
jven  the  situation  of  Herculaneum  was  forgot- 
3n.     It  was  not  mentioned  except  in  a  few 
rorks  of  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries, 
id  was  supposed  to  be  buried  under  the  mod- 
site  of  Torre  del  Greco.     The  discovery  of 
le  real  site  was  due  to  the  sinking  of  a  well 
Resina  in  1709,  which  brought  to  light  some 
lents  of  mosaic  and  statues.    For  the  his- 
>ry  of  the  excavations,  see  POMPEII. 
HERCULES  (Gr.  'Hpa/eA^),  the  most  renowned 
1  the  mythical  heroes  of  antiquity,  son  of  Ju- 
iter  by  Alcmena,  the  granddaughter  of  Per- 
3us.     He  was  destined  by  Jupiter  to  occupy 
le  throne  of  Perseus,  but  by  the  contrivance 
Juno  was  superseded  by  Eurystheus,  the 
idson  of  that  hero.     His  name  originally 
ras  Abides  or  Alcaeus;    it  was  changed  to 
lercules  by  the  Delphic  oracle,  which  ordered 
im  to  live  at  Tiryns  and  serve  Eurystheus  12 
rears.     When  Jupiter  saw  that  Juno  had  ac- 
iplished  the  disinheritance  of  Hercules,  he 
lade  her  promise  that  Hercules  should  become 
imortal  on  the  completion  of  12  great  works 
Eurystheus.     There  is  some  difference  in 
le  accounts  of  these  labors,  but  the  most  com- 
lon  enumeration  is  the  following:    1.   The 
'it  with  the  Nemean  lion.     The  valley  of 
Temea  between  Cleonae  and  Phlius  was  infest- 
ed by  a  monstrous  lion.     Hercules  blocked  up 
me  of  the  entrances  to  the  den,  entered  it  by 
the  other,  strangled  the  lion,  and  brought  the 
to  Eurystheus.     2.  The  fight  with  the 
irnasan  hydra.    In  the  district  of  Lernse,  near 
Lrgos,  dwelt  a  huge  hydra  having  nine  heads, 
le  middle  one  immortal.     Hercules,   having 
ised  the  hydra  from  its  lair,  cut  off  its  heads, 
it  in  place  of  every  head  cut  off  two  new 
les  sprang  up.      With  the  assistance  of  his 
3rvant  lolaus,  he  burned  the  mortal  heads, 
id  buried  the  immortal  one  under  a  rock.     3. 
le  capture  of  the  Arcadian  stag.    This  animal 
golden  horns  and  brazen  feet,  and  was  of 
irpassing  swiftness.     Hercules  was  ordered 
bring  it  alive  to  Mycenaa.    For  a  whole  year 


he  pursued  it  in  vain.  At  length,  weary  of 
pursuing,  the  hero  wounded  it  with  an  arrow, 
caught  it,  and  carried  it  to  Mycenae.  4.  The 
hunt  of  the  Erymanthian  boar.  This  boar  had 
descended  from  Mt.  Erymanthus  into  Psophis, 
and  Hercules  was  ordered  to  bring  him  alive 
to  Eurystheus.  He  chased  the  brute  through 
the  deep  snow  till,  having  tired  him  down,  he 
caught  him  in  a  net.  5.  The  cleansing  of  the 
Augean  stables.  Augeas,  king  of  Elis,  had  a 
herd  of  3,000  oxen,  whose  stalls  had  not  been 
cleansed  for  30  years.  Eurystheus  command- 
ed Hercules  to  clean  them  in  one  day.  He  ac- 
complished it  by  turning  the  rivers  Alpheus 
and  Peneus  through  the  stables.  6.  The  de- 
struction of  the  Stymphalian  birds,  an  innu- 
merable swarm  of  voracious  creatures,  with 
claws,  wings,  and  beaks  of  brass,  that  used 
their  feathers  as  arrows  and  fed  upon  human 
flesh.  They  had  taken  refuge  in  a  lake  near 
Stymphalus,  whence  Hercules  startled  them 
with  a  rattle,  and  killed  them  with  his  arrows 
as  they  attempted  to  fly  away.  7.  The  cap- 
ture of  the  Cretan  bull.  This  bull  was  a  sacri- 
ficial gift  from  Neptune  to  Minos ;  but  as  Minos 
neglected  to  sacrifice  him,  Neptune  caused  the 
bull  to  go  mad,  and  to  make  great  havoc  in 
Crete.  Hercules  was  commanded  to  catch 
him,  and  bring  him  to  Mycenae.  He  did  so,  but 
then  set  the  animal  free  to  the  great  terror  of 
Greece.  8.  The  abduction  of  the  mares  of  Di- 
omedes,  a  Thracian  prince  who  fed  them  with 
human  flesh.  Eurystheus  sent  Hercules  to 
bring  them  to  him.  Hercules  had  conducted 
them  to  the  seacoast,  when  he  was  overtaken 
and  attacked.  He  vanquished  the  Thracians, 
slew  Diomedes,  and  cast  his  body  to  the  mares, 
which  became  tame  after  eating  the  flesh  of 
their  master.  Hercules  then  embarked  with 
them,  and  brought  them  to  Eurystheus.  9.  The 
seizure  of  the  girdle  of  Hippolyte,  queen  of  the 
Amazons,  which  she  had  received  from  Mars. 
Hercules  set  sail  from  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
landed  at  Themiscyra,  where  he  was  hospita- 
bly entertained  by  Hippolyte,  who  promised 
him  the  girdle.  But  the  malignity  of  Juno 
rousing  the  Amazons  against  him,  he,  deeming 
the  queen  a  party  to  the  conspiracy,  slew  her, 
possessed  himself  of  her  girdle,  and  arrived 
with  it  in  safety  at  Mycense.  10.  The  capture 
of  the  oxen  of  Geryones,  a  monster  who  lived 
in  the  island  of  Erythia,  and  who  had  a  herd 
of  red  oxen  which  fed  with  those  of  Helios, 
and  were  guarded  by  the  giant  Eurytion  and 
the  two-headed  dog  Orthrus.  Erythia  was  in 
the  ocean  far  to  the  west,  and  in  his  journey 
to  it  Hercules  erected  the  pillars  of  Calpe  and 
Abyla,  hence  called  the  pillars  of  Hercules. 
He  killed  Orthrus,  Eurytion,  and  Geryones, 
and,  after  overcoming  the  efforts  of  gods  and 
men  to  deprive  him  of  them,  brought  the  oxen 
to  Eurystheus.  11.  The  getting  of  the  golden 
apples  of  the  Hesperides.  These  apples  had 
been  presented  by  Terra  to  Juno,  by  whom 
they  had  been  intrusted  to  the  keeping  of  the 
Hesperides  and  the  dragon  Ladon,  in  somo 


680 


HERCULES'  CLUB 


HERDER 


remote  region  of  the  west.  Hercules,  with  the 
aid  of  Atlas,  obtained  the  apples,  which  on  his 
return  he  gave  to  Eurystheus.  12.  The  seiz- 
ure of  Cerberus,  the  dog  that  guarded  the 
entrance  to  Hades.  On  arriving  in  Hades, 
Hercules  asked  permission  of  Pluto  to  take 
Cerberus,  and  the  god  yielded  his  assent,  pro- 
vided he  could  do  so  without  having  recourse 
to  arms.  Seizing  Cerberus,  Hercules  bore  him 
to  the  upper  world,  showed  him  to  Eurystheus, 
and  immediately  carried  the  monster  back  to 
Hades. — in  the  original  legends,  Hercules  fig- 
ures as  a  mighty  chieftain,  who  subdues  Troy, 
and  wages  successful  war  against  Argos  and 
Lacedfflmon ;  who  dethrones  princes,  and  gives 
away  kingdoms  and  sceptres.  The  worship  of 
Hercules  prevailed  especially  among  the  Dori- 
ans ;  and  the  sacrifices  offered  to  him  were 
chiefly  bulls*  boars,  rams,  and  lambs.  He  was 
also  worshipped  at  Rome,  and,  under  various 
names,  in  many  other  parts  of  the  ancient 
world.  In  works  of  art  he  is  represented  in  all 
the  various  stages  of  life ;  but  whether  he  ap- 
pears as  a  child,  a  hero,  or  a  celestial,  his  char- 
acter is  always  that  of  supernatural  strength 
and  energy.  He  is  most  frequently  represent- 
ed clothed  in  a  lion's  skin  and  carrying  a  club. 

HERCULES'  CLUB,  a  trivial  name  for  three 
widely  different  plants :  1.  Xanthoxylum  clava- 
Her culls,  a  large  West  Indian  tree  of  the  same 
genus  with  our  prickly  ash ;  its  smaller  branch- 
es, thickly  covered  with  short,  straight,  per- 
sistent prickles,  are  often  made  into  walking 
canes.  2.  A  remarkable  variety  of  the  com- 
mon gourd,  lagenaria  vulgaris,  the  fruit  of 
which  often  exceeds  5  ft.  in  length ;  its  great- 
est diameter  is  4  or  5  in.,  and  it  is  quite  small 
near  the  stem.  3.  Aralia  spinosa,  a  large  na- 
tive shrub  with  an  exceedingly  prickly  stem, 
also  called  angelica  tree,  and  frequently  culti 
vated  on  account  of  the  tropical  character  of 
its  foliage. 

IIKIU  YMA  SILVA,  the  ancient  name  of  a  for- 
est of  Germany,  covering  a  mountain  range 
whose  position  and  extent  are  very  different- 
ly described  by  various  writers.  It  probably 
comprised  the  whole  mountain  system  of  cen- 
tral Europe,  extending  from  the  sources  of 
the  Danube  to  Transylvania,  and  thus  inclu- 
ding the  Hartz,  which  seems  to  have  retained 
a  trace  of  the  ancient  name.  The  term  Hercy- 
nian  Forest  was  afterward  restricted  to  the 
ranges  which  connect  the  Thuringian  Forest 
with  the  Carpathians. 

HERDER,  Johaiin  Gottfried  TOD,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  at  Mohrungen,  Aug.  25,  1744,  died 
in  Weimar,  Dec.  18,  1803.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  schoolmaster  and  chorister,  and  became  the 
amanuensis  of  a  clergyman  named  Trescho, 
under  whom  he  made  wonderful  progress  in 
study  and  various  reading.  At  the  age  of  18 
his  philosophical  and  literary  erudition  gained 
him  the  friendship  of  a  Russian  physician,  who 
sent  him  to  Konigsberg,  whence  he  was  to  go 
to  St.  Petersburg  as  a  lecturer  on  surgery.  But 
he  renounced  his  intended  profession  after  wit- 


nessing a  single  operation,  and  devoted  himself 
to  theology.  In  1765  he  became  a  preacher  at 
Riga,  where  the  fervor  and  power  of  his  dis- 
courses quickly  made  him  an  object  of  general 
enthusiasm.  His  Fragmente  tiber  die  neuere 
deutsche  Literatur  (1767),  and  his  Ki'itische 
Walder  (1769),  were  manifestoes  against  the 
artificial  spirit  and  literature  of  his  age,  as  com- 
pared with  the  grander  inspirations  of  the  early 
Orient  and  of  ancient  Greece.  In  1769  he  re- 
signed his  pastorate  in  order  to  travel  in  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy.  At  Strasburg  he  was 
intimately  associated  with  Goethe.  In  1771 
he  was  called  as  court  preacher  to  Buckeburg, 
and  in  1776  was  appointed  court  preacher  and 
member  of  the  consistory  at  Weimar.  By  his 
Aelteste  Urlcunde  des  menschlichen  Geschlechfa 
(1774)  he  had  already  given  a  new  impulse  to 
theology  by  seeking  poetic  sentiments  in  re- 
ligious traditions,  and  by  tracing  in  the  primi- 
tive world  the  sublime  instincts  of  human  na- 
ture and  the  foreshadowings  of  human  destiny. 
At  Weimar  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
in  association  with  the  leading  minds  in  that 
most  brilliant  period  of  German  literature,  and 
occupied  with  constant  labors  in  theology,  po- 
etry, and  history.  As  a  theologian  he  coope- 
rated with  Lessing  in  opposing  the  despotism 
of  the  letter  and  of  dogmas,  and  brought  the 
instincts  of  piety  and  of  poetic  fancy,  illustra- 
ted by  a  wide  erudition,  rather  than  the  dia- 
lectics of  the  schools,  to  bear  upon  the  ques- 
tions of  religion.  This  tendency  appears  in 
his  Geist  der  Ebraischen  Poesie  (Dessau,  1782; 
translated  into  English  by  Dr.  James  Marsh,  2 
vols.,  Burlington,  1833),  in  which  he  treats  the 
Hebrew  writings  as  productions  at  once  of 
primitive  poetry  and  of  religious  inspiration. 
He  translated  many  legends  and  songs  from 
Arabian,  Indian,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  ancient 
German  poets,  among  which  were  the  Spanish 
romances  of  the  Cid.  His  most  important 
work  is  the  unfinished  Ideen  zur  Philosophic 
der  Geschichte  der  Memchheit  (4  vols.,  Riga, 
1784-'91 ;  translated  into  English  byT.  Church- 
ill, under  the  title  of  "  Outlines  of  a  Philoso- 
phy of  the  History  of  Man,"  4to,  London,  1800, 
and  2  vols.  8vo,  1803),  which  is  one  of  the 
principal  and  standard  treatises  on  the  subject. 
He  traces  the  course  of  humanity  as  of  an  in- 
dividual placed  on  the  earth  by  an  unseen 
hand,  changing  its  forms  and  objects  as  it  pass- 
es from  country  to  country  and  from  age  to 
age,  protesting  everywhere  against  the  finite 
world  which  enchains  it,  seeking  the  triumph 
of  the  infinite,  the  victory  of  the  soul,  tending 
in  spite  of  detours  and  through  a  series  of  revo- 
lutions to  civilization,  and  preparing  for  the 
blossoming  of  life  in  another  world.  His  nu- 
merous writings  have  been  collected  in  45  vols. 
(Stuttgart,  1806-'20),  and  in  other  editions,  in- 
cluding one  of  his  select  works  by  H.  Kurtz  in 
4  vols.  (1871).  A  monument,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion Licht,  Liebe,  Leben,  was  erected  to  his 
memory  by  Grand  Duke  Charles  Augustus  at 
Weimar  in  1818.  His  biography  was  written 


HEREDITAMENTS 

his  son  E.  G.  von  Herder  (6  vols.,  Erlangen, 
1846-'7).  N.  L.  Frothingham  has  translated 
some  of  his  poems  into  English.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  1872,  un- 
der the  patronage  of  the  Prussian  government. 

HEREDITAMENTS,  in  law,  whatever  may  be 
inherited.  Hereditaments  are  corporeal,  em- 
bracing lands  and  tenements  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  incorporeal,  of  which  ten  classes  are 
usually  enumerated:  advowsons,  tithes,  com- 
mons, ways,  offices,  dignities,  franchises,  coro- 
dies  or  pensions,  annuities,  and  rents.  The 
first,  second,  and  sixth  do  not  exist  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  the  fifth  is  never  the  subject  of 
inheritance  here;  but  there  are  many  ease- 
ments that  may  be  inheritable  in  connection 
with  corporeal  hereditaments  to  which  they 
are  appendant  or  appurtenant.  In  England 
there  are  also  heirlooms  which  pass  with  the 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


681 


realty  to  the  heir,  such  as  the  family  pictures, 
and  by  custom  the  furniture  of  the  mansion 
house;  but  heirlooms  are  scarcely  known  to 
the  law  of  America. 

HEREFORD,  a  city  and  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  England,  capital  of  Here- 
fordshire, on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Wye,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  six  arches,  136  m.  by 
railway  W.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871, 
18,335.  The  principal  building  is  the  cathe- 
dral, refounded  in  1079,  of  early  Norman  archi- 
tecture, cruciform,  with  a  frontage  of  325  ft. 
and  a  breadth  of  110  ft.  The  west  front  fell 
in  1786,  and  was  rebuilt  in  an  incongruous 
style,  but  the  rest  of  the  building  has  recently 
been  restored  in  the  best  manner.  It  has  many 
fine  monuments,  some  as  old  as  the  llth  cen- 
tury, a  chapter  house,  Lady  chapel,  cloisters, 
and  a  library  containing  valuable  manuscripts, 


Hereford  Cathedral. 


among  them  Wycliffe's  Bible.  Hereford  is 
noted  for  its  ancient  charities,  among  which 
are  11  hospitals,  or  almshouses,  which  distribute 
money  and  bread.  The  manufactures  are  not 
important;  they  consist  of  gloves,  once  the 
staple  industry,  hats,  flannels,  leather,  and  cut- 
lery. Iron  works  have  been  established  since 
the  opening  of  the  railway  to  the  coal  district. 
Six  fairs  are  held  annually,  the  October  fair 
being  the  largest  in  England  for  cattle  and 
cheese.  A  musical  festival  is  given  triennial- 
ly,  in  the  cathedral,  by  the  united  choirs  of 
Hereford,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester.  Here- 
ford retains  several  of  its  ancient  privileges. 

HEREFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  Eng- 
land, on  the  E.  border  of  Wales,  almost  circu- 
lar in  shape;  area,  835  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
125,364.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  hill  and 
dale.  It  belongs  wholly  to  the  basin  of  the 
Severn,  and  has  a  gentle  slope  S.  to  that  river, 


into  which  flow  its  streams  the  Leddon,  Lugg, 
Teme,  Dore,  Monnow,  Arrow,  Frome,  and 
Wye,  the  last  traversing  the  whole  width  of 
the  county  and  famous  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 
Canals  connect  the  towns  of  Hereford  and  Leo- 
minster  with  the  Severn,  and  railways  connect 
Hereford  with  Shrewsbury,  Worcester,  Aber- 
gavenny,  and  Brecon.  The  geological  forma- 
tion is  old  red  sandstone,  excepting  in  detached 
localities,  where  it  is  limestone.  Iron  ore,  red 
and  yellow  ochres,  pipe  clay,  and  fullers1  earth 
are  found.  Some  medicinal  and  petrifying 
springs  exist.  This  county  is  entirely  agricul- 
tural, and  formerly  bore  the  name  of  "the 
garden  of  England."  The  soil  is  a  deep,  heavy, 
red  loam,  resting  on  clay  or  gravel,  and  very 
fertile.  Wheat,  barley,  fruit,  hops,  and  oak 
bark  are  the  principal  productions.  The  Here- 
ford breed  of  cattle  is  famous  for  gentleness, 
beauty  of  appearance,  and  aptitude  to  fatten. 


682 


HERFORD 


HERMANN 


HERFORD,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Werra  and  Aa  and  the 
Minden  and  Cologne  railway,  46  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Minister ;  pop.  in  1871, 10,968.  It  has  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  four  Protestant  churches  and  a 
synagogue.  The  Miinsterkirche,  a  vast  Ro- 
manesque building  of  the  13th  century,  was 
formerly  attached  to  the  monastery  founded  in 
789,  to  which  the  town  owes  its  origin,  and  of 
which  the  abbess  was  a  princess  of  the  empire. 
There  are  also  a  gymnasium  and  a  museum  for 
art  and  antiquities.  Tobacco,  linen,  carpets, 
and  leather  are  manufactured.  At  Engers,  5 
m.  E.,  is  the  tomb  of  Wittekind  the  Saxon. 

HERING,  Const  an  tin,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Oschatz,  Saxony,  Jan.  1,  1800.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Leipsic,  Dresden,  and  else- 
where in  Germany,  and  in  1826  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  surgery,  and  ob- 
stetrics. Subsequently  he  was  sent  on  a  scien- 
tific expedition  to  Dutch  Guiana.  In  1834  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  has  since  for 
the  most  part  resided.  He  has  been  connected 
with  several  medical  reviews  and  journals  of 
the  homoeopathic  school,  and  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  works  devoted  to  the  therapeu- 
tical reform  commenced  by  Hahnemann,  in- 
cluding "  Rise  and  Progress  of  Homoeopathy  " 
(Philadelphia,  1834),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  languages;  "The  Domes- 
tic Physician"  (6th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1858); 
"American  Drug  Provings"  (vol.  i.,  Leipsic, 
1853),  &c.  He  has  given  much  attention  to 
cures  for  the  bites  of  venomous  reptiles  and 
mad  dogs.  In  1874  he  was  preparing  for  pub- 
lication a  collection  of  his  medical  essays. 

HERIOT,  George,  a  Scottish  goldsmith,  the 
founder  of  Heriot's  hospital,  born  in  June, 
1563,  died  in  London,  Feb.  12,  1624.  As  gold- 
smith to  James  I.,  he  acquired  a  large  fortune, 
and,  having  no  direct  heirs,  bequeathed  about 
£24,000  to  the  magistrates  and  clergy  of  Ed- 
inburgh, for  the  founding  of  a  hospital  there 
for  the  "  maintenance,  relief,  bringing  up,  and 
education  of  poor  and  fatherless  boys,  free- 
men's sons  of  the  city." 

HERISAU,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  capital  of 
the  half  canton  of  Appenzell  Outer  Rhodes,  7 
m.  N.  W.  of  Appenzell,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Glatt,  about  2,500  ft.  above  the  sea ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,736.  It  consists  of  two  principal 
squares  and  four  streets,  with  seven  smaller 
ones  opening  into  them,  and  contains  a  large 
and  handsome  church,  with  a  tower  supposed 
to  have  been  built  in  the  7th  century,  a  new 
and  elegant  town  house,  a  poorhouse,  arsenal, 
and  casino.  There  are  extensive  manufactures 
of  muslins,  plain  and  embroidered,  and  of  cot- 
tons and  silks,  tanneries,  dye  works,  bleach 
fields,  and  paper  mills.  The  environs  are  laid 
out  in  beautiful  walks  and  gardens,  and  the 
surrounding  heights  are  crowned  by  the  old 
castles  of  Rosenberg,  Rosenburg,  and  Schwane- 
berg,  while  the  baths  of  Heinrichsbad  are  about 
a  mile  distant. — Herisau  was  originally  called 
Herginis  Au.  The  Romans  made  a  settlement 


here  and  Christianity  was  introduced  early  in 
the  7th  century.  The  nobles  of  Herisau  es- 
tablished their  jurisdiction  here,  which  in  1390 
fell  under  the  abbey  of  St.  Gall.  The  abbot 
taxed  the  people  heavily  and  arbitrarily,  and 
in  1463  they  bought  themselves  free. 

HERKIMER,  a  N.  E.  county  of  New  York,  in- 
tersected by  the  Mohawk  river,  and  also  drained 
by  several  mill  streams ;  area,  1,745  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  39,928.  It  has  a  hilly  surface, 
in  many  places  covered  with  a  dense  growth 
of  timber,  and  containing  limestone,  building 
stone,  lead,  and  gypsum.  The  soil  is  very  fer- 
tile in  the  valleys,  and  even  in  some  of  the 
hilly  districts.  The  Erie  canal,  the  New  York 
Central  railroad,  and  the  Adirondack  railroad 
(in  progress)  traverse  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  12,665  bushels  of  wheat, 
128,953  of  Indian  corn,  551,179  of  oats,  60,- 
288  of  barley,  41,806  of  buckwheat,  367,805 
of  potatoes,  25,918  Ibs.  of  wool,  444,910  of 
hops,  100,025  of  flax,  1,212,051  of  butter, 
5,101,654  of  cheese,  and  157,839  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  8,299  horses,  48,547  milch  cows, 
11,836  other  cattle,  6,984  sheep,  and  8,403 
swine ;  2  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 72  of  cheese,  24  of  cheWe  boxes,  34  of 
carriages,  25  of  clothing,  2  of  cotton  goods,  1 
of  firearms,  3  of  hardware,  4  of  malt,  1  of 
matches,  3  of  printing  paper,  1  of  starch,  14 
of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  wool- 
len goods,  18  flour  mills,  15  tanneries,  6  cur- 
rying establishments,  5  planing  mills,  and  26 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Herkimer. 

HERMANN.     See  ARMINIUS. 

HERMANN,  Johann  Gottfried  Jakob,  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Leipsic,  Nov.  28, 1772,  died 
Dec.  31, 1848.  After  studying  law  and  philol- 
ogy at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  he  began  to  lecture 
on  ancient  literature  at  Leipsic  in  1794,  and 
in  1798  was  appointed  extraordinary  profes- 
sor of  philosophy.  In  1803  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  eloquence,  and  retained  it 
until  his  death,  together  with  that  of  poetry, 
which  was  united  with  it  in  1809.  He  interest- 
ed himself  also  in  the  Greek  society  which 
was  founded  hi  1799,  and  in  1834  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  school  of  philology.  His  ser- 
vices to  the  cause  of  classical  learning  were  very 
important.  His  researches  were  original,  and 
their  results  were  presented  in  his  lectures 
with  great  vigor  and  clearness.  He  was  par- 
ticularly noted  for  the  new  principles  which 
he  developed  in  reference  to  the  classical  me- 
tres and  the  Greek  grammar.  His  principal 
works  in  regard  to  the  metres  were  :  De  Me- 
tris  GrcBcorum  et  Romanorum  Poetarum  (Leip- 
sic, 1796);  ffandbuch  der  Mefrik  (1798) ;  Ele- 
menta  Doctrines  Metric®  (1816) ;  Epitome  Doc- 
trine Metric®  (1818;  2d  ed.,  1844);  and  De 
Metris  Pindari,  in  Heyne's  edition  of  Pindar 
(3  vols.,  1817).  The  principles  which  he  ap- 
plied in  the  grammar  of  the  Greek  language 
may  be  found  in  his  treatise  De  Emendanda 
Ratione  Graca  Grammatica  (1801),  and  in 
his  annotations  of  Vigier's  De  Grceca  Dictionis 


HERMANNSTADT 


HERMAPHRODITE 


683 


(1802;  4th  ed.,  1834)  and  Libri 
de  Particula  av  (1831).  He  also  edited 
most  of  the  plays  of  Euripides,  the  u  Clouds  " 
of  Aristophanes,  the  "Trinummus"  of  Plau- 
tus,  the  "  Poetics  "  of  Aristotle,  the  hymns  of 
Orpheus,  and  those  ascribed  to  Homer,  Bion, 
Moschus,  and  JEschylus,  and  completed  the 
edition  of  Sophocles  begun  by  Erfurdt.  He 
discussed  the  significance  of  classical  mythol- 
ogy in  De  Mythologia  Grcecorum  Antiquissima 
(1807),  and  in  Brief e  uber  Homer  und  Hesio- 
dus,  written  by  him  and  Creuzer  (Heidelberg, 
1818).  A  collection  of  his  essays  was  publish- 
ed under  the  title  Opuscula  (7  vols.,  1827-'30). 
HERMANNSTADT  (Hung.  Nagy-Szeberi),  a  city 
of  Transylvania,  capital  of  the  land  of  the 
Saxons,  on  the  Zibin,  70  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Klau- 
eenburg ;  pop.  in  1869, 18,998,  of  whom  69  per 
cent,  were  Germans.  It  consists  of  an  upper 
a  lower  town,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 


|  with  five  gates.  The  principal  public  edifices 
are  the  churches,  the  palace  of  Baron  Brticken- 
thal,  a  Lutheran  and  a  Roman  Catholic  gym- 
nasium, barracks,  hospital,  theatre,  town  hall, 
and  government  offices.  The  palace  contains 
a  picture  gallery,  a  library,  and  a  museum  of 
Roman  antiquities.  The  ramparts  have  been 
converted  into  fine  promenades.  There  are 
considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen \ 
pottery,  &c.  Hermannstadt  is  the  seat  of  the 
Lutheran  chief  consistory,  and  of  a  Greek  bish- 
op, the  head  of  the  Greek  church  of  the  Rou- 
man  nationality.  It  was  founded  in  the  12th 
century  by  a  German  colony.  In  the  course 
of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  it  was  often  be- 
sieged by  the  Turks,  and  was  taken  by  them 
in  1536.  At  the  beginning  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury it  was  subjected  to  great  calamities  by 
Gabriel  Batori.  Several  battles  between  the 
Austrians  and  the  Hungarians  under  Bern  were 


Hermannstadt. 


fought  there  at  the  beginning  of  1849.  In  the 
early  days  of  March  the  town  was  occupied  by 
the  Russians,  but  taken  by  Bern,  March  11. 
A  conflict  between  the  Russians  and  Hungari- 
ans on  July  20  resulted  in  the  occupation  of 
the  town  by  the  former  on  the  following  day, 
but  on  Aug.  4  Bern  reconquered  it.  After  the 
overthrow  of  the  Hungarian  revolution  Her- 
mannstadt was  for  a  time  the  capital  of  Tran- 
sylvania. 

HERMAPHRODITE  (Gr.  'Ep^f,  Mercury,  and 


poni,  Venus),  an  animal  or  plant  uniting 
in  itself  the  sexual  characters  of  the  male  and 
female.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fable 
of  the  union  into  one  of  the  bodies  of  Her- 
maphroditus,  son  of  Mercury  and  Venus,  and 
the  nymph  Salmacis.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
hermaphroditism,  the  spurious  and  the  true  ; 
in  the  former  there  is  only  an  appearance,  from 
arrest  or  excess  of  development,  of  a  union  of 
opposite  sexual  characters  ;  in  the  latter  there 
is  an  actual  coexistence  in  the  same  individual 
of  more  or  less  of  both  male  and  female  or- 
gans. By  far  the  largest  number  of  cases  of 
hermaphroditism,  in  man  and  the  vertebrate 


animals,  belong  to  the  first  class.  They  are 
simply  cases  in  which  the  individual  is  in  real- 
ity exclusively  male  or  female,  but  some  of  the 
accessory  genital  organs  are  so  changed,  either 
by  excessive  or  deficient  growth,  or  by  change 
of  position,  as  to  resemble  the  corresponding 
parts  in  the  opposite  sex.  In  the  second  class 
of  cases,  where  real  male  and  female  organs 
coexist  upon  the  same  individual,  either  one  or 
the  other  set  of  organs  is  incomplete  or  imper- 
fectly developed.  According  to  the  best  au- 
thorities, no  case  has  yet  been  known,  in  man 
or  the  higher  animals,  where  the  same  indi- 
vidual presented  simultaneously  the  complete 
male  and  female  organizations.  But  true  her- 
maphroditism is  the  normal  type  of  sexual  struc- 
ture in  almost  all  phanerogamic  plants,  the 
reproductive  organs  being  either  upon  the 
same  flower  or  upon  different  flowers  on  the 
same  stock ;  and  this  condition  is  sometimes 
found  as  a  monstrosity  in  dioecious  plants. 
Perfect  hermaphroditism  exists  also  normally 
in  many  invertebrate  animals,  as,  according  to 
Siebold,  in  the  ctenophora  among  acattpM ;  the 
cestodes  (tapeworms)  and  trematodes  among 


684 


IIERMAS 


HERMES  TRISMEGISTUS 


helminths ;  planaria  ;  hirudinei  (leeches)  and 
lumbricini  (earth  worms)  among  annelids; 
some  acephalous  and  cephalophorous  mollusks ; 
cirripeds  among  crustaceans.;  and  the  tardi- 
grada  among  arachnoids.  It  does  not  exist  in 
insects,  unless  as  a  monstrosity.  In  some  of 
these,  as  in  the  trematodes  and  planarice,  each 
individual  may  be  self-impregnating,  but  gener- 
ally the  sexual  act  is  accomplished  by  two  in- 
dividuals, respectively  impregnating  each  other. 

II  Kit  MAS,  an  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  1st 
century,  author  of  the  book  Pastor  Hermce. 
He  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  Hermas  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xvi.  14.  The  Her- 
mas of  the  epistle  is  a  saint  of  the  Roman  cal- 
endar, whose  feast  is  on  May  9.  The  writer 
appears  from  intrinsic  evidence  to  have  been 
married  and  the  father  of  a  family.  His  book 
derives  its  title  of  "  Shepherd  "  or  Uoipfiv  from 
the  fact  that  the  author  in  the  second  book  in- 
troduces his  guardian  angel  in  the  character  of 
a  shepherd.  Irenssus  cites  the  "Shepherd" 
under  the  title  of  "the  Scripture;"  Clement 
of  Alexandria  considers  its  revelations  as  di- 
vine ;  and  Origen  deems  it  an  inspired  book. 
It  was  very  popular  with  Christians  of  the  2d 
and  3d  centuries.  Jerome  accuses  Hermas  of 
foolishness  in  his  commentary  on  Habakkuk ; 
Tertullian  designates  his  book  as  apocryphal. 
Dugnet  says  it  contains  the  germ  of  all  heresies ; 
and  Mosheim  calls  its  author  an  impostor.  Of 
late  years  this  book  has  been  the  subject  of 
more  editing  and  literary  criticism  than  any 
other  relic  of  the  early  church.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  written  in  Greek,  but  at 
present  it  exists  entire  only  in  a  Latin  version, 
which  has  been  often  published  since  the  16th 
century.  It  is  inserted  in  Cotelier's  Patres 
Apostolici  &oi  (Paris,  1672),  and  in  French  in 
Desprez's  Bible  (Paris,  1715).  A  Greek  ver- 
sion discovered  in  Ethiopia,  and  translated  into 
Latin  by  D'Abbadie,  was  published  in  Leipsic 
in  1860.  In  1857  a  new  Latin  version  from  a 
manuscript  discovered  in  Rome  was  edited  at 
Leipsic  by  Dressel,  together  with  a  Greek  text 
brought  from  Mount  Athos  by  Simonides  and 
revised  by  Tischendorf.  The  latter  considers 
this  Greek  text  a  retranslation  from  the  Latin ; 
and  in  Dressel's  Patres  Apostolici  (Leipsic, 
1866)  is  a  Greek  text  discovered  by  Tischen- 
dorf himself  in  the  Sinaitic  codex,  and  contain- 
ing book  i.  of  the  "  Shepherd  "  and  the  first 
four  chapters  of  book  ii.  This  is  also  given  in 
Hilgenfeld's  Nonum  Testamentum  extra  Cano- 
nem  receptum  (Leipsic,  1866).  An  English 
translation  of  Hilgenfeld's  Pastor  Hermce  is 
found  in  the  "  Ante-Nicene  Christian  Libra- 
ry "  (Edinburgh,  1867).— Another  HERMAS  or 
HERMES,  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in  the  same 
verse,  is  held  by  the  Greeks  to  have  been  one 
of  the  70  disciples,  and  afterward  bishop  of 
Dalmatia.  His  feast  in  the  eastern  church  oc- 
curs on  April  8. 

HERMES.     See  MEEOUEY. 

HERMES,  Georg,  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Dreyerwalde,  Westphalia,  April  22,  1775, 


died  in  Bonn,  May  26,  1831.  He  studied  the- 
ology at  the  university  of  Minister,  and  in  1798 
became  teacher  in  the  gymnasium  of  that  city, 
and  in  1807  professor  of  positive  divinity  at 
the  university.  Having  closely  studied  Kant's 
philosophy,  he  occupied  himself  in  refuting 
the  doctrines  of  that  philosopher  so  far  as  they 
were  inconsistent  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  When  the  Prussian  government  estab- 
lished the  university  of  Bonn,  Hermes  in  1820 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Catholic  the- 
ology. Here  he  began  to  found  a  speculative 
philosophic  and  dogmatic  school  in  the  church 
itself,  delivering  lectures  aiming  at  an  alliance 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics,  insisting 
that  the  difference  between  their  views  was  not 
so  great  as  is  popularly  supposed.  He  attempt- 
ed to  base  the  Dogmatik  or  positive  theology 
of  the  Catholic  church  on  speculative  philoso- 
phy, founding  a  doctrine  known  as  Hermesian- 
ism,  and  drew  around  him  great  numbers  of 
followers.  The  philosophico-dogmatic  method 
which  Hermes  advocated,  as  propounded  in  an 
"  Introduction  to  the  Catholic  Christian  Theol- 
ogy," insisted  that  the  truth  of  Christian  rev- 
elation and  of  the  Catholic  church  should  first 
be  tested  by  reason,  and  that  revelation  should 
then  be  followed.  Hermesianism  was  in  fact  a 
most  ingenious  effort  to  base  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  on  Kant's  system  of  philosophy.  It 
awoke  powerful  opposition,  being  condemned 
as  heretical  by  a  papal  letter  of  Sept.  26, 1835. 
The  Hermesians  defended  their  orthodoxy  vig- 
orously; Braun,  Achterfeld,  Rosenbaum,  and 
others  appealing  to  the  pope,  but  in  vain. 

HERMES  TRISMEGISTUS,  a  mythical  person, 
the  reputed  author  of  a  great  variety  of  works 
that  were  probably  written  by  Egyptian  Neo- 
Platonists.  The  Egyptian  god  Thoth  (the  in- 
tellect) was  identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Her- 
mes (Mercury)  as  early  as  the  time  of  Plato.  In 
the  conflict  between  Neo-Platonism  and  Chris- 
tianity, the  former  sought  to  give  a  profounder 
and  more  spiritual  meaning  to  the  pagan  phi- 
losophy, by  combining  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Greeks,  and  representing  it  as  a 
very  ancient  divine  revelation.  They  therefore 
ascribed  the  authorship  of  the  highest  attain- 
ments of  the  human  mind  to  Thoth  or  the 
Egyptian  Hermes,  regarded  him  as  the  source 
of  all  knowledge  and  inventions,  the  embodied 
Logos,  thrice  greatest  (rpig  /^y^rrof),  from 
whose  thoughts  Pythagoras  and  Plato  had  de- 
rived their  ideas,  and  whose  works  contained 
the  sum  total  of  human  and  divine  wisdom. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  mentions  the  contents 
of  42  books  of  Hermes  which  were  extant  in 
his  time.  Of  those  which  now  remain,  some 
seem  to  have  proceeded  from  the  school  of 
Philo,  and  others  are  much  later  and  not  un- 
affected by  Christianity ;  some  are  written  in  a 
sober  philosophical  spirit,  and  others  abound 
in  fantastic  astrological  and  thaumaturgical 
speculations.  The  most  important  is  the  Poe- 
mander,  a  dialogue  on  nature,  the  creation,  the 
Deity,  the  soul,  knowledge,  and  similar  topics, 


I 


HERMIT 


HERNIA 


and  interesting  as  showing  the  extent  to  which 
the  combination  of  Platonic,  Christian,  orien- 
tal, and  Jewish  notions  was  carried.  It  was 
published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Bargicus 
(Paris,  1554),  and  by  Rosselt  (Cologne,  1630). 
See  Baumgarten-Crusius,  De  Librorum  Her- 
meticorum  Origine  atque  Indole  (Jena,  1827). 

HERMIT.     See  ANCHORET. 

HERMITAGE  WINE.     See  FBANCE,  WINES  OF. 

HERMON,  a  mountain,  or  rather  a  range  of 
ghts,  on  the  northern  border  of  Palestine, 
often  spoken  of  in  the  Bible,  forming  the  S.  W. 
part  of  the  Anti-Libanus.  (See  ANTI-LIBANUS.) 
The  Psalms  speak  of  the  udew  of  Hermon;" 
and  travellers  tell  us  that  this  is  so  abundant 
that  their  tents  are  wet  with  it,  as  if  by  a  steady 
rain.  Moses  applies  to  this  range  the  names 
both  of  Hermon  and  Sion,  mentioning  also  its 
Emoritic  name  Senir,  and  the  Sidonian  Sirion. 

HERMOPOLIS  MAGNA,  a  city  of  ancient  Egypt, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  lat.  27°  45'  N.  It 
was  the  capital  under  the  Greek  rulers  of  a 
nome  on  the  borders  of  Middle  and  Upper 
Egypt,  and  is  sometimes  classed  in  one  and 
sometimes  in  the  other  division.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  opulence,  ranking  second  to 
Thebes  alone,  and  was  famous  for  the  worship 
of  Typhon  and  of  Thoth.  Its  name  was  de- 
rived from  the  latter  divinity,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  correspond  to  the  Greek  Hermes.  A 
little  S.  of  it  was  the  castle  of  Hermopolis, 
where  vessels  from  the  upper  country  paid 
toll.  At  the  base  of  the  Libyan  hills,  W.  of 
the  city,  was  the  necropolis,  where  numerous 
mummies  have  been  found.  The  Ptolemies 
erected  many  magnificent  structures  in  Her- 
mopolis, but  there  are  now  few  remains.  A 
part  of  the  portico  of  the  temple  of  Thoth 
was  standing  during  the  present  century,  but 
being  of  calcareous  stone  it  was  burned  by  the 
Turks  for  lime.  The  village  of  Ashmoonein  or 
Eshmoon  now  occupies  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  mounds  on  the  site  of  Hermopolis.  The 
principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  who 
number  about  4,000,  is  excavating  the  mounds 
for  nitre. 

HERMOSILLO,  an  inland  town  of  Mexico,  in 
the  state  of  Sonora,  lat.  29°  20'  N.,  and  Ion. 
110°  40'  W.,  40  m.  S.  W.  of  Ures;  pop.  about 
14,000,  about  3,000  of  whom  are  Yaqui  In- 
dians. It  is  situated  in  a  sandy  valley  near  the 
base  of  an  isolated  mountain,  not  far  from  the 
confluence  of  the  Sonora  and  Horcasitas  rivers. 
The  streets  are  regular,  and  the  houses  built 
mostly  of  adobe,  though  a  great  many  are  of 
stone.  The  only  public  buildings  are  two 
churches  and  the  mint,  to  which  latter  is  at- 
tached an  assay  office.  The  climate  is  exceed- 
ingly hot,  but  the  people  are  generally  healthy. 
Mining  was  once  extensively  carried  on,  but 
the  chief  industry  is  now  agriculture,  wheat 
being  the  great  staple  production.  Numerous 
jlour  mills  in  the  town  and  vicinity  form  a  stri- 
king feature  of  the  place.  The  vine  thrives 
well,  and  large  quantities  of  brandy  are  manu- 
factured. Hermosillo  was  formerly  the  seat 


685 


of  the  presidio  of  Pitic,  and  up  to  1800  a  mili- 
tary station.  After  the  discovery  of  gold  mines 
in  Sonora  the  population  grew  rapidly,  and 
Hermosillo  is  still  the  most  important  com- 
mercial entrepot  of  this  part  of  the  republic. 
Its  port  is  Guaymas,  about  100  m.  S.,  on  the 
gulf  of  California. 

HERNANDO,  a  W.  county  of  Florida,  bor- 
dering on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  the  Withlacoochee  river ;  area, 
1,980  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,938,  of  whom 
854  were  colored.  The  surface  is  low  and 
level,  and  mostly  occupied  by  pine  forests  and 
swamps ;  the  soil  is  sandy.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  41,354  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  16,680  of  sweet  potatoes,  182  bales  of 
cotton,  23  hogsheads  of  sugar,  6,356  gallons  of 
molasses,  and  34,682  Ibs.  of  rice.  There  were 
427  horses,  2,894  milch  cows,  10,993  other  cat- 
tle, and  5,711  swine.  Capital,  Brooksville 

HERNDON,  William  Lewis,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Ya.,  Oct  25 
1813,  lost  at  sea,  Sept.  12,  1857.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  the  age  of  15,  served  in  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  was  engaged  for  three  years  in 
the  national  observatory  at  Washington.  In 
1851-'2  he  explored  the  Amazon  river  under 
the  direction  of  the  United  States  government. 
The  route  selected  by  him  was  from  Lima 
across  the  Cordillera  eastward  as  far  as  Tarma, 
and  thence  N.  to  Tingo  Maria  on  the  Huallaga, 
whence  by  canoe  he  reached  the  great  stream. 
During  a  portion  of  the  journey  he  was  accom- 
panied by  Lieut.  Lardner  Gibbon.  A  narrative 
of  the  expedition  is  contained  in  "  Exploration 
of  the  Valley  of  the  River  Amazon,"  with  maps 
and  plates  (2  vols.,  Washington,  1853-'4),  the 
first  part  of  which  is  by  Herndon,  and  the  sec- 
ond by  Gibbon.  In  1857  he  was  commander 
of  the  steamer  Central  America,  which  left 
Havana  for  New  York  on  Sept.  8,  having  on 
board  474  passengers  and  a  crew  of  105,  and 
about  $2,000,000  of  gold.  During  a  violent 
gale  from  the  northeast  and  a  heavy  sea,  on 
Sept.  11,  she  sprung  a  leak,  and  sank  on  the 
evening  of  Sept.  12,  near  the  outer  edge  of  the 
Gulf  stream,  in  lat.  31°  44'  N.  All  the  women 
and  children  on  board  were  put  in  the  boats 
and  saved,  with  a  few  men.  Herndon  and  426 
others  sank  with  the  vessel. 

HERNIA,  .or  Rupture,  the  protrusion  of  any 
organ  outside  of  its  natural  enclosing  cavity, 
but,  in  common  language,  limited  to  the  escape 
of  the  abdominal  viscera.  Until  about  the 
18th  century  this  disease  was  neglected  by  the 
profession,  and  its  treatment  was  principally  in 
the  hands  of  itineramt  quacks ;  but  since  then 
it  has  received  the  attention  of  the  most  emi- 
nent surgeons  of  all  countries.  According  to 
the  seat  of  the  protrusion,  the  principal  kinds 
of  hernia  are :  the  inguinal,  which  comes  out 
at  the  abdominal  rings,  following  the  course  of 
the  spermatic  cord  in  the  male  and  of  the  round 
ligament  in  the  female  respectively  into  the 
scrotum  and  the  greater  labia ;  the  femoral  or 
crural,  passing  beneath  Poupart's  ligament,  and 


686 


HERNIA 


HEROD 


forming  a  tumor  on  the  inner  and  upper  part  of 
the  thigh  ;  umbilical,  in  which  the  protrusion 
takes  place  at  the  navel  or  foetal  opening  of  the 
umbilical  cord  ;  ventral,  at  the  openings  in  the 
linea  alba  or  linece  semilunares  ;  diaphragmatic, 
in  which  the  abdominal  organs  pass  into  the 
cavity  of  the  chest  through  some  natural  or 
abnormal  opening  in  the  diaphragm.  All  the 
abdominal  viscera,  except  the  duodenum,  pan- 
creas, and  kidneys,  may  form  part  of  the  con- 
tents of  a  hernial  tumor ;  but  the  floating  por- 
tions of  the  small  intestines  (jejunum  and 
ileum),  the  omentum,  and  the  arch  of  the  colon, 
are  their  most  frequent  constituents.  Hernia 
rarely  protrudes  on  the  posterior  and  lateral 
portions  of  the  abdomen,  which  are  protected 
by  thick  muscles  and  firm  unperforated  aponeu- 
roses,  and  where  the  organs  are  large  and  but 
little  movable ;  the  anterior  abdominal  wall, 
on  the  contrary,  is  thin,  extensible,  having 
weak  points  in  the  inguinal  rings  and  canals, 
and  freely  floating  organs  always  pressing  upon 
its  yielding  tissues.  A  hernia  is  said  to  be  re- 
ducible when  the  protruding  organ  may  be  re- 
turned into  the  abdomen ;  irreducible  when  it 
is  not  thus  returnable ;  and  strangulated  when, 
owing  to  its  unusually  close  constriction,  the 
circulation  of  blood  in  its  vessels,  or  the  natu- 
ral passage  of  the  intestinal  contents,  is  ar- 
rested. The  sac  of  a  hernia  is  a  pouch  of  the 
reflected  or  parietal  layer  of  the  peritoneum, 
which  is  pushed  forward  in  proportion  to  the 
escape  of  the  viscera ;  external  to  this  are  the 
layers  of  fasciae,  muscles,  and  cellular  tissue, 
varying  in  thickness  according  to  the  situation 
of  the  tumor.  When  we  consider  the  yielding 
nature  of  the  abdominal  walls,  their  liability 
to  pressure  from  muscular  action,  and  the 
weak  points  inviting  protrusion  of  the  viscera, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  hernia  is  so  common ; 
it  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  male  sex  at 
least  one  in  five  is  affected  by  it.  The  exciting 
causes  are  such  as  suddenly  or  violently  com- 
press the  organs  by  action  of  the  abdominal 
muscles,  such  as  great  bodily  exertion,  the  lift- 
ing of  heavy  weights,  violent  vomiting,  cough- 
ing, and  sneezing;  long  continued  efforts  in 
parturition,  defecation,  or  micturition ;  habit- 
ual compression  by  corsets,  belts,  bandages, 
and  heavy  hip-supported  clothing ;  falls,  im- 
proper gymnastic  exercises  and  feats  of  strength, 
severe  blows  and  contusions.  A  simple  hernia, 
easily  reducible  and  kept  so  by  a  proper  truss, 
is  rather  an  annoying  infirmity  than  a  positive 
disease,  and  is  often  susceptible  of  a  radical 
cure. — The  treatment  of  reducible  hernia  is  to 
return  it  to  the  abdomen  by  a  process  called 
the  taxis,  and  to  retain  it  in  place  by  a  proper- 
ly constructed  and  well  fitting  truss.  Great 
care  is  necessary  in  the  preparation  of  the 
truss;  it  should  fit  exactly,  the  springs  should 
have  the  right  bearings  and  pressure,  and  the 
pads  the  proper  shape  and  consistency.  Her- 
nia may  be  rendered  irreducible  by  adhesions 
of  the  sac  to  its  contents,  and  of  the  latter  to 
each  other,  or  by  enlargement  of  the  contained 


omentum  from  fatty  deposition ;  the  treatment 
is  merely  palliative,  except  in  rare  and  favora- 
ble cases.  Strangulated  hernia  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  sudden  protrusion  through  a  nar- 
row aperture  after  violent  exertion,  by  swelling 
or  spasmodic  action  about  the  neck  of  the  sac, 
distention  of  the  intestine  by  flatus  or  faeces, 
and  swelling  and  congestion  of  the  omentum 
and  mesentery ;  the  stricture  is  generally  at 
the  neck  of  the  sac.  The  indications  of  treat- 
ment are  to  reduce  the  hernial  contents  by  the 
taxis,  if  possible,  with  the  assistance  of  relax- 
ation of  the  muscles  by  position,  by  bleeding, 
hot  baths,  narcotics,  tobacco  enemata,  cold  ap- 
plications, and  antimonial  prostration,  or,  in 
modern  times,  by  the  inhalation  of  sulphuric 
ether  and  chloroform ;  if  these  fail,  the  sac 
must  be  cautiously  opened,  the  stricture  di- 
vided by  the  knife,  and  the  hernia  returned. 
Strangulated  hernia  is  always  a  dangerous  af- 
fection, and  frequently  fatal  either  in  itself  or 
from  the  effects  of  inflammation.  Umbilical 
hernia,  most  common  in  new-born  children,  is 
treated  on  similar  principles,  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  contents,  and  their  retention  by 
a  special  bandage.  Diaphragmatic  hernia, 
whether  from  congenital  deficiency  or  acciden- 
tal rupture  of  this  partition,  when  strangu- 
lated, is  difficult  of  diagnosis,  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  operative  surgery. 

HERNICI,  an  ancient  people  of  central  Italy, 
often  mentioned  in  the  early  history  of  Rome. 
They  were  of  the  Sabine  race,  and  inhabited 
the  Apennines  of  Latium  between  Lacus  Fu- 
cinus  (now  Lake  Oelano)  and  the  Trerus  (Sac- 
co),  a  tributary  of  the  Liris  (Garigliano).  Their 
name  is  supposed  to  have  signified  "  mountain- 
eers." Their  nearest  neighbors  were  the  Mar- 
si,  .^Equi,  and  Volsci,  whom  they  equalled  in 
bravery,  and  like  whom  they  obstinately  re- 
sisted the  growing  power  of  Rome.  In  486 
B.  0.,  however,  they  became  the  allies  of  the 
Romans,  and  180  years  later  they  were  finally 
subdued  by  them.  Anagnia  (Anagni)  was  the 
chief  town  in  their  territory. 

Ill  K\OSA\D.     See  WESTEE  NOBBLAND. 

HERO.     See  HERON. 

HERO,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  priestess  of 
Venus  at  Sestos,  beloved  by  Leander,  a  native 
of  Abydos.  Leander  used  to  swim  across  the 
Hellespont  nightly  to  visit  his  mistress;  but 
one  tempestuous  night  he  was  drowned,  and 
in  the  morning  the  billows  cast  his  body  on 
the  shore.  When  Hero  beheld  it  she  threw 
herself  into  the  sea. 

HEROD,  surnamed  the  Great,  king  of  the 
Jews,  son  of  Antipater,  a  noble  Idumsean,  bora 
in  Ascalon,  Judea,  about  72  B.  0.,  died  in  4. 
When  in  47  Julius  Caesar  appointed  his  father 
procurator  of  Judea,  the  young  Herod  obtained 
the  government  of  Galilee,  and  quickly  van- 
quished the  hordes  of  robbers  which  then  in- 
fested the  province.  Alarming  the  ruling  men> 
at  Jerusalem  by  his  popularity,  he  was  sum- 
moned before  the  sanhedrim  on  complaints  of 
having  put  Jewish  citizens  to  death  without 


HEROD  AGRIPPA  I. 

ial.  On  the  appointed  day  he  appeared  be- 
fore the  tribunal,  gorgeously  clad  in  purple, 
and  surrounded  by  armed  men ;  and  though 
his  acquittal  was  pronounced,  he  departed  se- 
cretly to  Syria,  and  was  appointed  governor 
of  Coele-Syria  in  46.  After  the  death  of  C»sar 
he  favored  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and  received 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Syria.  He  was 
equally  successful  in  winning  the  support  of 
Mark  Antony,  who  entertained  him  at  Rome 
in  40,  and  obtained  from  the  senate  a  decree 
appointing  him  king  of  Judea.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Actium  (31)  and  the  death  of  Antony, 
he  was  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  Augustus, 
whose  favor  he  enjoyed  during  his  reign.  He 
had  entered  upon  his  government  by  besieging 
Jerusalem,  and  he  hesitated  at  no  crime  or 
cruelty  to  establish  his  sovereignty.  Hyrcanus, 
whom  he  feared  as  a  competitor,  was  put  to 
death  on  a  charge  of  treason ;  his  own  wife 
Mariamne,  to  whom  he  was  passionately  at- 
tached, was  executed  (29) ;  and  her  execution 
was  followed  by  that  of  her  two  sons,  and  of 
her  nearest  relatives,  and  several  of  his  prin- 
cipal counsellors.  Yet  his  administration  was 
vigorous  and  splendid,  and  for  30  years  Judea 
was  undisturbed  by  war,  though  its  forces  aid- 
ed the  Romans  in  Arabia  and  on  the  Bosporus. 
He  erected  a  marble  temple  at  Paneas  in  honor 
of  Augustus,  restored  the  city  of  Samaria  un- 
der the  name  of  Sebaste,  transformed  a  small 
town  on  the  coast  into  the  magnificent  city  of 
Csesarea,  erected  temples  and  theatres,  and  an 
amphitheatre  without  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
in  which  the  Roman  combats  with  wild  beasts 
and  gladiators  were  exhibited,  sought  to  con- 
ciliate his  subjects  by  many  acts  of  munificence 
and  liberality,  and  began  to  rebuild  the  temple 
of  Jerusalem.  In  18  he  visited  Rome,  and  was 
received  with  the  greatest  distinction  by  Au- 
gustus. The  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  har- 
assed by  conspiracies  and  intrigues,  and  in  his 
last  illness,  while  a  fearful  disease  was  consu- 
ming his  stomach  and  intestines,  he  ordered 
the  execution  of  his  son  Antipas.  To  this  ill- 
ness is  also  referred  the  murder  of  the  children 
in  Bethlehem,  an  event  recorded  by  the  evan- 
gelist (Matt.  ii.  16),  but  passed  unnoticed  by 
Josephus.  His  death  occurred  in  the  year 
which  is  generally  considered  by  critics  the 
year  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  Josephus  is  the 
principal  authority  for  the  events  of  his  reign, 
which,  notwithstanding  its  barbarities,  re- 
stored to  Jerusalem  much  of  its  earlier  mag- 
nificence. He  had  ten  wives,  and  partitioned 
his  kingdom  between  three  of  his  sons,  Arche- 
laus,  Philip,  and  Herod  Antipas. 
t  HEROD  AGRIPPA  I.,  king  of  Judea  and  Chal- 
cis,  son  of  Aristobulus,  and  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  born  in  the  year  10  B.  0.,  died  A. 
D.  44.  He  was  a  favorite  of  his  grandfather, 
who  after  the  death  of  his  father  sent  him  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  educated.  Caligula  gave 
him  the  tetrarchy  of  Judea  with  the  title  of 
king  (37).  For  services  rendered,  the  emperor 
Claudius,  after  the  banishment  of  Herod  Anti- 
404  VOL.  viii.— 44 


HERODIAN 


687 


pas,  gave  him  all  the  provinces  of  ancient  Ju- 
dea and  the  kingdom  of  Chalcis,  so  that  he 
became  of  a  sudden  one  of  the  greatest  princes 
of  the  East.  A  part  of  his  history  is  written  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xii.).  He  governed 
much  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Jews,  and,  prob- 
ably from  a  desire  of  pleasing  the  fanatical 
party,  put  to  death  the  apostle  James,  and  shut 
up  Peter  in  prison.  At  Ceesarea,  while  lie 
was  giving  games  in  honor  of  Claudius,  the  in- 
habitants of  Tyre  and  Sidon  waited  on  him,  de- 
siring peace.  Arrayed  in  royal  apparel,  he  sat 
on  his  throne  and  made  an  oration  to  them, 
and  they  glorified  him  as  a  god.  He  willingly 
received  the  impious  flattery,  but  soon  died 
miserably  after  a  reign  of  seven  years 

HEROD  AGRIPPA  II.,  a  Jewish  prince,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  about  A.  D.  27,  died  in 
100.  When  his  father  died  he  was  residing  at 
the  court  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  who,  instead 
of  bestowing  on  him  the  dominions  to  which  he 
was  heir,  detained  him  for  four  years  at  Rome. 
In  48  he  received  the  small  principality  of 
Chalcis,  to  which  additions  were  subsequently 
made.  In  60  he  went  with  his  sister  Berenice 
to  Crosarea  to  salute  Festus  on  his  accession  to 
the  government  of  Judea,  and  St.  Paul,  a  pris- 
oner there,  stated  his  case  before  him.  Before 
the  rebellion  of  the  Jews  from  the  Romans,  he 
sought  to  reconcile  them,  and  during  the  war 
he  sided  with  the  Romans.  After  the  capture 
and  destruction  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  with 
Berenice  to  Rome. 

HEROD  ANTIPAS,  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Malthace,  a  Samaritan,  born  in  Jerusalem. 
His  father  gave  the  main  parts  of  his  kingdom 
to  Archelaus,  another  son,  and  assigned  to 
Antipas  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee  and  Peraea. 
He  first  married  the  daughter  of  Aretas,  king 
of  Arabia  Petraea,  and  afterward  Herodias,  the 
wife  of  his  half  brother  Herod  Philip,  then  liv- 
ing. This  involved  him  in  a  war  with  Are- 
tas, who  invaded  his  territory,  and  was  also 
the  first  step  toward  the  indulgence  of  the 
passion  which  resulted  in  the  imprisonment 
and  beheading  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  built 
the  city  of  Tiberias,  and  adorned  and  fortified 
many  other  places  in  his  province.  Having 
gone  to  Rome  to  solicit  the  title  of  king,  he 
was  banished  to  Gaul  (A.  D.  39)  by  Caligula, 
on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  Sejanus,  and  died  in  Spain.  It  was 
before  this  Herod,  who  had  come  to  Jerusalem 
to  celebrate  the  passover,  that  Pilate  sent  Je- 
sus, as  a  native  of  his  tetrarchy  (Luke  xxiii.). 

HERODES  ATTICIS.     See  ATTICUS. 

IIKK01HAN,  a  Greek  writer  on  Roman  his- 
tory, supposed  to  have  lived  between  A.  D. 
170  and  240.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  resided  for  a  long-time  in  Italy. 
His  work  is  entitled  Tsjfc  fierd  Mapnov  Bacifaias 
'laroptuv  BifiMa  O/CTO,  and  contains  the  history 
of  the  reigns  between  A.  D.  180  and  238.  Hia 
style  is  formed  on  that  of  Thucydides,  and 
though  his  chronology  and  geography  are  some- 
times inaccurate,  his  narrative  is  generally 


(588 


HERODOTUS 


clear  and  impartial.  The  best  editions  are 
those  of  Irmisch  (5  vols.,  1789-1805),  F.  A. 
Wolf  (1792),  and  Bekker  (1826). 

HERODOTUS,  a  Greek  historian,  styled  the 
father  of  history,  born  in  Halicarnassus,  Asia 
Minor,  about  484  B.  C.,  died  probably  in  Thu- 
rii,  Italy,  about  420.  The  statement  of  Suidas 
that  he  belonged  to  an  illustrious  family  is  con- 
tinned  by  the  indications  of  wealth  furnished 
by  his  high  education  and  abundant  means  for 
frequent  and  distant  travel.  Suidas  states  fur- 
ther that  he  was  exiled  from  Halicarnassus  by 
Lygdamis,  grandson  of  Artemisia,  and  that  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Samos.  He  returned, 
however,  to  Halicarnassus  about  455,  and  took 
part  in  the  political  movements  which  ended 
in  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant.  He  removed 
soon  after  to  Athens.  He  visited  Babylon,  Ar- 
dericca  near  Susa,  the  remoter  parts  of  Egypt, 
Gyrene,  Colchis,  Scythia,  Thrace,  Zante,  Do- 
dona,  and  Magna  Grsecia,  thus  ranging  over  a 
space  more  than  1,700  m.  from  E.  to  W.  and 
1,600  m.  from  N.  to  S.  Within  these  limits  his 
knowledge  of  scenery,  cities,  temples,  manners 
and  customs,  and  various  wonders,  is  generally 
BO  minute  and  full  that  it  could  have  been  ac- 
quired only  by  a  leisurely  examination.  In 
Egypt,  for  instance,  he  visited  the  great  capitals 
Memphis  and  Heliopolis,  the  smaller  towns,  Sais, 
Bubastis,  Buto,  Papremis,  Chemmis,  Croco- 
dilopolis,  and  Elephantine,  the  labyrinth,  Lake 
Moeris,  the  line  of  the  canal  from  the  Arabian 
gulf  to  the  Nile,  the  borders  toward  the  desert 
of  Sinai,  and  the  whole  region  of  the  Delta.  It 
is.  related  on  uncertain  authority  that  in  446 
the  Athenian  assembly  decreed  a  reward  to 
him  for  his  history,  which  he  had  read  public- 
ly; that  he  made  known  his  work  by  recita- 
tion not  only  at  Athens  but  in  other  cities, 
travelling  from  place  to  place  as  a  sort  of  prose 
rhapsodist ;  and  that  at  the  recital  of  it  before 
the  collected  Greeks  at  the  great  Olympian 
festival  the  young  Thucydides  was  moved  to 
tears.  Herodotus  while  at  Athens  was  at  least 
.acquainted  with  Thucydides,  Sophocles,  and 
some  of  the  other  intellectual  lights  that  distin- 
guished the  age  of  Pericles,  and  it  was  doubt- 
less from  association  with  them  in  the  centre 
of  literary  Hellas  that  he  received  the  impulse 
to  that  wonderful  elaboration  of  his  work 
which  he  carried  on  for  many  years  after  his 
departure.  Herodotus  went  about  440  to  Thu- 
rii,  a  colony  newly  founded  by  the  Athenians 
near  the  site  of  the  former  Sybaris,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Suidas's  statement  that  Herodotus  lived 
for  a  while  in  Samos,  and  composed  there  some 
portions  of  his  work,  is  quite  probable ;  and 
from  several  passages  in  the  work  it  appears 
that  he  left  Thurii  several  times  and  went 
out  on  short  voyages.  At  Thurii  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  applied  himself  only  to  the  per- 
fection of  his  history,  retouching  the  narra- 
tive and  interweaving  parenthetical  passages 
and  accounts  of  later  events.  The  abruptness 
of  its  close  and  occasional  traces  of  incomplete- 


ness indicate  that,  notwithstanding  he  had 
been  constantly  improving  it,  it  was  not  entire- 
ly finished  at  his  death.  Many  critics  believe 
that  he  composed  also  the  separate  treatise  on 
Assyrian  history,  to  which  he  twice  refers  in 
his  general  history,  but  which  has  not  been 
preserved.  The  time  and  place  of  his  death 
are  not  altogether  certain,  his  life  being  pro- 
longed according  to  some  to  394,  and  Pella 
and  Athens,  instead  of  Thurii,  being  made  his 
abode  in  his  latest  years. — It  is  a  question 
whether  there  were  Greek  histories  in  the  cen- 
tury before  Herodotus.  Niebuhr  absolutely 
denies  the  existence  of  any  such  works.  What 
is  more  certain  is,  that  before  the  work  of 
Herodotus  was  written,  there  was  no  writing 
in  Greece  which  could  properly  be  called  his- 
torical. Herodotus  is  habitually  minute  in  re- 
ferring to  his  authorities,  but  the  only  Greek 
with  whose  works  he  seems  to  have  been  fa- 
miliar is  HecataBus,  who,  however,  can  lay  no 
claim  to  the  title  of  a  historian.  The  main 
subject  of  Herodotus's  history  is  the  Persian 
war  of  invasion,  the  contest  which  began  with 
the  expedition  of  Mardonius  and  terminated 
with  the  discomfiture  of  Xerxes.  Yet  he  not 
only  relates  as  an  introduction  the  growth  of 
the  Persian  empire  and  the  previous  hostilities 
between  Greece  and  Persia,  but  takes  every 
opportunity  of  diverging  from  his  principal 
subject  in  order  to  introduce  his  various  histor- 
ical, geographical,  and  antiquarian  knowledge. 
Thus  he  interweaves  accounts  of  Croesus  and 
of  the  Lydian  kingdom,  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  of  the  Egyptians,  of  the  Greek  colo- 
nies of  northern  Africa  and  the  native  Libyan 
races,  of  the  Scythians  and  Hyperboreans, 
apropos  of  whom  he  gives  an  episode  on  uni- 
versal geography.  For  the  later  and  more  im- 
portant portion  of  his  history,  abundant  living 
testimony  was  easily  accessible  to  him,  besides 
which  there  were  in  most  of  the  countries 
monumental  records  of  antiquity,  and  oral  tra- 
ditions even  in  Scythia  and  Libya.  Thus  in 
Greece  more  or  less  accurate  lists  of  the  kings, 
priests,  and  victors  at  the  games  were  preserved 
in  cities  and  sanctuaries,  and  dedicatory  inscrip- 
tions on  offerings  in  the  temples;  the  Babylo- 
nians had  sculptured  documents,  many  of  which 
have  recently  been  discovered,  tracing  their 
history  back  for  more  than  2,000  years;  the 
monuments  of  the  Egyptians  reached  to  a  still 
earlier  date ;  and  in  Persia  there  were  not  only 
memorials  on  pillars,  tombs,  and  palaces,  but 
more  copious  writings  on  parchment  preserved 
in  the  archives  of  the  empire.  Herodotus  was 
evidently  unable  to  read  or  speak  the  Egyptian 
language,  and  was  therefore  dependent  on  his 
interpreters.  In  Egypt  the  priests  took  advan- 
tage of  his  ignorance  to  magnify  the  antiquity 
of  their  nation,  to  conceal  from  him  their  dark 
period  of  subjection  under  the  invading  shep- 
herd kings,  and  to  modify  other  inglorious  por- 
tions of  their  history.  In  Babylon  he  probably 
obtained  but  little  of  his  information  from  the 
Chaldean  priestly  caste,  who  possessed  the  most 


HEROLD 

exact  and  extensive  knowledge ;  and  though  his 
accounts  are  correct  in  outline,  they  lack  the 
fulness  and  precision  of  the  narrative  of  the 
>riest  Berosus,  who  wrote  more  than  a  century 
jr.     Being  born  and  bred  in  a  Greek  city 
ibject  to  Persia,  he  doubtless  came  frequently 
ito  contact  with  Persian  soldiers  and  officials, 
id   he  seems  to   have   had   access  also  to 
jme  of  the  most  important  documents  in  the 
jyal  archives,  perhaps  by  means  of  Greek 
ranscripts.     His  Persian  history  is,  therefore, 
"  in  the  main  on  authentic  national  rec- 
diversified  especially  in  the  earlier  part 
>y  circumstances  and  adventures  from  roman- 
ic  chroniclers.     Thus  for  the  most  important 
>rtions  of  his  work  Herodotus  had  more  or 
3ss  trustworthy  monumental  records ;  and  his 
liligence,  honesty,  and  impartiality  in  employ- 
ig  the  materials  that  were  open  to  him,  have 
jen  generally  admitted.    His  chief  defect  as  a 
listorian  is  an  undue  love  of  the  marvellous ; 
>ut  he  is  truthful  and  accurate  whenever  he 
)eaks  from  his  own  observation.   The  skill  with 
rhich  he  has  interwoven  his  episodes,  and  the 
>revailing  idea  of  a  divine  Nemesis  which  he 
mstantly  presents,  gives  to  his  history  the 
lity  essential  to  a  work  of  art.     The  peculiar- 
ty  of  his  theory  of  divine  retribution  is,  that 
regards  mere  greatness  and  good  fortune, 
irt  from  any  impiety  or  arrogance,  as  pro- 
voking the  envy  of  the  gods.     This  theory  was 
le  great  moral  which  he  had  drawn  from  his 
irvey  of  mundane  events ;   and  perhaps  the 
lief  attraction  of  his  main  theme,  and  the  prin- 
3iple  which  guided  him  in  his  choice  of  epi- 
les,  was  that  he  might  present  signal  illus- 
rations  of  greatness  laid  low,  of  monarchs  and 
itriots  who  gradually  rose  to  the  pinnacle  of 
^lory  and  prosperity  only  to  experience  a  most 
lamitous  reverse.     The  simple  beauty  of  his 
tyle,  the  grandeur  of  his  historical  combina- 
tions, the  amiability  of  his  temper,  and  the 
entertainment  which  his  narrative  furnishes, 
lave  never  been  questioned,  and  he  is  esteem- 
"  by  scholars  the  earliest  and  best  of  roman- 
ic  historians. — The  best  editions  are  those  of 
shweighauser  (6  vols.,  Strasburg  and  Paris, 
1806;  reprinted  in  London,  1818),  Gaisford^ 
rols.,   Oxford,    1824),  Bahr  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
L830-'35  ;  new  ed.,  1855-'61),  Abricht  (2d  ed., 
'  3ipsic,  1869),  Stein  (3d  ed.,  Berlin,    1870), 
id  H.  G.  Woods  (London,  1873).     The  best 
English  translation  is  that  of  the  Rev.  G.  Raw- 
inson,  assisted  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and 
Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  (4  vols.,  London,  1858-'60), 
rith  copious  notes  and  appendices  embodying 
le  chief  historical  and  ethnographical  illustra- 
ions  that  have  been  obtained  in  the  progress 
of  cuneiform  and  hieroglyphical  discovery.    See 
also  Biidinger,  Zur  agyptischen  ForscJiung  He- 
rodots  (Vienna,  1873). 

HAROLD,  Lonis  Joseph  Ferdinand,  a  French 
composer,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1791,  died  at 
Ternes,  near  Paris,  Jan.  18,  1833.  He  studied 
with  Mehul,  Adam,  and  Cherubini,  and  having 
procured  the  means  for  travel  by  a  successful 


HERON 


689 


competition  for  the  prizes  of  the  conservatory, 
passed  five  years  in  Italy.  On  his  return  to 
Paris  in  1817  he  wrote  a  number  of  works  for  the 
Opera  Comique,  which  were  successful  in  their 
day,  but  are  now  mostly  forgotten.  Zampa, 
produced  in  1831,  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
of  French  composers.  Incessant  labor  under- 
mined his  health,  and  after  the  production  of 
the  Pre  aux  Clercs  and  La  medicine  sans  mede- 
cin,  which  were  received  with  great  favor,  he 
died  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame.  His  later  works 
are  frequently  performed,  especially  Zampa. 

HERON,  a  wading  bird  of  the  family  ardeida, 
and  the  old  genus  ardea  (Linn.),  including  also 
the  bitterns  and  egrets,  treated  under  their 
own  names.  The  bill  is  much  longer  than  the 
head,  rather  slender,  sharp,  and  straight,  with 
an  emargination  at  the  tip ;  the  wings  are  long, 
the  first  quill  nearly  as  long  as  the  second  and 
third,  which  are  equal  and  longest;  the  tail 
short  and  even,  of  12  stiffened  feathers ;  tarsi 
long  and  slender,  transversely  scaled  in  front ; 
tibiae  lengthened,  bare  for  the  lower  third  or 
half;  outer  toe  longer  than  the  inner,  and 
united  at  the  base  to  the  middle  one ;  hind  toe 
long,  on  a  level  with  the  others;  claws  moderate, 
'curved,  and  acute,  the  inner  edge  of  the  middle 
one  pectinated.  The  body  is  rather  compressed ; 
the  neck  is  very  long,  well  feathered,  and,  by  a 
beautiful  arrangement  in  the  cervical  vertebrae, 
capable  of  being  turned  so  that  the  head  may 
be  placed  almost  at  a  right  angle  with  it;  the 
bill  is  a  formidable  weapon.  Herons  are  found 
in  most  parts  of  the  world,  migrating  to  the 
warmer  regions  as  winter  comes  on ;  they  are 
generally  seen  alone,  standing  in  swamps,  pools, 
and  shallow  rivers,  waiting  for  their  prey,  with 
the  long  neck  drawn  down  between  the  shonl- 


Europcau  Heron  (Ardea  ciutn 


ders;  but  no  sooner  does  a  reptile  or  a  fish 
appear  than  the  bill  is  darted  forth  and  the 
animal  immediately  swallowed.  They  do  not 
seize  fish  with  their  feet ;  the  serrated  middle 
claw  is  for  removing  from  the  bill  the  sticky 
down  which  adheres  to  it  after  cleansing  the 


690 


HERON 


plumage. — The  common  heron  of  Europe  (A. 
cinerea,  Linn.),  celebrated  in  old  times  as  the 
bird  which  afforded  the  principal  sport  in  fal- 
conry, is  of  a  bluish  ash  color,  with  a  black 
crest  on  the  hind  head,  and  the  fore  part  of 
the  neok  white  with  black  dots ;  the  shoulder 


Louisiana  Heron  (Ardea  Ludoviciana). 

of  the  wings  and  the  primaries  black ;  a 
naked  space  around  the  eyes.  Its  food  con- 
sists of  fish,  frogs,  aquatic  insects  and  mol- 
lusks,  mice,  moles,  and  similar  small  animals. 
The  nest  is  generally  on  a  high  tree  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  river.  The  flight  is  sometimes 
very  high,  and  is  performed  with  the  legs 
hanging  behind,  and  the  head  and  neck  rest- 
ing on  the  back.  It  makes  at  times  a  harsh 
and  loud  scream;  when  taken  young,  it  be- 
comes so  far  domesticated  as  to  associate  with 
domestic  fowl ;  though  a  royal  bird  in  respect 
to  game,  its  flesh  is  unfit  for  food.  It  is  dis- 
tributed over  most  parts  of  the  old  world ; 
among  some  eastern  nations  the  crests  of  the 
males  are  highly  esteemed  as  ornaments. — The 
purple  heron  of  Europe  (A.  purpurea,  Linn.) 
is  very  handsome,  with  the  elegant  shape  of  a 
heron  and  the  rufous  and  purplish  tints  of  the 
bitterns. — The  Louisiana  heron  (A.  Ludomci- 
ana,  Wils. ;  demiegretta,  Baird)  is  about  27  in. 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  3  ft. ;  the  bill 
is  very  slender ;  the  head  with  a  long  crest,  the 
feathers,  with  those  of  the  neck  and  upper 
back,  lanceolate;  like  the  egrets,  it  has  the 
feathers  of  the  lower  back  plumose  and  length- 
ened ;  the  color  above  is  slaty  blue  on  the 
head,  neck,  and  exposed  upper  parts;  lower 
back,  rump,  under  parts,  and  middle  line  of 
throat,  white ;  occiput  and  back  of  neck  pur- 
plish ;  bill  brownish  black  above  and  at  tip ; 
the  female  is  like  the  male.  From  its  beauty  of 
form  and  plumage  and  grace  of  motion,  Audu- 
bon  calls  this  heron  the  "lady  of  the  waters;" 
it  is  found  on  the  coast  of  the  southern  Atlan- 
tic and  gulf  states,  never  far  inland ;  it  keeps 
in  company  and  sometimes  breeds  in  the  same 


places  with  egrets  and  other  herons;  it  is  not 
very  shy,  and  its  flight  is  irregular  and  swifter 
than  that  of  any  other  species.  The  nests  are 
generally  within  a  few  feet  of  the  ground,  on 
low  bushes,  and  very  close  to  each  other,  made 
of  small  dried  sticks  crossed  in  various  ways, 
flat,  and  each  containing  three  eggs ;  these  are 
about  li  by  1£  in.,  nearly  elliptical,  of  a  pale 
greenish  blue,  thin,  and  smooth  ;  the  period  of 
incubation  is  21  days  ;  as  of  most  herons,  the 
flesh  of  the  young,  before  they  leave  the  nest, 
is  considered  good  eating. — The  snowy  heron 
(A.  candidissima,  Gmel. ;  genus  garzetta,  Bo- 
nap.)  is  about  23  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of 
wings  of  38  in. ;  the  head  is  ornamented  with 
a  full  occipital  crest  of  feathers  with  hair-like 
webs,  and  similar  plumes  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  throat;  dorsal  plumes  reaching  to  the  end 
of  the  tail.  The  color  is  pure  white  ;  the  bill 
black,  yellow  at  base ;  legs  black.  It  is  found 
on  the  coast  of  the  middle  and  southern  states, 
and  across  the  continent  to  California ;  it  is  a 
constant  resident  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  and 
is  occasionally  seen  as  far  north  as  Massachu- 
setts. They  breed  in  large  communities  with 
other  herons  and  with  grakles,  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  preceding  species;  the  man- 
groves of  Florida  are  favorite  places  for  their 
nests;  the  eggs  are  three,  about  If  by  1£  in., 
broadly  elliptical,  and  pale  bluish  green  ;  both 
sexes  incubate,  and  the  young  in  Florida  leave 
their  nest  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  a 
month  or  two  later  further  north ;  both  egga 
and  young  are  destroyed  by  crows  and  turkey 
buzzards.  They  resort  to  the  borders  of  salt 
marshes,  and  feed  on  shrimps,  small  fish,  crus- 
taceans, snails,  lizards,  frogs,  and  aquatic  in- 
sects; in  the  pursuit  of  their  prey  they  run 


Great  Blue  Heron  (Ardea  herodias). 

quickly  through  the  shallows,  throwing  up  their 
wings  in  a  rapid  and  graceful  manner ;  when 
wounded  they  defend  themselves  with  the  bill 
with  great  courage. — The  great  blue  heron  (A. 
herodias,  Linn.),  generally  called  blue  crane,  is 
4  ft.  long  to  end  of  tail,  with  an  extent  of  wings 


HERON 


691 


lower 
the  sj 
green 


f  6  ft.,  and  the  bill  5£  in.  with  a  gape  of  ty. 
e  color  above  is  bluish  ash,  with  the  edges 
wings  and  tibiae  rufous ;  neck  cinnamon 
brown,  head  black,  frontal  patch  white ;  below 
black,  with  broad  white  streaks  on  the  belly ; 
lower  tail  coverts  white,  middle  line  of  throat 
e  same  with  black  and  rufous  streaks;  bill 
ish  above,  dusky  yellow  at  the  base ;  the 
quills  black,  and  the  tail  bluish  slate.  There 
is  considerable  variation  in  size  and  plumage, 
according  to  age  and  habitat.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  United  States  and  the  West  In- 
dies, but  most  abundantly  in  the  low  lands  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  is  one  of  the 
hardiest  of  the  family,  bearing  the  cold  of  a 
Few  England  winter ;  it  is  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  approach,  from  the  acuteness  of  its 
earing  and  vision,  except  in  close  woods ;  it 
at  all  hours  of  the  day,  and  even  in  clear 
;hts.  It  begins  to  breed  from  the  beginning 
March  to  the  middle  of  June,  according  to 


Great  White  Heron  (Ardea  occidentals). 

ititude ;  during  the  love  season  they  associate 
.  pairs,  being  rather  solitary  at  all  other  times ; 
iveral  pairs  sometimes  form  a  community,  in 
svamps,  pine  barrens,  and  localities  several 
liles  from  water,  but  especially  in  the  vicinity 
rice  fields,  and  in  the  tops  of  cypress  trees, 
eggs,  three  in  number,  are  2£  by  1£  in.,  of 
dull  bluish  white;  the  male  and  female  sit 
Iternately,  feeding  each  other,  and  are  remark- 
ibly  affectionate  to  the  young;  the  flesh  ^  of 
;he  young  is  tolerably  good.     Its  food  consists 
)f  fish,  reptiles,  birds,  small  quadrupeds,  and 
arge  insects;  it  strikes  its  prey  through  the 
body,  as  near  the  head  as  possible,  killing  often 
by  beating  it  against  the  ground ;  it  is  exceed- 
'  igly  voracious.     This  bird  is  capable  of  inflict- 
)g  severe  wounds  with  its    bill,    the  more 
dangerous  that  it  generally  aims  at  the  eyes ;  it 
"ms  been  seen  to  chase  the  fish  hawk,  and  force 
it  to  yield  up  its  prey.     The  flight  is  high,  ma- 
jestic, and  long  sustained.     The  weight  of  a 
~  11-grown  bird  is  from  6  to  8  Ibs. ;  the  intes- 


tine is  about  9  ft.  long,  not  thicker  than  a 
swan's  quill. — The  great  white  heron  (A.  occi- 
dentalis,  Aud.)  is  more  than  4  ft.  long,  with  an 
extent  of  wings  of  nearly  7 ;  the  bill  6  in. ;  the 
weight  about  7  Ibs.  The  color  is  pure  white ; 
the  lengthened  occipital  feathers  do  not  form  a 
crest.  It  is  found  in  southern  Florida  and  in 
Cuba.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  herons,  and 
has  the  purest  white  plumage.  It  is  very  shy, 
breeding  among  the  keys  on  the  Florida  coast, 
to  which  it  resorts  year  after  year ;  two  nests 
are  rarely  seen  near  each  other,  though  nests 
of  other  species  are  .often \>n  the  same  bush ;  it 
begins  to  lay  about  the  1st  of  February.  It 
lays  three  eggs,  2f  by  If  in.,  thick-shelled,  of 
a  plain  light  bluish  green ;  both  sexes  incu- 
bate, for  about  30  days.  It  is  more  solitary 
than  the  preceding  species,  except  on  the  feed- 
ing grounds ;  the  walk  is  majestic,  and  the 
flight  firm  and  regular ;  the  sand  bars  and  flats 
on  which  they  feed  are  often  far  from  their 
roosting  places,  and  are  rarely  left  until  the 
water  reaches  as  high  as  their  body ;  the  posi- 
tion, when  roosting,  is  generally  on  one  foot. 
There  is  a  great  enmity  between  this  and  the 
preceding  species,  and  the  former  will  pursue, 
kill,  and  swallow  the  young  of  the  latter  when- 
ever an  opportunity  offers,  even  though  other 
favorite  food  be  in  abundance. — The  blue  heron 
(A.  camled,  Linn. ;  genus  florida,  Baird)  is  22 
in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  33 ;  the 
bill  is  about  3  in.,  and  the  weight  9  oz.  The 
bill  is  blue,  slender,  and  very  sharp ;  the  pre- 
vailing tint  of  the  bird  is  slate  blue,  with  the 
head  and  neck  bluish  purple;  legs  black;  the 
young  are  white,  sometimes  spotted  with  blue. 
The  top  of  the  head  is  moderately  crested,  and 
the  scapulars  greatly  elongated.  It  is  found  in 
the  southern  Atlantic  states  and  about  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  has  been  seen  in  New  York ;  it 
associates  with  the  white  and  Louisiana  her- 
ons, roosting  in  the  evergreens  of  the  keys ;  it 
is  very  shy,  and  its  flight  is  swifter  than  that 
of  any  except  the  A.  Ludomciana.  The  eggs 
are  If  by  1J-  in.,  of  the  same  color  as  those  of 
the  snowy  heron. — The  green  heron  has  been 
alluded  to  under  BITTERN.  The  sun  herons  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  South  America  belong  to 
the  genus  eurypyga  (Illiger),  characterized  by 
a  long,  slender,  straight  bill,  bent  and  emargin- 
ated  at  the  tip ;  long  and  ample  wings ;  long, 
broad,  and  slightly  rounded  tail.  The  best 
known  species  (E.  helias,  Pall.)  is  about  as  large 
as  a  small  grouse,  with  a  long,  thin  neck,  spread- 
ing tail,  and  comparatively  short  legs ;  the  plu- 
mage is  varied  with  bands  and  lines  of  brown, 
fulvous  red,  gray,  and  black,  resembling  the  dis- 
tribution of  colors  on  some  of  the  larger  moths ; 
it  feeds  on  small  fry  and  aquatic  insects.  It  is 
called  "little  peacock  "  in  Cayenne ;  its  habits 
resemble  those  of  the  snipes  more  than  of  the 
herons.  (See  NIGHT  HERON.) 

HERON,  or  Hero  (Gr.  "B.puv),  a  philosopher 
and  mathematician  of  Alexandria,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  century  B.  C. 
He"was  the  inventor  of  several  ingenious  ma- 


692 


IIEROPHILUS 


chines,  among  which  are  the  fountain  called 
by  his  name,  in  which  a  jet  of  water  is  kept 
playing  by  means  of  condensed  air ;  a  steam  en- 
gine, on  the  principle  of  what  is  called  Bar- 
ker's mill,  in  which  the  boiler  is  caused  to  re- 
volve round  a  vertical  axis  by  jets  of  steam 
issuing  from,  lateral  holes  in  the  arms  with 
which  it  is  provided ;  and  a  double  forcing 
pump  used  for  a  fire  engine.  Heron  wrote 
several  works  on  mechanical  and  scientific  sub- 
jects, of  which  only  fragments  remain;  the 
most  valuable  is  his  HvevfiariKd,  or  treatise  on 
pneumatics,  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that 
published  at  Paris  in  1693,  in  the  Veterum  Ma- 
thematicorum  Opera. 

IIEROPHILUS,  a  Greek  anatomist,  born  at 
Ohalcedon  in  Bithynia,  flourished  about  300 
B.  C.  He  lived  at  Alexandria,  where  he  ac- 
quired great  reputation  both  as  a  teacher  and 
practitioner.  He  is  generally  thought  to  have 
been  the  first  who  actually  studied  and  taught 
anatomy  from  the  dissection  of  human  bodies ; 
and  he  no  doubt  practised  this  method  to  a  far 
greater  extent  than  had  previously  been  done. 
His  investigations  in  human  anatomy  were 
marked  by  so  much  originality  and  exactness, 
that  a  large  number  of  the  anatomical  names 
now  in  use  date  from  him.  He  first  distin- 
guished the  nerves  from  the  tendons,  with 
which  they  had  previously  been  confounded, 
and  showed  that  they  originate  from  the  brain. 
He  recognized  the  principal  membranes  of  the 
brain  and  the  eyeballs,  and  gave  them  their 
names  of  arachnoid,  retina,  &c.  The  conflu- 
ence of  the  great  longitudinal  and  lateral  si- 
nuses of  the  brain  is  still  called  the  torcular 
Herophili;  and  the  first  division  of  the  small 
intestine  retains  the  designation,  duodenum, 
which  he  gave  to  it.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
examined  to  some  extent  the  internal  organs, 
for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  nature  and 
cause  of  the  disease  which  produced  death ; 
thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the  science  of 
pathological  anatomy,  the  study  of  which  was 
recommenced  by  Morgagni,  2,000  years  later. 
The  original  works  of  Herophilus  have  long 
been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag- 
ments, and  are  now  known  mainly  through 
quotations  by  Galen  and  others. 

IIKKOSTR  ATI  S.     See  EROSTRATUS. 

HERPETOLOGY  (Gr.  ipirerbv,  reptile  or  creep- 
ing thing,  and  Arfyo?,  discourse),  the  branch  of 
zoology  which  treats  of  the  structure  and  clas- 
sification of  reptiles.  The  present  article  will 
be  confined  to  the  last  division,  the  first  being 
more  properly  noticed  under  REPTILES.  The 
Egyptian  and  other  ancient  authors  knew  well 
the  distinctions  between  the  four  reptilian  or- 
ders, generally  called  tortoises,  lizards,  ser- 
pents, and  frogs;  Aristotle  described  them  as 
terrestrial,  red-blooded  animals,  laying  eggs, 
and  with  four  or  no  feet,  mentioning  tortoises, 
frogs,  crocodiles,  lizards,  and  serpents,  and  in- 
dicating the  first  three  as  amphibians.  Pliny, 
four  centuries  later,  divided  reptiles  into  ter- 
restrial, aquatic,  and  aerial,  but  he  has  mostly 


HERPETOLOGY 

copied  Aristotle,  adding  a  great  variety  of  fab- 
ulous stories  whose  influence  has  extended  in 
the  popular  mind  even  to  the  present  time. 
Gesner,  in  the  16th  century,  devoted  a  consid- 
erable part  of  his  writings  to  the  natural  history 
of  this  class,  illustrated  with  wood  engravings, 
and  conveniently  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order.  Aldrovandus,  toward  the  end  of  the 
same  century,  wrote  two  books  on  serpents 
and  lizards,  compiling  chiefly  from  the  Greek 
and  Arabian  authors,  and  collected  much  in- 
formation from  the  synonymy  of  reptiles,  their 
symbolic  history,  and  their  uses  in  medicine. 
Ray  published  in  London,  in  1693,  a  synopsis 
of  serpents,  in  which  the  manner  of  respira- 
tion, the  size  and  color  of  the  eggs,  and  similar 
characters,  are  made  the  basis  of  an  unnatural 
classification. — Linnaeus  divided  the  class  of 
reptiles  into  orders,  genera,  and  species  in  his 
Systema  Natures;  calling  them,  however,  am- 
phibia, and  characterizing  them  by  the  three 
principal  marks  of  naked  or  scaly  body,  teeth 
sharp  and  without  molars,  and  no  fins  with 
rays;  he  made  two  orders,  serpents  (without 
limbs)  and  reptiles  (with  limbs).  In  his  third 
class,  as  given  in  Gmelin's  edition  of  1788,  the 
order  reptiles  are  those  breathing  by  lungs, 
with  four  limbs,  and  a  simple  male  sexual 
organ;  serpents,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a 
rounded  body  without  distinct  neck,  moving 
by  its  undulations,  with  dilatable  and  non-con- 
solidated jaws,  and  without  limbs,  fins,  or  ex- 
ternal ears.  In  the  first  order  were  four  gen- 
era, the  tortoise,  dragon,  lizard,  and  frog ;  and 
in  the  second,  crotalus,  boa,  coluber,  anguis, 
amphisbcena,  and  ccecilia,  most  of  these  genera 
being  subdivided  into  numerous  species.  Lau- 
renti,  in  1768,  published  a  synopsis  of  reptiles, 
very  remarkable  for  the  time.  Leaving  tor- 
toises out  of  the  class,  he  gives  their  characters 
as  follows:  cold-blooded  animals,  without  hair 
or  mammae,  with  lungs  acting  without  dia- 
phragm and  almost  without  the  aid  of  the  ribs 
(swallowing  air  into  them),  torpid  in  winter, 
devouring  their  prey  without  chewing,  and  di- 
gesting it  very  slowly,  able  to  exist  for  months 
without  food,  and  renewing  their  youth  by 
changing  their  skins.  Lac6pede,  in  1788-'9, 
in  a  work  continuing  that  of  Bnffon,  entitled 
Histoire  naturelle  des  quadrupedes  ovipares  et 
des  serpents,  divided  reptiles  into  four  classes 
— tailed  and  tailless  oviparous  quadrupeds, 
biped  reptiles,  and  serpents;  the  first  con- 
taining the  tortoises  and  saurians,  the  second 
the  frogs  and  toads,  the  third  and  fourth  being 
sufficiently  characterized  by  the  names;  he 
made  only  292  species.  Alexandre  Brongniart, 
in  1799,  taking  into  consideration  not  only  the 
external  characters  but  those  presented  by  the 
mode  of  generation  and  development,  divided 
reptiles  into  the  four  orders  of  chelonians,  sau- 
rians, ophidians,  and  batrachians.  In  1800  Du- 
me>il  introduced  into  the  first  volume  of  his  Le~ 
fons  d'anatomie  comparee  a  classification  adopt- 
ing the  names  of  Brongniart,  and  separating 
the  batrachians  as  a  distinct  order.  Daudin, 


IIERPETOLOGY 


693 


1802-'4,  published  a  general  treatise  on  rep- 
iles,  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  and  last  volume 
which  is  a  resume  in  which  he  divides 
class  into  four  orders,  like  Brongniart. 
)ppel,  a  Bavarian  naturalist,  published  at  Mu- 
lich  in  1811  a  small  quarto  volume  on  the  or- 
lers,  families,  and  genera  of  reptiles,  in  which 
adopts  a  mode  of  arrangement  borrowed 
rincipally  from  Dum6ril.  Latreille,  in  his 
{istoire  naturelle  des  reptiles  (1802),  followed 
classification  of  LacepMe  with  some  slight 
lodifications ;  in  1825,  in  his  Families  du 
ne  animal,  adopting  most  of  the  divisions 
id  some  of  the  names  of  contemporary  her- 
jtologists,  he  makes  two  classes,  reptiles  and 
amphibians.  Cuvier,  in  his  Tableau  elemen- 
taire  de  Vhistoire  naturelle  des  animaux,  in 
1798,  divided  reptiles,  with  Lacepede,  into 
oviparous  quadrupeds,  serpents,  and  bipeds, 
giving,  however,  some  new  views  on  their 
division  into  orders,  correcting  errors  in  ge- 
neric characters,  and  advocating  a  classifica- 
tion founded  on  organization.  In  1817,  in  his 
Regne  animal,  and  in  the  second  edition  in 
1829,  Cuvier  published  a  new  arrangement, 
based  on  internal  as  well  as  external  structure, 
and  following  chiefly  the  method  of  Dum6ril, 
for  many  years  professor  of  this  branch  in  the 
museum  of  natural  history  at  Paris.  He  makes 
four  orders,  of  which  the  chelonians,  saurians, 
and  ophidians  have  a  heart  with  two  auricles, 
and  the  batrachians  with  a  single  auricle,  the 
first  two  with  limbs,  the  third  without  them ; 
in  the  chelonians  the  jaws  are  toothless  and 
corneous;  in  the  saurians  the  jaws  are  furnish- 
ed with  teeth,  and  the  limbs  with  five  or  four 
toes  to  each,  including  the  crocodilians,  lacer- 
tians,  iguanians,  geckotians,  chameleonians,  and 
scincoids;  in  the  ophidians  the  skin  is  either 
scaly  as  in  anguis  and  the  true  serpents,  or 
naked  as  in  ccecilia  ;  in  the  batrachians  the  tail 
may  be  absent  or  long,  the  feet  four  or  two, 
and  the  lungs  with  or  without  coexistent  bran- 
chise.  De  Blainville,  in  1822,  established  two 
classes  for  reptiles  (psteozoaires),  reptiles  proper 
(squammiferes  ornitJioldes\  and  ichthyoid  am- 
phibians. Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  in  1825,  published  a 
synopsis  of  the  reptiles  and  amphibians  of  North 
America;  in  the  first  class  he  makes  five  or- 
ders: 1,  emydo-saurians  orloricata;  2,  saurians; 
3,  saurophidians,  such  as  the  skinks  and  chal- 
cidians ;  4,  ophidians  or  serpents,  divided  into 
the  venomous  and  non-venomous  groups  ;  and 
5,  chelonians.  The  amphibians  he  makes  a 
class  by  themselves,  placing  among  them  all 
batrachians,  in  the  four  orders  of  anoura,  uro- 
dela,  sirens,  and  apoda  or  pseudophidians  (cceci- 
lics).  This  very  natural  system  is  founded 
largely  on  that  of  Oppel.  In  1831  the  same 
author  published,  in  vol.  ix.  of  Griffith's  edi- 
tion of  Cuvier's  "Animal  Kingdom,"  a  second 
synopsis  with  short  descriptions ;  he  divides 
reptiles,  exclusive  of  amphibians,  into  two  sec- 
tions :  cataphracta,  or  shielded  reptiles,  and 
squamata,  or  scaly  reptiles.  In  this,  and  in 
subsequent  modifications  of  it  in  the  "  Cata- 


logues" of  the  British  museum,  he  borrows 
largely  from  Wagler  (noticed  below)  and  con- 
temporary writers.  Oken,  in  his  "  Physiophi- 
losophy"  (Ray  society,  1847),  gives  a  classifi- 
cation, elaborated  between  the  years  1802  and 
1826,  in  which  he  places  reptiles  in  his  second 
province  of  sarcozoa,  fourth  circle  of  fleshy  ani- 
mals, and  eleventh  class  of  myozoa  or  rhinozoa  ; 
the  first  of  the  above  class  terms  relating  to  the 
fact  that  typical  or  true  muscles,  of  a  red  color, 
and  provided  with  tendons,  are  first  found  in 
reptiles,  and  the  last  to  the  equally  important 
fact  that,  in  the  genetic  development  of  the 
organs  of  sense,  the  nose  in  reptiles,  first  in  the 
animal  series,  opens  into  the  mouth,  permitting 
the  passage  of  air  to  the  respiratory  organs. 
This  classification  proceeds  from  the  lowest 
reptiles  (tailed  batrachians)  to  the  highest 
(crocodiles).  Cams,  in  his  "  Comparative  Anat- 
omy," French  translation  (1828  and  1834), 
places  reptiles  in  his  third  circle,  cephalozoaires, 
and  fifth  class,  cepnalo-gastrozoaires ;  with  or- 
ders :  I.,  branchiata  (siren  and  proteus),  hav- 
ing relations  to  fishes  ;  II.,  pulmonata,  the  true 
representatives  of  the  class,  with  the  subor- 
ders batrachians,  ophidians,  saurians,  and  che- 
lonians— some  (ichthyosaurus  and  triton)  ap- 
proaching fishes,  others  (dragons)  the  birds, 
others  (amphisbsena)  even  the  worms,  and 
others  still  (the  tortoises)  the  mammalia ;  III., 
alata,  related  to  birds,  including  the  fossil  pte- 
rodactyl. Much  of  this  and  subsequent  classi- 
fications is  borrowed  from  Oken.  Fitzinger, 
in  1826,  published  at  Vienna  his  Neue  Classi- 
fication der  Reptilien,  rich  in  anatomical  and 
physiological  research ;  he  adopts  the  classifi- 
cation of  Brongniart  modified  by  Oppel,  with 
much  of  the  nomenclature  of  Merrem.  The 
class  is  divided  into  two  orders,  monopnoa  and 
dipnoa,  according  as  the  respiration  is  pulmo- 
nary only  or  pulmonary  and  branchial,  the  first 
corresponding  to  reptiles  proper,  and  the  last 
to  batrachians.  In  a  table  he  gives  some  in- 
teresting affinities  between  reptiles  and  the 
higher  and  lower  vertebrates ;  the  pterodac- 
tyls, through  the  dragons  and  anolis,  have 
some  analogies  with  the  mammal  bats;  the 
gavials  and  large  fossil  saurians  connect  the 
lizards  with  the  cetacean  dolphins ;  some  che- 
lonians seem  to  connect  reptiles  with  the  mam- 
mal monotremata,  and  others  (like  the  imbri- 
cated tortoise)  with  birds  of  the  penguin  family ; 
in  the  same  way  the  descent  to  fishes  is  made 
by  the  csecilians  and  the  sirens.  The  method 
of  Ritgen,  published  in  the  volume  for  1828  of 
the  Nova  Acta  Academic  Naturae  Curiosorum, 
is  based  upon  correct  principles,  hut  the  author 
has'  attempted  to  unite  too  many  distinctive 
characters  under  one  head,  and  has  in  this  way 
originated  a  most  sesquipedalian  and  ill-sound- 
ing nomenclature.  Wagler,  in  1830,  published 
at  Munich  his  "  Natural  System  of  Amphibia," 
based  essentially  on  their  organization.  He 
established  eight  orders  in  the  class,  as  follows : 
1,  the  testudines-,  2,  the  crocodilians;  3,  the 
lizards ;  4,  the  serpents ;  5,  the  angues  (blind- 


694 


IIERPETOLOGY 


worm,  &o.);  6,  cacilia ;  7,  ran®  (frogs  and 
salamanders)  ;  and  8,  ichthyodes  (sirens,  meno- 
branchs,  &c.),  from  their  fish-like  forms.  He 
includes  248  genera.  In  chronological  order 
would  come  here  the  classification  of  Dumeril 
and  Bibron,  whose  work,  Erpetologie  generate, 
ou  histoire  naturelle  complete  des  reptiles  (10 
vols.  8vo,  1835-'50),  is  the  most  extensive  ever 
published  on  this  subject ;  though  more  recent 
observers  have  introduced  some  changes,  their 
classification  may  be  considered  as  representing, 
on  the  whole,  the  actual  state  of  herpetology. 
When  their  work  was  commenced,  in  1835,  the 
materials  at  their  command  numbered  about 
850  species,  which  number  they  largely  in- 
creased. They  divide  reptiles  into  the  four 
A  orders  of  chelonians  or  tortoises,  saurians  or 
lizards,  ophidians  or  serpents,  and  batrachians 
or  frogs  and  salamanders.  McLeay,  in  the 
HOTCB  EntomologiccB  (1819-'21),  divides  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  into  five  great  circles,  each  con- 
taining five  smaller  ones;  the  five  groups  of 
the  class  reptiles  he  considers  to  stand  in  the 
following  natural  order :  1,  the  chelonians ;  2, 
emydosaurians,  or  crocodiles ;  3,  saurians ;  4, 
dipod  or  two-footed  serpents ;  and  5,  apod  or 
true  serpents — the  extremities  of  the  column 
seeming  to  meet  in  the  chelodina  longicollis 
(Gray),  and  the  whole  forming  a  group  distin- 
guished from  birds  by  being  cold-blooded,  and 
from  amphibia  by  having  two  auricles  to  the 
heart,  by  undergoing  no  metamorphosis,  and 
by  a  different  method  of  generation.  One  great 
defect  of  this  classification  is,  that  it  leaves 
entirely  out  of  view  the  fossil  enaliosaurian 
reptiles.  Swainson,  in  his  "Natural  History 
of  the  Monocardian  Animals"  (Lardner's  "Cy- 
clopaedia," vol.  ii.,  1839),  like  McLeay,  makes 
a  distinct  class  of  the  amphibia,  and  divides 
reptiles  into  five  orders :  1,  emydosaurians, 
or  crocodiles ;  2,  chelonians ;  3,  enaliosaurians 
(ichthyosaurus,  &c.) ;  4,  ophidians ;  and  5,  sau- 
rians. Strauss-Durckheim,  in  his  Traite  d'ana- 
tomie  comparative  (1843),  divides  his  third  class, 
or  reptiles,  into  the  three  orders  of  saurians, 
ophidians,  and  batrachians,  making  a  separate 
and  fourth  class  of  the  chelonians,  with  the 
single  order  of  testudinata.  Stannius,  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  second  edition  of  his 
"  Manual  of  Comparative  Anatomy "  (Berlin, 
1854-'G),  in  the  class  17,  reptilia,  makes  two 
subclasses,  dipnoa  and  monopnoa.  Milne-Ed- 
wards, in  his  Cours  elementaire  d'histoire  natu- 
relle (1855),  divides  the  vertebrata  or  osteo- 
zoaires  into  two  sub-branches ;  in  1,  the  allan- 
toidia,  he  places  with  mammals  and  birds 
the  class  of  reptiles,  with  the  orders  chelonia, 
sauria,  and  ophidia;  and  in  2,  anallantoldia, 
with  fishes,  he  places  the  batrachians,  with  the 
orders  anura,  urodela,  perennibranchia,  and 
ccBcilicB. — There  are  several  German  systems  of 
classification,  which  deserve  notice  in  regard  to 
reptiles.  Von  Baer,  in  1826-'8,  in  his  verte- 
brate or  doubly  symmetrical  type,  rises  from 
osseous  fishes  to  amphibia,  in  which  lungs  are 
formed,  the  branchial  fringes  remaining  in  the 


sirens  and  disappearing  in  the  urodela  and 
anura;  thence  to  reptiles,  which  acquire  an 
allantois,  but  have  no  umbilical  cord,  nor  wings, 
nor  air  sacs,  the  last  two  being  characteristic 
of  birds.  Van  Beneden,  in  his  Anatomie  compa- 
ree  (Brussels,  about  1855),  makes  reptiles  and 
batrachians  the  third  and  fourth  classes  in  his 
hypocotyledones  or  hypovitellians  (vertebrata), 
in  which  the  vitellus  enters  the  body  from  the 
ventral  side ;  the  reptiles  he  divides  into  cro- 
codili,  chelonii,  ophidii,  saurii,  pterodactyli,  si- 
mosauri,  plesiosauri,  and  ichthyosauri;  and  the 
batrachians  into  labyrinthodontes,  peromelia, 
anura,  urodela,  and  lepidosirenia.  Vogt,  in 
his  Zoologische  Brief e  (1851),  bases  his  clas- 
sification on  the  contrast  between  the  embryo 
and  the  yolk,  and  makes  the  reptiles  and  am- 
phibians the  third  and  fourth  classes  in  the 
vertebrata,  or  animals  with  the  yolk  ventral ;  in 
reptiles  he  includes  the  orders  ophidia,  sauria, 
pterodactylia,  hydrosauria,  and  chelonia ;  and 
in  amphibia  the  orders  lepidota,  apoda,  cau- 
data,  and  anura.  These  classifications  are  im- 
portant, as  showing  the  tendency  of  modern 
zoology  to  combine  embryological  with  exter- 
nal and  structural  characters,  in  establishing 
the  natural  divisions  among  animals ;  for  full 
details  and  interesting  remarks  on  these  and 
other  systems,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
"Essay  on  Classification"  in  Prof.  Agassiz's 
"  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vol.  i.— T.  Rymer  Jones,  in 
the  article  "Reptilia,"  in  the  "Cyclopaedia  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  gives  the 
following  classification,  considering  the  batra- 
chians as  a  separate  class  :  Order  I.,  chelonia; 
II.,  sauria;  and  III.,  ophidia.  Van  der  Hoe- 
ven,  in  his  "  Handbook  of  Zoology  "  (English 
translation,  1858),  thinks  De  Blainville  went 
too  far  in  elevating  the  batrachians  into  a  class, 
and  goes  back  toward  the  old  fourfold  division, 
adding  however  two  orders.  He  divides  rep- 
tiles into  two  sections:  diplopnoa  or  psiloder- 
ma,  breathing  by  lungs  or  gills  and  with  smooth 
skin;  and  haplopnoa,  breathing  by  lungs  only, 
and  with  a  scaly  skin.  Owen,  in  the  "Anato- 
my of  Vertebrates  "  (vol.  i.,  1866),  makes  the 
following  subclasses  in  the  reptilian  division  of 
the  hcematocrya  or  cold-blooded  animals,  which 
include  also  the  fishes :  subclass  5,  with  orders 
ichthyopterygia,  ichthyosaurs ;  sauropterygia, 
plesiosaurs;  anomodontia,  like  dicynodon  and 
rhynchosaurus  (all  of  the  above  extinct) ; 
chelonia,  tortoises  and  turtles ;  lacertilia,  liz- 
ards, &c. ;  ophidia,  serpents ;  crocodilia ;  di- 
nosauria,  iguanodon,  &c. ;  and  pterosauria, 
pterodactyl,  &c.  (the  last  two  also  extinct). 
Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley,  in  the  "Introduction  to 
the  Classification  of  Animals  "  (London,  1869, 
really  dating  back  to  1864),  calls  the  second 
"province"  of  vertebrates  sauropsida,  com- 
prising reptiles  and  birds,  the  close  affinity  be- 
tween the  two  being  shown  by  such  reptilian 
birds  or  bird-like  reptiles  as  archc&opteryx. 
(See  AECH^OPTERTX.)  The  reptiles  are  the 
second  class  of  the  province,  there  being  four 


HERPETOLOGY 

ing  and  five  fossil  orders:  1,  crocodilia;  2, 
certilia,  as  lizards,  blindworms,  and  chame- 
leons ;  3,  ophidia,  or  snakes ;  4,  chelonia,  tur- 
tles and  tortoises ;  and  the  following  fossil : 
5,  ichthyosauria ;  6,  plesiosauria ;  7,  dicyno- 
dontia  ;  8,  pterosauria  ;  9,  dinosauria.  Prof. 
Nicholson,  in  his  "Text  Book  of  Zoology" 
(London,  1872),  adopts  the  same  classification, 
simply  adopting  Owen's  names  for  the  fifth, 
sixth,  and  seventh  orders  of  Huxley. — First  in 
the  order  of  American  classifications  of  native 
reptiles  is  that  of  Harlan,  given  in  the  "Jour- 
nal of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  "  (vols.  v.  and  vi.,  1826).  He  adopts 
Brongniart's  four  orders,  dividing  them  as  fol- 
lows: 1,  batrachia,  divided  into  three  sections 
according  to  the  mode  of  respiration ;  the  first 
has  the  branchial  openings  persistent,  as  in 
amphiuma  and  menopoma,  the  second  with 
persistent  branchiae,  like  siren  and  menolran- 
chus,  and  the  third  with  deciduous  branchiae, 
breathing  by  lungs  in  the  adult  state  (sala- 
manders, frogs,  and  toads) ;  2,  ophidia,  with 
six  North  American  genera;  3,  sauria,  with 
six  genera ;  and  4,  chelonia,  with  three  families 
of  land,  fresh-water,  and  sea  tortoises,  with 
two,  three,  and  two  genera  respectively.  Dr. 
J.  E.  Holbrook,  in  his  "  North  American  Her- 
petology  "  (5  vols.  4to,  1842),  adopts  the  four 
orders  of  chelonia,  sauria,  ophidia,  and  batra- 
chla ;  in  the  chelonia,  sauria,  and  tailless 
fiatrachia,  he  follows  essentially  the  arrange- 
ment of  Dume'ril  and  Bibron ;  in  ophidia  he 
prefers  Cuvier's  classification  ;  and  in  the  tailed 
~batrachia,  a  system  partly  from  Cuvier  and  part- 
ly from  Fitzinger.  His  work  is  very  valuable  to 
the  American  student,  both  for  its  lucid  descrip- 
tions and  excellent  illustrations.  Messrs.  Baird 
and  Girard  have  published  in  the  "  Reports  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution"  (1853)  a  cata- 
logue of  North  American  serpents,  of  the  fam- 
ilies crotalidcs,  colubridcs,  boidw,  and  typhlo- 
pidm  ;  of  35  genera  they  make  22  new,  and  of 
119  species  54  new.  Mr.  Baird  has  published 
a  revision  of  the  North  American  tailed  batra- 
chia,  with  new  genera  and  species,  in  the 
"Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences" (vol.  i.,  2d  series,  1850),  adopting  the 
two  groups  of  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  atreto- 
dera  and  trematodera.  In  the  same  journal, 
vol.  iii.,  1858,  is  a  paper  by  Dr.  E.  Hallowell 
on  the  caducibranchiate  batrachians.  Mr.  J. 
Le  Conte,  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  Acade- 
my of  Natural  Sciences  "  (vol.  vii.,  1854),  gives 
a  catalogue  of  the  American  testudinata,  which 
he  divides  into  three  families,  corresponding  to 
sea,  fresh-water,  and  land  tortoises.  Other 
catalogues  of  American  reptiles,  more  or  less 
extensive,  are  scattered  through  the  scientific 
journals.  De  Kay,  in  the  "  Natural  History 
of  New  York"  (1842),  divides  its  reptiles  into 
the  orders :  1,  chelonia,  with  family  chelonidce  ; 
2,  sauria,  with  families  scincidce  and  agamidm  ; 
and  3,  ophidia,  with  families  coluberidce  and 
crotalidw.  The  amphibia  he  divides  into  the 
families  ranidce,  salamandridce,  sirenida,  and 


HERRERA 


695 


amphiumidcB.  Prof.  Agassiz,  in  his  "Essay 
on  Classification  'J  (1857),  insists  on  the  separa-' 
tion  of  the  amphibians  as  a  class  from  the  rep- 
tiles, from  the  different  manner  in  which  their 
structural  plan  is  carried  out;  the  former 
breathe  by  lungs  or  gills,  undergo  metamor- 
phosis, lay  a  large  number  of  small  eggs,  and 
have  a  naked  skin ;  the  latter  are  covered  with 
horny  scales,  lay  few  and  comparatively  large 
eggs,  breathe  by  lungs,  and  undergo  no  marked 
transformation ;  these  differences  require  special 
ways  and  means  in  framing  their  structure, 
which  ought  to  rank  them  as  distinct  classes. 
Prof.  Agassiz  divides  his  fifth  class,  or  am- 
phibians, into  three  orders,  coBcilice,  icJithyodi, 
and  anura;  and  the  sixth  and  higher  class, 
reptiles,  into  four  orders,  serpentes,  saurii, 
rhizodontes,  and  testudinata.  In  part  ii.  of 
his  first  volume,  above  referred  to,  he  divides 
the  order  testudinata  into  the  suborders :  1, 
chelonii  (Opp.),  with  two  families,  chelonioidce 
and  sphargididcB  ;  2,  amydce  (Opp.),  with  seven 
families,  trionychidce,  chelyoidce,  hydraspididce, 
chelydroidce,  cinosternoidce,  emydoidce,  and  tes- 
tudinina.  A  large  part  of  the  first  and  all  of 
the  second  volume  is  taken  up  in  the  consid- 
eration of  the  whole  subject  of  North  Ameri- 
can testudinata,  with  numerous  illustrations. — 
The  above  are  the  principal  systems  of  her- 
petology,  and  are  sufficient  to  show  the  pro- 
gress of  this  branch  of  zoology,  and  its  gradual 
approach  toward  a  natural  method  of  classifi- 
cation. Those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  subject 
into  its  details  are  referred  to  the  list  of  au- 
thors in  the  work  of  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  and 
in  the  foot  notes  to  the  essay  of  Prof.  Agassiz. 

HEERERA,  Fernando  de,  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Seville  in  1534,  died  in  1597.  Although  he 
was  an  ecclesiastic,  many  of  his  verses  are 
amatory  effusions  addressed  to  a  lady,  said  to 
have  been  the  countess  of  Gelves,  whom  he 
celebrates  under  the  names  of  Estella,  Eliodo- 
ra,  and  Aglae.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cervantes 
and  of  the  painter  Pacheco.  His  best  poems 
are  mostly  sonnets,  odes,  and  elegies.  An 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  at  Seville 
in  1582.  His  principal  prose  works  are  Rela- 
tion de  la  guerra  de  Chipre  y  suceso  de  la  batalla 
de  Lepanto  (Seville,  1572),  and  Vida  y  muerte 
de  Tomas  Moro  (1592). 

HERRERA.  I.  Francisco  dc,  the  elder,  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  in  Seville  in  1576,  died  in  Madrid 
in  1656.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Luis  Fernandez. 
By  the  boldness  and  spirit  of  his  drawing  and 
the  clearness  of  his  coloring  he  virtually  found- 
ed a  new  school.  His  most  noted  picture  is  the 
"Last  Judgment"  in  the  church  of  St.  Ber- 
nard in  Seville.  His  "Holy  Family"  and 
"  Outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,"  in  the  church 
of  St.  Inez,  and  his  frescoes  in  the  cupola  of 
St.  Bonaventura,  are  also  masterpieces.  In 
his  old  age  he  went  to  Madrid,  and  painted  in 
the  cloister  of  la  Merced  Calzada  several  scenes 
from  the  life  of  San  Ramon.  He  excelled  in 
painting  fairs  and  market  scenes,  and  etched 
several  plates  from  his  own  compositions.  He 


696     HERREBA  Y  TORDESILLAS 


HERRING 


also  engraved  on  bronze,  and  was  accused  of 
uttering  base  coin.  II.  Franciseo  de,  the  younger, 
youngest  son  of  the  preceding,  also  a  painter, 
born  in  Seville  in  1622,  died  in  1685.  He 
studied  first  with  his  father  and  then  at  Rome, 
and  excelled  in  pictures  of  still  life,  flowers, 
and  fish,  for  the  last  of  which  the  Italians 
called  him  II  Spagnuolo  del  pesci.  After  his 
father's  death  he  went  to  Seville  and  painted  in 
the  churches,  but  from  jealousy  of  Murillo 
soon  removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed painter  to  the  king  and  superintendent 
of  the  royal  works.  His  best  pictures  are  the 
great  altarpiece  of  the  barefooted  Carmelites, 
representing  St.  Hermendildo;  the  "Assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  convent  of  Nuestra 
Sefiora  de  Atocha;  and  "St.  Anne  teaching 
the  Virgin  to  Read,"  in  the  convent  of  Corpus 
Christi. 

HERRERA  T  TORDESILLAS,  Antonio  de,  a  Span- 
ish historian,  born  at  Cuellar,  in  the  province 
of  Segovia,  about  1549,  died  in  Madrid,  March 
29,  1625.  He  early  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
became  secretary  to  Vespasiano  Gonzaga,  with 
whom  he  subsequently  returned  to  Spain.  His 
patron  when  dying  recommended  him  to  Phil- 
ip II.,  who  appointed  him  first  historiographer 
of  the  Indies  and  one  of  the  historiographers  of 
Castile,  titles  which  he  preserved  under  Philip 
III.  and  Philip  IV.  His  reputation  rests  on 
his  Historia  general  de  los  hechos  'de  los  Caste- 
llanos  en  las  islas  y  tierrafirme  del  mar  Oceano 
(4  vols.,  Madrid,  1601-'15).  His  other  works, 
including  Historia  general  del  mundo  del  tiem- 
po  del  senor  rey  Don  Felipe  IL  desde  1559  hasta 
su  muerte  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  1601-'12),  and  His- 
toria de  Portugal  y  conquista  de  las  islas  de 
los  Azores  (in  5  books,  1591),  were,  according 
to  Ticknor,  all  written  under  the  influence  of 
contemporary  passions. 

IIERRICK,  Robert,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London,  Aug.  20,  1591,  died  in  October,  1674. 
He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  for  many  years 
after  leaving  the  university  seems  to  have  pur- 
sued a  gay  and  dissipated  career  in  London. 
He  then  took  orders,  and  in  1629  was  present- 
ed by  Charles  I.  to  the  vicarage  of  Dean  Pri- 
or, near  Totness,  in  Devonshire.  His  poems 
written  at  this  time  abound  in  lively  descrip- 
tions of  the  charms  of  a  country  life,  and  his 
fancy  revelled  in  amatory  verses,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  day,  to  imaginary  beauties,  for 
his  small  household  comprised  only  himself 
and  his  old  housemaid  Prudence  Baldwin. 
Some  of  these  pieces  also  contain  curious  il- 
lustrations of  country  customs,  manners,  and 
prejudices.  From  this  humble  retreat  the  long 
parliament  ejected  him  in  1648,  and  he  returned 
to  London,  where  he  gladly  resumed  the  socie- 
ty of  such  of  his  old  associates  as  were  living, 
but  led  a  somewhat  precarious  existence.  In 
1647  and  1648  he  published  his  "Noble  Num- 
bers "  and  "  Hesperides,  or  Works  Humane 
and  Divine,"  which  he  dedicated  to  "the  most 
illustrious  and  most  hopeful  Prince  Charles." 
On  this  occasion,  in  consideration  of  the  class 


of  readers  who  would  peruse  his  works,  he  an- 
nounced himself  as  "  Robert  Herrick,  Esquire." 
At  the  restoration  Charles  II.  reinstated  him 
in  his  old  living,  where  he  passed  the  remain- 
der of  his  days.  Herrick  was  essentially  a  lyric 
poet,  and  the  facility  with  which  he  wrote 
is  recognized  in  the  multitude  of  little  pieces, 
amatory,  Anacreontic,  and  pastoral,  which  his 
works  contain.  His  frequent  indelicacy  is  the 
gravest  charge  which  has  been  brought  against 
him.  In  that,  however,  he  but  followed  the 
fashion  of  the  cavalier  poets,  and  there  is  much 
hearty  gayety  and  natural  tenderness  in  his 
works.  His  serious  pieces  are  morally  unexcep- 
tionable, but  have  generally  less  poetical  merit. 
For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  after  Herrick's 
death  his  works  lay  neglected.  In  1810  a  se- 
lection from  the  "Hesperides"  was  edited  by 
Dr.  Nott,  and  since  then  several  excellent  edi- 
tions have  been  published  in  England  and 
America,  including  one  by  Prof.  Child  (2  vols. 
12mo,  Boston,  1856).  A  new  edition  of  his 
poetical  works  was  published  in  London  in 
1859.  Many  of  his  shorter  songs,  such  as 
"  Cherry  Ripe "  and  "  Gather  ye  rose-buds 
while  ye  may,"  have  been  set  to  music. 

HERRING,  the  general  name  of  the  family 
clupeidcB  of  the  malacopterous  or  soft-rayed 
abdominal  fishes.  The  family  has  been  di- 
vided by  Valenciennes,  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  teeth,  size  of  the  ventrals,  length 
of  the  anal,  and  projection  of  the  lower  jaw, 
into  16  genera,  of  which  the  best  known  and 
most  important  are  clupea  (the  herring),  ha- 
rengula  (the  sprat),  rogenia  (the  whitebait), 
alosa  (the  shad  and  pilchard  or  sardine),  and 
engraulis  (the  anchovy).  The  last  has  been 
described  under  ANCHOVY,  and,  as  the  oth- 
ers will  be  noticed  in  their  regular  order,  the 
herrings  proper  will  alone  be  noticed  here. 
The  generic  characters  of  clupea  (Cuv.)  arc 
small  premaxillary  teeth,  with  very  fine  ones 
also  on  the  maxillary  and  symphysial  portion 
of  the  lower  jaw,  larger  teeth  in  a  longitudinal 
band  on  the  vomer  and  centre  of  tongue,  and  a 
few  deciduous  ones  on  the  palate  bones ;  body 
elongated  and  compressed,  with  rounded  back, 
and  sharp,  keel-like  abdominal  edge ;  scales 
large,  thin,  and  easily  removed ;  a  single  dor- 
sal fin,  and  eight  branchiostegous  rays ;  mouth 
large,  and  lower  jaw  the  longer;  the  air  blad- 
der is  very  large,  and  the  number  of  long  and 
slender  bones  among  the  muscular  fibres  very 
great;  the  branchial  openings  are  wide,  and  the 
gills  remarkable  for  the  length  of  their  fringes, 
in  consequence  of  which  they  live  but  a  short 
time  out  of  water;  indeed  they  die  so  soon  that 
"dead  as  a  herring"  is  a  common  English  say- 
ing. The  herrings  do  not  ascend  rivers  like 
the  alewife  and  shad. — The  common  American 
species,  or  blue-back,  sometimes  erroneously 
called  "  English  herring,"  is  the  C.  elongata 
(Lesueur) ;  it  varies  in  length  from  12  to  15 
in. ;  the  color  above  i&  deep  blue,  tinged  with 
yellow,  with  silvery  sides  and  lower  parts; 
opercles  brassy,  and,  like  the  sides,  with  me- 


HERRING 


697 


lie  reflections ;  irides  silvery  and  pupils  black. 

is  found  on  the  coasts  of  New  England,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia;  it  is  generally 
most  abundant  from  March  to  May,  but  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Perley  is  caught  on  the  shores 
of  New  Brunswick  during  every  month  of  the 
year,  precluding  the  idea  that  it  is  migratory. 


American  Herring  (Clupea  elongate). 

spring  it  is  often  caught  in  seines  and  sweep 
to  the  amount  of  100  barrels  or  more  in  a 
single  night;  it  is  eaten  fresh,  salted,  and 
smoked;  the  young  fish,  called  spirling,  make 
excellent  bait  for  cod.  Until  within  the  last 
30  years  this  herring  was  very  abundant  on 
our  coasts,  frequenting  the  harbors  of  Cape 
Cod  in  myriads  from  March  till  June ;  since 
that  time  it  has  been  comparatively  rare;  in 
Massachusetts  bay  great  quantities  were  for- 
merly caught  by  nets  when  following  the  light 
of  a  large  torch  in  a  swiftly  rowed  boat.  The 
herring  fishery  seems  to  have  been  prosecuted 
by  the  pilgrims,  and  we  read  of  the  herring 
"wear"  at  Plymouth  having  been  rented  to 
three  men  for  a  term  of  three  years.  Dr. 
Storer  considers  the  brit,  G.  minima  (Peck), 
the  young  of  this  species.  When  this  herring 
first  made  its  appearance  in  Long  Island  sound 
in  1817,  it  was  mistaken  for  the  English  her- 
ring, and  it  was  gravely  stated  that  it  followed 
the  British  squadron  thither  in  the  attack  upon 


European  Herring  (Clupea  harengus). 

Stonington  in  1814.  Several  other  American 
species  are  described  in  Storer's  "  Synopsis  of 
the  Fishes  of  North  America." — The  common 
herring  of  Europe  (0 '.  harengus,  Linn.)  is  from 
10  to  13  in.  long,  having  the  back  and  the 
upper  portion  of  the  sides  sky-blue,  with  a 
tinge  of  sea-green ;  belly  and  sides  bright  sil- 
very ;  cheeks,  gill  covers,  and  irides  tinged 
with  gold. — The  food  of  the  herring  appears  to 
be  chiefly  minute  crustaceans  and  worms,  and 
sometimes  its  own  fry  and  other  small  fish.  It 
is  the  popular  belief  that  the  herrings  retire  in 


winter  to  the  arctic  regions,  whence  they  mi- 
grate in  immense  shoals  in  spring,  summer, 
and  autumn  to  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America.  Yarrell  and  other  modern  observers 
doubt  this,  and  maintain  that  these  fish  merely 
come  from  deep  water  to  the  shores  in  their 
spawning  season,  making  no  very  lengthened 
journeys,  and  by  no  means  the  migrations  de- 
scribed by  Pennant  and  the  older  naturalists ; 
at  any  rate  they  are  found  on  both  the  Ameri- 
can and  European  coasts  at  all  seasons,  but 
sometimes  disappear  for  years  from  certain  lo- 
calities, probably  as  their  favorite  food  is  abun- 
dant or  scarce,  and  they  have  not  been  ob- 
served on  their  return  northward.  Wherever 
they  come  from,  they  appear  in  vast  shoals, 
covering  the  surface  of  the  sea  for  miles; 
they  afford  food  for  rapacious  birds  and  aqua- 
tic animals,  and  supply  material  for  one  of  the 
most  important  fisheries.  They  vary  consider- 
ably in  size  in  different  latitudes  and  in  limited 
localities,  being  generally  largest  and  in  best 
condition  in  the  north ;  the  time  of  spawning 
is  various,  as  we  have  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn  herrings.  Notwithstanding  the  de- 
struction of  these  fish  by  man  and  animals, 
their  numbers  do  not  diminish,  a  fact  not  as- 
tonishing when  it  is  remembered  that  about 
70,000  ova  exist  in  each  female,  a  large  portion 
of  which  might  be  unfecundated  or  destroyed, 
and  yet  enough  remain  to  stock  the  ocean. 
The  regularity  of  their  appearance  and  their 
immense  numbers  have  made  them  the  pursuit 
of  man  from  the  earliest  times;  the  herring  fish- 
ery of  France  dates  back  to  the  beginning  of 
the  llth  century,  and  that  of  Great  Britain 
300  years  earlier,  and  both  have  proved  excel- 
lent schools  for  seamen  for  the  mercantile  and 
naval  service  of  these  countries.  It  was  pros- 
ecuted at  a  very  early  period  also  by  the 
Dutch,  who  fished  on  the  British  coasts  when 
the  business  was  comparatively  neglected  by 
the  English.  Amsterdam  became  at  one  time 
a  great  centre  of  the  trade,  and  the  prosperity 
of  Holland  was  largely  due  to  it.  Political 
economists  in  England,  France,  and  Holland 
have  always  regarded  this  fishery  as  of  the 
greatest  national  importance,  in  its  influence  on 
the  marine  service,  and  as  a  source  of  profitable 
industry  at  home  and  of  extensive  commerce 
abroad. — The  herring  fishery  is  surpassed  only 
by  the  cod  fishery  in  the  value  of  its  products. 
The  quantity  of  cured  herrings  brought  in  by 
United  States  vessels,  as  reported  by  the  bu- 
reau of  statistics  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1873,  was  75,770  cwt.,  valued  at  $188,361, 
besides  which  large  quantities  are  consumed 
fresh.  Vessels,  especially  from  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  visit  the  coasts  of  New  Brunswick, 
Newfoundland,  the  Magdalen  islands,  and  Lab- 
rador for  herrings.  The  business  is  pursued  in 
the  spring  and  winter.  An  important  fishery 
is  during  the  winter  along  the  coast  of  Maine 
and  in  the  bay  of  Fundy,  the  herrings  being 
preserved  frozen,  and  sold  in  the  markets  of 
Portland,  Boston,  New  York,  and  other  cities. 


698 


HERRING 


IIERSCHEL 


The  product  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  as  re- 
turned by  the  commissioner  of  fisheries,  for 
the  year  ending  June  30, 1872,  was  293,932  bar- 
rels of  salted  and  606,705  boxes  of  smoked  her- 
rings, valued  at  $1,312,306;  the  product  of 
Nova  Scotia  being  valued  at  $682,628,  of  New- 
Brunswick  at  $500,628,  of  Quebec  at  $87,206, 
and  of  Ontario  at  $41,844.  The  chief  seats  of 
the  Newfoundland  fishery  are  Labrador,  the 
bay  of  Islands,  Bonne  bay,  and  St.  George's 
bay  on  the  W.  coast,  and  Fortune  bay  on  the 
S.  coast.  In  the  bay  of  Islands  the  herring 
fishery  opens  in  September  and  continues 
throughout  the  winter.  When  the  bay  is  fro- 
zen the  fish  are  taken  in  nets  through  holes  in 
the  ice.  The  exports  of  herrings  from  New- 
foundland in  1872.  amounted  to  140,873  barrels 
salted,  and  6,898  fresh.  Of  the  whole  amount 
53,780  barrels  were  from  Labrador  and  53,000 
from  the  French  shore.  The  Scotch  herring 
fishery  is  pursued  along  the  N.  W.  and  E. 
coasts,  the  latter  being  the  seat  of  the  most 
productive  fishery.  The  quantity  cured  in  1872 
was  773,859  barrels,  of  which  751,524  were 
cured  on  shore,  and  22,335  in  vessels ;  671,703 
were  cured  gutted,  and  102,156  ungutted.  The 
number  of  vessels  fitted  out  was  95  (making 
136  voyages) ;  tonnage,  2,976 ;  number  of  men, 
434.  The  number  of  boats  employed  in  a  se- 
lected week  for  each  district  was  8,252  ;  fish- 
ermen, 29,378;  whole  number  of  employees, 
including  curers,  &c.,  58,899.  The  fishery  is 
pursued  to  some  extent  in  the  winter,  but 
chiefly  in  the  summer.  Yarmouth  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  English  herring  fishery,  em- 
ploying about  200  vessels  and  2,000  men.  The 
winter  fishery  which  closed  with  January,  1872, 
was  unusually  productive,  240,000,000  fish, 
equivalent  to  about  600,000  cwt.,  being  landed. 
The  value  of  the  herring  fishery  along  the  E. 
coast  of  Ireland  in  1872  was  about  £250,000, 
the  greater  portion  of  which  was  obtained  by 
Cornish,  Scotch,  and  Manx  boats.  The  high- 
est number  of  boats  that  fished  during  the  sea- 
son was  394,  of  which  116  were  Irish,  120  Cor- 
nish, 100  Scotch,  and  58  Manx.  The  exports 
of  herrings  from  the  United  Kingdom  during 
that  year  amounted  to  631,750  barrels,  valued 
at  $891,634.  When  pickled  and  packed  in  bar- 
rels they  are  known  in  Great  Britain  as  "  white'1 
herrings ;  salted  and  smoked,  they  are  called 
"red"  herrings.  "Bloaters"  are  herrings 
slightly  cured  and  smoked,  and  intended  for 
immediate  use.  In  France,  in  1869,  222  ves- 
sels of  11,944  tons  and  4,209  men  were  fitted 
out  for  the  salt  herring  fishery,  and  561  vessels 
of  14,782  tons  and  6,941  men  for  the  fresh  her- 
ring fishery ;  270,150  cwt.  of  salt  and  132,140 
of  fresh  fish  were  brought  in.  The  Dutch  fish- 
eries, which  once  surpassed  all  others,  have 
greatly  declined,  but  the  Dutch  herrings  still 
command  the  highest  price  in  the  continental 
markets.  The  product  of  the  Norwegian  fish- 
ery is  about  1,000,000  barrels  a  year.  In  most 
of  the  northern  countries  of  Europe  large  quan- 
tities are  annually  captured.  For  a  detailed 


account  of  the  habits  and  fishery  of  the  her- 
ring, the  reader  is  referred  to  vol.  xx.  of  the 
Histoire  naturelle  des  poissons,  by  Cuvier  and 
Valenciennes,  by  whom  several  other  species 
are  described. — The  history  of  this  fish  is  con- 
nected with  many  strange  superstitions  and 
beliefs ;  their  sudden  disappearance  has  in  va- 
rious places  been  attributed  to  fires  on  the- 
shores,  the  discharge  of  cannon,  and  the  action 
of  steamboat  wheels.  (See  FISHERIES.) 

I1ERRING,  John  Frederick,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Surrey  in  1795,  died  Sept.  22,  1865. 
His  father  was  a  London  tradesman,  an  Ameri- 
can by  birth,  and  he  himself  was  a  stage  coach- 
man in  early  life.  His  ambition  was  to  paint 
a  race  horse,  and  for  18  years  he  persevered, 
until  he  achieved  reputation  in  this  class  of 
subjects.  For  33  years  he  took  the  portraits 
of  the  winners  of  the  Doncaster  St.  Leger,  and 
painted  an  immense  number  of  racers  and 
racing  scenes  for  eminent  patrons  of  the  turf. 
Afterward  he  executed  scenes  from  the  farm- 
yard, in  which,  although  the  horse  is  still  the 
prominent  object,  many  other  animals  and 
a  variety  of  fowls  and  birds  are  introduced. 
Many  of  these  are  extensively  known  through 
engravings,  which  have  considerable  populari- 
ty in  the  United  States,  where  some  of  his  best 
pictures  have  also  been  exhibited.  Among  his 
pictures  are  "The  Roadside,"  "The  Members 
of  the  Temperance  Society,"  and  "  The  Baron's 
Charger." 

1IKKKMHT.    See  MORAVIANS. 

HERSCHEL.  I.  Sir  William,  an  English  astron- 
omer, born  in  Hanover,  Nov.  15,  1738,  died 
at  Slough,  near  Windsor,  Aug.  23,  1822.  His 
father,  a  musician,  educated  him  to  his  own 
profession,  and  at  the  age  of  14  placed  him 
in  the  band  of  the  Hanoverian  foot  guards. 
In  1757  he  went  to  England  to  seek  his  for- 
tune, and  for  some  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
music  for  support.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
engaged  in  military  bands  and  at  concerts,  but 
there  is  much  confusion  in  the  stories  relating 
to  this  period  of  his  life.  He  became  organist 
at  Halifax,  and  in  1766  at  the  Octagon  chapel 
in  Bath.  In  the  latter  place  he  first  turned  his 
attention  to  the  study  of  astronomy,  particu- 
larly to  the  construction  of  optical  instruments. 
In  1774  he  had  made  a  large  reflecting  tele- 
scope. While  at  Bath  he  constructed  200  New- 
tonian telescopes  of  7  ft.  focus,  150  of  10  ft., 
and  about  80  of  20  ft.,  and  did  far  more  than 
any  one  who  had  preceded  him  in  uniting  to 
the  best  advantage  the  magnifying  and  the  il- 
luminating power  of  the  telescope.  Either  of 
these  qualities  may  easily  be  strengthened,  but 
at  the  expense  of  the  other,  and  the  exact 
proportion  in  which  they  must  be  united  to 
render  the  greatest  amount  of  light  effective 
was  a  problem  which  required  many  careful 
experiments.  With  one  telescope,  magnifying 
227  times,  Herschel  began  a  careful  survey  of 
all  the  stars,  serially ;  and  while  examining  the 
constellation  of  Gemini,  he  noticed  (March  13, 
1781)  that  one  of  them  appeared  unusually 


I 


HEKSCHEL 


699 


large,  and  a  second  examination  showed  it  to 
have  changed  its  place.  Finally  he  pronounced 
it  a  comet,  and  it  was  so  published  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  (1781).  This 
announcement  drew  the  attention  of  astrono- 
mers to  the  supposed  comet,  and  they  began  to 
endeavor  to  compute  its  course.  The  presi- 
dent Saron  first  pronounced  it  a  planet,  and 
then  Lexell  and  Laplace,  almost  simultaneous- 
ly, computed  its  elements,  and  found  it  to  have 
an  elliptical  orbit,  whose  great  axis  was  about 
19  times  greater  than  that  of  the  earth,  and 
the  period  of  its  revolution  to  be  84  years. 
Herschel  had  taken  no  part  in  the  mathemati- 
cal calculations,  but  on  its  being  pronounced  a 
planet,  he  proposed  to  name  it  the  Georgium 
Sidus.  It  has  often  been  called  Herschel,  but 
the  name  Uranus,  applied  to  it  by  Bode,  has 
been  generally  adopted.  Herschel  now  turned 
his  attention  most  carefully  to  this  planet,  de- 
termined the  apparent  diameter  (about  4")  for 
its  mean  distance  from  the  earth,  and  discov- 
ered two  of  its  satellites,  revolving  in  a  plane 
nearly  perpendicular  (at  an  angle  of  78°  58')  to 
its  orbit,  and  contrary  to  the  order  of  signs 
(that  is,  from  east  to  west).  He  thought  he 
had  also  detected  four  other  satellites ;  but  it 
is  now  generally  believed  that  he  mistook  faint 
stars  for  satellites,  and  that  Uranus  has  only 
four,  two  of  which  were  discovered  by  Lassell, 
of  England,  in  1851.  The  discovery  of  Uranus 
attracted  the  attention  of  all  Europe,  and 
Herschel  was  made  private  astronomer  to  the 
king,  with  a  salary  of  £400  and  a  house  near 
Windsor,  first  at  Datchet,  and  finally  at  Slough. 
With  funds  advanced  by  the  king,  Herschel 
constructed  his  celebrated  40-foot  reflecting  tel- 
escope, the  metal  speculum  of  which  was  4  ft. 
in  diameter,  3^  in.  thick,  and  over  2,-000  Ibs.  in 
weight.  The  plane  mirror  of  the  instrument 
was  dispensed  with,  and  the  observer  sat  in  a 
swinging  chair  with  his  back  to  the  object  ob- 
served, and  facing  the  object  end  of  the  tube, 
in  which  the  image,  by  an  inclination  of  the 
speculum,  was  thrown  to  one  side  and  observed 
through  a  single  lens.  He  conjectured  that 
with  this  instrument  18,000,000  stars  might  be 
seen  in  the  milky  way. — Though  Herschel  dis- 
covered an  almost  unprecedented  number  of 
new  bodies  in  the  planetary  system,  yet  his 
glory  is  greatest  in  sidereal  astronomy,  of 
which  he  laid  almost  the  foundations.  His 
leading  discoveries  in  this  branch  of  the  science 
were  the  following :  I.  The  binary  system  of 
stars,  and  the  orbits  of  several  revolving  stars. 
Double  stars  had  been  noticed  even  before  the 
introduction  of  the  telescope ;  but  while  Her- 
schel was  observing  them  to  learn  their  annual 
parallax,  he  noticed  a  steadily  progressive 
change  in  their  position  and  distance ;  and  in 
1802,  23  years  after  he  began  his  observations, 
he  announced  in  the  "Philosophical  Transac- 
tions "  his  discovery  that  both  stars  were  re- 
volving round  their  common  centre  of  gravity, 
and  all  his  instances  have  been  confirmed.  II. 
He  classified  the  nebulae,  and  advocated  the 


nebular  hypothesis,  since  supposed  to  be  dis- 
proved by  the  discoveries  made  with  the  great 
telescope  of  Lord  Rosse,  but  now  accepted  as 
demonstrated  by  the  results  of  spectroscopic 
analysis.  He  discovered  that  these  nebulous 
spots  cover  at  least  -fa  of  the  visible  firma- 
ment, and  in  1802  he  indicated  the  positions  of 
2,500  nebulae  or  clusters  of  stars.  He  classified 
them  as :  1,  clusters  of  stars ;  2,  nebulae  proper ; 
3,  nebulous  stars.  III.  The  law  of  grouping 
the  entire  visible  firmament.  He  "gauged" 
the  heavens,  by  counting  the  whole  number  of 
stars  visible  in  the  field  of  his  20-foot  reflector, 
and  taking  the  average  for  each  region.  The 
result  showed  a  remarkable  and  steady  law  of 
decrease,  from  the  central  zone  of  the  milky 
way  in  opposite  directions  to  the  northern  and 
southern  poles.  IV.  The  determination  of  the 
fact  of  the  motion  of  our  system,  and  the  di- 
rection of  that  motion.  It  was  already  known 
that  the  stars  were  not  fixed,  but  had  a  proper 
motion.  Herschel,  from  the  proper  motions 
of  about  20  stars,  with  great  penetration,  di- 
vined that  our  system  was  moving  in  the  direc- 
tion of  A  Herculis,  a  point  whose  right  ascen- 
sion is  270°,  and  north  declination  25°.  Be- 
sides discovering  the  satellites  of  his  own 
planet,  Herschel  discovered  two  new  satellites 
of  Saturn,  now  called,  from  their  being  next 
the  ring,  the  first  and  second,  and  determined 
the  rotation  of  the  rings  of  the  planet  to  be  in 
10  h.  32  m.  He  found  also  that  the  time  of 
the  rotation  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  was 
just  equal  to  the  period  of  their  revolution 
about  the  planet.  When  his  age  made  it  ad- 
visable for  him  to  discontinue  his  observations 
in  the  heavens,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
properties  of  heat  and  light.  He  also  gave 
some  valuable  opinions  concerning  the  spots 
on  the  sun,  attributing  them  to  occasional  open- 
ings in  the  luminous  coating,  which  seems  to 
be  always  in  motion. — Herschel  contributed 
papers,  sometimes  several  in  a  year,  to  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  from  1780  to 
1815.  He  married  in  1788  Mrs.  Mary  Pitt,  a 
widow  of  considerable  fortune,  and  had  by  her 
one  son,  John.  II.  Caroline  Lucretia,  sister  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Hanover,  March  16, 
1750,  died  there,  Jan.  9,  1848.  She  lived  in 
Hanover  till  her  22d  year,  when  she  went  to 
England  to  join  her  brother  at  Bath.  Here 
she  turned  her  attention  to  astronomy,  and 
gave  him  great  assistance,  not  only  taking  the 
part  of  an  amanuensis,  but  frequently  perform- 
ing alone  the  long  and  complicated  calculations 
involved  in  the  observations.  For  this  she 
received  a  pension  from  George  III.  Mean- 
while she  took  her  own  separate  observations 
of  the  heavens,  with  a  small  Newtonian  tele- 
scope which  her  brother  had  made  for  her. 
She  devoted  herself  particularly  to  a  search  for 
comets,  and  between  1786  and  1805  discovered 
alone  eight  of  these  bodies,  of  five  of  which 
she  was  the  first  observer.  Her  contributions 
to  science,  most  of  them  in  her  brother's  works 
and  under  his  name,  are  very  valuable.  She 


700 


IIERSCHEL 


took  the  original  observations  of  several  remark- 
able nebulae  in  her  brother's  catalogue,  and 
computed  the  places  of  his  2,500  nebulae.  In 
1798  she  published  her  "Catalogue  of  Stars 
taken  from  Mr.  Flamsteed's  Observations,  con- 
tained in  the  second  volume  of  the  Hiatoria 
Ccslestis,  and  not  inserted  in  the  British  Cata- 
logue, with  an  index  to  point  out  every  obser- 
vation in  that  volume  belonging  to  the  stars 
of  the  British  Catalogue ;  to  which  is  added  a 
collection  of  Errata  that  should  be  noticed  in 
the  same  volume."  This  work  was  published 
at  the  expense  of  the  royal  society,  and  con- 
tained about  560  stars  which  had  been  omitted 
by  the  framers  of  the  British  catalogue.  Af- 
ter her  brother's  death  she  returned  to  her 
native  city.  In  1828  she  completed  a  cata- 
logue of  the  nebulae  and  stars  observed  by  her 
brother,  for  which  she  received  a  gold  medal 
from  the  astronomical  society  of  London,  and 
was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  it.  III. 
Sir  John  Frederick  William,  an  English  as- 
tronomer and  physicist,  son  of  Sir  William 
Herschel,  born  at  Slough,  March  7,  1792,  died 
at  Collingwood,  near  Hawkhurst,  May  11, 
1871.  At  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in 
1813,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  mathemati- 
cal genius  and  his  fondness  for  physical  sci- 
ence. In  1820  he  published  his  "Collection 
of  Examples  of  the  Application  of  the  Calcu- 
lus to  Finite  Differences."  About  1825  he  be- 
gan his  observations  in  sidereal  astronomy, 
to  which  he  chiefly  devoted  himself,  partly  in 
conjunction  with  Sir  James  South,  and  the  re- 
sults of  his  observations  for  eight  years  were 
communicated  to  the  royal  astronomical  soci- 
ety in  a  series  of  catalogues,  the  first  appearing 
in  1825,  for  which  he  received  the  gold  medal. 
In  1830  he  published  important  measurements 
of  1,236  stars,  which  he  found  with  his  20-foot 
reflector.  In  1830  he  wrote  for  the  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Metropolitana  "  a  treatise  on  "Sound," 
and  for  the  same  work  in  1831  a  treatise  on 
the  "  Theory  of  Light."  In  Lardner's  "  Cyclo- 
paedia "  he  published  a  "  Preliminary  Discourse 
on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy."  About  the  same 
time  he  wrote  several  experimental  essays  on 
different  branches  of  chemistry,  magnetism, 
and  optics.  His  great  enterprise  was  his  ex- 
pedition to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  take 
observations  of  the  whole  firmament  of  the 
southern  hemisphere.  Taking  with  him  the 
same  instruments  (a  20-foot  reflector  with  an 
18J-inch  aperture,  and  a  7-foot  achromatic 
with  a  5-inch  aperture)  which  he  had  used  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  that  his  results 
might  be  compared  with  his  former  ones,  he 
arrived  at  the  Cape,  Jan.  15,  1834,  and  settled 
at  Feldhuysen,  about  6  m.  from  Table  bay. 
He  examined  carefully  and  measured  the  dou- 
ble stars,  clusters,  and  nebulae  of  the  southern 
skies,  and  completed  the  wonderful  "gauging 
of  the  heavens  "  which  had  been  begun  by  his 
father.  His  observations  lasted  four  years, 
and  the  entire  expense  was  defrayed  by  him- 


self, though  an  ample  indemnity  was  offered 
him  by  government.  During  his  absence,  in 
1836,  the  royal  astronomical  society  again 
voted  him  their  gold  medal,  and  on  his  return- 
honors  were  heaped  upon  him.  The  royal  so- 
ciety proposed  to  make  him  their  president, 
but  he  was  unwilling  to  accept  the  office.  In 
1838,  at  the  coronation  of  Queen  Victoria,  he 
was  created  a  baronet.  In  1839  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford,  and  in  1842 
he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  Marischal  college, 
Aberdeen.  In  1847  appeared  in  a  large  4to 
volume  his  "  Results  of  Astronomical  Observa- 
tions made  during  the  Years  1834-'8  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  being  the  completion  of  a 
Telescopic  Survey  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
Visible  Heavens,  commenced  in  1825."  This 
work,  one  of  the  most  considerable  and  valu- 
able of  our  time,  is  divided  into  seven  portions : 
1,  "Nebulae  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere;"  2, 
"  The  Double  Stars  of  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere;" 3,  "Astrometry,  or  the  Numerical 
Expression  of  the  Apparent  Magnitudes  of 
Stars;"  4,  "The  Distribution  of  Stars,  and 
the  Constitution  of  the  Galaxy  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere;"  5,  "Observations  of  Halley's 
Comet  (as  seen  at  the  Cape  toward  the  close 
of  1835),  with  Remarks  on  its  Physical  Condi- 
tion and  that  of  Comets  in  general;"  6,  "Ob- 
servations of  the  Satellites  of  Saturn;"  7, 
"  Observations  of  Solar  Spots."  His  residence 
at  the  Cape  gave  not  only  valuable  additions 
to  astronomy,  but  also  to  meteorology.  He 
suggested  the  plan  of  taking  simultaneous  me- 
teorological observations  at  different  places  on 
given  days,  and  embodied  his  views  on  the 
plan  in  his  "  Instructions  for  Making  and  Re- 
gistering Meteorological  Observations  at  vari- 
ous Stations  in  Southern  Africa  "  (1844).  Be- 
fore going  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  he  added 
800  nebulas  to  the  catalogue  of  his  father,  and 
on  his  return  published  a  catalogue  of  2,049 
nebulae  of  the  southern  hemisphere  and  their 
positions,  500  of  which  were  before  entirely 
unknown.  He  also  added,  while  at  the  Cape, 
1,081  double  stars,  and  in  measuring  the  angles 
of  positions  and  the  distances  of  the  stars  from 
each  other,  found  that  many  of  them  have 
very  rapid  orbital  motions.  He  made  many 
interesting  observations  on  the  milky  way. 
"This  remarkable  belt,"  he  says,  "examined 
through  a  powerful  telescope,  is  found  (won- 
derful to  relate)  to  consist  entirely  of  stars 
scattered  by  millions,  like  glittering  dust,  on 
the  black  ground  of  the  general  heavens." 
Again,  he  conjectures,  from  his  ingenious  com- 
binations of  photometric  calculations,  that  if 
the  stars  in  the  great  circle  of  the  milky  way, 
which  he  saw  in  his  20-foot  reflecting  tele- 
scope, were  newly  risen  luminous  cosmical 
bodies,  it  would  require  2,000  years  for  a  ray 
of  their  light  to  reach  us.  His  observations  on 
the  brightness  and  the  color  of  stars,  on  vari- 
able stars,  on  the  sun's  rays,  on  the  atmo- 
spheric air,  and  on  the  Magellanic  clouds,  are 
all  very  valuable.  Sir  John  Herschel  did  not 


HERSENT 

ifine  his  attention  to  astronomy.  He  calcu- 
lated the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  and  held 
that  a  perfect  vacuum  exists  at  the  height  of 
80  or  90  miles  above  the  earth,  and  also  that 
three  fourths  of  all  the  atmospheric  air  is 
within  four  miles  of  the  earth's  surface.  The 
question  concerning  the  absorption  of  light, 
which  gave  rise  to  much  discussion,  particu- 
larly in  its  connection  with  the  undulatory 
theory,  was  very  ably  answered  by  Herschel  in 
his  paper  on  the  "  Absorption  of  Light  by  Col- 
ored Media."  He  made  some  important  dis- 
coveries in  photography,  and  produced  from 
chemical  compounds  and  the  juices  of  plants 
the  most  beautiful  chromatic  "eifects.  Sir 
John  Herschel  contributed  to  the  "  Manual  of 
Scientific  Inquiry  "  (1849  and  1851),  and  wrote 
"Outlines  of  Astronomy"  (1850;  10th  ed., 
1869);  "Essays,  from  the  Edinburgh  and 
Quarterly  Reviews,  with  Addresses  and  other 
Pieces  "  (185V) ;  "  Physical  Geography ''  (1861) ; 
and  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Scientific  Subjects  " 
(1866).  His  son,  Capt.  John  Herschel  of  the 
royal  engineers,  is  now  (1874)  collecting  his 
letters  with  a  view  to  publication.  During  the 
year  1848  Herschel  was  president  of  the  royal 
astronomical  society.  In  1850  he  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  the  mint,  which  office  he 
held  till  1855,  when  he  resigned  on  account 
of  ill  health.  In  1855  he  became  one  of  eight 
foreign  associates  of  the  French  academy  of 
science. 

HERSENT,  Louis,  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris,  March  10,  1777,  died  there,  Oct.  2, 
1860.  He  studied  under  Regnault,  and  at  the 
age  of  20  gained  the  second  prize  at  the  school 
of  fine  arts.  He  was  one  of  the  painters  to 
the  government,  and  received  an  honorary 
decoration  from  Louis  XVIII.,  who  bought  his 
"  Ruth  and  Boaz  "  and  "  Monks  of  St.  Ber- 
nard." His  "  Abdication  of  Gustavus  Vasa," 
considered  his  best  work,  was  destroyed  in 
the  sacking  of  the  Palais  Royal  in  1848.  His 
"Louis  XVI.  giving  Alms  to  the  People," 
now  in  the  museum  -at  Versailles,  was  among 
his  later  works.  Almost  all  his  pictures  have 
been  engraved. 

HERSFELD,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hesse-Nassau,  10  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Fnl- 
da,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Fulda;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,434.  It  owes  its  origin  to  a  Benedictine  ab- 
bey which  was  founded  in  the  8th  century. 
"With  its  territory  it  was  made  an  ecclesiastical 
principality  in  the  12th  century,  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  abbots.  At  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648)  it  was  secularized,  and  the  town 
of  Hersfeld  remained  the  capital  till  1821,  when 
the  principality  became  an  administrative  cir- 
cle. The  town  until  lately  was  walled,  and 
protected  with  an  ancient  ditch ;  gardens  are 
now  laid  out  in  place  of  these.  The  river  is 
here  crossed  by  two  bridges.  Among  the  note- 
worthy buildings  are  the  ancient  council  house, 
the  fine  parish  church  with  a  lofty  tower  and 
a  great  bell,  and  the  ruins  of  the  convent  church 
which  was  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th 


HERTFORDSHIRE 


701 


century,  in  the  Byzantine  style,  on  the  site  of 
the  cathedral  which  had  been  burned.  The 
ancient  monastery  itself,  shut  off  from  the  town, 
has  its  own  district,  containing  the  ruins  of  the 
church  and  the  surrounding  gardens  and  or- 
chards. The  gymnasium  was  founded  in  1570 
by  Abbot  Michael.  Hersfeld  is  the  head  of  the 
cloth  manufactures  of  the  former  electorate  of 
Hesse,  employing  2,000  hands,  and  has  manu- 
factories of  mixed  cotton  goods,  soap,  and  red 
and  white  leather,  and  numerous  dye  works 
and  worsted  mills. 

IIERSTAL,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
and  3  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Liege,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Meuse;  pop.  in  1866,  9,326.  Va- 
rious kinds  of  iron  and  steel  ware,  especially 
firearms,  are  manufactured  in  the  town,  which 
has  also  an  establishment  for  the  extraction  of 
pyroligneous  acid,  a  salt  refinery,  breweries,  &c. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  many  coal  mines. 
Herstal  was  the  home  of  Pepin  the  Fat,  gen- 
erally called  Pepin  of  Heristal. 

HERTFORD,  a  N.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  Virginia,  bounded  E.  by  Chowan 
and  Nottoway  rivers,  and  intersected  by  the 
Meherrin,  which  unites  with  the  Nottoway  to 
form  the  Chowan ;  area,  320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 

1870,  9,273,  of  whom  4,952  were  colored.     It 
has  a  level  surface,  covered  in  part  with  pine 
and  cedar  woods,  which  furnish  large  quantities 
of  timber,  tar,  and  turpentine  for  exportation. 
The  Chowan  river  is  navigable  by  sloops  along 
the  border  of  the  county.     The  chief  produc- 
tions in   1870  were  5,4*30  bushels  of  wheat, 
189,079  of  Indian  corn,  13,857  of  oats,  49,807 
of  sweet  potatoes,  and  235  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  915  horses,  1,174  milch  cows,  2,708 
other  cattle,  2,259  sheep,  and  11,398  swine; 
1  saw  mill,  and  7  flour  mills.    Capital,  "Winton. 

HERTFORD,  a  town  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  England,  capital  of  Hertfordshire,  on 
the  river  Lea,  18  m.  N.  of  London;  pop.  in 

1871,  7,164.     It  has  eight  churches,  a  Latin 
school,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  branch  of  the 
London  Christ's  hospital,  a  large  distillery,  and 
several  large  breweries.    There  is  an  active 
trade  in  coal,  timber,  and  corn.     In  673  a  na- 
tional ecclesiastical  council  was  held  here,  and 
early  in  the  10th  century  Edward  the  Elder 
rebuilt  the  town  and  built  the  castle,  which 
afterward  was  occasionally  a  royal  residence. 

HERTFORDSHIRE,  or  Herts,  an  inland  county 
of  England,  bordering  on  Cambridgeshire,  Es- 
sex, Middlesex,  Buckinghamshire,  and  Bed- 
fordshire;  area,  611  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
192,226.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Colne 
and  Lea  with  their  tributaries,  affluents  of  the 
Thames,  and  some  smaller  streams  flowing  to 
the  Ouse.  Part  of  the  New  river,  which  sup- 
plies London  with  water,  is  within  the  shire, 
and  is  conducted  by  an  aqueduct  along  the  val- 
ley of  the  Lea.  The  Grand  Junction  canal 
passes  through  the  county.  It  is  also  traversed 
by  the  London  and  Northwestern  and  Great 
Northern  railways,  while  the  Eastern  Counties 
railway  skirts  the  S.  E.  boundary.  In  the 


702 


IIERTHA 


HERTZEN 


northerD  -part  of  the  county  are  several  ranges 
of  chalk  hills,  which  attain  an  elevation  of 
900  ft.  above  the  sea.  There  are  manufactories 
of  straw  goods,  ribbons,  paper,  and  malt,  but 
the  principal  industry  is  agriculture,  seven 
eighths  of  the  county  being  arable  land.  In 
the  S.  W.  part  are  extensive  apple  and  cherry 
orchards.  There  are  many  Roman  and  other 
antiquities,  of  which  the  most  prominent  are 
St.  Alban's  abbey  and  the  ruins  of  Berkham- 
stead  castle,  and  Roystone  church  and  cave. 
Capital,  Hertford. 

IIERTHA,  J:rtha,  or  Nertbns,  the  goddess  of 
earth  (Anglo-Saxon,  eorthe,  Ger.  Erde\  an- 
ciently worshipped  by  the  ^Estii,  Lombards, 
Angles,  and  many  other  Teutonic  tribes  estab- 
lished near  the  lower  Elbe,  and  in  the  regions 
of  the  Baltic.  The  Scandinavians  called  her 
Jord ;  according  to  them  she  was  daughter  of 
Annar  and  Night,  sister  of  Dagur  or  Day  by 
the  mother's  side,  wife  of  Odin  (thus  identical 
with  Frigga),  and  mother  of  Thor.  This  iden- 
tification of  the  female  principle,  or  of  gene- 
ration and  fertility,  with  the  earth,  is  found 
in  all  religions.  The  earth  being  the  all-nour- 
ishing mother,  it  was  naturally  believed  that 
Hertha  sympathized  with  mankind,  and  the 
myth  of  the  revival  of  spring  gradually  be- 
came for  the  vulgar  a  faith  that  she  visited 
them  in  person  at  stated  times.  These  visits 
took  place,  according  to  Tacitus,  on  a  sacred 
island  in  the  Baltic,  where  the  chariot  of 
Hertha  was  kept.  When  the  goddess  had  de- 
scended from  the  throne  of  Odin,  she  was 
believed  to  take  her  seat  in  the  chariot.  Heif- 
ers were  then  harnessed  to  it,  and  she  was 
drawn  amid  festivity  over  the  land.  During 
this  procession  all  feuds  were  suspended.  Fi- 
nally the  goddess,  or  rather  her  wagon,  on  re- 
turning to  the  holy  grove,  was  washed  in  the 
sea  by  slaves,  who  immediately  after  were 
drowned.  This  appearance  of  Hertha  was  also 
practised  in  another  form  among  certain  Ger- 
man tribes,  with  whom  it  was  usual  on  occa- 
sions of  drought  to  send  the  most  beautiful 
maiden  of  the  village,  entirely  naked,  at  the 
head  of  a  female  procession  over  the  fields. 

HERTZ,  Hendrik,  a  Danish  poet,  born  in  Co- 
penhagen, Aug.  25, 1798.  He  is  of  Jewish  pa- 
rentage, but  joined  the  Protestant  church,  and 
studied  law.  In  1826  he  published  anony- 
mously his  first  comedy,  Herr  BurcTchard  og 
hans  Familie,  which  was  rapidly  followed  by 
others.  Gjenganger-Brevene,  a  polemical  poem 
(1830),  attracted  much  attention  on  account  of 
its  severe  criticism  of  the  literature  of  the  day. 
His  tragedy  Svend  Dy  rings  Huus  (1837)  added 
greatly  to  his  popularity  by  its  patriotic  char- 
acter, and  a  lyrical  drama  entitled  "  King 
Rene's  Daughter"  carried  his  fame  into  Ger- 
many, France,  and  England,  where  his  works 
have  since  been  translated  as  soon  as  they  ap- 
peared. Among  his  novels,  Stemninger  og  Til- 
stande  (1839),  Johannes  Johnson  (1858),  and 
Eventyr  og  Fortallinger  (1862)  are  specially 
noteworthy. 


HERTZEN,  or  Hcrzen,  Alexander,  a  Russian 
author,  born  in  Moscow,  March  25,  1812,  died 
in  Paris,  Jan.  21,  1870.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Moscow,  where  he  and  some  of  his 
associates  were  arrested  in  1834  on  account  of 
their  socialistic  tendencies.  He  was  detained  in 
prison  nearly  a  year,  and  for  several  years  af- 
terward he  was  exiled  to  Siberia.  In  1839  he 
received  a  full  pardon  and  a  clerkship  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior,  which  he  soon  lost  by 
his  strictures  on  the  government ;  but  in  view 
of  his  high  connections  and  attainments  he  was 
treated  considerately,  and  received  the  title  of 
councillor  of  state  with  orders  to  reside  at  Nov- 
gorod. In  1-842  he  asked  to  be  released  from 
all  connection  with  the  government,  and  in 
the  same  year  came  forward  as  a  writer  under 
the  nom  de  plume  of  Iskander.  In  1845-' 6 
he  published  an  elaborate  work  showing  his 
sympathy  with  the  younger  Hegelian  school 
of  philosophy,  and  in  1847  appeared  his  first 
novel  descriptive  of  Russian  life.  His  father's 
death  having  put  him  in  possession  of  a  mod- 
erate fortune,  he  was  enabled  to  leave  Russia 
in  1847.  After  conferring  with  revolutionists 
in  Italy,  France,  and  Switzerland,  he  organ- 
ized a  systematic  propaganda  against  Russian 
absolutism  by  establishing  a  publishing  house 
in  London  for  printing  and  circulating  Russian 
translations  of  the  writings  of  Louis  Blanc, 
Mazzini,  and  kindred  authors.  In  1856  ho 
founded  in  London  the  Kolokol  ("  The  Bell "), 
a  journal  which  attained  a  large  clandestine 
circulation  in  Russia,  and  through  which  he 
paved  the  way  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs,  for  the  abolition  of  corporal  punish- 
ment in  the  army,  for  judiciary  reforms,  and 
for  diminishing  corruption  among  Russian  offi- 
cials. In  1865  he  removed  to  Geneva,  where 
he  published  the KoloTcol'vo. French  {La  Cloche), 
but  could  not  sustain  it.  He  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  Paris.  The  loftiness  of  his 
purpose  and  his  integrity,  as  well  as  his  com- 
manding influence  on  Russian  progress,  were 
respected  even  by  his  a/lversaries ;  and  his 
claims  to  literary  distinction  rest  upon  a  variety 
of  writings,  comprising  novels  and  books  of 
travel,  published  in  Russian,  German,  and 
French,  these  languages  having  been  equally 
familiar  to  him.  His  principal  works  are : 
Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben  (3  vols.,  1854; 
English  translation,  2  vols.,  London,  1855) ; 
Russland's  sociale  Zustdnde  (1854)  ;  Memoiren 
der  Furstin  Daschlcow  (2  vols.,  1857);  "The 
Polar  Star"  (in  Russian,  7  vols.,  London, 
1857-'67;  8th  vol.,  Geneva,  1868);  Memoires 
de  Timperatrice  Catherine,  ecrits  par  elle-meme 
(London,  1859) ;  "For  Five  Years,  1855-'60" 
(in  Russian,  London,  1860) ;  Biloe  i  Dumi  (3 
vols.,  London,  1861;  4th  vol.,  Geneva,  1867); 
and  "Posthumous  Writings"  (in  Russian,  Ge- 
neva, 1870). — His  confiscated  Russian  estates 
were  restored  in  1874  to  his  only  surviving 
brother,  in  virtue  of  an  amnesty  granted  on 
occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the  grand  duchess 
Maria  with  the  duke  of  Edinburgh. 


HERULI 

[ERULI,  or  Ernli,  a  German  tribe,  which  in 
latter  part  of  the  3d  century  appeared  on 
the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  having  joined  the 
Goths  in  their  invasion  of  the  Danubian  prov- 
inces of  the  Roman  empire.  They  were  after- 
ward conquered  by  the  Ostrogoths,  followed 
Attila  on  his  march  to  Gaul  (451),  and  after 
his  death,  uniting  with  other  German  tribes, 
destroyed  the  western  empire  under  their  leader 
Odoacer,  who  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy 
(476),  but  finally  succumbed  to  the  Ostrogoths 
under  Theodoric  (493).  Another  kingdom  of 
the  Heruli,  founded  in  the  central  part  of  mod- 
ern Hungary,  was  destroyed  by  the  Lombards. 
Part  of  them  then  removed  to  the  south  of  the 
Danube,  and  the  others  emigrated  to  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic. 

HERVE,  a  French  composer,  whose  real  name 
is  Florimond  Ronger,  born  at  Houdain,  near 
Arras,  in  1825.  His  Don  Quichotte  (1847)  was 
the  first  opera  bouffe  introduced  on  the  French 
stage,  and  subsequently,  as  a  protege"  of  M.  de 
Morny,  he  became  connected  with  theatres, 
where  he  continued  to  produce  similar  enter- 
tainments, paving  the  way  for  Offenbach,  who 
soon  eclipsed  Herve  at  the  Bouffes-Parisiens 
(1855),  the  latter  disappearing  for  several  years 
from  the  stage.  Since  1865,  however,  when 
he  became  leader  of  the  orchestra  at  the  El- 
dorado, he  has  been  sharply  competing  with 
Offenbach.  Among  his  later  productions  are 
L^ceil  creve  (1867),  Chilperic  (1868),  Le  petit 
Faust,  and  Les  Turcs  (1869). 

HERVEY,  James,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Hardingstone,  near  Northampton,  Feb.  26, 
1713,  died  Dec.  25,  1758.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford,  took  orders,  and  at  the  age  of  22  was 
appointed  curate  to  his  father,  on  whose  death 
in  1750  he  succeeded  to  his  two  livings  at 
Weston  Favell  and  Collingtree.  He  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence,  and  was  well  skilled  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  In  l746-'7  he  pub- 
lished his  "Meditations  and  Contemplations," 
which  have  been  widely  read  and  admired.  In 
1753  he  published  "Remarks  on  Lord  Boling- 
broke's  Letters  on  History;"  in  1755,  "  Theron 
and  Aspasia,"  a  work  on  the  Calvinistic  theory 
of  redemption.  He  also  published  letters  to 
Wesley  and  to  Lady  Frances  Shirley,  and  edit- 
ed, with  a  preface,  Burnham's  "  Pious  Memo- 
rials," and  Jenks's  "Devotions."  His  works, 
with  a  memoir  (7  vols.  8vo,  London,  1797), 
have  passed  through  numerous  editions. 

HERVEY,  John,  Baron  Hervey  of  Ickworth, 
an  English  politician,  born  Oct.  15,  1696,  died 
Aug.  5,  1743.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  John 
Hervey,  first  earl  of  Bristol  of  that  name.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  in 
1716  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to  the 
prince  of  Wales.  He  was  looked  upon  as  the 
most  accomplished  man  of  his  time,  and  by 
his  talents,  literary  tastes,  and  family  con- 
nections was  an  important  auxiliary  to  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  In  1730  he  was  appointed 
vice  chamberlain  and  privy  councillor,  and  in 
1733  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  lost  much  in- 
405  VOL.  vin. — 15 


HERZ 


703 


fluence  on  the  death  of  the  queen  in  1737,  but 
entered  the  cabinet,  and  received  in  1740  the 
privy  seal,  which  he  lost  on  the  fall  of  Wal- 
pole. He  was  an  epileptic,  and  his  life  was 
protracted  only  by  great  watchfulness.  Pope, 
in  the  prologue  to  the  satires,  attacked  him 
under  the  name  of  Sporus.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Court  of 
George  II.  and  Queen  Caroline,"  edited  by  J. 
W.  Croker  (2  vols.  8vo,  1848 ;  new  ed.,  1854). 

HERVEY,  Thomas  Kibble,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  Manchester,  Feb.  14,  1799,  died  in  Kentish 
Town,  Feb.  17, 1859.  He  studied  at  Cambridge 
and  at  Oxford,  but  did  not  take  a  degree. 
Then  he  attempted  the  study  of  law,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  to  follow  his  taste  for  literature. 
In  1824  he  published  "Australia  and  other 
Poems,"  the  title  piece  being  an  elaboration 
of  a  prize  poem.  This  volume,  with  additions, 
was  reissued  in  1829  as  "The  Poetical  Sketch 
Book."  In  1830  he  published  anonymously 
"The  Devil's  Progress,"  a  satire.  For  20 
years  he  was  a  leading  writer  for  the  "Athe- 
naeum," of  which  he  was  sole  editor  from  1846 
to  1854.  His  other  publications  were:  "Illus- 
trations of  Modern  Sculpture "  (vol.  i.,  1832, 
never  completed) ;  "  The  Book  of  Christmas  " 
(1836);  and  "England's  Helicon  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century"  (1841).— His  wife,  ELEONOBA 
LOUISA  (MONTAGUE),  born  in  Liverpool  in  1811, 
is  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  dramatic  and 
other  poems,  tales,  fairy  legends,.  &c. 

HERVEY  DE  SAINT  DEN  YS,  Marie  Jean  Leon 
de,  marquis,  a  French  sinologue,  born  in  Paris 
in  1823.  He  early  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  Chinese,  and  became  president  of  the  eth- 
nographical society.  He  translated  several 
Spanish  plays  into  French,  and  among  his 
other  works  are  Eecherches  sur  V agriculture 
des  Chinois  (1851),  a  translation  of  Poesies  de 
Vepoque  des  Thang,  with  an  essay  on  Chinese 
poetry  (1862),  and  several  other  important 
translations  published  in  1874. 

HERWEGH,  Georg,  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Stuttgart,  May  31, 1817.  He  studied  theology 
at  Tubingen,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
and  attracted  attention  in  1841  by  the  publica- 
tion in  Switzerland  of  his  Gedichte  ernes  Le- 
lendigen,  a  collection  of  political  poems,  which 
passed  through  seven  editions  in  two  years 
(9th  ed.,  1871).  He  was  expelled  from  Prus- 
sian territory  on  account  of  a  letter  which  he 
addressed  to  the  king,  and  also  from  Zurich, 
but  found  an  asylum  in  Basel,  where  he  com- 
pleted the  2d  volume  of  his  Gedichte  (1844),  in 
a  decidedly  revolutionary  tone.  Subsequent- 
ly residing  in  Paris,  he  put  himself,  soon  after 
the  revolution  of  1848,  at  the  head  of  a  legion 
of  French  and  German  laborers,  crossed  the 
Rhine  intending  to  revolutionize  Germany,  and 
appeared  in  Baden  in  April,  but  was  defeated 
at  Dossenbach  by  the  Wtirtemberg  troops,  and 
fled  with  his  wife  to  Switzerland.  He  now 
lives  in  Berlin. 

HERZ,  Henriette,  a  leader  of  Berlin  society, 
born  in  that  city,  Sept.  5, 1764,  died  there,  Oct. 


704 


HERZEGOVINA 


IIESIOD 


22,  1847.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Lemos, 
a  physician  of  Portuguese-Jewish  origin,  and 
was  barely  16  when  she  married  Dr.  Markus 
Herz,  an  elderly  and  wealthy  gentleman. 
Through  her  extraordinary  beauty  and  intel- 
ligence she  acquired  great  social  influence. 
Schleierraacher  was  her  most  intimate  friend, 
and  conspicuous  among  her  many  other  asso- 
ciates were  William  and  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt.  After  the  death  of  her  husband  in 
1803  she  continued  to  exercise  the  same  com- 
manding and  beneficent  influence  in  society, 
but  her  means  were  reduced,  and  in  1808  she 
was  obliged  for  some  time  to  accept  the  hos- 
pitality of  friends  in  Riigen.  On  her  mothers 
death  in  1817  she  embraced  Christianity,  and 
during  the  rest  of  her  life,  mostly  spent  in  Ber- 
lin, she  kept  up  her  relations  with  distinguished 
people,  with  whom  she  maintained  an  active 
correspondence,  but  late  in  life  she  destroyed 
most  of  her  letters. — See  Henriette  Herz,  ihr 
Leben  und  ihre  Erinnerungen,  by  Fiirst  (Berlin, 
1850),  and  Brief e  desjungen  Borne  an  Henriette 
Herz  (Leipsic,  1861).  Borne  lived  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  her  house. 

HERZEGOVINA,  or  Hersek,  a  province  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  forming  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  vila- 
yet of  Bosnia,  bounded  N".  by  Turkish  Croatia, 
W.  by  Dalmatia,  S.  by  Montenegro  and  the  gulf 
of  Cattaro,  and  E.  by  Bosnia  proper ;  area,  6,420 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  290,000,  of  whom  180,000 
belong  to  the  Greek  church,  48,000  are  Catho- 
lics, and  62,000  Mohammedans,  many  of  whom 
are  renegades.  They  are  chiefly  of  the  Slavic 
race,  and  speak  a  Slavic  dialect  kindred  to 
that  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  The  province 
is  covered  by  a  branch  of  the  Dinaric  Alps, 
and  slopes  toward  the  Adriatic.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Narenta  and  its  tributaries,  which  flow 
into  the  Adriatic.  The  products  are  tobacco 
of  a  very  fine  quality,  rice,  millet,  and  grapes. 
The  most  notable  manufactures  are  hydromel 
or  mead,  a  favorite  popular  beverage,  and 
sword  blades. — The  province  formerly  belonged 
to  the  kingdom  of  Croatia,  and  was  often  called 
the  country  of  Chulm,  and  by  the  Venetians 
the  duchy  of  St.  Saba,  in  honor  of  that  saint. 
Annexed  to  Bosnia  in  the  early  part  of  the 
14th  century,  it  was  -wrested  from  it  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  III.  (about  1450),  who  dis- 
posed of  it  in  favor  of  Stefan  Hranitch  and 
his  descendants,  as  an  independent  duchy. 
Hence  the  name  of  Herzegovina,  the  title  of 
Herzog  (duke)  having  been  borne  by  its  princes 
before  the  Ottoman  conquest,  which  took 
place  in  1467  under  Mohammed  II.  After 
various  contests,  the  Turks  were  confirmed  in 
its  possession  by  the  treaty  of  Carlovitz  (Jan. 
26,  1699),  excepting  the  former  capital,  the 
fortified  town  of  Castelnuovo,  in  the  gulf  of 
Cattaro,  and  a  small  territory  which  had  been 
held  by  the  Venetians  since  1682,  and  which 
now  forms  part  of  Dalmatia.  Capital,  Mostar. 

HERZEN.     See  HKRTZEN. 

HESIOD  (Gr.  'TLaiodor),  one  of  the  earliest 
Greek  poets,  of  whose  life  nothing  is  known  ex- 


cept that  he  dwelt  at  Ascra,  on  Mt.  Helicon, 
whither  his  father  had  removed  from  Cyme,  on 
the  ^Eolic  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  most  gen- 
eral opinion  of  the  ancients  assigned  Homer  and 
Hesiod  to  the  same  period,  which  Herodotus  fix- 
es at  about  850  B.  C. ;  the  higher  antiquity  of 
Hesiod  is  maintained  by  Ephorus  of  Cyme.  K. 
O.  Milller  opposes  the  common  opinion  that  the 
epic  language  was  first  formed  in  Asia  Minor, 
whence  it  was  borrowed  and  transferred  to 
other  subjects  by  Hesiod.  He  supposes  this 
poetical  dialect  had  already  come  into  use  in 
the  mother  country  before  the  Ionic  colonies 
were  founded,  and  that  the  phrases,  epithets, 
and  proverbial  expressions  common  to  the  two 
schools  of  poetry  were  derived  from  a  com- 
mon and  more  ancient  source.  The  Hesiodic 
and  Homeric  poetry  resemble  each  other  only 
in  dialect  and  form,  and  are  completely  unlike 
in  their  genius  and  subjects.  E.  Curtius  says 
"  that  with  Hesiod  life  on  earth  appears  utter- 
ly stripped  of  the  joyous  brilliancy  which  the 
Homeric  poems  spread  out  over  it ;  that  with 
him  it  is  a  sunken  and  fallen  state,  a  school  of 
adversity  through  which  man  has  to  pass  in 
the  exercise  of  virtue,  under  the  observation 
and  support  of  beatified  spirits.  In  a  form 
of  expression  perfectly  cognate  to  the  Delphic 
sayings,  the  poems  united  under  the  name 
of  Hesiod  give  circumstantial  precepts  for  the 
different  classes  of  human  society,  for  knights 
and  for  peasants,  and  concerning  both  private 
and  public  life."  The  logographers  related 
numerous  stories  of  Hesiod,  of  his  descent 
from  Orpheus,  his  gift  of  prophecy,  and  his 
contest  with  Homer,  which  show  that  an  early 
connection  was  conceived  to  have  existed  be- 
tween the  priests  and  bards  of  Thrace  and 
Boeotia,  out  of  which  grew  the  elements  of  his 
poetry.  The  Hesiodic  poetry  flourished  chiefly 
in  Boaotia,  Phocis,  and  Eubcea,  and  the  emi- 
nence of  Hesiod  caused  a  great  variety  of 
works  to  be  attributed  to  him.  The  "  Works 
and  Days"  ("Epya  nai  q/uEpat),  the  only  poem 
which  his  countrymen  considered  genuine,  is 
perhaps  the  most  ancient  specimen  of  didac- 
tic poetry,  and  consists  of  ethical,  political, 
and  minute  economical  precepts.  It  is  in  a 
homely  and  unimaginative  style,  but  is  im- 
pressed throughout  with  a  lofty  and  solemn 
feeling,  founded  on  the  idea  that  the  gods  have 
ordained  justice  among  men,  have  made  labor 
the  only  road  to  prosperity,  and  have  so  or- 
dered the  year  that  every  work  has  its  ap- 
pointed season,  the  sign  of  which  may  bo  dis- 
cerned. The  "Theogony"  is  an  attempt  to 
form  the  Greek  legends  concerning  the  gods 
into  a  complete  and  harmonious  picture  of 
their  origin  and  powers,  and  into  a  sort  of  re- 
ligious code.  Beginning  with  Chaos,  out  of 
which  rose  first  the  Earth  and  Eros  (love),  the 
fairest  of  the  immortal  divinities,  it  completes 
the  formation  of  the  world,  and  relates  the 
genealogies  and  wars  of  the  gods  and  heroes, 
and  the  triumph  of  Zeus  and  the  Olympians 
over  the  Titans.  The  Greeks  considered  it 


IIESPEPJDES 


ligli  authority  in  theological  matters,  and  phi- 
losophers sought  by  various  interpretations  to 
make  it  harmonize  with  their  own  theories. 
Another  poem  attributed  to  Hesiod  was  the 
•Heroines"  ('HoZ<w),  giving  accounts   of  the 
foinen  who  by  their  connection  with  the  gods 
lad  become  the  mothers  of  the  most  illustrious 
leroes,  and  containing  a  description  of  the 
lield  of  Hercules,  which  is  all  of  it  that  is 
till  extant.     Several  other  Hesiodic  poems  are 
itioned  by  the  ancients.     The  best  com- 
pete edition  is  that  of  Gottling  (8vo,  Gotha 
d  Erfurt,    1843) ;    and  the  scholia  on  him 
the  Neo-Platonist  Proclus,  and  others,  are 
ntained  in  Gaisford's  Poetce  Greed  Minores, 
rol.  iii.     The  "Works  and  Days"  was  trans- 
3d  into  English  by  George  Chapman  (Lon- 
i,  1618).     A  poetical  translation  was  made 
0.  A.  Elton  (London,  1810),  and  a  prose 
version  by  the  Rev.  J.  Banks,  in  Bonn's  "  Clas- 
lical  Library  "  (London,  1856).     See  also  Hesio- 
li  Scutum  Herculis,  edited  by  Van  Lennep 
Lmsterdam,  1854) ;    Theogonia,  by  Gerhard 
Berlin,  1856)  ;  Flach,  Die  Hesiodische  Theogo- 
'&,  with  Prolegomena  (1873) ;  and  an  English 
lition  by  James  Davies  (Edinburgh,  1873). 
HESPERIDES,   in    Grecian    mythology,    the 
guardians  of  the  golden  apples  which  Terra 
ive  to  Juno  as  a  wedding  gift.     Sometimes 
iey  are  called  the  daughters  of  Erebus  and 
fight,  sometimes  of  Atlas  and  Hesperis,  some- 
imes  of  Jupiter  and  Themis.     Some  traditions 
them  three,  others  four,  and  others  seven, 
ley  were  commonly  set  down  at  four,  whose 
imes  were  ^Egle,  Erythia,  Hestia,  and  Are- 
msa.     Their  gardens  were  originally  placed 
t    the  remote   west,   about  Libya  and  Mt. 
itlas,  but  later  mythologists  placed  them  in 
]yrenaica,  and  some  even  in  the  extreme  north 
nong  the  Hyperboreans.     Their  duty  was  to 
guard  the  apples  which  Juno  had  committed 
to  their  care,  but  Hercules  obtained  them  by 
the  assistance  of  Atlas. 

HESS,  Karl  Adolph  Heinrich,  a  German  artist, 
>rn  in  Dresden  in  1769,  died  at  Wilhelmsdorf, 
ir  Vienna,  July  3,  1849.  He  had  much 
jputation  as  a  painter  of  horses.  His  most 
lous  work  is  the  large  painting,  "  The 
rch  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ural  through 
>hemia,"  exhibited  in  1799.  He  published 
tudienblatter  fur  Pferdeliebhaber,  the  plates 
)r  which  were  etched  by  himself  (1807), 
ferdewerk  (in  12  parts,  1807),  and  Pferde- 
pfe  (horses'  heads),  lithographed  in  natural 

(Vienna,  1825). 

HESS.     I.  Karl  Ernst  Christoph,  a  German  en- 
raver,  born  in  Darmstadt  in  1755,  died  July 
1828.     He  first  made  himself  known  by 
)me  plates  after  pictures  by  Rembrandt  in  the 
llery  at  Dtisseldorf,  and   subsequently   en-  | 
aved  a  large  portion  of  the  gallery  for  a  pic-  j 
>rial  work.     In  1782  he  was  appointed  en-  I 
iver  to  the  court  at  Munich,  and  in  1806  he  { 
ime  professor  at  the  academy  of  arts  there. 
Peter  von,  a  painter,  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ling,  born  in  Dtisseldorf,  July  29,  1792,  died 


HESSE 


705 


April  5,  1871.  In  1813-'15  he  participated 
in  the  most  considerable  actions  against  the 
French,  and  made  sketches  on  the  spot.  These 
he  afterward  embodied  in  a  series  of  battle 
pieces,  of  which  the  "Battle  of  Arcis-sur- 
Aube,"  the  "  Capture  of  a  French  Village  by 
Cossacks,"  the  "  Bivouac  of  Austrian  Troops," 
and  the  "  Battle  of  Leipsic,"  are  good  speci- 
mens. He  has  been  called  the  Horace  Vernet 
I  of  Germany.  III.  Heinrich  yon,  a  historical 
painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dtis- 
seldorf,  April  19,  1798,  died  March  29,  1863. 
He  prepared  the  cartoons  for  the  decoration 
of  the  church  of  All  Saints  in  Munich,  in 
which  the  progress  of  Christianity  is  unfolded. 
He  also  painted  for  the  basilica  of  St.  Boniface 
in  the  same  city  64  compositions  in  fresco, 
with  figures  of  colossal  size,  illustrating  the 
life  of  that  saint. 

HESSE  (Ger.  Hesseri).  I.  Or  Hessia,  a  terri- 
tory of  Germany,  inhabited  in  the  time  of  the 
Roman  empire  by  the  Catti,  an  old  Germanic 
tribe.  Germanicus  is  said  to  have  destroyed 
their  principal  town,  Mattium,  which  stood  on 
the  site  of  the  present  villages  of  Grossmaden 
and  Kleinmaden,  near  Gudensberg.  Under 
the  early  German  emperors  Hesse  was  gov- 
erned by  counts.  The  principal  of  these  were 
the  counts  of  Gudensberg  of  the  name  of 
Geiso.  By  the  marriage  of  the  heiress  of 
the  last  count  of  Gudensberg,  Geiso  IV.,  with 
the  landgrave  Louis  I.  of  Thuringia,  this  prince 
became  sovereign  of  Hesse  (about  1130).  Till 
about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the  his- 
tory of  Hesse  was  identical  with  that  of  Thu- 
ringia ;  but  the  landgrave  Henry  Raspe  dying 
without  issue  in  1247,  his  niece  Sophia,  the 
daughter  of  the  landgrave  Louis  the  Pious  and 
the  wife  of  Henry,  duke  of  Brabant,  claimed 
Hesse  as  well  as  Thuringia;  and  after  a  war 
of  succession  with  her  cousin,  the  margrave 
Henry  the  Illustrious  of  Misnia,  she  was  put 
in  possession  of  Hesse  by  treaty  in  1263.  So- 
phia's son,  Henry  I.  the  Child,  became  the 
progenitor  of  the  dynasty  of  Hesse,  and  took 
up  his  residence  at  Cassel.  Philip  I.  the 
Magnanimous,  who  succeeded  his  father  Wil- 
liam in  his  sovereignty  of  the  whole  country 
in  1509,  and  who  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  reformation,  divided  his  dominions  among 
his  four  sons  (1567).  The  eldest,  William  IV., 
obtained  one  half,  including  the  capital  Cas- 
sel;  Louis  IV.  one  fourth,  comprising  Mar- 
burg; Philip  II.  one  eighth,  with  Rheinfels; 
and  George  I.  also  one  eighth,  with  Darm- 
stadt. But  Philip  II.  dying  in  1583,  and  Louis 
IV.  in  1604,  without  children,  there  remained 
only  the  two  main  branches  of  Hesse-Cassel 
and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  former  of  which 
ceased  to  be  a  reigning  family  in  1866,  when 
its  territory  was  annexed  to  Prussia.  It  will 
become  extinct  with  the  death  of  the  last 
elector  of  Hesse-Cassel.  (See  HESSE-CASSEL.) 
Among  the  side  branches  of  the  Hessian  dy- 
nasty are  the  landgraves  of  Hesse-Phil ippsthal 
and  Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld.  II.  Former- 


706 


HESSE 


ly  Hesse-Darmstadt,  a  German  grand  duchy,  con- 
sisting of  two  large  portions  separated  by  a 
long  strip  of  land  extending  from  E.  to  W., 
which  belongs  to  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau.  The  N.  portion  is  bounded  on 
all  sides  by  Prussia ;  the  S.  portion  is  bounded 
N.  by  Prussia,  E.  by  Bavaria,  S.  by  Baden,  S. 
W.  by  Rhenish  Bavaria,  and  W.  by  Prussia ; 
area,  2,964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  852,894,  of 
whom  585,399  were  Protestants,  238,080  Ro- 
man Catholics,  and  25,373  were  Jews.  Hesse 
is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Upper  Hesse, 
Starkenburg,  and  Rhenish  Hesse.  The  princi- 
pal mountains  are  the  Odenwald  in  the  south- 
ern portion  and  the  Vogelsgebirge  in  the  north- 
ern. The  Vogelsgebirge  is  a  volcanic  mass, 
occupying  with  its  branches  about  400  sq.  m. 
The  country  is  also  traversed  by  branches  of 
the  Taunus,  Westerwald,  &c.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Rhine,  Main,  Nahe,  Nidda,  and  Lahn. 
Hesse  is  one  of  the  best  cultivated  agricul- 
tural countries  in  Germany.  Offenbach,  near 
Frankfort,  is  the  chief  manufacturing  town. 
Mentz  is  the  great  emporium  for  the  corn, 
wine,  and  transit  trade.  Darmstadt  is  the 
capital.  The  grand  duchy  possesses  many 
railways  and  excellent  public  roads.  It  occu- 
pies the  sixth  rank  in  the  German  empire,  has 
three  votes  in  the  federal  council,  and  sends 
eight  deputies  to  the  German  Reichstag.  The 
troops  of  the  grand  duchy  constituted  in  1874 
a  separate  division  of  the  llth  army  corps. 
The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy. 
The  grand  duke,  who  bears  the  title  of  Gross- 
Jierzog  von  Hessen  und  ~bei  Rhein,  is  assisted  by 
a  council  of  state  and  a  cabinet,  which  in  1874 
consisted  of  the  premier  or  president  (who  is 
at  the  same  time  minister  of  the  grand  ducal 
household  and  of  foreign  affairs),  of  the  minis- 
ters of  the  interior,  of  justice,  and  of  finance. 
The  legislature  is  composed  of  two  chambers. 
The  annual  receipts,  according  to  the  budget 
of  1873-'5,  amount  to  $4,500,000;  the  ex- 
penditures to  $4,250,000.  The  public  debt 
was  contracted  almost  exclusively  for  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  and  amounted  in  1872 
to  about  $5,500,000.  There  are  numerous 
educational  institutions,  the  chief  of  which  is 
the  university  of  Giessen. — The  line  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  was  founded  in  1567  by  George 
I.,  youngest  son  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous. 
The  war  of  succession  with  Hesse-Cassel  which 
broke  out  under  the  reign  of  his  successor, 
Louis  V.  the  Faithful,  continued  to  rage  during 
that  of  his  son  George  II.  (1626-'61),  but  was 
brought  to  a  close  in  1647  by  the  cession  of 
Marburg  and  other  contested  localities  in  ex- 
change for  Giessen  and  other  territory.  Du- 
ring the  French  revolution  much  territory  was 
lost,  which  was  more  than  regained  by  the 
treaty  of  Luneville  in  1801.  Louis  X.  (born 
1753,  died  1830)  joined  the  confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  adopting  as  grand  duke  the  name  of 
Louis  I.,  obtained  from  Napoleon  still  further 
accessions  of  territory,  caused  his  troops  to  act 
against  Austria  in  1809  and  in  concert  with 


the  French  in  1813,  but  joined  the  allies  after 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  on  condition  of  being  left 
in  possession  of  his  newly  acquired  territory. 
In  1815  he  joined  the  German  confederation, 
and  made  large  cessions  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine  to  Prussia  and  other  states,  but  ob- 
tained valuable  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of 
that  river,  including  Mentz  and  Bingen.  In 
1828  he  joined  the  Prussian  customs  union,  by 
which  he  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  more  general  union,  which  culmina- 
ted eventually  in  the  Zollverein.  Soon  after 
the  accession  of  Louis  II.,  political  riots  fol- 
lowed the  French  revolution  of  1830,  which 
were  quelled  by  the  army.  The  revolution  of 
1848  extorted  from  the  grand  duke  the  conces- 
sion of  the  trial  by  jury.  He  appointed  his 
son  as  coregent,  March  5,  1848.  He  died 
June  16,  and  his  son,  the  present  grand  duke 
Louis  III.  (born  June  9,  1806),  succeeded  him. 
In  March,  1866,  the  landgraviate  of  Hesse- 
Homburg,  the  reigning  dynasty  being  extinct, 
was  united  with  Hesse-Darmstadt.  In  June 
of  the  same  year  Hesse-Darmstadt  joined  Aus- 
tria and  the  majority  of  the  federal  diet  in  the 
war  against  Prussia.  In  September  it  concluded 
a  separate  peace  with  Prussia,  in  which  it  en- 
gaged to  pay  an  indemnification  of  $1,200,000 
to  Prussia,  and  to  cede  the  former  landgraviate 
of  Hesse-Homburg,  and  a  small  portion  of  its 
other  territory,  in  exchange  for  which  it  re- 
ceived a  few  places  which  formerly  belonged  to> 
Hesse-Cassel  and  Nassau.  It  also  joined  the- 
North  German  confederation  for  that  part  of 
its  territory  which  is  situated  north  of  the  riv- 
er Main.  A  special  military  convention  with 
Prussia,  by  which  the  army  of  Hesse  became  a 
part  of  the  army  of  the  North  German  confed- 
eration, was  concluded  in  April,  1867.  In  1870 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  like  the  other  states  of  South 
Germany,  joined  Prussia  in  the  war  against 
France,  and  in  November  it  entered  the  Ger- 
man empire,  then  forming,  for  its  entire  terri- 
tory. In  1871  the  unpopular  prime  minister 
Dalwigk  was  dismissed.  The  history  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  has  been  written  by  Walther  (1841) 
and  Steiner  (5  vols.,  1833-'4). 

HESSE,  Adolph  Friedrieh,  a  German  organist, 
born  in  Breslau,  Aug.  30,  1809,  died  there, 
Aug.  5,  1863.  His  father  was  an  organ 
builder,  and  the  son  acquired  at  the  factory  a 
knowledge  of  the  instrument,  and  when  but 
nine  years  of  age  excited  astonishment  by  his 
precocity  as  an  organist.  In  1827  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  organist  at  the  church  of  St. 
Elizabeth.  In  1828  and  1829  he  made  a  con- 
cert tour  through  Germany,  forming  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Spohr  and  Rink,  from  the  latter 
of  whom  he  received  valuable  counsels.  In 
1831  he  became  first  organist  of  the  church  of 
St.  Bernardin.  In  1844  he  went  to  Paris  for 
the  inauguration  of  the  great  organ  of  St.  Eus- 
tache.  His  reputation  was  that  of  one  of  the 
first  organists  of  Europe.  His  compositions 
are  about  80  in  number,  including  six  sympho- 
nies, an  oratorio,  five  overtures,  and  many 


ratec 
it  ce 
area 


I 


HESSE 

positions  for  the  organ,  severe  in  style  but 
great  merit. 

HESSE.  I.  Nicolas  Angnste,  a  French  painter, 
rn  in  Paris  in  1795,  died  in  1869.  He  stud- 
under  Baron  Gros  and  in  Home,  having 
ined  the  grand  prize  in  1868,  acquired  celeb- 
ty  by  his  religious  paintings,  and  succeeded 
lacroix  in  1863  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts, 
is  best  works  are  in  various  churches.  II.  Alex- 
Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  painter,  nephew 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He 
.e  known  in  1833  by  his  picture  executed 
Venice  representing  the  funeral  honors  paid 
Titian,  and  in  1867  he  succeeded  Ingres  in 
e  institute.  His  "Adoption  of  Godfrey  of 
Dillon  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  Comne- 
"  (1842)  is  at  Versailles,  and  one  of  his 
st  pictures,  the  "  Triumph  of  Pisani  "  (1847), 
in  the  Luxembourg.  His  mural  paintings  for 
chapel  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales  in  the  Paris 
urch  of  St.  Sulpice  are  esteemed. 
HESSE- CASSEL  (Ger.  Kurhessen,  Electoral 
Hesse),  a  former  German  electorate,  incorpo- 
rated with  Prussia  in  1866.  At  the  time  when 
ceased  to  be  an  independent  state  it  had  an 
of  3,701  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1864,  of  745.063.  The 
principal  towns  were  Cassel,  Marburg,  Fulda, 
Hanau,  Hersfeld,  Schmalkalden,  and  Rinteln. 
Hesse-Cassel  was  the  elder  branch  of  the 
Hesse  dynasty,  and  was  founded  by  the  eldest 
son  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous,  the  land- 
grave William  IV.,  surnamed  the  Wise  (1567 
1592).  His  grandson,  William  V.,  took  part 
the  Protestant  side  in  the  thirty  years' 
war,  and  his  widow  after  the  restoration  of 
peace  obtained  the  greater  part  of  Schaum- 
burg  and  other  territory.  William  VII.  was 
succeeded  in  1670  by  his  brother  Charles, 
while  another  brother,  Philip,  founded  the 
branch  of  Hesse-Philippsthal.  Charles's  eldest 
son  became,  by  his  marriage  with  Ulrike  Eleo- 
nore,  king  of  Sweden  in  1720.  In  1730  he  as- 
sumed the  government  of  his  native  country  as 
Frederick  I.,  and  was  succeeded  in  1751  by  his 
brother  William  VIII.,  who  fought  in  the  seven 
years'  war  on  the  side  of  Prussia.  His  son,  the 
notorious  Frederick  II.,  became  a  convert  to 
the  church  of  Rome,  and  between  1776  and 
1784  received  over  £3,000,000  by  hiring  his 
soldiers  to  the  English  government  to  fight 
against  the  Americans  in  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence. He  died  in  1785,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  William  IX.,  who  after  1803,  when  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  elector,  reigned 
under  the  name  of  William  I.  Although  recog- 
nized by  Napoleon  as  one  of  the  neutral  princes 
in  1806,  he  was  expelled  from  his  possessions 
after  the  battle  of  Jena,  and  Hesse-Cassel  was 
incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia. 
On  his  return  to  power  in  1813,  he  restored  the 
old  order  of  things.  He  is  identified  with  the 
rise  of  the  Rothschilds,  and  was  the  father  of 
the  Austrian  general  Haynau,  by  his  mistress 
Frau  von  Lindenthal.  He  was  not  popular 
with  his  subjects.  On  his  death  in  1821  he 


HESSE-CASSEL 


707 


was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  elector  William 
II.,  whose  relations  with  his  subjects  became 
seriously  complicated  by  his  connection  with 
the  obnoxious  countess  of  Reichenbach.  Riots 
broke  out  in  1830.  The  countess  left  Cassel, 
and  on  Jan.  9,  1831,  the  elector  promulgated 
the  long  promised  liberal  constitution.  On  the 
return  of  the  countess  fresh  disturbances  arose, 
which  incensed  the  elector  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  also  left  Cassel.  On  his  death  in  1847 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  had  officia- 
ted as  regent  after  his  departure  from  Cassel, 
and  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  under  the 
name  of  Frederick  William  I.  (born  Aug.  20, 
1802).  Yielding  in  1848  to  the  revolutionary 
demand  for  political  reforms,  but  retracing  his 
steps  after  the  reaction  had  set  in,  he  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  to  the  people,  especially 
in  1850,  when  the  unpopular  minister  Hassen- 
pflug  came  into  power  as  premier,  and  Haynau, 
a  nephew  of  the  Austrian  general,  as  minister 
of  war.  So  great  became  the  excitement  that 
the  elector  fled,  and  Hassenpflug  saw  no  other 
means  of  saving  the  crown  than  by  invoking 
the  aid  of  the  other  German  powers.  By  their 
interference  quiet  was  restored,  and  by  their 
negotiation  a  new  constitution  was  promulga- 
ted in  1852,  which  met  with  much  opposition 
on  account  of  its  illiberality.  After  protracted 
agitations  on  the  subject,  a  proposal  in  favor  of 
the  r establishment  of  the  old  constitution  was 
presented  to  the  electors  by  a  vote  of  the  second 
chamber  in  November,  1859.  During  the  war 
excitement  in  1859,  the  chambers  unanimously 
voted  to  join  the  Austrians  against  Napoleon 
III.  On  May  30,  1860,  the  government,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  resolution  of  the  federal  diet 
and  with  the  wishes  expressed  by  the  first 
chamber,  promulgated  the  constitution  of  1852, 
with  the  amendments  adopted  in  1857  and  with 
a  new  electoral  law.  The  new  second  chamber 
protested  against  the  constitutionality  of  the 
new  electoral  law  and  the  validity  of  the  new 
constitution,  and  on  June  21,  1862,  the  federal 
diet,  on  motion  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  en- 
joined upon  the  government  of  Hesse-Cassel 
the  reintroduction  of  the  liberal  constitution 
of  1831  and  the  old  electoral  law  of  1849.  The 
government  of  Hesse-Cassel  at  first  seemed  dis- 
posed to  refuse;  but  when  Prussia  mobilized 
an  army  corps,  it  submitted.  Still  the  quar- 
rels between  the  government  and  the  legisla- 
ture continued  without  interruption.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  of  1866,  the  government 
of  Hesse-Cassel  sided  with  Austria,  while  the 
diet  demanded  that  the  electorate  should  re- 
main neutral.  Immediately  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war,  in  June,  the  Prussians  took  pos- 
session of  the  country ;  and  when  the  elector 
refused  to  join  the  new  confederation  proposed 
by  Prussia,  he  was  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  Stet- 
tin. A  decree  of  Aug.  17  incorporated  the 
electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel  with  the  dominions 
of  Prussia.  In  September,  1868,  the  ex-elec- 
tor sent  a  memorial  to  all  the  courts  of  Europe, 
in  which  he  protested  against  the  forcible  an- 


708 


HESSE-DARMSTADT 


HESSIAN  FLY 


nexation  of  his  state  to  Prussia,  but  without 
effect.  In  1873  the  elector  formally  agreed  to 
the  cession  of  his  territory  to  Prussia,  and  also 
renounced  his  right  to  the  revenues  of  the  elec- 
torate, the  Prussian  government  granting  him 
as  compensation  2,000,000  thalers  annually. 
— Histories  of  Hesse-Cassel  have  been  written 
by  Rommel  (10  vols.,  1828-'58),  Wippermann 
(1850),  and  Roth  (1855).  (See  HESSE,  and 
HESSE-NASSAU.) 

HESSE-DARMSTADT.     See  HESSE,  II. 

HESSE-HOMBURG,  a  former  German  land- 
graviate,  consisting  of  the  province  of  Hom- 
burg,  which  was  surrounded  by  the  territory 
of  Nassau,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Hesse-Cassel,  and 
Frankfort,  and  of  the  more  populous  province 
of  Meisenheim,  which  lay  between  Rhenish 
Prussia,  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  and  the  Old- 
enburg principality  of  Birkenfeld  ;  total  area, 
106  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1864,  27,374,  of  whom  3,000 
were  Roman  Catholics,  about  200  Jews,  and 
the  rest  Protestants.  The  little  state  was 
known  abroad  chiefly  for  the  gambling  tables 
at  the  watering  place  of  Homburg,  the  capital. 
It  belonged  formerly  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and 
became  an  independent  territory  in  1596,  when 
it  was  allotted  to  Frederick  I.  by  his 'father 
George  I.  In  1815  Meisenheim  was  added  to 
its  territory.  In  1830  disturbances  broke  out 
consequent  upon  the  French  revolution.  In 
1835  the  landgrave  joined  the  Zollverein.  A 
liberal  constitution  was  promulgated  in  1848, 
but  withdrawn  in  1852.  The  last  landgrave, 
Ferdinand,  died  on  March  24,  1866,  when  the 
country  reverted  to  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

HESSE-NASSAU,  a  province  of  Prussia,  con- 
sisting of  the  former  electorate  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  the  former  duchy  of  Nassau,  and  the 
former  free  city  of  Frankfort,  all  of  which 
were  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866,  and  a  few 
small  districts  which  were  ceded  by  Bavaria 
and  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse.  It  is  bounded 
by  the  provinces  of  the  Rhine,  Westphalia, 
Hanover,  and  Saxony,  by  Waldeck,  Brunswick, 
the  Thuringian  states,  the  grand  duchy  of 
Hesse,  and  Bavaria;  area,  6,021  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  1,400,370,  of  whom  491,933  were 
Protestants,  371,736  Roman  Catholics,  and  36,- 
390  Jews.  It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Cassel  and  Wiesbaden.  The  chief  towns  are 
Frankfort,  Cassel,  Marburg,  Fulda,  and  Wies- 
baden. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Main, 
with  its  affluent  the  Kinzig,  the  Rhine,  on  the 
western  and  southern  frontiers,  with  the  Lahn, 
and  the  Weser  with  the  Fulda.  The  surface  is 
mainly  mountainous,  the  chief  mountains  be- 
ing the  Spessart,  Rhon,  Westerwald,  Taunus, 
and  offshoots  of  the  Vogelgebirge,  but  it  no- 
where exceeds  a  height  of  3,000  ft.  Prom- 
inent among  the  productions  are  wine  and 
wood;  agriculture  and  cattle  raising  are  ex- 
tensively carried  on.  Among  the  manufac- 
tures, those  of  cloth,  jewelry,  iron,  and  pottery 
are  the  most  flourishing.  The  province  is  noted 
for  the  large  number  of  its  watering  places,  the 
best  known  of  which  are  Ems,  Soden,  Wies- 


baden, Schlangenbad,  and  Schwalbach.  The 
province  was  formed  in  December,  1868.  (See 
HESSE-CASSEL,  NASSAU,  and  FRANKFORT.) 

HESSIAN  FLY,  a  small  gnat  or  midge,  of  the 
order  diptera,  family  cecidomyiadm  or  gall 
gnats,  and  genus  cecidomyia  (Latr.).  It  was 
called  Hessian  fly  from  the  supposition  that  it 
was  brought  to  this  country  in  some  straw  by  the 
Hessian  troops  during  the  revolutionary  war ; 
it  was  scientifically  described  in  1817  by  Mr. 
Say  as  cecidomyia  destructor.  The  body  is 
about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  and  the  ex- 
panse of  wings  one  quarter  of  an  inch  or 
more ;  the  head,,  antennae,  thorax,  and  feet  are 
black ;  the  hind  body  is  tawny,  marked  with 
black  on  each  ring,  and  with  fine  grayish  hairs; 
the  wings  are  blackish,  tawny  at  the  narrow 
base,  fringed  with  short  hairs,  and  rounded  at 
the  tip ;  the  legs  pale  red  or  brownish  ;  the 
egg  tube  rose-colored.  The  antennae  are  long, 
with  bead-like  swellings  most  distinct  in  the 
male,  surrounded  by  whorls  of  short  hairs,  with 
15  to  18  joints,  globular  in  the  male,  oblong 
oval  in  the  female ; 
the  proboscis  is  short, 
without  piercing  bris- 
tles ;  eyes  kidney- 
shaped  ;  legs  long  and 
slender,  with  the  first 
joint  of  the  feet  short ; 
and  the  wings  with  few 
veins.  This  insect,  so 
destructive  in  some 
seasons  in  the  fields  of 
wheat,  barley,  and 
rye,  generally  matures 
two  broods  in  the 
course  of  a  year,  ap- 
pearing in  spring  and 
autumn,  earliest  in  the  southern  states ;  the 
transformations  of  some  are  retarded  in  various 
ways,  so  that  their  life  from  the  egg  to  the  per- 
fect insect  may  be  a  year  or  more,  rendering 
the  continuance  of  the  species  in  after  years 
more  sure.  The  eggs,  about  7V  of  an  inch 
long,  translucent,  and  pale  red,  are  placed  in 
the  longitudinal  creases  of  the  leaves  of  both 
winter  and  spring  wheat  very  soon  after  the 
plants  are  above  the  ground,  to  the  number  of 
20,  30,  or  more  on  a  leaf;  if  the  weather  be 
warm,  they  are  hatched  in  four  or  five  days, 
and  the  larvae,  small  footless  maggots,  tapering 
at  each  end,  and  of  a  pale  red,  crawl  down 
the  leaf  and  fix  themselves  between  it  and 
the  main  stalk,  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  there  remaining  head  downward  till 
their  transformations  are  completed,  nourished 
by  the  juices  of  the  plant,  which  they  obtain 
by  suction.  Two  or  three  larvoa  thus  placed 
will  canse  the  plant  to  wither  and  die.  In 
about  six  weeks  they  attain  their  full  size,  ^ 
of  an  inch  long,  when  the  skin  gradually  hard- 
ens and  becomes  of  a  bright  chestnut  color, 
about  the  1st  of  December  in  the  autumn  brood, 
and  in  June  or  July  in  the  spring  brood.  In 
the  beginning  of  this,  the  pupa  state,  they  look 


cu 

ph 


HESYCHIUS 

ke  flax  seed ;  in  two  or  three  weeks  the  insect 
within  becomes  detached  from  the  leathery 
skin,  and  lies  loosely  in  it,  a  motionless  grub  ; 
within  this  it  gradually  advances  toward  the 
winged  state  about  the  end  of  April  or  be- 
ginning of  May,  according  to  the  warmth  of 
the  weather.  When  mature,  it  breaks  through 
this  case,  enveloped  in  a  delicate  skin,  which 
soon  splits  on  the  back,  setting  the  perfect  in- 
sect at  liberty.  Many  of  those  laid  by  the 
spring  brood  are  left  in  the  stubble,  and  remain 
unchanged  until  the  following  spring ;  some, 

wever,  do  not  get  so  low  on  the  stalk  as  to 

out  of  the  way  of  the  sickle,  and  thus  with 
straw  may  be  transported  long  distances, 

d  might  have  been  brought  in  the  flax-seed 
across  the  Atlantic  from  Europe.  The 
perfect  insects,  though  small,  are  active  and 
fly  considerable  distances  in  search  of  fields  of 
grain.  The  insect  supposed  to  be  the  Hessian 
fly,  which  Miss  Morris  found  laying  its  eggs  in 
the  seeds  of  wheat  instead  of  on  the  leaves, 
she  afterward  ascertained  to  be  another  species, 
which  she  called  0,  culmicola.  This  destruc- 
tive insect  was  first  observed  in  1776  on  Staten 

md,  near  the  place  of  debarkation  of  the 

essian  troops  under  the  command  of  Sir  Wil- 
Howe;  thence  it  spread  to  Long  Island, 
southern  New  York,  and  Connecticut,  proceed- 
ing inland  at  the  rate  of  about  20  miles  a  year ; 
it  was  seen  at  Saratoga,  170  miles  from  Staten 
island,  in  1789,  and  west  of  the  Alleghanies  in 
1797;  so  great  was  the  destruction,  that  the 

Itivation  of  wheat  was  abandoned  in  many 
ilaces.  Burning  the  stubble  in  wheat,  rye, 
and  barley  fields,  afterward  ploughing  and  har- 
rowing the  land,  appears  to  be  the  best  method 
of  getting  rid  of  this  insect;  steeping  the 
grain,  rolling  it  in  plaster  or  lime,  or  other 
methods  of  securing  a  rapid  and  vigorous 
growth,  sowing  the  fields  with  wood  ashes 
and  feeding  off  the  crop  by  cattle  in  the  au- 
tumn, are  useful  accessory  means.  Various 
minute  parasitic  insects,  of  the  hymenopterous 
order,  similar  in  their  habits  to  the  ichneumon 
flies,  destroy  a  very  large  proportion  of  every 
generation  of  the  Hessian  fly,  preying  upon 
their  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupse.  The  insect  which 
commits  such  depredations  on  the  wheat  crops 
of  Great  Britain,  G.  tritici  (Kirby),  will  be 
described  under  WHEAT  FLY.  For  details  on 
the  history,  habits,  and  transformations  of  the 
Hessian  fly,  the  reader  is  referred  to  "Insects 
Injurious  to  Vegetation,"  by  Dr.  T.  M.  Harris. 

HESYCHIUS.  I.  Saint,  an  Egyptian  bishop, 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  3d  century,  died 
in  Alexandria  in  311.  He  published  an  edi- 
tion of  the  New -Testament  mentioned  by  St. 
Jerome,  as  well  as  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Septuagint,  both  of  which  were  in  general  use 
throughout  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries. He  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  perse- 
cution begun  by  Diocletian,  shortly  before  its 
termination.  II.  Of  Alexandria,  a  Greek  lexicog- 
rapher, born  in  Alexandria  about  350.  His 
personal  history  is  unknown.  He  left  a  lexicon 


HETEROOEROAL 


709 


considered  to  be  of  inestimable  value.  Some 
critics  say  that  this  work  is  based  on  a  lexicon 
composed  in  the  1st  century  by  Pamphilus  of 
Alexandria,  and  abridged  later  by  Diogenianus. 
One  manuscript  of  the  work  exists  in  St.  Mark's 
library  at  Venice;  and  according  to  Kopitar 
(Hesychii  Glossographi  Discipulm  Rvssus,  Vi- 
enna, 1839),  inedited  manuscripts  of  St.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  in  several  European  libraries 
reproduce  the  work  of  Hesychius.  The  first 
edition  was  that  of  Musurus  (Venice,  1514) ; 
the  best  is  that  of  Johann  Alberti  and  David 
Euhnken  (Leyden,  1746-1766;  reedited  by 
Schmidt,  4  vols.  4to,  Jena,  1857-'64).  HI.  Of 
Jerusalem,  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  writer,  born 
in  Jerusalem,  died  in  Constantinople  about 
434.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  and 
ordained  priest  in  Constantinople,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  principal 
works  are:  In  L&viticum  Libri  VII  (Latin, 
Basel,  1527;  Paris,  1581;  the  Greek  text  is 
lost)  ;  Siv^pov  (or  Ke^dAam)  ruv  16'  UpofijT&v 
nal  'Haatov  (Augsburg,  1602);  'H  'Evayye^iK^ 
I,vfj.(j)uvia  (in  Combefis's  Grceco-Latince  Patrum 
Biblioihecce,  Notum  Auctarium,  Paris,  1648). 
His  complete  works  are  published  in  vol.  xciii. 
of  Migne's  Patrologie  grecque.  Among  his 
lost  works  is  a  church  history.  IV.  Of  Miletus, 
called  the  Illustrious,  a  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Miletus  in  Ionia  about  470,  died  about  530. 
Very  little  is  known  of  his  life.  His  only  ex- 
isting work  is  one  on  celebrated  teachers,  Tlepl 
T&V  h  ILaitieia  "ka^avr^v  (Antwerp,  1572,  with 
a  translation  by  Hadrianus  Junius).  Meursius 
in  his  Hesychii  Opuscula  (Leyden,  1613;  Leip- 
sic,  1820)  published  a  fragment,  Tlarpia  Kuva- 
TavTivovTrdfauc,  believed  to  be  the  6th  book  of  a 
universal  history  from  Belus  to  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Anastasius  I.,  518.  Photius  and  Suidas 
mention  this  work  with  praise. 

HETEROCERCAL.  All  palaeozoic  and  most 
mesozoic  fishes  had  a  vertebrated  tail,  the  ver- 
tebrsB  extending  to  its  extremity,  instead  of 
stopping  short  at  its  commencement  as  in  almost 
all  existing  fishes.  As  the  vertebral  column 
extended  into  the  upper  lobe  of  the  taD,  the 
two  lobes  were  une- 
qual, sometimes  very 
much  so ;  hence  such 
were  called  by  Agassiz 
heterocercal  or  une- 
ventailed  fishes,  while 
those  of  the  ordinary 
form,  the  even-tailed, 
were  called  homocer- 
cal.  The  placoids  (se- 
lachians or  sharks)  and 
the  ganoids  (sturgeons 
and  gar  pike),  both  the 
extinct  and  living  species,  had  heterocercal 
tails ;  while  ordinary  fishes  (ctenoids  and  cy- 
cloids), from  the  oolite  to  the  present  time, 
have  the  lobes  of  the  tail  nearly  or  quite  equal. 
This  has  been  regarded  as  a  mark  of  the  sau- 
roid  character  of  the  early  fishes ;  with  other 
peculiarities,  it  indicates  the  high  position  of 


1.  Heterocercal  (Shark). 

2.  Homocercal  (Salmon). 


710 


HETEROPODA 


HEYNE 


these  ancient  but  seemingly  prophetic  types, 
and  is  among  the  facts  that  are  difficult  to  ex- 
plain on  the  Darwinian  theory  of  development. 

HETEROPODA.     See  NUCLEOBRANCHIATES. 

HETEROPTERA.     See  HEMIPTEEA. 

HETMAff.     See  ATTAMAN. 

HEUGLIN,  Theodor  von,  baron,  a  German 
traveller,  born  at  Hirschlanden,  Wtirtemberg, 
March  20,  1824.  He  studied  natural  history 
and  pharmacy,  travelled  through  Europe,,  and 
went  in  1850  to  Egypt,  and  explored  Arabia 
Petraea  and  the  shores  of  the  Red  sea.  Hav- 
ing been  appointed  in  1852  secretary  to  Dr. 
Reitz,  Austrian  consul  at  Khartoom,  he  ac- 
companied him  to  Abyssinia.  Reitz  having 
died,  Von  Heuglin  succeeded  him  as  consul, 
and  continued  his  explorations  in  the  region 
of  the  White  Nile.  In  1856  he  visited  Greece 
and  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1860  he 
took  charge  of  an  expedition  in  search  of  the 
traveller  Edward  Vogel.  After  searching  in 
the  Galla  country  and  parts  of  Abyssinia,  he 
returned  to  Khartoom  in  July,  1862.  Early 
in  1863  he  set  out  with  Steudner  to  reexplore 
the  course  of  the  White  Nile.  In  1865  he 
.returned  to  Europe.  In  1870-"T1  he  made  an 
exploration  of  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla, 
the  general  results  of  which  are  given  by  Spo- 
rer  in  Petermann's  Mitiheilungen  for  1873. 
His  works  include  Reisen  in  Nbrdostafrika 
(Gotha,  1857) ;  Reise  nach  Abessinien  und  den 
Oallalandern  (Jena,  1868)  ;  OrnitJtologie  Nord- 
ostafrilcas  (Cassel,  1868  et  seq.} ;  and  Reise  in 
das  G-ebiet  der  westlichen  Zuflmse  des  Weissen 
Nil  (Leipsic,  1869). 

HEVELIUS  (HEWEL,  or  HEWELKE),  Johannes, 
a  Polish  astronomer,  born  in  Dantzic,  Jan.  28, 
1611,  died  there,  Jan.  28,  1688.  He  was  of 
noble  birth,  studied  at  Leyden,  applied  himself 
to  improving  optical  instruments,  and  estab- 
lished in  his  house  a  private  press  from  which 
most  of  his  works  were  issued.  He  was  cho- 
sen councillor  in  1651.  In  1641  he  construct- 
ed an  observatory,  called  Stellaeburgum,  which 
he  provided  with  instruments  chiefly  of  his 
own  manufacture.  In  1679  he  was  visited  by 
Halley,  whom  the  royal  society  of  London 
had  requested  to  examine  his  observations.  In 
that  year  his  observatory  was  burned  down, 
with  his  library  and  many  of  his  manuscripts. 
He  soon  rebuilt  it,  and  continued  his  astronom- 
ical pursuits  till  his  death.  As  an  observer  he 
ranked  next  to  Flamsteed  among  the  astron- 
omers of  his  age.  His  works  include  Selenogra- 
phia  (1647),  Cometographia  (1668),  Machina 
Ccelestis(l673-9),  Firmamentum  Sobiescianum 
(1690),  and  Prodrome  Astronomm  (1691). 

IIEVES.  I.  A  central  county  of  Hungary, 
bordering  on  the  counties  of  Gomor,  Borsod, 
Szabolcs,  B6k6s,  Csongrad,  and  Pesth ;  area, 
2,546  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869,  332,613,  of  whom 
the  great  majority  were  Magyars.  It  is  water- 
ed by  the  Theiss,  Zagyva,  Erlau,  and  Tarna. 
Its  chief  products  are  wine,  corn,  and  tobac- 
co ;  and  it  has  a  considerable  manufacturing 
industry  and  a  brisk  trade.  Capital,  Erlau. 


II.  A  town  of  the  preceding  county,  55  m.  E. 
N.  E.  of  Pesth  ;  pop.  in  1869,  5,703.  The  in- 
habitants produce  wine,  corn,  and  tobacco. 

HEWES,  Joseph,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Kings- 
ton, N.  J.,  in  1730,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Nov. 
10,  1779.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  col- 
lege, and  went  to  Philadelphia  to  engage  in 
mercantile  business.  About  1760  he  removed 
to  North  Carolina,  and  settled  in  Edenton,  and 
in  1774  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  general 
congress  at  Philadelphia.  Soon  after  taking 
his  seat  he  was  appointed  on  a  committee  to 
"  state  the  rights  of  the  colonies  in  general,  the 
several  instances  in  which  those  rights  are  vio- 
lated or  infringed,  and  the  means  most  proper 
to  be  pursued  for  obtaining  a  restoration  of 
them,"  and  aided  in  the  preparation  of  its  re- 
port. The  congress  adjourned  in  October,  and 
a  new  one  met  in  the  succeeding  May,  of  which 
Mr.  Hewes  was  again  chosen  a  member,  and 
served  on  many  important  committees  during 
!775-'6.  In  1777  he  declined  a  reelection,  but 
resumed  his  seat  in  July,  1779. 

HEYDEN,  Jan  van  der,  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Gorkum  about  1637,  died  in  Amsterdam  in 
1712.  His  best  works  represent  the  most  pic- 
turesque views  and  public  buildings  of  Am- 
sterdam and  other  cities  of  the  Netherlands, 
Germany,  and  England.  He  was  a  master  of 
chiaroscuro  and  perspective,  and  his  paint- 
ings were  generally  embellished  with  figures  by 
Adrian  van  der  Velde  and  by  Lingelbach.  The 
finish  of  his  productions  was  remarkable.  He 
was  director  of  fire-extinguishing  companies, 
and  in  1690  published  an  illustrated  work  on 
his  improvements  in  fire  engines. 

HEYLIPf,  Peter,  an  English  theologian,  born 
in  Burford,  Oxfordshire,  in  1600,  died  in  Lon- 
don, May  8,  1662.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, read  lectures  on  history  and  geography, 
was  made  D.D.,  and  in  1629  was  nominated, 
at  the  request  of  Laud,  one  of  the  chaplains  in 
ordinary  to  the  king.  He  was  a  zealous  royal- 
ist, and  in  the  time  of  the  rebellion  his  property 
was  confiscated  by  the  parliament,  and  he  him- 
self was  obliged  to  fly  to  Oxford,  where  he 
edited  the  journal  called  Mercurius  Aulicm 
till  1645.  On  the  restoration  he  was  appointed 
sub-dean  of  Westminster  by  Charles  II.  His 
writings  comprise  about  37  works,  chiefly  on 
church  history  and  polemics.  Some  of  them 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  his  "  Ec- 
clesia  Restaurata,  History  of  the  Reformation 
of  the  Church  of  England,"  with  his  life  by  his 
son-in-law  John  Barnard,  D.  D.,  was  reprinted 
in  1849  (2  vols.  8vo,  Cambridge). 

HEYNE,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  Sept.  25, 1729, 
died  in  Gottingen,  July  14,  1812.  He  studied 
philology  and  the  classics  at  Leipsic,  and  after- 
ward obtained  at  Dresden  a  situation  as  under 
secretary  in  the  library  of  the  minister  Bruhl, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Winckehnann, 
then  a  young,  poor  student  like  himself.  In 
1763  he  was  appointed  to  fill  the  chair  of  elo^ 


HEYSE 

lence  and  poetry  in  the  university  of  Gottin- 
m,  and  he  remained  connected  with  that  in- 
titution  till  his  death.  He  published  his  views 
the  manner  of  studying  the  ancient  authors 
his  edition  of  the  Apollodori  Bibliotheca  (4 
rols.,  Gottingen,  1782),  and  in  several  essays, 
rhich  appeared  in  the  "Transactions  of  the 
Iniversity  of  Gottingen."  He  was  made  chief 
ibrarian  of  the  library  of  Gottingen,  perpetu- 
1  secretary  of  the  royal  society,  and  foreign 
iber  of  the  institute  of  France.  Both  as  a 
ler  and  writer  he  powerfully  contributed 
ward  the  dissemination  of  a  profound  and 
lilosophical  knowledge  of  antiquity.  Hepub- 
led  editions  of  Tibullus  (Leipsic,  1755),  Epic- 
jtus  (1756),  Virgil  (4  vols.,  1767-'75),  Pindar 
vols.,  Gottingen,  1773-'4),  the  Iliad  (8  vols., 
ipsic,  1802),  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other  clas- 
sic authors.  His  life  has  been  written  by  his 
i-in-law  Heeren. 

HEYSE.     I.  Karl  Wilhelm  Lndwig,  a  German 
ilologist,  born  in  Oldenburg,  Oct.  15,  1797, 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  25,  1855.    He  was  for 
years  a  teacher  in  the  family  of  Men- 
:>hn-Bartholdy,  and  subsequently  was  a 
jrofessor  at  the  university  of  Berlin.     He  pre- 
new  editions  of  popular  German  gram- 
lars  and  dictionaries  by  his  father,  Johann 
iristian  August  (1764-1829),  and  published 
jveral  similar  works.     His  most  valuable  con- 
ibution  to  philology  was  edited  after  his  death 
Steindthal  under  the  title  of  System  der 
issenschaft  (Berlin,  1856).     II.  Johann 
idwig  Paul,  a  German  author,  son  of  the  pre- 
ling,  born  in  Berlin,  March  15,  1830.     He 
lied  in  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Italy,  and  in  1854 
icame  a  permanent  resident  of  Munich,  at 
the  request  of  the  king  Maximilian  II.     He 
married  in  the  same  year  a  daughter  of  the  art 
historian  Kugler.     Numerous  collections  of  his 
novels  in  verse  and  prose  have  appeared,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish.    A  fifth  edition  of  his  Neue  Novellen  was 
published  in  1874.     One  of  his  finest  poems  is 
Thekla  (Stuttgart,  1858),  and  his  best  known 
plays  are  Franzesca  von  Rimini  (Berlin,  1850), 
Die  Sabinerinnen  (1859),  and  Ludwig  der  Ba- 
yer (1866),  contained  in  his  Dramatische  Dich- 
tungen  (6  vols.,  1870).     His  latest  and  best 
novel  is  Die  Kinder  der  Welt  (1873). 

HEYWARD,  Thomas,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  St. 
Luke's,  S.  C.,  in  1746,  died  in  March,  1809. 
After  completing  his  classical  and  legal  studies 
in  London,  he  returned  home,  and  began  the 
practice  of  the  law.  He  was  a  member  of 
congress  in  l775-'6,  was  appointed  judge  in 
1778,  and  the  next  year  was  reflected  to  con- 
gress. In  1780  he  was  made  a  prisoner  in 
Charleston,  where  he  had  commanded  a  body 
of  militia,  and  was  sent  to  St.  Augustine.  He 
continued  in  public  life  as  a  judge  till  1798. 

HEYWOOD,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  England, 
on  a  branch  of  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  rail- 
way, 8  m.  N.  of  Manchester;  pop.  in  1871, 
21,248.  It  has  extensive  and  flourishing  manu- 


HIACOOMES 


711 


factories  of  cotton ;  there  are  also  machine  and 
boiler  works,  iron  founderies,  and  paper  mills 

HEYWOOD,  John,  an  English  humorist,  born 
probably  at  North  Mims,  near  St.  Albans,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  died  in  Mech- 
lin in  1565.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
became  a  favorite  of  Henry  VIII.  and  subse- 
quently of  Queen  Mary.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  humorous  "interludes,"  the  best 
known  of  which,  perhaps,  is  "  The  Four  P's," 
and  of  a  burlesque  allegory  called  "  The  Spider 
and  the  Fly."  From  his  "Six  Centuries  of 
Epigrams,"  he  has  been  called  the  epigrammist. 
A  new  edition  of  his  "Proverbs,"  by  Julian 
Sharman,  was  published  in  London  in  1874 

HEYWOOD,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
16th  century,  died  about  1650.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  and  was  an  actor  as  well 
as  a  writer.  He  wrote  the  whole  or  the  great- 
er part  of  220  plays,  of  which  but  23  survive. 
Some  of  them,  such  as  "  A  Woman  Killed  with 
Kindness"  and  "The  Four  London  Prentices," 
are  not  inferior  to  the  productions  of  Massin- 
ger,  Ford,  and  others  of  his  contemporaries. 
Charles  Lamb  calls  him  "a  sort  of  prose 
Shakespeare."  The  first  complete  edition  of 
his  dramatic  works  was  published  in  1874  (6 
vols.,  London). 

HEZEKIAH,  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his 
father  Ahaz  about  727  B.  C.,  when  he  was  25 
years  old,  died  about  698.  Following  the  in- 
junctions of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  on  his  acces- 
sion he  took  measures  to  break  up  the  idola- 
trous customs  into  which  the  people  had  fallen 
during  the  life  of  his  father,  and  to  repair  the 
losses  and  defeats  they  had  suffered.  Early  in 
his  reign  the  Assyrians  invaded  the  neighbor- 
ing kingdom  of  Israel,  and  carried  away  the 
ten  tribes  to  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris; 
but  notwithstanding  the  power  and  threats 
of  the  conquerors,  Hezekiah  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge subjection  to  Assyria,  or  to  pay 
the  tribute  which  had  been  imposed  and  paid 
during  the  reign  of  his  father.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  Assyrian  king  Sennacherib  invaded 
his  kingdom;  but  after  various  exploits  his 
army  met  with  a  sudden  destruction,  and  the 
survivors  precipitately  retreated.  About  this 
time  he  was  seized  by  a  dangerous  illness,  the 
unexpected  recovery  from  which  he  celebrated 
in  a  poetical  "  writing  "  preserved  in  the  book 
of  Isaiah  (xxxviii.).  A  messenger  having  been 
sent  by  the  king  of  Babylon  to  compliment 
him  on  his  restoration  to  health,  the  king  of 
Judah  displayed  before  him  his  accumulated 
treasures;  and  for  this  he  was  informed  by 
Isaiah  that  from  Babylon,  and  not  from  As- 
syria, would  come  the  ruin  and  captivity  of 
Judah.  He  ended  his  reign  in  peace. 

HIACOOMES,  the  first  Indian  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity in  New  England,  born  about  1610,  died 
in  Martha's  Vineyard  about  1690.  He  was 
converted  under  the  preaching  of  the  mission- 
ary Thomas  Mayhew,  and  having  been  taught 
to  read,  he  began  in  1653  to  preach  to  his 


712 


HIBBARD 


HIBERNATION 


brethren  in  Martha's  Vineyard.  He  succeeded 
in  making  a  number  of  converts  among  them, 
notwithstanding  the  menaces  directed  against 
him  by  the  Indian  priests.  In  August,  1670, 
an  Indian  church  was  formed  at  Martha's 
Vineyard,  and  Hiacoomes  became  its  pastor. 

HIBBARI),  Freeborn  Garretson,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
22,  1811.  At  the  age  of  18  he  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in 
the  New  York  conference,  and  continued  in 
this  work,  chiefly  in  western  New  York,  from 
1830  to  1860,  when  he  was  elected  editor  of 
the  "Northern  Christian  Advocate"  at  Au- 
burn. In  1864  he  resumed  the  active  pastorate. 
Dr.  Hibbard's  principal  works  are :  "  Baptism, 
its  Import,  Mode,  Efficacy,  and  relative  Order  " 
(New  York,  1841) ;  "  Geography  and  History 
of  Palestine"  (1845);  "The  Psalms,  chronolo- 
gically arranged,  with  Historical  Introductions, 
and  a  General  Introduction  to  the  whole  Book  " 
(1852);  and  "The  Religion  of  Childhood,  or 
Children  in  their  Relation  to  Native  Depravity, 
to  the  Atonement,  to  the  Family,  and  to  the 
Church"  (1864).  He  has  also  edited  "The 
"Works  of  the  Rev.  Leonidas  L.  Hamline, 
D.  D."  (1872). 

HIBERNATION  (Lat.  hibernare,  to  stay  in 
winter  quarters),  generally  understood  as  the 
condition  of  lethargy,  in  which  many  animals 

Sass  the  cold  season.  The  sources  of  their 
aily  food  being  at  this  time  cut  off,  they  sink 
into  a  deep  sleep,  in  which  nutriment  is  un- 
necessary, and  so  remain  until  the  warm 
weather  of  spring ;  a  remarkable  provision  for 
the  preservation  of  animals  which  would  oth- 
erwise perish  from  cold  and  hunger.  Among 
the  animals  in  which  this  state  has  been  no- 
ticed are  the  bat,  hedgehog,  dormouse,  hamster, 
marmot,  and  other  rodents ;  chelonians,  sauri- 
ans,  ophidians,  and  batrachians ;  and  some  fish- 
es (like  the  eel),  mollusks,  and  insects.  The 
phenomena  of  hibernation,  however,  are  not 
confined  to  the  winter  season,  and  are  not 
necessarily  connected  with  a  low  degree  of  ex- 
ternal temperature;  the  bats,  in  the  summer 
time,  present  these  phenomena  regularly  every 
24  hours;  the  tenrec,  a  nocturnal  insectivo- 
rous mammal,  though  living  in  the  torrid  zone, 
according  to  Cuvier,  passes  three  of  the  hot- 
test months  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  lethargy. 
The  influence  of  cold  in  producing  this  state  is 
due  only  to  its  tendency  to  cause  sleep,  and  if 
carried  too  far,  instead  of  inducing  the  physio- 
logical condition  of  hibernation,  leads  to  the 
pathological  one  of  torpor,  and  even  death. 
According  to  Marshall  Hall  ("  Cyclopaedia  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article  "  Hiberna- 
tion"), the  quantity  of  respiration  is  inversely 
as  the  degree  of  irritability  of  the  muscular 
fibre,  the  former  being  measured  by  the  amount 
of  oxygen  inspired,  and  the  latter  by  that  of 
the  galvanic  force  necessary  to  demonstrate  its 
existence.  Birds  have  a  high  respiration  and  a 
low  muscular  irritability ;  reptiles,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  a  high  degree  of  irritability  and  a 


low  respiration.  This  is  true  also  of  the  pro- 
gressive development  of  animals  from  the  im- 
mature to  the  perfect  state,  in  which  the  change 
is  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  respiration,  and 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  muscular  irritability. 
In  sleep,  and  especially  in  the  profound  sleep  of 
hibernation,  the  respiration  is  diminished  and 
the  irritability  increased.  Sleep  and  hiberna- 
tion are  similar  periodical  phenomena,  differ- 
ing only  in  degree,  and  the  latter  is  extraordi- 
nary only  because  less  familiar  than  the  former ; 
the  ordinary  sleep  of  the  hedgehog  and  dor- 
mouse, and  of  the  bat  in  summer,  is  a  diurnal 
hibernation,  ceasing  daily  at  the  call  of  hun- 
ger, and  accompanied  by  a  diminution  of  respi- 
ration and  animal  heat;  and  this  sleep  may 
pass  into  true  hibernation  as  the  blood  becomes 
more  venous  in  the  brain,  and  the  muscular 
fibres  of  the  heart  acquire  increased  irritability. 
In  perfect  hibernation  the  process  of  -sanguifi- 
cation is  nearly  or  entirely  arrested ;  the  bat 
takes  no  food,  and  passes  no  excretions  from 
the  intestines  or  kidneys;  but  the  dormouse 
awakes  daily,  and  the  hedgehog  every  two  or 
three  days,  in  a  temperature  of  40°  to  45°  F., 
and  they  take  food  and  pass  excretions,  and  sub- 
side again  into  their  lethargy.  Respiration  is 
also  very  nearly  or  entirely  suspended  in  perfect 
hibernation,  as  has  been  experimentally  proved 
by  the  absence  of  all  external  respiratory 
acts,  by  the  unchanged  condition  of  the  sur- 
rounding air,  by  the  diminution  of  the  animal 
heat  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  by  the  ca- 
pability of  supporting  the  entire  privation  of 
air  or  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  and  other  ir- 
respirable  gases.  The  circulation,  though  very 
slow,  is  continuous,  and  the  heart  beats  regu- 
larly ;  the  blood,  from  the  absence  of  respira- 
tion, is  entirely  venous,  bnt  the  increased  mus- 
cular irritability  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart  permits  it  to  contract  under  the  slight 
and  usually  insufficient  stimulus  of  a  non-oxy- 
genated blood ;  it  is  the  exaltation  of  this  single 
vital  property  which  preserves  life  and  renders 
hibernation  possible,  forming  the  only  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule  of  the  circulation  in 
animals  which  possess  a  double  heart ;  the 
slow  circulation  of  a  venous  blood  keeps  up  a 
state  of  lethargy  induced  by  a  diminished  res- 
piration. Sensation  and  volition  are  quiescent, 
as  the  brain  and  its  sensory  ganglia  are  asleep, 
but  the  true  spinal  or  excito-motory  system  is 
awake  and  its  energies  are  unimpaired,  as  is 
shown  by  the  facility  with  which  respiration 
is  excited  by'touching  or  irritating  the  animal ; 
muscular  motility  is  also  unimpaired  in  this 
state ;  the  action  of  the  heart  has  been  found 
to  continue  about  ten  hours  in  an  animal  in  the 
state  of  hibernation,  in  which  the  brain  had 
been  removed  and  the  spinal  marrow  destroyed, 
while  in  the  same  animal  in  a  natural  state  it 
ceases  after  two  hours.  "With  such  an  irri- 
table condition  of  the  heart,  the  introduction 
into  it  of  an  arterial  or  oxygenated  blood  from 
respiration  would  soon  cause  death  from  over 
stimulation;  and  as  trifling  causes  are  sufficient 


an 
raJ 


HIBERNATION 

excite  the  respiratory  act,  hibernating  ani- 
als  adopt  various  means  of  securing  them- 
Ives  from  disturbance  ;  bats  retire  to  the  re- 
es  of  gloomy  caverns,  where  they  hang  sus- 
nded  by  the  claws  of  the  hind  feet,  head 
ownward ;  the  hedgehog  and  the  dormouse 
roll  themselves  into  a  ball;  tortoises  burrow  in 
the  earth,  frogs  and  eels  plunge  under  the  mud, 
d  snakes  twist  themselves  together  in  natu- 
,1  or  artificial  crevices  and  holes  in  the  ground. 
The  call  of  hunger  and  the  warmth  of  return- 
ing spring  arouse  all  these  from  their  winter 
retreats,  the  irritability  gradually  diminishing 
as  the  respiration  becomes  active.  Extreme 
cold  will  rouse  a  hibernating  animal  from  its 
lethargy  and  speedily  kill  it ;  hence  many  ani- 
mals congregate  in  carefully  prepared  nests, 
and  others,  like  the  snakes,  entwine  themselves 
for  mutual  protection  from  cold.  The  state  of 
hibernation,  or  that  in  which  the  stimulus  of 
venous  blood  is  sufficient  to  continue  the  heart's 
action,  finds  a  parallel  in  some  cases  of  disease 
accompanied  by  lethargy,  in  which  revival  has 
occurred  after  supposed  suspended  animation, 
and  in  others  in  which  actual  death  has  been 
delayed  for  days  after  the  apparent  cessation 
of  respiration  and  circulation ;  the  causes  of 
this  condition,  which  might  throw  much  light 
on  the  kinds  and  phenomena  of  death,  have  not 
been  fully  investigated  in  the  human  subject. 
The  torpor  produced  by  extreme  cold,  though 
sleep  be  always  induced,  is  very  different  from 
true  hibernation ;  the  former  is  attended  with 
diminished  sensation  and  rigidity  of  the  mus- 
cles, and  if  prolonged  ends  in  arrest  of  the  cir- 
culation and  death ;  the  latter,  in  which  sensa- 
tion and  motility  are  unimpaired,  has  for  its 
object  the  preservation  of  life  ;  the  hibernating 
bat  or  dormouse  is  aroused  from  its  sleep  by 
too  great  cold,  and  is  destroyed  by  it  like  any 
other  animal.  Most  animals  lay  up  a  store  of 
fat  under  the  skin,  which  is  slowly  absorbed 
during  hibernation ;  in  the  frogs,  and  probably 
in  many  reptiles,  the  adipose  accumulation 
takes  place  within  the  abdominal  cavity  in  the 
folds  of  the  peritoneum,  for  a  similar  purpose. 
The  phenomena  of  insect  hibernation  are  very 
interesting  in  all  stages  of  growth ;  many  pass 
the  winter  in  this  condition,  both  above  and 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  eggs  and 
chrysalids  have  been  known  to  withstand  a 
temperature  several  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point  of  water.  It  is  well  known  that  many 
species  of  fish  may  become  stiff  from  cold  and 
yet  not  perish,  but  actual  congelation  is  fatal ; 
in  the  so-called  frozen  fishes  which  have  re- 
vived in  warm  water,  there  must  have  been  a 
low  degree  of  vital  action  in  the  organs  of  cir- 
culation. In  batrachians  the  necessary  respi- 
ration may  be  effected  entirely  through  the 
skin,  in  the  hibernating  state.  The  lower  ani- 
mals generally  seem  to  possess  a  remarkable 
power  of  resisting  cold,  and  may  be  reduced  to 
a  condition  of  apparent  death,  without  the  irri- 
tability of  hibernation,  and  yet  not  identical 
with  the  torpidity  usually  produced  by  cold. 


HIBISCUS  713 

HIBERNIA,     See  IKELA.ND. 

HIBISCUS,  the  rose  mallow,  a  genus  of  mal- 
vacece,  the  mallow  family,  which  differs  from 
the  common  representatives  of  that  family  in 
having  its  fruit  a  pod,  which  is  five-celled,  and 
at  maturity  splits  through  the  five  valves  with- 
out leaving  a  central  axis.  The  flowers,  which 
are  large  and  showy,  have  the  general  struc- 
ture peculiar  to  the  order,  as  in  the  single 
hollyhock;  immediately  beneath  the  calyx  is 
an  involucre  of  numerous  narrow  bracts.  The 
genus  includes  about  150  species  of  herbs, 
shrubs,  and  even  trees,  and  is  more  abundant 
in  tropical  than  temperate  climates.  The  name 
is  an  ancient  one  of  obscure  meaning.  The 
most  common  native  species  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  is^  IT.  Moscheutos,  the  swamp  rose 
mallow,  which  is  often  very  abundant  in  brack- 
ish marshes  and  along  rivers  far  beyond  the 
reach  of  salt  water ;  it  is  also  found  inland 
in  the  vicinity  of  salt  springs.  As  it  grows 


Hibiscus  Moscheutos. 

from  4  to  7  ft.  high,  and  has  numerous  pink 
(rarely  white)  blossoms  5  or  6  in.  across,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  noticeable  of  midsummer 
flowers.  The  three-lobed  leaves  are  downy 
and  soft  to  the  touch.  This  is  an  herbaceous 
species,  sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens,  and 
by  nurserymen  under  the  name  of  H.  palustris. 
Like  other  plants  of  the  family,  this  has  a 
strong  fibrous  inner  bark,  and  about  ten  years 
ago  there  was  an  attempt  at  speculating  in  the 
seeds  and  plants  at  high  prices  under  the  name 
of  American  jute.  It  was  asserted  that  it 
could  be  profitably  cultivated  for  its  fibre, 
which  was  said  to  be  as  valuable  as  jute  ;  but 
it  has  not  yet  found  a  place  among  the  fibres 
of  commerce.  H.  grandiflonis,  with  flowers  a 
foot  wide,  H.  militari*,  with  halberd-shaped 
leaves,  and  H.  coccineus,  with  large  bright 
scarlet  flowers,  are  among  the'  tall-growing 
native  species  found  in  the  southern  states. 
H.  trionum,  the  bladder-ketmia  or  flower-of- 


714 


HICCOUGH 


HICKMAN 


an-hour,  a  smaller  European  species,  has  sul- 
phur-yellow flowers  with  a  blackish  eye,  and 
was  formerly  cultivated  in  gardens,  where  it 
became  naturalized  and  now  remains  as  a  weed. 
H.  esculentus  is  cultivated  for  its  edible  pods. 
(See  OKBA.)  The  best  known  of  the  shrubby 
species  is  H.  Syriacus,  which  was  introduced 
into  cultivation  from  the  Levant  over  two  cen- 
turies ago.  It  is  known  in  gardens  and  nur- 
sery catalogues  as  the  shrubby  althaea,  the  old 
name  for  it  being  althaea  frutex;  it  is  also 
called  rose  of  Sharon,  a  name  that  appears  to 
be  peculiar  to  this  country.  If  left  to  itself, 
this  will  form  a  tall  unshapely  shrub  10  ft.  or 
more  high,  with  long  swaying  branches ;  it  is 
usually  kept  closely  pruned,  and  when  cut 
back  severely  produces  a  profusion  of  flowers, 
which  are  like  those  of  the  hollyhock,  but 
smaller ;  there  are  double  varieties,  which,  as 
well  as  the  single,  range  in  color  from  white 
to  deep  purple.  As  it  blooms  late  in  summer, 


Rose  of  Sharon  (Hibiscus  Syriacus). 

will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  and  presents 
such  a  great  variety  in  its  flowers,  it  is  justly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  ornamen- 
tal shrubs.  There  is  a  variety  with  its  leaves 
distinctly  margined  with  white,  but  it  does  not 
flower  freely.  Two  woody  species  are  found 
in  Florida:  H.  Floridanus,  4  or  5  ft.  high, 
and  H.  tiliaceus,  a  large  tree.  Some  of  the 
greanhouse  species  are  very  showy,  the  most 
common  of  which  is  H.  rosa  Sinensis,  the  rose 
of  China ;  it  is  from  the  East  Indies,  where 
its  brilliant  scarlet  flowers  are  used  to  black 
shoes ;  there  are  white,  purple,  rose-colored, 
and  other  varieties  of  it. 

HICCOUGH,  a  spasmodic  contraction  of  the 
diaphragm,  producing  a  shock  in  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  cavities,  and  accompanied  by  a 
convulsive  inspiration  in  which  the  column  of 
air  is  arrested  by  the  sudden  closing  of  the 
glottis,  and  by  a  loud  and  well  known  clucking 


sound.  Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  origin 
of  this  act,  but  the  movement  is  undoubtedly 
of  a  purely  reflex  character ;  though  the  spas- 
modic action  be  in  the  diaphragm,  its  point  of 
departure  may  be  in  the  abdominal  organs  or 
in  the  nervous  centres.  In  ordinary  cases  it 
comes  and  goes  spontaneously,  and  is  a  matter 
of  no  consequence  beyond  a  slight  inconve- 
nience under  certain  circumstances ;  but  it  may 
be  preceded  by  gastric  symptoms,  pain,  and 
eructations,  be  accompanied  by  labored  respi- 
ration, and  be  so  persistent  and  severe  as  to 
require  active  treatment.  It  is  often  seen  in 
children  and  in  adults  who  have  eaten  or  drunk 
immoderately  or  hastily,  after  long  fasting,  in 
diseases  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  and  liver, 
and  in  nervous  persons  troubled  with  flatu- 
lence ;  it  becomes  an  important  diagnostic  sign 
in  peritonitis,  strangulated  hernia,  and  other 
intestinal  obstructions ;  it  is  not  uncommon  in 
intermittent  fevers,  and  is  a  grave  symptom  in 
typhoid  and  gangrenous  affections  accompanied 
by  other  spasmodic  phenomena.  In  nervous 
persons  it  may  be  brought  on  by  any  excitement, 
and  generally  disappears  with  its  cause ;  if  not, 
a  few  swallows  of  cold  or  acidulated  water, 
cold  sprinkling,  or  vivid  emotion  of  any  kind, 
will  put  an  end  to  it  in  a  few  moments.  Obsti- 
nate cases  are  on  record,  which  required  cold 
shower  baths,  ice  externally  and  internally, 
narcotics,  and  revulsives  to  the  epigastrium. 
When  intermittent,  it  yields  to  quinine ;  if  symp- 
tomatic, the  nature  of  the  disease  will  indicate 
its  treatment. 

HICKES,  George,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Newsham,  Yorkshire,  June  20,  1642,  died 
Dec.  15,  1715.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  in 
1664  was  chosen  fellow  of  Lincoln  college. 
In  1675  he  became  rector  of  St.  Ebbe,  and  in 
1676  chaplain  to  the  duke  of  Lauderdale,  with 
whom  he  went  the  following  year  to  Edin- 
burgh. In  1682  he  was  made  one  of  the 
king's  chaplains,  and  in  1683  dean  of  Worces- 
ter. He  was  a  violent  Jacobite,  refused  to 
take  the  oath  to  William  III.  in  1689,  and  was 
deprived  of  all  his  benefices.  He  protested 
vehemently,  by  placard  affixed  to  the  door  of 
Worcester  church,  and  retired  to  London, 
where  ho  remained  for  several  years  in  con- 
cealment. In  1693  he  was  sent  with  a  list  of 
the  nonjuring  clergy  to  the  exiled  king  at  St. 
Germain,  and  in  1694  was  consecrated  suffra- 
gan bishop  of  Thetford  by  Archbishop  San- 
croft.  His  principal  works  are  :  Institutiones 
Grammaticce  Anglo- Saxonicce  (4to,  1689);  An- 
tiques Litteraturce  Septentrionalis  Thesaurus 
(3  vols.  fol.,  Oxford,  1703-'5) ;  "The  Chris- 
tian Priesthood,  and  the  Dignity  of  the  Epis- 
copal Order  1'  (London,  1711 ;  new  ed.,  3  vols., 
Oxford,  1847) ;  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Eccle- 
SICB  AnglicancB  (1709) ;  and  "  Sermons "  (2 
vols.,  1713). 

IIK  KM  A\.  I.  A  W.  central  county  of  Ten- 
nessee, drained  by  Duck  and  Piney  rivers; 
area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,856,  of  whom 
1,471  were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven, 


t  HICKOK 

the  soil  rich  and  well  watered.  Iron  ore 
bundant.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  41,536  bushels  of  wheat,  514,554  of  In- 
dian corn,  34,202  of  oats,  43,150  of  peas  and 
beans,  17,364  of  Irish  and  15,226  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 121,556  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  755  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  2,374  horses,  1,790  mules 
and  asses,  2,600  milch  cows,  4,438  other  cat- 
tle, 6,927  sheep,  and  23,793  swine  ;  1  manu- 
factory of  cotton  goods,  2  flour  mills,  5  tan- 
neries, and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Centreville. 
II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  touching 
Tennessee  on  the  S.  E.,  separated  from  Mis- 
souri by  the  Mississippi  river,  and  drained  by 
several  small  streams;  area,  220  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,453,  of  whom  1,635  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  gently  undulating,  and  the  soil 
consists  of  rich  mould  with  a  substratum  of 
sand.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  48,190  bushels  of  wheat,  350,860  of  In- 
dian corn,  570,287  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,416  of 
wool,  53,650  of  butter,  and  308  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  1,385  horses,  858  mules  and 
asses,  3,871  cattle,  5,010  sheep,  and  13,948 
swine.  Capital,  Clinton. 

HICKOK,  Laurens  Perseus,  an  American  meta- 
physician, born  in  Danbury,  Conn.,  Dec.  29, 
1798.  He  graduated  at  Union  college  in  1820, 
devoted  himself  to  theology,  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher  in  1822,  and  was  pastor  successively 
at  Newtown,  Kent,  and  Litchfield,  till  in  1836 
he  was  elected  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Western  Eeserve  college,  Ohio,  where  he  re- 
mained eight  years.  In  1844  he  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Auburn  theological  seminary,  and 
in  1852  removed  to  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  to  be- 
come professor  of  mental  and  moral  science 
and  vice  president  of  Union  college.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  college  March  1,  1866, 
and  resigned  July  20,  1868,  when  he  removed 
to  Amherst,  Mass.,  where  he  now  (1874)  re- 
sides. He  has  published  "  Eational  Psycholo- 
gy" (8vo,  Auburn,  1848) ;  "Moral  Science" 
(Schenectady,  1853);  "Empirical  Psycholo- 
gy, or  the  Human  Mind  as  given  in  Conscious- 
ness" (1854);  "Eational  Cosmology"  (New 
York,  1858);  "Creator  and  Creation,  or  the 
Knowledge  in  the  Eeason  of  God  and  His 
"Works  "  (Boston,  1872)  ;  and  "  Humanity  Im- 
mortal, or  Man  Tried,  Fallen,  and  Eedeemed  " 
(1872).  He  is  now  (1874)  preparing  for  pub- 
lication a  work  entitled  "  Eational  Logic,  or 
True  Logic  must  Strike  Eoot  in  Eeason." 

HICKORY  (carya,  Nuttall),  the  common  name 
of  several  species  of  timber  trees,  with  large 
compound  leaves,  having  from  5  to  15,  but 
usually  not  more  than  11  leaflets.  The  hick- 
ories belong  to  the  natural  order  of  juglan- 
dacem,  which  comprise  but  two  other  genera 
besides  this  and  the  walnuts.  The  flowers  of 
the  hickory  are  of  two  kinds:  sterile,  which 
are  borne  in  compound  catkins,  each  principal 
catkin  having  two  opposite  branches,  the  sta- 
mens from  four  to  eight  in  each  flower ;  and  fer- 
tile, which  are  solitary  or  else  in  small  groups 


HICKORY 


715 


at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  fruit  is  a 
large  roundish  nut,  the  husk  of  which  opens 
partially  or  wholly  of  itself  by  four  seams. 
The  genus  carya  is  exclusively  American,  and 
is  distinguished  from  juglans,  the  walnuts,  by 
several  characters,  the  most  noticeable  of  which 
is  the  splitting  of  the  husk ;  this  in  the  walnut 
dries  up  on  the  nut.  There  are  nine  or  ten 
species,  all  of  them  remarkable  for  stateliness 
and  general  beauty.  In  the  autumnal  scenery 
the  foliage  of  the  hickories  contributes  a  pleas- 
ing share,  each  species  possessing  its  own  pe- 
culiar hues  and  tints.  As  an  ornamental  tree 
the  hickory  can  be  recommended,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of  transplanting  it  is  sel- 
dom planted ;  it  is  best  to  plant  the  nuts  where 
the  trees  are  to  stand,  in  spring,  they  having 
been  kept  buried  all  winter ;  two  or  three  nuts 
are  planted  near  together,  and  if  all  grow,  all 
but  one  are  removed.  The  hickory  seldom 
survives  when  taken  from  the  woods,  as  its 
roots  are  large,  few  in  number,  and  easily 
killed.  Attempts  to  graft  the  hickory  are 
rarely  successful;  it  has  been  accomplished  by 
setting  the  graft  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground ;  the  French  nurserymen  are  said  to  suc- 
ceed by  herbaceous  grafting,  i.  e.,  the  scion  and 
stock  are  both  of  unripe  wood.  On  account 
of  the  density  and  tenacity  of  the  wood  of  the 
hickories,  it  has  a  wide  application  in  the  arts,% 
and  its  uses  are  too  many  to  enumerate ;  that 
furnished  by  the  different  species  is  so  much 
alike  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them ;  it 
is  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  decays 
rapidly  when  exposed.  As  a  fuel  it  excels  all 
other  northern  woods;  it  makes  a  hard  char- 
coal, and  the  ashes  are  very  rich  in  potash. 
The  fruit  of  the  species  vary  much  in  size  and 
form,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  distinguish 
them  by  one  character  alone.  The  bitter-nut 
hickory  (C.  amccra,  Nutt.)  is  the  most  graceful 
and  remarkable  for  its  finely  cut  foliage.  It 
raises  a  noble  columnar  top  to  the  height  of 
60  or  70  ft.,  enlarging  upward,  and  broadest  at 
40  or  50.  Its  recent  shoots  are  of  an  orange 
green,  smooth  and  dotted  with  orange.  Its 
fruit,  however,  is  intensely  bitter.  It  is  the 
least  valuable  species.  The  pig-nut  hickory 


1.  Pig  Nut. 


2    Bitter  Nut 


(C.  porcina,  Nutt.)  is  also  a  large  tree,  with  a 
close  bark  and  very  tough  and  valuable  wood; 
its  sprouts  are  used  as  withes;  the  wood  is 
preferred  by  many  artisans  to  that  of  any  other 
species;  it  is  especially  useful  for  axe  helves 
and  wagon  axles.  Its  fruit  is  variable  in  size 


T16 


HICKORY 


HICKS 


and  form,  and  is  abundant,  but  of  a  disagree- 
able taste.  The  small-fruited  hickory  (0.  mi- 
crocarpa,  Nutt.)  grows  in  the  moist  woodlands 
of  New  York  and  southward,  and  its  trunk 
rises  to  the  height  of  60  or  80  ft. ;  its  fruit  is 
small,  but  eatable.  The  mocker-nut  hickory 


Hickory.— 1.  Shell  Bark.    2.  Mockernut. 

(C".  tomentosa,  Nutt.)  is  a  fine  stately  tree  of 
slow  growth,  with  an  erect  trunk,  forming  at 
the  summit  a  graceful  pyramidal  head  of  a  few 
moderate-sized  branches.  The  large  round 
buds  readily  distinguish  it  from  the  next  spe- 
cies.  It  is  sometimes  called  white-heart  hick- 
ory, although  the  wood  in  the  old  trees  does 


Mockernut  (Carya  tomentosa). 

not  differ  in  color  from  that  of  the  other  kinds. 
The  nut  varies  greatly  in  the  thickness  of 
the  shell  and  in  form;  one  variety  is  called 
the  square  nut;  the  kernel  is  sweet,  but  is 
very  difficult  to  extract,  a  fact  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  given  the  name  mocker-nut. 


The  variety  maxima  (Nutt.)  bears  "fruit  as 
large  as  an  apple,"  with  a  very  thick  husk. 
The  shell-bark  or  shag-bark  hickory  (C.  alba, 
Nutt.)  is  easily  distinguishable  by  its  shaggy 
bark,  its  excellent  fruit,  and  its  rather  small, 
ovate  leaf  buds.  The  shag-bark  is  a  stately 
tree,  rising  to  about  60  to  80  ft.  Its  branches 
are  irregular  and  scattered;  but  when  growing 
singly  in  open  space,  the  tree  attains  much 
beauty  and  gracefulness.  The  delicious  flavor 
of  its  fruit  is  not  surpassed  by  any  foreign  nut. 
The  nuts  vary  greatly ;  some  individual  trees 
have  nuts  with  astonishingly  thin  shells,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  of  grafting  these 
might  be  propagated.  Large  quantities  of  the 
nuts,  brought  from  districts  where  the  species 
grows  best,  are  readily  disposed  of  in  the  mar- 
kets. In  the  woods  of  Pennsylvania  and  west- 
ward to  Illinois  and  Kentucky,  the  western 
shell-bark  hickory  (G.  sulcata,  Nutt.)  is  found, 
having  nuts  twice  as  large  as  the  preceding, 
with  a  strong  point  at  each  end ;  the.  kernel  is 
sweet,  but  of  inferior  flavor  to  that.  The 
pecan  hickory  (C.  oluceformis,  Nutt.)  is  a  more 
western  and  southern  species.  (See  PECAN.) 
The  nutmeg-fruited  hickory  (C.  myristiccefor- 
mis,  Nutt.)  is  a  rare  and  local  species  found  in 
South  Carolina,  the  fruit  of  which  is  very 
small,  smooth,  and  brown,  streaked  with  white, 
and  strongly  resembling  a  nutmeg;  the  kernel 
is  of  small  size  and  little  value. 

HICKORY,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  inter- 
sected by  the  Ponmie  de  Terre  river,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Osage ;  area,  408  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,452,  of  whom  90  were  colored.  It  has 
a  moderately  uneven  surface,  covered  in  some 
places  by  a  good  growth  of  timber,  and  a  rich 
soil.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  43,- 
696  bushels  of  wheat,  271,582  of  Indian  corn, 
65,573  of  oats,  16,715  of  potatoes,  42,104  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  105,040  of  butter,  and  3,292  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  3,543  horses,  2,569  milch 
cows,  5,387  other  cattle,  8,280  sheep,  and  11,- 
970  swine.  Capital,  Hermitage. 

HICKS,  Ellas,  an  American  preacher  of  the 
society  of  Friends,  born  in  Hempstead,  N.  Y., 
March  19,  1748,  died  in  Jericho,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
27,  1830.  While  a  youth  he  manifested  a  tal- 
ent for  public  speaking,  and  at  the  age  of  27 
was  a  well  knoAvn  preacher.  For  many  years 
he  labored  zealously  in  advancing  the  gener- 
ally accepted  doctrines  of  the  Friends ;  but 
having  as  he  believed  discovered  errors  in 
these  tenets,  he  put  forth  views  of  his  own 
which  he  defended  with  energy  and  ability. 
To  advance  these  views  he  travelled  exten- 
sively in  the  United  States  and  in  the  Brit- 
ish provinces,  attracting  large  congregations 
by  his  oratory.  The  result  was  a  schism  in 
the  body  of  Friends ;  those  adhering  to  the 
old  doctrines  being  specially  termed  orthodox, 
while  the  followers  of  Hicks  were  called  after 
him  Ilicksites.  (See  FRIENDS.)  He  preserved 
his  intellectual  vigor  till  late  in  life,  visiting 
when  80  years  of  age  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  the  north- 


HICKS 

era  and  western  parts  of  New  York.  His 
leological  writings  were  principally  in  an 

epistolary  form. — See  "  Elias   Hicks,  Journal 

rf  his  Life  and  Labors"  (Philadelphia,  1828), 

•d  his  "Sermons"  (1828). 
HICKS,  Thomas,  an  American  painter,  born 
Newtown,  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  18,  1823. 
[e  attempted    portrait   painting  in  his  15th 

rear,  and  in  1838,  after  copying  the  casts  in 
"le  Pennsylvania  academy  of  fine  arts,  entered 
life  and  antique  schools  of  the  national 
^ademy  of  design  in  New  York,  to  whose 
mual  exhibition  in  1841  he  contributed  a 

ncture  of  the  "Death  of  Abel."    For  several 
he  painted  portraits  and  compositions, 
id  in  1845  went  to  Europe.     He  passed  three 

p-ears  in  Italy,  chiefly  at  Rome,  afterward 
idied  under  Couture  in  Paris,  where  he  re- 
ained about  a  year,  and  after  a  brief  resi- 

lence  in  England  returned  to  New  York  in 

1849.  He  has  since  devoted  himself  princi- 
lly  to  portrait  painting,  but  has  occasionally 

produced  landscapes  and  figure  pieces.   Among 

jis  portraits  are  those  of  Dr.  Kane  in  the 
ibin  of  the  Advance,  Longfellow,  Margaret 

"uHer,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Edwin  Booth  as 
and  a  large  picture  of  the  "  Contempo- 
leous  Authors  of  America."      In  1865  he 
iblished  a  eulogy  on  Thomas  Crawford. 
HIDALGO,  a  word  applied  in  Spain  to  every 

loble  man  or  woman,  but  strictly  the  title  of 
e  lowest  order  of  nobility,  constituting  the 
'dalgma.  Some  writers  derive  the  word 
>m  Mjo  del  Goto,  the  son  of  a  Goth,  such 

lescent  being  held  in  Spain  to  imply  greater 
irity  of  blood  than  when  intermixed ;  others 
)m  hijo  de  alguno,  son  of  somebody.  Hi- 
are  divided  into  hidalgos  de  naturaleza, 
jriving  their  privileges  from  their  ancestors, 
id  hidalgos  de  primlegio,  who  have  purchased 
leir  rank,  or  obtained  it  by  court  favor  in- 
3ad  of  descent,  and  are  in  this  respect  on  an 
quality  with  simple  caballeros  and  escuderos, 
knights  and  squires.  A  hidalgo  de  Iragueta 
ras  one  supposed  to  possess  the  privileges  of 

lobility  from  being  the  father  of  seven  sons 
rithout  an  intervening  daughter ;  and  a  hidal- 
de  gotero  was  one  who  enjoyed  the  rights 
nobility  in  one  place  alone.  The  privileges 
the  hidalgos  were  abolished  by  the  introduc- 

ion  of  the  constitutional  system.     In  Portugal 

"  word  fidalguia  embraces  all  the  nobility 
ider  the  common  denomination  of  fidalgos. 
HIDALGO,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  separated 
>m  Mexico  by  the  Kio  Grande,  which  is 
ivigable  all  along  the  border;  area,  3,200  sq. 
i.;  pop.  in  1870,  2,387,  of  whom  41  were  col- 
id.  About  half  of  it  is  sandy  and  fit  only 
)r  pasturage;  the  other  half  "is  productive 
•ith  irrigation,  and  will  yield  two  crops  a 

rear.  The  principal  trees  are  the  live  oak, 
lezquite,  and  ebony  elm,  which  attain  but  a 
rail  size ;  the  ash  and  willow  grow  in  the 
illey  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Stock  raising  is  the 

chief  industry.     There  is  a  salt  lake,  known  as 

Sal  del  Rey,  from  which  large  quantities  of 


HIERAPOLIS 


717 


salt  of  superior  quality  are  taken  to  northern 
Mexico.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
7,380  bushels  of  Indian  corn  and  117  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  3,459  horses,  4,496  milch 
cows,  13,645  other  cattle,  11,270  sheep,  and 
555  swine.  Capital,  Edinburgh. 

HIDALGO  \  COSTILLA,  Don  Miguel,  a  Mexican 
revolutionist,  born  in  South  America  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  shot  at  Chihua- 
hua, Mexico,  July  27,  1811.  He  was  a  priest, 
and  in  early  life  was  noted  for  the  conscien- 
tious fulfilment  of  his  ecclesiastical  functions. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  silkworm 
into  Mexico,  and  did  much  to  promote  the 
culture  of  the  vine.  The  policy  of  the  Spanish 
government^  being  to  discourage  all  manufac- 
tures or  agriculture  which  could  interfere  with 
the  revenue,  the  vines  planted  by  Hidalgo 
were  destroyed.  This  drove  him  to  rebellion. 
Possessing  much  influence  among  the  Indians, 
he  formed  the  plan  of  a  general  insurrection, 
which  was  to  take  place  Nov.  1,  1810;  but 
the  plot  having  been  disclosed  by  one  of 
the  conspirators,  some  of  his  party  were  ar- 
rested, and  he  was  obliged  to  precipitate  his 
movements.  In  September,  having  been  joined 
by  three  officers  of  the  garrison  of  Guanajuato, 
he  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  His  eloquence 
had  a  remarkable  effect  on  the  multitude  who 
heard  him,  and  when  after  his  oration  he  un- 
furled a  rude  copy  of  the  picture  of  Our  Lady 
of  Guadalupe,  the  patroness  of  Mexico,  the  war 
assumed  the  character  of  a  crusade.  On  Sept. 
29,  with  an  army  of  20,000  men,  mostly  In- 
dians, he  captured  Guanajuato,  on  which  oc- 
casion the  greatest  outrages  were  committed, 
and  $5,000,000  plundered.  He  took  Vallado- 
lid  and  several  small  places,  and  soon  after 
was  proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the  Mexican 
army,  and  advanced  against  Mexico ;  but, 
having  been  excommunicated  by  the  arch- 
bishop, the  disorders  and  desertions  conse- 
quent upon  this  measure,  as  well  as  the  total 
want  of  ammunition,  compelled  him  to  re- 
treat. "  He  was  defeated  at  Aculco  by  Calleja 
on  Nov.  7,  driven  soon  after  from  Guanajuato 
with  great  slaughter,  and  totally  routed  at  the 
bridge  of  Calderon,  Jan.  17,  1811.  Leaving 
the  remnant  of  his  forces  at  Saltillo  under  the 
command  of  Rayon,  Hidalgo  set  out  for  the 
United  States  to  obtain  arms  and  military  aid ; 
but  he  was  betrayed  on  the  way  into  the 
hands  of  the  Spaniards  by  one  of  his  asso- 
ciates, Elizondo,  March  21,  carried  to  Chihua- 
hua, degraded  from  the  priesthood,  and  shot. 
After  his  death  he  was  regarded  as  a  saint  by 
the  people,  and  within  a  few  years  the  place 
of  his  execution  was  shown  to  travellers  as  a 
holy  spot. 

HIDES*     See  LEATHER. 

HIERAPOLIS  (sacred  city).  I.  An  ancient 
city  of  Phrygia,  between  the  rivers  Lycus  and 
Meander,  celebrated  for  its  warm  springs  and 
its  cave  Plutonium,  from  which  arose  a  mephi- 
tic  vapor  which  was  said  to  be  poisonous  to  all 
but  the  priests  of  Cybele.  It  was  the  seat  of 


718 


HIERO 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


a  Christian  church  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul,  who 
mentions  it  in  his  epistle  to  the  Colossians 
(iv.  13).  Its  ruins,  with  stalactites  and  incrus- 
tations formed  by  its  warm  springs,  are  found 
at  an  unoccupied  place  called  Bambuk-Kalessi. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Epictetus  the  philoso- 
pher. II.  An  ancient  city  of  Syria,  between 
Antioch  and  CarrhsB  in  Mesopotamia,  called 
Bambyce  by  the  early  natives,  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Astarte  or  Ashtoreth, 
and  a  great  emporium  under  the  Seleucidae. 

HIERO,  or  Hieron  (Gr.  'Itpuv).  I.  Tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  succeeded  his  brother  Gelon  about 
478  B.  0.,  died  in  Catana  in  467.  After  hav- 
ing made  peace  with  his  brother  Polyzelus  and 
Theron  of  Agrigenturn,  with  whom  he  had 
been  at  variance,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
foreign  conquest.  In  Sicily  he  made  himself 
master  of  Naxos  and  Catana,  whose  inhabi- 
tants he  transferred  to  Leontini,  while  he  re- 
peopled  those  cities  with  colonists  of  Dorian 
origin.  In  Italy  he  prevented  the  destruction 
of  Locri  by  threatening  its  enemy  Anaxilas 
with  war,  and  subsequently  effected  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  tyrant  Micythus  from  Rhegium. 
But  the  most  glorious  event  of  his  reign  was 
his  great  victory  over  the  Etruscan  fleet  near 
Cumae,  in  474.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
poets  and  philosophers.  His  triumphs  at  the 
Olympian  and  Pythian  games  are  celebrated 
in  the  odes  of  Pindar.  II.  King  of  Syracuse, 
son  of  Hierocles,  born  about  307  B.  C.,  died 
about  216.  He  was  appointed  commander 
after  the  departure  of  Pyrrhus  in  275,  and  in 
consequence  of  a  great  victory  over  the  Ma- 
mertines  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  suf- 
frages of  his  fellow  citizens  in  270.  His  great 
object  appears  to  have  been  the  expulsion  of 
the  Mamertines  from  Sicily ;  and  when  the 
Romans  took  them  under  their  protection, 
Hiero  allied  himself  with  the  Carthaginians, 
who  had  just  arrived  in  Sicily  with  a  powerful 
force  in  264.  The  combined  armies  of  the 
Carthaginians  and  Syracusans  then  proceeded 
to  lay  siege  to  Messana;  but  Hiero,  having 
been  attacked  and  defeated  by  Appius  Clau- 
dius, the  Roman  consul,  was  panic-struck,  and 
retreated  precipitately  to  Syracuse.  Soon 
after  this  disaster,  seeing  his  territory  laid 
waste  by  the  Romans,  and  many  of  his  cities 
in  their  possession,  he  deemed  it  prudent  to 
abandon  the  Carthaginian  alliance,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Romans  (263),  by 
which  he  secured  to  himself  the  whole  S.  E. 
and  E.  of  Sicily  as  far  as  Tauromenium. 
From  this  period  till  his  death,  nearly  half  a 
century,  Hiero  remained  the  steady  friend  of 
the  Romans,  and  when  he  visited  Rome  was  re- 
ceived with  the  highest  honors.  In  241  his 
treaty  with  them  was  changed  into  a  perpetual 
alliance,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  seco'nd 
Punic  war  he  fitted  out  a  fleet  to  cooperate 
with  that  of  Sempronius,  and  offered  to  clothe 
and  feed  the  Roman  forces  in  Sicily  at  his  own 
expense.  After  the  battles  of  Lake  Thrasy- 
menus  and  CannsB  he  sent  troops  and  liberal 


supplies  of  corn  and  money  to  Rome,  and  a  gold- 
en statue  of  Victory,  which  was  set  up  in  the 
capitol.  His  government  was  singularly  wise 
and  popular,  and  he  built  numerous  magnifi- 
cent temples,  altars,  and  public  works  in  Syra- 
cuse and  Acrffl.  Archimedes  was  his  friend. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Hieronymus 
HIEROGLYPHICS,  or  Hieroglyphs  (Gr.  hp6<;, 
sacred,  and  yTJvtynv,  to  carve),  picture  writing, 
or  figures  representing  animate  beings  or  in- 
animate objects,  and  implying  words  or  ideas. 
They  have  been  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  seem  to  be  employed  by  all  peoples  in  cer- 
tain stages  of  civilization.  Though  some  highly 
cultured  nations  have  failed  to  abandon  their 
hieroglyphical  systems  of  writing,  yet  generally 
hieroglyphs  are  gradually  superseded  by  alpha- 
bets. Every  attempt  at  fixing  the  memory  of 
an  event  by  indicating  the  objects  and  persons 
concerned  in  it  by  means  of  rude  images  be- 
longs in  a  measure  to  the  class  of  hieroglyphs. 
The  rude  inscriptions  found  on  walls  and  monu- 
ments of  the  ruins  of  Rome,  Pompeii,  and  other 
ancient  cities,  generally  represent  only  the  scrib- 
bling of  idle  persons.  Examples  of  this  are 
found  even  in  the  ruined  temples  and  sepulchres 
of  Egypt,  and  in  the  tombs  at  Jerusalem.  They 
have  received  the  name  of  graffiti.  A  large 
majority  of  them  were  doubtless  written  with 
the  stilus  or  graphium  of  iron  or  bone.  The 
drawings  are  chiefly  grotesque,  and  the  writing 
generally  gives  quotations  from  well  known  po- 
ets, or  simply  names  of  visitors,  gladiators,  and 
public  men.  Some  are  mere  lists  of  nouns  and 
verbs,  probably  scribbled  by  school  boys ;  others 
contain  good  wishes,  prayers,  and  invocations ; 
others  again  libels  and  obscenities.  In  spite 
of  their  general  triviality,  they  are  of  great 
value  to  paleography,  philology,  and  history, 
since  they  exhibit  the  every-day  life  of  the  an- 
cients, and  elucidate  many  obscure  passages  in 
the  classics. — Hieroglyphics,  or  picture  writing 
proper,  are  indications  of  something  that  the 
writer  desired  to  commemorate,  while  ignorant 
of  or  not  wishing  to  use  a  phonetic  or  alphabet- 
ical graphic  system.  It  has  been  attempted  to 
trace  the  development  of  such  rude  images  into 
a  regular  system  of  writing.  The  coarse  marks 
employed  for  numbering  days,  sheep,  or  scalps 
were  followed  by  attempts  at  conveying  by  sim- 
ilar signs  such  ideas  as  were  only  secondarily 
connected  with  them.  This  picturing  of  ab- 
stractions implies  a  much  higher  degree  of  civi- 
lization than  the  mere  attempts  at  drawing  the 
outlines  of  the  actual  objects.  Another  advance 
is  indicated  by  the  hieroglyphs  which  represent 
only  parts  of  objects  as  mementoes  of  the  whole. 
As  soon  as  it  has  been  learned  to  employ  only 
a  few  strokes  which  suggest  some  distinctive 
feature  of  an  object,  either  to  call  up  the  object 
itself  or  an  abstract  idea  connected  with  it,  tho 
beginning  of  systematic  writing  is  reached.  It 
was  generally  followed  by  the  practice  of  indi- 
cating ideas  by  picturing  objects  that  possessed 
phonetically  the  same  name.  This  opened  the 
way  for  employing  signs  to  represent  sounds 


only,  at  first  syllabic  and  subsequently  alpha- 
betic. Many  nations  have  not  passed  through 
all  these  stages,  but  continue  to  use  hieroglyphs 
as  a  system  of  writing.  Among  these  are  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  whose  systems,  like 
those  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  are  given  un- 
der the  names  of  their  respective  countries. — 
The. rudimentary  savage  paintings,  scratchings, 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


719 


FIG.  1. 

carvings  are  very  much  the  same  every- 
where. They  are  not  easily  interpreted,  unless 
it  is  known  what  they  were  intended  to  repre- 
sent. It  is  probable  that  many  are  mere  picto- 
rial utterances  without  any  attempt  at  record- 
ing a  historical  fact.  The  natives  of  North 
America  were  great  proficients  in  the  art  of 
picture  writing.  Their  hieroglyphs  have  been 
copied  and  interpreted  by  Schoolcraft.  We 
give  in  the  above  specimen  an  Indian  rec- 
ord on  a  pine  tree.  On  the  right  are  two 
canoes,  with  a  catfish  in  one  of  them,  and  a 
fabulous  animal,  known  as  the  copper-tailed 
bear,  in  the  other.  On  the  left  are  a  bear  and 
six  catfish.  The  sense  of  the  picture  is  simply 
that  two  hunters,  whose  names  or  totems  were 
Coppertailed  Bear  and  Catfish,  went  on  a 
hunting  expedition  in  their  canoes,  and  took 
a  bear  and  six  catfish.  Fig.  2  is  a  picture 


FIG.  2. 

on  the  face  of  a  rock  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  records  an  expedition  across 
the  lake  which  was  led  by  Myeengun,  or  Wolf, 
a  celebrated  Indian  chief.  The  canoes  with 
the  upright  strokes  represent  the  force  of  the 
party  in  men  and  boats,  and  Wolf's  chief  ally, 
Kishkemunasee,  that  is,  Kingfisher,  goes  in  the 
first  canoe.  The  arch  with  three  circles  be- 
406  VOL.  vin. — 46 


low  it  shows  that  there  were  three  suns  un- 
der heaven,  that  is,  that  the  voyage  took  three 
days.  The  tortoise  seems  to  indicate  their 
getting  to  land,  while  the  representation  of 
the  chief  himself  on  horseback  shows  that  the 
expedition  took  place  since  the  time  when 
horses  were  introduced  into  Canada. — The 
highest  development  of  this  art  is  found  in 
the  Mexican  picture  writing,  or  the  system  of 
hieroglyphics  in  use  among  the  semi-civilized 
nations  of  Central  America  and  Mexico  previ- 
ous to  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 
Among  the  nations  which  anciently  had  their 
seat  near  Palenque,  there  existed  a  probably 
pure  hieroglyphical  system ;  while  among  the 
nations  of  central  Mexico,  in  the  valley  of  Ana- 
huac,  as  also  among  the  affiliated  families  of 
San  Salvador  and  Nicaragua,  a  less  perfect  or 
mixed  system  prevailed,  which  was  composed 
of  condensed  pictures,  and  conventional  or  deri- 
vative representations  of  things,  having  a  hiero- 
glyphical character  and  a  clear  phonetic  value. 
The  capacity  of  even  this  less  perfect  or  mixed 
system  was  considerable.  By  means  of  it  the 
Mexicans  recorded  their  history,  composed  their 
rituals  and  civil  and  religious  calendars,  record- 
ed titles  to  property  and  the  judgments  of 
courts,  assessed  taxes  or  tribute,  defined  gene- 
alogies, &c.  When  Cortes  landed,  full  accounts 
of  him,  his  men,  equipments,  and,  so  far  as  he 
indicated  them  by  word  or  action,  of  his  pur- 
poses, were  thus  recorded  and  sent  to  Monte- 
zuma.  The  ecclesiastics  who  followed  in  the 
train  of  the  army  used  their  utmost  exertions 
to  acquaint  themselves  with  this  system,  and 
adapt  it  to  the  purpose  of  converting  the  na- 
tives. The  first  attempt  in  this  direction,  or 
perhaps  the  first  use  of  pictorial  representa- 
tions, out  of  which  this  adaptation  gradually 
grew,  was  within  eight  or  nine  years  after  the 
capture  of  Mexico,  by  Testera  of  Bayonne, 
brother  of  the  chamberlain  of  Francis  I.  Saha- 
gun,  Motolinia,  and  Peter 
of  Ghent,  as  also  the  Fran- 
ciscans generally,  adopted 
his  example  of  using  pic- 
tures, more  or  less  bor- 
rowed from  the  Mexicans, 
in  their  teachings.  In  the 
provinces  near  Mexico,  as 
soon  as  the  Franciscans 
commenced  this  adapta- 
tion, the  interpreters,  and 
numbers  of  the  natives 
employed  as  missionaries, 
lent  themselves  to  extend 
its  scope;  and  Motolinia 
informs  us  that  he  was  lit- 
erally overwhelmed  with  Indians  who  present- 
ed their  confessions  to  him  in  figures  or  paint- 
ings after  their  mode  of  representation.  Val- 
dez  in  1579,  and  Torquemada  nearly  a  century 
after  the  conquest,  received  similar  confessions ; 
and  it  appears  that  this  system  of  recording 
confessions  was  preferred  to  alphabetical  wri- 
ting, even  by  Indians  who  were  versed  in  the 


720 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


latter.  Many  manuscripts  or  paintings,  hav- 
ing their  origin  with  the  early  priests  and 
missionaries,  have  been  confounded  with  the 
paintings  and  manuscripts  of  true  Mexican  ori- 
gin, and  of  earlier  date.  Many  condemn  all 
the  Mexican  manuscripts  in  existence  as  monk- 
ish impostures,  and  of  a  date  subsequent  to 
the  Spanish  conquest;  but  a  number  of  paint- 
ings and  manuscripts  are  of  undoubted  abo- 
riginal origin,  historical  and  ritual  in  charac- 
ter, dating  back  beyond  the  discovery  of  the 
continent.  Some  of  the  historical  manuscripts 
were  continued  in  the  spirit  and  style  of  the 
ancient  system,  by  competent  native  hands,  af- 
ter the  conquest,  and  contain  the  Indian  ver- 
sion of  that  event.  There  are  others  of  equally 
unquestionable  ancient  date,  but  generally  of 
a  religious  or  mythological  character,  which 
there  is  reason  to  believe  have  been  changed 
in  copies,  or  altered  in  the  originals,  with  a 
view  to  conform  with  priestly  teachings,  and 
illustrate  the  dogmas  of  the  church.  And 
finally  there  is  that  large  class  of  manuscripts 
originating  with  Testera,  and  perfected  by  his 
followers.  These  seem  to  have  been  of  three 
kinds:  1,  those  of  Testera  and  the  early  Fran- 
ciscans, which  were  simple  paintings,  more  or 
less  adapted  to  Indian  conventionalisms  in  their 
style  of  execution ;  2,  those  of  a  mixed  kind,  in 
which  some  simple  paintings  were  preserved, 
largely  illustrated  by  arbitrary  native  and  oth- 
er figures ;  and  3,  those  in  phonetic  characters 
or  representations,  forming  a  complete  adapta- 
tion of  the  Mexican  system.  The  third  class 
of  Christian  or  post-Mexican  paintings  are  cor- 
rectly described  by  Torquemada,  who  says  of 
the  mode  in  which  the  Pater  Noster  was 
learned :  u  The  word  in  their  language  most 
nearly  representing  Pater  being  pantli,  the 
name  of  a  kind  of  small  flag,  they  put  this  flag 
for  Pater.  In  place  of  nosier,  a  word  resem- 
bling their  nochtli,  they  paint  a'  tuna  (cactus) 
fig,  the  name  of  which,  nochtli,  recalls  the  Lat- 
in noster  ;  and  so  they  go  on  to  the  end  of  the 
prayer.  By  a  similar  process  and  like  charac- 
ters they  wrote  down  what  they  wished  to 
learn  by  heart.  This  was  during  the  first  pe- 
riod of  their  conversion,  for  now  [between 
1592  and  1614]  they  no  longer  require  to  use 
these  ancient  characters."  The  following  rep- 
resentation of  the  title  Pater  Noster  is  copied 
from  a  manuscript  in  the  museum  of  Mexico : 


Pa-te  noch-te,  or  Pa-tetl  noch-tetL 

First  is  the  figure  of  a  little  flag,  or  pantli  in 
Nahuatl,  the  root  of  which  is  pan  or  pa  ;  sec- 
ond is  the  sign  of  stone,  tetl,  root  te,  the  whole 
making  syllabically  Pa-te  for  Pater,  the  r  being 
wanting  in  the  Mexican  language.  Next  we 
have  the  sign  of  the  fruit  of  the  cactus,  nochtli, 
root  noch,  and  that  of  stone,  tetl,  root  te,  as  be- 
fore, making  noch-te  for  noster.  The  whole  is 


therefore  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  the 
Latin,  represented  by  Mexican  figures  of  exact 
and  unmistakable  phonetic  value.  A  general 
comparison  of  the  ancient  and  positively  Mexi- 
can paintings  leaves  no  doubt  that  this  mode  of 
representation,  by  syllabic  phonetics,  in  which 
the  roots  of  words  only  were  to  be  understood 
by  the  figures  or  sounded  in  reading,  was  the 
mode  universally  accepted,  more  or  less  mixed 
up  with  ideographic  signs  and  simple  pictures. 
In  the  historical  and  administrative  documents 
of  a  superior  order,  written  on  skins  or  paper 
made  from  the  maguey,  the  figurative  writing, 
constantly  phonetic,  is  no  longer  ideographic 
except  in  rare  instances  where  the  phonetic 
system  fails.  But  paintings  relating  the  same 
history  do  not  always  coincide  in  their  signs, 
even  when  phonetically  exactly  alike.  For  in- 
stance, the  name  of  Itzcoatl,  the  fourth  king  of 
Mexico,  is  expressed  in  some  of  the  manuscripts 
by  the  figure  of  a  serpent  (coatl),  with  its  back 
crested  with  knives  or  arrow  heads  of  obsidian 
(itzli) ;  the  whole,  Itz-coatl.  In  other  paint- 
ings, however,  it  is  written  syllabically  as  fol- 
lows :  figure  of  an  arrow  head,  itzli,  root  itz ; 
figure  of  a  vase,  comitl,  root  co  ;  figure  or  sign 
of  water,  ail ;  the  whole,  Itz-co-atl.  The  doc- 
uments of  this  class,  in  which  the  syllabic  wri- 
ting predominates,  are  generally  land  registers, 
tribute  rolls,  judgments  of  courts,  genealogies, 
&c.,  and  were  continued  long  after  the  con- 
quest, and  for  the  use  of  the  Spanish  adminis- 
trations were  often  accompanied  by  literal  trans- 
lations from  which  alone  a  very  full  diction- 
ary of  the  Mexican  signs  might  be  construct- 
ed. In  numeration  and  chronology  the  Mexi- 
can system  was  exact  and  ample.  Most  of  the 
historical  paintings  are  simple  annals,  but  some 
give  more  specific  dates,  down  to  the  day  of 
the  month  on  which  the  event  recorded  took 
place.  The  most  striking  and  to  the  uneduca- 
ted eye  the  most  interesting  of  the  Mexican 
paintings  are  the  ritual  calendars,  and  schemes 
of  judicial  astrology,  which  make  up  the  great- 
er part  of  Lord  Kingsborough's  published  col- 
lection. Excepting  the  designations  of  the 
days,  these  seem  to  be  purely  figurative  or  sym- 
bolical, intended  only  for  the  use  of  the  priests 
and  diviners,  and  possessed  of  an  esoteric  sig- 
nificance. They  are  valuable  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  Mexican  mythology  and 
the  Aztec  religion  and  superstitions.  There  is 
a  wide  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  those 
found  in  Mexico  and  those  obtained  in  Central 
America.  Of  the  latter  but  few  examples  are 
known  to  exist.  The  so-called  Dresden  man- 
uscript, published  by  Lord  Kingsborough,  is 
perhaps  the  only  perfect  example  of  this  kind 
in  Europe.  Its  figures  and  signs  coincide  with 
those  sculptured  on  the  monuments  of  Palen- 
que,  Yucatan,  and  Copan,  and  identify  it  as  the 
work  of  the  same  people.  It  has  but  slight  re- 
semblance to  the  Mexican  manuscripts  already 
discussed,  and  seems  to  mark  a  far  higher  de- 
velopment of  the  graphic  art.  So  far  as  they 
can  be  made  out,  the  elements  of  the  Central 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


American  or  Toltecan  system  were  few  and 
very  exact  in  their  application,  not  admitting 
of  that  variation  which  would  naturally  result 
from  the  caprice  or  varying  individual  concep- 
tions and  tastes  of  those  working  under  the 
system  of  Mexico.  We  discover  in  it  no  prop- 
er representations  of  things,  except  as  pictures 
illustrative  of  what  may  be  called  the  text  of 
the  manuscripts  in  which  they  are  used,  or  in 
miniature  in  the  text  when  employed  as  signs 
or  characters,  having  a  fixed  and  constant  val- 
ue, or  modified  only  by  the  addition  of  arbitra- 
ry signs,  like  the  points  in  oriental  writings. 
It  is  undoubted  that  such  manuscripts  as  that 
of  Dresden  were  in  common  use  in  all  parts  of 
Central  America  occupied  by  the  Tzendal  or 
Toltecan  stock  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  and 
that  the  existing  aboriginal  population  of  that 
country  is  chiefly  made  up  of  the  descendants 
of  the  authors  of  the  system  then  in  use,  who 
were  equally  the  builders  of  the  monuments  to 
which  uncritical  investigators  would  assign  a 
foreign  origin  and  high  antiquity.  The  Mexi- 
can system  seems  to  have  been  intermediate 
between  the  rude  picture  records  and  mnemon- 
ic symbolism  of  the  North  American  Indians, 
and  the  hieroglyphical  and  probably  purely 
phonetic  system  of  Central  America,  but  at  the 
same  time  of  higher  development  and  capacity 
than  that  of  New  Granada  and  Peru.  It  was 
evidently  in  an  infant  but  progressive  state  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest. — Charles  B.  Brown 
has  given  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Anthropolo- 
gical Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  " 
(London,  1873)  an  account  of  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions  occurring  in  British  Guiana.  On 
the  river  Essequibo  they  are  found  at  the  Wa- 
raputa  cataract,  at  Cumutie  rock,  at  the  On- 
ropocari  cataract,  at  the  Takarimi  rock,  and  at 
the  Bubumana  cataract.  They  are  also  met 
with  on  the  banks  of  the  Quitaro,  Cotinga, 
Ireng,  Corentyn,  and  Berbice  rivers.  The  In- 
dians now  living  in  Guiana  know  nothing  of 
picture  writing,  and  ascribe  the  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions  to  the  handiwork  of  Makunaima, 


Inscription  on  the  Bubumana  Eock. 

their  great  spirit. — See  Tylor,  "Mexico  and 
the  Mexicans"  (London,  1861)  and  "Research- 
es into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind  "  (1870) ; 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Monuments  anciens 


HIGGINSON 


721 


duMexique,  &c.  (Paris,  1864-'6) ;  and  the  vari- 
ous archaeological  and  ethnological  periodicals 

HIERONYMtS.     See  JEROME. 

IIIEROPUAM  (Gr.  hpo^vrr,^  from  Iep6f,  sa- 
cred, and  faiveiv,  to  make  known),  the  presi- 
ding priest  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  who 
conducted  the  ceremonies  of  initiation.  He 
could  be  chosen  only  from  the  family  of  the 
Eumolpidas,  whose  ancestor  Eumolpus  was 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  mysteries.  His 
body  must  be  without  defect,  his  voice  sweet 
and  sonorous,  and  his  life  without  reproach. 
If  he  married,  he  thereby  renounced  the  sa- 
cred office.  A  diadem  adorned  his  brow,  his 
hair  hung  down  over  his  shoulders,  and  in  the 
mysteries  he  represented  the  creator  of  the 
world  with  mystical  symbols.  He  preserved  and 
transmitted  the  secret  and  unwritten  knowledge 
which  was  the  object  of  the  institution.  In 
the  last  ages  of  paganism  the  hierophants  seem 
to  have  become  thaumaturgi  and  magicians. 

HIGGINSON.  I.  Franeis,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1587,  died  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Aug. 
6,  1630.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
England,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  a 
parish  in  Leicester.  Becoming  a  nonconform- 
ist, he  was  deprived  of  his  benefice,  and  was 
employed  among  his  former  parishioners  as  a 
lecturer.  While  apprehending  an  interruption 
in  these  duties  in  the  shape  of  a  summons  to 
appear  before  the  high  commission  court,  he 
received  an  invitation  from  the  Massachusetts 
company  to  proceed  to  their  colony.  He  em- 
barked early  in  May,  1629,  and  arrived  at  Sa- 
lem June  29,  and  on  July  20  was  chosen  teacher 
of  the  congregation  established  there,  Samuel 
Skelton,  his  companion  on  the  voyage,  being 
chosen  pastor.  Each  of  them  consecrated  the 
other  by  the  laying  on  of  hands,  assisted  by 
several  of  the  gravest  men.  Subsequently  Hig- 
ginson  drew  up  "  a  confession  of  faith  and 
church  covenant  according  to  Scripture,"  which 
on  Aug.  6  was  assented  to  by  30  persons,  who 
associated  themselves  as  a  church.  On  this 
occasion,  says  Palfrey,  "the  ministers,  whose 
dedication  to  the  sacred  office  had  appeared  in- 
complete till  it  was  made  by  a  church  consti- 
tuted by  mutual  covenant,  were  ordained  to 
their  several  offices  by  the  imposition  of  the 
hands  of  some  of  the  brethren  appointed  by  the 
church."  Higginson  continued  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  office  until  the  succeeding  year, 
when,  in  the  general  sickness  which  ravaged 
the  colony,  he  was  attacked  by  a  hectic  fever 
of  which  he  ultimately  died.  He  wrote  "  New 
England's  Plantations,  or  a  Short  and  True 
Description  of  the  Commodities  and  Discom- 
modities of  the  Country"  (4to,  London,  1630), 
and  an  account  of  his  voyage,  which  is  pre- 
served in  Hutchinson's  collection  of  papers. 
II.  John,  an  American  clergyman,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Claybrooke,  Leicestershire, 
England,  Aug.  6,  1616,  died  in  Salem,  Mass., 
Dec.  9,  1708.  He  emigrated  to  New  England 
with  his  father,  adopted  the  profession  of  a 
preacher,  and  for  many  years  was  settled 


722 


HIGGINSON 


HIGHLANDS 


over  a  congregation  at  Guilford,  Conn.  In 
1660  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  first  church 
in  Salem,  of  which  his  father  had  been  teacher, 
and  where  he  remained  until  the  close  of  his 
life,  at  which  time  he  had  been  72  years  in  the 
ministry.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Quakers,  although  he  subsequently  regretted 
the  warmth  of  his  zeal ;  but  he  took  no  part 
in  the  proceedings  respecting  the  witchcraft 
delusion  in  1692.  He  is  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  occasional  sermons  and  miscellanies,  in- 
cluding the  "  Attestation  "  to  Cotton  Mather's 
Magnalia,  prefixed  to  that  work  (1697),  which 
has  been  highly  praised  for  its  eloquence.  III. 
Thomas  Wentworth,  an  American  author,  a  lineal 
descendant  of  Francis  Higginson,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1823.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1841,  and  at  the  theolo- 
gical school  of  Cambridge  in  1847,  and  was 
settled  over  the  "First  Religious  Society"  at 
Newburyport.  In  1850  he  was  the  freesoil 
candidate  for  congress,  and  was  defeated.  His 
anti-slavery  principles  being  distasteful  to  a 
portion  of  his  congregation,  he  resigned  his 
pastorate  in  1850,  and  two  years  later  be- 
came minister  of  a  "Free  Church"  at  Worces- 
ter. In  1853  he  headed  an  attack  on  the  Bos- 
ton court  house  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing 
Anthony  Burns,  a  fugitive  slave  then  in  custody 
of  the  United  States  marshal.  In  this  affair 
he  was  wounded  in  the  face  by  a  sabre  cut ; 
and  one  of  the  marshal's  men  having  been 
killed,  Higginson  was  indicted  for  murder,  but 
the  prosecution  failed  from  a  flaw  in  the  in- 
dictment. In  1856  he  went  to  Kansas,  where 
he  took  part  in  the  military  struggle  of  the 
free-state  settlers  against  the  pro-slavery  in- 
vaders from  Missouri.  He  retired  from  the 
ministry  in  1858,  to  devote  himself  to  literature. 
Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he 
recruited  several  companies  of  volunteers  for 
a  Massachusetts  regiment,  and  was  commis- 
sioned as  captain.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  South  Carolina 
volunteers,  the  first  slave  regiment  mustered 
into  the  national  service.  He  served  with 
them  for  two  years,  chiefly  in  South  Carolina 
and  Florida,  making  various  expeditions  into 
the  interior,  in  one  of  which  he  captured  Jack- 
sonville, Florida.  He  was  wounded  in  Au- 
gust, 1863,  and  in  1864  had  to  retire  from  the 
service  in  consequence.  He  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  has  since  been 
occupied  with  public  lecturing  and  literary  pur- 
suits. His  first  publication  was  a  compilation, 
made  in  conjunction  with  Samuel  Longfellow, 
of  poetry  for  the  seaside,  entitled  "  Thalatta  " 
(1853).  He  has  since  published  the  following 
books,  most  of  the  contents  of  which  appeared 
first  in  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly  "  :  "  Outdoor 
Papers"  (1863);  " Harvard  Memorial  Biogra- 
phies" (1866);  "Malbone,  an  Oldport  Ro- 
mance" (1869);  "Army  Life  in  a  Black  Regi- 
ment "  (1870) ;  "  Atlantic  Essays  "  (1871) ;  and 
"  Oldport  Days  "  (1873).  In  1865  he  published 
a  new  translation  of  Epictetus. 


IIIGIIGATE,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  England, 
adjoining  Hampstead,  5  m.  N.  W.  of  St.  Paul's, 
London;  pop.  in  1871,  5,339.  It  is  renowned 
for  its  pleasant  and  salubrious  situation  on  a 
hill,  for  its  fine  villas,  and  particularly  for  its 
cemetery,  containing  the  tombs  of  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst  and  other  eminent  persons.  Coleridge 
passed  here  the  last  18  years  of  his  life,  and 
the  place  has  always  been  a  favorite  resort  of 
literary  people  and  of  wealthy  London  mer- 
chants. It  has  a  number  of  beautifully  situated 
female  seminaries  and  other  schools,  and  a  fine 
parish  church.  Lady  Burdett-Coutts  has  a 
magnificent  mansion  here. 

HIGHLAND.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  West  Virginia,  bounded  N.  W. 
by  the  principal  ridge  of  the  Alleghany  moun- 
tains, and  S.  E.  by  the  Shenandoah  range; 
area,  425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,151,  of  whom 
348  were  colored.  The  S.  branch  of  the  Po- 
tomac and  some  of  the  head  streams  of  James 
river  rise  within  its  limits.  The  surface  is 
diversified,  but  consists  chiefly  of  table  land, 
with  a  rich  soil.  It  is  well  timbered,  and  af- 
fords excellent  pasturage.  Iron  ore  is  found 
in  some  parts.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  25,133  bushels  of  wheat,  6,605  of  rye, 
26,075  of  Indian  corn,  11,755  of  oats,  4,650  of 
buckwheat,  5,743  of  potatoes,  17,913  Ibs.  of 
wool,  71,557  of  butter,  and  5,897  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,903  horses,  2,112  milch  cows, 
6,942  other  cattle,  7,950  sheep,  and  2,782  swine. 
Capital,  Monterey.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Ohio,  drained  by  Paint,  Brush,  and  White  Oak 
creeks;  area,  555  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,- 
133.  Its  surface  is  elevated  and  uneven,  and 
its  soil  fertile.  The  Marietta  and  Cincinnati 
railroad  and  Hillsborough  branch  traverse  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  415,370 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,110,437  of  Indian  corn, 
153,324  of  oats,  50,278  of  potatoes,  81, 832  Ibs. 
of  wool,  517,622  of  butter,  and  16,970  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  9,227  horses,  6,743  milch 
cows,  12,783  other  cattle,  25,866  sheep,  and 
40,834  swine  ;  16  manufactories  of  carriages,  2 
of  clothing,  1  of  iron  castings,  1  of  machinery, 
2  of  tombstones,  10  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of 
woollen  goods,  12  flour  mills,  3  tanneries,  8 
currying  establishments,  2  distilleries,  1  planing 
mill,  and  9  saw  mills.  Capital,  Hillsborough. 

HIGHLANDS,  a  name  applied  to  the  N.  and  N. 
W.  districts  of  Scotland,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  S.  and  S.  E.  parts,  which  are  called  the 
lowlands.  Their  exact  boundaries  are  unset- 
tled. The  Grampian  hills  are  sometimes  taken 
as  the  dividing  line  between  the  two  great 
natural  divisions  ;  but,  regarded  as  the  country 
of  the  highland  clans,  the  highlands  include  all 
the  Scottish  territory  W.  and  N.  W.  of  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Nairn  in  the  Moray  frith  nearly  S.  E.  to  a 
point  on  the  N.  Esk,  near  Ion.  3°  W.,  on  the 
S.  slope  of  the  Grampians,  and  thence  S.  W.  to 
Culross  on  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde.  They 
thus  comprehend  more  than  half  of  Scot- 


HIGHMORE 


HILARY 


723 


including  the  whole  of  the  counties  of 
Caithness,  Sutherland,  Ross,  Cromarty,  Inver- 
ness, and  Argyle,  parts  of  Nairn,  Elgin,  Banff, 
Aberdeen,  Forfar,  Perth,  Stirling,  and  Dum- 
barton, and  the  Hebrides.  They  are  remarka- 
ble for  their  wild  and  beautiful  scenery  and 
the  peculiar  character  of  their  inhabitants. 
The  mountainous  tracts  S.  and  E.  of  the  Clyde 
are  sometimes  called  the  southern  highlands. 
(See  SCOTLAND.) — For  the  highlands  of  the 
Hudson,  see  HUDSON  RIVEK. 

H1GHMORE,  Joseph,  an  English  anatomist, 
born  at  Fordingb  ridge,  Hampshire,  in  1613, 
died  in  1685.  He  resided  at  Sherborne  in 
Dorsetshire,  where  he  became  eminent  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession.  His  name  is  con- 
nected with  the  triangular  cavity  in  the  upper 
maxillary  bone,  lined  with  mucous  membrane 
and  communicating  by  a  small  opening  with 
the  middle  passage  of  the  nares,  termed  the 
antrum  ffighmorianum.  He  published  in  1651 
Corporis  Humani  Disquisitio  Anatomica, 

HIGHWAY,  a  place  over  which  the  public 
have  a  right  of  passage.  It  may  be  a  footpath, 
a.bridle  path,  a  cart  way,  or  a  road  wide  enough 
for  vehicles  of  any  kind  to  pass  each  other ;  and 
for  many  purposes  there  may  be  a  highway 
over  water,  whether  it  be  a  running  stream  or 
a  lake.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  not  certain- 
ly known  ;  but  a  simple  derivation  refers  it  to 
the  time  when  all  public  roads  were  raised 
above  the  surrounding  fields,  by  the  addition 
of  materials,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  dry 
road  bed.  In  English  law  it  is  usually  called 
the  king's  highway,  because  by  the  theory  of 
that  law  it  was  considered  as  having  been 
originally  given  by  him.  In  the  United  States 
a  highway  may  exist  by  prescription,  or  by 
the  dedication  of  the  land  to  the  public  use 
by  the  owner,  which  may  be  expressed  or  im- 
plied from  long  and  uninterrupted  use  by  the 
public.  But  as  highways  are  to  be  kept  in  re- 
pair by  the  public,  no  person  can  make  a  high- 
way over  his  land  by  merely  opening  and  sur- 
rendering it  for  that  purpose,  unless  it  be 
formally  accepted  by  those  having  authority 
to  do  so ;  although  this  also  may  be  implied 
from  usage  and  lapse  of  time.  With  us,  nearly 
all  highways  are  now  laid  out  by  the  proper 
officers ;  and,  when  laid  out,  they  are  generally 
either  county  roads  or  town  roads.  The  pub- 
lic have,  by  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  full 
power  to  take  land  for  this  purpose  upon 
making  compensation  to  the  owner.  But  the 
public  can  take  only  what  it  needs  ;  and  as  it 
needs  for  the  purpose  of  a  highway  only  the 
right  of  passage,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  law,  the 
right  of  way  (which  is  what  the  law  calls  an 
easement),  it  leaves  the  absolute  property  in 
the  land  to  the  original  owner;  and  should 
the  highway  be  discontinued,  the  land  would 
remain  in  the  hands  of  the  owner,  free  from 
the  easement.  Presumptively  the  abuttors 
upon  a  road,  by  which  is  meant  those  who 
own  to  it,  own  to  the  middle  of  it,  subject  to 
the  public  right  of  way.  This  ownership  does 


not  exist  if  the  grant  or  conveyance  to  the 
abuttor  expressly  and  distinctly  limited  him  to 
the  edge  of  the  road ;  but  merely  bounding  a 
piece  of  land  by  the  road  has  not  this  effect, 
for  by  the  road  there  is  meant  the  middle  or 
thread  of  the  road.  A  highway  may  be  dis- 
continued and  the  easement  lost,  either  by  the 
express  action  of  competent  authority,  or  by  a 
complete  nonuser  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time.  The  obligation  of  the  public  to  keep 
highways  in  repair  is  not  so  far  absolute  as  to 
give  individuals  injured  by  the  neglect  an  ac- 
tion for  damages  unless  so  declared  by  stat- 
ute ;  but  in  many  of  the  states  such  actions 
are  given,  either  against  the  town  or  county ; 
and  in  most  of  the  states  municipal  corpora- 
tions existing  under  special  charters  are  held 
liable  to  such  actions  on  their  implied  under- 
taking with  the  state  to  keep  their  streets  in 
safe  condition. 

HILARION,  a  saint  of  the  church,  born,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Jerome,  near  Gaza  about  291, 
died  in  the  island  of  Cyprus  in  371.  He  was 
the  son  of  pagan  parents,  and  was  sent  by 
them  to  Alexandria  to  be  educated,  where  at 
the  age  of  15  he  became  a  Christian.  Return- 
ing to  Palestine  after  the  death  of  his  parents, 
he  embraced  monasticism,  gave  away  his  prop- 
erty, and  entered  upon  a  life  of  austerity.  He 
attracted  to  his  retreat  in  the  Syrian  desert 
crowds  of  visitors.  After  the  death  of  St. 
Anthony,  he  made  with  some  of  his  monastic 
brethren  a  pilgrimage  to  the  cell  and  tomb  of 
the  saint  in  Egypt.  To  escape  as  well  the  im- 
portunities of  friends  as  the  persecution  of  foes, 
he  sailed  for  Cyprus,  where  he  was  soon  dis- 
covered and  joined  by  his  disciple  Hesychius. 
Hence  he  passed  to  the  Dalmatian  coast,  and 
finally  settled  in  Cyprus.  A  vast  number  of 
miracles  are  ascribed  to  him.  His  festival, 
which  is  kept  on  Oct.  21,  was  celebrated  as 
early  as  the  5th  century. 

HILARY,  a  pope  of  Rome,  successor  of  St. 
Leo  I.,  born  in  Sardinia,  died  in  468.  From 
the  beginning  of  his  priesthood  he  had  been 
noted  for  his  zeal  for  the  faith  and  his  hostility 
to  heresy.  At  the  "  robber  council  "  of  Ephe- 
sus,  in  449,  he  appeared  as  the  representative 
of  Leo,  sustaining  the  doctrine  of  the  church 
against  the  theory  of  Eutyches.  He  was 
chosen  to  the  Roman  see  in  461.  He  improved 
the  discipline  of  the  church,  confirmed  the  ana- 
thema against  Nestorius  and  Eutyches,  prohib- 
ited the  long  established  practice  of  bishops 
nominating  their  successors,  forbade  men  who 
had  been  twice  married  or  who  had  married 
widows  to  receive  holy  orders,  held  at  Rome 
in  465  a  council  for  reforms,  and  solemnly 
ratified  the  former  oscumenical  councils. 

HILARY  (HILAEIUS),  a  saint  of  the  church, 
born  in  Poitiers  about  the  year  300,  died  there 
in  367  or  early  in  368.  His  parents,  who  were 
pagans  of  patrician  rank  and  very  wealthy, 
gave  him  a  careful  education.  He  was  of  ripe 
age,  distinguished  for  learning  and  eloquence, 
when,  with  his  wife  and  daughter,  he  embraced 


724 


HILDA 


HILDEGARD 


the  Christian  faith.  About  353  he  was  chosen 
bishop  of  his  native  city,  and  set  himself  zeal- 
ously to  combat  the  Arian  heresy,  which  was 
then  the  religion  of  the  emperor  Constantius 
II.,  and  predominant  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Af- 
rica, and  which  the  protection  of  the  emperor 
and  his  officers  and  their  persecution  of  the 
orthodox  were  making  popular  among  the  peo- 
ple and  clergy  of  Gaul.  In  355  Hilary  wrote 
to  the  emperor,  remonstrating  with  him  on 
this  persecuting  spirit.  In  356  he  was  in- 
duced to  present  himself  to  the  council  of  Be- 
ziers,  almost  entirely  composed  of  Arian  bish- 
ops, when  he  attacked  Saturninus  of  Aries,  the 
apostle  of  Arianism  in  Gaul,  but  was  con- 
demned by  the  majority,  denounced  to  the  em- 
peror as  a  disturber  of  the  peace  of  the  church, 
and  banished  to  Phrygia,  together  with  his 
friend  Rodanius,  bishop  of  Toulouse.  From 
his  exile  he  wrote  frequently  to  his  flock  and 
his  brother  bishops  in  Gaul  to  stir  up  their 
faith,  fortitude,  and  zeal.  He  composed  at  the 
same  time  his  work  on  "  Synods,"  which  was 
written  in  a  conciliatory  spirit,  and  his  12 
books  on  "The  Trinity,"  which  became  the 
standard  of  orthodoxy  in  the  western  churches. 
In  359,  at  the  instance  of  the  emperor  and  the 
Asiatic  bishops,  he  assisted  at  the  council  of 
Seleucia  in  Isauria,  and  triumphantly  defended 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  From  thence  he  went 
to  Constantinople,  where  he  boldly  arraigned 
the  emperor  and  his  Arian  counsellors,  who 
deemed  it  advisable  to  send  him  back  to  Gaul. 
Before  leaving  the  capital  he  wrote  his  vehe- 
ment "  Invective  against  Constantius."  He 
assembled  several  councils  after  his  return  to 
Poitiers,  and  obtained  the  deposition  of  Satur- 
ninus, and  a  formal  retractation  from  nearly 
all  the  bishops  who  had  subscribed  to  the 
creed  of  Ariminum.  He  then  passed  over  into 
Italy  to  oppose  as  well  the  untimely  severity 
of  the  orthodox  Lucifer  as  the  proselytizing 
and  persecuting  zeal  of  Auxentius,  the  favor- 
ite of  the  new  emperor  Valentinian ;  but  he 
was  forced  by  an  imperial  order  to  return  to  his 
diocese,  where  he  soon  after  died.  St.  Jerome 
calls  Hilary  "  the  Rhone  of  Latin  eloquence  " 
(LatinoR  eloquentim  Rhodanus).  The  best  edi- 
tions of  his  works  are  that  published  by  the 
Benedictine  Constant  (fol.,  Paris,  1693 ;  repub- 
lished  by  Maffei  with  several  additions,  Vero- 
na, 1730),  and  that  of  Oberthiler  (4  vols.  8vo, 
Wurzburg,  l781-'8).— See  Reinkens's  mono- 
graph, Hilarius  von  Poitiers  (Schaffhausen, 
1864 ;  Breslau,  1865). 

HILDA,  Saint,  abbess  of  Streaneshalch  (now 
Whitby)  in  Yorkshire,  born  in  617,  died  in 
680.  She  was  a  grandniece  of  Edwin,  king  of 
ISTorthumbria,  was  devoted  to  a  religious  life 
from  her  13th  year,  and  founded  in  the  reign 
of  Oswald  a  small  nunnery  on  the  Wear.  In 
650  she  became  abbess  of  Hartlepool,  where  in 
655  she  was  intrusted  by  Oswy  with  the  edu- 
cation of  his  daughter  Elfleda.  The  royal  mu- 
nificence enabled  her  to  erect  soon  afterward 
a  monastery  at  Whitby,  which  her  reputation 


for  sanctity  soon  made  the  most  flourishing  in 
England.  It  became  the  home  of  many  emi- 
nent men,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Hedda,  Wilfrid,  and  Csedmon,  the  poet.  Hil- 
da's feast  is  celebrated  on  Nov.  18.  She  is 
praised  by  historians  for  her  successful  efforts 
in  converting  the  pagans. 

HILDBURGHAISEN.  I.  A  former  duchy  of 
Germany,  since  1826  united  with  Meiningen, 
(See  SAXE-MEININGEN-HILDBURGHAUSEN.)  II. 
A  town,  capital  of  the  duchy,  on  the  Werra,  20 
m.  S.  E.  of  Meiningen;  pop.  in  1871,  5,148. 
It  has  a  ducal  castle,  a  gymnasium,  an  insane 
asylum,  a  normal  school,  and  a  deaf  and  dumb 
institution.  The  bibliographical  institute  of  J. 
Meyer,  which  in  1828  was  transferred  hither 
from  Gotha,  is  among  the  most  prominent 
publishing  houses  of  Germany.  From  1695  to 
1826  the  town  was  the  residence  of  the  duke 
of  Saxe-Hildburghausen. 

HILDEBRAND.     See  GEEGOEY  VII. 

HILDEBRANDT.  I.  Ferdinand  Theodor,  a  Ger- 
man painter,  born  in  Stettin,  July  2,  1804.  He 
studied  under  Wilhelm  Schadow  at  Berlin, 
with  whom  in  1826  he  went  to  Dusseldorf,  and 
in  1830  to  Italy,  finally  taking  up  his  residence 
at  Dusseldorf,  where  he  became  professor. 
His  works  include  examples  in  historical,  re- 
ligious, and  genre  art.  Scenes  from  poetry, 
especially  from  Shakespeare,  are  his  favorite 
subjects.  Among  his  pictures  are:  " Faust" 
(1825),  "  Cordelia  and  King  Lear,"  for  which 
Devirent  sat  as  a  model  (1826),  "Romeo  and 
Juliet"  (1827),  "Clorinda"  (1828),  "The  Rob- 
bers" (1829),  "Judith  and  Holofernes"  (1830), 
"The  Soldier  and  his  Child"  (1832),  "The 
Children  of  King  Edward  "  (1835),  "  Othello 
before  the  Doge  of  Venice"  (1848),  "Juliet 
taking  the  Draught"  (1853),  and  "Cordelia 
reading  the  Letter  to  Kent"  (1859).  Among 
his  later  works  are  illustrations  of  Uhland  and 
designs  from  German  ballads.  He  has  also 
painted  many  portraits,  those  of  old  men  being 
especially  admired.  He  has  been  styled  the 
first  colorist  of  the  Dusseldorf  school.  II. 
Ednard,  a  German  landscape  and  genre  painter, 
born  in  Dantzic,  Sept.  9,  1817,  died  in  Berlin, 
Oct.  25,  1868.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Isabey,  and 
in  1843  gained  the  first  prize  at  the  Paris  exhi- 
bition. He  then  took  up  his  residence  in  Ber- 
lin, and  became  professor  in  the  academy  of 
art.  Among  his  numerous  pictures,  of  which 
aerial  effects  are  the  predominant  characteris- 
tic, are  scenes  in  North  and  South  America, 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  the  Ori- 
ent, the  Alpine  regions,  and  the  extreme  north 
of  Europe.  He  illustrated  a  hall  in  the  Sans 
Souci  palace  with  scenes  from  the  Holy  Land. 

IIILUEGARD,  or  Bildegardis,  Saint,  born  in  1098 
at  Bockelheim,  in  the  diocese  of  Mentz,  died 
at  Rupertsberg,  near  Bingen,  in  1180.  Her 
father,  who  held  the  rank  of  count,  intrusted 
her  in  her  8th  year  to  the  abbess  of  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  Disibodenberg,  of  which  she 
afterward  became  abbess  herself.  While  there 
she  had  her  first  ecstatic  visions,  of  which  she 


£ 

crc 


HILDESHEIM 

w  up  a  relation.     Her  fame  so  increased  the 
umber  of  her  nuns,  that  she  built  a  new  con- 
en  t  on  the  Rupertsberg,  on  the  Rhine.     She 
ow  wrote  several  books  both  in  German  and  in 
n,  and  published  a  full  account  of  her  reve- 
tions  in  a  work  called  Scivias.     She  corre- 
onded  with  all  the  crowned  heads,  princes, 
id  prelates  of  her  time,  and  travelled  through 
tie  cities  of  Germany,  discoursing  publicly  on 
ivine  things.     Her  visions  or  revelations  were 
nsidered  by  many  as  illusions.     They  were 
amined  by  the  council  of  Trevesin  1147,  and 
eir  publication  was  authorized  by  Pope  Eu- 
nius  III.     Hildegard  has  never  been  solemnly 
nonized.     Her  feast  is  celebrated  on  Sept.  17. 
complete  edition  of  her  writings  was  publish- 
in  Cologne  in  1566.     Among  the  most  im- 
>rtant  are :   Scivias,  sen  Eevelationum  Libri 
7/(fol.,  Cologne,  1698);  Sanctas  Hildegardis 
'"pistoles,  in  Martene's  collection  (Rouen,  1700) ; 
rortus  Sanitatis,  a  medical  dictionary,  which, 
printed  with  the  Etymologicon  of  Isidore  of 
Seville,  forms  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  middle 
ages ;  and  Libri  quatuor  Elementorum  (Stras- 
burg,  1533). — See  Meiners,  De  Sanctce  Hilde- 
gardis Vita,  Scriptis  et  Meritis  (Gottingen, 
793);    Dahl,  Die  Ueilige  Hildegard  (Mentz, 
832) ;    and  Reuss,  De  Libris  Physicis  Sancta 
Tildegardis  (Wiirzburg,  1835). 
HILDESHEIM,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince and  18  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Hanover; 
pop.  in   1871,  20,532,  including  about   6,500 
Roman   Catholics  and  400  Jews.     The  con- 
uction   of  the  town  is  irregular,  but  the 
ooked  streets  are   exceedingly  quaint,  and 
vestiges  of  remote  antiquity  abound  in  every 
direction,  especially  in  the  churches,  many  of 
which  are  Roman  Catholic,  owing  to  the  me- 
diaeval celebrity  of  the  place  as  the  capital  of  a 
great  episcopal  see ;  and  it  continues  to  be  the 
seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.     The  cathe- 
dral contains  a  treasury  rich  in  antique  church 
plate,  and  many  famous  relics  and  works  of 
art.      Other  renowned  Catholic  edifices  are 
those  of  St.  Godehard  and  St.  Michael,  and  St. 
Andrew's  Lutheran  church  is  remarkable  for 
its  lofty  towers.     Hildesheim  abounds  in  hos- 
pitals and  charitable  institutions,  and  among 
the  numerous  schools  are  seminaries  for  Roman 
Catholics  and  Protestants.     The  trade  consists 
chiefly  in  agricultural  and  horticultural  pro- 
ducts, and  leather,  sail  cloth,  tobacco,  and  car- 
riages are  manufactured.     In  1868  many  Ro- 
man antiquities  were  discovered  here,  including 
a  number  of  silver  vessels,  supposed  to  belong 
to  the   camp   equipment  of  Varus. — Charle- 
magne founded  the  see  of  Elze,  which  was 
transferred  by  Louis  le  D6bonnaire  to  Hildes- 
heim shortly  after  his  father's  death.     In  the 
10th  and  llth  centuries,  under  the  bishoprics 
of  St.  Bernward  and  St.  Godehard,  it  reached 
an  importance  which,  despite  occasional  con- 
flicts, went  on  increasing  till  early  in  the  16th 
century,  when  a  bitter  struggle,  known  in  his- 
tory as  the  Hildesheimer  Stiftsfehde,  resulted 
in  the  annexation  of  a  great  part  of  the  terri- 


HILDRETH 


725 


tory  to  the  Brunswick  dominions.  Many  of 
these  possessions  were  restored  to  the  see  in 
1643,  and  full  religious  liberty  was  secured  in 
1711  for  the  Protestant  population,  who  had 
long  been  subjected  to  persecutions  on  the  part 
of  the  Catholic  authorities.  The  see  was  al- 
lotted to  Prussia  in  consequence  of  the  peace 
of  Luneville  (1801).  In  1807  it  became  part 
of  the  French  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  after 
the  fall  of  which  it  was  a  Hanoverian  princi- 
pality till  1866,  when  it  became  part  of  Prussia. 
H1LDRETH,  Richard,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Deerfield,  Mass.,  June  28,  1807,  died 
in  Florence,  Italy,  July  11,  1865.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  college  in  1826,  and  while 
studying  law  in  Newburyport  furnished  con- 
tributions to  the  "  Boston  Magazine  "  and  the 
"  New  England  Magazine."  He  entered  upon 
the  practice  of  law  in  Boston,  but  abandoned 
it  in  July,  1832,  to  become  the  editor  of  the 
"Boston  Atlas."  In  the  autumn  of  1834  he 
went  for  the  benefit  of  his  health  to  the  south, 
where  he  resided  about  a  year  and  a  half  on  a 
plantation.  While  here  his  anti-slavery  nov- 
el, "Archy  Moore"  (1837),  was  written.  It 
was  republished  in  England,  and  in  1852  an 
enlarged  American  edition  appeared  under  the 
title  of  "The  White  Slave."  In  1836  he  trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  Dumont  Bentham's 
"Theory  of  Legislation"  (2  vols.  16mo,  Bos- 
ton, 1840).  His  next  publication  was  a  "His- 
tory of  Banks,"  an  argument  for  the  system  of 
free  banking  with  security  to  bill-holders,  sub- 
sequently adopted  in  New  York  and  several 
other  states.  In  1837  he  wrote  for  the  "At- 
las" a  series  of  articles  against  the  annexation 
of  Texas,  which  did  much  to  stimulate  the 
obstinate  resistance  it  encountered  in  the  free 
states.  After  passing  the  winter  of  1837-'8  in 
Washington  as  correspondent  of  the  "Atlas," 
he  resumed  his  editorial  post  as  an  advocate  of 
Gen.  Harrison,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  biography. 
In  1840  he  published,  under  the  title  of  "Des- 
potism in  America,"  a  volume  on  the  political, 
economical,  and  social  aspects  of  slavery,  to 
which  in  the  edition  of  1854  was  appended  a 
chapter  on  the  "Legal  Basis  of  Slavery."  His 
controversial  pamphlets,  including  a  letter  to 
Prof.  Andrews  Norton  of  Cambridge  on  "  Mir- 
acles," were  contributions  to  a  long  and  ex- 
citing theological  discussion  in  Massachusetts. 
A  residence  of  three  years,  commencing  with 
1840,  in  Demerara,  British  Guiana,  stimulated 
his  anti-slavery  activity;  and,  as  the  editor 
successively  of  two  newspapers  in  George- 
town, the  capital  of  the  colony,  he  earnestly 
advocated  the  system  of  free  labor.  His  "  The- 
ory of  Morals'-'  (Boston,  1844),  and  his  "The- 
ory of  Politics"  (New  York,  1853),  written 
during  his  sojourn  in  Guiana,  were  attempts  to 
apply  rigorously  to  ethical  and  political  sci- 
ence the  same  inductive  method  of  inquiry 
which  has  proved  so  successful  in  other  sci- 
ences. His  principal  work  is  his  "History  of 
the  United  States "  (6  vols.  8vo,  New  York, 
1849-'56).  This  undertaking  he  had  project- 


726 


HILL 


ed  during  his  life  in  college,  and  he  gave 
to  it  many  years  of  thorough  deliberation  and 
study.  The  period  covered  extends  from  the 
settlement  of  America  to  the  end  of  Monroe's 
first  presidential  term.  He  also  published  a 
historical  work  on  "Japan  as  it  Was  and  Is" 
(12mo,  1855).  For  several  years  Mr.  Hildreth 
was  engaged  on  the  staff  of  the  "New  York 
Tribune,"  contributing  also  several  articles  to 
this  Cyclopaedia;  and  in  1861  he  was  appoint- 
ed United  States  consul  at  Trieste. 

HILL,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  W. 
by  the  Brazos  river,  and  drained  by  small  trib- 
utaries of  that  stream ;  area,  950  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,453,  of  whom  806  were  colored.  The 
W.  part  is  heavily  timbered,  and  the  E.  part 
consists  of  prairie ;  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  cli- 
mate healthy.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  295,668  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  76,818  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  3,407  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  7,632  horses,  5,816  milch  cows,  1,008 
working  oxen,  26,863  other  cattle,  3,045  sheep, 
and  10,619  swine.  Capital,  Hillsborough. 

HILL,  Ambrose  Powell,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Culpeper  co.,  Va.,  about  1825,  killed 
near  Petersburg,  April  2, 1865.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1847,  served  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  afterward  in  Florida,  and  was  in 
the  office  of  the  coast  survey  from  1855  to 
1860.  He  resigned  his  commission  of  lieuten- 
ant, March  1,  1861,  and  entered  the  confeder- 
ate service.  He  took  an  active  part  in  all  the 
campaigns  in  northern  Virginia,  being  present 
as  colonel  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run ;  at  Wil- 
liamsburg,  where  he  was  made  a  major  gen- 
eral ;  during  the  seven  days'  fighting  on  the 
peninsula;  at  Cedar  Mountain,  Groveton,  and 
Antietam ;  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellors- 
ville,  where  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of 
Jackson's  corps,  but  was  soon  disabled  by  a 
wound;  at  Gettysburg  and  the  Wilderness; 
and  finally  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  He  was 
killed  by  a  rifle  shot  at  the  end  of  the  siege. 

HILL,  Daniel  Harvey,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1822.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1842,  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  was  successively  brevetted 
as  captain  and  major  for  gallant  and  merito- 
rious conduct  at  Contreras,  Churubusco,  and 
Chapultepec,  and  received  a  sword  of  honor 
from  his  native  state.  He  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  1849,  and  became  successively  pro- 
fessor in  Washington  college,  Va.  (1849-'54), 
and  in  Davidson  College,  N".  0.  (1854-'59),  and 
superintendent  of  the  North  Carolina  military 
Institute  (1859-'61).  During  this  period  he 
published  a  work  on  algebra,  a  volume  on  the 
"Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  and  another  on  the 
"  Crucifixion  of  Christ,"  besides  several  essays 
in  southern  periodicals.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  confederate 
service.  He  commanded  in  the  skirmish  at 
Big  Bethel,  took  part  in  the  defence  of  York- 
town,  and  led  a  division  in  the  battles  of  Me- 
chanicsville,  Cold  Harbor,  and  Malvern  Hill. 
When  Lee  made  his  first  advance  to  the  north, 


Gen.  Hill  was  left  in  command  on  the  James. 
He  joined  Lee  just  after  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles 
of  South  Mountain,  Antietam,  and  Fredericks- 
burg,  and  was  then  placed  for  a  time  in  com- 
mand in  North  and  South  Carolina.  After  the 
war  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Charlotte,  N. 
C.,  where  he  has  published  a  periodical,  "  The 
Field  and  the  Farm." 

HILL,  Isaae,  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Ashburnham,  Mass.,  April  6,  1788,  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  March  22,  1851.  In  1809 
he  settled  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  where  he  es- 
tablished the  "New  Hampshire  Patriot,"  of 
which  he  was  editor  for  many  years.  He 
served  in  the  senate  and  lower  house  of  that 
state,  and  in  1830  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate,  where  he  remained  five  years. 
In  1836  he  was  elected  by  the  democrats  gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire,  and  continued  in  of- 
fice by  reelection  three  terms.  For  ten  years 
he  published  the  "Farmer's  Monthly  Visitor." 

HILL,  Rowland,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Hawkestone,  near  Shrewsbury,  Aug.  12, 
1744,  died  April  11,  1833.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  He  early  showed  a 
predilection  for  the  Methodists,  and  while  at 
Cambridge  used  to  preach  in  the  prisons  and 
private  houses.  The  influence  of  his  family, 
however,  prevented  him  from  joining  them, 
and  he  took  orders  in  the  church  of  England. 
Whitefield's  reputation  was  then  at  its  height, 
and  during  his  absence  from  his  chapel  Hill  fre- 
quently filled  his  place.  When  Whitefield  died, 
the  Methodists  looked  to  Hill  as  his  successor, 
but  he  declined  their  offers.  For  12  years  he 
preached  in  Wiltshire,  Somersetshire,  and  Glou- 
cestershire. In  1782  he  laid  the  first  stone  of 
Surrey  chapel,  Blackfriars  road,  London,  and 
for  50  years  he  was  the  chief  preacher  there 
in  the  winter,  spending  the  summers  in  pro- 
vincial excursions,  travelling  over  most  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  and  visiting  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. He  always  preached  without  notes,  and 
his  sermons  were  in  a  colloquial,  familiar  strain, 
abounding  in  anecdotes,  and  sometimes  even  in 
jokes  and  puns.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  his  "  Village  Dialogues,"  first  published  in 
1801;  the  34th  edition,  with  additions  and 
corrections,  was  published  in  1824  (new  ed., 
1854).  His  memoirs  were  written  by  the  Rev. 
Edward  Sydney  (London,  1844),  and  by  the 
Rev.  W.  Jones  (1845). 

HILL,  Rowland,  viscount,  a  British  general, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Prees, 
Shropshire,  Aug.  11,  1772,  died  at  Hardwicke 
Grange,  near  Shrewsbury,  Dec.  10,  1842.  He 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  18,  served  at 
the  siege  of  Toulon  as  aide-de-camp  to  three 
successive  generals,  in  Egypt  in  command  of 
the  90th  regiment,  and  in  the  expedition  to  the 
Weser,  and  in  1808  arrived  in  Spain  with  the 
rank  of  major  general.  He  participated  in  the 
memorable  advance  and  retreat  of  Sir  John 
Moore,  and  rendered  important  services  in  cov- 
ering the  embarkation  of  the  British  army  at 


HILL 

>runna  (1809).     In  the  subsequent  campaigns 

the  peninsula  he  distinguished  himself  par- 
ticularly at  Talavera,  Arroyo  de  Molinos,  and 
'  Imaraz.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  the 

anks  of  parliament,  and  his  elevation  to  the 
peerage  in  1814  as  Baron  Hill  of  Almaraz  and 
of  Hawkestone.  He  closed  a  brilliant  military 
career  at  Waterloo,  where  he  .commanded  a  di- 
vision of  the  allied  army.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
army,  a  post  he  occupied  till  1842,  when,  upon 
resigning  office,  he  was  created  a  viscount.  He 
ossessed  almost  every  quality  of  a  great  com- 
der,  and  was  called  the  "  right  arm  of  Wel- 
ngton,"  who  bore  frequent  testimony  to  his 
gic  skill  and  high  military  capacity.  His 

rsonal  qualities  rendered   him  perhaps  the 

ost  popular  soldier  of  his  time  in  the  British 

vice. 

HILL,  Sir  Rowland,  author  of  the  cheap  post- 
system  in  Great  Britain,  born  in  Kidder- 
minster, Dec.  3,  1795.  He  .early  showed  a 
great  fondness  for  figures,  which  was  subse- 
quently developed  in  the  study  of  mathematics. 
His  first  occupation  was  that  of  mathematical 
tutor  in  a  school  kept  by  his  father,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  he  devoted  himself  to  im- 
proving school  instruction  and  organization. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
South  Australian  commission,  and  aided  in 
founding  the  colony  of  South  Australia.  About 
this  time  the  defects  in  postal  arrangements 
began  to  occupy  his  attention,  and  in  1837  he 
published  a  pamphlet  on  post-office  reform. 
By  his  personal  exertions  he  succeeded  in  1838 
in  having  the  matter  referred  to  a  special  com- 
mittee of  the  house  of  commons.  In  August, 
1838,  the  committee  reported  in  favor  of  a  uni- 
form low  rate  of  postage  as  recommended  by 
Mr.  Hill,  and  at  the  next  session  more  than 
2,000  petitions  were  presented  in  its  favor.  In 
July,  1839,  a  bill  to  enable  the  treasury  to  carry 
Mr.  Hill's  plan  into  effect,  introduced  by  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  passed  by  a  ma- 
jority of  102  ;  and  on  Aug.  17  the  project  be- 
came a  law.  A  temporary  office  under  the 
treasury  was  at  the  same  time  created  to  ena- 
ble Mr.  Hill  to  inaugurate  his  plan,  and  on  Jan. 
10,  1840,  the  uniform  penny  rate  came  into 
operation.  The  post-office  authorities  were, 
however,  hostile  to  the  change,  and  Mr.  Hill 
found  himself  without  adequate  support  from 
the  existing  ministry  or  from  that  which  suc- 
ceeded it.  His  scheme  worked  well ;  during 
the  commercial  depression  which  followed  its 
adoption,  the  post-office  revenue  went  on  in- 
creasing, while  every  other  source  of  national 
income  proved  less  productive  than  before. 
He  was  nevertheless  dismissed  from  his  office 
soon  after  the  accession  of  the  Peel  ministry. 
In  1843  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  directors 
of  the  Brighton  railway,  in  which  capacity  he 
projected  several  useful  improvements.  A  sub- 
scription for  a  testimonial  to  him,  begun  in 
1844,  reached  the  amount  of  £13,000.  Upon 
the  return  of  the  whigs  to  power  in  1846  he 


HILLEH 


727 


was  appointed  secretary  to  the  postmaster  gen- 
eral, holding  divided  authority  with  Col.  Ma- 
berly;  and  eight  years  later,  on  the  transfer 
of  the  latter  to  the  audit  office  (April,  1854), 
he  became  sole  secretary.  In  1860  he  was 
knighted  in  acknowledgment  of  his  services  at 
the  post  office,  and  received  a  parliamentary 
grant  of  £20,000,  the  first  Albert  gold  medal 
of  the  society  of  arts,  and  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
from  Oxford.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  a  royal  commission  on  railways. 

HILL,  Thomas,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  New  Brunswick,  K  J.,  Jan.  7,  1818.  He 
was  left  an  orphan  at  10  years  of  age,  and  at 
12  was  apprenticed  to  the  printer  of  a  news- 
paper, where  he  remained  four  years.  He  then 
entered  an  apothecary's  shop,  after  a  year's 
attendance  at  school,  and  served  in  it  3£  years. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1843,  com- 
pleted his  term  of  residence  at  the  divinity 
school  in  1845,  and  was  settled  at  Waltham, 
Mass.,  on  Christmas  of  the  same  year.  He  has 
published  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Arith- 
metic," "Geometry  and  Faith,"  and  "First 
Lessons  in  Geometry."  It  is,  however,  in  his 
investigations  in  curves  that  he  has  displayed 
the  greatest  originality  and  fertility.  He  has 
added  to  the  number  of  known  curves,  and 
simplified  their  expression ;  and  by  overstep- 
ping the  common  methods  of  using  coordinates, 
and  introducing  new  combinations,  he  has  vastly 
extended  the  field  of  research.  In  1859  he 
became  president  of  Antioch  college,  at  Yellow 
Springs,  Ohio,  and  in  1862  of  Harvard  univer- 
sity. He  resigned  the  latter  office  in  1868, 
resided  for  some  years  at  Waltham,  and  is 
now  (1874)  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at 
Portland,  Maine. 

HILLARD,  George  Stillman,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  Machias,  Me.,  Sept.  22, 1808.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1828,  and  for 
some  time  was  a  teacher  in  the  Round  Hill 
school  at  Northampton.  He  then  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  1833. 
In  1846  he  visited  Europe,  and  on  returning  in 
1847  he  delivered  a  course  of  12  lectures  on 
Italy  before  the  Lowell  institute.  He  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Christian  Register" 
(Unitarian)  in  1833,  and  afterward  of  the  "Ju- 
rist," and  then  of  the  daily  "  Courier."  He 
contributed  a  life  of  Capt.  John  Smith  to 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  edited  Spen- 
ser's poetical  works,  translated  Guizot's  "  Char- 
acter and  Influence  of  Washington"  (1840),  and 
edited  the  Boston  "Memorial  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster "  (1853),  and  selections  from  the  writings 
of  Walter  Savage  Landor  (1856).  He  has  also 
published  "Six  Months  in  Italy"  (2  vols., 
1853),  "Life  and  Campaigns  of  George  B. 
McClellan"  (1864),  "Political  Duties  of  the 
Educated  Classes,"  "Dangers  and  Duties  of 
the  Mercantile  Profession,"  and  a  series  of 
school  readers.  He  was  United  States  district 
attorney  for  Massachusetts  in  1867-'70. 

HILLEH,  or  Hillah,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Bagdad,  on  both  sides  of  the 


728 


IIILLEL 


MILLIARD  D'AUBERTEUIL 


Euphrates,  and  amid  the  ruins  of  Babylon; 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  a  quiet,  peaceable  place, 
with  well  supplied  bazaars,  but  greatly  decayed 
from  its  importance  under  the  Sassanide  shahs 
and  the  caliphs,  when  it  was  also  remarkable 
for  one  of  the  most  flourishing  communities  of 
the  Babylonian  Jews.  It  is  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  place  where  the  He- 
brew captives  carried  off  from  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  were  chiefly  established. 

IIILLEL,  a  rabbi  and  president  (nasi)  of  the 
sanhedrim  of  Jerusalem,  who  flourished  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  1st  century  B.  C.  He  is  dis- 
tinguished from  other  rabbis  of  the  same  name 
by  the  surname  of  Hazzaken  (the  Elder).  He 
is  also  called  the  Babylonian  from  his  native 
country.  Admired  for  his  humanity,  mildness, 
and  love  of  peace,  he  is  also  celebrated  as  the 
reformer  and  great  propagator  of  the  study  of 
the  traditional  law,  the  results  of  which  were 
afterward  collected  under  the  title  of  Mishnah 
by  one  of  his  descendants  and  successors  in 
the  presidency  of  the  sanhedrim,  Rabbi  Judah 
the  Holy.  Hillel's  school  flourished  especially 
during  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great,  the  rival 
school  being  that  of  the  austere  Shammai.  Be- 
sides the  legal  decisions  of  Hillel,  various  sayings 
of  his  are  preserved  in  the  Mishnah,  as  well  as 
numerous  anecdotes  in  the  Gemara,  all  of  which 
express  his  love  of  men  as  well  as  of  study.  It 
is  he  who,  being  applied  to  by  a  pagan  for  in- 
struction in  the  Mosaic  law,  replied :  "  '  Do  not 
to  others  what  you  do  not  like  others  to  do  to 
you,'  is  the  essence;  everything  else  is  but 
comment." — Another  Hillel,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  was  the 
author  of  the  existing  Jewish  calendar. 

HILLER,  Ferdinand,  a  German  composer,  born 
in  Frankfort,  Oct.  24,  1811.  His  father,  a 
wealthy  Jew,  fostered  his  disposition  for  music, 
and  he  received  lessons  in  succession  from  Hoff- 
mann, Schmidt,  Vollweiler,  and  Hummel.  At 
the  age  of  10  he  was  first  heard  as  a  pianist, 
and  at  17  published  his  first  composition,  a  quar- 
tet for  piano  and  strings.  He  next  spent  seven 
years  in  Paris,  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of 
classical  music,  where  he  was  heard  with  Liszt, 
Kalkbrenner,  and  later  with  Baillot  the  violin- 
ist, acquiring  much  reputation  as  a  virtuoso. 
In  1836,  returning  to  Frankfort,  he  was  made 
director  of  the  Cdcilienverein.  During  the 
succeeding  15  years  he  lived  successively  in 
Milan,  Leipsic,  Dresden,  Dusseldorf,  Cologne, 
Paris,  and  London.  Finally  in  1852  he  settled 
at  Cologne,  where  he  has  since  remained.  At 
Milan  he  brought  out  his  opera  Romilde  ;  at 
Leipsic,  in  1839,  his  oratorio  Die  Zerstorung 
Jerusalem*;  at  Dresden  his  two  operas  Der 
Traum  in  der  Christnacat  (1844),  and  Kon- 
radin,  der  letzte  Hohenstaufe  (1847).  In  the 
winter  of  1843-' 4  he  directed  the  Leipsic  Ge- 
wandhaus  concerts.  In  1847  he  was  made 
music  director  at  Dusseldorf,  in  1850  chapel- 
master  at  Cologne,  and  in  1851  director  of  the 
Italian  opera  at  Paris.  His  compositions  com- 
prise operas,  symphonies,  oratorios,  trios  and 


quartets  for  stringed  instruments,  and  a  large 
number  of  songs  and  pianoforte  pieces.  Among 
his  later  works  is  "  Nala  and  Damayanti,"  a 
cantata  brought  out  at  the  Birmingham  festi- 
val in  1870.  He  holds  honorable  rank  among 
modern  German  composers,  and  his  critical 
writings  are  also  esteemed. 

BILLBOUSE.  I.  James,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Montville,  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1754, 
died  in  New  Haven,  Dec.  29,  1832.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  college  in  1773,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  was  treasurer  from  1782  till  his  death. 
He  studied  law,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
struggle  of  the  revolution ;  was  a  member  of 
congress  in  1791,  and  in  1794  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  United  States  senate,  where  he 
remained  for  16  years.  Resigning  his  seat  in 
1810,  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the 
school  fund  of  Connecticut,  and  continued  to 
act  as  such  for  15  years.  II.  James  Abraham,  an 
American  poet,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
New  Haven,  Sept.  26,  1789,  died  near  that 
city,  Jan.  4,  1841.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1808,  and  in  1812  delivered  before 
the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  a  poem  entitled 
"  The  Judgment,  a  Vision  "  (New  York,  1812). 
He  engaged  in  commerce  in  New  York  ;  in 
1819  visited  England,  and  published  in  London 
his  drama  of  "  Percy's  Masque,"  which  was 
reprinted  in  New  York  with  changes  in  1820 ; 
and  in  1822  removed  to  a  country  seat  near 
New  Haven,  where  he  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  In  1825  he  published  his  second 
drama,  "Hadad;"  and  in  1839  a  collected  edi- 
tion of  his  writings  appeared  in  Boston,  under 
the  title  of  "Dramas,  Discourses,  and  other 
Pieces."  It  included,  besides  several  polished 
prose  compositions,  "Demetria,"  a  domestic 
Italian  tragedy,  which  he  had  written  in  1813. 

BILLIARD,  Nicholas,  an  English  miniature 
painter,  born  in  Exeter  in  1547,  died  in  1619. 
He  was  by  profession  a  jeweller ;  but  having 
a  taste  for  painting,  he  studied  the  works  of 
Holbein,  and  became  noted  for  his  minia- 
tures. He  painted  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
Elizabeth  several  times,  James  I.,  and  other 
eminent  persons. 

BILLIARD  D'AUBERTECIL,  Michel  Rene,  a 
French  author,  born  in  Rennes,  Jan.  31,  1751, 
died  in  Santo  Domingo  about  1785.  He  prac- 
tised law  in  that  colony,  and  published  on  his 
return  to  France  Considerations  sur  Vetat  pre- 
sent de  la  colonie  franpaise  de  Saint- Domingue 
(2  vols.,  1776),  which  exposed  official  abuses 
and  was  suppressed  by  the  authorities.  He 
visited  the  United  States  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  returned  to  Santo  Domingo,  and 
is  said  by  some  to  have  been  assassinated,  by 
others  to  have  been  executed.  His  principal 
works  are:  Essais  Jiistoriques  et  politiques 
sur  les  Anglo- Americains  (Brussels,  1782),  and 
Histoire  de  V administration  du  lord  North 
depuis  1770  jusqu'en  1782,  et  de  la  guerre  de 
VAmerique  septentrionale  (London  and  Paris, 
1784),  the  accompanying  financial  statistics  be- 
ing also  published  separately. 


HILLSBOROUGH 

BILLS60ROFGH.  I.  A  S.  county  of  New 
Hampshire,  bordering  on  Massachusetts,  in- 
tersected in  its  E.  part  by  the  Merrimack 
river,  and  drained  in  the  W.  by  the  Contoo- 
cook ;  area,  960  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  64,238. 
It  has  a  gently  diversified  surface,  but  there 
are  few  hills  of  great  elevation.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile and  well  watered  with  running  streams 
and  small  lakes.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Con- 
cord, the  Contoocook  Eiver,  the  Peterborough 
and  Shirley,  the  Monadnock,  the  Boston,  Low- 
ell, and  Nashua,  the  Wilton  branch,  the  Wor- 
cester and  Nashua,  the  Manchester  and  Law- 
rence, and  the  Manchester  and  North  Weare 
railroads.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
15,380  bushels  of  wheat,  163,801  of  Indian 
corn,  74,716  of  oats,  15,677  of  barley,  349,692 
of  potatoes,  42,441  Ibs.  of  wool,  718,696  of 
butter,  58,261  of  cheese,  and  68,089  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  4,748  horses,  12,466  milch 
cows,  3,997  working  oxen,  11,660  other  cattle, 
11,820  sheep,  and  5,514  swine.  There  were 
664  manufacturing  establishments,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $13,443,890,  and  an  an- 
nual product  of  $25,330,611,  chiefly  situated 
in  Amherst,  Manchester,  and  Nashua,  the 
county  towns.  II.  A  W.  county  of  Florida, 
bordering  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  area,  2,900 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,216,  of  whom  546  were 
colored.  Its  coast  is  deeply  indented  by  Tampa 
bay,  and  it  is  drained  by  Hillsborough,  Alafia, 
and  Manatee  rivers.  Its  surface  is  low,  level, 
and  in  some  places  marshy,  and  is  timbered 
with  live  oak  and  palmetto.  The  soil  is  very 
rich.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  33,- 
332  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  27,663  of  sweet 
potatoes,  35  hogsheads  of  sugar,  5,629  gallons 
of  molasses,  and  2,443  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  406  horses,  3,123  milch  cows,  12,619 
other  cattle,  and  3,679  swine.  Capital,  Tampa. 

HILLSDALE,  a  S.  county  of  Michigan,  bounded 
S.  by  Ohio,  and  touching  the  N.  E.  extremity 
of  Indiana;  area,  555  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
31,684.  It  is  drained  by  the  head  waters  of 
St.  Joseph's  river  of  Lake  Michigan,  St. 
Joseph's  of  the  Maumee,  the  Kalamazoo,  and 
Grand  river.  It  has  an  undulating  surface, 
heavily  timbered  in  the  south,  and  supporting 
elsewhere  a  thin  growth  of  oak  and  hickory. 
The  soil  is  a  rich  sandy  loam.  Iron  ore  and 
fine  sandstone  are  found.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Michigan  Southern,  the  Fort  Wayne,  Jack- 
son, and  Saginaw,  and  the  Detroit,  Hillsdale, 
and  Indiana  railroads.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  531,839  bushels  of  wheat,  879,- 
032  of  Indian  corn,  271,732  of  oats,  294,364 
of  potatoes,  385,051  Ibs.  of  wool,  866,352  of 
butter,  35,891  of  cheese,  and  43,807  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  8,996  horses,  10,567  milch 
cows,  11,303  other  cattle,  89,457  sheep,  and 
17,492  swine;  8  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  15  of  carriages,  2  of  cheese,  5  of 
furniture,  5  of  iron  castings,  3  of  tombstones, 
8  of  saddlery  and  harness,  7  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  1  of  woollen  goods,  8  flour  mills,  and 
16  saw  mills.  Capital,  Hillsdale. 


HILO 


729 


HILLSDALE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Hills- 
dale  co.,  Michigan,  at  the  intersection  of  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  and  the 
Detroit,  Hillsdale,  and  Indiana  railroads,  55  m. 
S.  of  Lansing,  and  85  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Detroit  • 
pop.  in  1860,  2,177  ;  in  1870,  3,518.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  fine  agricultural  region,  and  has 
an  important  trade  in  grain.  It  contains  a 
chair  factory,  employing  about  300  men,  3 
flouring  mills,  2  founderies  and  machine  shops, 
2  national  banks,  and  4  hotels.  The  city  is 
the  seat  of  Hillsdale  college,  an  institution  un- 
der the  control  of  the  Free-Will  Baptists.  It 
was  originally  established  at  Spring  Arbor  by 
a  vote  of  the  Michigan  yearly  meeting  in  1844, 
and  was  chartered  as  Michigan  Central  college 
in  the  following  year.  It  was  removed  to 
Hillsdale  and  received  a  new  charter  under  its 
present  name  in  1855.  The  college  building,  a 
handsome  brick  structure  four  stories  high, 
was  partially  destroyed  by  fire  on  March  6, 
1874,  and  a  new  one  is  in  course  of  erection. 
The  grounds  are  spacious  and  well  laid  out. 
The  college  embraces  seven  departments,  viz. : 
classical,  scientific,  classical  preparatory,  gen- 
eral preparatory,  theological,  music,  art.  The 
faculty  consists  of  the  president,  7  professors, 
and  14  instructors  and  tutors.  The  whole 
number  of  students  in  1872-'3  was  606,  of 
whom  391  were  male  and  215  female.  Of  this 
number  there  were  49  in  the  classical  depart- 
ment, of  whom  7  graduated;  175  in  the  scien- 
tific, of  whom  20  graduated;  classical  prepara- 
tory, 33;  general  preparatory,  240;  theologi- 
cal, 13;  music,  73;  art,  26.  The  library  con- 
tains about  4,000  volumes.  Hillsdale  has  13 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  3 
weekly  newspapers,  and  6  churches.  It  was 
settled  in  1832,  and  incorporated  in  1869. 

HILO,  a  seaport  town  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
island  of  Hawaii,  in  a  district  of  the  same 
name ;  pop.  in  1872,  4,220,  native  and  foreign. 
It  is  the  second  town  in  size,  after  Honolulu, 
in  the  Hawaiian  islands.  Hilo  harbor,  former- 
ly called  Byron's  bay,  has  from  three  to  eight 
fathoms  of  water ;  it  is  spacious,  and  protected 
by  a  reef  of  lava  and  coral  from  all  winds  ex- 
cept northerly  ones,  during  which  sailing  ves- 
sels find  it  difficult  to  leave  the  port.  The  vil- 
lage and  the  district  are  among  the  most  beau- 
tiful regions  of  the  tropics.  The  climate  is  ex- 
traordinarily rainy.  In  a  single  year  (1846-'7) 
there  was  a  total  rainfall  of  182  in.,  of  which 
38-156  in.  fell  in  March,  1847,  and  10*466  in.  in  a 
single  day.  The  district  of  Hilo  is  cut  up  by  the 
deep  channels  of  no  less  than  50  large  streams, 
which  fall  into  the  sea  within  a  space  of  coast 
about  25  m.  in  extent,  discharging  the  rains 
that  are  poured  by  the  trade  winds  upon  the 
N.  E.  flanks  of  Mauna  Kea.  The  freshets  in 
these  streams  often  come  on  so  suddenly  as  to 
resemble  the  deluge  produced  by  the  sudden 
breaking  of  a  mill  dam.  The  town  has  four 
churches,  viz. :  Protestant  and  Catholic  church- 
es for  the  Hawaiians,  a  foreign  church,  and  a 
seamen's  bethel. 


730 


HILTON 


HIMALAYA  MOUNTAINS 


HI  MOV  William,  an  English  painter,  born  in 
Lincoln,  June  3,  1786,  died  Dec.  30, 1839.  He 
studied  at  the  royal  academy,  and  early  devo- 
ted himself  to  historical  painting,  in  which  he 
displayed  a  complete  mastery  of  the  human 
figure,  and  singularly  graceful  composition.  In 
his  choice  of  subjects,  many  of  which  are  from 
classic  mythology,  he  evinced  true  poetic  feel- 
ing. One  of  his  best  works  is  "  Una  and  the 
Lion  entering  the  Cave  of  Corceca."  He  was 
a  royal  academician,  and  succeeded  Fuseli  as 
keeper  of  the  academy. 

HIMALAYA  MOUNTAINS  (Sanskrit,  hima,  snow, 
and  alaya,  abode),  a  mountain  chain  of  Asia, 
bordering  upon  India  on  the  north,  and  sepa- 
rating it  from  Thibet.  It  is  limited  on  the  east 
by  the  Brahmapootra,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Indus.  Both  these  rivers,  as  well  as  the  Ganges 
and  the  Sutlej,  are  now  considered  to  spring 
from  the  snow  fields  of  the  Juwahir  or  Nanda 
Devi  in  the  middle  Himalaya,  and  those  of  the 
Kailasa  in  Thibet,  to  the  north,  between  Ion. 
80°  and  82°  E.  and  lat.  30°  and  31°  N.  The 
configuration  of  the  earth  is  such  at  this  point, 
that  from  the  N.  W.  foot  of  the  Kailasa  the 
Indus  flows  N.  W.  along  an  enlcosed  valley,  its 
deep-cut  channel  about  100  m.  distant  from  the 
Himalaya  to  the  south,  until  it  passes  through 
the  chain  about  lat.  35°  40'  N.,  Ion.  74°  40'  E., 
and  from  that  point  descends  S.  to  the  Ara- 
bian sea.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Brahma- 
pootra (called  at  its  origin  the  Dzang-bo-tzin 
or  Sanpo)  rises  on  the  S.  E.  foot  of  the  Kai- 
lasa, flows  S.  E.  and  E.,  then  in  lat.  27°  45' 
K,  Ion.  95°  E.,  turns  round  the  depressed  hills 
on  its  right  bank,  and  pursues  its  rapid  and 
winding  course  to  the  bay  of  Bengal.  Within 
the  limits  thus  formed  by  nature  the  Himalaya 
measures  in  its  curvings  2,000  m.  in  length, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  180  m.  The  mighty 
ridges  which  rise  above  the  plains  of  Thibet, 
and  run  parallel  to  the  Himalaya  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.,  compel  both  the  Indus  and  Brahma- 
pootra to  flow  from  the  divide  of  the  Kailasa 
in  a  direction  conformable  with  the  enclosing 
mountain  walls,  until  the  increasing  stream  of 
the  Indus  is  turned  southward  by  the  spurs 
sent  down  into  its  bed  by  the  Karakorum  and 
Hindoo  Koosh,  while  the  accumulated  and 
rapid  waters  of  the  Brahmapootra  are  also 
turned  southward  and  westward  by  the  snowy 
masses  which  rise  abruptly  on  its  left  bank  to 
the  east  and  south,  where  the  eastern  Hima- 
laya terminates.  The  division  of  the  chain 
into  western,  middle,  and  eastern  Himalaya  is 
founded  upon  like  natural  and  obvious  reasons. 
The  western  Himalaya  is  that  portion  drained 
by  the  five  rivers  of  the  Punjaub,  from  the  In- 
dus on  the  west  to  the  Sutlej  on  the  east,  their 
united  waters  being  conveyed  to  the  ocean  by 
the  former.  The  middle  Himalaya  is  that  por- 
tion which  is  drained  by  the  Ganges,  and  lim- 
ited on  the  west  by  the  mountain  masses  which 
overlook  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  and  in 
which  the  Jumna  (Jumnotri)  has  its  manifold 
sources,  and  on  the  east  by  the  course  of  the 


Teesta  in  Sikkim.  It  comprises  the  territory 
of  Nepaul.  Finally,  the  eastern  Himalaya  is 
drained  by  the  Brahmapootra,  and  is  all  com- 
prised within  the  little-explored  country  of 
Bhootan,  from  the  wall  of  stupendous  peaks 
which  runs  southward  above  the  left  bank  of 
the  Teesta,  to  where  the  Brahmapootra,  under 
the  local  appellation  of  Dihong,  enters  Assam. 
The  axis  of  this  great  mountain  mass  follows 
the  line  of  watershed,  and  can  by  a  careful  in- 
spection of  a  good  map  be  drawn  from  point 
to  point,  where  the  streams  originate  which 
flow  from  the  Himalaya  northward  into  the 
Indus,  the  Sutlej,  and  the  Brahmapootra,  and 
those  which  empty  southward  into  these  same 
rivers  and  the  Ganges.  The  axis  thus  traced 
along  the  line  of  watershed  will  be  found  to  be 
also  the  line  of  mean  greatest  elevation,  al- 
though the  highest  peaks  do  not  happen  to  be 
on  the  axis.  The  direction  of  the  secondary 
chains  is  often  perpendicular  to  the  main 
chain,  oftener  oblique  to  it,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  parallel,  while  enclosing  within  the  in- 
osculating ridges  valleys  of  great  length.  This 
fact,  and  the  height  of  the  summits  on  so  many 
of  them,  and  the  duration  of  the  heavy  snow 
with  which  they  are  mantled,  have  led  local 
observers  to  confound  these  snowy  ridges  with 
the  axis  of  the  chain  itself.  The  plains  of  In- 
dia at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Himalaya  are 
but  little  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea ; 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  they  may  be  350 
ft.  above  this  level  in  the  meridian  of  Calcut- 
ta, and  in  the  Punjaub  toward  the  W.  extrem- 
ity of  the  range  the  elevation  may  be  1,000  ft. 
From  these  plains  the  view  of  the  mountains 
is  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  obscured  by 
the  vapors  falling  upon  the  southern  ridges; 
but  after  the  cessation  of  the  S.  E.  monsoons 
the  snowy  peaks  are  sometimes  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  200  m.,  at  an  angle  of  elevation 
of  only  about  1°  above  a  horizontal  line.  On 
approaching  nearer  to  the  chain,  the  distant 
peaks  are  lost  to  view  behind  the  nearer 
wooded  ones,  and  glimpses  are  rarely  obtained 
that  impress  one  with  the  vast  magnitude  and 
stupendous  height  of  the  chain. — Dr.  Joseph 
D.  Hooker,  author  of  "  Himalayan  Journals," 
distinguishes  four  parallel  longitudinal  belts  of 
country  in  the  structure  of  these  mountains. 
The  lowest  on  the  S.  side  extends  from  the  plains 
of  India  to  regions  where  snow  is  met  with 
in  winter.  It  is  from  60  to  100  m.  in  width, 
ranging  it  may  be  from  5,000  to  8,000  ft.  mean 
elevation,  with  peaks  13,000  to  14,000  ft.  high. 
The  lower  portions  are  tropical,  the  upper 
temperate.  It  is  cut  up  by  ravines,  but  is  not 
particularly  precipitous.  Beyond  this  ranges 
the  second  or  snowy  belt,  that  of  the  highest 
peaks  40  to  50  m.  broad,  its  surface  rugged  and 
precipitous,  with  summits  rising  frequently  to 
20,000,  some  to  25,000,  and  a  few  even  to  28,- 
000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Some  of 
the  rivers  flow  in  deep  gorges  across  this  belt, 
their  beds  not  more  than  3,000  ft.  above  the 
sea  level.  The  mean  elevation  is  probably  un- 


HIMALAYA  MOUNTAINS 


731 


der  13,000  ft.  To  this  succeeds  the  central 
belt  or  axis  of  the  chain,  from  20  to  30  m. 
hroad,  its  mean  elevation  perhaps  18,000  ft., 
at  least  in  the  middle  Himalaya,  and  the  main 
ridge  or  watershed  seldom  below  17,000  ft.  ex- 
cept at  the  extremities ;  the  surface  is  rocky 
and  often  precipitous.  The  northern  belt  is  a 
region  of  mountains  and  valleys  little  explored, 
constituting  the  slope  toward  Thibet.  Its  cli- 
mate is  temperate,  but  of  excessive  vicissitudes, 
subject  to  drought,  and  the  hills  lack  the  luxu- 
riant forest  growth  which  covers  those  of  cor- 
responding elevations  upon  the  other  side. 
Skirting  the  southern  foot  of  the  Himalaya  lies 
a  tract  of  part  forest,  part  jungle  and  marsh, 
from  10  to  20  m.  in  breadth.  It  is  due  to  the 
humidity  of  the  climate  and  to  copious  springs, 
as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  this  belt  of  pestilen- 


tial waste  is  slightly  depressed  below  the  level 
of  the  plain  to  the  south  of  it,  thus  allowing 
the  collected  waters  to  stagnate,  and  to  pro- 
duce beneath  the  tropical  sun  a  rank  and  dense 
vegetation.  This  tract  is  called  Terrai  or  Tar- 
ragani,  "passage  through,"  and  its  outer  habi- 
table region  Kadir.  It  gradually  narrows  away 
as  it  gains  in  height  toward  the  central  portion 
of  the  chain,  and  disappears  W.  of  the  Sutlej. 
Back  of  this  tract  Dr.  Hooker  says  that  "  the 
mountains  rise  more  or  less  suddenly,  though 
seldom  in  precipices."  They  are  reached 
sometimes  by  difficult  paths  that  follow  up  the 
narrow  and  pestilential  gorges  of  the  rivers,  or 
more  commonly  by  the  roads  that  ascend  into 
the  healthier  atmosphere  upon  the  summits  of 
the  secondary  ridges.  These  ridges  present  to 
the  traveller  toward  the  axis  of  the  chain  a 


Mount  Everest,  seen  from  above  Darjeeling. 


succession  of  ascents  and  descents ;  in  each 
valley  his  progress  is  interrupted  by  a  stream 
tributary  to  the  nearest  river  to  the  right  or 
left,  or  by  the  deep  gorges  of  the  larger  branch- 
es themselves;  and  upon  the  slopes  his  course 
is  impeded  by  forests  and  rocky  precipices. 
No  plain  anywhere  opens  out  before  him ;  and 
during  the  warmer  portion  of  the  year  cloud 
and  fog  shut  in  the  view  from  the  commanding 
points  he  reaches.  So  rugged  are  the  moun- 
tains that  12  or  14  days  are  usually  required 
for  the  journey  of  about  100  m.  to  the  axis  of 
the  chain  upon  the  main  routes  from  India  to 
Thibet.  The  difficulties  thus  opposed  to  ex- 
ploration or  settlement  are  not  compensated 
by  the  presence  either  of  great  mineral  wealth 
or  of  large  tracts  favorable  to  culture.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  be  unjust  to  adopt  the 
descriptions  of  occasional  travellers.  It  takes 
a  long  time,  even  for  one  acquainted  with 


mountain  regions,  to  trace  correctly  the  va- 
rious positions  of  ridges  and  spurs,  of  valleys 
and  river  courses,  in  any  large  area  of  an  al- 
pine aspect ;  but  this  difficulty  is  nowhere  so 
formidable  as  among  the  huge  masses  and  laby- 
rinthine windings  of  the  Himalaya.  By  most 
travellers  the  secondary  ridges  on  the  S.  side, 
particularly  of  the  E.  portion  of  the  chain,  are 
represented  as  spurs  leaving  this  at  right  an- 
gles, though  as  seen  from  the  plains  at  a  dis- 
tance they  present  the  appearance  of  longitu- 
dinal ridges.  The  strike  of  the  rocky  forma- 
tions of  which  the  chain  is  composed — the 
metamorphic  slates  and  granitic  rocks  of  the 
central  portion,  and  the  Silurian  sandstone  of 
the  southern  ridges — is  described  as  every- 
where with  the  general  course  of  the  moun- 
tains, thus  suggesting  a  resemblance  of  the 
system  to  that  of  the  Appalachians  of  the 
United  States  in  its  parallel  ridges  and  valleys, 


732 


HIMALAYA  MOUNTAINS 


though  this  feature  on  the  S.  side  of  the  In- 
dian mountains  may  be  obscured  by  the  effect 
of  rapid  and  excessive  drainage. — The  state- 
ments as  to  the  relative  amount  and  duration 
of  the  snow  upon  the  N.  and  S.  slopes  of  the 
chain  have  led  to  much  controversy.  The  au- 
thorities generally  concur  in  representing  that 
milder  temperatures  prevail  upon  the  N.  side 
than  at  corresponding  heights  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  two  Gerards  place  the  line  of  per- 
petual snow  on  the  S.  side  at  12,981  ft.,  and 
on  the  N.  at  16,620.  Lieut.  Strachey,  extend- 
ing his  observations  over  a  district  between 
Ion.  77°  and  81°,  where  heights  covered  with 
perpetual  snow  are  found  over  a  belt  of  35  m. 
in  width  between  lat.  30°  and  32°,  concluded 
that  the  snow  line  on  the  Thibetan  side  is  18,- 
500  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  on  the  Indian  side 
15,500.  On  the  S.  slope  grain  is  cultivated 
with  difficulty  at  10,000  ft.,  while  on  the  other 
side  good  crops  are  raised  at  16,000  ft.  It 
grows  even  at  18,544  ft.,  as  seen  by  Oapt.  Ge- 
rard. This  is  more  than  1,200  ft.  higher  than 
the  snow  line  in  the  equatorial  Andes.  The 
belt  constituting  the  watershed  is  described 
as  excessively  cold,  bleak,  and  dreary,  but  in 
great  part  free  from  snow.  This  is  no  doubt 
owing  to  the  rain  clouds  being  deprived  of 
their  moisture  as  they  are  swept  from  the  bay 
of  Bengal  over  the  secondary  ridges,  upon 
which  it  is  in  part  precipitated  in  rain  and  the 
remainder  in  snow  upon  the  higher  peaks. 
But  the  cause  of  the  milder  temperature  is  not 
so  obvious. — The  highest  peaks  are  not  found 
along  the  line  of  highest  mean  elevation,  but 
for  the  most  part  they  are  S.  of  it,  rising  in 
scattered  groups  from  the  secondary  ridges. 
Of  several  of  these  groups  E.  of  Sikkim  little 
is  known,  except  that  as  seen  from  a  distance 
they  appear  to  reach  heights  of  23,000  to  25,- 
000  ft.,  or  perhaps  more.  North  of  Sikkim  is 
a  noted  group  of  immense  peaks,  among  which 
stands  preeminent  Kintchinjunga,  28,156  ft. 
(Petermann),  or  28,178  ft.  (Hooker),  in  lat.  27° 
42',  Ion.  88°  11';  and  one  degree  further  east 
Chumulari,  23,946  ft.  (P.),  or  23,929  ft.  (H.). 
Upon  the  same  parallel,  in  Ion.  85°  58',  stands 
Mt.  Everest,  believed  to  be  the  highest  summit 
on  the  globe,  having,  according  to  the  survey 
of  Col.  Andrew  Waugh,  an  altitude  of  29,002 
ft.  Its  English  appellation  is  derived  from  the 
name  of  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  Indian 
survey.  In  the  Nepaulese  its  name  is  Gauri- 
sankar;  by  the  people  of  Thibet  it  is  called 
Chingofanmari.  Mr.  Hodgson  had  incorrectly 
given  to  it  the  name  Deodnnga  or  Deodhunga, 
which  was  that  of  a  peak  near  by  of  compara- 
tively small  elevation.  Dhawalagiri,  in  lat. 
28°  42',  Ion.  83°  32',  formerly  estimated  at 
28,000  ft,  is  rated  by  Col.  Waugh  at  26,826. 
From  the  W.  extremity  of  Nepaul  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Indus  through  the  chain,  no  fewer 
than  50  peaks  are  enumerated,  the  heights  of 
which  range  between  19,500  and  25,749  ft, 
which  latter  is  the  height  of  Nanda  Devi  in 
Kumaon,  drawn  by  Heber  as  a  snowy  spire, 


its  sides  sloping  at  an  angle  of  70°  with  the 
horizon,  and  rising  far  above  the  similarly 
snow-clad  summits  around.  Every  12th  year 
the  natives  make  a  pilgrimage  to  this  moun- 
tain, and  the  few  who  succeed  in  reaching  the 
spot  hold  a  religious  festival  at  a  point  below 
the  inaccessible  summit.  The  mean  height  of 
the  central  portion  along  the  western  Hima- 
laya is  estimated  at  20,000  ft. ;  and  the  passes 
sometimes  cross  at  heights  of  18,000  to  19,000 
ft. — The  lakes  occurring  in  the  Himalaya  are 
few  in  number,  and  not  of  very  great  extent; 
the  only  important  ones  are  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  axis,  and  are  the  sources  of  the  branches 
of  the  Indus,  Sutlej,  and  Sanpo.  Some  of 
these  are  salt.  The  largest  are  from  20  to  30 
m.  in  length.  The  Wullur  lake  in  Cashmere, 
5,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  a  sheet  of  water  21 
in.  long  E.  and  W.,  and  9  m.  broad,  formed  by 
the  spreading  out  of  the  river  Jhylum,  the 
only  instance  on  the  whole  range  of  a  river 
thus  expanding  into  a  lake.  The  rivers  are 
fed  during  the  summer  by  copious  rains  brought 
up  by  the  S.  E.  monsoons,  which  sweep  over 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  and,  reaching  the  eastern 
Himalaya  in  April,  gradually  progress  west- 
ward. The  whole  S.  side  of  the  chain  by 
midsummer  is  enveloped  in  clouds  and  mists. 
In  September  they  begin  to  clear  off  in  the 
western  divisions,  but  in  the  eastern  the  rains 
are  not  over  till  October  or  November.  In 
the  winter  an  upper  current  of  S.  W.  winds 
brings  new  supplies  of  moisture,  which  falls  in 
snow  upon  the  higher  mountains,  and  there  is 
in  the  more  humid  provinces  a  short  rainy 
season  about  the  close  of  the  year.  The  outer 
ranges  receive  the  most  of  the  rain.  Dr. 
Hooker  estimates  the  fall  in  Sikkim  to  amount 
to  120  in.  in  the  year  at  7,000  ft.  elevation, 
and  to  gradually  decrease  to  10  in.  at  19,000 
ft.  The  river  courses  to  the  S.  are  thus  much 
larger  and  more  numerous  than  those  upon 
the  N.  side  of  the  chain.  In  their  upper  por- 
tions their  descent  is  comparatively  gentle,  but 
further  down  they  run  with  great  rapidity, 
and  generally  in  deep  and  almost  inaccessible 
ravines ;  yet  they  rarely  form  cascades  of  any 
grandeur.  Fish  of  the  carp  kind  abound  in 
them  from  the  plains  to  15,000  ft.  elevation, 
except  at  heights  between  5,000  and  10,000 
ft.  Those  of  eastern  Thibet  especially  swarm 
with  fish  at  elevations  from  10,000  to  14,000 
ft.  Glaciers  are  numerous  in  the  more  ele- 
vated portions  of  the  mountains,  but  are 
wasted  away  before  they  reach  the  lower  val- 
leys. Deposits  of  bowlders  and  extensive  mo- 
raines, found  in  all  the  valleys  at  heights  ex- 
ceeding 8,000  or  9,000  ft,  indicate  that  the 
glaciers  formerly  reached  6,000  ft.  below  their 
present  limits.  Volcanoes  are  entirely  want- 
ing throughout  the  range,  and  there  are  no 
evidences  of  extinct  ones.  Hot  springs  are 
frequently  met  with  at  heights  from  10,000  to 
18,000  ft.,  their  temperature  ranging  from  100° 
to  130°  F. — The  geological  formations  through 
the  most  elevated  portions  of  the  range  are 


HIMALAYA  MOUNTAINS 

principally  metamorphic  slates  alternating 
with  granitic  belts.  They  form  the  loftiest 
peaks;  and  against  them  rest  strata  of  the 
Silurian  period.  The  formations  range  with 
the  chain,  and  are  seen  usually  dipping  toward 
its  axis.  In  Kurnaon  rocks  of  the  oolitic  for- 
mtion  succeed  to  the  Silurian,  and  in  some  of 
the  larger  river  valleys,  at  elevations  of  15,000 
ft.,  are  found  tertiary  beds  with  fossils  refer- 
ring them  to  the  miocene  period.  Among 
them  are  specimens  of  extinct  species  of  the 
horse,  rhinoceros,  elephant,  hippopotamus, 
.  Strata  containing  marine  shells  occur  at 
elevation  of  16,000  ft.  Fresh-water  pleis- 
tocene deposits  have  been  found  by  Dr.  Thom- 
>n  in  the  extreme  western  Himalaya  of 
Thibet,  on  the  flanks  of  mountains  far  above 
~ie  present  level  of  the  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  mineral  productions  are  of  little  impor- 
ice.  Gold  is  found  in  eastern  Thibet,  but 
3  Chinese  government  prevents  its  being 
rprked  to  much  extent.  In  Koonawur,  a  dis- 
ict  at  the  passage  of  the  Sutlej  through  the 
lain,  are  mines  of  specular  iron  ore,  which 
ive  been  long  worked  by  horizontal  excava- 
tions, extending  sometimes  half  a  mile  into  the 
lountains.  The  ore  is  converted  into  wrought 
iron  by  the  natives,  who  make  of  it  sabres, 
knives,  and  hatchets,  the  best  metal  being 
known  as  that  of  the  locality  called  Sheel.  Cop- 
per ores  too  are  found  here,  and  also  in  Nepaul 
and  Sikkim ;  but  they  are  not  worked. — The 
vegetable  productions  in  the  lower  portions  of 
the  mountains  are  those  of  the  tropics.  They 
reach  up  to  the  height  of  6,000  or  7,000  ft.  in 
the  humid  central  portions  of  the  range,  and 
in  the  extreme  western  to  3,000  or  4,000  ft. 
In  the  deep  gorges  of  the  rivers  are  plantains, 
palms,  and  fig  trees ;  above  are  magnolias  and 
laurels  ;  to  these  succeed  oaks,  chestnuts,  birch- 
es, &c. ;  still  higher  are  pine  forests,  then  rho- 
dodendra  and  the  scanty  alpine  growth.  All 
these  products  of  the  colder  portions  are  recog- 
nized as  European  forms.  These  indeed  begin 
to  appear  as  the  tropical  plants  give  way  to 
those  of  temperate  climes  ;  and  at  heights  from 
6,000  to  12,000  ft.  are  seen  species  of  oak,  ma- 
ple, ash,  cherry,  poplar,  hornbeam,  juniper, 
willow,  pine,  and  many  other  of  familiar 
names,  some  of  which  are  identical  with  the 
species  of  Europe  and  America.  The  grains, 
garden  fruits,  and  vegetables  cultivated  in  the 
upper  portions  of  the  mountains  are  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  northern  Europe.  In  the  state 
of  Bussaher,  of  which  Koonawur  is  a  province, 
grapes  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  tea  is 
produced  as  an  article  of  commerce.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  fauna  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
flora :  tropical  forms  in  the  lower  regions, 
among  which  are  found  tigers,  leopards,  buffa- 
loes, the  rhinoceros,  elephants,  &c. ;  in  the 
upper  districts  European  types  predominate, 
mixed  with  Chinese  and  Japanese  forms  to  the 
eastward,  and  partaking  in  the  alpine  districts 
of  the  Siberian  character. — The  inhabitants 
constitute  many  tribes  and  nations,  of  Hindoo 


HIMERA 


733 


or  Mongolian  race.  Those  of  all  the  valleys 
above  8,000  ft.  elevation  are  Thibetans,  in  whom 
the  Aryan  is  more  or  less  intermixed  with 
the  Mongolian.  The  English  have  established 
many  stations  at  points  situated  from  6,000  to 
8,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  where  they  find  a  healthy 
atmosphere  and  a  climate  like  that  of  England ; 
and  they  anticipate  the  time  when  the  habi- 
table portions  of  the  Himalaya  will  be  peopled 
by  their  own  colonists  and  their  descendants. 
Dr.  Hooker  names  the  following  as  the  most 
important  of  these  hill  sanataria,  as  he  calls 
them  :  Darjeeling,  elevation  7,000  to  8,000  ft., 
in  Sikkim ;  Nyni  Tal,  6,000  to  7,000  ft.,  and 
Almora,  5,000  to  6,000  ft.,  in  Kumaon ;  Ma- 
suri,  6,000  to  7,000  ft,  in  Gurwhal ;  Kangra, 
7,000  to  8,000  ft.,  in  the  Beas  valley ;  Murree, 
7,000  to  8,000  ft.,  between  the  Indus  and  Jhy- 
lum;  and  Simla,  7,000  to  8,000  ft.,  in  the  Pun- 
jaub,  near  the  Sutlej  river,  a  favorite  resort 
for  Europeans,  being  usually  the  residence 
of  the  governor  general  during  a  portion  of 
the  hotter  months. — Among  the  more  distin- 
guished explorers  of  the  Himalaya  mountains 
are  Adolf  Schlagintweit,  who  was  murdered 
in  August,  1857,  while  engaged  in  his  inves- 
tigations, and  his  brothers  Hermann  and  Rob- 
ert. They  demonstrated  the  correctness  of 
Humboldt's  view  that  there  was  not  the  least 
connection  between  the  Kuenlun  and  Kara- 
korum  ranges  and  the  Himalaya  range,  each 
of  them  being  in  fact  an  independent  chain. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  many  important 
works  relating  to  this  chain :  the  "  Himalayan 
Journals"  of  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker;  numerous 
papers  in  the  "Asiatic  Researches"  and  the 
journal  of  the  Asiatic  society  of  Calcutta; 
Humboldt's  Asie  Centrale ;  Bishop  Heber's 
"Journal;"  "Western  Thibet,"  by  Capt.  H. 
Strachey;  Thomson's  "Western  Himalaya;" 
Eeisen  in  Hochasien,  by  H.  Schlagintweit; 
and  the  publications  of  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  India. 

HIMERA,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of  northern 
Sicily,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Himera,  be- 
tween Panormus  and  Cephaloadium.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
7th  century  B.  C.  by  a  colony  from  Zancle  (the 
later  Messana).  It  was  once  subject  to  the  ty- 
rant Phalaris,  and  at  another  time  was  a  city  of 
refuge  for  the  Zanclaean  tyrant  Scythes.  Sub- 
sequently, however,  it  came  to  have  a  despot 
of  its  own,  named  Terillus,  who,  being  ex- 
pelled, applied  to  the  Carthaginians  for  assist- 
ance, which  was  the  immediate  occasion  of 
the  first  great  expedition  of  that  people  to 
Sicily,  which  took  place  in  480  B.  C.  The 
army  of  the  Carthaginians,  said  to  have  been 
300,000  strong,  commanded  by  Hamilcar,  was 
defeated  at  Himera  with  great  slaughter  by 
Gelon  of  Syracuse.  This  victory  did  not  how- 
ever restore  liberty  to  the  Himerasans,  but 
merely  transferred  them  from  the  tyranny  of 
Terillus  to  that  of  Thrasydaeus,  the  son  of 
Theron  of  Agrigentmn,  under  whom  such 
numbers  of  the  citizens  were  executed  or  ban- 


734 


UIMILOO 


HIMYARITES 


ished  that  the  city  had  to  be  repeopled  with 
new  colonists,  who,  being  mostly  of  the  Dorian 
race,  rendered  it  thenceforward  a  Doric  city. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  Thrasydaeus  was 
expelled,  and  then  the  citizens  whom  he  had 
driven  into  exile  were  allowed  to  return.  In 
409  B.  C.  the  second  expedition  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  Sicily  took  place,  under  Hannibal, 
the  son  of  Gisco  and  grandson  of  Harailcar,  to 
whom  after  a  desperate  resistance  the  city  suc- 
cumbed. The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword ;  3,000  of  those  who  had 
been  taken  prisoners  were  sacrificed  by  Hanni- 
bal to  the  manes  of  his  grandfather  Hamilcar, 
who  had  fallen  in  the  great  battle  above  men- 
tioned, while  the  city  itself  was  utterly  de- 
stroyed. Himera  was  never  rebuilt,  but  such 
of  its  inhabitants  as  survived  its  destruction 
fled  to  the  neighboring  town  of  Thermae,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  Himera. 

IIIMILCO,  the  name  of  several  distinguished 
Carthaginians,  the  most  eminent  of  whom 
were  the  following:  I.  A  navigator,  who  lived 
in  the  6th  or  5th  century  B.  C.,  and  who  was 
sent  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  northward  from 
Gades  at  the  same  time  that  Hanno  was  com- 
missioned to  explore  and  colonize  the  W.  coast 
of  Africa.  On  his  return  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
ported that  the  stagnant  nature  of  the  sea,  the 
vast  mass  of  seaweed  that  floated  on  its  sur- 
face, and  the  absence  of  wind,  had  prevented 
his  progress  toward  the  north.  II.  A  general 
who  commanded,  in  conjunction  with  Hannibal 
the  son  of  Gisco,  the  third  expedition  sent  by 
the  Carthaginians  to  Sicily  (406  B.  C).  The 
latter  having  been  carried  off  by  sickness  soon 
after  their  arrival,  Himilco  succeeded  to  the 
command.  Having  reduced  Agrigentum  and 
destroyed  several  of  the  Greek  cities,  he  con- 
cluded an  advantageous  peace  with  Dionysius 
the  Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  returned  to 
Africa.  When  Dionysius  declared  war  against 
Carthage,  and  attacked  her  dominions  in  Sicily, 
Himilco  was  appointed  to  defend  them.  Be- 
ing worsted,  he  retired  from  Sicily,  but  in  the 
following  spring  returned  with  a  powerful 
force,  and  after  recovering  the  greater  part  of 
the  lost  territory  advanced  against  Syracuse. 
This  enterprise  failed,  and  Himilco  concluded 
an  ignominious  peace,  returned  to  Carthage, 
and  committed  suicide  by  starvation. 

HIMMEL,  Friedrieh  Heinrieh,  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Treuenbrietzen,  Prussia,  Nov. 
20,  1765,  died  in  Berlin,  June  8,  1814.  He 
early  attracted  the  notice  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam II.,  who  afforded  him  the  means  of  pur- 
suing his  musical  studies,  and  afterward  ap- 
pointed him  royal  chapelmaster.  His  chief 
opera  was  Semiramide,  first  performed  in  Na- 
ples in  1795.  This  work  was  said  to  contain 
the  material  of  ten  ordinary  operas.  He  com- 
posed many  cantatas  and  occasional  pieces, 
and  an  immense  number  of  pianoforte  compo- 
sitions and  songs. 

HIMYARITES,  and  Himyarltie  Language  and 
Inscriptions*  Ethnologically  and  linguistically 


considered,  the  term  Himyarittc  denotes  the 
whole  group  of  races  and  languages  from  the 
basin  of  the  Euphrates,  across  South  Arabia, 
to  Abyssinia.  The  Himyarites  are  mentioned 
in  classical  literature  under  the  name  of  Ho- 
merites.  They  traced  their  origin  to  Himyar, 
grandson  of  Saba  and  descendant  of  Joktan  or 
Kahtan,  one  of  the  mythical  ancestors  of  the 
Arabs.  According  to  their  traditions,  they 
became  the  dominant  race  in  Yemen  about 
3,000  years  before  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
Abulfeda,  in  his  "Short  History  of  the  Hu- 
man Race,"  assigns  to  their  dynasty  a  duration 
of  2,020  years.  The  date  of  the  destruction 
of  the  first  Adite  empire,  which  apparently  in- 
cluded the  whole  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  not  alone 
Yemen  proper,  has  been  fixed  by  Caussin  de 
Perceval  at  18  centuries  B.  C.  •  It  is  supposed 
that  it  was  caused  by  the  invasion  of  the  Jok- 
tanite  tribes.  But  the  Cushites,  or  the  first 
Adites,  soon  recovered  the  supremacy,  and  for 
many  centuries  the  Joktanites  continued  in 
subjection,  but  increased  in  strength,  and  finally 
usurped  the  dominion.  During  the  first  cen- 
turies of  the  second  Adite  empire  Yemen  was 
temporarily  subjugated  by  the  Egyptians,  who 
called  it  the  land  of  Pun.  They  seem  to  have 
lost  it  again  at  the  close  of  the  18th  dynasty; 
but  Rameses  II.  regained  it,  and  it  was  not 
finally  lost  till  the  time  of  the  20th  dynasty. 
The  Joktanites  under  Yarub  gained  the  politi- 
cal supremacy,  according  to  Caussin  de  Perce- 
val, at  the  beginning  of  -the  8th  century  B.  C. 
Ibn  Khaldun,  a  comparatively  trustworthy 
Arab  historian,  says:  "Lokman  and  his  chil- 
dren (the  new  Adite  empire)  preserved  the 
royalty  for  1,000  years.  The  power  of  this 
family  lasted  till  it  was  overthrown  by  Yarub, 
son  of  Kahtan.  Conquered  by  him,  the  Adites 
took  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Hadramaut, 
and  finally  entirely  disappeared."  Yashjob, 
Yarub's  son,  was  a  feeble  prince,  who  allowed 
the  chiefs  of  the  various  provinces  of  his  states 
to  make  themselves  independent;  this  is  the 
origin  of  the  separate  kingdoms  of  Hadramaut 
and  Mahrah,  which  from  that  time  always  had 
their  own  rulers,  sometimes  independent,  and 
sometimes  vassals  of  Yemen.  Yashjob's  son, 
Abd  Shems,  surnamed  Sheba,  recovered  the 
power,  and  reunited  under  his  government  all 
the  petty  dynasties  of  Arabia  Felix.  Abul- 
feda ascribes  to  him  the  construction  of  the 
famous  dike  of  Mareb,  the  rupture  of  which 
a  short  time  after  the  Christian  era  was  one 
of  the  great  events  of  the  ancient  history  of 
Yemen.  The  more  popular  tradition,  however, 
which  attributes  it  to  Lokman  and  the  second 
Adites,  is  considered  more  probable.  Its  ruins 
remain  to  our  day.  Abd  Shems  had  several 
children,  among  them  Himyar  and  Kahlan, 
from  whom  were  descended  the  greater  part 
of  the  Yemenite  tribes  at  the  time  of  the  rise 
of  Islamism.  The  Himyarites  seem  to  have 
settled  in  the  towns,  while  the  Kahlanites  in- 
habited the  country  and  the  deserts  of  Yemen. 
Himyar  was  only  an  appellation  signifying 


HIMYAEITES 


735 


"  the  red,"  and  the  real  name  of  the  son  of 
Abd  Shems  was  Ghazahaj.  The  children  of 
Himyar  at  first  shared  the  royalty  with  other 
families,  especially  that  of  Kahtan.  The  Arab 
historians  do  not  supply  a  complete  list  of  the 
successors  of  Himyar  or  Ghazahaj.  Him- 
yar's  brother  Kahlan,  and  "Wathil,  Alamluk, 
and  Shammir,  are  named  as  his  successors. 
An  Assyrian  inscription  speaks  of  Yathaamir, 
on  whom  Sargon  imposed  a  tribute  of  gold, 
spices,  horses,  and  camels.  Esarhaddon  also 
seems  to  have  made  an  expedition  to  South 
Arabia.  A  large  number  of  Arabs  emigrated 
to  Ethiopia  during  several  centuries  preceding 
our  era.  About  100  B.  C.  the  supreme  power 
was  concentrated  in  the  house  of  Himyar,  and 
caused  the  ancient  name  of  Sabseans,  given  to 
the  southern  Arabs,  to  be  replaced  by  that  of 
Himyarites.  (See  SABSEANS.)  In  the  account 
of  the  expedition  of  JElius  Gallus  in  24  B.  0., 
the  Himyarites  appear  for  the  first  time  under 
the  name  of  Homerites.  The  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  Himyarites  appears  to  have  com- 
menced with  Harith  er-Baish,  whom  Caussin 
de  Perceval  places  about  100  B.  0.,  and  ended 
with  Dhu  Norvas  and  his  successor,  who  were 
defeated  by  the  Abyssinians  in  A.  D.  525. 
South  Arabia  subsequently  fell  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Persians,  and  in  629  the  Him- 
yarites succumbed  to  Mohammed  and  accept- 
ed Islam.  (See  ARABIA,  and  YEMEN.)  Direct 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Himyarites  are  the 
tribes  of  Mahrah.  They  are  black  in  color,  me- 
dium in  stature,  Semitic  in  countenance,  strong 
and  sinewy  in  structure.  Their  dress  is  a 
cloth  for  the  loins  and  another  for  the  head. 
The  women  are  covered  with  a  kind  of  shawl, 
and  wear  pantaloons  and  veils  only  in  towns. 
A  man  with  breeches  would  be  an  object 
of  ridicule.  They  belong  to  the  orthodox 
sect  of  the  Shafei. — The  so-called  Himyar  - 
itic  language,  or,  better,  the  language  of  the 
Saba3ans,  says  Osiander,  seems  to  form  with 
Arabic  and  Ethiopic  the  southern  branch  of 
the  Semitic  family,  and  stands  in  a  peculiar 
relation  at  once  of  agreement  and  disagree- 
ment to  both  in  common  and  to  each  separate- 
ly. In  common  with  Arabic,  it  possesses  the 
whole  delicate  system  of  sounds,  the  diph- 
thongs, the  laws  of  the  transmutation  of  sounds, 
and  several  peculiarities  of  the  verb.  In  com- 
mon with  Ethiopic,  it  has  its  type  of  a  graphic 
system,  the  want  of  the  article,  and  many 
words  not  found  in  other  kindred  languages. 
It  differs  from  Arabic  and  Ethiopic  by  termi- 
nating the  imperfect  in  n,  in  the  form  of  the 
infinitive,  and  other  grammatical  peculiarities. 
Several  of  its  characteristics  it  has  only  in 
common  with  Hebrew  and  Assyrian ;  in  oth- 
ers it  resembles  the  Aramaic.  Several  schol- 
ars therefore  do  not  classify  Himyaritic  as  a 
dialect  of  Arabic,  but  consider  it  an  indepen- 
dent language,  and  possibly  an  elder  sister  of 
Hebrew  and  Assyrian.  Renan  also  considers 
the  Himyaritic  too  widely  different  from  Ara- 
bic to  group  them  together. — Karsten  Kie- 
407  VOL.  viii.— 47 


buhr  (1774)  was  the  first  who  called  attention 
to  the  existence  of  inscriptions  in  a  peculiar 
character  in  the  southern  districts  of  Arabia. 
In  1810  Dr.  Seetzen,  a  German  traveller,  fol- 
lowed up  the  indications  of  Niebuhr,  and  dis- 
covered at  Zhafar  three  inscriptions,  and  five 
others  built  into  the  walls  of  the  mosque  of  the 
neighboring  village  of  Mankat.  The  next  dis- 
coveries were  made  by  various  officers  of  the 
Palinurus,  a  vessel  of  the  British  Indian  navy, 
stationed  in  the  Eed  sea  in  order  to  make  a 
survey  of  the  coast.  In  1843  Arnaud  copied 
56  inscriptions  at  Sana,  Khariba,  Marib,  and 
the  so-called  Haram  of  Bilkis.  Baron  von 
"Wrede  discovered  inscriptions  on  a  dike  in 
the  wady  WebenehinHadramaut,  and  Kennett 
Loftus  came  upon  a  tomb  closed  in  with  a 
rough  sandstone  slab  inscribed  in  the  Himyar- 
itic character,  while  making  excavations  in 
the  mounds  at  Warka,  in  southern  Babylonia. 
The  British  museum  has  also  two  gems  with 
Himyaritic  characters  brought  from  Babylonia, 
and  two  others  of  which  the  history  is  un- 
known. Coghlan  and  Playfair  presented  the 
museum  with  a  number  of  bronze  tablets,  prin- 
cipally dedications  to  Almakah,  discovered  by 
them  at  Amran,  near  Sana.  An  altar  of  lime- 
stone dedicated  to  Athtor  was  found  at  Ibyan 
or  Abyan,  about  30  m.  N.  E.  of  Aden.  Sev- 
eral inscriptions  have  been  found  also  on  the 
dike  at  Marib.  Many  others  have  recently 
been  found,  which  have  increased  the  collec- 
tion to  several  hundred  specimens.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  larger  number  of  these  monu- 
ments must  be  referred  to  the  later  and  more 
flourishing  period  of  the  Himyarite  kings,  be- 
tween 100  B.  0.  and  A.  D.  500.  Two  inscrip- 
tions have  been  discovered  bearing  dates,  one 
from  Sana  dated  573,  and  one  from  Hisn 
Ghorab  dated  604.  It  does  not  appear  how- 
ever that  it  has  been  determined  by  what  era 
these  dates  are  calculated.  Several  Arabic 
writers  have  preserved  to  us  alphabets  of  the 
Himyaritic  character,  which  is  called  Musned 
by  them,  with  the  corresponding  Arabic  letters. 
These  alphabets  have  formed  the  basis  of  the 
interpretation  of  the  inscriptions  by  modern 
orientalists.  The  latter  are  in  horizontal  lines, 
generally  from  right  to  left,  but  occasionally  a 
ooustropliedon  mode  is  adopted^  chiefly  where 
the  lines  are  of  great  length.  The  words  are 
usually  separated  from  each  other  by  a  verti- 
cal stroke,  which  has  greatly  facilitated  the 
interpretation  of  the  inscriptions.  This  was 
discovered  from  the  fact  that  in  certain  for- 
mulas which  frequently  occur  a  word  would 
sometimes  terminate  exactly  at  the  end  of  a 
line,  leaving  no  space  for  the  upright  stroke, 
which  was  then  altogether  omitted,  showing 
that  it  was  not  an  integral  part  of  the  writing. 
The  inscription  which  we  give  is  copied  from 
a  copper  tablet  sent  by  Prideaux  from  Aden. 
Prsetorius,  in  the  ZeiUchrift  der  Morgenlan- 
discTien  GesellscTiaft  (1872),  has  advanced  the 
opinion  that  it  is  a  forgery  like  many  others,  as 
Von  Maltzan  has  discovered  that  a  Jewish  cop- 


736 


HINCKLEY 


HINCMAR 


persmith  in  Sana  had  obtained  possession  of 
copies  of  genuine  inscriptions  and  made  others 
from  them  by  combining  portions  of  several 
of  them.  In  the  case  before  us  we  have  true 
Himyaritic  characters,  but  the  first  five  lines 
are  the  same  as  those  of  a  copy  furnished  by 


Himyaritic  Inscription. 

Hal6vy.  They  have  been  translated  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Halaida  with  his  sons,  the  sons  of  Ma- 
dikarib,  the  family  of  laf  'an,. has  given  hom- 
,age  to  the  Athtar  of  Qabad." — The  principal 
notices  that  have  appeared  on  the  subject  of  the 
'Himyaritic  characters,  or  the  interpretation 
of  the  inscriptions,  are  by  Rodiger,  Ewald,  Ge- 
senius,  Gildemeister,  Fresnel,  Osiander,  Levy, 
Halevy,  and  Praetorius.  They  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Zeitschrift  far  die  Kunde  des  Morgen- 
landes,  the  Journal  Asiatique,  and  similar  pe- 
riodicals. The  British  museum  published  in 
1863  all  the  inscriptions  in  the  Himyaritic 
character  then  owned  by  it. 

HINCKLEY,  a  town  of  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land, 12  m.  S.  W.  of  Leicester;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,902.  An  ancient  church,  with  a  very  curious 
oak  roof,  is  the  most  interesting  building.  It 
has  manufactories  of  hosiery,  cotton  thread, 
and  worsted.  Near  it  are  Roman  remains,  and 
the  neighboring  village  of  High  Cross,  where 
two  Roman  roads  intersect  (Watling  Street 
and  the  Fosse  Way),  is  probably  the  site  of 
the  Roman  station  Benona3  or  Venonae. 

HLVCKS.  I.  Edward,  an  Irish  archaeologist, 
born  in  Cork  about  1792,  died  at  Killyleagh, 
county  Down,  Dec.  3,  18G6.  He  studied  under 


his  father,  "who  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
head  master  of  the  classical  school  in  the  Bel- 
fast academical  institution,  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity college,  Dublin,  in  1812,  took  orders,  and  in 
1826  became  rector  of  the  parish  of  Killy- 
leagh. He  contributed  many  important  pa- 
pers, especially  on  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and 
Assyrian  cuneiform  inscriptions,  to  the  trans- 
actions of  various  societies.  Among  the  best 
known  of  these  is  a  translation  of  portions  of 
an  inscription  of  Tiglath-pileser  the  elder,  pub- 
lished by  the  royal  Asiatic  society  (1857),  in 
parallel  columns  with  three  other  translations, 
in  order  to  show  by  their  general  agreement 
that  the  true  principles  of  interpretation  had 
been  discovered.  He  published  a  catalogue 
of  the  Egyptian  manuscripts  in  the  library  of 
Trinity  college  (1849) ;  "  A  Letter  to  Profes- 
sor Renouf  on  the  Polyphony  of  the  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  Cuneiform  Writing"  (1863);  and 
some  religious  works,  among  which  is  a  report 
of  a  doctrinal  discussion  with  three  Roman 
Catholic  priests  (1829).  II.  Sir  Francis,  a  Ca- 
nadian statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1807.  He  engaged 
in  commercial  pursuits  in  Canada,  and  after- 
ward in  journalism  and  politics,  and  became 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  "  Toronto  Exami- 
ner," and  a  member  of  the  legislature.  He 
was  finance  minister  in  1842-'3  and  from  1848 
to  1854,  being  from  1851  also  prime  minister. 
He  was  governor  of  the  Windward  islands 
from  1855  to  1862,  and  of  British  Guiana  from 
1862  to  1869,  when  he  was  knighted,  and  was 
again  finance  minister  of  Canada  until  late  in 
1873.  He  was  among  the  first  to  urge  a  re- 
sponsible ministry  in  Canada,  and  though  op- 
posed by  Lord  Sydenham,  the  governor,  and 
by  other  influential  persons,  he  secured  the 
recognition  of  this  principle  by  the  English 
government.  He  has  published  pamphlets  on 
political  and  financial  subjects. 

HIM  MR,  a  Gallican  prelate,  born  in  Aqui- 
taine  about  806,  died  in  Epernay,  Dec.  21,  882. 
lie  was  brought  up  from  childhood  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  where  he  be- 
came a  monk  under  the  reformed  rule  which 
he  was  himself  instrumental  in  introducing. 
He  was  in  high  favor  with  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire,  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  in  his 
adversity.  In  845  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  in  place  of  Ebbonius,  who  was 
a  partisan  of  the  emperor  Lothaire.  His  elec- 
tion was  contested  at  Rome  by  Lothaire,  but  as 
Ebbonius  did  not  urge  his  claim,  Hincmar  was 
confirmed.  He  showed  much  firmness  in  resist- 
ing the  abuses  of  the  kingly  power  and  in  re- 
storing discipline  in  the  church;  and  he  was 
in  such  favor  with  Charles  the  Bald,  that  con- 
temporary writers  speak  of  him  as  ruling  both 
church  and  state  during  that  prince's  reign. 
In  848  he  presided  over  the  council  of  Quierzy- 
sur-Oise,  in  which  the  Benedictine  monk  Go- 
descalchus  (Gottschalk)  was  at  his  instigation 
sentenced  to  be  degraded  from  the  priesthood, 
publicly  whipped,  and  imprisoned  for  life. 


HIND 

lis  sentence,  which  Hincmar  caused  to  be 
executed  in  presence  of  the  king,  excited  much 
indignation.  The  most  illustrious  prelates  of 
Gaul  and  Germany  blamed  its  severity,  and 
condemned  both  Hincmar  and  Rabanus  Mau- 
rus,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  for  falling  them- 
selves into  a  doctrinal  error  on  the  very  mat- 
ter of  predestination  on  which  they  had  con- 
demned Godescalchus.  A  doctrinal  exposi- 
tion drawn  up  by  Hincmar,  and  approved  in 
853  by  a  second  council  held  at  Quierzy,  was 
censured  by  the  archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  by 
the  council  of  Valence  in  January,  855,  Hinc- 
mar himself  being  present.  In  852  he  ob- 
tained a  decree  from  the  council  of  Soissons 
for  ever  excluding  from  preferment  all  per- 
sons ordained  by  Ebbonius.  Among  these  was 
Wulfadius,  elected  in  that  year  archbishop 
of  Bourges.  This  decree  and  its  execution 
by  Hincmar  were  openly  censured  by  Pope 
Leo  IV.  and  annulled  in  866  by  Nicholas  I. 
This  pontiff  also  cancelled  the  sentence  of  two 
councils  held  by  Hincmar  at  Soissons  deposing 
Eothrad,  bishop  of  that  city,  and  condemning 
him  to  perpetual  reclusion.  In  864,  however, 
Hincmar  having  refused  to  give  episcopal  con- 
secration to  an  unworthy  favorite  of  the  king, 
the  pope  sustained  his  action.  In  869  Hinc- 
mar made  a  vigorous  opposition  to  Adrian  II., 
when  that  pope  interfered  to  prevent  Charles 
the  Bald  from  taking  possession  of  Lorraine, 
after  the  death  of  the  younger  Lothaire.  To 
the  orders  and  menaces  of  the  pope  Hincmar 
replied  by  denying  hi  s  right  of  intervention.  In 
871  Hincmar  presided  at  the  council  of  Douzy, 
which  sentenced  his  nephew  Hincmar,  bishop 
of  Laon,  to  deposition  and  imprisonment.  No 
appeal  to  Rome  was  permitted ;  and  two  years 
afterward  the  prisoner's  eyes  were  put  out 
with  a  red-hot  iron.  Hincmar  showed  much 
courage  in  reproving  the  royal  officers  for  their 
oppressive  conduct,  and  reproached  the  king 
himself  with  conniving  at  their  excesses.  In 
882  one  of  his  last  acts  was  to  oppose  Louis 
III.  in  his  wish  to  have  his  favorite  Odoacer 
consecrated  bishop  of  Beauvais.  On  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Normans  toward  Rheims,  Hinc- 
mar, taking  with  him  the  shrine  and  body  of 
St.  Remi,  fled  to  Epernay,  where  he  died.  He 
did  much  for  the  welfare  of  the  people,  sup- 
pressed abuses  and  immorality,  completed  the 
cathedral  of  Rheims,  founded  there  two  fa- 
mous schools,  endowed  their  professorships, 
and  established  a  public  library.  Sirmond  pub- 
lished a  complete  edition  of  Hincmar's  works 
(2  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1645). —  See  Flodoard's 
Historia  Ecclesice  Rhemensis  (2  vols.,  Rheims, 
1854,  with  French  translation);  Noorden's 
mirikmar,  Erzbischof  von  Rheims  (Bonn,  1863) ; 
and  J.  C.  Prichard's  "Life  and  Times  of  Hinc- 
mar, Archbishop  of  Rheims"  (London,  1849). 

HIM),  John  Russell,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  in  Nottingham,  May  12,  1823.  He  was 
educated  for  a  tradesman,  but  in  1840  entered 
the  office  of  a  civil  engineer  in  London.  Through 
the  influence  of  Prof.  Wheatstone  he  obtained 


HINDOO  KOOSH 


737 


a  situation  the  same  year  in  the  royal  observa- 
tory at  Greenwich,  where  he  remained  about 
four  years.  After  a  short  stay  in  Ireland, 
where  he  was  sent  on  the  commission  to  de- 
termine the  exact  longitude  of  Valentia,  he 
was  appointed,  at  the  recommendation  of  Prof. 
Airy,  astronomer  royal,  to  a  post  in  the  ob- 
servatory of  Mr.  Bishop,  in  Regent's  park, 
London.  He  began  here  in  1845  a  series  of 
observations,  during  the  course  of  which  he 
calculated  the  orbits  and  declinations  of  more 
than  70  planets  and  comets,  noted  16  new 
movable  stars  and  3  nebulae,  and  discovered  10 
new  asteroids.  In  July,  1846,  he  discovered  a 
comet,  which  had  been  observed  by  De  Vico 
two  hours  before  at  Rome ;  and  early  in  1847 
another  comet,  which  at  its  perihelion  passage, 
March  24,  was  bright  enough  to  be  seen  in  the 
strong  morning  twilight.  In  April,  1848,  he 
made  a  very  remarkable  discovery  of  a  new 
reddish  yellow  variable  star  of  the  5th  magni- 
tude in  Ophiuchus.  In  1850  this  star  was  only 
of  the  llth  magnitude,  and  it  was  calculated 
that  it  would  soon  disappear  altogether.  The 
asteroids  discovered  by  Mr.  Hind  are  as  fol- 
lows: Iris,  Aug.  13,  1847;  Flora,  Oct.  18, 
1847;  Victoria,  Sept.  13,  1850;  Irene,  May 
19,  1851;  Melpomene,  June  24,  1852;  For- 
tuna,  Aug.  22,  1852;  Calliope,  Nov.  16,  1852; 
Thalia,  Dec.  15,  1852;  Euterpe,  Nov.  8,  1853; 
Urania,  July  22,  1854.  In  December,  1844, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  astronomical 
society  of  London,  and  was  afterward  ap- 
pointed its  foreign  secretary.  He  has  re- 
ceived many  other  honors  at  home  and  abroad, 
and  since  1852  has  had  a  pension  of  £200  from 
the  government.  He  is  the  director  of  the 
"Nautical  Almanac"  of  England.  His  wri- 
tings have  generally  been  published  in  the 
"  Transactions  "  of  the  royal  astronomical  so- 
ciety of  London,  in  the  Astronomische  Nach- 
richten  of  Altona,  and  in  the  Comtes  Rendus  of 
the  academy  of  sciences  of  Paris.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  "  An  Astronomical  Vocabulary  " 
(1852);  "The  Comets"  (1852);  "The  Solar 
System,  a  Descriptive  Treatise  upon  the  Sun, 
Moon,  and  Planets,  including  an  Account  of 
all  the  Recent  Discoveries"  (1852);  "Illus- 
trated London  Astronomy,  for  the  Use  of 
Schools  and  Students  "  (1853) ;  "  Elements  of 
Algebra"  (1855);  and  "Descriptive  Treatise 
on  Comets"  (1859). 

1IIM)00  ROOSH  (Pers.  Hindu  Kuh,  Indian 
mountain),  a  range  of  mountains  in  central  Asia, 
which  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Indian 
Caucasus.  Although  the  name  more  strictly 
belongs  to  the  lofty  snow-clad  summit,  upward 
of  20,000  ft.  in  height,  which  rises  directly  N. 
of  the  Cabool  valley,  it  is  applied  to  the  entire 
mountain  tract  extending  from  the  southern 
portion  of  the  elevated  table  land  of  Pamir,  in 
about  lat.  37°  N.,  Ion.  73°  E.,  to  the  region 
near  Ion.  68°  immediately  W.  of  the  city  of 
Cabool.  It  separates  the  Punjaub  and  Afghan- 
istan on  the  south  from  Badakhshan  and  Koon- 
dooz  on  the  north.  The  least  elevation  of  the 


738 


HINDOSTAN 


HIPPARION 


range  relative  to  the  surrounding  country  ap- 
pears to  be  on  the  plateau  which  forms  its 
eastern  extremity,  where  it  is  approached  by 
the  Karakorum  mountains.  The  absolute  height 
of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh, 
however,  is  very  great,  the  Nuksan  pass,  be- 
tween Chitral  on  the  south  and  Wakhan  on 
the  north,  being  estimated  to  be  17,000  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  There  are  glaciers  in  this 
region.  The  range  decreases  in  elevation  as 
it  stretches  westward.  Those  peaks  whose 
heights  have  been  determined  are  upward  of 
20,000  ft.  in  altitude.  The  section  which  has 
been  most  thoroughly  explored  lies  between 
the  70th  and  68th  meridians,  from  the  Khawak 
pass  on  the  east  to  th&  Hadjiyak  passes  on  the 
west.  It  is  described  as  an  unpierced  water- 
shed, closely  corresponding  to  the  line  of  high- 
est peaks,  and  crossed  by  19  passes,  none  less 
than  12,000  ft.  high.  The  Khawak  pass,  13,- 
500  ft.,  is  supposed  to  be  that  which  was  trav- 
ersed by  Tamerlane  on  his  way  to  the  con- 
quest of  India,  and  by  Alexander  the  Great  on 
his  return  from  Bactria.  The  three  Hadjiyak 
passes,  about  13,000  ft.,  lead  from  the  head  of 
the  Cabool  valley  to  Bamian  in  the  basin  of 
the  Oxus,  and  are  usually  regarded  as  the  limit 
of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  on  the  west,  the  name 
Koh-i-baba  being  applied  to  the  western  ex- 
tension of  the  range.  The  Cabool  and  Hel- 
mund  rivers  rise  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
watershed,  and  from  the  northern  side  flow 
several  important  tributaries  of  the  Oxus.  The 
Hindoo  Koosh  is  characterized  by  excessive 
aridity  and  a  remarkable  absence  of  forests. 

HINDOSTAN.     See  INDIA. 

HINDS,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  bound- 
ed E.  by  Pearl  river  and  N.  W.  by  the  Big 
Black;  area,  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  30,- 
488,  of  whom  20,659  were  colored.  It  has  a 
level  surface  and  a  rich  soil.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  New  Orleans,  Jackson,  and  Great  North- 
ern, and  the  Yicksburg  and  Meridian  rail- 
roads, and  the  Raymond  branch.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  10,619  bushels  of 
rye,  410,553  of  Indian  corn,  58,304  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  27,394  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  1,714  horses,  2,905  mules  and  asses, 
4,274  milch  cows,  1,034  working  oxen,  7,071 
other  cattle,  4,179  sheep,  and  14,330  swine;  2 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  1  of 
boots  and  shoes,  2  of  carriages,  1  of  furniture, 
1  of  gas,  2  of  iron  castings,  1  of  machinery,  3 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  2  bookbinderies,  and  2  news- 
paper establishments.  Capital,  Jackson,  which 
is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 

H1NGHAM,  a  town  of  Plymouth  co.,  Massa- 
chusetts, pleasantly  situated  on  the  S.  side 
of  Boston  harbor,  14  m.  S.  of  Boston,  with 
which  it  has  communication  by  the  South 
Shore  railroad;  pop.  in  1870,  4,422.  It  is  a 
place  of  resort  for  residents  of  the  city,  and  in 
summer  steamers  run  daily  to  Boston.  The 
fisheries  employ  several  vessels,  and  the  manu- 
factures are  of  considerable  importance.  The 


town  contains  a  national  bank,  savings  bank, 
insurance  company,  newspaper,  17  schools,  and 
8  churches.  It  was  settled  in  1635. 

HINSDALE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Colorado, 
formed  in  1874  from  portions  of  Conejos,  Lake, 
and  Saguache  cos. ;  area,  about  1,400  sq.  m.  It 
contains  gold  mines.  Capital,  San  Juan  City. 

HINTON,  John  Howard,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Oxford,  March  24,  1791.  He  first 
preached  at  Reading,  and  afterward  at.  Lon- 
don, as  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation. 
He  had  the  reputation  of  being  an  independent 
and  original  preacher,  and  he  was  a  zealous 
advocate  for  the  voluntary  principle  in  religion 
and  education.  He  edited  the  "  History  and 
Topography  of  the  United  States,"  completed 
in  1832  (American  editions  by  8.  L.  Knapp, 
2  vols.  4to,  Boston,  1834;  by  J.  O.  Choules, 
with  continuation,  2  vols.  4to,  New  York, 
1853).  He  has  also  written  "  Memoirs  of  Wil- 
liam Knibb;"  "Theology,  or  an  Attempt  to- 
ward a  Consistent  View  of  the  Whole  Counsel 
of  God  ;"  "  Elements  of  Natural  History,"  &c. 
The  complete  edition  of  his  works  is  in  7  vols. 

HIOGO,  or  Fiogo,  a  seaport  town  of  Japan, 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  island  of  Nipon,  on 
the  bay  and  about  20  m.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Osaka,  of  which  it  is  the  port;  pop.  about 
20,000,  including  a  small  number  of  foreign 
merchants,  mostly  Germans.  Being  the  best 
harbor  of  Japan,  its  opening  to  foreign  trade 
in  1868,  and  its  proximity  to  the  most  fertile 
districts  of  the  empire,  gave  rise  to  great  com- 
mercial activity.  The  exports  are  very  con- 
siderable, especially  of  tea.  The  annual  im- 
ports are  valued  at  about  $7,000, 000.  Upward 
of  1,000  vessels  enter  the  port  annually.  A 
railway  to  Osaka  was  opened  in  1874. 

HIPPARCHUS,  an  ancient  astronomer,  born  in 
Nicaea,  Bithynia,  flourished  in  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century  B.  C.  We  have  no  details  of 
his  life,  and  our  knowledge  of  his  astronomi- 
cal discoveries  is  derived  altogether  from  his 
disciple  Ptolemy.  He  was  the  first  who  syste- 
matically attempted  to  classify  the  stars,  and 
to  determine  their  position  and  magnitude. 
To  his  catalogue  we  are  indebted  for  our 
knowledge  of  the  retrograde  motion  of  the 
equinoctial  points.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  planisphere,  and  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
marking  the  position  of  places  on  the  earth  by 
circles  drawn  perpendicular  and  parallel  to  the 
equator.  His  only  work  still  extant  is  the 
"  Commentary  on  the  Phenomena  of  Aratus 
and  Eudoxus,"  the  best  edition  of  which  is 
that  of  Petavius  (Paris,  1630). 

IIIPPARCHUS.    See  HIPPIAS  AND  HIPPARCHUS. 

HIPPARION,  an  extinct  perissodactyl  or  un- 
even-toed mammal,  belonging  to  the  solidun- 
gulate  (solid-hoofed  or  single-toed)  division, 
which  includes  the  horse  and  the  ass,  or  the 
family  equida.  In  its  skeleton  it  was  decided- 
ly horse-like,  but,  in  addition  to  the  single  toe 
on  each  foot,  it  had  an  additional  one  on  each 
side,  raised  from  the  ground,  and  pointing  lat- 
erally backward,  as  in  the  hog  and  ruminants. 


HIPPARION 


HIPPO 


739 


ie  enamel  of  the  molar  teeth  was  in  more 
)mplex  folds  than  in  the  present  horse.  Fos- 
horse-like  animals  have  heen  found  in  the 
later  tertiary  and  quaternary  of  North  and 
}uth  America,  Europe,  and  northern  Asia, 
id  especially  in  the  western  regions  of  the 
Inited  States.  This  genus  has  been  obtained 

the  later  tertiary  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Forth  America.  Of  the  species  described  by 
[ayden,  H.  venustum,  half  the  size  of  the  ass, 
i  been  found  in  South  Carolina ;  H.  occiden- 
'osum,  and  qffine,  from  the  pliocene  of 
)akota  and  Texas,  about  the  size  of  an  ass,  are 
11  nearly  allied,  if  not  the  same  species.  Pro- 
ihippus,  hippidion,  and  merychippus  are  al- 
3d  genera. — This  series  of  horse-like  animals 
interesting  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  re- 
ition  of  past  to  present  species,  and  of  the 
srivation  of  the  latter  from  the  former ;  most 
ituralists  of  the  present  day,  rejecting  the 
rinciple  of  direct  or  miraculous  creation,  and 

lizing  a  natural  law  or  secondary  cause, 
'the  servant  of  predetermining  intelligent 


1.  Palseotherinm.    2.  Hipparion.    3.  Horse 

Will,"  as  Prof.  Owen  has  it,  as  operating^in 
the  production  of  species  in  orderly  succession 
and  progression.  As  proofs  of  the  hypothesis 
that  the  existing  are  modifications  of  extinct 
species,  changing  by  small  degrees,  it  became 
'  nportant  to  collect  a  series  of  such  inter- 

lediate  forms  from  the  fossil  world.     Prof. 

>wen,  in  his  "Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,  "^  de- 
votes a  chapter  to  this  subject,  and  especially 
mentions  the  series  of  anoplotherium,  palseo- 
therium,  and  hipparion,  as  supplying  the  links 
required  by  Cuvier  to  connect  the  pachyderms 
with  the  horse  of  the  present  day.  In  the  ac- 
companying illustration,  p  and  m  signify  premo- 
lar  and  molar  teeth,  and  2,  3, 4  are  the  digits  or 
toes.  The  palasotherium  had  three  nearly  equal 
toes,  each  with  a  hoof;  the  hipparion  was  also 
in  one  sense  three-toed,  but  the  lateral  hoofs 
were  spurious,  not  touching  the  ground ;  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  three-toed 
horses  are  found  only  in  deposits  of  that  ter- 
tiary period  intervening  between  the  older 

>alseotherium  and  the  newer  strata  in  which 


the  modern  horse  first  appears  to  have  lost  its 
lateral  hooflets,  and  to  have  walked  upon  the 
end  of  the  single  second  toe  or  digit,  the  two 
lateral  splint  bones  being  entirely  internal  and 
hoofless.  He  makes  the  series,  from  the  hoofs 
and  molar  teeth,  palceotherium,paloplotherium, 
ancitherium,  hipparion,  and  equus  (horse).  To 
admit  this  does  not  require  either  the  hypothe- 
sis of  appetency  or  volition  of  Lamarck,  the  fit- 
ness of  the  surrounding  medium  of  Geoffrey 
Saint-Hilaire,  or  the  natural  selection  of  Dar- 
win ;  but  simply  the  continuous  operation  of 
natural  law  or  secondary  cause,  successively 
and  progressively,  "  from  the  first  embodiment 
of  the  vertebrate  idea  under  its  old  ichthyic 
vestment,  until  it  became  arrayed  in  the  glori- 
ous garb  of  the  human  form."  (See  HORSE.) 

HIPPEAU,  Celestin,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Niort,  May  11,  1803.  He  studied  in  his  native 
town,  and  in  1855  was  sent  on  an  educational 
mission  to  England,  and  in  1867  to  the  United 
States  to  report  on  American  education.  His 
principal  works  are :  Eistoire  de  la  philosophic 
ancienne  et  moderne  (1863) ;  Histoire  du  gou- 
vernement  de  la  Normandie  (9  vols.,  1863-'73) ; 
and  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  francaise  au 
douzieme  et  treizieme  siecle  (1873). 

HIPPIAS  AND  HIPPARCHUS,  the  rtms  and  suc- 
cessors of  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Athens.  Ac- 
cording to  an  early  popular  opinion,  Hippar- 
chus  was  the  elder  brother ;  according  to  He- 
rodotus and  Thucydides,  Hippias.  While  they 
ruled  jointly  the  government  was  conducted  on 
the  same  principles  as  that  of  their  father,  and 
that  period  was  subsequently  regarded  by  the 
Athenians  as  a  kind  of  golden  age ;  but  from 
the  murder  of  Hipparchus  by  Harmodius  and 
Aristogiton  (514  B.  C.)  the  character  of  the 
government  of  Hippias  became  arbitrary,  ex- 
acting, and  oppressive.  His  despotism  was, 
however,  at  length  overthrown.  The  Delphic 
oracle  was  bribed  to  favor  the  cause  of  liber- 
ty, and  the  pythoness  repeatedly  enjoined  the 
Lacedemonians  to  free  Athens  from  the  des- 
potism of  the  Pisistratidse.  A  Spartan  force 
under  Cleomenes,  having  defeated  Hippias  in 
the  field,  and  captured  his  children,  compelled 
him  to  surrender  the  Acropolis,  and  to  evacu- 
ate Attica  with  all  his  relatives  (510).  No 
sooner  had  they  departed  than  a  decree  was 
passed  condemning  the  tyrant  and  his  family 
to  perpetual  banishment,  and  a  monument  was 
erected  in  the  Acropolis  commemorative  of 
their  crimes  and  oppressions.  Hippias  ulti- 
mately retired  to  the  court  of  Darius,  and 
there  instigated  the  invasion  of  Greece.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  he  fell  at  Marathon  (490). 

HIPPO,  or  Hippo  Begins,  an  ancient  city  of  Nu- 
midia,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen 
near  Bona  in  Algeria.  It  was  one  of  the  resi- 
dences of  the  Numidian  kings,  and  afterward 
celebrated  as  the  episcopal  see  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Van- 
dals in  480.  Its  surname  served  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  town  of  the  same  name  on  the 
Carthaginian  coast,  W.  of  Utica. 


740 


HIPPOCRATES 


HIPPOLYTUS 


HIPPOCRATES,  a  Greek  physician,  called  the 
"father  of  medicine,"  born  in  the  island  of  Cos 
about  460  B.  C.,  died  in  Larissa,  Thessaly,  be- 
tween 375  and  351.  He  studied  medicine  with 
his  father  Heraclides,  who  belonged  to  the 
order  of  Asclepiadse,  or  descendants  of  ^Escu- 
lapius,  and  afterward  went  to  Athens  to  place 
himself  under  the  instruction  of  Herodicus. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  philosopher  Gorgias  of 
Leontini,  and  perhaps  also  of  Democritus  of 
Abdera.  Having  practised  his  profession  in 
Cos,  he  travelled  through  Thessaly,  Macedonia, 
and  Scythia,  and  finally  returned  to  Thessaly, 
where  he  passed  the  close  of  his  life.  The  es- 
teem in  which  he  was  held  by  his  contempo- 
raries renders  very  improbable  the  story  that, 
having  charge  of  a  library  at  Cos  or  Cnidus,  he 
made  too  free  a  use  of  the  writings  of  others, 
and  burned  the  collection  to  conceal  his  pla- 
giarisms. Hippocrates  raised  medicine  from  a 
system  of  superstitious  rites  practised  wholly 
by  the  priests  to  the  dignity  of  a  learned  pro- 
fession. He  referred  diseases  to  two  leading 
causes,  climate  and  diet,  and  regulated  the  lat- 
ter to  suit  the  changes  of  the  former  as  well  as 
the  state  of  the  patient.  He  taught  that  there 
were  four  humors  in  the  human  body,  blood, 
phlegm,  yellow  bile,  and  black  bile,  an  undue 
preponderance  of  any  of  which  was  a  proximate 
cause  of  sickness.  With  such  an  imperfect 
knowledge  of  anatomy  as  might  have  been 
looked  for  in  an  age  when  superstition  forbade 
the  dissection  of  dead  bodies,  he  nevertheless 
had  some  acquaintance  with  the  structure  of 
the  cranium  and  viscera ;  but  he  was  ignorant 
of  the  true  relation  between  the  arteries  and 
the  veins,  and  of  the  distinction  bet  ween  nerves, 
tendons,  and  ligaments,  speaks  of  the  muscles 
simply  as  flesh,  and  held  some  singular  views 
on  generation.  He  drew  his  principles  from 
careful  observation,  and  was  little  given  to 
theorizing.  He  relied  perhaps  too  much  on 
the  healing  power  of  nature,  and  the  remedies 
by  which  he  assisted  her  were  mostly  of  a 
simple  character.  He  practised  bleeding,  cup- 
ping, cauterization,  and  auscultation,  and  used 
several  mineral  and  vegetable  remedies,  inclu- 
ding purgatives.  He  was  particularly  skilful  in 
his  diagnoses,  and  was  the  first  to  divide  the 
course  of  a  disease  into  three  periods,  for  the 
last  of  which,  called  the  crisis,  he  assigned  cer- 
tain days  known  as  the  critical  days.  Of  the 
72  books  which  bear  the  name  of  Hippocra- 
tes, only  the  "  Aphorisms,"  "  Prognostics," 
"  Epidemics,"  the  treatise  on  "Air,  Water,  and 
Locality,"  the  treatise  on  "Diet,"  and  a  few 
others,  can  be  attributed  with  much  proba- 
bility to  the  subject  of  this  notice.  Many 
were  doubtless  written  by  other  physicians  of 
the  same  name,  of  whom  there  were  no  fewer 
than  seven  among  the  Asclepiadae.  Hippocra- 
tes wrote  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  in  a  concise  and 
sometimes  obscure  style.  The  best  editions  of 
his  works  are  those  of  Foesius  (fol.,  Frankfort, 
1595) ;  Van  der  Linden  (2  vols.  8vo,  Amsterdam, 
1665);  Mack  (2  vols.  fol.,  Vienna,  1743-'9); 


Littre  (8  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1839-'53),  with  a 
French  translation ;  Upman  (3  vols.  8vo,  Ber- 
lin, 1847);  Ermerius  (Utrecht,  1862-'4);  and 
Reinhold  (Athens,  1864-'5).  There  are  Eng- 
lish translations  of  the  aphorisms  and  the  trea- 
tises on  "  Air,  Water,  and  Situation,  upon  Epi- 
demical Diseases  and  upon  Prognostics,"  &c., 
by  Francis  Clifton,  M.  D.  (8vo,  London,  1734), 
and  of  the  "  Genuine  Works  "  of  Hippocrates 
by  Adams  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1849). 

HIPPOCRENE  (Gr.  "nnrog,  horse,  and  npf}vy, 
fountain),  called  by  Persius  Fons  Cdballinus 
(the  fountain  of  the  horse),  a  fountain  on  Mount 
Helicon  in  Bceotia,  owing  its  name  to  a  myth 
according  to  which  it  was  produced  by  Pega- 
sus striking  the  ground  with  his  hoofs.  (See 
HELICON.) 

HIPPODROME  (Gr.  ITTTTO^  horse,  and  dpfy/of,  a 
course),  the  course  where  the  horse  and  chariot 
races  of  the  ancient  Greeks  took  place.  The 
hippodrome  was  differently  constructed  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  level 
countries  artificial  mounds  were  raised  on  both 
sides  of  it ;  in  hilly  districts  a  declivity  was 
invariably  chosen  to  form  one  side.  The  arti- 
ficial mounds,  or  mound  and  declivity  as  the 
case  might  be,  were  connected  at  the  inner  end 
by  a  semicircular  barrier.  At  the  other  or 
outer  extremity  was  the  portico,  where  each 
chariot  had  its  stall,  and  whence  it  issued  as 
soon  as  the  cord  which  crossed  the  entrance 
was  removed.  A  bronze  eagle  and  dolphin 
were  used  as  a  signal  at  the  time  of  starting; 
the  eagle  was  raised  in  the  air,  while  the  dol- 
phin was  lowered.  Along  the  sides  of  the 
hippodrome  seats  were  erected  for  the  specta- 
tors, special  seats  being  reserved  for  the  judges. 
The  most  celebrated  of  Hellenic  hippodromes 
was  that  of  Olympia. 

HIPPOLITUS,  son  of  Theseus.     See  PILEDRA. 

HIPPOLYTFS,  Saint,  an  ecclesiastical  writer 
of  the  3d  century.  Although  his  writings 
had  been  always  numbered  among  those  of 
the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  his  personal  history 
had  been  surrounded  with  uncertainty  until 
the  middle  of  the  present  century.  Two  events, 
occurring  at  a  distance  of  300  years  from  each 
other,  have  served  to  clear  away  doubts  and 
contradictions  regarding  his  identity.  In  1551, 
near  the  basilica  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Rome,  there 
was  discovered  an  antique  statue  (now  in  the 
Vatican  museum)  belonging  to  the  6th  century, 
which  represented  a  bishop  seated.  The  statue 
bears  the  inscription  Hippolytus  Eptecopm 
Portuensis,  the  very  title  given  to  him  by  Pru- 
dentius,  who  lived  in  the  5th  century.  On  the 
back  of  the  chair  are  the  paschal  canon  or 
cycle  introduced  by  Hippolytus  in  the  Roman 
church,  and  a  list  of  his  works,  among  which 
are  mentioned  treatises  "  against  heresies."  In 
1842  M.  Mynoide  Minas,  commissioned  by  the 
French  government,  had  brought  back  from 
the  monastery  of  Mount  Athos  a  mutilated 
Greek  manuscript  on  cotton  paper  containing 
a  "Refutation  of  all  Heresies"  (Kara  iraou* 
Alpeceuv  "EAey^of),  which  was  published  at  Ox- 


HIPPO^AX 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


ford  in  1851,  as  a  work  of  Origen.  This  au- 
thorship was  immediately  contested  by  Dr. 
Jacobi  in  Berlin  and  Dr.  Duncker  in  Gottin- 
gen,  who  both  claimed  the  work  as  belonging 
to  Hippolytus.  Finally  this  claim  was  suc- 
cessfully sustained  by  Bunsen  in  his  "Hip- 
polytus and  his  Times  "  (4  vols.  8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1851),  and  in  a  second  enlarged  edition 
of  the  same  work,  under  the  title  "Chris- 
tianity and  Mankind"  (7  vols.  8vo,  1854). 
The  light  thrown  on  Hippolytus  and  his  wri- 
tings by  Bunsen's  conclusions,  now  generally 
adopted  by  critics,  gives  unity  to  the  traditions, 
and  explains  the  contradictions  respecting  him. 
The  work  "Against  Heresies,"  specified  in  the 
inscription  on  the  statue,  is  claimed  as  his  own 
by  the  author  of  the  Mount  Athos  manuscript, 
and  is  attributed  by  the  most  eminent  author- 
ities to  Hippolytus,  bishop  of  Portus,  presby- 
ter of  the  Roman  church,  who  lived  and  wrote 
about  220,  as  the  "Paschal  Cycle"  and  his 
statue  expressly  state.  It  is  thus  established 
that  he  was  a  disciple  of  Irenseus,  a  member 
of  the  Roman  presbytery,  appointed  (most 
likely  because  of  his  knowledge  of  Greek) 
bishop  of  the  Portus  Romanus  or  Romce,  the 
new  harbor  of  Rome,  established  by  Trajan 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  over  against 
the  more  ancient  Ostia.  He  is  called  "  bishop 
of  the  Gentiles,"  because  the  population  of 
the  new  city  was  made  up  of  floating  masses 
of  heathen  strangers,  drawn  thither  by  com- 
merce. In  218  he  was  actively  ministering  to 
them  ;  in  222  he  was  engaged  in  a  violent  op- 

sition  to  Pope  Calixtus  I.,  whose  mild  treat- 
ment of  repentant  sinners  he  reprobated  ;  in 
235,  in  all  likelihood  immediately  after  the 
ieath  of  Alexander  Severus,  he  was  by  the 

ler  of  Maximin  banished  to  Sardinia,  to- 
_  3ther  with  Pontianus,  bishop  of  Rome  ;  was 
permitted  to  return  to  his  see  in  236;  and 
not  long  after  was  put  to  death,  as  the  tradi- 
tion quoted  by  Prudentius  states,  by  being 
torn  to  pieces  by  wild  horses.  Prudentius 
also  informs  us  that  he  visited  his  tomb  in  the 
church  of  St.  Laurentius  in  Rome,  and  Bun- 
sen  is  of  opinion  that  the  statue  discovered 
in  1551  was  erected  on  the  removal  of  his 
relics.  The  doctrine  of  Hippolytus  on  the 
Trinity  and  the  incarnation  of  the  Word  is 
that  proclaimed  at  Nicsea  a  century  later,  and 
lis  philosophical  explanations  of  dogma  show 
lim  to  belong  to  the  Platonic  school.  The 
best  editions  of  his  works  are  that  of  Fabri- 
nus  (2  vols.  fol.,  Hamburg,  1716-'18),  repro- 
luced  with  important  additions  by  Galland  in 
vol.  ii.  of  his  BibliotJieca  Patrum  (Venice, 
1766),  and  that  of  Lagarde  (Leipsic,  1858). 

HIPPONAX,  a  Greek  lyric  poet  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  6th  century  B.  C.  He  was  a  native 
of  Ephesus,  was  banished  by  its  tyrants  Athe- 
nagoras  and  Comas,  and  afterward  lived  in  Cla- 
zomenge  in  extreme  poverty.  He  was  small  and 
ugly  in  person,  and  was  one  of  the  severest  of 
Greek  satirists.  His  favorite  themes  were  the 
effeminacy  and  vices  of  his  fellow  citizens,  and 


the  faithlessness  of  women.  The  Chian  sculp- 
tors Bupalus  and  Athenis,  who  made  caricature 
statues  of  him,  were  assailed  in  the  bitterest 
of  his  satires.  Of  th  e  poems  of  Hipponax  about 
100  lines  are  still  extant. 
f  HIPPOPOTAMUS  (Gr.  ivr™?,  horse,  and  n6ra^ , 
river),  a  pachydermatous  animal,  inhabiting 
Africa.  It  is  generally  called  sea  cow  by  the 
Cape  colonists,  a  term  which  is  usually  applied 
in  America  to  the  manatee.  The  dental  formu- 
la is :  four  incisors  in  each  jaw,  long,  cylindri- 
cal, pointed,  and  inclined  for  ward  below,  short, 
conical,  and  curved  above;  canines  four,  re- 
sembling the  incisors  of  rodents,  the  upper  ones 
straight,  the  lower  thick  and  bent,  overlapping 
the  upper ;  the  molars  six  on  each  side  in  each 
jaw,  the  anterior  three  more  pointed,  and  the 
posterior  with  the  points  in  the1  adult  worn  in 
a  trefoil  shape.  Its  powerful  jaws,  sub-cylin- 
drical lower  incisors,  and  chisel-edged  canines 
are  formed  for  tearing  and  crushing  rather  than 
grinding  the  coarse  tough  plants  and  aquatic 
roots  and  grasses  upon  which  it  principally 
feeds;  the  canines  seem  excessively  developed. 
In  its  skull  the  hippopotamus  resembles  the  hog 
in  the  connection  of  the  bones  and  their  su- 
tures, in  other  respects  being  more  like  the  ox ; 
the  skeleton  is  very  massive,  indicating  the 
great  size  and  strength  and  rather  slow  loco- 
motive powers  of  the  animal.  The  skull  is  re- 
markable for  the  horizontal  plane  of  its  upper 
portion,  the  eyes,  nostrils,  and  ears  of  the  ani- 
mal when  in  the  water  being  nearly  upon  the 
same  level,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  head, 
when  this  alone  is  visible,  looking  not  unlike 
that  of  a  horse ;  the  bony  orbits  are  very  prom- 
inent, projecting  above  the  top  of  the  skull. 
The  stomach  is  multiple,  something  as  in  ru- 
minants, though  it  is  not  known  to  chew  the 
cud ;  it  can  contain  five  or  six  bushels  of  vege- 
table matter,  and  the  large  intestine  is  about  8 
in.  in  diameter ;  the  intestinal  canal,  without 
ceecum,  is  nearly  12  times  as  long  as  the  body, 
considerably  more  than  120  ft.  The  average 
length  of  the  male  from  the  end  of  the  nose  to 
the  tip  of  the  tail  (the  latter  being  about  a  foot) 
is  14  ft.,  but  they  have  been  known  to  measure 
17ft. ;  the  females  are  much  smaller;  the  girth 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  length,  and  the  height  at 
the  shoulders  between  5  and  6  ft. ;  the  aper- 
ture of  the  mouth  is  about  2  ft.  wide,  and  the 
tusks  are  more  than  a  foot  long.  This  huge 
uncouth  body,  of  a  form  between  that  of  an 
over-fed  pig  and  a  fattened  ox,  is  supported  on 
short  stout  limbs,  with  four  toes  on  each  small 
foot,  nearly  equal  and  with  short  hoofs;  the 
massive  head  is  broad,  and  the  expression  of 
the  face  singular  from  the  high  position  of  the 
eyes ;  the  lips  are  wide  and  tumid,  especially 
the  upper,  concealing  the  teeth  when  the  mouth 
is  shut,  and  furnished  with  a  few  tufts  of  hair ; 
the  nose  is  broad  and  truncated,  and  the  nos- 
trils, on  the  end  and  capable  of  protrusion  so 
that  the  animal  may  breathe  when  all  the  body 
is  under  water,  may  be  closed  during  submer- 
sion; the  prominent  eyes  enjoy  great  freedom 


742 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


of  motion,  and  may  be  protruded  or  retracted 
to  adapt  its  vision  to  an  air  or  water  medium  ; 
the  last  two  contrivances  are  admirably  adapt- 
ed for  the  protection  of  an  aquatic  animal  so 
\vary  and  sluggish  as  the  hippopotamus.  The 
head  is  contracted  behind  the  angles  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  forehead  is  broad  and  flat ;  the 
ears  are  only  3  or  4  in.  long,  fringed  and  lined 
internally  with  a  fine  hair,  just  behind  and  but 
little  above  the  eyes;  the  eyebrows  are  tumid, 
which  makes  the  eyes  appear  deeply  seated; 
the  neck  is  short,  thick,  and  hog-like,  the  back 
slightly  arched,  the  body  cylindrical,  the  nates 
full,  the  pendent  abdomen  almost  touching  the 
ground,  the  tail  short,  robust,  and  edged  with 
wiry  hairs,  the  mammae  two  in  number  and 
ventral,  and  the  skin  nearly  naked.  The  color, 
when  the  skin  is  dry,  is  reddish  gray,  brown- 
ish on  the  back,  lighter  beneath ;  under  water 
the  colors  are  various  shades  of  blue.  Prof. 
Owen,  in  the  "  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natu- 
ral History,"  vol.  v.,  1850,  gives  some  interesting 
particulars  from  a  young  living  specimen  re- 
ceived at  the  zoological  gardens  of  London  in 
1850,  the  first  seen  alive  in  Europe  since  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Gordian  III.  in  Rome  in 
the  3d  century.  This  animal  was  captured  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  in  August,  1849,  and  was 
supposed  to  have  been  recently  brought  forth, 
as  it  was  not  much  larger  than  a  new-born 
calf,  though  stouter  and  shorter  legged ;  it  ar- 
rived in  London  in  May,  1850,  and  was  accord- 
ingly then  about  ten  months  old,  yet  it  was  7 
ft.  long  and  of  6£  ft.  girth  in  the  middle  of  the 
body.  The  hind  limb  was  buried  in  the  skin 
of  the  flank  nearly  to  the  prominence  of  the 
heel ;  there  was  no  trace  of  a  glandular  orifice, 
as  in  the  rhinoceros,  behind  each  foot;  the 
naked  skin,  of  a  dark  India-rubber  color,  and 
with  fine  transverse  wrinkles,  glistened  with 
a  sebaceous  secretion  as  the  animal  emerged 
from  the  water;  the  eyes  had  a  thick  nicti- 
gating  membrane,  and  the  mouth  a  peculiar 
upward  curve  of  its  angles  toward  the  eyes, 
which  gave  a  comical  expression  to  the  massive 
countenance.  Apparently  in  perfect  health,  it 
breathed  three  or  four  times  in  a  minute, 
slowly  and  regularly ;  its  food  consisted  of  a 
kind  of  porridge  of  milk  and  maize  meal,  though 
it  was  more  than  half  weaned  from  its  baby 
diet.  Other  specimens  have  since  been  re- 
ceived at  the  zoological  gardens,  and  also  at 
the  Paris  jardin  des  plantes,  and  one  has  been 
exhibited  in  the  United  States.  Several  spe- 
cies are  described,  but  the  best  known  and 
most  extensively  distributed  is  the  H.  amphi- 
l)ius  (Linn.),  which  was  formerly  found  from 
Egypt  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  all  the  large 
rivers,  though  now  it  is  rare  except  in  the  lonely 
regions  explored  by  Livingstone  and  Gumming. 
Of  whatever  species,  they  spend  most  of  their 
time  in  the  water,  lolling  about  in  a  dreamy 
manner,  frolicking  like  a  porpoise,  or  wallow- 
ing in  the  mud  like  a  hog ;  they  leave  the 
rivers  chiefly  at  night  to  crop  the  succulent 
grasses  on  their  banks,  especially  in  localities 


where  brushwood  abounds;  they  are  also  fond 
of  passing  the  day  in  the  ocean,  near  the  mouths 
of  rivers.  Though  clumsy  upon  the  land,  their 
movements  in  the  water  are  graceful  and  rapid ; 
they  are  gregarious,  and  both  sexes  delight  to 
congregate  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  in  small 


Hippopotamus  amphibius. 

herds ;  they  can  remain  under  water  for  about 
15  minutes,  walking  upon  the  bottom,  and  prob- 
ably longer  if  necessary ;  but  it  is  not  known 
whether  this  ability  to  sustain  prolonged  im- 
mersion is  owing  to  an  apparatus  like  the  ve- 
nous reservoirs  of  the  seals,  the  arterial  plexi- 
form  receptacles  of  the  whales,  or  some  other 
equivalent  structure.  They  are  playful,  peace- 
able, and  inoffensive  when  undisturbed  ;  but  if 
wounded,  and  especially  if  in  company  with 
their  young,  they  are  savage  and  eager  to  as- 
sail any  enemy ;  the  males  in  the  love  season 
are  quarrelsome,  and  both  sexes  are  often  seen 
covered  with  scars ;  it  is  said  that  the  young 
males  are  often  killed  by  the  older  ones.  The 
males  are  darker  colored  than  the  females. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  about  nine  months, 
and  a  single  young  one  is  brought  forth  on 
land,  taking  to  the  water  instantly  when 
alarmed ;  the  very  young  ones  are  carried  in 
the  water  on  the  neck  of  the  mother,  and 
when  they  grow  older  on  the  withers.  When 
they  blow,  they  puff  up  the  water  about  3  ft. 
high,  according  to  Livingstone.  The  sagacity 
of  the  hippopotamus,  though  inferior  to  that 
of  the  elephant,  is  considerable,  as  evinced  by 
its  adroitness  in  avoiding  its  enemies  on  land 
or  in  the  water,  its  escaping  from  pitfalls  ahd 
other  stratagems  of  the  natives,  its  going  with 
its  young  to  distant  localities  when  annoyed  by 
man,  and  its  caution  in  exposing  itself  even  in 
its  watery  abode  when  it  has  been  once  as^ 
sailed.  They  are  hunted  for  their  flesh,  which 
resembles  pork;  for  the  specie  or  layer  of  fat 
just  under  the  skin,  a  bonne  louche  for  the  Cape 
Town  epicure ;  for  their  teeth,  which  are  val- 
uable articles  of  trade,  and  were  formerly  much 


HIRAM 

iployed  for  their  hardness  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  artificial  teeth,  and  for  various  orna- 
mental purposes ;  and  for  their  tough  skin, 
which  is  made  into  shields  and  helmets,  and 
cut  into  cylindrical  strips,  which  form  the 
whips  of  the  Cape  colonists.  The  voice  of  the 
animal  is  between  a  grunt  and  a  neigh,  and  has 
been  compared  by  travellers  to  a  variety  of 
discordant  sounds.  Its  voracity  is  very  great, 
and  its  destruction  of  the  native  crops,  both  by 
devouring  and  treading  them  down,  has  been 
known  and  deplored  from  the  earliest  antiqui- 
ty. Besides  man,  the  principal  enemy  of  the 
hippopotamus,  and  in  its  own  element,  is  the 
crocodile  ;  the  ancients  believed  that  an  inex- 
tinguishable enmity  existed  between  these  an- 
iinals,  but  both  are  so  well  armed  and  defend- 
ed that  they  probably  do  not  very  often  attack 
each  other.  This  animal  was  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  and  it  figures  under  many  shapes 
in  their  writings  ;  accurate  representations  are 
given  on  Roman  coins  and  Egyptian  sculptures ; 
it  was  occasionally  seen  in  their  triumphal 
pomps  and  gladiatorial  shows.  Since  the  time 
of  Bochart  the  behemoth  of  the  Hebrews  has 
been  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  hippopota- 
mus, and  some  of  the  verses  in  the  40th  chap- 
ter of  Job  well  apply  to  this  animal ;  some  au- 
thors, however,  Milton  among  the  rest,  deny 
that  these  animals  are  the  same,  without  throw- 
ing any  light  upon  what  the  behemoth  really 
is. — For  interesting  details  on  the  method  of 
hunting  these  unwieldy  creatures,  see  Gordon 
Cumming's  "Hunter's  Life  in  Africa,"  and  An- 
dersson's  "Lake  Ngami,  or  Explorations  and 
Discoveries  during  Four  Years'  Wanderings  in 
the  Wilds  of  S.  W.  Africa;"  and  for  notices  of 
their  character  and  habits,  Livingstone's  "  Trav- 
els and  Researches  in  South  Africa." — The 
hippopotamus  is  found  fossil  in  the  tertiary  and 
diluvial  formations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

HIRAM,  a  township  of  Portage  co.,  Ohio,  33 
m.  S.  E.  of  Cleveland;  pop.  in  1870,  1,234.  It 
is  situated  on  the  range  of  hills  dividing  the  wa- 
ters that  flow  N.  to  Lake  Erie  from  those  flow- 
ing S.  to  the  Ohio  river,  about  2  m.  from  the 
Mahoning  branch  of  the  Atlantic  and  Great 
Western  railroad.  It  is  the  seat  of  Hiram  col- 
lege, under  the  charge  of  the  Disciples.  This 
institution  was  founded  as  the  Western  Reserve 
eclectic  institute  in  1850,  and  its  name  was 
changed  in  1867.  The  building  occupies  a 
healthy  site,  commanding  fine  views.  In  1872- 
'3  there  were  9  professors  and  instructors; 
number  of  students  286,  of  whom  126  were 
females,  including  35  collegiate  and  7  prepar- 
atory students,  19  in  the  commercial  course, 
and  51  in  the  normal  class.  The  rest  were 
pursuing  English  and  selected  studies.  The 
libraries  contain  2,500  volumes. 

HIRING.  One  may  hire  a  person  or  a  thing, 
and  the  thing  hired  may  be  real  estate  or  per- 
sonal chattels.  For  the  law  of  hiring  real  es- 
tate, see  LEASE.  In  this  article  we  shall  treat 
only  of  the  hiring  of  persons,  and  of  the  hiring 
of  chattels.  In  England  the  relation  of  mas- 


HIBING 


743 


ter  and  servant  is  peculiar,  and  is  perfectly 
recognized  both  by  custom  and  by  law,  and  it  is 
governed  by  principles  which  apply  to  no  other 
relation.  In  the  United  States  it  is  simply  one 
of  contract — so  much  work  for  so  much  wages; 
and  it  is  governed  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  the 
law  of  contract.  If  the  servant  is  disobedient 
or  negligent,  it  may  be  a  good  ground  for  with- 
holding wages,  or  for  discharge,  according  to 
circumstances ;  and  if  he  does  any  injury  he  is 
responsible  in  damages ;  and  this  is  all.  If  a 
servant  contracts  to  labor  for  a  definite  period, 
and  leaves  the  service  without  excuse  before 
that  period  has  elapsed,  it  is  held  in  a  majority 
of  the  states  that  he  can  recover  nothing ;  but  in 
some,  following  a  New  Hampshire  decision,  it  is 
decided  that  he  may  recover  what  his  services 
actually  performed  are  worth,  not  exceeding 
the  contract  price,  but  subject  to  a  deduction 
of  all  damages  sustained  by  the  master  for  the 
breach  of  contract.  This  rule  would  seem  to 
work  justice  to  both  parties.  If,  however,  the 
servant  leaves  because  of  ill  treatment,  or  is 
driven  away,  or  is  sick,  or  has  any  good  cause 
for  leaving,  he  may  under  all  the  cases  recov- 
er wages  for  the  time  he  has  served.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  servant  who  is  hired  for  a  cer- 
tain term,  and  is  turned  away  before  the 
time  is  up,  without  good  cause,  may  tender  his 
service  for  the  whole  period,  and  keep  himself 
ready  to  render  it,  and  can  then  recover  for 
the  whole  period.  The  question  how  far  a 
master  is  responsible  for  the  acts  of  his  servant 
will  be  considered,  with  some  connected  ques- 
tions, under  the  title  SERVANT. — We  will  now 
pass  to  the  hiring  of  a  chattel.  In  one  sense 
a  ship  is  a  chattel;  but  the  hiring  of  a  ship 
will  be  treated  under  SHIPPING.  The  contract 
of  hiring  a  chattel  is  for  the  mutual  benefit  of 
the  owner  and  the  hirer ;  the  hirer  is  therefore 
bound,  not  to  extreme  care,  but  to  ordinary 
care,  which  is  defined  as  that  care  which  a 
man  of  ordinary  capacity  would  take  of  his 
own  property  under  ordinary  circumstances; 
and  he  is  responsible  for  any  injury  caused  by 
a  want  of  such  care.  This  obligation  varies 
with  the  thing  hired ;  it  is  one  degree  of  care 
with  a  costly  watch  or  jewel,  or  a  valuable 
horse,  and  another  with  coarser  and  cheaper 
things.  The  hirer  is,  in  general,  as  responsible 
for  the  negligence  of  his  servants  about  the 
thing  hired  as  for  his  own.  Whether  he  would 
be  responsible  for  a  wilful  injury  by  his  servant 
would  depend  somewhat  on  circumstances,  and 
may  not  be  certain  from  the  authorities ;  but 
we  should  say,  in  general,  that  he  would  not 
be  so  responsible.  It  may  be  said  that  he  is 
not  responsible  for  injury  caused  by  the  theft, 
robbery,  or  violence  of  others,  unless  his  own 
negligence  or  default  caused  or  facilitated  the 
wrong.  If  he  sells  the  chattel  or  gives  it  away, 
he  can  pass  no  title,  and  the  owner  may  de- 
mand and  take  it  from  the  receiver  or  from  any 
buyer  even  if  he  bought  in  honest  ignorance 
of  the  owner's  title,  and  paid  full  price  for  it. 
The  obligations  of  the  owner  of  a  thing  hired 


HIRPm 


HISTOLOGY 


may  be  stated  thus :  he  must  deliver  it  in  good 
condition  for  the  intended  and  agreed  or  cus- 
tomary use,  and  keep  it  in  good  order,  or  pay  the 
hirer  his  reasonable  expense  for  so  keeping  it,  as 
for  example  a  carriage  and  horses  hired  for  a 
journey;  he  must  not  interfere  with  the  hirer's 
lawful  and  reasonable  use  of  it;  but  if  the 
hirer  makes  of  it  a  use  which  he  has  no  right 
to  make,  the  owner  may  peaceably  repossess 
himself  of  it,  or  have  his  appropriate  action ; 
and  if  the  hirer  refuses  it,  the  owner  may  re- 
cover damages,  although  he  repossess  himself 
of  the  thing.  The  right  and  obligations  of  the 
hirer  may  be  thus  stated :  he  may  use  it  in  the 
intended  and  agreed  or  customary  way,  and 
must  not  use  it  in  any  other  way ;  he  must  not 
abuse  or  injure  it  in  any  way,  must  surrender 
it  at  the  time  agreed  upon,  or  if  no  time  be 
agreed  on,  then  whenever,  within  a  reasonable 
time,  it  is  demanded  by  the  owner ;  and  he  is 
bound  to  pay  the  agreed  price,  or,  if  none  was 
agreed,  a  customary  and  reasonable  price. 
Nearly  all,  or  indeed  all,  these  particulars  are 
open  to  the  agreement  of  the  parties,  if  they 
choose  to  provide  expressly  for  them. 

HIRPINI,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  of  Sam- 
nite  race,  whose  name  is  said  to  come  from  the 
Sabine  word  hirpus,  a  wolf.  They  dwelt  in 
the  southern  part  of  Samnium,  W.  of  Apulia, 
K  of  Lucania,  and  E.  of  Campania.  At  the  time 
of  the  second  Punic  war  they  were  indepen- 
dent of  the  Samnites.  They  took  up  arms 
against  Eome  during  the  social  war.  Their 
chief  places  were  ^Eculanum  and  Aquilonia. 

HIRSCHBERG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Silesia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Zacken 
into  the  Bober,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Liegnitz ;  pop. 
in  1871, 11,773.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper, 
surrounded  by  walls  with  three  gates,  and  three 
suburbs.  It  has  a  Protestant  and  three  Cath- 
olic churches,  a  gymnasium,  a  female  high 
school,  a  mechanics'  institution,  a  chamber  of 
commerce,  and*  a  garrison.  It  is  the  centre 
of  the  linen  industry  of  Silesia,  and  has  also 
manufactories  of  cloth,  veils,  chinaware,  ma- 
chines, and  paper,  bleaching  grounds,  and  dye 
works.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in 
linen  and  veils.  The  Hausberg,  Cavalierberg, 
Helicon,  and  Sattler  are  eminences  near  Hirsch- 
berg,  with  beautiful  pleasure  grounds. 

HIRST,  Henry  B.,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Aug.  23,  1813,  died  there,  March 
30,  1874.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  his 
native  city  in  1843,  his  youth  having  been 
spent  in  the  study  of  law,  frequently  inter- 
rupted by  mercantile  duties.  He  published 
"  The  Coming  of  the  Mammoth,  the  Funeral  of 
Time,  and  other  Poems  "  (Boston,  1845) ;  "  En- 
dymion,  a  Tale  of  Greece"  (1848) ;  and  " The 
Penance  of  Eoland,  and  other  Poems"  (1849). 

HIRTIUS,  Aulus,  a  Roman  statesman,  born 
about  90  B.  C.,  fell  in  battle  near  Mutina  (Mo- 
dcna)  in  43.  He  was  a  friend  of  Julius  Caesar, 
under  whom  he  served  as  legate  in  Gaul  (58), 
and  one  of  the  10  praetors  nominated  by  him 
for  the  year  46.  During  Coasar's  absence  in 


Africa  he  lived  principally  at  his  Tusculan  es- 
tate, which  was  contiguous  to  the  villa  of  Cice- 
ro, who  was  his  personal  friend,  although  op- 
posed to  him  in  politics.  In  44  he  received 
Belgic  Gaul  as  his  province,  but  governed  it 
through  a  deputy,  remaining  in  the  capital  in 
continued  intimacy  with  Caesar,  who  nomi- 
nated him,  together  with  Vibius  Pansa,  as  con- 
sul for  the  next  year.  After  Caesar's  assassina- 
tion he  retired  to  the  country.  Though  not 
fully  recovered  from  a  dangerous  illness,  and 
politically  undecided,  he  entered  upon  his  du- 
ties as  consul,  Jan.  1,  43.  He  finally  declared 
against  Antony,  and  was  sent  at  the  head  of 
an  army  to  join  Octavius,  and  relieve  Deciua 
Brutus,  then  besieged  by  Antony  in  Mutina. 
He  fell  while  leading  his  victorious  troops  to  an 
assault.  He  has  been  supposed  to  have  written 
the  eighth  book  of  Caesar's  Commentaries  on 
the  Gallic  war,  and  the  histories  of  his  Alex- 
andrian and  African  campaigns ;  but  the  author- 
ship of  all  these  is  also  claimed  for  Oppius. 

HISPMIA.     See  SPAIN. 

HISPA2MOLA.     See  HAYTI. 

HISTIJ1A,  or  Oreus,  an  ancient  city  of  Euboea, 
on  the  river  Callas,  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Telethri- 
um.  It  ranked  among  the  oldest  and  most  im- 
portant of  the  Eubcean  cities.  Occupied  by 
the  Persians  after  the  battle  of  Artemisium 
(480  B.  C.),  it  afterward  successively  became 
subject  to  the  Athenians  (who,  in  consequence 
of  a  revolt  in  445  B.  C.,  displaced  its  inhabi- 
tants for  Attic  colonists,  and  changed  its  name 
to  Oreus)  and  to  the  Spartans.  During  the 
wars  of  Alexander's  successors,  and  those  of 
the  Romans  and  Macedonians,  Oreus  was  a 
place  of  great  strategic  importance. 

HISTOLOGY  (Gr.  2<rrof,  a  web,  and  Uyo$,  a  dis- 
course), the  science  which  describes  the  ana- 
tomical elements  and  tissues  of  the  body,  ac- 
cording to  their  form  and  organization.  If  we 
take  any  organ  of  the  body,  such  as  a  muscle 
or  a  nerve,  and  subject  it  to  minute  dissection, 
we  find  that  it  can  be  divided  into  smaller  and 
smaller  portions,  by  simply  separating  from  each 
other  the  various  parts  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed. Thus  a  muscle  is  distinctly  fibrous  in 
appearance  to  the  naked  eye,  being  formed  of 
parallel  bundles  which  may  be  successively  sep- 
arated from  each  other  in  dissection,  by  remov- 
ing the  intervening  material.  But  the  possibil- 
ity of  thus  dividing  an  organ  into  smaller  and 
smaller  parts,  similar  to  each  other,  has  its  lim- 
its ;  for,  after  it  has  been  carried  to  a  consider- 
able extent  and  the  parts  are  reduced  to  micro- 
scopic size,  we  then  come  in  every  instance  to 
certain  definite  anatomical  forms,  which  can  no 
longer  be  divided  in  the  above  manner.  They 
can  still  of  course  be  divided  or  disintegrated 
by  mechanical  means ;  but  this  will  be  no  lon- 
ger a  separation  into  similar  parts  already  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  but  simply  an  artificial 
mutilation  of  its  substance.  Such  a  definite 
form,  to  which  the  organ  is  reduced  in  its  mi- 
nutest natural  subdivision,  is  called  an  anatom- 
ical element.  It  is  readily  distinguished,  as  a 


HISTOLOGY 


HITCHCOCK 


745 


general  rule,  under  the  microscope,  by  its  size, 
form,  color,  consistency,  and  chemical  relations. 
Thus  the  striped  muscular  fibre  of  the  volun- 
tary muscles,  and  the  smooth  muscular  fibre  of 
the  internal  organs,  are  anatomical  elements. 
The  red  globules  and  the  white  globules  of  the 
blood  are  two  different  anatomical  elements, 
both  mingled  with  the  plasma  of  the  circula- 
ting fluid.  The  tendons,  ligaments,  and  perios- 
teum contain  a  minute,  white,  straight,  inelas- 
tic but  very  strong  fibre,  which  is  their  most 
abundant  and  characteristic  anatomical  ele- 
ment. Other  membranes  and  organs  contain 
a  larger,  flattened,  curled,  yellowish,  elastic 
fibre,  which  communicates  to  them  the  proper- 
ty of  elasticity  in  proportion  to  its  own  abun- 
dance. These  two  kinds  of  fibre  are  also  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  their  reaction  with 
dilute  acetic  acid ;  the  white  inelastic  fibre  be- 
coming rapidly  swollen  and  transparent  by  con- 
tact with  this  reagent,  while  the  yellow  elas- 
tic fibre  is  not  affected  by  it.  Other  anatomi- 
cal elements  which  may  be  enumerated  are 
bone  corpuscles,  nerve  cells,  pavement,  colum- 
nar and  ciliated  epithelium  cells,  glandular 
cells,  adipose  vesicles,  cartilage  cells,  capillary 
tubes,  &c. — When  two  or  more  kinds  of  ana- 
tomical elements  are  mingled  together  and  in- 
terwoven in  a  determinate  manner,  they  form 
a  tissue,  just  as  woollen  or  cotton  threads  inter- 
woven with  each  other  form  a  web  or  textile 
fabric ;  and  the  animal  tissues,  like  artificial 
fabrics,  derive  their  appearance,  qualities,  and 
texture  from  the  number  and  variety  of  ana- 
tomical elements  of  which  they  are  made  up, 
and  the  particular  manner  in  which  they  are 
interwoven.  It  is  very  rare  that  a  tissue  con- 
sists of  but  a  single  anatomical  element.  The 
tissue  of  the  crystalline  lens,  containing  only 
flattened  fibres  with  finely  toothed  edges,  and 
that  of  cartilage,  containing  only  cartilage  cells 
with  an  intervening  hyaline  substance,  and  cer- 
tain epithelial  tissues,  are  perhaps  the  sole  ex- 
amples of  this  in  man  and  the  higher  animals. 
Generally  speaking,  a  tissue  consists  of  several 
anatomical  elements,  one  of  which  is  peculiar 
to  it,  the  others  perhaps  common  to  several  tis- 
sues. Thus  muscular  tissue  consists  of  muscu- 
lar fibres,  arranged  in  parallel  bundles,  with 
ultimate  nervous  filaments  and  capillary  blood 
vessels ;  the  bundles  themselves  being  sur- 
rounded by  a  thin  layer  of  connective  tissue,  and 
associated  into  secondary  and  tertiary  bundles 
of  larger  and  larger  size,  with  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  nerves  and  blood  vessels  ramifying 
between  them.  The  liver  contains  a  peculiar 
anatomical  element,  the  glandular  liver  cells; 
but  these  are  arranged  in  definite  groups,  form- 
ing the  lobules  or  acini,  with  the  intra-lobular 
capillary  blood  vessels,  the  commencement  of 
the  hepatic  ducts,  and  the  terminal  filaments  of 
the  hepatic  plexus  of  the  sympathetic  nerve. — 
In  the  study  of  histology  the  different  powers 
of  the  microscope  are  employed  for  different 
objects.  The  highest  powers  are  generally  re- 
quisite for  the  examination  of  the  ultimate  ana- 


tomical elements.  But  in  order  to  learn  in  what 
form  these  elements  are  associated  with  each 
other,  or  how  they  are  interwoven  with  still 
different  ones— to  ascertain,  in  short,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tissue — the  lower  powers  must  be 
employed;  since  a  very  highly  magnifying  lens 
can  only  be  used  when  the  tissue  has  been  mi- 
nutely subdivided,  and  this  destroys  of  course 
the  natural  arrangement  of  its  parts.  Certain 
artificial  aids  and  contrivances  are  often  also 
of  great  value  in  bringing  into  view  peculiari- 
ties of  texture  which  would  otherwise  remain 
invisible,  such  as  the  injection  of  minute  vessels 
with  colored  fluids,  and  the  staining  of  the  tis- 
sue with  certain  reagents,  such  as  iodine,  ni- 
trate of  silver,  and  the  like,  which  will  attack 
some  of  its  anatomical  elements  and  leave 
others  entirely  or  comparatively  unaffected. 
Thus  two  different  anatomical  forms  which 
were  originally  so  similar  in  color,  consistency, 
and  refractive  power  that  they  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  microscope,  may  have  their 
outlines  made  visible  and  easily  recognized  in 
the  surrounding  parts.  These  manipulations, 
however,  should  be  used  with  great  caution  and 
judgment;  otherwise  deceptive  appearances, 
produced  by  the  action  of  reagents,  such  as  the 
shrivelling  of  membranes,  the  contraction  or 
enlarging  of  fibres,  or  the  coagulation  of  soft 
material,  may  sometimes  be  mistaken  for  the 
natural  characters  of  the  tissue. — The  best 
works  on  histology,  often  called  microscopic 
anatomy,  are  those  of  Kolliker,  HandbucJi  der 
Gewebelehre  (Leipsic,  1852 ;  translated  by  Busk 
and  Huxley,  Sydenham  society  publications, 
London,  1853,  and  Philadelphia,  1854);  Peas- 
lee,  "Human  Histology"  (Philadelphia,  1857); 
and  Strieker,  Lehre  von  den  Geweben  des  Men- 
schen  und  der  Thieve  (Leipsic,  1869-' VI). 

HIT  (anc.  /«),  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in 
the  vilayet  and  70  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Bagdad,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Euphrates; 
pop.  about  2,000.  It  is  situated  on  a  hillside, 
and  the  streets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  often 
steep.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of  clay,  one  or 
two  stories  in  height.  A  graceful  minaret  and 
some  tombs  are  the  only  buildings  worthy  of 
notice.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  in  boat 
building  and  the  preparation  of  wool,  salt,  naph- 
tha, and  bitumen,  for  which  last  the  place  has 
been  famous  for  ages.  Thothmes  III.  brought 
bitumen  from  Hit  to  Egypt  about  1400  B.  C. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  bitumen  of  Is  was 
used  in  the  building  of  Babylon. 

HITCHCOCK,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Nebraska,  re- 
cently formed,  and  not  included  in  the  census 
of  1870  ;  area,  720  sq.  m.  It  borders  on  Kan- 
sas, and  is  watered  by  the  Eepublican  river. 

HITCHCOCK,  Edward,  an  American  geologist, 
born  in  Deerfield,  Mass.,  May  24,  1793,  died  at 
Amherst,  Feb.  27,  1864.  He  was  principal  of 
the  academy  in  his  native  place  from  1815  to 
1818;  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in 
Conway,  Mass.,  from  1818  to  1825;  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in  Amherst 
college  from  1825  to  1845 ;  president  of  the 


746 


HITCHCOCK 


college  from  1845  to  1854 ;  and  professor  of  nat- 
ural theology  and  of  geology  there  from  1845 
till  his  death.  He  was  appointed  state  geolo- 
gist of  Massachusetts  in  1830,  of  the  first  dis- 
trict of  New  York  in  1836,  and  of  Vermont  in 
1857,  and  was  for  several  years  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  board  of  agriculture.  In 
1850  he  was  commissioned  by  the  government 
of  Massachusetts  to  examine  the  agricultural 
schools  in  Europe.  His  life  was  in  a  great 
measure  identified  with  the  history  of  Amherst 
college.  During  his  presidency  of  ten  years  he 
procured  for  it  buildings,  apparatus,  and  funds 
to  the  amount  of  $100,000,  doubled  the  number 
of  students,  and  established  it  on  a  solid  pecu- 
niary as  well  as  literary  and  scientific  basis. 
He  began  his  career  as  an  author  by  the  prepa- 
ration of  an  almanac,  which  he  conducted  for 
four  years  (18 15-' 18),  and  the  publication  of  a 
tragedy,  "  The  Downfall  of  Bonaparte  "  (1815). 
His  first  important  contribution  to  science  was 
a  paper  on  "  The  Geology  and  Mineralogy  of  a 
Section  of  Massachusetts  on  the  Connecticut 
River,"  with  a  map,  published  in  the  first  vol- 
ume of  the  "American  Journal  of  Science" 
(1818),  to  which  he  became  a  frequent  con- 
tributor. About  the  same  time  he  gave  an  ac- 
count of  Bailey's  new  method  of  longitude.  As 
state  geologist  he  was  added  to  the  corps  who 
had  charge  of  the  trigonometrical  survey  of 
Massachusetts.  His  first  report,  a  pamphlet  of 
70  pages,  on  the  economical  geology  of  the 
state,  was  published  in  1832.  In  1833  he  made 
a  full  report,  containing  about  700  pages,  with 
an  atlas  of  plates  and  a  geological  map.  In 
1837  he  was  commissioned  to  reexamine  the 
geology  of  the  state,  which  resulted  in  a  final 
report  of  two  4to  volumes  of  840  pages,  with 
56  plates  and  82  woodcuts  (1841).  After  this 
he  made  several  reports  on  the  hematite  of 
Berkshire  county,  and  also  a  report  on  the 
"Ichnology  of  New  England,"  the  result  of 
more  than  20  years  of  study,  which  was  pub- 
lished by  the  state  (1840;  supplement  in  1865). 
In  1856,  while  suffering  from  physical  infirmi- 
ties, he  commenced  with  his  two  sons  the 
geological  survey  of  Vermont,  which  was  suc- 
cessfully completed,  the  report  of  the  work  ap- 
pearing in  1862.  His  last  geological  paper  of 
importance  was  "  New  Facts  and  Conclusions 
respecting  the  Fossil  Footmarks  of  the  Con- 
necticut Valley,"  in  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science,"  July,  1863.  He  published  more  than 
20  volumes.  Among  those  not  already  men- 
tioned are  :  "  Geology  of  the  Connecticut  Val- 
ley "  (1823) ;  "  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  within 
Twenty  Miles  of  Amherst"  (1829) ;  a  prize  es- 
say on  the  "Wine  Question,"  an  "Argument 
for  Early  Temperance,"  and  "  Lectures  on 
Diet,  Regimen,  and  Employment"  (1831); 
"  History  of  a  Zoological  Temperance  Conven- 
tion in  Central  Africa,"  and  "  Lectures  on  the 
Peculiar  Phenomena  of  the  Four  Seasons" 
(1850) ;  "  Memoir  of  Mary  Lyon,"  and  "  Re- 
ligion of  Geology"  (1851) ;  and  "Illustrations 
of  Surface  Geology,"  published  by  the  Smith- 


sonian institution  (1857).  His  "Elementary 
Geology"  (1840;  revised  and  enlarged,  with  a 
preface  by  J.  Pye  Smith,  London,  1854)  has 
passed  through  many  editions  in  America  and 
England.  His  last  literary  work  was  "  Remi- 
niscences of  Amherst  College  "  (1863).  He  was 
the  first  to  give  a  scientific  exposition  of  the 
fossil  footprints  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  and 
with  him  ichnology  as  a  science  began.  (See 
FOSSIL  FOOTPEINTS.)  He  suggested  as  well  as 
executed  the  geological  survey  of  Massachu- 
setts, the  first  survey  of  an  entire  state  under 
the  authority  of  government  in  the  world.  The 
American  geological  association  (now  the  scien- 
tific association)  was  originated  at  his  sugges- 
tion, and  he  was  its  first  president. — His  son, 
CHARLES  H.,  was  associated  with  him  in  the 
geological  survey  of  Vermont,  after  which  he 
was  engaged  in  a  survey  of  Maine  for  two  or 
three  years,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
professor  of  geology  in  Dartmouth  college,  and 
state  geologist  of  New  Hampshire. 

HITCHCOCK,  Ethan  Allen,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  at  Vergennes,  Vt.,  May  18,  1798, 
died  at  Hancock,  Ga.,  Aug.  5,  1870.  His 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Ethan  Allen.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1817,  became  as- 
sistant instructor  in  tactics  there  in  1824,  and 
from  1829  to  1833  was  commandant  of  cadets 
and  instructor  in  infantry  tactics.  During  the 
war  with  Mexico  he  took  part  in  all  of  Gen. 
Scott's  battles,  and  served  a  part  of  the  time 
as  inspector  general,  receiving  brevets  as  col- 
onel and  brigadier  general.  From  1851  to  1853 
he  was  in  command  of  the  Pacific  division,  and 
in  1854-'5  at  Carlisle  barracks.  In  October, 
1855,  he  resigned  his  commission  in  conse- 
quence of  the  refusal  of  Jefferson  Davis,  then 
secretary  of  war,  to  confirm  a  leave  of  absence 
granted  by  Gen.  Scott,  and  afterward  resided 
in  St.  Louis,  devoting  himself  mainly  to  literary 
pursuits.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  reSntered  the  army,  and  was  appointed 
major  general  of  volunteers,  Feb.  10,  1862,  and 
acted  as  military  adviser  to  President  Lincoln, 
on  the  commission  for  the  exchange  of  prison- 
ers, and  on  that  for  revising  the  military  code. 
He  published  "  Remarks  upon  the  Alchemists  " 
(1857);  "  S  wedenborg  a  Hermetic  Philosopher  " 
(1858);  "Christ  the  Spirit"  (1860);  "Red 
Book  of  Appin,  and  other  Fairy  Tales  "  (1863) ; 
"Remarks  on  the  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare" 
(1865);  "Spenser's  Colin  Clout  explained" 
(1865);  and  "Notes  on  the  Vita  Nuova  of 
Dante"  (1866).  All  his  works  are  intended 
to  enforce  the  notion  that  a  very  subtle  and 
elevated  theology  and  philosophy  were  taught 
hermetically  by  a  great  variety  of  writers. 

HITCHCOCK,  Roswell  Dwight,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  East  Machias,  M«.,  Aug.  15, 
1817.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in 
1836,  and  in  1838-'9  was  a  member  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Andover.  He  was  a  teacher 
during  one  term  at  Phillips  academy,  Andover, 
and  in  1839-'42  tutor  at  Amherst  college.  In 
1842-'4  he  was  a  resident  licentiate  at  An- 


HITTORFF 

lover  seminary,  and  on  Nov.  19,  1845,  was 
>rdained  pastor  of   the    first  Congregational 
lurch  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  which  office  he  held 
ill  1852,  although  spending  the  year  1847-'8 
study  in  Germany.     In   1852  he  was  ap- 
nnted  professor  of  natural  and  revealed  re- 
igion  in  Bowdoin  college,  and  in  1855  of  church 
listory  in  the  union  theological  seminary,  New 
fork,  which  office  he  still  holds  (1874).     Du- 
ring the  civil  war  he  delivered  a  number  of 
Idresses  upon  national  affairs,  taking  a  very 
irnest  stand  in  favor  of  the  government.     In 
1866  he  visited  Italy  and  Greece,  and  in  1869- 
70  Egypt,  Sinai,  and  Palestine.     After  his  re- 
irn  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization 
the  Palestine  exploration  society,  and  in 
L871  was  elected  its  president.     In  1869  he 
ras  elected  a  trustee  of  Amherst  college.     He 
sived  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Bowdoin 
lege  in  1855,  and  of  LL.  D.  from  Williams 
lege  in  1873.     He  has  published  a  "  Com- 
pete Analysis  of  the  Bible  "  (New  York,  1869), 
id  numerous  orations,  addresses,  and  sermons, 
le  has  also  contributed  many  important  ar- 
icles  to  the  religious  periodical  press,   and 
ras  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "American  Theo- 
ical  Review  "  from  1863  to  1870. 
HITTORFF,  Jacques  Ignace,  a  French  archi- 
born  in  Cologne,  Aug.  20,  1793,  died  in 
'aris,  March  25,  1867.     He  worked  for  a  time 
a  mason,  but  became  in  1810  a  pupil  of  the 
jhool  of  fine  arts  in  Paris,  and  in  1818  archi- 
3t  of  the  government.     He  studied  in  Sicily 
remains  of  Greek  architecture,  and  from 
1824  was  engaged  in  the  construction  of  im- 
)rtant  public  buildings.     The  church  of  St. 
rincent  de  Paul  is  generally  regarded  as  his 
msterpiece.  The  embellishments  in  the  Champs 
lysees,  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  and  other  places, 
were  also  designed  by  him.     He  followed  the 
icient  Greek  artists  in  applying  colors  to  most 
his  architectural  designs.     He  was  elected 
1853  to  the  academy  of  fine  arts.     His  wri- 
tings include  Architecture  antique  de  la  Sidle 
(8  vols.,  Paris,   1826-'30) ;   Architecture  mo- 
le la  Sidle  (3  vols.,  1826-'30) ;  Archi- 
yture  polychrome  chez  les  Grecs  (1831)  ;  and 
femoire  sur  Pompei  et  Petra  (1866). 
HITZIG,  Ferdinand,  a  German  Biblical  critic, 
>rn  in  Baden,  June  23,  1807.     He  graduated 
Gottingen  in  1829,  and  in  1833  was  called  to 
Zurich  as  professor  of  theology,  his  lectures 
>mprising  the  New  Testament  and  the  Semi- 
tic and  other  oriental  languages.     He  has  pub- 
lished Begriff  der  Kritik  am  Alten  Testament 
[1831);    Des   Propheten    Jonas    Oralcel  uler 
~Ioal  (1831) ;  translations  of  and  commentaries 
>on  Isaiah  (1833),  the  Psalms  (1835  et  seq.), 
;he  twelve  minor  prophets  (1838 ;  3d  ed.,  1863), 
Feremiah  (1841),  Ezekiel  (1847),  Daniel  (1850), 
id  Canticles  (1855).     Among  his  other  wri- 
are  :  Die  Erfindung  des  Alphabets  (1840)  ; 
Ueber  Johannes  Marcus  und  seine  Schriften 
(1843) ;    Urgeschichte  und  Mythologie  der  Phi- 
listaer  (1845);   Die  Gralschrift  des  Eschmu- 
nazar    (1855);    Geschichte  des   Vollces  Israel 


HOAR 


747 


(1866  et  seq.} ;    and  Die  Inschrift  des  Mesha 
(1870). 

HOADLEY.  I.  Benjamin,  an  English  prelate, 
born  at  Westerham,  Nov.  14,  1676,  died  in 
Chelsea,  April  17,  1761.  After  leaving  Cam- 
bridge he  was  lecturer  of  St.  Mildred's  and 
rector  of  a  church  in  London,  and  became 
known  by  his  controversies  with  Atterbury 
and  the  high-church  party ;  and  his  "  Measure 
of  Obedience,"  on  the  doctrine  of  non-resis- 
tance, so  pleased  the  commons,  that  in  1709 
they  petitioned  the  queen  for  his  preferment. 
After  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was  made 
successively  bishop  of  Bangor  in  1715,  Hereford 
in  1721,  Salisbury  in  1723,  and  Winchester  in 

1734.  In  1717,  while  bishop  of  Bangor,  he 
preached  his  celebrated  sermon  on  the  words, 
"  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  asserting 
the  supreme  authority  of  Christ  as  king  in  his 
own  kingdom,  and  that  he  had  not  delegated 
his  power,  as  absent  temporal  rulers  some- 
times do,  to  any  persons  as  his  vicegerents  or 
deputies.    In  these  positions  he  was  assailed 
by  William  Law,  and  the  discussion  became  so 
violent  in  the  convocation  that  the  body  was 
prorogued  in  1717,  and  not  again  permitted  to 
meet  for  general  business.     His  writings  were 
collected  and  published  by  his  son  John  Hoad- 
ley  (3  vols.  fol.,  London,  1773).     Akenside  has 
paid  a  handsome  tribute  to  his  memory.    II. 
Benjamin,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  10,  1706,  died  in  Chelsea,  Aug.  10, 
1757.    He   entered  Cambridge  university  in 
1722,  graduated  as  doctor  in  medicine  in  1729, 
and  then  settled  in  London,  where  in  1742  he 
became  physician  to  the  royal  household,  and 
in  1746  to  the  household  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
continuing  to  hold  both  offices  at  the  same  time. 
He  produced  in  1747 his  comedy  of  "The  Sus- 
picious  Husband,"   assisted   Hogarth   in   his 
"Analysis  of  Beauty,"  and  in  1756  published, 
in  connection  with  Mr.  Wilson,  "  Observations 
on  a  Series  of  Electrical  Experiments."    III. 
John,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  8,  1711,  died  March  17,  1776.     He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  studied  law, 
but  did  not  practise ;  was  admitted  to  orders  in 

1735,  was  chaplain  to  the  prince  of  Wales  and 
the  princess  dowager,  prebendary  of  Winches- 
ter, rector  of  St.  Mary's  near  Southampton  and 
of  Overton,  and  master  of  St.  Cross.    He  was 
the  author  of  "Love's  Revenge,"   a   pasto- 
ral (1737);    "Jephtha,"  an  oratorio    (1737); 
"Phoabe,"  a  pastoral  (1748);  and  "The  Force 
of  Truth,"  an  oratorio  (1764).    He  wrote  the 
fifth  act  of  Miller's  "Mahomet,"  is  supposed 
to  have  had  a  share  in  the  composition  of 
his  brother's   "Suspicious  Husband,"  revised 
"Lillo's  "Arden  of  Feversham,"  and  edited 
his  father's  works. 

HOANG-HAI.    See  YELLOW  SEA. 

HOANG-HO.     See  CHINA,  vol.  iv.,  p.  442. 

HOAR,  Ebenezer  Rockwood,  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Concord,  Mass.,  Feb.  21,  1816.  His 
father,  Samuel  Hoar,  was  sent  in  1844  by 
Massachusetts  to  South  Carolina  as  a  commis- 


HOARE 


HOBART  TOWN 


sioner  to  test  the  constitutionality  of  the  act  of 
that  state  under  which  free  colored  citizens  of 
northern  states  were  imprisoned  and  sometimes 
sold.  The  son  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1835,  studied  law  in  Cambridge,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1840.  He  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  1849, 
but  resigned  in  1855  and  resumed  practice  in 
Boston.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts,  and  re- 
tained this  office  till  1869,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Grant  attorney  general 
of  the  United  States.  He  held  this  office  only 
one  year,  but  during  that  time  reorganized  it, 
by  authority  of  congress,  as  a  distinct  depart- 
ment of  the  government,  under  the  title  of  the 
department  of  justice.  In  1870  he  was  nom- 
inated a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  but  was  not  confirmed  by  the 
senate.  He  was  a  member  of  the  joint  high 
commission  which  negotiated  the  treaty  of 
Washington  in  1871.  In  1872  he  was  elected 
representative  in  congress  from  the  seventh 
district  of  Massachusetts.  In  the  spring  of 
1874  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  be- 
fore the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  for  the 
seat  in  the  United  States  senate  vacated  by 
the  death  of  Charles  Sumner. 

HOARE,  Sir  Riebard  Colt,  an  English  topog- 
rapher and  antiquary,  born  at  Stourhead, 
Dec.  9, 1758,  died  May  19,  1838.  He  inherited 
great  wealth,  and  devoted  himself  to  art  and 
literature.  He  made  two  extensive  tours  on 
the  continent,  returning  from  the  second  in 
1791,  during  which  he  had  made  numerous 
valuable  drawings,  and  published  accounts  of 
his  travels  in  Elba  (4to,  1814)  and  Italy  (4to, 
and  2  vols.  8vo,  1819).  He  then  travelled  in 
Wales  and  Ireland,  of  which  he  also  published 
descriptions.  But  his  greatest  work  was  a  his- 
tory of  Wiltshire,  ancient  and  modern,  pub- 
lished in  parts  and  forming  8  vols.  folio  with 
plates  and  maps  (London,  1810-'19  and  1822- 
'52),  which  however  he  did  not  finish.  All  his 
works  were  richly  illustrated,  and  he  printed 
many  in  small  numbers  for  private  circulation. 

HOARE.  I.  William,  an  English  painter,  born 
about  1707,  died  in  Bath  in  1792.  He  painted 
portraits  of  Pitt,  Grenville,  Lord  Chesterfield, 
the  duke  of  Newcastle,  &c.,  and  several  altar- 
pieces  for  churches  in  England.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  royal  academy. 
II.  Prinee,  an  English  artist  and  author,  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Bath  in  1754, 
died  in  Brighton  in  1834.  He  studied  in  the 
royal  academy  and  under  Raphael  Mengs  at 
Rome.  In  1799  he  succeeded  Boswell  as 
foreign  secretary  to  the  royal  academy.  He 
wrote  "Such  Things  Were,"  a  tragedy,  per- 
formed in  1788;  "No  Song,  No  Supper," 
a  comic  opera  (1790) ;  "  The  Cave  of  Tropho- 
nius"  (1791);  "Dido,  Queen  of  Carthage" 
(1792);  "The  Prize"  (1793);  "My  Grand- 
mother "  (1793) ;  "  The  Three  and  the  Deuce  " 
(1795);  "Lock  and  Key"  (1796);  "  Mah- 
moud"  (1796);  "Julia"  (1796);  "A  Friend 


in  Need"  (1797);  "Chains  of  the  Heart" 
(1802);  "Partners"  (1805);  "Something  to 
Do  "  (1808) ;  and  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Requi- 
site Cultivation  and  Present  State  of  the  Arts 
of  Design  in  England  "  (1806). 

HOBART,  John  Henry,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  14,  1775,  died  in 
Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  10,  1830.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  college  in  1793,  and  entered  a 
counting  house,  which  he  soon  left  to  prepare 
for  the  ministry.  He  became  a  tutor  at  Prince- 
ton in  1796,  and  at  the  same  time  began  there 
the  study  of  theology,  which  he  completed  in 
Philadelphia,  where  he  was  admitted  to  dea- 
con's orders  in  June,  1798,  and  took  charge  of 
two  suburban  parishes.  He  was  pastor,  for 
short  periods,  of  churches  in  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  and  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  and  in  September, 

1800,  became    assistant    minister  of  Trinity 
church,  New  York,  being  ordained  priest  in 

1801.  He  had  already  been  secretary  of  the 
house  of  bishops,  and  was  elected  secretary  of 
the  convention  of  New  York,  deputy  to  the 
general  conventions  of  1801,  '4,  and  '8,  and 
was  on  the  last  two  occasions  secretary  to  the 
house  of  clerical  and  lay  deputies.     He  was 
elected  assistant  bishop  of  New  York  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1811.     In  1812  he  became  assistant  rec- 
tor of  Trinity  church,  and  in  1816  was  made 
bishop  of  the  diocese  and  rector  of  the  church. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  general 
theological  seminary  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church  in  New  York,  in  which  in  1821 
he  became  professor  of  pastoral  theology  and 
pulpit  eloquence.     In  1823,  on  account  of  fail- 
ing health,  he  visited  Europe,  where  he  made 
an  especial  study  of  the  social,  moral,  and  reli- 
gious condition  of  the  people.     Finding  that  in 
England  he  was  accused  of  insisting  upon  ex- 
ternal forms,  to  the  neglect  of  essentials  in  re- 
ligion, he  published  two  volumes  of  his  ser- 
mons (London,  1824)  to  disprove  it.     He  was 
rigid  in  denying  the  validity  of  any  but  Epis- 
copal orders,  and  opposed  the  formation  of  the 
American  Bible  and  tract  societies,  as  well  as 
every  other  such  organization  including  Chris- 
tians of  different  denominations.     Among  his 
works  are:  "Apology  for  Apostolic  Order" 
(1807),  "The  State  of  the  Departed"  (1816; 
new  ed.,  1846),   several  devotional  manuals, 
an  edition  of  D'Oyley  and  Mant's  "  Commen- 
tary on  the  Bible  "  (2  vols.  4to,  1818-'20),  and 
a  volume  of  sermons  (1824).     His  posthumous 
works,  with  a  memoir  by  the  Rev.  William 
Berrian,  D.  D.,  appeared  in  1833  (3  vols.  8vo). 

HOBART  TOWN,  or  Hobarton,  the  capital  of 
the  British  colony  of  Tasmania,  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  island,  20  m.  from  the  sea,  at  the  head 
of  a  fine  land-locked  harbor  called  Sullivan 
cove;  lat.  42°  53'  S.,  Ion.  147°  21'  E. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  19,092.  The  river  Derwent  flows  into 
the  head  of  the  bay,  and  the  town  is  delight- 
fully situated  at  its  mouth.  The  bulk  of  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  colony  come  to  this 
port.  Hobarton  and  all  the  other  ports  of 
Tasmania  are  free  to  foreign  whaling  vessels. 


HOBBEMA 


HOBBES 


749 


The  city  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  a  Cath- 
olic bishop,  has  two  cathedrals  and  21  other 
churches  and  chapels,  a  high  school,  numer- 
ous private  seminaries,  a  mechanics'  institute, 
a  magnetic  observatory,  and  a  royal  society 
of  sciences,  which  publishes  its  transactions. 
The  Derwent  is  navigable  by  considerable  ves- 
sels for  3  m.  above  the  town,  and  by  craft  of 
50  tons  for  20  m.  higher. 

HOBBEMA,  or  Hobbima,  Minderhout,  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  probably  in  Coevorden,  died  in 
Amsterdam,  Dec.  14, 1709.  Nothing  is  known 
of  his  personal  history,  except  that  he  proba- 
bly lived  in  Amsterdam,  and  was  on  terms  of 
intimacy  with  Ruysdael,  Berghem,  and  Van 
der  Yelde.  His  subjects  are  simple  land- 
scapes, but  the  admirable  perspective,  the  ful- 
ness and  purity  of  color,  and  the  firmness  of 
execution  give  to  his  homeliest  scenes  a  mark- 
ed and  distinctive  character.  The  figures  in 
his  pictures  were  frequently  added  by  Teniers, 
Ostade,  or  Van  der  Velde. 

HOBBES,  Thomas,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  in  Malmesbury,  Wiltshire,  April  5,  1588, 
died  in  Derbyshire,  Dec.  4,  1679.  The  son  of 
a  clergyman,  he  was  sent  at  the  age  of  15  to 
Magdalen  hall,  Oxford,  where  for  five  years 
he  applied  himself  to  logic  and  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy.  He  afterward  became  private  tu- 
tor in  the  family  of  Lord  Hardwicke  (soon 
created  earl  of  Devonshire),  and  travelled  in 
France  and  Italy  with  his  pupil,  Lord  Caven- 
dish. On  his  return  to  England  he  was  inti- 
mately associated  with  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury,  Ben  Jonson,  and  Lord  Bacon.  Ben 
Jonson  revised  for  him  his  first  publication, 
the  translation  of  Thucydides  (London,  1628). 
Severely  afflicted  by  the  death  both  of  his 
patron  and  pupil,  he  again  visited  France  and 
Italy  with  a  son  of  Sir  Gervase  Clifton,  but 
returned  to  England  in  1631  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  the  countess  dowager  of  Devonshire  to 
undertake  the  education  of  the  young  earl. 
With  his  new  pupil  he  went  abroad  again  in 
1634,  and  during  an  absence  of  three  years 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Father  Mersenne, 
Gassendi,  and  Galileo.  He  withdrew  again 
from  England  in  1640  at  the  approach  of  the 
civil  war,  and  resided  for  more  than  ten  years 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Descartes.  In  1642  a  few  copies  of  his  Ele- 
menta  PMlosopliica  de  Cive  were  printed  at 
Paris  and  distributed  among  his  friends,  and 
the  work  was  published  by  the  Elzevirs  at 
Amsterdam  in  1647.  In  that  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed mathematical  tutor  to  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  Charles  II.,  then  resident  in 
Paris.  In  1650  his  treatises  on  "  Human  Fa- 
ture  "  and  De  Corpore  Politico  appeared  in  Lon- 
don, and  in  1651  "Leviathan,  or  the  Matter, 
Form,  and  Power  of  a  Commonwealth,  Ecclesi- 
astical and  Civil."  The  last  contains  the  com- 
plete system  of  his  philosophy,  treating  the 
same  subjects  often  in  the  same  language  as  his 
three  previous  works.  After  its  publication 
he  returned  to  England,  and  wrote  a  "Letter 


on  Liberty  and  Necessity"  (1654),  which  in- 
volved him  in  a  long  controversy  with  Bish- 
ops Bramhall  and  Laney.  He  carried  on  also 
for  20  years  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Wallis, 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford,  which  gained 
him  little  honor  among  mathematicians;  his 
claim  was  that  he  had  discovered  the  quadra- 
ture of  the  circle.  His  opinions  were  during 
this  period  assailed  by  all  classes  of  religion- 
ists and  by  many  eminent  writers;  and  in  1666 
his  "Leviathan"  and  De  Give  were  censured 
by  parliament.  Yet  he  was  personally  esteem- 
ed by  his  former  pupil  the  king,  who  granted 
him  a  pension  of  £100  from  the  privy  purse, 
though,  yielding  to  the  persuasions  of  divines, 
he  forbade  the  philosopher  his  presence.  His 
fame,  too,  was  spread  throughout  Europe; 
foreign  ambassadors  were  interested  to  see 
him;  and  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  prince  of  Tus- 
cany, visited  him  and  solicited  his  portrait  and 
a  collection  of  his  works  to  take  to  Florence. 
He  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  at  the  earl 
of  Devonshire's  seat  in  Derbyshire,  and  contin- 
ued to  write  at  an  advanced  age.  His  principal 
later  publications  are  an  English  version  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  (1675-'7),  of  which  three 
editions  were  called  for  in  less  than  ten  years, 
though  Pope  characterizes  it  as  "too  mean 
for  criticism ;"  the  "  Decameron  Physiologi- 
cum,  or  Ten  Dialogues  on  Natural  Philoso- 
phy" (1678);  an  autobiography  in  Latin  verse 
(1679,  translated  by  himself  into  English  verse), 
and  "Behemoth,  or  the  History  of  the  Civil 
Wars  of  England,  from  1640  to  1660,"  pub- 
lished posthumously  (1679).  He  possessed 
remarkable  independence  and  disinterested- 
ness of  character.  The  earl  of  Devonshire 
entertained  him  in  ease,  leaving  him  free  to 
follow  his  own  tastes,  and  was  wont  to  speak 
of  him  as  a  humorist  whom  nobody  could  ac- 
count for. — The  speculations  of  Hobbes  base 
all  knowledge  upon  sensation ;  and,  as  the 
senses  perceive  only  what  is  material,  matter 
is  the  only  reality.  The  mind  is  physical,  and 
all  thoughts  result  from  the  pressure  of  mate- 
rial objects  upon  it.  Sensation  consists  in  the 
movement  of  particles  of  matter,  which  grad- 
ually ceases  after  the  actual  period  of  impact, 
and  the  vividness  of  the  conception  gradually 
diminishes.  This  "decaying  sense"  is  imagi- 
nation, but,  if  viewed  as  a  lingering  image  of 
the  past,  it  is  memory.  Knowledge  is  of  two 
kinds:  first,  "knowledge  original,"  derived 
from  direct  impressions  of  external  things  by 
sensation ;  second,  remembrance  of  the  for- 
mer, or  knowledge  of  words  or  of  the  truth 
of  propositions.  He  lays  immense  stress  on 
language ;  understanding  is  only  the  faculty 
of  perceiving  the  relation  between  words  and 
things ;  and  errors  in  reasoning  arise  only  from 
defective  definitions  and  the  wrong  employment 
of  names.  Yet  Hobbes  wrote  the  weighty 
aphorism:  "Words  are  wise  men's  count- 
ers- they  do  but  reckon  by  them;  but  they 
are  the  money  of  fools."  His  ethics  follow 
necessarily  from  his  metaphysics.  Good  and 


750 


HOBBY 


HOBOKEN 


evil  have  no  absolute  character,  but  mean 
simply  personal  pleasure  or  pain,  and  the 
highest  motives  of  life  must  be  to  attain  the 
one  and  avoid  the  other.  Moreover,  as  man 
does  not  determine  for  himself  the  conditions 
of  pleasure  and  pain,  he  is  absolutely  subject 
to  circumstances  and  the  creature  of  necessity. 
Hence  results  the  political  theory  of  Hobbes. 
Nature  gives  to  every  man  the  right  to  seek 
his  own  happiness,  the  highest  end  of  being, 
at  whatever  expense  to  his  fellow  men.  The 
state  of  nature,  therefore,  is  a  state  of  warfare 
among  men,  each  seeking  to  advance  only  his 
own  interests,  and  being  therefore  in  hostile 
collision  with  every  other.  Experience,  how- 
ever, proves  a  state  of  universal  warfare  to  be 
one  of  universal  suffering,  and  reason  there- 
fore dictates  the  institution  of  government  and 
other  social  institutions  to  be  the  antagonist 
of  man's  natural  selfishness.  The  state  should 
be  sufficiently  mighty  to  coerce  the  will  of  the 
individual,  and  its  perfect  form  is  an  absolute 
monarchy,  to  which  should  be  given  supreme 
control  over  everything  connected  with  law, 
morals,  and  religion.  In  respect  of  style 
Hobbes  is  one  of  the  best  English  authors. 
The  most  complete  edition  of  his  English  and 
Latin  works  is  that  prepared  by  Sir  William 
Molesworth  (16  vols.,  London,  1839-'45). 

HOBBY,  a  falcon  of  the  genus  hypotriorckis 
(Boie).     This  genus  differs  from  falco  (Linn.) 


Hobby  (Hypotriorchis  subbuteo). 

in  having  longer  and  more  slender  tarsi,  covered 
in  front  with  large  hexagonal  scales,  and  very 
long  and  slender  toes.  The  species  of  this 
genus,  to  which  the  American  pigeon  hawk 
(H.  columbarius,  Linn.)  belongs,  prefer  wooded 
and  cultivated  places,  and  are  generally  migra- 
tory ;  they  fly  with  great  rapidity  and  for  a 
long  time,  pursuing  the  swift  migratory  birds. 
The  common  hobby  (H.  sublutco,  Linn.)  re- 
sembles the  peregrine  falcon  in  appearance,  but 
is  smaller,  being  only  12  in.  long,  with  an  ex- 
panse of  wings  of  26  in.,  the  female  being  2  in. 
longer  and  wider. 


HOBHOFSE,  John  Cam,  Lord  Broughton,  an 
English  author,  born  June  27,  1786,  died  in 
London,  June  3,  1869.  At  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  %in  1808,  he 
contracted  an  intimacy  with  Lord  Byron,  with 
whom  in  1809  he  travelled  over  southern  Eu- 
rope, and  subsequently  in  Switzerland  and 
Italy.  After  his  return  to  England  appeared 
his  "Journey  through  Albania  and  other  Prov- 
inces of  Turkey  with  Lord  Byron"  (4to, 
1812),  which  was  highly  commended ;  and  in 
1818  "Illustrations  of  the  Fourth  Canto  of 
Childe  Harold."  In  1819,  in  consequence  of 
the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  which  contained 
a  severe  attack  on  the  house  of  commons,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  on  a  charge  of 
having  committed  a  breach  of  privilege ;  but 
the  electors  of  Westminster  returned  him  to 
parliament  after  a  memorable  contest.  In 
1831  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  Earl  Grey  as 
secretary  at  war.  In  1833  he  was  made  sec- 
retary of  state  for  Ireland,  and  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  control  from  1835  to  1841, 
and  from  1846  to  1852.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Broughton  of  Broughton  Gif- 
ford  in  Wiltshire,  Feb.  26,  1851.  His  "Italy" 
was  published  in  1859.  He  was  one  of  the 
originators  of  the  "  Westminster  Review." 

HOBOKEN,  a  city  of  Hudson  co.,  New  Jersey, 
on  the  Hudson  river,  opposite  New  York,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  two  steam  ferries, 
and  at  the  terminus  of  the  Morris  and  Essex 
division  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  railroad;  pop.  in  1850,  2,668;  in 
1860,  9,662 ;  in  1870,  20,297,  of  whom  10,- 
334  were  foreigners.  It  joins  Jersey  City  on 
the  south,  with  which  and  with  the  adjoining 
places  it  is  connected  by  horse  cars,  and  ex- 
tends about  If  m.  N.  and  S.,  and  1  m.  E.  and 
W.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  a  portion  of  the 
streets  running  nearly  parallel  with  the  river, 
and  the  others  crossing  them  at  right  angles, 
and  is  for  the  most  part  compactly  built. 
There  are  three  public  squares,  viz. :  Hudson 
square,  near  the  river;  the  " Public "  square, 
near  the  centre  of  the  city ;  and  a  smaller  one 
in  the  S.  part.  The  river  frontage  is  only 
about  \  m.,  the  N.  portion  of  the  city  being 
separated  from  the  Hudson  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  which  was  set  off  to  Weehawken  in 
1859.  At  the  S.  end  of  this  strip  is  Castle 
point,  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  river  and 
New  York  harbor,  and  containing  the  Stevens 
mansion  and  grounds  ;  and  N.  of  the  point  are 
the  "  Elysian  Fields,"  formerly  a  favorite  place 
of  resort  for  New  Yorkers,  but  now  mostly 
sold  for  business  purposes.  From  just  below 
the  point  to  a  short  distance  above  a  walk  has 
been  constructed  along  the  margin  of  the  Hud- 
son, which  forms  a  magnificent  promenade. 
The  river  front  is  lined  with  wharves,  and 
here  are  two  United  States  bonded  ware- 
houses, and  the  termini  of  four  lines  of  steam- 
ers to  Europe,  viz. :  to  Bremen,  to  Hamburg 
(two),  and  to  Stettin.  Hoboken  is  included  in 
the  New  York  customs  district.  The  residents 


HOCHE 


chiefly  do  business  or  are  employed  in  New 
York,  and  the  local  industry  is  not  large.  The 
city,  however,  contains  the  extensive  works  of 
the  American  lead  pencil  company,  a  large  ma- 
chine shop  (manufacturing  steam  engines,  &c.), 
the  Hoboken  iron  works  (foundery  products), 
the  machine  shops  of  the  Camden  and  Amboy 
railroad  company,  a  national  bank  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $110,000,  a  fire  insurance  company  with 
$100,000  capital,  and  a  savings  bank.  It  is  di- 
vided into  four  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  a  common  council  of  12  members. 
The  streets  are  paved  and  lighted  with  gas. 
Water  is  supplied  from  the  Passaic  river  by 
the  Jersey  City  water  works,  but  it  is  proposed 
to  erect  separate  works  and  supply  the  city 
from  the  Hackensack.  The  assessed  value  of 
property  in  1873  (about  60  per  cent,  of  the 
true  value)  was  $13,135,400 ;  taxation,  $270,- 
043  23,  of  which  $116,675  23  was  for  state 
and  county  purposes;  debt,  $380,000;  value 
of  property  belonging  to  the  city,  $500,000. 
The  Stevens  battery  occupies  a  block  near  the 
river.  (See  IRON-CLAD  SHIPS.)  The  principal 
charitable  institutions  of  Hoboken  are  St.  Ma- 
ry's hospital  (Roman  Catholic)  and  the  widows' 
home.  The  Stevens  institute  of  technology  is 
a  large  stone  building,  three  stories  high  with 
a  basement,  and  the  grounds  comprise  a  square 
immediately  N".  of  Hudson  square.  It  was 
founded  by  E.  A.  Stevens,  who  bequeathed  the 
site,  besides  $150,000-  for  the  building  and 
$500,000  as  an  endowment.  It  was  opened  in 
!  1871,  and  in  1873-'4  had  8  professors,  61  stu- 
|  dents,  and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  It  has 
I  extensive  collections  of  apparatus  in  the  va- 
rious departments  of  physics,  in  engineering, 
and  in  chemistry,  and  cabinets  of  minerals, 
&c.  The  course  is  four  years.  The  Stevens 
high  school  (preparatory  department  of  the  in- 
stitute) in  1873-'4  had  6  instructors,  of  whom 
2  were  professors  in  the  institute,  and  36  pu- 
pils. The  Martha  institute,  an  elementary  and 
classical  school  with  a  kindergarten  depart- 
ment, occupies  a  fine  brick  building,  and  in 
1874  had  8  instructors  and  200  pupils.  There 
are  three  large  brick  public  school  houses. 
.The  schools  comprise  primary  and  grammar 
grades,  and  in  1874  had  27  teachers  and  about 
3,000  pupils.  Evening  schools  are  opened  in 
the  winter.  There  are  also  an  academy,  a 
female  seminary,  a  Catholic  school,  four  week- 
ly newspapers  (two  German),  and  11  churches. 
— Hoboken  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  and  named 
from  a  village  on  the  Scheldt  a  few  miles  S. 
of  Antwerp.  It  became  a  city  in  1855.' 

HOCHE,  Lazare,  a  French  soldier,  born  at 
Montreal],  a  suburb  of  Versailles,  June  25, 1768, 
died  Sept.  18,  1797.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor 
workman,  enlisted  in  the  army  at  the  age  of 
16,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
was  sergeant  in  the  regiment  of  gardes  fran- 
paises.  Being  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant in  1792,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Thionville  and  in  the  battle  of  Neer- 
408  VOL.  vni. — 48 


HOCHHEIM 


751 


winden.  After  the  defection  of  Dumouriez  he 
was  charged  with  want  of  patriotism,  and  ar- 
rested ;  but  a  plan  of  a  campaign  which  he 
was  devising  being  sent  to  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  Carnot  not  only  liberated  him 
from  arrest,  but  at  once  promoted  him  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  defended  Dun- 
kirk against  the  duke  of  York,  and  received 
the  chief  command  of  the  army  on  the  Moselle. 
He  was  not  successful  in  his  first  encounters 
with  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  and  consequently 
joined  Pichegru,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the 
army  on  the  Rhine ;  he  now  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Weissenburg,  and  after  taking  Ger- 
mersheim,  Spire,  and  Worms,  forced  them  to 
evacuate  Alsace  in  1793.  He  was  suspected 
by  Marat,  who  caused  him  to  be  arrested  and 
brought  to  Paris  ;  but  on  the  revolution  of  the 
9th  Thermidor  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
one  of  the  three  armies  which  were  to  sup- 
press royalist  insurrections,  routed  the  Yende- 
ans,  and  in  July,  1795,  defeated  the  royalists, 
who  had  landed  on  the  peninsula  of  Quibe- 
ron,  with  the  assistance  of  an  English  squad- 
ron. The  committee  of  public  Wety  then 
gave  him  the  entire  control  of  the  troops  along 
the  Atlantic  coast.  He  now  forced  or  per- 
suaded the  Vendeans  into  submission,  pursued 
their  chiefs  with  unrelenting  activity,  took  Cha- 
rette  and  Stofflet  prisoners,  and  pat  an  end 
to  the  civil  war.  On  Dec.  16,  1796,  he  sailed 
from  Brest  with  a  fleet  carrying  18,000  soldiers, 
to  invade  Ireland ;  but  stormy  weather  scat- 
tered his  ships.  On  his  return  he  received 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Sambre  and 
Meuse,  and  made  preparations  for  a  great  cam- 
paign. He  crossed  the  Rhine  April  18,  1797, 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  three  battles,  and 
reached  Wetzlar  before  learning  of  the  armis- 
tice of  Leoben.  He  now  resumed  his  plans 
for  the  invasion  of  Ireland,  and  meanwhile 
aided  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Fructidor  with 
a  part  of  his  troops  and  with  30,000  francs  be- 
longing to  his  wife ;  and  upon  its  success  the 
army  lately  under  Moreau  was  added  to  his 
own.  With  these  united  forces,  which  as- 
sumed the  name  of  the  "  army  of  Germany," 
he  might  have  accomplished  his  vast  schemes, 
but  he  died  suddenly.  A  post-mortem  exami- 
nation showed  that  he  had  been  poisoned,  but 
by  whom  or  for  what  object  has  never  been 
ascertained.  His  death  was  celebrated  by  a 
great  funeral  solemnity  in  the  Champ  de  Mars, 
and  a  statue  of  him  was  erected  on  the  spot 
where  he  crossed  the  Rhine.  His  name  was 
given  to  a  square  in  Versailles,  which  contains 
a  bronze  statue  of  him  erected  in  1832.  A  life 
of  Hoche,  edited  from  original  documents  by 
Du  Chatellier,  was  published  at  Paris  in  1872. 

HOCHEL4GA,  a  county  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
occupying  the  E.  portion  of  Montreal  island ; 
area,  76  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  25,640,  of  whom 
20  224  were  of  French  origin  or  descent.  The 
surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  fertile  and  well 
cultivated.  Capital,  Longue  Pointe. 

HOCHHEIM.     See  GERMANY,  WINKS  o*. 


752 


HOCHKIRCH 


HODGE 


IloniRIKCII,  a  village  of  Saxony,  7  m.  E.  S. 
E.  of  Bautzen,  memorable  for  a  battle  between 
Frederick  the  Great  and  the  Austrian  general 
Daun,  Oct.  14,  1758.  The  Prussians,  whom 
the  king,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  officers, 
had  ordered  to  encamp  in  an  exposed  position 
on  an  open  plain,  were  attacked  before  it  was 
light,  and  under  cover  of  a  thick  fog,  and  in 
the  confusion  and  darkness  suffered  a  terrible 
defeat,  losing  all  their  camp  equipage  and  bag- 
gage. When  day  broke  Frederick  found  him- 
self nearly  surrounded  by  the  Austrians,  and 
ordered  a  retreat.  His  loss  was  9,000  men,  in- 
cluding several  of  his  best  generals,  and  more 
than  100  guns.  On  May  21,  1813,  the  allies 
were  defeated  here  by  the  French  under  Mar- 
monj;  and  Macdonald. 

HOCHST,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  near  the  Taunus  mountains, 
on  the  railway  from  Frankfort  to  Mentz,  5|m. 
W.  of  Frankfort;  pop.  in  1871,  3,108.  In  the 
thirty  years'  war  Tilly  achieved  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory there,  June  10, 1G22,  over  the  duke  Chris- 
tian of  Brunswick.  It  was  taken  six  times 
during  that  war ;  and  the  old  castle,  where  the 
archbishops  of  Mentz  used  to  reside  occasion- 
ally, was  then  converted  into  a  ruin.  On  Oct. 
11,  1795,  the  French  under  Jourdan  were  de- 
feated there  by  the  Austrians. 

HOCHSTADT,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  circle 
of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  near  the  Danube,  4 
m.  N.  E.  of  Dillingen ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,288. 
In  the  vicinity  was  fought  in  1704  the  cele- 
brated battle  of  Blenheim,  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Austrians  and  the  French  and  Bava- 
rians, which  in  Germany  and  France  is  known 
as  the  battle  of  Hochstadt.  (See  BLENHEIM.) 

HOCK.     See  GERMANY,  WINEB  OF. 

HOCKING,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  drained  by 
the  river  of  the  same  name ;  area,  380  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  17,925.  It  has  a  hilly  surface 
with  several  considerable  elevations,  and  is 
generally  fertile.  Coal  and  iron  are  found.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Columbus  and  Hocking  Val- 
ley railroad  and  the  Hocking  canal.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  132,714  bushels  of 
wheat,  498, 6 60  of  Indian  corn,  108,726  of  oats, 
54,432  of  potatoes,  82,010  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  130,- 
960  of  wool,  387,395  of  butter,  and  13,792  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  5,062  horses,  4,903  milch 
cows,  7,897  other  cattle,  36,361  sheep,  and  15,- 
924  swine ;  3  flour  mills,  9  saw  mills,  3  tan- 
neries, 2  currying  establishments,  3  manufac- 
tories of  furniture,  1  of  pig  iron,  and  1  of  wool- 
len goods.  Capital,  Logan. 

HOCKING,  or  Hoekboeking,  a  river  of  Ohio, 
rising  in  Fairfield  co.,  near  the  centre  of  the 
state.  It  flows  S.  E.  through  a  picturesque 
hilly  country,  and  after  a  course  of  about  80  m. 
joins  the  Ohio  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  Ath- 
ens co.  About  7  m.  from  Lancaster  in  Fair- 
field  co.  it  has  a  perpendicular  fall  of  40  feet. 
It  is  deep  enough  for  boat  navigation  for  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  70  m.,  but  is  obstructed  by  falls 
and  dams.  The  Hocking  canal  passes  along  its 
banks,  and  connects  with  the  Ohio  canal. 


HODEIDA,  or  El-IIudaidah,  a  seaport  of  Ara- 
bia, in  Yemen,  situated  on  the  lied  sea,  about 
100  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Mocha.  It  is  a  well  built 
town,  having  a  number  of  mosques  and  a  good 
market.  Its  harbor,  which  is  shallow,  is  shel- 
tered on  the  north,  but  exposed  to  the  S.  wind. 
It  is  frequently  visited  by  the  pilgrim  ships 
from  India,  which,  unable  to  beat  up  against 
the  wind,  transfer  their  passengers  here  to  the 
lighter  native  vessels,  five  or  six  of  which,  of 
from  30  to  250  tons  each,  are  built  here  an- 
nually of  Malabar  teak.  A  large  part  of  the 
coffee  raised  in  the  district  N.  of  Sana,  which 
was  formerly  shipped  from  Mocha,  is  now  sent 
to  Hodeida  for  exportation.  Hodeida  is  now 
the  seat  of  the  Turkish  government  of  Yemen 
and  of  a  pashalic  under  Jiddah,  and  a  consid- 
erable garrison  is  stationed  there. 

HODGE.  I.  Charles,  an  American  theologian, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  28, 1797.  He  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  college  in  1815,  and  at  the 
theological  seminary  in  1819,  and  became  as- 
sistant professor  in  that  institution  in  1820,  and 
full  professor  of  oriental  and  Biblical  literature 
in  1822.  In  1840  he  was  made  professor  of  di- 
dactic and  exegetical  theology,  to  which  in  1852 
polemic  theology  was  added,  which  professor- 
ship he  still  holds  (1874).  In  1825  he  founded 
the  "Biblical  Repertory  and  Princeton  Re- 
view," enlarging  its  plan  in  1829,  and  remained 
its  editor  until  it  was  changed  into  the  "  Pres- 
byterian Quarterly  and  Princeton  Review  "  in . 
1872.  In  1846  he  was  moderator  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church  (old 
school),  and  in  1858  one  of  a  committee  to  re- 
vise the  "  Book  of  Discipline."  The  semi-cen- 
tennial anniversary  of  his  professorship  wa8 
celebrated  at  Princeton,  April  24,  1872,  by  a 
gathering  of  between  400  and  500  classmates 
and  former  pupils.  A  record  of  the  celebra- 
tion was  published  in  a  volume.  Among  the 
works  of  Dr.  Hodge  are  a  "  Commentary  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans"  (Philadelphia, 
1835 ;  abridged,  1836  ;  rewritten  and  enlarged, 
1866) ;  "  Constitutional  History  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States"  (2  vols., 
1840-'41) ;  "  The  Way  of  Life  "  (1842) ;  com- 
mentaries on  Ephesians  (1856),  1st  Corinthians 
(1857),  and  2d  Corinthians  (1860);  "Systemat- 
ic Theology"  (3  vols.,  1871-'2);  and  "What 
is  Darwinism  ?  "  (1874).  Selections  from  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Princeton  Review  "  have 
been  reprinted  in  the  "  Princeton  Theological 
Essays"  (2  vols.,  1846-'7),  and  in  his  " Essays 
and  Reviews"  (1857).  II.  Archibald  Alexander, 
an  American  clergyman,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  July  18,  1823.  He 
graduated  there  in  1841,  was  tutor  in  the  col- 
lege from  1844  to  1846,  graduated  at  the  Prince- 
ton theological  seminary  in  1847,  and  went  as 
a  missionary  of  the  Presbyterian  board  to  Al- 
lahabad, returning  in  1850.  He  became  pastor 
at  Nottingham,  Cecil  co.,  Md.,  in  1851,  at  Fred- 
ericksburg,  Va.,  in  1855,  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pa., 
in  1861,  and  at  Allegheny  City  in  1866.  In 
1864  he  was  appointed  professor  of  didactic, 


HODGEMAN 

storical,  and  polemic  theology  in  the  Western 
theological  seminary  in  Allegheny  City.  He 
has  published  "  Outlines  of  Theology  "  (New 
York,  1860;  translated  into  Welsh,  1863); 
"The  Atonement  "  (1867) ;  "  Commentary  on 
the  Confession  of  Faith  "  (1869) ;  and  "  Pres- 
byterian Doctrine  briefly  stated  "  (1869). 

HODGE91AN,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  drained 
by  the  Pawnee  fork  of  Arkansas  river ;  area, 
900  sq.  m. ;  "still  unsettled. 

HODGES,  William,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  about  1744,  died  March  6,  1797. 
After  gaining  some  repute  as  a  painter  of 
landscapes,  theatrical  decorations,  and  archi- 
tectural views,  he  accompanied  Capt.  Cook  on 
his  second  voyage  to  the  South  seas,  furnish- 
ing the  illustrations  for  his  narrative.  He  sub- 
sequently went  to  India  under  the  patronage 
of  Warren  Hastings,  and  amassed  a  fortune, 
which  he  lost  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a 
bank.  He  published  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  India,  with  plates. 

HODGKLVSON,  Eaton,  an  English  physicist, 
born  at  Anderton,  near  Northwich,  in  Cheshire, 
Feb.  26,  1789,  died  at  Broughton,  near  Man- 
chester, June  18,  1861.  He  was  intended  for 
the  church,  but,  possessing  a  great  taste  for  me- 
chanics, soon  determined  to  make  it  his  exclu- 
sive study.  Among  the  first  fruits  of  his  re- 
searches was  the  discovery  that  by  giving  to 
cast-iron  rails  and  beams  the  form  of  an  invert- 
ed T  ( J. )  a  gain  of  strength  equivalent  to  up- 
ward of  40  per  cent,  would  be  secured.  Con- 
tinuing his  investigations  on  the  properties  of 
iron,  he  instituted  a  series  of  227  experiments 
with  reference  to  the  strength  of  columns,  from 
which  he  deduced  formulas  for  solid  and  hol- 
low iron  columns,  which  have  been  generally 
adopted  and  formed  into  tables  for  ready  ref- 
erence. His  published  account  of  these  re- 
searches procured  him  the  gold  medal  and  the 
membership  of  the  royal  society.  In  1845  he 
was  employed  by  Robert  Stephen  son  to  pre- 
pare the  data  for  the  construction  of  the  cele- 
brated tubular  Britannia  bridge,  and  for  these 
calculations  received  a  medal  at  Paris  in  1855. 
In  1847  he  was  appointed  on  the  royal  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  application  of  iron 
to  railway  structures,  and  added  to  its  report 
memoranda  of  great  value.  His  papers  on  the 
use  of  iron  for  engineering  and  architectural 
purposes,  interspersed  through  the  "Transac- 
tions "  of  the  British  association  and  other 
learned  bodies,  are  of  high  authority. 

HODGSON,  John  E.,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  in  1811.  He  is  the  son  of  a  mer- 
chant at  St.  Petersburg,  passed  the  early  part 
of  his  life  in  his  father's  counting  house,  and 
subsequently  studied  at  the  royal  academy  in 
London.  He  spent  some  time  in  Tunis  and 
other  parts  of  the  East,  and  acquired  reputa- 
tion by  humorous  and  genre  pictures.  Among 
these  are  "  The  Reorganization  of  the  Army 
of  Morocco"  and  "A  Snake  Charmer,"  ex- 
hibited in  1872.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  royal  academy  in  1873. 


HOFER 


753 


HOEVEN,  Jan  Tan  dcr,  a  Dutch  naturalist,  born 
in  Rotterdam,  Feb.  9,  1801,  died  in  Leyden 
March  10,  1868.  In  1819  he  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  where  he  remained  till  1822, 
studying  chiefly  natural  philosophy  and  medi- 
cine. He  began  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
his  native  city,  but  in  1826  was  appointed  ex- 
traordinary and  in  1835  ordinary  professor  of 
zoology  at  Leyden.  His  principal  work  is 
Handboelc  der  DierTcunde  (Leyden,  1827-'33), 
translated  into  English  by  the  Rev.  W.  Clark 
("  Handbook  of  Zoology,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1856-'8.) 

HOF  (formerly  Regnitzhof ),  a  town  of  Bavaria, 
in  the  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  on  the  Saale, 
near  the  N.  E.  boundary  of  the  kingdom,  30 
m.  N.  E.  of  Baireuth,  and  150  m.  N.  by  E.  of 
Munich;  pop.  in  1871,  16,010.  It  has  consid- 
erable manufactories  of  hosiery,  woollen  and 
cotton  goods,  and  leather,  and  extensive  brew- 
eries. It  has  a  large  transit  trade,  chiefly  by 
railway.  In  1823  it  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  fire. 

HOFER,  Andreas,  a  Tyrolese  patriot,  born  Nov. 
22,  1767,  in  a  tavern  at  St.  Leonard's  in  the 
Passeyr  valley,  called  the  Sand  house  (whence 
his  popular  name  of  the  Sandwirth,  or  Sand 
Landlord),  shot  at  Mantua,  Feb.  20, 1810.  He 
was  known  as  a  wine  dealer  and  horse  drover 
between  Tyrol  and  the  north  of  Italy.  In  1796 
he  led  a  company  of  riflemen  against  the 
French  on  Lake  Garda,  and  in  1803  organized 
the  rural  militia.  In  1805  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  deputation  to  which  was  committed 
the  political  direction  of  the  country.  Short- 
ly after  Tyrol  was  taken  from  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Presburg,  and  given  to  Bavaria.  In 
January,  1809,  when  the  disaffection  toward 
Bavaria  had  become  extreme  and  hostilities 
were  on  the  point  of  breaking  out  between 
France  and  Austria,  Hofer  was  one  of  the 
secret  envoys  who  went  to  Vienna  to  confer 
with  the  archduke  John  on  the  subject  of  their 
national  grievances.  The  archduke  advised  a 
rising  in  Tyrol,  and  the  baron  von  Hormayr 
was  early  in  1 809  charged  to  carry  it  out.  The 
preparations  were  skilfully  concerted,  and  in  a 
few  days  the  whole  Tyrol  was  in  arms,  and 
8,000  French  and  Bavarian  troops  were  taken 
prisoners  at  Hall  and  Innspruck,  and  in  Ster- 
zing,  where  Hofer  commanded.  The  Tyrolese 
were  supported  by  10,000  Austrians,  but  Ba- 
varia sent  25,000  troops  to  quell  the  revolt. 
While  the  latter  were  toiling  through  narrow 
valleys,  Hofer  fell  upon  them,  and  on  April  10 
defeated  Bisson  and  Lemoine  in  the  moors  of 
Sterzing.  Within  a  week  the  whole  province 
was  free,  and  nearly  10,000  French  and  Bava- 
rian troops  were  destroyed.  Napoleon  now 
sent  into  Tyrol  three  armies,  one  of  which, 
commanded  by  Marshal  Lefebvre,  defeated 
Chasteler's  Austrians  at  Worgl,  and  the  Tyrol- 
ese at  Feuer-Singer.  Hofer  soon  rallied  his 
countrymen,  and  defeated  the  Bavarians  with 
great  loss  at  Innspruck.  But  Napoleon's  vic- 
tory at  Wagram  (July  6,  1809)  resulted  in  a 


754 


HOFFMAN 


HOFFMANN 


stipulation  that  Austria  should  evacuate  Tyrol. 
Lefebvre  marched  from  Salzburg  into  Tyrol 
with  over  20,000  French,  Saxons,  and  Bava- 
rians, while  Beaumont  with  10,000  advanced 
from  Bavaria.  It  was  under  these  trials  that 
the  military  genius  of  Hofer  displayed  itself 
most  brilliantly.  After  sustaining  several  re- 
verses, Lefebvre  with  25,000  Bavarian  and 
French  soldiers,  including  2,000  cavalry,  was 
completely  routed  (Aug.  13)  by  18,000  Tyrolese 
peasants,  and  driven  from  Tyrol.  An  inde- 
pendent government  was  formed,  with  Hofer 
at  its  head  as  absolute  ruler.  After  the  peace 
of  Vienna,  however,  the  archduke  addressed 
a  proclamation  to  the  Tyrolese  urging  them  to 
submit,  while  at  the  same  time  three  veteran 
armies  marched  into  the  country  to  force  them 
to  obedience.  Under  these  circumstances  Ho- 
fer sent  in  his  submission  in  November  to  Eu- 
gene Beauharnais,  the  viceroy  of  Italy,  and  to 
the  Bavarian  commander-in-chief.  Deceived 
by  reports  of  Tyrolese  victories  and  the  en- 
trance of  the  archduke  into  Tyrol,  he  took  up 
arms  again,  but  being  defeated  fled  for  conceal- 
ment to  the  mountains,  where  the  peasants  re- 
sisted all  inducements  to  reveal  his  hiding  place. 
He  was  at  last  betrayed  to  Gen.  Baraguey 
d'Hilliers  by  one  of  his  most  trusted  partisans 
for  300  ducats,  arrested  on  the  night  of  Jan. 
20,  1810,  and  taken  to  Mantua.  He  was  tried 
before  Gen.  Bisson.  A  majority  of  the  judges 
wished  to  save  his  life,  but  Napoleon  gave  or- 
ders that  he  should  be  put  to  death  within  24 
hours.  He  died  without  the  slightest  indication 
of  fear,  refusing  to  have  his  eyes  bound,  and 
himself  giving  the  word  to  fire.  His  property 
was  confiscated.  In  1819  the  emperor  Francis 
of  Austria  conferred  upon  his  family,  under  the 
name  of  Von  Passeyr,  the  patent  of  nobility 
already  decreed  in  1809.  This  was  the  name 
of  the  place  where  Hofer  was  captured,  and 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  mem- 
ory. The  house  where  he  was  born  and  lived 
was  converted  by  the  emperor  into  an  asylum 
for  16  old  Tyrolese,  while  his  remains  were 
brought  in  1823  from  Mantua  to  Innspruck, 
and  buried  in  the  cathedral  there,  near  the 
monument  of  the  emperor  Maximilian.  A  mar- 
ble statue  was  placed  in  1834  over  the  tomb.  . 
HOFFMAN,  Charles  Fenno,  an  American  author, 
born  in  New  York  in  1806.  In  1817  his  leg 
was  crushed  between  a  steamboat  and  the 
wharf  and  had  to  be  amputated.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Columbia  college,  which  he  left  in 
the  junior  year,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the 
age  of  21,  and  practised  for  three  years,  during 
which  time  he  became  associated  with  Charles 
King  in  the  "  New  York  American  "  newspa- 
per. He  was  the  first  editor  of  the  "  Knick- 
erbocker Magazine,"  but  resigned  the  post 
after  the  issue  of  a  few  numbers.  In  1835  he 
published  "  A  Winter  in  the  West"  (2  vols.), 
recording  the  experience  of  a  journey  made  in 
1833  ;  and  in  1837  "  Wild  Scenes  in  the  Forest 
and  the  Prairie  "  (2  vols.).  His  only  novel, 
"  Greyslaer,"  appeared  in  1840.  In  1842  his 


lyrics  were  published  in  a  volume  entitled 
"  The  Vigil  of  Faith,  and  other  Poems,"  and 
in  1844  "  The  Echo,  or  Borrowed  Notes  for 
Home  Circulation,"  a  second  volume  of  poetry. 
"Love's  Calendar,  and  other  Poems"  (New 
York,  1848),  is  a  more  complete  collection  of 
his  lyrics.  In  1846-7  he  edited  the  "Literary 
World."  About  1850  he  became  afflicted  with 
a  mental  disorder,  and  has  since  lived  in  a  lu- 
natic asylum.  A  new  edition  of  his  poems, 
edited  by  his  nephew,  Edward  Fenno  Hoff- 
man, was  published  in  1874. 

HOFFMAN,  David,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Baltimore,  Dec.  25, 1784,  died  in  New  York, 
Nov.  11,  1854.  From  1817  to  1836  he  was 
professor  of  law  in  the  university  of  Maryland. 
Having  resigned  his  professorship,  he  travel-- 
led in  Europe  for  two  years,  and  afterward 
practised  law  in  Philadelphia  till  1847,  when 
he  again  went  to  Europe,  returning  in  1853. 
During  this  time  he  furnished  to  the  London 
"  Times "  several  papers  relating  to  the  gov- 
ernment and  people  of  the  United  States.  He 
published  "A  Course  of  Legal  Study"  (1817; 
2d  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo,  1836),  of  which  Justice 
Story  said,  "  It  contains  by  far  the  most  per- 
fect system  for  the  study  of  the  law  which  has 
ever  been  offered  to  the  public."  His  "  Legal 
Outlines,"  of  which  only  one  volume  appeared 
(1836),  has  also  been  commended  as  a  text  book. 
He  also  published  "Miscellaneous  Essays" 
(1837),  "Viator"  (1841),  and  "Chronicles  se- 
lected from  the  Originals  of  Cartaphilus  the 
Wandering  Jew  "  (2  vols.,  London,  1855). 

HOFFMAN,  Murray,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  New  York,  Sept.  29,  1791.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  college  in  1809,  studied  law,  and 
practised  for  a  number  of  years.  In  March, 
1839,  he  became  assistant  vice  chancellor, 
which  office  he  held  for  four  years.  He  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  superior  court  in  New 
York  in  November,  1853,  and  held  that  office 
till  the  end  of  1861.  Judge  Hoffman  has  pub- 
lished "  Office  and  Duties  of  Masters  in  Chan- 
cery "  (1824) ;  "  Treatise  on  the  Practice  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery  "  (3  vols.,  1840-'43) ; 
"  Treatise  on  the  Corporation  of  New  York  as 
Owners  of  Property,  and  Compilation  of  the 
Laws  relating  to  the  City  of  New  York;" 
and  "  Vice  Chancery  Reports  "  (1839-'40).  As 
an  active  layman  in  the  Episcopal  church,  he 
lias  published  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States"  (1850);  "Ecclesiastical  Law  in  the 
State  of  New  York"  (1868);  and  "The  Rit- 
ual Law  of  the  Church,  with  Notes  on  the  Offi- 
ces, Articles,  &c."  (1872). 

HOFFMANN,  Daniel,  a  German  clergyman,  born 
in  Halle  about  1540,  died  in  Wolfenbiittel  in 
1611.  At  first  professor  of  ethics  in  Jena,  he 
afterward  taught  theology  in  Helmstedt,  and 
became  well  known  in  the  controversies  of  the 
reformation,  opposing  Beza  on  the  eucharist. 
He  was  censured  by  an  assembly  of  divines  in 
1593,  and  threatened  with  excommunication, 
and  published  in  reply  a  famous  apology.  In 


HOFFMANN 

598  he  asserted  that  there  must  always  be  a 
•ntradiction  between  the  truths  of  theology 
...id  those  of  philosophy.  Accused  by  Martini 
and  Caselius,  he  was  obliged  in  1601  to  recant ; 
but  returning  the  next  year  to  his  original 
views,  he  was  deprived  of  his  professorship. 
His  followers,  on  account  of  their  belief  in 
opposing  truths,  were  called  Duplicists,  their 
opponents  Simplicists. 

HOFFMANN,  Ernst  Theodor  Wilhelm  (AMADEUS), 
a  German  author,  born  in  Konigsberg,  Jan. 
24,  1776,.  died  in  Berlin,  July  24,  1822.  He 
manifested  an  early  taste  for  music  and  draw- 
ing, studied  law  at  the  university  of  his  native 
place,  graduated  in  1795,  and  in  1796  began 
practice  at  Glogau.  He  was  soon  afterward 
'appointed  referendary  to  the  superior  court  of 
Berlin,  and  in  1800  was  named  assessor  of  the 
province  of  Posen ;  but  having  drawn  a  num- 
ber of  caricatures  containing  allusions  to  the 
"  scandalous  chronicle  "  of  the  city  of  Posen, 
the  minister,  instead  of  signing  his  appointment 
as  councillor,  sent  him  to  Plock  (1802).  Be- 
fore his  departure  Hoffmann  married  a  young 
Polish  lady,  who  shared  his  exile.  While  at 
Plock  he  wrote  much,  composed  masses  and 
a  grand  sonata,  and  copied  in  pen  drawing  all 
the  vases  of  the  Hamilton  collection.  In  1803 
he  was  appointed  counsellor  of  the  regency 
at  Warsaw,  where  his  life  became  a  strange 
mixture  of  legal  duties  and  theatrical  man- 
agement, his  clients  visiting  him  behind  the 
scenes,  where  he  was  painting  or  training 
musicians.  The  entry  of  the  French  army  re- 
ducing him  to  poverty,  he  wandered  to  Ber- 
lin and  Bamberg,  and  was  finally  invited  by 
Rochlitz,  his  future  biographer,  to  write  for 
the  newspaper  which  the  latter  then  edited 
at  Leipsic.  His  sufferings  at  this  period  were 
great  and  varied.  He  lost  his  daughter,  saw 
his  wife  shockingly  maimed  by  an  accident, 
and  had  his  system  shaken  by  a  nervous  fever. 
But  during  eight  years  he  was  always  busy, 
passing  his  nights  in  revels,  and  his  days  as 
editor,  leader  of  an  orchestra,  translator,  de- 
signing machinist,  fresco  painter,  or  church 
singer,  and  finally  became,  with  Holbein,  di- 
rector of  the  theatre  of  Bamberg.  In  1816  he 
was  appointed  counsellor  of  the  court  of  ap- 
peal, and  soon  became  famous  for  his  musical 
compositions.  His  means  were  now  abundant, 
and  his  eccentricities  and  dissipations  were  re- 
doubled. He  was  sought  by  the  first  society, 
but  took  refuge  in  wine  cellars  among  wild 
companions.  To  render  his  dissipation  less 
gross  and  public,  his  literary  friends  formed  a 
club  known  as  the  Serapionsbruder,  and  the 
results  of  their  meetings  were  written  by  Hoff- 
mann in  the  form  of  a  collection  of  articles 
bearing  the  same  name,  which  contains  his 
best  tales  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1819-'21 ;  with  a 
supplementary  volume,  1825).  One  of  his  most 
characteristic  books,  all  of  which  are  marked 
by  an  extraordinary  exuberance  of  fancy  and 
replete  with  grotesque  caricature,  is  Die  Elix- 
ire  des  Teufels  (Berlin,  1816).  Toward  the 


HOFFMANN  VON  FALLERSLEBEN  755 

close  of  his  life  he  was  afflicted  with  a  painful 
disease ;  but  he  dictated  a  number  of  curious 
books,  among  which  is  Lebensansichten  des 
Eaters  Murr,  occasioned  by  the  death  of  a 
favorite  cat.  There  is  a  complete  edition  of 
his  works  in  12  vols.  (Berlin,  1857). 

HOFFMANN,  Friedrich,  a  German  physician, 
born  in  Halle,  Feb.  19,  1660,  died  there,  Nov. 
12,  1742.  He  graduated  at  Jena,  visited  Hol- 
land and  England,  and  after  his  return  was  ap- 
pointed physician  to  Frederick  William,  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg.  The  elector  Frederick 
III.,  afterward  king  of  Prussia,  appointed  him 
in  1693  chief  professor  of  medicine  in  the  uni- 
versity recently  founded  at  Halle.  In  1708 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  king,  and 
removed  to  Berlin ;  but  in  1712  he  returned 
to  his  professorship  at  Halle.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  advance  medicine  from  the  old 
mediaeval  grounds,  maintaining  that  the  phe- 
nomena of  living  bodies  are  not  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  laws  of  inanimate  or  inorganic 
nature,  but  that  they  depend  on  the  continued 
action  of  life.  He  tested  the  action  of  many 
medicines,  and  invented  new  ones,  of  which 
the  elixirium  viscerale  and  liquor  anodynus 
are  still  in  use.  He  was  the  discoverer  and  in- 
troducer of  Seidlitz  waters,  and  of  the  salt  ob- 
tained from  them.  Among  his  works  which 
are  still  of  value  are  Systema  Medicinw  Ra- 
tionalis  (9  vols.,  Halle,  1718-'40),  Medicina 
Consultatoria  (12  vols.,  l721-'39),  and  Consul- 
tationum  et  Responsorum  Medicinalium  Cen- 
turies (1734).  His  life,  in  Latin,  was  written  by 
J.  H.  Schultze,  and  published  at  Halle  in  1730. 

HOFFMANNSEGG,  Johann  Centnrins,  count,  a 
German  botanist,  born  in  Dresden,  May  23, 
1766,  died  there,  Dec.  13,  1849.  He  studied 
in  Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  served  as  an  officer 
in  the  Saxon  guard  from  1783  to  1786,  and 
spent  some  years  in  travel.  He  discovered 
several  hundred  new  plants,  and  made  impor- 
tant contributions  to  entomology.  He  pub- 
lished Voyage  en  Portugal  (Paris,  1805),  and, 
with  the  aid  of  II.  F.  Link,  Flore  portugaise, 
in  French  and  Latin  (fol.,  Berlin,  1809-'33), 
toward  the  cost  of  which  he  himself  contrib- 
uted nearly  $40,000. 

HOFFMANN  VON  FALLERSLEBEN,  August  Hein- 
rich,  a  German  poet,  born  at  Fallersleben,  Han- 
over, April  2, 1798,  died  at  the  palace  of  Korvei, 
near  Hoxter,  Jan.  21,  1874.  He  intended  to 
study  theology,  but  the  brothers  Grimm  directed 
his  attention  to  German  philology  and  litera- 
ture, to  which  he  zealously  devoted  himself. 
He  was  keeper  of  the  university  library  at  Bres- 
lau  from  1823  to  1838,  and  professor  of  the  Ger- 
man language  and  literature  from  1830  to  1842, 
when  he  was  suspended  for  political  reasons, 
and  for  .one  year  was  not  allowed  to  live  in 
Prussia.  In  1854  he  settled  at  Weimar,  and 
in  1860  became  librarian  of  the  duke  of  Rati- 
bor  and  prince  of  Korvei.  The  latter  part  of 
his  life  was  devoted  to  the  publication  of  hia 
autobiography  (Mein  Lelen,  6  vols.,  1862-'8). 
His  works,  archaeological,  historical,  poetical, 


756 


HOFHTJF 


HOG 


and  miscellaneous,  are  numerous,  and  his  popu- 
lar songs  acquired  great  celebrity,  chiefly  from 
their  witty  and  liberal  character. 

IIOFHIF,  a  city  of  Hasa,  Arabia,  near  the 
Persian  gulf,  in  lat.  25°  20'  56"  N.,  Ion.  49° 
40'  50"  E. ;  pop.  about  24,000.  It  was  once 
strongly  fortified,  but  its  walls  and  towers  are 
now  little  more  than  heaps  of  ruins.  It  is 
divided  into  three  quarters  or  districts,  which 
meet  in  a  public  square  300  yards  in  length 
by  75  in  breadth.  The  Kot,  the  quarter  in 
which  resides  the  governor  and  his  officials,  is 
a  vast  citadel,  surrounded  by  a  deep  trench, 
with  massive  walls  and  towers  built  of  earth 
and  stone.  The  great  mosque  is  a  building  in 
the  Moorish  style,  with  arches  and  light  por- 
ticos. Small  enclosed  gardens  are  attached  to 
many  of  the  houses,  and  fig  and  citron  trees 
overhang  the  streets,  but  most  of  the  orchards 
and  plantations  are  without  the  walls.  A  gen- 
eral fair  is  held  every  Thursday,  and  one  is 
held  on  Mondays  at  Mebarraz,  a  town  of  20,000 
inhabitants,  3  m.  N.  of  Hofhuf. 

HOFLAND,  Barbara,  an  English  authoress,  born 
in  Sheffield  in  1770,  died  Nov.  9,  1844.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Robert  Wreaks,  a  manu- 
facturer in  Sheffield,  and  in  1796  married  Mr. 
Hoole,  who  died  about  two  years  later,  leaving 
her  poor.  She  published  a  volume  of  poems 
in  1805,  and  with  the  proceeds  established  a 
small  school  at  Harrogate.  In  1808  she  mar- 
ried Thomas  C.  Hofland  the  artist.  In  1812 
she  published  five  different  works,  and  from 
that  time  was  almost  constantly  busy  with  her 
pen,  producing  in  all  about  70  works,  of  which 
the  sale  was  very  large  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  Most  of  them  were  novels  and 
moral  tales  for  the  young.  Among  the  most 
popular  were  "The  Daughter-in-Law,"  "Em- 
ily," "The  Czarina,"  "The  Clergyman's  Wid- 
ow," "Says  She  to 'her  Neighbor,  What?" 
and  especially  "  The  Son  of  a  Genius." 

HOFLER,  Karl  Adolph  Konstantln,  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Memmingen,  Bavaria,  March 
26,  1811.  He  graduated  at  Munich  in  1838, 
and  continued  his  studies  at  Gottingen  and  in 
Italy.  In  1836  he  became  editor  of  the  official 
government  organ  in  Munich,  and  in  1838 
adjunct,  and  about  1840  full  professor  at  the 
university.  In  1847  he  was  removed  from  his 
professorship  in  consequence  of  the  publica- 
tion of  Der  Constitution  seid  der  KaiholiTcen 
in  Baiern,  but  was  soon  after  appointed  keeper 
of  the  archives  in  Bamberg.  In  1851  he  was 
made  professor  of  history  in  Prague.  His 
works  include  Die  deutschen  Papste  (2  vols., 
Ratisbon,  1839) ;  Quellensammlung  fiir  fran- 
Icische  Geschichte  (4  vols.,  Baireuth,  1849-'52) ; 
FranTcische  Studien  (6  parts,  Vienna,  1852- 
'3) ;  Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Ges^hickte  (3 
vols.,  Ratisbon,  1850-'56 ;  1  vol.,  Vienna, 
1857) ;  and  Die  Geschichtschreiber  der  Hus- 
sitischen  Bewegung  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1856-'65). 

HOFMANN,  August  Wilhelm,  a  German  chemist, 
born  in  Giessen,  April  8,  1818.  He  is  the  son 
of  an  architect,  and  studied  chemistry  under 


Liebig,  whose  assistant  he  was  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Giessen.  In  1845,  after  having  been 
appointed  professor  at  Bonn,  he  was  at  Lie- 
big's  recommendation  placed  in  charge  of  the 
newly  established  royal  college  of  chemistry  in 
London,  which  was  united  in  1853  to  the  royal 
school  of  mines ;  and  in  1855  he  received  the 
additional  appointment  of  chemist  to  the  mint. 
His  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  success- 
ful teachers  of  chemistry  of  the  present  day 
brought  him  many  offers  from  German  govern- 
ments, and  in  1865  he  succeeded  Mitscherlich 
in  the  university  of  Berlin.  Faraday's  discov- 
ery of  benzole  among  the  oily  products  found 
in  compressed  oil-gas  holders  early  attracted 
Hofrnann's  attention,  and  his  important  re- 
searches resulted  in  1845  in  his  discovering 
the  presence  of  the  same  substance  in  coal-tar 
oil.  He  indicated  by  formulas  the  successive 
changes  in  the  transformation  of  benzole  into 
nitro-benzole,  and  of  the  latter  into  aniline ; 
and  it  is  to  him  that  science  is  indebted  for 
most  of  the  discoveries  which  have  been  made 
in  these  colors.  The  dye  known  as  fuchsine, 
azaleine,  mauve,  solferino,  magenta,  &c.,  he 
showed  to  be  a  combination  of  a  base,  which 
he  named  rosaniline,  with  an  acid,  usually 
acetic  or  hydrochloric.  He  has  recently  in- 
vestigated the  conversion  of  aniline  into  tolui- 
dine,  and  is  now  (1874)  investigating  processes 
for  the  production  of  homologues  of  amines 
of  other  classes,  and  of  some  of  the  bases  oc- 
curring in  the  organization  of  plants.  He  has 
conducted,  with  Dr.  Bence  Jones,  the  later 
editions  of  Fowne's  "Manual  of  Chemistry," 
and  contributed  many  disquisitions  on  organic 
chemistry  and  other  subjects  to  scientific  pub- 
lications in  England  and  Germany.  A  royal 
medal  was  awarded  to  him  in  1854  for  his 
memoirs  on  the  molecular  constitution  of  the 
organic  bases,  and  he  afterward  became  presi- 
dent of  the  chemical  society.  He  wrote  the 
report  on  the  chemical  department  of  the 
great  London  exhibition  of  1862,  and  that  on 
the  tar  dyes  in  the  Paris  international  exhibi- 
tion of  1867.  His  other  important  works  re- 
late to  hygiene  and  to  chemical  technology, 
and  include  Einleitung  in  die  moderne  CTiemie 
(1865 ;  5th  ed.,  Brunswick,  1871),  and  essays 
commemorative  of  Thomas  Graham  and  of 
Gustav  Magnus  in  the  Berichte  der  deuUclien 
chemisclien  Gesellschaft  (Berlin,  1869-'70). 

HOFWYL.     See  FELLEXBERG. 

HOG  (sus,  Linn.),  a  well  known  pachyderma- 
tous animal,  found  throughout  the  world,  and 
sufficiently  characterized  in  the  article  BOAR. 
Besides  the  common  sus  scrofa  (Linn.),  the 
hogs  as  a  family  have  been  made  to  include 
the  peccary  (dicotyles,  Cuv.)  and  wart  hog 
(phacocharus,  F.  Cuv.) ;  and  the  name  of  hog 
or  pig  has  been  erroneously  applied  to  some 
of  the  cavies,  the  armadillo,  the  porpoise,  and 
other  animals  with  porcine  appearance  and 
habits.  The  dentition  is  as  follows:  incisors 
|  or  |,  canines  |i|,  and  molars  |z|,  42  or  44 
in  all ;  the  lower  incisors  project  forward,  and 


HOG 


757 


canines,  even  the  upper,  curve  upward. 
The  feet  are  four-toed,  the  two  anterior  or  in- 
termediate toes  being  the  largest,  and  the  two 
lateral  or  posterior  scarcely  if  at  all  touching 
the  ground.  The  utility  of  the  hog  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food  is  in  great  measure  owing  to  the 
remarkable  fecundity  of  the  animal ;  it  being 
capable  of  reproduction  at  about  a  year  old, 
and  producing  from  8  to  12  and  even  more  at 
a  birth  twice  every  year,  the  supply  will  al- 
ways be  equal  to  the  demand.  Vauban  has 
estimated  the  product  of  a  single  sow,  with 
only  six  young  at  a  time,  in  10  generations  to 
be  about  6,500,000,  of  which  500,000  may  be 
deducted  on  account  of  accidental  death.  The 
hog  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients,  and 
was  the  animal  sacrificed  to  Ceres,  the  goddess 
of  the  harvest.  In  hot  climates,  as  in  Egypt, 
pork  is  not  considered  wholesome,  and  accord- 
ingly the  ancient  legislators  and  priests  of  that 
country  for  sanitary  reasons  forbade  its  con- 
sumption ;  the  Hebrew  and  Moslem  lawgivers 
also  prohibited  it,  and  these  sects  abstain 
from  its  flesh  even  in  cold  climates,  where  it 
might  be  used  with  safety.  The  filthy  habits 
of  the  hog  are  in  great  measure  due  to  its  do- 
mestication; the  wild  hog  is  cleanly,  and  se- 
lects its  food  chiefly  from  vegetable  substances. 
The  hog  has  the  propensity  to  wallow  in  the 
mire  common  to  all  pachyderms,  and  gener- 
ally for  the  purpose  of  ridding  itself  of  vermin, 
or  of  protecting  its  thinly  covered  skin  from 
the  attacks  of  insects ;  the  wild  boar  in  this 
respect  is  no  more  dirty  than  the  elephant,  the 
rhinoceros,  and  the  hippopotamus. — The  hog 
occupies  so  prominent  a  place  in  domestic 
economy,  commerce,  and  the  arts,  that  it  may 
be  well  to  mention  those  generally  considered 
the  best  varieties.  If  this  animal,  whose  flesh, 


Chinese  Hog. 

fat,  hair,  and  bones  are  so  valuable,  can  be 
improved  even  to  the  amount  of  $1  for  every 
animal,  an  immense  sum  will  be  realized  to 
the  farmer.  Different  breeds  are  prized  in 
different  districts,  according  to  the  fancy  of 
producers,  the  facility  of  raising  them,  and  the 


particular  object  of  the  farmer.  The  Chinese 
hogs,  both  the  white  and  black  varieties,  are 
easily  fattened,  and  have  small  bones ;  indeed 
they  are  generally  too  fat  to  be  esteemed  as 
pork,  and  are  considered  to  make  poor  bacon ; 
bred  carefully,  and  mixed  with  other  stocks, 


Original  Old  English  Hog. 

they  are  valuable  animals.  The  Neapolitan 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Italian  breeds, 
and  the  stock  of  most  of  the  English  breeds ; 
though  not  very  hardy,  the  flesh  is  of  superior 
quality;  it  is  small,  black,  with  few  bristles, 
short  snout,  erect  ears,  and  small  bones ; 
crossed  with  the  Berkshire  breed,  the  form  is 
improved  and  the  constitution  hardened,  with 
a  remarkable  tendency  to  fatten  easily.  The 
Berkshire,  an  English  breed,  black  or  white,  is 
larger  than  the  Neapolitan,  with  more  bristles, 
and  less  fat  to  the  meat,  which  is  well  suited 
for  bacon  and  hams ;  this  was  formerly  pre- 
ferred above  all  others  in  many  parts  of  New 


Improved  Berkshire  Hog. 

England,  but  its  cross  with  the  Chinese  is  more 
profitable,  as  the  weight  is  heavier  with  light 
feeding,  and  the  disposition  milder.  The  Essex, 
crossed  with  the  Neapolitan,  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable,  and  has  taken  more  prizes  in  England 
than  any  other  breed ;  it  is  black,  of  good  size 


758 


HOG 


and  symmetry,  mild  disposition,  easily  fattened, 
the  meat  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  dressed 
weight  at  12  and  18  months  250  to  400  Ibs. ; 
it  is  not  subject  to  cutaneous  diseases.  The 
Irish  grazier  is  slow  in  coming  to  maturity,  but 
crossed  with  the  Berkshire  is  an  excellent 


Improved  Essex  Hog. 

variety.  The  Woburn  or  Bedford  breed  was 
originally  sent  by  the  duke  of  Bedford  to  Gen. 
Washington,  and  was  produced  at  Woburn, 
England,  by  a  cross  of  the  Chinese  boar  and  a 
large  English  hog ;  when  pure  they  are  white, 
with  dark  ash-colored  spots ;  they  are  of  large 
size,  with  deep  round  bodies,  short  legs,  and 
thin  hair,  easily  kept  and  maturing  early.  The 
Middlesex  is  a  popular  breed  in  England,  and 
has  been  considerably  imported  into  the  Uni- 
ted States ;  it  is  derived  from  a  mixture  of  the 
Chinese  with  some  larger  stock ;  the  color  is 
usually  white,  and  the  size  larger  than  the 
Suffolk,  weighing  at  18  months  800  to  900  Ibs. ; 
the  bones  are  smaller  than  in  the  Essex.  But 
the  favorite  of  all  breeds  seems  now  to  be  the 
Suffolk,  so  named  from  that  county  in  England, 
whence  the  London  market  has  long  been  sup- 
plied; the  present  breed  is  believed  to  have 
originated  from  the  old  Suffolk  crossed  with 
the  Chinese  and  Berkshire ;  the  pure  breed  is 
remarka~bly  symmetrical,  small  and  compact, 
short-legged  and  small-headed,  the  exact  op- 
posite of  the  long,  lank,  and  lean  hogs  of  the 
western  prairies;  their  early  maturity,  small 
consumption  of  food,  and  tendency  to  fat  com- 
pensate for  their  want  of  size;  the  color  is 
white.  These  are  the  most  esteemed  varie- 
ties ;  there  are  many  others,  imported  and  do- 
mestic, which  thrive  well  in  peculiar  districts. 
While  hogs  are  kept  in  New  England  and  the 
middle  states  mostly  in  pens,  in  the  west  they 
are  allowed  to  range  in  the  woods  and  fields 
till  within  three  months  of  the  time  of  killing 
them,  feeding  upon  clover,  corn,  acorns,  and 
mast. — No  animal  displays  the  changes  arising 
from  domestication  more  than  the  hog,  as  may 
be  seen  by  contrasting  the  large,  savage,  long- 
legged  wild  boar,  leading  dogs  and  horses  a 
weary  chase,  with  the  small,  docile,  plump, 
short-legged  Suffolk,  with  difficulty  getting 


HOGAN 

from  one  side  of  his  pen  to  the  other.  It  is 
not  probable  that  all  the  varieties  of  the  hog 
are  derived  from  the  wild  boar  of  Europe  and 
Asia ;  the  Polynesian  species,  the  African,  and 
perhaps  the  babyroussa,  have  become  crossed 
with  introduced  breeds,  causing  the  same  va- 
riety and  confusion  observed  in  all  domesti- 
cated animals.  The  hog  is  not  a  stupid  ani- 
mal ;  like  other  pachyderms  it  is  susceptible 
of  education,  and  the  stories  of  learned  pigs 
and  hunting  hogs  do  no  discredit  to  the  order 
which  contains  the  elephant. — Several  species 
of  fossil  hogs,  of  the  genus  sus,  are  found  in 
the  tertiary  and  diluvial  deposits  of  central 
Europe;  the  fossil  hogs  seem  to  have  been, 
like  the  present  animal,  charged  with  fat ;  the 
teeth  are  the  portions  generally  met  with,  as 
the  bones  from  their  spongy  character  would 
soon  decay.  Allied  species  are  also  found  in 
the  same  formations  in  India. — According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  the  total  number  of  swine 
on  farms  in  the  United  States  was  25,134,569. 
The  states  containing  the  most  were  Illinois, 
which  had  2,703,343;  Missouri,  2,306,430; 
Iowa,  1,872,230;  Kentucky,  1,838,227;  Ten- 
nessee, 1,828,690;  and  Ohio,  1,728,968.  In 
many  of  the  western  states  the  slaughtering 
of  hogs  and  the  packing  of  pork  form  an  im- 
portant industry.  A  great  majority  of  the 
hogs  are  slaughtered  and  packed  between  the 
1st  of  November  and  the  1st  of  March ;  but 
recently  summer  packing  has  been  found  pro- 
fitable, and  now  large  quantities  of  pork  are 
packed  during  that  season.  The  greatest  centres 
for  this  industry  in  the  United  States  are  Chica- 
go and  Cincinnati.  Formerly  Cincinnati  ranked 
first,  but  the  supremacy  is  now  held  by  Chi- 
cago. The  extent  of  the  operations  at  these 
two  points  is  indicated  by  the  statement  that 
of  the  5,383,810  hogs  packed  in  the  southern 
and  western  states  between  Nov.  1,  1873,  and 
March  1,  1874,  1,520,024  were  packed  in  Chi- 
cago and  581,253  in  Cincinnati.  The  states 
ranking  highest  in  the  magnitude  of  this  indus- 
try are  Illinois,  in  which  the  number  of  hogs 
packed  during  this  period  was  1,870,855  ;  Ohio, 
897,627 ;  Missouri,  735,868,  of  which  463,793 
were  packed  in  St.  Louis;  and  Indiana,  699,- 
223.  The  total  value  of  all  the  hogs  packed  in 
the  southern  and  western  states  during  the 
winter  season  of  1873-'4  was  $63,370,339; 
aggregate  gross  weight,  1,444,311,304  Ibs. ;  av- 
erage gross  weight,  268'27  Ibs. ;  total  product 
of  lard,  191,139,000  Ibs. 

IIOGAN,  John,  an  Irish  sculptor,  born  at  Tal- 
low, county  Waterford,  in  October,  1800,  died 
in  Dublin,  March  27,  1858.  Originally  a  law- 
yer's clerk,  he  showed  so  decided  a  taste  for 
sculpture  that  at  the  age  of  23  he  was  enabled 
by  the  liberality  of  some  friends  to  visit  Rome 
for  the  purpose  of  study.  His  "Drunken 
Faun  "  was  pronounced  by  Thorwaldsen  wor- 
thy of  an  Athenian  studio,  and  he  received  for 
it  a  medal  at  the  exposition  in  Paris  in  1851. 
His  career  was  passed  in  Ireland,  and  his  works 
are  chiefly  religious  and  monumental  subjects. 


HOGARTH 


759 


HOGARTH,  George,  a  British  writer  on  music, 
>rn  in  Scotland  about  1797,  died  Feb.  12, 1870. 
early  life  he  was  a  writer  to  the  signet  in 
Edinburgh,  but  went  to  London  as  a  musical 
critic  and  author.  In  1836  he  published  "  Mu- 
sical History,  Biography,  and  Criticism"  (en- 
larged ed.,  1838),  and  in  1839  "Memoirs  of  the 
Musical  Drama,"  of  which  an  abridged  edition, 
under  the  title  of  "  Memoirs  of  the  Opera — Ita- 
,  France,  Germany,  and  England,"  appeared 
1851.  He  published  some  other  miscellane- 
s  works  on  music,  was  for  many  years  musi- 
cal and  dramatic  editor  of  the  "  Morning  Chron- 
icle," and  on  the  establishment  of  the  "London 
Daily  News,"  edited  by  his  son-in-law,  Charles 
Dickens,  became  its  musical  critic.  His  wri- 
s  are  considered  standard  authorities  on  the 
bjects  of  which  they  treat. 
HOGARTH,  or  more  properly  Hogart,  William, 
an  English  painter,  born  in  London  in  1697, 
or  according  to  some  authorities  in  1698,  died 
Oct.  26, 1764.  His  father,  who  was  the  son  of 
a  Westmoreland  yeoman,  and  by  profession  a 
teacher  and  an  occasional  corrector  of  the 
press,  could  do  little  more  for  him  than  "  put 
him  in  the  way  of  shifting  for  himself."  His 
education  was  therefore  scanty ;  but  his  early 
taste  for  design  was  evinced  in  the  number 
and  variety  of  the  ornaments  with  which  his 
school  books  were  adorned.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  silversmith,  and,  in  the  intervals 
of  his  labors  in  engraving  arms  and  ciphers, 
gradually  acquired  a  knowledge  of  drawing 
from  nature.  At  20  years  of  age  engraving  on 
copper  was^his  utmost  ambition.  The  first  in- 
dication of  the  direction  his  talents  were  to 
take  was  given  in  a  humorous  illustration  of 
a  pothouse  brawl,  of  which  he  was  a  witness. 
Upon  the  expiration  of  his  apprenticeship  in 
1718  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Sir  James 
Thornhill,  sergeant  painter  to  the  king,  and 
drew  from  the  life  at  the  academy  in  St.  Mar- 
tin's lane,  but  without  attaining  any  great  pro- 
ficiency. His  first  employment  seems  to  have 
been  the  engraving  of  shop  bills  and  arms,  after 
which  he  furnished  frontispieces  and  plates  for 
books,  of  which  his  illustrations  of  "  Hudibras  " 
afford  a  not  very  felicitous  example,  as  he  was 
always  more  successful  in  illustrating  his  own 
ideas  than  those  of  others.  Having  mean- 
while acquired  some  facility  in  painting,  he  en- 
deavored to  find  employment  in  painting  por- 
traits, a  branch  of  his  art  in  which  he  might 
have  attained  eminence  had  he  chosen.  Thus 
struggling  on,  and  always  contriving,  as  he 
tells  us,  to  be  "a  prompt  paymaster,"  he  ven- 
tured in  1730  upon  a  "  stolen  union  "  with  the 
daughter  of  his  former  master,  Sir  James  Thorn- 
hill,  which  at  first  proved  very  unpalatable  to 
the  court  painter;  but  when  his  son-in-law 
began  to  gain  distinction  Sir  James  became 
reconciled  to  the  young  couple.  Shortly  after 
his  marriage  Hogarth  adopted  portrait  painting 
as  a  profession,  and  also  commenced  what  he 
called  "small  conversation  pieces,"  in  which 
the  figures  were  drawn  from  the  life,  and  often 


in  humorous  attitudes,  though  not  burlesques. 
From  this  class  of  subjects  lie  naturally  pro- 
ceeded to  those  more  earnest  scenes  of  daily 
life  on  which  his  fame  rests.  In  1734  appeared 
the  six  prints  of  "  The  Harlot's  Progress,"  de- 
signed and  engraved  by  himself,  and  the  artist 
at  once  became  famous.  Upward  of  1,200 
subscribers  entered  their  names  for  the  series, 
of  which  eight  piratical  imitations  almost  im- 
mediately appeared,  to  the  detriment  of  the 
painter,  who  in  1735  procured  the  passage  of 
an  act  of  parliament  securing  to  an  engraver 
the  copyright  of  his  plates  for  14  years.  Rec- 
ognizing by  the  applause  which  greeted  these 
works  his  true  path  to  fortune,  he  renounced 
portrait  painting,  and  followed  up  his  success 
by  "The  Rake's  Progress,"  "Industry  and 
Idleness,"  "  Marriage  a  la  Mode,"  "  The  Four 
Times  of  the  Day,"  "The  Four  Stages  of  Cru- 
elty," "Beer  Lane"  and  "  Gin  Lane,"  and  other 
works,  in  series  or  single,  which  were  engraved 
by  himself,  and  were  produced  at  regular  inter- 
vals until  the  close  of  his  life.  Appearing  at  a 
time  when  the  national  eiforts  in  art  were  few 
and  feeble,  they  won  a  popularity  which  has 
perhaps  increased  with  time,  and  to  which  that 
of  no  contemporary  artist  can  be  compared. 
To  the  last  he  retained  his  wonderful  powers, 
and  a  careful  comparison  of  all  his  works  will 
show  no  lack  of  invention  or  satiric  humor  in 
any  of  them.  Like  many  men  of  genius,  Ho- 
garth had  his  foibles,  and  among  them  was  the 
impression  that  historical  painting  was  his  true 
vocation.  He  railed  at  the  old  masters,  espe- 
cially deriding  the  pretensions  of  connoisseurs 
and  the  popular  estimates  of  the  value  of  old 
pictures,  and  undertook  to  show  that  no  pre- 
liminary training  was  necessary  to  produce  a 
good  historical  painting.  The  result  was  his 
"Paul  before  Felix,"  "The  Pool  of  Bethesda," 
and  some  other  works  executed  at  the  outset 
of  his  career;  and  " Sigismunda,"  painted  in 
1759,  in  competition  with  a  picture  on  the 
same  subject  by  Correggio,  and  in  direct  illus- 
tration of  his  principle.  The  ridicule  which  the 
last  mentioned  picture  encountered  equalled 
that  bestowed  upon  his  "  Analysis  of  Beauty  " 
(4to,  London,  1753),  the  leading  principle  of 
which  is  that  a  curved  line,  in  shape  somewhat 
like  the  letter  S,  is  the  foundation  of  all  beau- 
ty. But  Hogarth  preserved  his  equanimity  until 
his  quarrel  in  1762  with  Wilkes  and  Churchill, 
which  he  seems  to  have  provoked  by  a  print, 
entitled  "The  Times,"  indirectly  ridiculing 
"Wilkes  and  the  opponents  of  the  ministry. 
Wilkes  replied  in  a  strain  of  coarse  abuse  in 
the  17th  number  of  the  "North  Briton,"  and 
Churchill  in  a  poetical  epistle  lashed  the  paint- 
er, and  more  particularly  "  Sigismunda,"  with 
all  his  strong  powers  of  satire.  Hogarth  re- 
venged himself  upon  his  opponents  with  his 
pencil,  depicting  the  former  simply  in  his  natu- 
ral ugliness,  with  a  Satanic  leer  which  the  dem- 
agogue could  not  but  acknowledge  was  genu- 
ine, and  the  latter  as  a  canonical  bear,  holding 
a  pot  of  porter  and  hugging  a  post  inscribed 


760 


HOGG 


with  an  ascending  scale  of  lies.  The  contro- 
versy affected  Hogarth's  health  and  spirits,  and 
probably  hastened  his  death. — It  is  a  striking 
fact  that  the  six  pictures  of  "Marriage  a  la 
Mode"  were  sold  in  1744  for  £19  6«.,  though 
50  years  afterward  they  brought  £1,381. 
Modern  critics  have  declared  that,  with  the 
single  exception  of  color,  these  works  are  supe- 
rior to  most  of  the  recent  productions  of  Eng- 
lish painters.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Allan  Cunningham,  and  by  G.  A.  Sala  (London, 
1867).  Of  the  various  editions  of  his  works, 
the  best  is  that  published  by  the  Boydells  (at- 
las fol.,  London,  1790),  the  original  plates  of 
which,  retouched  by  Heath  and  others,  have 
been  issued  in  several  subsequent  editions. 
Another  edition  in  atlas  folio,  containing  Ho- 
garth's works  reengraved  by  Thomas  Cook, 
was  published  in  London  in  1802,  but  is  far  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  Boydells.  The  best  4to 
edition  is  that  edited  by  Nichols  and  Steevens 
(3  vols.,  London,  1808-'17),  with  letterpress 
illustrations.  An  edition  has  been  issued  in 
12mo,  in  which  the  plates  are  reduced  in  exact 
facsimile  (London,  1874).  Several  reproduc- 
tions of  the  engravings  of  Hogarth  have  ap- 
peared in  Germany,  among  which  are :  Ho- 
gariKs  sdmmtliche  Kunstwerke  in  74  Bldttern 
(Leipsic,  1841);  Hogarth'' s  Werke  in  verlcleiner- 
ten  aber  vollstandigen  Copien,  75  Tafeln  (Got- 
tingen,  1850-'53);  and  HogariKs  Zeichnungen, 
mit  ErUarung  (Gera,  1856-'8).  The  "Analy- 
sis of  Beauty,"  in  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  assisted  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Hoadley  and 
Dr.  Morell,  was  reprinted  in  1810  ;  it  has  been 
translated  into  German,  French,  and  Italian. 

HOGG,  James,  better  known  as  the  Ettrick 
Shepherd,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in  the  parish 
of  Ettrick,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  in  Sel- 
kirkshire, Jan.  25,  1772  (according  to  his  own 
statement,  although  the  parish  register  records 
his  baptism  under  date  of  Dec.  9,  1770),  died 
at  Altrive,  Nov.  21,  1835.  He  was  descended 
from  a  family  of  shepherds,  and  his  youth  and 
early  manhood  were  devoted  to  the  same  occu- 
pation. He  probably  never  received  a  year's 
schooling,  but  when  he  was  24  years  old  he 
began  to  compose  verses,  and  his  earliest  ef- 
forts were  seriously  impeded  by  his  imperfect 
penmanship.  He  soon  became  known  to  the 
shepherds  and  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  as 
"  Jamie  the  poeter,"  and  in  1800  a  patriotic 
song  of  his  entitled  "Donald  MacDonald"  ob- 
tained great  popularity,  although  the  name  of 
the  author  was  not  known.  From  Whitsun- 
day, 1790,  to  Whitsunday,  1799,  he  was  in  the 
employ  of  James  Laidlaw  of  Blackhouse,  in 
Yarrow,  who  gave  him  free  access  to  his  li- 
brary ;  and  by  the  age  of  30  Hogg  had  repaired 
the  defects  of  his  early  education  by  a  tolerably 
full  course  of  reading.  In  1801,  while  on  a 
visit  to  Edinburgh  to  sell  sheep,  he  was  even 
tempted  to  publish  a  small  collection  of  his 
songs,  under  the  title  of  "Scottish  Pastorals, 
Poems,  and  Songs."  Shortly  after  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  while  exploring  the  border  counties  for 


HOHENLINDEN 

materials  for  his  "Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border,"  met  with  Hogg,  who  furnished  him 
with  a  number  of  old  ballads;  and  it  was  at 
Scott's  instigation  that  in  1803,  to  repair  his 
losses  in  an  attempt  to  start  a  sheep  farm  in 
the  Hebrides,  he  published  a  second  collec- 
tion of  poems  entitled  "  The  Mountain  Bard." 
With  the  proceeds  he  again  attempted  farm- 
ing, was  again  unsuccessful,  and  in  February, 
1810,  went  to  Edinburgh  to  follow  the  career 
of  an  author.  For  a  year  he  barely  supported 
himself  by  editing  a  weekly  paper  called  "  The 
Spy,"  and  in  1813  published  "The  Queen's 
Wake,"  which  at  once  obtained  a  great  popu- 
larity. The  duke  of  Buccleuch  presented  him 
with  the  rent-free  life  occupancy  of  the  farm 
of  Altrive  Lake  in  the  braes  of  Yarrow,  but  he 
rented  a  much  larger  farm  adjoining,  and  in  a 
few  years  was  reduced  to  bankruptcy.  He 
was  all  this  time  a  frequent  contributor  to 
"Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  the  broadly 
drawn  character  of  the  "Ettrick  Shepherd," 
which  figures  so  prominently  in  the  Nodes 
Ambrosianm,  made  his  name  familiar.  In  1831 
he  went  to  London  to  superintend  the  publica- 
tion of  some  of  his  works,  and  received  extra- 
ordinary attentions.  He  died  of  dropsy,  after 
a  short  illness.  Among  his  principal  works,  in 
addition  to  those  mentioned,  are  the  poems  of 
"Madoc  of  the  Moor,"  "The  Pilgrims  of  the 
Sun,"  "Queen  Hynde,"  "Jacobite  Belies," 
&c. ;  in  prose,  "The  Brownie  of  Bodsbeck," 
"Winter  Evening  Tales,"  "The  Three  Perils 
of  Woman,"  "  The  Three  Perils  of  Man,"  "  The 
Altrive  Tales,"  &c.  His  "Anecdotes  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott "  Was  first  published  in  New  York 
(1834).  His  collected  works,  first  issued  in  11 
vols.,  were  published  in  1869  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
A  monument  has  been  erected  in  his  memory 
near  St.  Mary's  Loch.  His  widow  survives 
(1874),  receiving  from  the  literary  fund  a  pen- 
sion of  £100. 

HOGSHEAD,  an  old  English  measure  of  ca- 
pacity, which,  not  being  mentioned  in  the  act 
5  George  IV.  relative  to  weights  and  measures, 
cannot  now  be  considered  as  having  any  legal 
existence.  The  hogshead  of  wine  was  two 
wine  barrels,  or  63  old  wine  gallons,  equal  to 
52£  imperial  gallons.  The  London  hogshead 
of  ale  was  1-J  ale  barrel,  or  48  ale  gallons, 
equivalent  to  48-81814  imperial  gallons.  The 
London  hogshead  of  beer  was  1£  beer  barrel, 
or  54  beer  gallons,  equal  to  54*92040  imperial 
gallons.  The  ale  and  beer  hogshead  for  the 
rest  of  England  was  1£  barrel,  or  51  gallons,  or 
51  '86927  imperial  gallons.  All  excise  measure- 
ments are  made  in  gallons,  and  the  term  hogs- 
head now  signifies  only  a  large  cask. 

HOGUE,  La.     See  CAPE  LA  HAGUE. 

HOHENLINDEN,  a  village  of  Upper  Bavaria, 
20  m.  E.  of  Munich,  memorable  for  a  battle 
fought  Dec.  3,  1800,  which  resulted  in  a  vic- 
tory of  the  French  general  Moreau  over  the 
archduke  John  of  Austria.  After  the  truce 
of  Parsdorf  (Nov.  13)  Moroau's  army  was  sta- 
tioned between  the  rivers  Isar  and  Inn,  and 


I 

thr< 
bac 


HOHENLOHE 

e  Austrians  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Inn. 
e  archduke  believed  that  the  French  were 

treating,  and  his  plan  was  to  attack  them  in 
»nt,  while  Klenau  should  cut  off  their  retreat 
Munich,  and  Killer  intercept  them  on  the 
,d  to  Augsburg.    Moreau  was  indeed  retreat- 
ing, but  he  chose  to  concentrate  his  army  at 
Hohenlinden,  and  to  wait  for  the  enemy.     The 
"  ustrian  army  was  divided  on  Dec.  3  into  three 

lumns.  The  main  corps,  forming  the  mid- 
dle column,  advanced  in  a  heavy  snow  storm 
through  the  woods  toward  Hohenlinden,  where 
"  ey  attacked  the  corps  of  Grenier  and  Grouchy, 

hich  were  reenforced  in  time  to  beat  them 
k  into  the  defile  of  the  main  road.  Con- 
fused, and  attacked  by  Richepanse,  who  was 
subsequently  assisted  by  Fey,  the  column  lost 
ground  and  finally  dispersed.  The  other  col- 
umns were  also  forced  to  retreat,  and  at  2 
o'clock  the  victory  was  completely  in  the  hands 
of  the  French,  who  desisted  from  pursuing  the 
Austrians  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
weather,  as  well  as  of  the  roads.  The  Austrians 
lost  8,000  men  dead  and  wounded,  upward  of 
10,000  prisoners,  and  100  guns.  The  French 
announced  a  loss  of  only  5,000  men.  Nego- 
tiations were  now  renewed,  and  terminated  in 
the  treaty  of  peace  of  Luneville. 

HOHENLOHE,  the  name  of  a  German  princely 
family,  claiming  its  descent  from  the  dukes  of 
Franconia,  named  from  the  territory  of  Hohen- 
lohe,  originally  a  county,  afterward  a  princi- 
pality, mediatized  in  1806,  and  now  belonging 
partly  to  Bavaria  and  partly  to  Wurtemberg. 
It  was  early  divided  into  the  lines  of  Hohen- 
lohe-Brauneck  and  Hohenlohe-Holloch.  The 
former  became  extinct  in  the  fourth  generation, 
and  the  latter  in  1340  formed  the  two  branches 
of  Hohenlohe-Hohenlohe  and  Hohenlohe-Speck- 
feld.  This  last  alone  has  been  perpetuated. 
Georg,  count  of  Hohenlohe-Speckfeld,  who 
died  in  1551,  left  two  sons:  1,  Ludwig  Casi- 
mir,  the  ancestor  of  the  branch  of  Hohenlohe- 
Neuenstein-Oehringen,  which  became  extinct 
in  1805,  as  well  as  of  Hohenlohe-Neuenstein- 
Langenburg,  now  subdivided  into  Hohenlohe- 
Oehringen  or  Ingelfingen  and  Hohenlohe-Lan- 
genburg ;  and  2,  Eberhard,  the  ancestor  of  the 
branch  of  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg,  divided  into 
Hohenlohe-Bartenstein  and  Hohenlohe-Schil- 
lingsfurst.  —  Of  the  descendants  of  Ludwig 
Casimir,  the  best  known  is  FEIEDEICH  LUDWIG, 
prince  of  Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,  a  Prussian 
general  (born  in  1746,  died  in  1818).  He  be- 
came a  colonel  in  1788,  and  in  the  war  against 
France  distinguished  himself  as  lieutenant  gen- 
eral in  storming  the  defensive  lines  near  Weis- 
senburg.  In  1794  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
at  Kaiserslautern ;  in  1800  became  a  general 
of  infantry,  and  in  1804  governor  of  Franconia 
and  general  military  inspector  of  Silesia.  After 
holding  subsequently  several  important  com- 
mands, he  was  defeated  at  Jena,  Oct.  14,  1806, 
capitulated  at  Prenzlau  on  Oct.  28,  and  thence- 
forward withdrew  from  public  life. — Of  the 
Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst  branch 


HOHENSTAUFEN 


761 


the  most  distinguished  are:  I.  ALEXANDER 
LEOPOLD  FRANZ  EMMERICH,  born  at  Kup- 
ferzell,  Wurtemberg,  Aug.  17,  1794,  died  in 
the  castle  of  Voslau,  near  Vienna,  Nov.  14, 
1849.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1815,  distin- 
guished himself  at  Stuttgart  by  his  charity 
during  an  epidemic,  and  subsequently  at  Mu- 
nich by  his  preaching.  In  1816  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  is  said  to  have  entered  the 
society  of  "  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart."  In 
1824  he  became  canon  of  Grosswardein,  and 
was  made  grand  provost  in  1829.  In  1844  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Sardica  in  partibm 
infidelium.  He  is  chiefly  known  for  the  mirac- 
ulous cures  attributed  to  his  prayers  in  con- 
tinental Europe  and  the  British  isles  ;  the  first 
person  thus  reported  healed  by  him  being  the 
princess  Schwarzenberg,  who  had  been  for 
several  years  a  paralytic.  Much  discussion 
was  also  occasioned  in  the  United  States  by 
the  sudden  cure  of  Mrs.  Ann  Mattingly  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  March  10,  1824.  The  pope 
had  been  urged  in  1821  to  give  his  sanction  to 
the  method  employed  by  Prince  Hohenlohe, 
but  declined;  nor  has  any  approval  of  these 
cures  been  since  obtained  in  Rome.  His  works 
are  made  up  of  ascetic  and  controversial  trea- 
tises, together  with  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons. His  posthumous  works  were  published 
by  Brunner  (Ratisbon,  1851).  II.  CHLODWIG 
KARL  VICTOR,  a  Bavarian  statesman,  born 
March  31,  1819.  He  was  first  known  as 
prince  of  Ratibor  and  Korvei,  and  succeeded 
to  his  brother's  title  Feb.  12,  1846.  In  1867 
he  became  high  chamberlain  to  the  king  of 
Bavaria,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Du- 
ring his  administration  he  labored  to  promote 
German  unity,  while  opposing  the  Prussian 
policy,  which  aimed  at  absorbing  the  minor 
states.  He  introduced  the  Prussian  military 
system  into  Bavaria ;  but  as  vice  president  of 
the  customs  parliament,  he  seemed  to  favor 
the  formation  of  a  South  German  confedera- 
tion. He  also  endeavored  to  prevent  the  meet- 
ing of  the  council  of  the  Vatican,  and  entered 
for  that  purpose  into  negotiations  with  other 
European  governments.  The  Bavarian  cham- 
bers of  1869  being  almost  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  friends  and  opponents  of  the  cleri- 
cal party,  he  advised  the  king  to  dissolve  them. 
In  the  new  chambers  he  advocated  a  policy 
adverse  to  Prussia ;  but  failing  to  make  it  pre- 
vail, he  resigned  in  1870.  After  having  taken 
a  conspicuous  part  in  making  Bavaria  join  the 
new  German  empire,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  German  Reichstag,  and  on  March  23,  1871, 
was  elected  its  first  vice  president.  He  strenu- 
ously supports  the  policy  of  Bismarck,  partic- 
ularly in  the  complications  with  the  holy  see. 
In  March,  1874,  he  was  appointed  German 
ambassador  in  Paris. 

HOHENSTAUFEN,  the  name  of  a  German  fam- 
ily of  princes,  which  ruled  the  German  empire, 
with  short  interruptions,  from  1138  to  1254. 
The  name  is  derived  from  a  castle  on  Mount 
Staufen  in  Wurtemberg,  built  by  Frederick 


762 


HOHENZOLLERN 


of  Biiren,  one  of  the  ancestors  of  the  family. 
His  son,  known  as  Frederick  of  Staufen,  was 
a  stanch  adherent  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
during  his  long  struggles  with  the  see  of  Rome 
and  various  rivals  in  Germany,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Merseburg  received  the  hand  of  his 
daughter  Agnes,  and  the  duchy  of  Swabia. 
This  sudden  elevation  of  the  house,  which 
from  another  possession  in  Swabia,  Waiblingen, 
was  also  called  Ghibelline,  was  the  origin  of 
its  long  struggle  with  the  mighty  rival  family 
of  the  Guelphs.  Of  Frederick's  two  sons, 
Frederick  II.,  the  One-eyed,  was  confirmed  by 
Henry  V.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Henry  IV., 
in  the  possession  of  Swabia,  while  Conrad  re- 
ceived Franconia.  After  the  death  of  Henry, 
Conrad  and  Lothaire  of  Saxony  appeared  as 
competitors  for  the  imperial  dignity,  and  the 
great  power  of  the  Hohenstaufen  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  success  of  Lothaire ;  but  after  his 
death  (1137),  Conrad,  who  had  waged  a  long 
war  against  the  emperor,  the  pope,  and  the 
Guelphs,  ascended  the  throne  of  Germany  as 
the  third  of  that  name. 
His  nephew  Frederick 
Barbarossa  became 
his  successor  (1152- 
'90),  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son  Henry 
VI.  (died  1197).  The 
son  of  the  latter,  Fred- 
erick, a  child  of  two 
years,  was  not  ac- 
knowledged as  suc- 
cessor; and  his  un- 
cle Philip,  too,  had 
to  struggle  against  ri- 
vals, and  was  finally 
slain  by  Otho  of  Wit- 
telsbach  (1208).  But 
soon  after  the  young 
Frederick  II.  (1212- 
'50)  rose  in  defence  of 
his  rights,  and  waged 
a  gallant  struggle 
against  his  enemies  in 
Germany,  as  well  as  in 

Italy,  where  he  had  inherited  from  his  mother 
Constance  the  Norman  possessions.  His  son 
Conrad  IV.  died  early  in  Italy  (1254),  where  all 
the  remaining  male  inheritors  of  the  name  of 
Hohenstaufen  soon  after  perished  in  their  strug- 
gle against  Rome  and  the  house  of  Anjou  : 
Manfred,  a  son  of  Frederick  II.,  in  the  battle  of 
Benevento  in  1266;  Conradin,  the  young  son 
of  Conrad  IV.,  on  the  scaffold  at  Naples  in 
1268 ;  and  Enzio,  a  natural  son  of  Frederick, 
and  the  sons  of  Manfred,  in  prison.  The  pos- 
sessions of  the  house  were  divided  among  va- 
rious families,  and  now  belong  to  Baden,  Wiir- 
temberg,  and  Bavaria.  The  principal  work  on 
the  history  of  the  family  is  Raumer's  OescJiichte 
der  Hohenstaufen  und  ihrer  Zeit  (4th  ed.,  6- 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1871). 

HOHENZOLLERN,  a  territory  of  S.  W.  Ger- 
many, since  March  12,  1850,  an  administrative 


division  of  Prussia,  but  which  previous  to  that 
date  formed  two  small  independent  principali- 
ties of  the  Germanic  confederation  under  the 
names  of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen  and  Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen,  Hechingen  and  Sigmarin- 
gen  being  the  capitals.  The  territory  forms  a 
long  and  narrow  strip  of  land,  surrounded  by 
Wurtemberg,  except  on  the  S.  W.,  where  it  is 
bounded  by  Baden ;  area,  about  440  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  65,558.  It  is  watered  by  the  Neck- 
ar  and  some  of  its  affluents,  and  by  the  Danube, 
which  crosses  it.  Its  mountains  belong  to  the 
Rauhe  Alps.  Agriculture,  cattle  raising,  and 
the  manufacture  of  wooden  ware  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Roman 
Catholic  is  the  predominant  religion. 

H01IENZOLLERN,  or  Zollern,  a  princely  family 
of  Germany  to  which  belongs  the  royal  house 
of  Prussia.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  cas- 
tle of  Hohenzollern,  in  the  district  of  Sigmarin- 
gen,  on  the  Zollerberg,  a  mountain  of  the  Alps, 
about  2,850  ft.  above  the  sea.  Count  Thassilo, 
about  800,  is  the  remotest  ancestor  named,  but 


Castle  of  Hohenzollern. 

the  family  name  does  not  appear  before  the  llth 
century.  The  house  was  divided  in  1226  into 
two  branches.  The  Frankish  branch  acquired 
new  possessions  in  almost  every  generation. 
Frederick  V.  (died  1398)  was  the  first  to  bear 
the  title  of  prince,  which  was  given  him  by 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  After  several  divi- 
sions the  entire  estate  fell  to  Frederick  VI. 
(died  1440),  who  in  1415  received  from  the 
emperor  Sigisnmnd  the  electorate  of  Branden- 
burg, and  called  himself  as  such  Frederick  I. 
His  llth  successor,  Frederick  III.,  became  the 
first  king  of  Prussia  as  Frederick  I.  (1701). 
The  Swabian  branch  failed  to  gain  distinction 
before  the  16th  century.  Count  Eitel  Frederick 
IV.  (died  1512)  obtained  from  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I.  the  domain  of  Haigerloch  in  ex- 
change for  the  Swiss  county  of  Razuns,  which 
he  had  acquired  by  marriage.  His  grandson 


HOHENZOLLERN 

larles  I.  (died  1576)  received  from  the  em- 
m  jror  Charles  V.  in  1529  the  counties  of  Sig- 
maringen and  Vohringen.  Charles's  sons  Eitel 
Frederick  VI.  and  Charles  II.  divided  the  es- 
tates. The  former  took  Hohenzollern,  and 
adopted  for  his  line  the  name  Hohenzollern- 
Hechingen;  the  latter  received  Sigmaringen 
and  Vohringen,  and  assumed  the  name  Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen.  The  son  of  Frederick  VI., 
John  George,  was  in  1623  raised  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  to  the  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the 
empire,  which  was  also  conferred  in  1638  on 
the  Sigmaringen  family.  In  1695  and  1707 
the  Frankish  and  Swabian  branches  agreed 
upon  a  common  law  of  succession,  subsequent- 
ly ratified  by  the  king  of  Prussia  as  the  head  of 
the  house.  The  treaty  established  among  them 
the  right  of  primogeniture,  and  provided  that 
in  case  one  of  the  branches  should  be  without 
a  male  successor,  the  estates  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  other  branch ;  and  that  in  case 
both  branches  should  become  extinct  in  the  male 
and  female  lines,  the  estates  should  fall  to  the 
royal  house  of  Prussia.  In  consequence  of  the 
political  troubles  of  1848,  the  princes  Frederick 
William  of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen  and  Charles 
Anthony  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  resigned 
the  government  of  their  territories,  Dec.  7, 
1849,  and  the  principalities,  according  to  the 
treaty,  fell  to  the  crown  of  Prussia,  which  took 
possession  of  them  March  12,  1850.  The  two 
princes  received  the  rank  of  younger  princes 
of  the  royal  house. — Prince  CHARLES  ANTHONY 
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  born  Sept.  7, 
1811,  presided  over  the  Prussian  cabinet  from 
Dec.  2,  1858,  to  March,  1862.  His  eldest  son, 
Prince  LEOPOLD,  born  Sept.  22, 1835,  married  in 
1861  the  infanta  Antonia  of  Portugal.  His  pa- 
ternal grandmother  was  a  princess  Murat,  and 
his  mother  was  a  niece  of  the  empress  Jose- 
phine and  adopted  daughter  of  Napoleon  I. 
On  July  4,  1870,  the  provisional  government 
of  Spain  proposed  him  to  the  cortes  as  candi- 
date for  the  Spanish  crown.  The  French  gov- 
ernment declared  that  the  occupation  of  the 
Spanish  throne  by  a  prince  of  Hohenzollern 
would  be  incompatible  with  the  interests  of 
France,  and  demanded  that  the  king  of  Prussia 
should  forbid  Prince  Leopold  to  accept  the 
crown.  The  king  refused  to  make  such  an 
order,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  right  to 
give  orders  to  a  prince  of  his  house  who  was 
of  age ;  and  although  Leopold  (July  12)  vol- 
untarily declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  the 
Spanish  crown,  France  was  not  satisfied,  and 
the  result  was  the  Franco-German  war  of 
1870-'71.  He  is  a  major  general  in  the  Prus- 
sian army.  His  brother  CHARLES,  born  April 
20,  1839,  was  in  1866  elected  prince  of  Rou- 
mania.  (See  CHARLES  I.  of  Roumania,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  309.)  ANTHONY,  the  third  son,  born 
Oct.  7,  1841,  died  July  5,  1866,  from  wounds 
which  he  received  at  the  battle  of  Konig- 
gratz,  July  3.  FREDERICK,  the  fourth  son, 
born  June  25,  1843,  is  an  officer  of  the  Prus- 
sian dragoons  of  the  guard. 


HOLBACH 


763 


HOLBACH,  Paul  Henri  Thyry  (or  DIETRICH)  d', 
baron,  a  French  philosopher,  born  at  Heidels- 
heim,  near  Carlsruhe,  in  1723,  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  21,  1789.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  when 
very  young  by  his  father,  from  whom  he  in- 
herited a  considerable  fortune.  A  large  part  of 
this  he  expended  in  hospitalities  to  the  free- 
thinkers of  his  time,  whom  he  regularly  enter- 
tained at  his  splendid  table,  so  that  Galiani 
styled  him  the  premier  maitre  d'hotel  de  la 
philosophic.  The  boldest  opinions  and  the 
most  irreligious  principles  were  here  discussed 
without  restraint.  Much  information  concern- 
ing these  dinner  parties  is  given  in  the  memoirs 
of  the  abbe  Morellet,  of  Mme.  d'Epinay,  in 
Grimm's  "  Correspondence,"  and  in  the  curious 
but  not  impartial  work  of  Mme.  de  Genlis,  Les 
diners  du  baron  d'Holbach.  Holbach  attacked 
with  great  zeal  Christianity  and  all  other  pos- 
itive religions,  and  labored  for  the  promulga- 
tion of  naturalistic  ideas.  He  began  his  liter- 
ary career  by  translating  a  number  of  German 
philosophical  works.  He  edited  and  published 
in  1759  the  works  of  Boulanger,  a  young  en- 
gineer, who  died  in  that  year,  and  afterward 
published  under  Boulanger's  name  his  own 
works,  Le  Christianisme  devoile,  ou  examen  de* 
principes  et  des  effets  de  la  religion  revelee 
(1767),  and  L1  Esprit  du  clerge,  ou  le  Christian- 
isme primitif  venge  des  entreprises  et  des  exces 
de  nos  pretres  modernes,  which  a  decree  of  par- 
liament, Aug.  18,  1770,  sentenced  to  be  burned 
by  the  public  executioner.  The  same  year  he 
published  his  most  celebrated  book,  Le  systeme 
de  la  nature,  ou  des  lois  du  monde  physique  et 
moral,  under  the  fictitious  name  of  Mirabaud, 
secretaire  perpetuel  de  V  academic  francaise  ; 
this  created  such  scandal  that  Voltaire  himself 
thought  proper  to  refute  it  in  the  article  Dieu 
of  his  Dictionnaire  philosophique,  while  Goethe 
declared  that  he  recoiled  from  it  in  abhorrence 
as  from  a  "cadaverous  spectre."  It  passed, 
however,  through  eight  editions  between  1817 
and  1824,  and  a  new  edition  in  German  was 
published  in  Leipsic  in  1843.  In  1772  a  short 
pamphlet,  Le  Ion  sens,  ou  idees  naturelles  op- 
posees  aux  idees  surnaturelles,  reproduced  in  a 
more  familiar  form  the  principles  he  had  pre- 
viously advocated ;  and  this  pamphlet,  which 
has  been  frequently  reprinted  and  largely  cir- 
culated under  the  title  of  Le  Ion  sens  du  cure 
Meslier,  has  more  powerfully  than  any  other 
publication  contributed  to  diffuse  the  principles 
of  infidelity  among  the  middle  classes  in  France. 
Le  systeme  social,  ou  les  principes  naturels  de 
la  morale  et  de  la  politique,  appeared  in  1773, 
and  La  morale  universelle,  ou  les  devoirs  de 
Vhomme  fondes  sur  la  nature,  in  1776.  Most 
of  these  works  were,  as  soon  as  they  appeared, 
proscribed  by  the  church  and  the  parliament, 
and  were  even  disclaimed  by  philosophers. 
All  his  writings  appeared  either  anonymous- 
ly or  under  the  name  of  deceased  persons, 
or  as  translations  from  the  English.  In  his 
literary  performances  he  had  the  help  of  La- 
grange,  the  teacher  of  his  children,  of  Nai- 


764 


HOLBEIN 


geon,  to  whose  supervision  he  confided  all  his 
works,  and  of  Diderot. 

HOLBEIN,  Hans,  or  Johann,  called  the  Younger, 
a  German  painter,  born  in  Augsburg  or  Griin- 
stadt  between  1495  and  1498,  died  of  the  plague 
in  London  in  1554  or  in  1543.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  painter  of  the  same  name  (Hans  the 
Elder),  of  considerable  eminence  during  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  15th  century,  and  while  a  boy 
followed  his  father  to  Basel.  Here  he  executed 
remarkable  works  for  private  houses,  public 
buildings,  and  churches,  many  of  which  have 
been  preserved.  About  1526  he  contracted 
an  intimacy  with  Erasmus,  whose  portrait  he 
.painted,  and  soon  after  visited  England,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  A  letter 
from  Erasmus  recommended  him  to  Sir  Thomas 
More,  who  introduced  him  at  court.  Henry 
VIII.  at  once  made  him  court  painter,  with  a 
liberal  pension,  and  thenceforth  Holbein  was 
intrusted  with  many  commissions,  chiefly  for 
portraits,  both  from  the  king  and  the  princi- 
pal personages  of  the  kingdom.  He  is  distin- 
guished as  a  historical  and  portrait  painter, 
and  engraver  on  wood.  He  painted  in  oils  and 
distemper,  and  excelled  in  miniatures.  As  an 
engraver  he  is  chiefly  known  by  the  celebrated 
"Dance  of  Death,"  a  series  of  53  woodcuts  en- 
graved from  his  own  designs,  although  it  is  sel- 
dom found  with  more  than  46.  (See  DANCE 
OF  DEATH.)  This  series  has  been  frequently 
engraved,  and  the  prints  of  Wenzel  Hollar  are 
particularly  fine.  It  is  said  that  be  used  the 
left  hand  in  painting. — The  Holbein  collection 
in  the  museum  of  Basel,  which  had  been  pre- 
pared by  his  friend  Amerbach,  comprises  the 
portraits  of  the  latter  and  of  Holbein's  wife 
and  children,  and  other  masterpieces.  His 
portraits  of  Sir  Thomas  More  and  other  per- 
sonages are  at  Windsor,  and  many  are  at  Ken- 
sington and  in  various  English  and  continental 
galleries,  private  and  public.  Much  controver- 
sy exists  in  regard  to  the  genuineness  of  some 
of  the  works  ascribed  to  him,  especially  in  re- 
spect to  two  pictures  both  claiming  to  be  ori- 
ginals and  representing  the  "Madonna  of  the 
Burgomaster  Meyer  of  Basel ;"  one  of  these  is 
in  Darmstadt,  and  the  other  in  Dresden ;  both 
were  critically  examined  in  1871  by  competent 
authorities,  but  without  a  decision  on  the  sub- 
ject. Many  works  have  appeared  in  modern 
times  on  Holbein's  life  and  works,  the  latest 
of  which  is  Holbein  und  seine  Zeit,  by  A.  Wolt- 
mann  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1868;  revised,  with 
illustrations,  1874). 

HOLBERG,  Lndvig,  baron,  a  Danish  dramatist, 
born  in  Bergen,  Norway,  Nov.  6,  1684,  died 
in  Copenhagen,  Jan.  28,  1754.  When  a  boy 
he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  bishop  of 
Munthe,  his  relative,  who  caused  him  to  be 
sent  to  the  college  of  Bergen,  whence  at  the 
age  of  18  he  went  to  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, where  he  graduated  in  1705,  and  after- 
ward studied  philosophy  at  Oxford.  Return- 
ing  to  Copenhagen  after  15  months,  he  was 
made  professor  extraordinary  in  the  university, 


HOLCROFT 

and  was  commissioned  to  examine  and  report 
upon  the  Lutheran  schools  of  Holland.  He  was 
again  appointed  professor  in  the  university,  first 
of  metaphysics  (1718),  but  ultimately  of  rhet- 
oric (1720).  In  1722  he  produced  his  comedy 
"  The  Political  Tinman,"  which  received  un- 
bounded applause ;  and  at  very  short  intervals 
14  other  pieces  were  composed  and  played 
with  increasing  success.  His  patron  Frederick 
IV.  was  succeeded  in  1730  by  King  Christian 
VI.,  whose  religious  zeal  led  him  to  forbid  the- 
atrical entertainments ;  but  Holberg's  "  Sleep- 
er Awakened,"  "John  of  France,"  "Lying- 
in  Chamber,"  "  False  Savant,"  and  others,  all 
pictures  in  caricature  of  the  manners  of  the 
Danish  middle  classes,  had  been  stamped  in- 
delibly upon  the  public  mind.  He  next  wrote 
a  satirical  romance  in  Latin  (1741)  called  "The 
Subterranean  Travels  of  Nicholas  Klim,"  which 
was  translated  into  many  languages.  Frede- 
rick V.  restored  the  theatre  in  1746,  and  gave 
Holberg  a  patent  of  nobility.  He  never  mar- 
ried, and  bequeathed  his  property  chiefly  to 
an  academy  which  had  been  founded  at  Soroe 
by  Christian  IV.  for  the  education  of  young 
noblemen.  He  gave  16,000  crowns  as  a  fund 
to  portion  a  number  of  young  Danish  women. 
His  Danmarlcs  Riges  Historie  (3  vols.,  1732-'o) 
was  the  first  attempt  at  writing  a  thorough  his- 
tory of  Denmark.  His  "  History  of  the  Jews  " 
and  "Stories  of  Heroes  and  Heroines"  are 
works  of  lasting  merit.  A  collection  of  his 
works  in  27  vols.  appeared  at  Copenhagen  in 
1826.  He  left  an  "  Introduction  to  Universal 
History  "  in  Latin,  translated  into  English  by 
Gregory  Sharpe,  LL.  D.  (8vo,  London,  1755), 
and  his  autobiography,  an  English  translation 
of  which  also  appeared  in  London  in  1830.  In 
1842  the  Holberg  society  was  founded  at  Co- 
penhagen, which  published  a  critical  edition  of 
his  comedies  (7  vols.,  1843-'53). 

HOLBROOK,  John  Edwards,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, born  in  Beaufort,  S.  C.,  in  1795,  died 
in  Norfolk,  Mass.,  Sept.  8,  1871.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  university  in  1815,  studied  medicine 
in  Philadelphia,  spent  two  years  in  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  Paris,  established  himself  in  Charles- 
ton in  1822,  and  in  1824  was  chosen  professor 
of  anatomy  in  the  medical  college  of  South 
Carolina.  His  most  important  work  is  the 
"American  Herpetology,  or  a  Description  of 
Reptiles  inhabiting  the  United  States"  (5  vols., 
Philadelphia,  1842).  He  began  a  work  on 
"  Southern  Ichthyology,"  but  finding  the  field 
too  wide,  he  confined  his  labors  to  the  fishes 
of  South  Carolina.  Of  this  work  ten  numbers 
were  published  (Charleston,  1854  et  seq.},  when 
the  publication  was  stopped  by  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war. 

HOLCROFT,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  London,  Dec.  10,  1745,  died  March  23, 
1809.  His  father  was  a  shoemaker  who  own- 
ed several  horses,  and  added  to  his  income 
by  letting  them.  His  mother  dealt  in  greens 
and  oysters.  He  passed  his  early  life  in  Lon- 
don and  in  Berkshire,  following  the  occupa- 


moi 

3 


HOLINSHED 

ns  of  his  father.  lie  was  afterward  in  the 
ice  of  a  trainer  of  race  horses  at  New- 
market, then  a  schoolmaster,  and  then  an  ac- 
tor, but  soon  abandoned  the  stage,  as  he  met 
with  little  success.  The  most  popular  of  his 
dramatic  compositions  is  "  The  Koad  to  Kuin  " 
(1792).  At  the  time  of  the  French  revolution 
he  incurred  the  suspicions  of  government  as  a 
member  of  the  society  for  constitutional  in- 
formation, and  with  Home  Tooke,  Hardy,  Thel- 
wall,  and  others,  was  in  1794  indicted  for  high 
treason.  Some  of  the  accusers  were  acquitted, 
and  Holcroft  was  discharged  with  others,  with- 
out being  brought  to  trial.  He  wrote  about 
30  plays  and  four  novels,  published  translations 
of  Lavater's  "Physiognomy"  and  the  works 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  "  Travels  in  France 
and  Germany  "  (2  vols.  4to,  1806).  His  "  Me- 
moirs," written  by  himself  and  edited  by  Haz- 

were  published  in  1816,  in  3  vols.  12rno. 
HOLIXSIIEl),  Holingshed,  or  Hollynshed,  Raphael, 
English  chronicler,  born  in  the  first  half  of 
the  16th  century,  died  about  1580.  He  prob- 
ably received  a  university  education,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  orders.  Little  else  is 
known  of  his  life.  Of  the  "Chronicles  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland"  (2  vols.  fol., 
London,  1577),  his  share  comprises  the  his- 
tories of  England  and  Scotland,  the  latter  be- 
ing for  the  most  part  a  translation  from  the 
Latin  of  Hector  Boethius.  The  other  portions 
were  done  by  Stow,  Harrison,  Hooker,  and 
others.  The  second  edition  containing  mat- 
ter added  by  Thynne,  which  was  offensive  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  means  were  taken  to  sup- 
press certain  sheets  in  that  edition,  which  were 
restored  in  that  of  1807.  Shakespeare  was 
largely  indebted  to  Holinshed,  whole  pages  in 
"Macbeth,"  and  the  character  of  Wolsey  in 
"Henry  VIII.,"  being  almost  word  for  word 
,ken  from  the  "  Chronicles." 
HOLLAND.  I.  A  division  of  the  Netherlands, 
prising  the  present  provinces  of  North  and 
South  Holland,  which  in  the  middle  ages  suc- 
cessively formed  a  part  of  the  Frankish  em- 
pire, of  Lorraine,  and  of  the  German  empire, 
being  governed  by  counts,  of  whom  those  of 
Vlaardingen  rose  to  considerable  power.  This 
line  became  extinct  in  1299,  and  the  land 
was  inherited  by  the  counts  of  Hainaut.  In 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century  arose  a  dispute 
between  Margaret,  wife  of  the  emperor  Louis 
the  Bavarian,  who  had  inherited  the  county 
after  the  death  of  her  brother  Count  William 
IV.,  and  her  son  William  V.,  which  threw  it 
into  long  continued  conflicts  between  two  par- 
ties who  took  the  names  of  Hoeks  (hooks)  and 
Kabeljaauws  (codfish).  Finally,  in  1480,  the 
county  was  annexed  to  Burgundy.  (See  BUR- 
GUNDY, and  NETHERLANDS.) — The  kingdom  of 
Holland,  under  the  rule  of  Louis  Bonaparte, 
from  1806  to  1810,  included  nearly  all  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  present  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, together  with  part  of  the  former  king- 
dom of  Hanover  and  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg. 
II.  North,  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  the 


HOLLAND 


765 


Netherlands,  bounded  W.  and  N.  by  the  North 
sea,  E.  by  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  S.  by  Utrecht 
and  South  Holland;  area,  1,054  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  602,539.  The  islands  of  Terschellin- 
Vlieland,  and  Texel,  in  the  North  sea,  and 
Wieringen,  Marken,  and  a  few  smaller  ones,  in 
the  Zuyder  Zee,  belong  to  it.  The  surface  is 
flat,  increasing  in  depression  toward  the  north, 
and  the  districts  of  Waterland,  Kennemerland, 
and  Purmerland  are  partially  below  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Expensive  dikes  extend  along  the 
whole  coast  of  the  North  sea,  and  for  about 
100  m.  on  the  coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  Haar- 
lem lake  has  been  closed  and  drained. '  (See 
DRAINAGE,  and  HAARLEM  MEEK.)  The  river  Y 
penetrates  far  into  the  land,  which  is  crossed 
by  numerous  small  rivers,  and  drained  by  a 
still  larger  number  of  canals.  The  climate  is 
damp,  changeable,  and  cool.  Flowers  are  cul- 
tivated, especially  about  Haarlem.  Hemp, 
flax,  and  madder  are  raised.  Wood  is  scarce ; 
the  pasturage  is  excellent,  and  horses,  cattle, 
and  swine  abound.  There  are  important  manu- 
factures of  linen,  paper,  woollen  cloths,  silks, 
carpets,  leather,  sugar,  &c.  Capital,  Amster- 
dam. III.  South,  a  province  of  the  Nether- 
lands, bounded  W.  by  the  North  sea,  N.  by 
North  Holland,  E.  by  Utrecht  and  Gelderland, 
and  S.  by  the  Maas  and  its  mouths;  area, 
1,155  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  710,753.  The  isl- 
ands of  Ysselmonde,  Voorne,  Beijerland,  and 
Overflakkee  form  part  of  its  territory.  The 
general  character  of  the  province  resembles 
that  of  North  Holland.  There  are  numerous 
canals,  rich  pasture  lands,  and  fertile  fields. 
Portions  of  the  Bies-Bosch,  a  shallow  marshy 
lake  formed  by  the  inundation  of  1421,  have  of 
late  been  reclaimed,  and  converted  into  mea- 
dow land.  Capital,  the  Hague. 

HOLLAND,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Knutsford,  Oct.  27,  1788,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  28,  1873.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Glasgow,  where  in  1805  he  gained  the 
prize  for  English  verse.  In  1811  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
and  then  travelled  for  two  years  in  Greece  and 
the  Ionian  islands,  publishing  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  1815.  Subsequently  he  established 
himself  in  London,  and  in  1828  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  royal  college  of  physicians.  In 
1834  he  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Saba,  a 
daughter  of  Sydney  Smith,  who  published  a 
life  of  her  father  in  1855,  and  died  in  1866.  In 
1852  he  became  physician  in  ordinary  to  the 
queen,  and  in  1853  was  made  a  baronet.  Du- 
ring many  years  he  was  accustomed  to  make 
an  annual  trip  of  two  months  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. He  visited  the  United  States  several 
times,  and  there  were  few  public  men  in  Eu- 
rope or  America  with  whom  he  was  not  per- 
sonally acquainted.  He  contributed  largely  to 
periodicals,  and  published  several  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  are :  "  Medical  Notes 
and  Eeflections  "  (1839) ;  "  Chapters  on  Mental 
Physiology  "  (1852) ;  "  Essays  on  Scientific  and 
other  Subjects  "  (1862) ;  and  "  Recollections  of 


766 


HOLLAND 


a  Past  Life  "  (1871).  His  son  by  his  first  wife, 
Sir  Henry  Thurstan  Holland,  is  to  arrange  and 
publish  a  collection  of  his  papers  (1874). 

HOLLAND,  Henry  Richard  Vassal!,  baron,  an 
English  statesman,  born  at  Winterslow  house, 
Wiltshire,  Nov.  21,  1773,  died  at  Holland  house, 
Kensington,  Oct.  22,  1840.  He  was  the  only 
son  of  Stephen  Fox,  second  Lord  Holland,  and 
a  nephew  of  Charles  James  Fox,  at  whose 
hands,  according  to  Macaulay,  he  received  his 
"political  education."  He  succeeded  to  his 
father's  title  when  a  little  more  than  a  year 
old,  and  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  subse- 
quently at  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in 
1792.  In  1793  he  travelled  extensively  over 
Spain,  making  himself  familiar  with  the  lan- 
guage and  literature  of  the  country,  and  sub- 
sequently visited  other  portions  of  the  conti- 
nent. In  Italy  he  formed  a  connection  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Richard 
Vassall,  and  wife  of  Sir  Godfrey  Webster,  who 
procured  a  divorce  from  her  and  recovered 
damages  in  £6,000  from  Lord  Holland.  The 
latter  married  her  in  1797,  and  took  by  royal 
license  the  surname  of  Vassall,  in  lieu  of  his 
patronymic  of  Fox ;  but  his  children  retained 
the  latter  name.  In  1798  he  made  his  first 
speech  in  the  house  of  lords,  and  thenceforth 
was  a  frequent  participator  in  debates,  being 
to  the  close  of  his  life  a  steady  and  consistent 
whig.  Between  1802  and  1805  he  made  an- 
other long  visit  to  Spain,  and  in  1806  he  was 
appointed  joint  commissioner  with  Lord  Auck- 
land to  arrange  with  Messrs.  Monroe  and  Pink- 
ney,  the  American  commissioners,  the  matters 
in  controversy  between  England  and  the  Uni- 
ted States.  In  1806  he  published  "  Some  Ac- 
count of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Lope  Felix  de 
Vega  Carpio,"  to  which  he  subsequently  added 
a  biography  of  Guillen  de  Castro,  which  ap- 
peared in  1817  under  the  title  of  "Lives  of 
Lope  de  Vega  and  G.  de  Castro."  This  work, 
the  fruit  of  its  author's  visits  to  Spain,  without 
aiming  at  profoundness,  treats  the  subject  in 
a  genial  and  appreciative  manner.  It  was  fol- 
lowed in  1807  by  "  Three  Comedies  from  the 
Spanish,"  and  in  1808  he  edited,  with  a  long 
preface,  Mr.  Fox's  fragment  entitled  "A  His- 
tory of  the  Early  Part  of  the  Reign  of  James 
II."  He  held  the  office  of  privy  seal  for  a 
few  months  in  1806,  and  resigned  with  his  col- 
leagues after  the  death  of  Fox,  because  the 
king  refused  to  concur  in  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  on  account  of  the  failure  of  the  ne- 
gotiations with  France.  He  resided  in  a  pri- 
vate capacity  at  Vienna  during  the  session  of 
the  congress  of  1814-'15,  and  rendered  himself 
conspicuous  by  an  ardent  opposition  against 
the  policy  adopted  toward  Napoleon,  until  the 
government  ordered  him  to  leave  the  city. 
Several  times  in  parliament  he  demanded  a 
milder  treatment  of  the  ex-emperor  at  St.  He- 
lena. Lady  Holland  assisted  the  prisoner  by 
sending  him  books,  periodicals,  and  other  com- 
forts. Under  the  reform  ministry  of  Grey  in 
1830  he  was  unable  from  ill  health  to  accept 


an  appointment  as  cabinet  minister,  but  he 
took  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster,  because  it  gave  him  a  vote  in  the 
cabinet  council,  and  held  it  until  his  death, 
with  the  exception  of  the  brief  ministerial  in- 
terregnum in  May,  1832,  and  the  period  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel's  administration  from  December, 
1834,  to  May,  1835.  Lord  Holland  was  much 
esteemed  in  private  life  for  his  courtly  grace  of 
manner,  genial  humor,  and  amiability;  and 
Holland  house,  his  suburban  residence,  a  build- 
ing having  many  interesting  historical  associa- 
tions, and  stored  with  much  that  was  rare  and 
beautiful  in  art  and  literature,  was  for  nearly 
50  years  the  resort  of  eminent  personages  and 
the  scene  of  elegant  hospitality.  (See  "  Hol- 
land House,"  by  Princess  Maria  Liechtenstein, 
an  adopted  daughter  of  the  fourth  Lord  Hol- 
land, 2  vols.,  London,  1874.)  Although  in  men- 
tal calibre  inferior  to  Charles  James  Fox,  to 
whom  he  bore  a  strong  family  resemblance,  he 
was  an  effective  speaker,  and,  according  to 
Macaulay,  was  more  distinguished  in  debate 
than  any  peer  of  his  time  who  had  never  sat 
in  the  house  of  commons.  His  "  Foreign  Rem- 
iniscences," published  by  his  son  (8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1850),  is  a  work  full  of  gossip  and  pi- 
quant anecdotes.  The  first  two  volumes  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Whig  Party  during  my  Time, 
by  Henry,  Lord  Holland  "  (1854,  edited  by  his 
son),  are  inferior  to  his  earlier  works.  A 
publication  entitled  "  The  Opinions  of  Lord 
Holland,  as  recorded  in  the  Journals  of  the 
House  of  Lords  from  1797  to  1840,"  appeared 
in  London  soon  after  his  death,  affording  a 
complete  view  of  his  public  career.  He  had 
projected  a  life  of  his  uncle,  but  never  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  collection  of  a  few  notes 
and  materials,  which  are  included  in  Lord  John 
Russell's  "Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of 
Charles  James  Fox." — He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  HENRY  EDWARD,  fourth  baron,  born 
March  7,  1802,  died  in  Naples,  Dec.  18,  1859. 
He  was  member  of  parliament  for  Horsham  in 
1826-'7,  and  in  1839-'42  minister  to  Tuscany. 
As  he  died  without  issue,  the  title  became  ex- 
tinct, Holland  house  and  the  other  estates  be- 
ing inherited  by  his  sister,  married  to  Thomas, 
Lord  Lilford,  who  died  March  15,  1861. 

HOLLAND,  Josiah  Gilbert,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Belchertown,  Mass.,  July  24,  1819. 
Having  studied  medicine  and  practised  for 
three  years,  and  afterward  edited  a  literary 
journal  for  a  few  months  in  Springfield,  Mass., 
he  passed  a  year  in  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  as  super- 
intendent of  public  schools.  In  May,  1849,  he 
became  associate  editor  of  the  "  Springfield 
Republican,"  and  two  years  afterward  one  of 
the  proprietors  of  that  journal,  in  which  con- 
nection he  remained  till  1866.  Since  1870  he 
has  been  the  conductor  of  "  Scribner's  Month- 
ly "  in  New  York.  He  has  for  many  years  been 
a  public  lecturer  on  social  and  literary  topics, 
and  has  written  many  books,  those  of  a  didac- 
tic character  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  "  Tim- 
othy Titcomb."  This  series  includes  "Letters 


HOLLAND 

the  Young"  (New  York,  1858),  "Gold 
roil"  (1859),  "Lessons  in  Life"  (1861),  and 
"Letters  to  the  Joneses"  (1863).  His  other 
publications  are  :  "  History  of  Western  Massa- 
chusetts "  (2  vols.,  Springfield,  1855);  "The 
Bay  Path,"  a  novel  (New  York,  1857);  "Bit- 
ter-Sweet," a  poem  in  dramatic  form  (1858)  ; 
"Miss  Gilbert's  Career,"  an  American  story 
(1860) ;  "  Plain  Talks  on  Familiar  Subjects  " 
(1865)  ;  "  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  "  (Spring- 
field, 1865) ;  "Kathrina,"  a  poem  (New  York, 
1868);  "The  Marble  Prophecy  and  other 
Poems"  (1872);  and  "Arthur  Bonnicastle," 
a  novel  (1873).  In  1873  a  complete  edition  of 
his  poems  was  published  in  New  York,  under 
the  title  of  "  Garnered  Sheaves." 

HOLLAND,  Sir  Nathaniel  Dance,  an  English  ar- 
tist, born  in  London  in  1734,  died  in  Winches- 
ter in  1811.  He  was  the  son  of  George  Dance, 
the  architect  of  the  mansion  house  in  London, 
and  early  devoted  himself  to  painting,  passing 
several  years  in  Italy  in  the  study  of  his  art. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  painter  of  portaits,  of  which  that 
of  Garrick  as  Richard  III.  affords  a  good  ex- 
ample, and  also  of  history  and  landscape.  By 
his  captivating  figure  and  address  he  was  en- 
abled to  secure  the  hand  of  Mrs.  Dummer,  a 
wealthy  Yorkshire  heiress,  after  which  he  re- 
linquished his  profession,  assumed  the  name 
of  Holland,  was  made  a  baronet,  and  entered 
parliament.  He  still  exhibited  occasionally  as 
an  amateur. 

HOLLAND,  Philemon,  an  English  scholar,  born 
at  Chelmsford  in  1551,  died  Feb.  9,  1636.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
became  master  of  the  free  school  at  Coventry, 
and  also  practised  medicine.  He  was  the  first 
English  translator  of  Livy,  Suetonius,  and  Plu- 
tarch's "Morals."  He  also  translated  Ammi- 
anns  Marcellinus,  the  "  Natural  History  "  of 
Pliny,  the  "Cyropsedia"  of  Xenophon,  and 
Camden's  "Britannia." 

HOLLAR,  Wenzel,  a  Bohemian  engraver,  born 
in  Prague  in  1607,  died  in  London,  March  28, 
1677.  At  18  years  of  age  he  produced  his 
plates  of  the  "Virgin  and  Child"  and  the 
"Ecce  Homo."  In  1636  he  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  earl  of  Arundel,  the  British  am- 
bassador to  the  German  emperor,  who  took  him 
in  his  suite  to  England.  He  now  practised  his 
art  with  great  reputation  and  success,  and  ex- 
ecuted portraits  of  the  royal  family  and  of  the 
earl  of  Arundel,  besides  views  of  places,  and  a 
set  of  28  plates  of  female  costume  of  all  ranks, 
entitled  Ornatus  Muliebris  Anglicanus.  Un- 
der the  commonwealth  he  became  somewhat 
involved  in  political  affairs  through  his  associ- 
ation with  the  royalist  friends  of  his  patron, 
with  several  of  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  at 
the  surrender  of  Basing  House  in  Hampshire 
in  1645.  Being  set  at  liberty  after  a  short 
imprisonment,  he  joined  the  earl  of  Arundel 
in  Antwerp,  where  he  passed  several  years. 
During  this  period  he  engraved  Holbein's 
"Dance  of  Death"  and  other  works  of  the 
409  VOL.  vm. — 49 


HOLLIS 


767 


old  masters.  He  returned  to  England  in  1652, 
but  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  became  re- 
duced to  great  indigence.  His  prints  num- 
bered nearly  2,400,  many  of  them  of  small  size 
executed  for  the  booksellers,  who  paid  him  at 
the  rate  of  fourpence  an  hour. 

HOLLIDAYSBURG,  a  borough  and  the  capital 
of  Blair  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  Beaver  Dam 
creek,  a  branch  of  the  Juniata,  about  85  m.  E. 
of  Pittsburgh,  and  the  same  distance  W.  by  N. 
of  Harrisburg;  pop.  in  1870,  2,952.  It  is  sit- 
uated near  the  base  of  the  Allegheny  moun- 
tains, on  a  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  Central 
railroad,  and  is  a  terminus  of  the  E.  division 
of  the  main  line  of  the  state  canal.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  trade  by  railroad  and  canal, 
having  most  of  the  forwarding  business  of  a 
rich  surrounding  country  abounding  in  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  resources.  The  iron  of 
the  Juniata  region  and  large  quantities  of  an- 
thracite coal  and  grain  are  exported  through 
this  town.  It  contains  several  founderies,  roll- 
ing mills,  blast  furnaces,  machine  shops,  flour 
mills,  a  national  bank,  and  two  weekly  news- 
papers. Hollidaysburg  was  incorporated  in 
1836.  Gaysport  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
river,  with  which  it  is  connected,  is  a  borough 
of  799  inhabitants. 

HOLLINS,  George  N,,  an  American  naval  offi- 
cer, born  in  Baltimore,  Sept.  20,  1799.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1814,  and 
was  on  board  the  President,  Commodore  De- 
catur,  when  she  was  captured  by  the  British, 
and  remained  a  prisoner  of  war  at  Bermuda 
until  the  peace.  He  next  served  under  Deca- 
tur  against  the  Algerines.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  took  command  of  an  East  India  mer- 
chantman, and  became  lieutenant  in  the  navy 
in  1825,  and  commander  in  1841.  He  bom- 
barded and  destroyed  the  town  of  San  Juan 
de  Nicaragua  in  1854.  After  commanding  the 
navy  yard  at  Sackett's  Harbor  for  a  short 
time,  he  was  ordered  to  join  the  Mediterranean 
squadron.  In  1855  he  was  promoted  to.  cap- 
tain. Returning  to  the  United  States  in  1861, 
he  resigned  his  commission;  but  the  depart- 
ment refused  to  accept  the  resignation,  struck 
his  name  from  the  rolls,  and  ordered  his  arrest. 
He  escaped  to  the  south,  entered  the  confed- 
erate navy,  received  a  commission  as  commo- 
dore, and  on  Oct.  11  attacked  the  federal  block- 
ading squadron  at  the  passes  of  the  Mississippi, 
doing  slight  damage,  but  claiming  an  impor- 
tant victory,  and  was  therefore  appointed  flag 
captain  of  the  New  Orleans  station.  Before 
Farragut's  attack  on  that  city  in  April,  1862, 
he  was  superseded  by  Commodore  Whittle. 

HOLLIS,  Thomas,  a  benefactor  of  Harvard 
college,  born  in  England  in  1659,  died  in  Lon- 
don in  1731.  He  was  for  many  years  a  suc- 
cessful merchant  in  London,  and  a  bequest 
made  to  Harvard  college  in  his  uncle's  will,  of 
which  he  was  trustee,  first  attracted  his  atten- 
tion to  that  institution.  Having  made  two 
considerable  donations,  he  gave  directions  m 
1721  for  the  employment  of  the  fund,  by 


768 


HOLLOWAY 


HOLLY 


which  the  Hollis  professorship  of  divinity  was 
constituted.  He  was  himself  a  Baptist,  and 
the  candidate  for  the  professorship  was  re- 
quired to  be  of  "sound  or  orthodox  principles." 
In  1727  he  established  also  a  professorship  of 
mathematics  and  philosophy,  and  the  net  pro- 
duce of  his  donations  amounted  at  that  time 
to  £4,900.  He  also  gave  books  for  the  library, 
and  secured  from  a  friend  a  set  of  Hebrew  and 
Greek  types  for  printing.  His  memoirs  were 
published  by  Thomas  Brand  Hollis  (2  vols.  4to, 
London,  1780). — His  nephew,  Thomas  Hollis, 
also  gave  money,  books,  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus, and  left  a  son,  the  third  Thomas  Hollis 
(died  in  1774),  an  antiquary,  whose  donations 
to  the  college  amounted  to  nearly  £2,000. 

HOLLOWAY,  Thomas,  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1748,  died  at  Coltishall, 
near  Norwich,  in  1827.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  seal  engraver,  and  became  known  by  his 
plates  illustrating  Dr.  Hunter's  translation  of 
"  Lavater's  Essays  on  Physiognomy  "  (5  vols., 
1792,  with  about  700  plates),  and  by  similar 
works,  the  most  celebrated  of  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  elaborate  execution,  are  his 
engravings  of  the  cartoons  of  Raphael.  A 
memoir  of  his  life  was  published  in  1827. 

HOLLY,  the  common  name  of  several  ever- 
green species  of  ilex,  of  the  order  aquifolia- 
cecB.  They  have  small  axillary  flowers,  which 
when  perfect  are  inclined  to  be  solitary,  but 
when  sterile  are  in  small  clusters ;  these  have 
a  four-toothed  calyx  and  as  many  petals,  which 
are  separate  cr  only  united  at  the  base ;  sta- 
mens four ;  fruit  a  berry-like  drupe  containing 
four  nutlets.  The  American  holly,  ilex  opaca, 


American  Holly  (Ilex  opaca). 

is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine 
southward,  it  being  especially  abundant  in  Vir- 
ginia and  the  states  south  of  it ;  as  seen  at  the 
north,  it  is  a  low  tree,  but  in  a  favorable  cli- 
mate it  attains  a  height  of  30  or  40  ft. ;  the 
erect  trunk  is  clothed  with  an  ashy-gray  bark, 


and  the  branches  spread  horizontally ;  the 
short-petioled  leaves  are  oval  in  outline,  with 
scattered  spiny  teeth,  very  thick  and  leathery, 
deep  green  above,  and  yellowish  green  beneath. 
This  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  European  holly,  but  that  has  more 


European  Holly  (Ilex  aquifolium). 

glossy  leaves  with  much  more  conspicuous 
spines,  brighter  scarlet  berries,  and  the  nutlets 
more  strongly  veined.  It  is  much  more  hardy 
than  the  European,  which  will  not  endure  the 
climate  of  New  York  city  with  certainty,  but 
it  is  not  often  seen  in  cultivation.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  removing  small  plants  from  thoir 
native  localities,  if  the  top  be  so  far  cut  back 
as  to  remove  all  the  foliage ;  new  shoots  will 
start  in  abundance  if  the  tree  be  treated  in  this 
manner,  but  if  removed  with  all  its  foliage  suc- 
cess is  very  doubtful.  The  uses  of  our  species 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  European  holly,  /. 
aquifolium,  which  has  long  been  a  favorite  in 
Great  Britain  as  a  hedge  plant  and  for  the  or- 
namental character  of  single  specimens.  It  is 
especially  abundant  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
but  is  not  found  in  the  northern  portions,  it 
not  being  hardy  even  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 
It  is  a  very  long-lived  tree,  some  specimens 
having  been  estimated  to  be  800  and  1,200 
years  old.  There  are  numerous  varieties. 
Some  of  the  green  ones  have  the  leaves  entire- 
ly without  spines,  while  others,  such  as  the 
hedgehog  holly,  have  them  developed  to  a  re- 
markable degree;  there  are  several  in  which 
the  foliage  is  beautifully  margined  or  blotched 
with  pure  white  or  yellow,  some  of  which  are 
among  the  finest  ornamental  plants.  There 
are  also  yellow-  and  white-fruited  varieties. 
As  specimen  plants,  the  hollies  are  pruned  in  a 
pyramidal  form,  making  a  cone  of  dense  green, 
with  its  base  close  to  the  ground,  or  they  are 
made  to  assume  the  form  of  a  tree  with  a  clean 
trunk  3  ft.  or  more  high.  The  variegated  hoi' 
lies  are  so  fine  that  some  American  amateurs 
cultivate  them  in  large  pots  or  tubs,  which  are 


HOLLYHOCK 


769 


unged  in  the  ground  during  summer  and  re- 
ved  to  a  cellar  or  other  shelter  for  the  win- 
r.  In  Europe  the  holly  is  used  for  an  orna- 
ental  hedge ;  it  forms  an  impenetrable  bar- 
r,  but  is  of  too  slow  growth  for  a  mere  pro- 
sting  hedge.  There  are  in  England  many 
fine  specimens  of  holly  screens,  20  ft.  high, 
and  filled  with  dense  foliage  from  the  very  bot- 
tom. The  dark  persistent  leaves,  against  which 
bright  scarlet  berries  show  in  fine  contrast, 
:e  the  holly  a  favorite  plant  for  Christmas 
corations;  it  is  said  to  have  been  used  for 
is  purpose  by  the  early  Christians  in  Rome, 
d  is  in  Europe  still  the  plant  chiefly  employ- 
in  churches.  Large  quantities  of  the  native 
oily  are  brought  each  year  from  Long  Island 
and  southern  New  Jersey  to  the  New  York 
market  for  the  same  use.  The  wood  of  the 
holly  is  remarkably  white,  except  that  at  the 
centre  of  old  trees,  which  is  brown ;  it  has  a 
fine  grain  and  a  satiny  lustre  that  well  adapt 
it  to  ornamental  work;  it  is  used  for  small 
carved  and  turned  articles,  for  whip  and  other 
handles,  for  inlaid  work,  and  for  various  other 
purposes  requiring  a  white,  fine-grained  wood. 
It  receives  dyes  of  various  kinds  readily,  and 
much  of  what  passes  for  ebony  is  the  wood  of 
the  holly  dyed  black.  Bird  lime  was  formerly 
made  from  the  mucilaginous  matter  furnished 
by  the  bark  when  boiled  and  fermented.  The 
berries  are  purgative  and  emetic,  and  a  decoc- 
tion of  the  bark  is  sometimes  used  as  a  demul- 
cent. The  common  holly  is  raised  from  seeds, 
which  are  kept  in  a  rot  heap  mixed  with  earth 
for  a  year,  and  then  sown ;  the  finer  varieties 
are  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  them 
in  the  usual  manner  upon  these  seedlings. — 
The  other  native  evergreen  species  of  ilex  are 
the  /.  Cassine  (see  YAUPON),  /.  Ddhoon,  and 
L  glair  a  (see  INKBERRY),  which  are  shrubs 
with  serrate  or  toothed,  not  spiny  leaves.  The 
Dahoon  holly,  not  found  north  of  Virginia,  has 
leaves  varying  from  oblong  to  linear-oblong, 
sharply  serrate,  downy  beneath.  A  narrow- 
leaved  form  has  been  called  7.  myrtifolia. 
The  deciduous  species  of  ilex  were  formerly 
placed  in  a  separate  genus,  prinos,  but  modern 
botanists  include  them  in  ilex;  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  noticed  under  WINTER- 
BERRY.  A  South  American  species,  /.  Para- 
guay ensis,  is  the  Paraguay  tea.  (See  MATE.) 

HOLLYHOCK  (althaea  rosect),  an  ornamental 
plant  of  the  order  malvacece,  introduced  into 
English  gardens  from  Syria  in  1573.  In  warm 
countries  it  is  a  perennial,  but  with  us  it  is  a 
biennial  with  large,  rounded,  heart-shaped,  an- 
gled, or  lobed,  rough  leaves,  and  a  stem  6  ft.  or 
more  high,  upon  the  upper  portion  of  which 
are  placed  the  nearly  sessile  large  flowers,  so 
closely  together  as  to  form  a  dense  spike  3  ft. 
or  more  in  length.  The  calyx,  of  five  sepals, 
is  subtended  by  an  involucre  of  several  bracts, 
united  at  the  base,  giving  the  appearance  of  a 
double  calyx ;  the  petals  are  five,  obcordate 
and  united  at  the  base  with  the  stamineal  col- 
umn, which  consists  of  united  filaments,  and  is 


anther-bearing  at  the  top ;  pistils  several,  their 
ovaries  united  in  a  ring  around  a  central  axis 
from  which  they  fall  away  when  ripe  in  as 
many  one-seeded  carpels  as  there  were  styles. 
Ihe  original  hollyhock  was  single,  and  of  a 
rose  or  purplish  color,  a  form  now  rarely  seen. 
No  plant  of  our  gardens  has  been  more  im- 
proved by  cultivation  than  this;  semi-double 
flowers  are  very  common,  and  the  choicer 
kinds  have  the  flower  completely  filled  with 
petals  and  form  hemispherical  masses  of  great 
beauty.  Even  in  the  most  double  forms  the 
original  five  petals  remain  unchanged,  often 
showing  as  a  narrow  border  around  the  central 
petals,  which  are  much  crowded,  crimped,  and 
folded,  and  of  a  delicate  crape-like  texture.  In 
color  a  great  change  has  been  effected  also; 
we  now  have  white,  shades  of  yellow,  pink 
running  through  various  shades  of  red  to  pur- 
ple, the  latter  being  in  some  so  dark  as  to  be 
called  black.  Not  only  are  there  self-colored 


Dwarf  Double  Hollyhock. 

flowers,  but  those  in  which  the  tints  are  va- 
ried by  streaks,  veining,  and  shading,  and  some- 
times the  under  sides  of  the  petals  are  of  a  dif- 
ferent color  from  the  upper.  On  account  of 
the  size  and  showy  character  of  its  flowers, 
the  hollyhock  is  well  adapted  to  garden  deco- 
ration, and  is  usually  planted  where  it  can  be 
seen  from  a  distance ;  if  the  flower  spikes  are 
relieved  by  a  background  of  green,  their  effect 
is  much  enhanced.  Some  of  the  more  delicate- 
ly tinted  ones  are  often  used  by  florists  in  ma- 
king up  large  bouquets  and  floral  decorations ; 
the  central  portion  of  the  flower  is  furnished 
with  an  artificial  stem,  and  when  worked  in 
with  other  flowers  those  unfamiliar  with  the 
matter  would  not  suspect  its  real  nature.  How- 
ever double  a  hollyhock  may  be,  it  still  remains 
partially  fertile,  and  seeds  from  the  finer  kinds, 
if  they  have  not  been  fertilized  through  the 
agency  of  insects  by  pollen  from  inferior  sort?, 
will  reproduce  the  variety  with  considerable 


770 


HOLMAN 


HOLMES 


certainty ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  seed  of  a 
good  strain  will  produce  fine  flowers;  hence 
this,  being  the  least  troublesome,  is  the  most 
common  method  of  propagation.  As  the  plants 
do  not  bloom  until  the  second  year,  they  are 
kept  for  the  first  season  in  a  reserve  bed,  and 
set  where  they  are  to  flower  in  the  fall  after 
sowing,  or  in  the  following  spring.  If  the 
flower  stalks,  as  soon  as  the  flowers  are  past 
their  prime,  are  cut  away,  the  root  may  be  ta- 
ken up,  divided,  and  reset ;  in  this  way  a  choice 
specimen  may  be  kept  along  year  after  year ; 
the  named  sorts  of  the  fanciers  are  propagated 
in  this  way  as  well  as  by  cuttings  of  the  stalks 
treated  in  the  usual  manner.  Even  grafting  is 
resorted  to  in  the  case  of  very  fine  sorts,  scions 
made  from  the  stems  being  set  upon  the  roots 
of  any  common  kind.  Cultivators  prefer  the 
dwarfer  specimens,  they  being  less  injured  by 
winds  than  the  tall,  and  by  selecting  in  this  di- 
rection the  height  of  the  plants  is  much  less 
than  formerly.  The  hollyhock  has  usually 
been  free  from  enemies  of  all  kinds,  but  in 
1873  a  parasitic  fungus,  p uccinia  malvacearum, 
heretofore  only  known  in  South  America  and 
Australia,  appeared  in  England  and  France; 
the  only  known  remedy  is  to  destroy  all  af- 
fected plants  and  thus  prevent  its  increase. 
The  roots  of  the  plant  are  mucilaginous,  and 
are  sometimes  substituted  for  those  of  marsh- 
mallow,  but  they  are  coarser  and  darker  col- 
ored. The  French  use  the  dried  flowers  in  in- 
fusions, probably  more  for  the  color  they  im- 
part than  for  any  medicinal  quality. 

HOIJIAV,  James,  known  as  "  the  blind  travel- 
ler," born  in  England  about  1787,  died  in  Lon- 
don in  July,  1857.  He  entered  the  royal  navy 
in  1798,  and  nine  years  afterward  received  a 
commission  as  lieutenant.  In  1812  he  lost  his 
eyesight,  and  the  king  consequently  appointed 
him  one  of  the  six  naval  knights  of  Windsor. 
During  the  years  1819-'21  he  travelled  through 
France,  Italy,  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  along 
the  Rhine,  and  published  an  account  of  his 
impressions,  which  was  so  well  received  by  the 
public  that  he  set  out  in  1822  on  a  journey 
around  the  world.  Commencing  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, he  took  the  route  by  Moscow,  Novgorod, 
and  Irkutsk,  intending,  when  the  season  should 
permit,  to  proceed  through  Mongolia  and 
China;  but  being  suspected  as  a  spy,  he  was 
stopped  by  an  order  from  the  Russian  govern- 
ment and  sent  back  under  escort  to  the  Ger- 
man frontier,  whence  he  returned  to  England 
in  1824.  He  published  in  1825  an  account  of 
this  journey,  under  the  title  of  "Travels  in 
Russia,"  &c.  The  five  years  from  1827  to  1832 
he  passed  in  a  voyage  around  the  world,  of 
which  he  published  an  account  in  1834.  His 
route  was  from  England  to  Madeira,  Teneritfe, 
and  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  thence  to  Brazil, 
which  he  passed  some  time  in  visiting,  thence 
to  Cape  Colony,  Caffraria,  Madagascar.  Mauri- 
tius, Ceylon  and  India,  New  South  Wales,  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  and  New  Zealand,  returning 
by  Cape  Horn  to  England.  He  afterward,  in 


1843-'4,  made  a  tour  in  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities and  Transylvania.  His  books  are 
more  curious  than  useful. 

HOLMBOE,  Christopher  Andreas,  a  Norwegian 
philologist,  born  at  Vang  in  1796.  He  studied 
in  Christiania,  and  also  in  Paris  under  Sylvestre 
de  Sacy  and  Caussin  de  Perceval,  and  became 
in  1822  professor  at  the  university  of  Chris- 
tiania. His  works,  written  in  Norwegian,  Da- 
nish, German,  French,  and  Latin,  relating  to 
Scriptural  studies,  archeology,  numismatics, 
and  comparative  philology,  include  De  Prisca 
Re  Monetaria  Norvegice  (Christiania,  1841  ; 
5th  ed.,  1854);  Sanskrit  og  Oldnorske  (1846); 
Det  norslce  Sprog  vcesentligste  Ord/orraad  sam- 
menlignet  med  Sanskrit  (1852) ;  and  Traces  du 
bouddhisme  en  Norvege  avant  V introduction 
du  christianisme  (Paris,  1857-170). 

HOLMES.  I.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Florida, 
bordering  on  Alabama,  and  intersected  by  the 
Choctawhatchee  river;  area,  396  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  1,572,  of  whom  137  were  colored.  Its 
surface  is  nearly  level.  The  soil  is  a  rich  allu- 
vium in  the  river  bottoms,  and  sandy  else- 
where. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
18,424  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  7,035  of  sweet 
potatoes,  116  bales  of  cotton,  4,480  gallons  of 
molasses,  2  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  76,985  Ibs. 
of  rice.  There  were  116  horses,  1,112  milch 
cows,  3,749  other  cattle,  1,237  sheep,  and 
3,543  swine.  Capital,  Cerro  Gordo.  II.  A 
central  county  of  Mississippi,  bounded  S.  E.  by 
Big  Black  river  and  N.  W.  by  the  Yazoo; 
area,  756  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,370,  of 
whom  13,225  were  colored.  It  has  an  undu- 
lating surface  and  a  very  rich  soil.  The  Yazoo 
is  navigable  by  steamboats  in  this  part  of  its 
course  during  the  whole  year,  and  the  New 
Orleans,  Jackson,  and  Great  Northern  railroad 
passes  through  the  county  near  its  S.  E.  bor- 
der. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  352,- 
623  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  16,433  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, and  19,027  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
1,110  horses,  2,343  mules  and  asses,  2,962  milch 
cows,  5,838  other  cattle,  2,680  sheep,  and  10,- 
426  swine.  Capital,  Lexington.  III.  An  E. 
central  county  of  Ohio,  intersected  by  Ivilbuck 
creek  and  watered  by  Walhonding  river ;  area, 
405  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,177.  It  has  a 
diversified  surface  and  a  soil  of  generally  good 
quality.  Coal  is  found  near  Kilbuck  creek, 
and  gas  springs  have  been  discovered.  The 
Cleveland,  Mt.  Vernon,  and  Delaware,  and  the 
Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  railroads 
pass  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  351,516  bushels  of  wheat,  569,895 
of  Indian  corn,  538,383  of  oats,  18,275  of  bar- 
ley, 102,117  of  potatoes,  246,520  Ibs.  of  wool, 
589,193  of  butter,  and  26,410  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  7,015  horses,  14,805  cattle,  62,491 
sheep,  and  20,111  swine;  11  flour  mills,  2  saw 
mills,  3  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 1  of  furniture,  and  3  of  woollen  goods. 
Capital,  Millersburg. 

HOLMES,  Abiel,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Woodstock,  Conn.,  Dec.  24,  1763,  died  in 


HOLMES 


771 


Cambridge,  Mass.,  June  4,  1837.     He  gradu- 
jd  at  Yale  college  in  1783,  and  became  sub- 
uently  a  tutor  in  the  college,  pursuing  at 
same  time  his  theological  studies.     In  1785 
was  settled  over  a  parish  at  Midway,  Ga., 
There  he  remained  till  compelled  by  ill  health 
resign  his  charge  in  1791.     In  1792  he  be- 
ime  pastor  of  the  first  parish  in  Cambridge, 
ttd  continued  to  fill  the  office  till  Sept.  26, 
1832.     Dr.  Stiles,  his  father-in-law,  at  his  de- 
se  had  bequeathed  to  him  his  large  collec- 
of    manuscripts,    containing    researches 
m  various   subjects,   and   from   these    Dr. 
folmes  wrote  a  "Life  of  President  Stiles," 
rhich  was  published  in  1798.     The  study  of 
lese  papers  turned  his  attention  to  the  early 
history  of  America,  and  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  composition  of  the  "Annals  of  America" 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Cambridge,  1805),  which  estab- 
lished for  its  author  a  high  reputation  for  ac- 
curacy, and  has  maintained  its  place  as  a  lead- 
ing authority  in  American  history.     It  was 
republished  in  England  in  1813,  and  in  1829  a 
new  and  enlarged  edition  was  published  in  this 
country,  bringing  the  annals  down  to  1820. 
Dr.    Holmes    contributed    frequently  to    the 
"Collections  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,"  in  vol.  xxvii.  of  which  will  be  found 
a  complete  list  of  his  publications.    In  1817  he 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  upon  ecclesiasti- 
cal history,  particularly  that  of  New  England, 
which  have  not  been  published. 

HOLMES,  George  Frederick,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  in  Demerara,  Guiana,  in  1820. 
He  was  brought  up  and  educated  in  England. 
When  11  years  of  age  he  was  presented  by 
the  bishop  of  Bristol  with  a  scholarship  in  the 
London  university,  admitting  him  to  the  senior 
class.  This  was  not  accepted,  but  at  a  later 
period  he  went  to  the  university  of  Durham, 
and  gained  an  open  scholarship.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  at  the  age  of  18,  and  was 
engaged  in  a  classical  academy  near  the  Wil- 
derness, Virginia,  in  1838-'9.  Next  he  taught 
in  Georgia.  In  1840  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  Walterborough  academy,  South  Carolina. 
He  had  while  teaching  studied  jurisprudence, 
and  in  1842  was  authorized  by  a  special  act  of 
the  South  Carolina  legislature  to  practise  law, 
although  not  naturalized.  Soon  afterward  he 
was  made  assistant  editor  of  the  "Southern 
Quarterly  Review."  In  1845  he  was  recalled 
to  Virginia  as  professor  in  Richmond  college ; 
and  in  1847  he  became  professor  of  history, 
political  economy,  and  international  law  in 
William  and  Mary  college.  In  1846  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  university  of  Missis- 
sippi, with  the  departments  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy,  political  economy,  and  his- 
tory. He  held  this  post  but  a  short  time, 
declining  health  obliging  him  to  seek  rest 
in  the  Virginia  mountains.  In  1857  he  was 
elected  professor  of  history  and  literature  in 
the  university  of  Virginia.  He  has  prepared 
a  series  of  text  books  designed  especially  for 
schools  in  the  southern  states. 


HOLMES,  John,  a  Canadian  author,  born  at 
Windsor,  Vt.,  in  1799,  died  at  Lorette,  near 
Quebec,  in  1852.  He  was  preparing  to  enter 
the  ministry  of  the  Wesleyan  church,  when  he 
embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith ;  he  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  in  the  seminary  of 
Montreal,  became  professor  in  the  college  of 
Nicolet,  where  he  was  ordained  priest,  and 
spent  some  time  as  a  missionary  in  the  Eastern 
Townships.  In  1828  he  entered*  the  seminary 
of  Quebec  as  professor,  was  elected  one  of  its 
directors,  and  soon  became  principal  of  the 
seminary.  In  1836  he  was  commissioned  by 
the  provincial  government  to  inquire  into  the 
system  of  normal  schools  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, and  returned  to  Canada  in  1837  with  pro- 
fessors, apparatus,  &c.,  for  the  Canadian  nor- 
mal school,  which  was  opened  forthwith  in 
Montreal.  From  1838,  owing  to  a  domestic 
affliction,  he  lived  in  seclusion,  only  appearing 
to  deliver  Lenten  courses  of  lectures,  published 
in  1850  as  Conferences  de  Notre  Dame  de  Que- 
bec. His  Manuel  dbrege  de  geographic  mo- 
derne  has  reached  its  sixth  edition. 

HOLMES,  Oliver  Wendell,  an  American  author, 
son  of  the  Rev.  Abiel  Holmes,  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1809.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1829,  and  entered  upon  the 
study  of  the  law,  which  he  soon  abandoned 
for  medicine,  and  in  1832  went  to  Europe  to 
pursue  his  studies,  passing  several  years  in  at- 
tendance on  the  hospitals  of  Paris  and  other 
large  cities.  He  received  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
in  1836,  in  1838  was  chosen  professor  of  anat- 
omy and  physiology  in  Dartmouth  college, 
and  in  1847  was  elected  to  fill  the  same  chair 
in  the  medical  college  of  Harvard  university. 
Early  in  his  college  life  he  attracted  attention 
as  a  poet.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Collegian," 
a  periodical  conducted  by  the  undergraduates 
of  the  college,  and  also  to  "  Illustrations  of  the 
Athenaaum  Gallery  of  Paintings"  in  1831,  and 
to  the  "  Harbinger,  a  May  Gift,"  in  1833.  In 
1836  he  read  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  so- 
ciety "Poetry,  a  Metrical  Essay,"  which  was 
published  in  the  first  collected  edition  of  his 
"  Poems  "  (Boston,  1836).  "  Terpsichore  "  was 
read  by  him  at  a  dinner  of  the  same  society  in 
1843,  and  "Urania"  was  published  in  1846. 
In  1850  he  delivered  before  the  Yale  chapter 
of  the  same  society  a  poem  entitled  "  Astraea," 
which  was  published  in  the  same  year.  His 
poems  have  passed  through  many  editions  since 
they  first  appeared  in  a  collected  form,  and 
have  been  republished  at  different  times  in 
England.  He  has  been  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  periodical  literature.  In  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly  "  (Boston,  1857)  he  began  a  series  of 
articles  under  the  title  of  "  The  Autocrat  of 
the  Breakfast  Table,"  which  were  continued 
for  a  year,  and  constituted  one  of  the  mosl 
brilliant  events  in  contemporary  American  lit- 
erature. They  were  followed  by  "  The  Pro- 
fessor at  the  Breakfast  Table,"  and  in  1872  by 
"The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table."  As  a 
writer  of  songs  and  lyrics,  both  humorous  and 


772 


HOLOTHURIANS 


HOLSTON 


serious,  Dr.  Holmes  stands  in  the  first  rank; 
many  of  his  best  poems  are  of  this  class,  and 
have  been  written  for  social  or  festive  occa- 
sions at  which  they  have  been  recited  or  sung 
by  the  poet  himself.  Of  patriotic  lyrics  few 
are  likely  to  have  a  longer  life  than  his  stirring 
verses  to  "Old  Ironsides,"  and  his  "Last  Leaf" 
is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  those  rare  poems 
in  which  humor  and  pathos  are  successfully 
blended.  He' is  also  popular  as  a  lyceum  lec- 
turer. He  has  distinguished  himself  by  his  re- 
searches in  auscultation  and  microscopy.  In 
1838  he  published  three  "  Boylston  Prize  Dis- 
sertations;" in  1842,  "Lectures  on  Homoeop- 
athy and  its  Kindred  Delusions ;"  in  1848,  a 
"  Report  on  Medical  Literature,"  in  the  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  National  Medical  Society ;"  a 
pamphlet  on  "  Puerperal  Fever ;"  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Dr.  Jacob  Bigelow,  an  edition 
of  Hall's  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine  " 
(8vo,  1839).  His  later  works  are :  "  Currents 
and  Countercurrents  in  Medical  Science" 
(1861) ;  "  Elsie  Venner,  a  Romance  of  Destiny  " 
(2  vols.,  1861) ;  "  Songs  in  Many  Keys  "  (1864) ; 
"  Soundings  from  the  Atlantic  "  (1864) ;  "  The 
Guardian  Angel "  (1868) ;  and  "  Mechanism  in 
Thought  and  Morals"  (1870). 

HOLOTHURIANS.     See  SEA  CUCUMBER. 

HOLST,  Hans  Peder,  a  Danish  poet,  born  in 
Copenhagen  in  1811.  He  received  a  superior 
education,  and  became  in  1836  professor  of 
Danish  and  of  logic  at  the  military  academy  of 
Copenhagen.  His  works  include  Nytaarsgave 
(4  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1835-'8),  Dansk  Leese- 
bog  (1837-'9 ;  5th  ed.,  1857),  and  the  poems 
Mindeblatt  om  Kong  Frederik  VI.  (1839),  and 
Farvel,  in  honor  of  the  same  sovereign  (1840), 
which  have  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. He  has  also  published  novels  and 
translations  from  German  and  French. 

HOLSTEIN  (Lat.  Holsatia),  a  former  duchy 
of  Denmark,  and  a  state  of  the  Germanic  con- 
federation, now  part  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  a 
province  of  Prussia.  Of  the  history  of  Hoi- 
stein  until  its  union  with  Schleswig  little  is 
known.  It  is  probable  that  the  great  migra- 
tion of  the  Cimbri  extended  as  far  north  as  Hoi- 
stein.  It  is  known  that  Tiberius  Caesar  pene- 
trated in  the  following  century  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe.  Tacitus  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  seven  small  German  tribes  which  wor- 
shipped the  goddess  Hertha  inhabited  the 
coasts  of  the  Baltic  as  far  as  Mecklenburg  and 
Schleswig.  Of  the  names  of  these  tribes,  that 
of  the  Angles  exists  in  the  county  of  Angeln 
in  Schleswig,  and  that  of  the  Varini  in  the 
towns  of  Warnow  and  Warnemunde,  in  Meck- 
lenburg ;  all  the  other  names  disappear  in  the 
consolidation  of  tribes  under  the  name  of  Sax- 
ons, who  are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by 
the  geographer  Ptolemy.  (See  SAXONS.)  An- 
gles, Saxons,  Jutlanders,  and  Frisians  appear 
together  in  the  great  emigration  to  Britain 
during  the  5th  century.  The  Saxons  in  Hoi- 
stein  were  subsequently  designated  as  North 
Albingians  (from  Albis,  Elbe),  and  the  country 


was  known  during  the  middle  ages  as  North 
Albingia,  or  Saxonia  Transalbiana.  They  were 
subjugated  by  Charlemagne,  who  obtained  in 
811,  by  a  treaty  with  Hemming,  king  of  the 
Danes,  the  whole  of  Holstein  as  far  as  the 
Eider.  His  son  Louis  le  D6bonnaire  founded 
in  834  the  archbishopric  of  Hamburg,  and  gave 
it  to  Ansgar,  the  apostle  of  the  north ;  but  in 
854  it  was  consolidated  with  the  bishopric  of 
Bremen.  Christian  civilization  made  however 
little  progress  in  Holstein.  The  country  was 
for  many  years  harassed  by  Danish  invaders, 
until  Henry  I.  of  Germany  succeeded  in  re- 
storing the  ancient  boundary  between  the  Eider 
and  the  Schlei  (934).  Conrad  II.  ceded  the  ter- 
ritory between  the  two  rivers  to  the  Danish  king 
Canute  the  Great  in  1027,  and  the  Eider  re- 
mained from  that  time  the  northern  line  of  de- 
markation.  Holstein  continued  to  be  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Saxony,  and  to  be  ruled  by  Saxon 
vice  counts,  until  Duke  (subsequently  Emperor) 
Lothaire  invested  with  it  in  1106  Count  Adol- 
phus  I.  of  Schauenburg.  Adolphus  II.  (died  in 
1 164)  conquered  Wagria,  and  Adolphus  III.  Dit- 
marsh ;  but  the  latter  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Danes,  and  was  compelled  to  cede  Holstein  to 
Waldemar  II.  Adolphus  IV.  reconquered  it  in 
1225,  and  divided  it  between  his  two  sons.  Af- 
ter their  death  arose  five  lines,  of  which  the  line 
Segeberg  became  extinct  in  1308,  Kiel  in  1321, 
Plon  in  1390,  and  Rendsburg  in  1459.  The 
Schauenburg  line,  which  continued  till  1640, 
possessed  only  part  of  Stomarn,  the  so-called 
domain  of  Pinneberg.  Mechthild,  daughter  of 
Adolphus  IV.,  married  in  1237  Duke  Abel  of 
Schleswig,  who  was  subsequently  king  of  Den- 
mark (1250-'52).  The  Danish  crown  fell  after 
his  death  to  another  house,  and  his  heirs  were 
engaged  in  numerous  conflicts  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  duchy  of  Schleswig,  and  received 
great  assistance  from  their  relatives,  the  counts 
of  Holstein.  Denmark  fell  into  anarchy,  and 
Gerhard,  of  the  Rendsburg  line,  ruled  it  from 
1334  to  1340,  and  obtained  Schleswig  as  a  he- 
reditary fief.  His  sons  were  not  able  to  retain 
the  regal  power,  and  Denmark  was  reconstruct- 
ed by  Waldemar  IV.  Some  portions  of  Schles- 
wig remained  the  property  of  the  counts  of 
Holstein,  who  took  possession  of  the  whole 
duchy  in  1375,  at  the  death  of  Duke  Henry, 
the  last  descendant  of  Abel,  and  obtained  it  in 
August,  1386,  by  treaty  at  Nyborg  in  Fiinen, 
as  a  hereditary  fief,  and  Gerhard  VI.,  of  the 
Rendsburg  line,  was  invested  Avith  it.  The  his- 
tory of  Holstein  from  this  time  is  included  in 
that  of  Schleswig.  (See  SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.) 
HOLSTON,  a  river  formed  by  the  junction 
at  Kingsport,  Tenn.,  of  the  N^  and  S.  forks, 
which  rise  in  the  Alleghany  mountain  in  S. 
W.  Virginia.  It  flows  S.  W.,  passing  by  Knox- 
ville,  and,  after  a  course  of  about  200  m., 
joins  the  Clinch,  near  Kingston,  Roane  co.,  to 
form  the  Tennessee.  It  is  navigated  by  steam- 
boats at  all  seasons  to  Knoxville,  and  during 
the  winter  to  Kingsport.  The  principal  tribu' 
taries  are  the  French  Broad  and  the  Little  Ten- 


HOLT 

e,  which  rise  in  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains 
western  North  Carolina.     The  former  joins 
e  main  stream  near  Knoxville,  and  is  navi- 
ble  to  Dandridge,  Jefferson  co. 
HOLT.     I.  A  N.  county  of  Nebraska,  sepa- 
,ted  from  Dakota  by  the  Niobrara  river,  and 
atered  by  the  Elkhorn;    area,  about  2,100 
sq.  m.     It  is  not  included  in  the   census  of 
1870.     II.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  sep- 
arated from  Kansas  and  Nebraska  on  the  S., 
W.,   and  W.  by  the  Missouri  river,   and 
nded  E.  by  the  Nodaway;    area,  470  sq. 
pop.  in  1870,  11,652,  of  whom  184  were 
colored.     It  has  an  undulating  surface,  with 
some  bluffs  on  the  Missouri  river,  and  a  fertile 
soil.     The  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  and  Coun- 
cil Bluffs  railroad  traverses  it.     The  chief  pro- 
uctions  in  1870  were  71,421  bushels  of  wheat, 
321,620  of  Indian  corn,  91,994  of  oats,  61,402 
potatoes,  and  155,100  Ibs.  of  butter.     There 
ere  3,551  horses,  3,924  milch   cows,   6,738 
er  cattle,  7,768  sheep,  and  25,220  swine;  6 
r  mills,  15  saw  mills,  and  4  manufactories 
saddlery  and  harness.     Capital,  Oregon. 
HOLT,  Sir  John,  an  English  jurist,  born  at 
ame,   Oxfordshire,  Dec.   30,   1642,  died   in 
h,  1709.     He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  be- 
came a  student  of  law,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1663,  and  rose  to  eminence  as  an  advocate. 
In  1686  he  was  elected  recorder  of  London, 
but  was  removed  at  the  expiration  of  a  year 
and  a  half  in  consequence  of  his  opposition  to 
the  measures  of  the  court.     In  the  convention 
parliament  which  met  to  arrange  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown,  after  the  departure  of  James 
II.,  he  displayed  so  much  ability  that  William 
III.  appointed  him  in  April,  1689,  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench,  which  office  he  retained 
until  his  death.     In  1700  he  was  solicited  to 
accept  the  great  seal,  upon  the  removal  of  Lord 
Somers  from  the  office  of  chancellor,  but  de- 
clined.    Of  his  integrity,  courage,  and  firmness 
in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  a  traditional  in- 
stance is  related  upon  the  occasion  of  a  sum- 
mons from  the  commons  to  appear  at  their 
bar,  for  deciding  in  favor  of  the  Aylesbury 
burgesses,  who  had  been  committed  for  com- 
plaining about  the   illegal  rejection  of  their 
votes.     He  took  no  notice  of  the  first  message 
from  the  house ;  and  upon  being  summoned  by 
the  speaker  in  person,  he  told  that  officer  to  re- 
turn at  once  to  his  chair,  or  he  would  commit 
him  to  Newgate.     The  reports  of  his  decisions, 
compiled  by  his  pupil  and  successor,  Chief  Jus- 
tice Raymond,  commencing  with  the  Easter 
term,  6  William  and  Mary,  give  a  good  impres- 
sion of  his  judicial  abilities.      Sir  John  Holt 
published  in   1708   a  folio  volume  of  crown 
cases  collected  by  Chief  Justice  Kelyng,  with 
notes  and  three  of  his  own  decisions. 

HOLT,  Joseph,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Breckenridge  co.,  Ky.,  Jan.  6,  1807.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Joseph's  college,  Bards- 
town,  and  at  Centre  college,  Danville,  and  in 
1828  began  to  practise  law  at  Elizabethtown, 
Ky.,  whence  in  1832  he  removed  to  Louisville, 


HOLY  ALLIANCE 


773 


and  in  1835  to  Port  Gibson,  Miss.  He  returned 
to  Louisville  in  1842.  In  1857  he  was  made 
commissioner  of  patents  at  Washington,  and  in 
1859  became  postmaster  general  under  Presi- 
dent Buchanan.  In  December,  1860,  upon  the 
withdrawal  of  John  B.  Floyd,  he  took  tempo- 
rary charge  of  the  department  of  war.  He 
afterward  served  in  civil  departments  until 
September,  1862,  when  he  was  appointed  judge 
advocate  general  of  the  army.  He  was  brevet- 
ted  as  major  general,  March  13,  1865. 

HOLTY,  Lndwig  Heinrich  Christoph,  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Mariensee,  near  Hanover,  Dec. 
21,  1748,  died  in  Hanover,  Sept.  1,  1776.  He 
studied  theology  at  Gottingen,  became  ac- 
quainted with  Burger,  Miller,  and  Count  C. 
Stolberg,  and  was  member  of  the  society  of 
poets  which  they  had  formed.  He  was  pre- 
paring a  collection  of  his  poems  when  he  died. 
They  were  afterward  edited  by  his  friends  Stol- 
berg and  Voss  in  1783,  and  again  by  Halm  in 
1869.  He  translated  the  philosophical  works 
of  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  other  English 
works  into  German. 

HOLTZENDORFF,  Franz  von,  a  German  juris- 
consult, born  at  Vietmannsdorf,  Prussia,  Oct. 
14,  1829.  He  studied  law  at  Berlin,  Heidelberg, 
and  Bonn,  was  appointed  in  1861  professor  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1867  became  a  member  of  the 
North  German  parliament.  Since  1861  he  has 
edited  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Strafrechtszei- 
tung,  since  1866  in  conjunction  with  Virchow 
the  Sammlung  gemeinverstandticher  wissen- 
schaf flicker  Vortrage,  and  since  1871  tlieJahr- 
buchfiir  Gesetsgebung,  Verwaltung  und  Rechte- 
pflege  des  DeutscJien  JReicks.  His  most  promi- 
nent works  are:  Die  Reform  der  Staatsan- 
waltschaft  in  DeutscUand  (Berlin,  1864);  Kri- 
tische  Untersuckungen  uber  die  Grundsatze 
und  Ergebnisse  des  irischen  Strafvollzugs 
(1865);  Die  Principien  der  Politik  (1869); 
EncyUopadie  der  Rechtswissenschaft  (1870  et 
seq.)  ;  and  Handbuch  des  deutschen  Strafrechts 
(1874:  et  seq.).  He  is  the  founder  of  several 
philanthropical  societies,  and  an  active  pro- 
moter of  public  education. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE,  a  league  formed  by  the  em- 
perors Alexander  I.  of  Russia  and  Francis  of 
Austria,  and  King  Frederick  William  III.  of 
Prussia,  Sept.  26,  1815,  after  the  second  abdi- 
cation of  Napoleon,  and  acceded  to  by  the  other 
principal  powers  of  Europe,  except  Rome,  Eng- 
land, and  France.  Its  ostensible  object  was  to 
regulate  the  states  of  Christendom  on  princi- 
ples of  Christian  amity,  but  the  real  aim  was 
to  maintain  the  existing  dynasties.  Alexander 
himself  drew  up  the  agreement  and  gave  to  it 
its  name.  The  three  monarchs  signed  it  at 
Paris  Sept.  26,  1815,  but  it  was  not  wholly 
made  public  till  Feb.  2,  1816,  when  it  appeared 
in  full  in  the  "  Frankfort  Journal."  A  special 
article  of  the  treaty  excluded  for  ever  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Bonaparte  family  from  all  the 
thrones  of  Europe.  It  was  in  virtue  of  the 
holy  alliance  that  Austria  in  1821  suppressed 
the  revolutions  in  Naples  and  Piedmont,  and 


774 


HOLYHEAD 


HOLYOAKE 


that  France  in  1823  restored  absolutism  in 
Spain.  After  Alexander's  death  the  compact 
lost  authority,  and  the  French  revolution  of 
1830  may  be  said  to  have  ended  it. 

HOLYHEAD  (Welsh,  Goer  Gyli,  fort  of  Gybi), 
a  parliamentary  borough,  market  town,  and 
seaport  of  N.  Wales,  on  a  small  island  of  the 
same  name  at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  county 
of  Anglesea,  67  m.  W.  of  Liverpool ;  pop.  in 
1871,  6,193.  An  embankment  three  fourths  of 
a  mile  in  length,  16  ft.  high,  with  a  bridge  mid- 
way, under  which  the  tide  rushes  with  great 
violence,  connects  the  island  across  a  sandy 
shallow  with  the  island  of  Anglesea.  The 
island  of  Holyhead  is  mostly  a  barren  rock, 
ending  in  a  huge  headland  of  serpentine,  and 
is  noted  for  its  magnificent  caverns  excavated 
by  the  sea.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  but 
the  housea  are  massively  constructed  of  stone. 


A  harbor  of  refuge  has  been  formed  by  a  north 
breakwater  7,860  ft.  long  and  an  east  break- 
water 2,000  ft.  long,  the  completion  and  for- 
mal opening  of  which,  after  25  years'  labor, 
was  celebrated  Aug.  2.3,  1873.  The  north 
breakwater  is  terminated  by  a  head  on  which 
is  erected  a  lighthouse.  The  harbor  and  road- 
stead cover  about  667  acres.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  work  is  a  great  mound  of  rub- 
ble stone,  400  ft.  wide  at  the  base,  and  no- 
where less  than  250  ft.  in  width  at  low- water 
level.  It  contains  altogether  about  7,000,000 
tons  of  stone.  The  superstructure  is  a  solid 
central  wall  of  masonry  built  of  stone  from 
the  Holyhead  mountain  quarries.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  engaged  in  rope  making,  ship 
building,  and  the  coasting  trade.  The  parish 
church  is  an  ancient  structure,  dedicated  to 
St.  Gybi,  with  some  rude  but  curious  carving 


New  Harbor  of  Refuge  at  Holyhead. 


on  its  walls,  and  situated  in  a  churchyard  sur- 
rounded by  a  stone  fence  which  appears  to 
have  been  a  Roman  fortress.  Holyhead  is  a 
terminus  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  rail- 
way. A  submarine  telegraph  extends  across 
the  channel  from  Holyhead  to  Howth,  and  on 
account  of  its  advantageous  situation  Holy- 
head  has  been  made  the  principal  station  of 
the  post-office  packets  to  Dublin. 

HOLYOAKE,  George  Jacob,  an  English  reform- 
er, born  in  Birmingham,  April  13,  1817.  He 
studied  and  afterward  taught  mathematics  in 
the  mechanics1  institute  of  that  city,  and  be- 
came known  as  an  advocate  of  political  and 
religious  radicalism.  Among  his  numerous 
publications  is  a  "History  of  Cooperation  in 
Rochdale,"  describing  the  benefits  of  the  pioneer 
society  founded  in  that  town  in  1844,  which 
has  been  translated  into  many  languages.  He 


has  edited  for  many  years  "The  Reasoner,"  an 
organ  of  secularism,  as  he  calls  the  system  of 
civilization  based  upon  secular  and  not  upon 
theological  ideas.  This  system  is  defined  by 
its  advocates  as  the  religion  of  the  present  life, 
not  in  opposition  to  theology,  but  apart  from  it. 
It  teaches  that  intelligent  sincerity  is  sinless ; 
that  we  should  believe  nothing  until  compelled 
to  believe  it  by  positive  demonstration ;  that 
the  performance  of  duty,  not  the  pursuit  of 
happiness,  is  the  end  of  life ;  and  that  utility, 
broadly  and  unselfishly  considered,  is  the  test 
of  right.  It  advocates  free  thought  and  free 
criticism,  and  makes  the  quality  of  thought, 
not  its  motive,  the  subject  of  discussion.  It 
avoids  theology  on  the  ground  that  its  truth 
or  falsity  can  only  be  demonstrated  after  death. 
In  its  practical  bearing  it  seeks  for  "  that  mate- 
rial condition  in  which  it  shall  be  impossible 


I 


HOLYOKE 


for  man  to  be  depraved  or  poor,"  and  professes 
to  furnish  for  those  who  cannot  accept  Chris- 
tianity a  rule  of  conduct,  drawn  from  the  wis- 
dom of  science  and  experience,  which  shall  en- 
able them  to  live  purely,  act  nobly,  and  deserve 
another  life  (if  there  be  one)  by  the  unfaltering 
pursuit  of  duty  in  this.  Holyoake  was  under  ar- 
rest for  some  time  on  a  charge  of  atheism,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  last  person  committed 
for  that  offence.  He  was  indicted  for  publish- 
ing unstamped  papers,  and  had  incurred  fines 
to  an  immense  amount  when  the  duty  was  re- 
pealed in  1855.  His  "History  of  Cooperation 
(2  vols.,  London)  was  published  in  1874. 

HOLYOKE,  a  city  of  Hampden  co.,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Connecticut  river, 
7  m.  N.  of  Springfield  and  80  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
Boston;  pop.  in  1850,  3,245;  in  1860,  4,997; 
in  1870,  10,733,  of  whom  5,490  were  foreign- 
ers. It  is  regularly  laid  out  on  high  ground,  is 
divided  into  seven  wards,  and  is  lighted  with 
gas  and  supplied  with  water  from  Ashley  pond. 
The  Connecticut  River  railroad  and  a  branch 
of  the  New  Haven  and  Northampton  line  pass 
through  the  city.  Its  prosperity  dates  from 
the  construction  in  1849  by  the  Hadley  Falls 
company,  now  the  Holyoke  water  power  com- 
pany, of  a  dam  across  the  Connecticut,  which 
here  falls  60  ft.  in  three  fourths  of  a  mile.  (See 
DAM.)  The  principal  manufactures  are  of  cot- 
ton and  woollen  goods  and  of  paper,  the  latter 
being  the  most  important.  There  are  16  pa- 
per mills,  with  capacity  for  50  tons  a  day,  of 
which  8  manufacture  writing  paper  and  the 
rest  collar,  blotting,  and  wrapping  paper;  7 
cotton  mills,  with  136,000  spindles,  producing 
spool  cotton,  twine,  thread,  yarn,  cottonades, 
ginghams,  dress  goods,  sheetings,  shirtings, 
drills,  lawns,  &c. ;  and  6  woollen  mills  with 
29  sets  of  machinery,  manufacturing  beavers, 
cassimeres,  doeskins,  and  horse  blankets.  There 
are  also  a  shoddy  mill,  a  manufactory  of  flocks, 
two  machine  shops,  a  screw  mill,  a  flour  mill, 
three  lumber  mills,  and  two  national  banks  with 
a  capital  of  $400,000.  The  assessed  value  of 
property  in  1873  was  $8,578,192.  The  city 
has  31  public  schools,  having  44  teachers  and 
an  average  attendance  of  1,221  pupils  in  1872; 
a  weekly  newspaper,  and  8  churches. — Holyoke 
was  originally  a  part  of  Springfield.  It  was 
incorporated  as  a  part  of  West  Springfield  in 
1786,  receiving  the  name  of  Ireland  parish,  and 
became  a  separate  town  in  1850.  It  received 
a  city  charter  in  1873. 

HOLYOKE,  Edward  Angnstns,  an  American 
centenarian,  born  in  Essex  co.,  Mass.,  Aug.  1, 
1728,  died  in  Salem,  Mass.,  March  31,  1829. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college,  of  which  his 
father,  Edward  Holyoke,  was  president,  in 
1746,  and  began  to  practise  as  a  physician  at 
Salem  in  1749.  At  his  death  he  had  practised 
in  Salem  for  79  years,  and  had  never  been  50 
miles  from  that  city.  He  was  married  in  1755, 
and  a  second  time  in  1759,  and  was  the  father 
of  12  children,  only  two  of  whom  survived 
He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Mas- 


HOLY  SPIRIT  PLANT          775 

sachusetts  medical  society.  He  was  temperate 
m  his  diet,  eating  freely  of  fruit ;  was  accus- 
tomed to  walk  in  his  professional  practice  until 
his  80th  year ;  and  regarded  his  constant  care 
to  have  a  full  proportion  of  sleep  as  one  of  the 
causes  of  his  longevity.  At  80  years  of  age 
he  had  lost  his  teeth,  and  his  hearing  and  mem- 
ory had  begun  to  fail.  Between  the  ages  of 
45  and  85  his  sight  required  the  aid  of  convex 
glasses;  it  gradually  improved  afterward,  till 
at  his  death  he  could  read  the  finest  print  with 
his  naked  eyes.  On  his  100th  birthday  about 
50  physicians  of  Boston  and  Salem  gave  him 
a  public  dinner,  when  he  appeared  at  the  table 
with  a  firm  step,  smoked  his  pipe,  and  gave 
an  appropriate  toast.  A  memoir  of  his  life  was 
published  by  the  Essex  medical  society. 

HOLYROOD  PALAGE.     See  EDINBURGH. 

HOLY  SPIRIT  PLANT,  a  name  which,  as  well 
as  dove  plant,  has  been  given  to  a  Central 
American  orchid,  peristeria  elata,  which  has 


Holy  Spirit  or  Dove  Plant  (Peristeria  ekta). 

large,  green,  egg-shaped  pseudo-bulbs,  strongly 
ribbed  leaves  3  ft.  or  more  long,  and  a  flower 
stem  5  or  6  ft.  high,  which  bears  upon  its  upper 
portion  numerous,  nearly  globose,  white,  fra- 
grant flowers.  The  structure  of  the  flowers  in 
the  orchids  is  quite  unlike  that  with  which 
most  persons  are  familiar;  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  here  that  the  stamen  or  stamens  and  pistil 
are  curiously  united  into  what  is  called  the 
column,  and  refer  the  reader  to  OECHIDS  for 
further  description.  In  many  of  this  family 
the  petals  and  sepals  present  the  most  grotesque 
and  irregular  forms,  often  simulating  the  ap- 
pearance of  insects;  in  peristeria,  however, 
envelopes  of  the  flower  are  unusually 
regular  and  form  an  almost  spherical  case  of 
alabaster  whiteness,  within  which  is  enclosed 
delicate  little  bird  with  outspread  wings. 
The  column  in  this  plant  bears  so  strong  a  re- 
semblance to  a  bird  as  to  require  scarcely  any 
effort  of  the  fancy  to  make  it  appear  like  a 


776 


HOLY  WEEK 


HOLYWELL 


dove,  of  the  form  which  artists  choose  in  typi- 
fying the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  not  surprising:  that 
a  plant  which  to  the  educated  eye  is  so  striking 
should,  to  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  among 
the  Spanish  Americans,  appear  of  some  super- 
natural significance,  and  be  regarded  with 
veneration.  Under  the  name  of  el  Spirito 
Santo  it  is  employed  in  religious  festivals  in 
Central  America.  At  the  time  when  the  cur- 
rent of  travel  to  California  was  by  the  way 
of  Panama,  living  plants,  as  well  as  the  flowers 
preserved  in  alcohol,  were  frequently  brought 
home  by  passengers.  It  is  now  not  rare  in 
the  collections  of  those  who  cultivate  orchids, 
though  it  is  not  often  seen  in  cultivation  with  the 
size  and  vigor  of  the  plant  in  its  native  country. 
HOLY  WEEK,  the  last  week  of  Lent,  imme- 
diately preceding  Easter  Sunday.  It  is  some- 
times called  Passion  week,  but  that  denomina- 
tion is  given  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches 
to  the  week  preceding  Palm  Sunday,  and  com- 
mencing with  Passion  Sunday.  The  term  holy 
is  applied  to  it  because  it  is  commemorative  of 
Christ's  death  for  the  redemption  of  mankind. 
It  was  called  in  the  early  Christian  ages  the  great 
week,  both  because  of  the  mighty  event  it  com- 
memorates, and  because  it  is  observed  with  the 
greatest  solemnity  and  strictness.  Tertullian, 
Lactantius,  and  Chrysostom,  among  other  an- 
cient writers,  mention  the  fact  that  during  this 
week  Christians  were  wont  to  fast  on  one  meal 
of  bread,  salt,  and  water,  taken  in  the  evening, 
while  many  abstained  from  all  food  the  entire 
week,  and  a  still  greater  number  took  no  nour- 
ishment during  Good  Friday  and  Holy  Satur- 
day. In  the  middle  ages  it  was  called  the  au- 
thentic week ;  and  in  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula  it  is  known  as 
still  week.  The  greater  number  of  Protestant 
churches  do  not  solemnize  this  week.  The 
Lutheran  churches,  the  church  of  England, 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  have  spe- 
cial services  each  day.  In  the  Greek  and 
other  eastern  churches  the  observances  and 
ceremonial  are  substantially  the  same  as  in 
the  Latin.  It  commences  with  Palm  Sunday, 
when  the  blessing  of  palm  branches  or  other 
evergreens,  and  the  distribution  of  them  to 
the  people  who  carry  them  in  procession,  are 
designed  to  recall  the  circumstances  attending 
Christ's  triumphant  entrance  into  Jerusalem. 
On  Wednesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday  even- 
ings the  office  of  Tenebra  (darkness,  from  the 
darkening  of  the  churches)  is  chanted.  It 
consists  of  the  matins  and  lauds  for  the  follow- 
ing mornings,  which  it  is  customary  to  recite 
over  night.  During  this  office  a  large  candle- 
stick is  placed  near  the  altar,  bearing  15  tapers 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  and  repre- 
senting the  light  of  Christ  and  of  the  prophets 
who  had  announced  his  coming.  As  the  psalms 
are  sung,  the  tapers  are  extinguished,  until 
only  the  topmost  remains.  This,  as  it  repre- 
sents Christ,  is  taken  down  and  carried  behind 
the  altar  during  the  Miserere,  after  which  it  is 
put  back  in  its  place,  to  signify  the  temporary 


extinction  of  the  light  of  Christ  between  his 
death  and  resurrection.  Thursday,  being  the 
anniversary  of  the  institution  of  the  eucharist 
and  of  the  priesthood  of  the  new  law,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  two  ceremonies  of  great  signifi- 
cance which  take  place  at  the  solemn  mass  in 
cathedral  churches:  the  consecration  by  the 
bishop  assisted  by  12  priests,  in  full  sacerdotal 
costume,  of  the  oils  used  in  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  &c.,  and  the  washing  of 
feet.  At  the  end  of  mass,  and  after  the  pro-, 
cession,  the  celebrant  washes  the  feet  of  12 
poor  persons,  while  the  choir  sings  the  words 
of  St.  John,  Mandatum  novum  do  voMs,  u  A 
new  commandment  I  give  unto  you,"  &c. 
Hence  the  name  of  Maundy  Thursday  by 
which  this  day  is  still  known.  In  Rome  the 
pope  washes  the  feet  of  13  poor  priests,  in 
memory  of  the  body  of  the  apostles  raised  to 
that  number  by  the  extraordinary  calling  of 
St.  Paul.  During  the  Gloria  in  excelsis  of  the 
mass  of  Thursday,  all  the  bells  are  rung,  and 
thenceforward  remain  silent  until  the  Gloria 
in  excelsis  in  the  mass  of  Holy  Saturday.  A 
large  host,  consecrated  during  this  mass,  is 
carried  in  procession  at  the  end  of  it  to  a  side 
altar  (called  the  sepulchre)  richly  decorated, 
on  which  it  remains  and  where  it  is  visited  by 
the  faithful  during  the  whole  of  the  ensuing 
day.  On  Good  Friday  the  altar  is  denuded 
to  signify  the  desolation  of  the  church,  the 
prophecies  are  sung  which  pertain  to  the  story  . 
of  Christ's  suffering,  the  whole  .body  of  the 
faithful  perform  what  is  called  the  adoration 
of  the  cross,  the  passion  according  to  St. 
John  is  chanted,  and  all  proceed  in  silence 
to  the  sepulchre,  whence  the  consecrated  host 
is  brought  back  in  procession,  offered  in  adora- 
tion to  the  people,  and  consumed  by  the  cele- 
brant. This  is  called  the  "  mass  of  the  pre- 
sanctified"  or  preconsecrated  elements,  no 
consecration  taking  place  on  that  day.  On  . 
Saturday  the  services  begin  by  the  blessing 
of  the  "  new  fire  "  obtained  from  flint  and 
steel,  because  our  true  vital  light  and  warmth 
come  from  Christ,  our  Rock  ;  the  blessing 
of  the  paschal  candle,  an  emblem  of  Christ 
arisen  ;  the  chanting  of  all  the  prophetic 
passages  of  the  Old  Testament  pointing  to 
Christ's  resurrection ;  then  the  benediction  of 
the  baptismal  fonts,  from  which  the  clergy  re- 
turn in  procession,  singing  the  litany  of  the 
saints,  and  the  joyous  mass  with  its  Alle- 
luias, a  foretaste  of  the  resurrection. 

HOLYWELL,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  and  market  town  of  Flintshire,  N". 
Wales,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Dee,  and  on  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway, 
15  m.  N.  W.  of  Chester;  pop.  in  1871,  5,335. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  holy  well  of  St. 
Winifred,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  virtue  in 
the  cure  of  diseases.  The  well  discharges  21 
tons  of  water  per  minute,  and  now  serves  as 
the  motive  power  of  most  of  the  machinery  in 
the  place.  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond, 
mother  of  Henry  VII.,  erected  a  handsome 


HOMBURG 


HOME 


777 


Gothic  building  over  the  spring,  the  upper  part 
of  which  is  now  used  as  a  school  house.  In 
the  vicinity  are  collieries,  and  valuable  mines 
of  lead,  copper,  and  zinc.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  copper  wire,  bolts,  nails,  sheath- 
ing, white  and  red  lead,  shot,  flour,  and  flan- 
nels. Limestone  is  largely  exported. 

HOMBURG  (Ger.  also  Hamburg  vor  der  ffohe, 
at  the  height),  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of 
the  circle  of  Upper  Taunus  in  the  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  9  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Frankfort; 
pop.  in  1871,  8,626.  It  derives  its  name  from 
being  situated  on  and  near  the  heights  of  the 
mountain  ridge  of  Taunus.  The  principal 
buildings  are  a  castle,  built  in  1680  and  reno- 
vated in  1835,  a  library,  a  picture  gallery, 
and  a  Protestant  church.  The  town  is  a  cele- 
brated watering  place,  but  owes  much  of  its 
reputation  to  the  former  existence  of  an  au- 
thorized gambling  house.  The  government  of 
the  landgraviate  concluded  in  1840  a  contract 
with  the  brothers  Louis  and  Francois  Blanc  of 
Paris,  permitting  them  to  keep  open  bank,  in 
return  for  building  a  Kursaal  at  a  cost  of  $100,- 
000,  and  a  high  annual  rent.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  the  contract  in  1870  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment refused  to  renew  it  and  prohibited 
the  further  existence  of  gambling  houses. 
There  are  four  ferruginous  and  two  saline 
springs,  which  contain  more  carbonic  acid  than 
any  other  mineral  water  known.  (See  HESSE- 

HOMBURG.) 

HOME,  Daniel  Dnnglas,  an  English  spiritualist, 
born  near  Edinburgh,  March  20,  1833.  He 
was  adopted  by  an  aunt,  with  whom  he  came 
to  America  when  nine  years  of  age.  It  is 
said  that  spiritual  manifestations  attended  him 
from  his  infancy,  but  the  earliest  of  his  own 
recollection  was  a  remarkable  vision  in  his 
14th  year  of  a  deceased  playmate.  When  17 
years  old  he  became  publicly  known  as  a 
medium,  though  against  the  wishes  of  his  fam- 
ily. He  resided  at  different  times  in  Troy  and 
Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  in  Lebanon,  Conn.,  and  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  the  last  place  many  re- 
markable manifestations  taking  place.  These 
manifestations  have  continued  with  intermis- 
sions to  attend  Mr.  Home  to  the  present  time. 
Besides  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  rapping, 
table-tipping,  writing,  and  playing  upon  mu- 
sical instruments,  they  include  in  his  case,  it 
is  affirmed,  visions  seen  by  the  medium,  ap- 
pearances of  hands,  arms,  and  spirit  forms,  seen 
by  other  persons,  "  levitation,"  or  the  preter- 
natural uplifting  of  the  medium,  elongation  and 
shortening  of  his  body  by  several  inches,  and 
his  handling  of  fire  and  heated  objects  without 
hurt.  The  occasional  intermission  of  his  pow- 
er is  without  any  known  cause,  and  its  oc- 
currence has  been  generally  beneficial  to  his 
physical  health.  He  claims  to  have  performed 
some  remarkable  cures,  and  to  have  been  him- 
self protected  from  sudden  danger.  The  mani- 
festations have  been  witnessed  by  many  persons, 
and  contradictory  accounts  of  them  have  been 
published  by  different  and  reputable  witnesses. 


In  1853  he  went  to  New  York  to  study  medi- 
cine, but  abandoned  the  intention.  In  1855 
he  went  to  England,  and  has  since  made  Lon- 
don his  principal  residence.  He  visited  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  was  presented  to  the 
emperors  of  France  and  Russia,  and  to  the 
pope.  In  1856,  while  in  Rome,  he  united  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  church.  He  subsequently 
met  in  Rome  a  Russian  lady  of  noble  birth, 
whom  he  married  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1858. 
She  died  in  southern  France,  where  they  were 
staying  for  her  health,  in  1862,  leaving  him  a 
son  born  in  1859.  Memorial  sketches  of  her 
were  written  by  Mary  Howitt  and  Mrs.  S.  C. 
Hall.  In  1864  he  was  expelled  for  spiritualist 
practices  from  the  city  of  Rome  by  the  papal 
authorities.  In  1866  he  became  secretary  of 
the  spiritual  athenasum,  a  society  in  London 
for  the  extension  of  spiritualism.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  acquainted  with  Mrs.  Jane 
Lyon,  who  conveyed  to  him  by  gift  and  be- 
quest large  sums  of  money,  including  the  bulk 
of  her  property.  Subsequently  she  sued  for 
its  recovery,  and  it  was  restored  to  her  by  law. 
In  1871  Mr.  Home  again  married  a  Russian 
lady  of  rank.  He  has  published  an  autobio- 
graphical work  on  spiritual  manifestations,  en- 
titled "Incidents  of  my  Life"  (London,  1862, 
and  republished  in  New  York  and  Paris),  and 
a  second  volume  with  the  same  title  (London 
and  New  York,  *1872).  A  third  volume  is  an- 
nounced. 

HOME,  Sir  Everard,  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born 
at  Greenlaw  castle,  Berwickshire,  May  6,  1756, 
died  Aug.  31, 1832.  He  studied  medicine  with 
his  brother-law,  the  celebrated  John  Hunter, 
and  practised  in  London  for  more  than  40 
years.  In  1813  he  was  created  a  baronet  and 
appointed  sergeant  surgeon  to  the  court,  in 
which  office  he  was  continued  by  William  IV. 
He  was  also  professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy, 
and  for  many  years  president  of  the  royal  col- 
lege of  surgeons.  His  "  Lectures  on  Compara- 
tive Anatomy"  (6vols.  4to,  London,  1814-'28) 
is  his  most  important  work.  He  is  indebted 
for  his  reputation  as  an  author  to  the  folio  vol- 
umes of  minutes  of  dissections  left  by  John 
Hunter,  which  he  took  from  the  Hunterian 
museum  under  the  pretence  of  preparing  a 
catalogue  of  the  museum,  and  burned. 

HOME,  Henry,  Lord  Kames.     See  KAMES. 

HOME,  or  Hume,  John,  a  Scottish  author, 
born  at  Ancrum  about  1722,  died  in  Edin- 
burgh, Sept.  5,  1808.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  .after  a  course  of 
theological  studies  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
April,  1745.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  re- 
bellion in  1745  he  took  up  arms  on  the  Han- 
overian side.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Falkirk 
in  1746  ;  but  having  effected  his  escape,  he  re- 
sumed his  professional  studies,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  was  presented  to  the  parish 
of  Athelstaneford.  He  gave  much  time  to 
historical  reading  and  dramatic  composition, 
and  in  1749  went  to  London  with  a  tragedy 
entitled  "  Agis,"  which  Garrick,  then  manager 


778 


HOMER 


of  Drury  Lane,  declined  to  accept.  Although 
mortified  by  his  ill  success,  he  set  about  the 
composition  of  another  tragedy,  "Douglas," 
founded  on  the  old  ballad  of  "Gil  Morrice," 
which,  upon  'being  presented  to  Garrick  in 
1755,  was  likewise  refused.  It  was  produced 
at  Edinburgh  in  December,  1756,  with  great 
success ;  but  so  violent  a  storm  was  raised  by 
the  fact  that  a  minister  of  the  church  of  Scot- 
land had  written  a  play,  that  Home  was  threat- 
ened with  deposition,  to  avoid  which  he  re- 
signed his  living  in  June,  1757.  He  removed 
to  London  in  the  same  year,  when  "  Douglas  " 
was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane  with  complete 
success.  By  the  aid  of  the  sinecure  office  of 
conservator  of  Scots  privileges  at  Campvere, 
presented  to  him  by  the  earl  of  Bute,  and  of  a 
pension  of  £300  from  George  III.,  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  long  life  in  affluence,  the 
last  40  years  in  Scotland.  He  wrote  four  other 
tragedies,  "The  Fatal  Discovery,"  "Alonzo," 
"Alfred,"  and  "  Aquileia."  His  literary  repu- 
tation rests  upon  his  "Douglas,"  which  is  still 
performed,  notwithstanding  the  declaration  of 
Garrick  that  it  was  totally  unfit  for  the  stage. 
He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Rebellion 
of  1745  "  (4to,  London,  1802).  His  complete 
works,  with  an  account  of  his  life  and  writings, 
were  published  by  Henry  Mackenzie  (3  vols. 
8vo,  Edinburgh,  1822). 

HOMER  ("O/^po?),  the  supposed  author  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the  earliest  monuments  of 
Greek  literature.  The  several  ancient  biogra- 
phies of  Homer  extant  are  either  legendary  or 
conjectural,  and  often  contradictory,  and  the 
narratives  of  the  poems  are  full  of  extraor- 
dinary incidents,  in  great  part  of  a  mytho- 
logical character,  and  of  striking  discrepancies. 
Hence  various  opinions  are  entertained  as  to 
the  origin  of  the  poems  and  the  amount  of 
fact  or  fiction  contained  in  them.  G.  Ctirtius, 
following  Miillenhoff,  conjectures  that  Homer 
was  a  name  given  to  the  ideal  patron  of  an 
association  of  poets  (bfirjpoi).  In  common  use 
the  word  b^pog  meant  hostage,  but  Duntzer 
and  others  suppose  that  its  original  meaning  was 
"one  who  connects  or  combines,"  analogous 
to  that  of  Vyasa  (collector),  the  name  given 
to  the  compiler  or  compilers  of  the  Hindoo 
Vedas  and  Puranas.  Sengebusch  identifies  it 
with  the  name  of  Thamyris,  the  Thracian  bard. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  name  is  repeatedly 
spoken  of  by  ancient  writers  as  only  a  pseu- 
donyme  of  the  poet.  Either  Homer  was  him- 
self the  "  hostage,"  sent  to  Chios  or  Colophon, 
or  it  was  his  father  who  was  surrendered  to 
the  Persians.  On  the  island  of  los  the  name 
was  explained  as  "  follower,"  supposing  that 
he  followed  the  Lydians  when  they  were  com- 
pelled to  move  away  from  Smyrna.  Suidas 
gives  it  the  signification  of  "  counsellor,"  and 
Ephorus  dismembers  it  into  6  /»/  6puv,  "one 
who  does  not  see,"  referring  to  the  legend  of 
the  poet's  blindness.  It  does  not  appear,  how- 
ever, that  any  of  these  interpretations  can  fur- 
nish a  clue  to  the  problem  whether  it  is  really 


the  name  of  a  person,  and  whether  that  person 
was  the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. — Two 
biographies  of  Homer  have  come  down  to  us 
from  antiquity,  one  of  which  is  attributed  to 
Herodotus  and  the  other  to  Plutarch.  Both 
have  been  pronounced  forgeries,  yet  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  contain  the  legends  relating  to 
the  life  of  the  poet  current  in  ancient  times. 
His  mother  is  said  to  have  been  Critheis;  and 
one  legend  represents  him  to  have  been  born 
on  the  bank  of  the  river  Meles,  near  Smyrna, 
whence  the  name  Melesigenes;  according  to 
another,  Critheis  was  married  to  Mseon,  king 
of  the  Lydians,  who  brought  up  her  son  (the 
offspring  of  a  dzemon  or  genius)  as  his  own, 
whence  the  name  Maeonides.  Another  legend 
relates  that  Homer  became  a  schoolmaster  and 
poet  in  Smyrna ;  that  he  was  induced  by  Men- 
tes,  a  foreign  merchant,  to  travel;  that  while 
visiting  Ithaca  he  was  attacked  by  a  disease  in 
the  eyes,  which  resulted  in  total  blindness; 
that  he  composed  verses,  which  he  recited 
wherever  he  went;  that  Thestorides,  a  school- 
master of  Phocaja,  carried  a  copy  of  Homer's 
poetry  to  Chios,  and  recited  it  as  his  own;  that 
Homer  followed  him  thither,  and  resided  long 
at  Bolissos,  a  town  in  Chios ;  and  finally,  that 
he  died  on  the  little  island  of  los,  when  jour- 
neying to  Athens.  Still  another  legend  de- 
clares that  the  poet  on  his  way  to  Thebes  land- 
ed at  los,  and  there  died  of  vexation  at  being 
unable  to  solve  a  riddle  propounded  to  him  by 
some  young  fishermen,  in  answer  to  his  ques- 
tion if  they  had  got  anything.  "  As  many  at 
we  caught,"  said  they,  "  we  left ;  as  many  as 
we  did  not  catch,  we  carry."  The  prevailing 
opinion  of  antiquity  seems  to  have  been  that 
Homer  was  born  in  Smyrna,  resided  for  a  long 
time  in  Chios,  and  was  buried  in  los.  Rhodes 
also  is  said  to  have  been  his  home,  but  without 
evidence.  In  later  times  the  island  of  Cyprus 
also  made  such  a  claim.  The  Cypriotes  said 
that  Homer  was  born  in  a  field  near  Salamis,  of 
a  girl  named  Themisto,  and  that  the  birth  of 
the  great  singer  had  long  previously  been  an- 
nounced by  the  Salamine  oracles,  in  verses 
which  they  could  produce.  Athens,  Argos, 
Pylos,  and  other  cities  wished  likewise  to  be 
regarded  as  Homer's  native  place.  Herodotus 
places  Homer  about  400  years  before  his  own 
time,  or  in  the  second  half  of  the  9th  century 
B.  C.,  which  is  400  years  after  the  time  which 
he  fixes  for  the  Trojan  Avar.  The  dates  as-" 
signed  to  Homer  by  other  ancient  writers  range 
from  the  beginning  of  the  12th  to  the  beginning 
of  the  7th  century  B.  C. — The  principal  poems 
ascribed  to  Homer  are  the  Iliad  and  the  Odys- 
sey. Among  the  minor,  and  evidently  of  differ- 
ent origin,  are  the  so-called  Homeric  hymns 
and  the  Batrachomyomachia.  The  Iliad  com- 
prises a  period  of  about  50  days  of  the  10th  year 
of  the  Trojan  war,  and  narrates  the  wrath  of 
Achilles  and  its  consequences  as  far  as  the 
death  of  Hector.  Achilles  is  enraged  because 
Briseis,  who  had  been  allotted  to  him,  was 
taken  away  and  given  to  Agamemnon;  and, 


HOMER 


779 


angered  with  all  the  Greeks,  he  no  longer  takes 
part  in  the  battles  with  the  Trojans.  But  the 
misfortunes  of  his  comrades  touch  his  heart, 
and  he  at  length  permits  his  friend  Patroclus 
to  borrow  his  armor  and  go  out  to  battle  at 
the  head  of  his  Myrmidons.  Patroclus  is  slain 
by  Hector.  This  event  is  the  central  and  turn- 
ing point  of  the  whole  epic.  The  progress  to- 
ward it  is  very  gradual  and  artistic.  The  cause 
of  the  anger  is  told  first.  Then,  while  Achilles 
is  lying  in  his  tent,  several  scenes  of  battle  are 
described,  which  afford  an  opportunity  for  in- 
troducing the  principal  heroes  of  the  Greeks, 
and  especially  for  bringing  Diomedes  into 
prominence.  The  fruitlessness  of  their  efforts 
and  valor  heightens  their  desire  for  the  aid  of 
Achilles.  This  furnishes  the  opportunity  for 
introducing  and  praising  the  hero.  At  last  he 
comes.  He  has  suppressed  his  anger  against 
the  Greeks,  and  turned  it  against  the  Trojans, 
who  have  killed  his  friend.  He  turns  the  for- 
tunes of  war,  and  avenges  the  death  of  Patro- 
clus by  slaying  Hector.  This  portion  of  the 
Soem  has  a  rapid  movement.  But  Hector's 
eath  does  not  end  the  Iliad.  His  body  is 
given  up  to  the  Trojans  and  interred,  and 
Achilles'  wrath  is  turned  to  pity  for  Priam,  the 
aged  father  of  the  dead  hero  ;  and  the  poem  is 
thus  brought  to  a  peaceful  conclusion.  The 
Odyssey  describes  the  return  of  Ulysses  (Odys- 
seus) to  his  island  home.  It  is  a  story  of  40 
days ;  but  within  this  short  period  is  compress- 
ed a  mass  of  events.  It  is  composed  of  four 
main  divisions.  In  the  first  Ulysses  dwells 
with  Calypso  on  the  isle  of  Ogygia,  far  from 
his  home,  where  the  suitors  of  his  wife  Pe- 
nelope threaten  the  ruin  of  his  fortune.  Tele- 
machus,  his  son,  now  on  the  threshold  of  man- 
hood, resolves  to  oppose  their  designs,  and, 
counselled  by  Minerva,  undertakes  a  journey 
to  Pylos  and  Sparta  to  seek  his  father.  In  the 
second  part  Ulysses  leaves  Ogygia,  arrives  in 
the  land  of  the  Phasacians,  to  whom  he  nar- 
rates his  adventures,  and  goes  to  Ithaca.  The 
third  part  details  the  plan  of  vengeance  which 
Ulysses  and  his  son  resolved  upon  in  the  house 
of  a  faithful  servant,  the  shepherd  Eumseus,  and 
which  is  executed  in  the  fourth  and  last  division. 
The  Odyssey,  like  the  Iliad,  is  centred  in  one 
person  and  one  event — Ulysses  and  his  return 
and  vengeance.  Its  action,  however,  is  more 
complicated,  through  Telemachus's  journey. — 
Two  views  are  held  by  modern  scholars  on 
the  nature  of  the  contents  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey.  One  is  that  the  destruction  of  Troy 
(Ilium)  was  an  actual  historical  event,  which 
took  place  either  before  the  vEolian  migration, 
or  in  connection  with  it.  The  first  to  give  a 
scientific  basis  to  this  view  was  .Volcker,  in 
Die  Wanderungen  der  aiolischen  Kolonien  nach 
Asien  als  Veranlassung  und  Orundlage  der 
Geschichte  des  trojanischen  Krieges  (1831). 
The  other,  which  has  found  a  defender  in  E. 
Curtius,  makes  the  narrative  of  the  Iliad  not 
that  of  the  legendary  destruction  of  a  certain 
town,  but  the  recollection  of  the  deeds  of  the 


Achasans,  who  were  descendants  of  Pelops, 
Agamemnon,  and  Achilles,  who  contended 
with  the  Dardanians,  from  whom  they  con- 
quered a  new  territory.  Blackie,  a  recent 
and  strenuous  advocate  of  the  traditional  the- 
ory, in  his  "  Homer  and  the  Iliad  "  (1866),  ex- 
presses his  belief  "  that  there  was  a  kingdom 
of  Priam,  wealthy  and  powerful,  on  the  coast 
of  the  Dardanelles;  that  there  was  a  great 
naval  expedition  undertaken  against  this  Asiat- 
ic dynasty  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Euro- 
pean Greeks  and  some  of  the  Asiatic  islanders, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  king  of  Mycen®  ; 
that  there  was  a  real  Achilles,  chief  of  a  war- 
like clan  in  the  Thessalian  Phthiotis,  and  a 
real  quarrel  between  him  and  the  general-in- 
chief  of  the  Hellenic  armament ;  that  this  quar- 
rel brought  about  the  most  disastrous  results 
to  the  Greek  host,  in  the  first  place,  and  had 
nearly  caused  the  failure  of  the  expedition; 
but  that  afterward,  a  reconciliation  having  been 
effected,  ar  series  of  brilliant  achievements  fol- 
lowed, which  issued  soon  after  in  the  capture 
of  the  great  Asiatic  capital."  Bishop  Thirlwall 
in  his  "  History  of  Greece  "  rejects  all  belief 
in  the  detailed  narratives  of  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey,  while  he  affirms  that  "  the  incidents 
cursorily  noticed  in  these  poems  were  exhibited 
in  full  mythical  garb  in  other  epics."  Grote 
says  in  regard  to  the  Trojan  war  that,  "  as  the 
possibility  of  it  cannot  be  denied,  so  neither 
can  the  reality  of  it  be  affirmed."  Max  Muller 
says  that  "it  would  be  mere  waste  of  time  to 
construct  out  of  such  elements  a  systematic 
history,  only  to  be  destroyed  again  sooner  or 
later  by  some  Niebuhr,  Grote,  or  Lewis." 
The  theory  in  his  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of 
Language,"  second  series  (1864),  that  "the 
siege  of  Troy  is  a  repetition  of  the  daily  siege 
of  the  east  by  the  solar  powers,  that  every 
evening  are  robbed  of  their  brightest  treasures 
in  the  west,"  has  found  an  exhaustive  com- 
mentary in  the  "Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Na- 
tions," by  G.  W.  Cox  (1870),  in  whose  "His- 
tory of  Greece  "  (1874)  the  subject  is  treated  in 
the  same  spirit.  While  the  Trojan  war  is  thus 
divested  of  all  historical  character,  Gladstone 
reiterates  in  his  "Juventus  Mundi "  (1869) 
what  he  said  in  his  "Studies  on  Homer  and 
the  Homeric  Age"  (1858),  namely,  that  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  are  emphatically  histori- 
cal poems  ;  and  in  his  "  Homer's  Place  in  His- 
tory" (1874),  building  on  Egyptological  re- 
searches, as  Chabas's  chapter  on  Les  nations 
connues  aux  figyptiens  en  Vantiquite  historique 
(1873),  and  Lenormant's  Les  premieres  civilisa- 
tions (1874),  he  thinks  there  is  room  for  the 
presumption  that  the  capture  of  Troy  occurred 
in  the  14th  century  B.  C.  For  the  attempts 
made  to  identify  the  site  of  Troy,  including 
the  recent  excavations  by  Dr.  Schliemann,  see 
TROY. — The  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems  turns  principally  on  the  theory 
which,  since  the  publication  of  Wolf's  famous 
Prolegomena  (1795),  is  known  as  the  Wolfian 
theory.  It  maintains  that  the  Iliad  is  made  up 


780 


HOMER 


of  a  number  of  songs  which  first  existed  as  de- 
tached poeras,  handed  down  from  generation 
to  generation  by  a  school  of  rhapsodists  or  pro- 
fessional minstrels;  the  poems  were  thus  not 
the  work  of  one  man,  and  possibly  not  the  pro- 
duct of  any  one  age — a  conclusion  grounded 
partly  on  the  absence  of  writing  until  long 
after  the  time  when  these  poems  first  came 
into  existence,  and  partly  on  the  contradictions 
of  the  poems  themselves.  This  opinion  had 
to  some  extent  been  entertained  before  "Wolf  by 
Vico,  Casaubon,  Perrault,  Hedelin,  Bentley, 
Wood,  and  other  scholars;  but  their  views 
were  outweighed  by  the  current  opinion  of 
Homer's  personality.  Since  the  day  of  Wolf 
the  question  has  been  amply  discussed  by  the 
greatest  scholars  of  all  lands,  but  without  re- 
sulting in  a  definite  conclusion.  In  1866  F.  A. 
Paley  attempted  to  prove  that  the  Greek  lyric, 
tragic,  and  comic  poets  either  knew  nothing 
or  exceedingly  little  of  our  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
or  at  least  preferred  to  draw  their,  material 
from  other  poems.  Some  hold  that,  in  order 
to  prove  that  these  poems  have  from  the  first 
been  known  in  their  entirety,  and  that  there- 
fore the  Greeks  had  only  one  Homer,  it  must 
be  shown  that  they  were  from  the  first  written 
poems.  Barthelemy  Saint-IIilaire,  in  his  re- 
cent Iliade  d'Homere  traduite  en  vers  fran$ais, 
attempts  to  establish  that  the  Homeric  age 
possessed  the  art  of  writing ;  but  against  this 
opinion  it  has  been  argued  that  facilities  for 
writing  would  lead  rather  to  the  rise  of  con- 
temporary chroniclers  than  to  the  practice  of 
writing  down  poems.  Many  historians  doubt 
therefore  that  poems  were  written  centu- 
ries before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and  also 
that  the  Greeks  had  any  written  literature 
before  the  Persian  wars.  Paley  has  expressed 
his  conviction  that  no  such  literature  existed 
in  the  time  of  Pindar ;  and  the  subject  has 
been  further  examined  by  Tennell,  in  a  paper 
on  "  The  First  Ages  of  a  written  Greek  Liter- 
ature "  ("  Transactions  of  the  Cambridge  Phi- 
losophical Society,"  1868).  When  people  nei- 
ther wrote  nor  read,  the  only  way  that  poems 
could  be  made  known  was  by  recitation  ;  and 
as  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  whole  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  could  be  recited  on  ordinary 
occasions,  recourse  is  had  to  hypothesis.  Poems 
were  recited  in  historical  times  at  Athens  at 
the  festival  of  the  Panathenrea,  and  there  were 
contests  of  rhapsodists  at  Sicyon,  Syracuse, 
Epidaurus,  Orchomenus,  Thespias,  Acrrephia, 
Chios,  Teos,  and  Olyrnpia.  Such  contests  are 
alluded  to  in  the  Homeric  account  of  the  Thra- 
cian  poet  Thamyris,  whom  the  muses  struck 
blind  at  Dorium  because  he  had  boasted  that 
he  was  able  to  contend  even  with  them.  It 
has  therefore  been  supposed  that  such  poems 
as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were  recited  at  festi- 
vals by  several  rhapsodists  in  succession,  and 
Nitzsch  believes  that  such  recitations  lasted 
more  than  one  day.  But,  as  Ihne  says,  the 
subject  of  the  rhapsodists  is  one  of  the  most 
complicated  and  obscure  of  all. — Ancient  wri- 


ters agree  in  ascribing  to  Pisistratus  the  merit 
of  having  first  committed  the  Homeric  poems 
to  writing,  and  an  old  Latin  scholium,  trans- 
lated  from    the    Greek  of  Tzetzes    and  dis- 
covered by  Ritschl  in  a  manuscript  of  Plau- 
tus  at  Rome,  gives  the  names  of  Onomacritus, 
Zopyrus,    Orpheus,  and   the  corrupted  name 
of  Concylus,  as  those  of  the  four  poets  who 
assisted  Pisistratus.     It  seems  that  before  him 
Solon  had  undertaken  to  make  such  a  com- 
pilation.    The  Alexandrian  critics,   however, 
do  not  even  notice  the  Pisistratic  recension 
among  the  many  manuscripts  of  the  Homeric 
poems    which    they    had    before    them,   and 
Payne  Knight  and  others  have  inferred  from 
their  silence  that  they  either  did  not  possess  it 
or  esteemed  it  of  no  great  authority ;  which 
could  not  have  been  the  case  if  it  had  been,  as 
is  alleged,  the  prime   originator  of  Homeric 
unity.     There  is  evidence  that  the  contempo- 
raries of  Pisistratus  considered  his  labors  val- 
uable, and  that  from   the   Attic  manuscript 
other  cities,  even  Chios,  had  copies  made.     Be- 
sides that  of  Chios,  Alexandria  possessed  man- 
uscripts from  Argos,  Crete,  Cyprus,  Massilia, 
and  Sinope ;  also  another  called  AiohiKfy  prob- 
ably from   a  predominance  of  JEolic  forms. 
Other  copies  were  known  by  the  names  of  the 
persons  who  made  them,  as  the  famous  one 
made  by  Aristotle  for  Alexander  the  Great. 
An  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems  opened  in  Alexandria,  where  they 
were  revised  by  the  most  celebrated  men  of 
learning,  as  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus,  Aristoph- 
anes of  Byzantium,  and  above  all  by  Aristar- 
chus  of  Samothrace,  whose  recension  is  the 
most  esteemed  by  modern  critics,  though  all 
we  have  of  it  consists  of  short  fragments  scat- 
tered through  scholia.     Aristarchus's  edition 
became  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  ones,  and 
hence  it  may  be  accepted  that,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  text  of  the  Homeric  poems  such  as  it 
has  come  down  to  us,  and  the  division  of  each 
poem  into  24  rhapsodies,  are  his  work.     Aris- 
tarchus  was  opposed  in  his  criticisms  and  ex- 
plications by  Crates  of  Mallus,  the  founder  of 
the  Pergamene  school  of  grammar.     The  wri- 
tings of  Aristonicus,  Didymus,  Nicanor,  and 
Herodian  seem  to  have  been  the  sources  of  the 
Venetian  scholia,  published  for  the  first  time  by 
Villoison  in  1788,  through  which  it  was  hoped 
to  restore  the  edition  of  Aristarchus.     The  old 
editions  of  Homer,  as  well  as  the  manuscripts, 
are  of  little  value  for  the  restoration  of  the 
text.     The  first  printed    edition  appeared  in 
1488,  but  until  the  time  of  Wolf  only  about 
seven  critical  editions  had  been  made.     With 
Wolfs  Prolegomena,  published   in  1795,  pre- 
fixed to  the  second  edition  of  his  Homeri  et 
Homeridarum   Opera,  begins  the  modern  pe- 
riod of  Homeric  criticism.     The  advocates  of 
the  Wolfian  theory  infer  from  the  history  of 
the  Homeric  text  that  the  original  unconnected 
songs  composing  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were 
collected  and  combined  by  Pisistratus.     The 
work  of  these  critics  consists  in  eliminating 


HOMER 

from  the  Homeric  text  the  spurious  verses,  and 
accounting  for  the  probable  causes  of  the  in- 
terpolations. Those  who  believe  in  the  origi- 
nal unity  of  the  poems  are,  however,  not  unwil- 
ling to  admit  that  in  the  long  period  of  the 
preservation  of  the  Homeric  text  numerous  in- 
terpolations may  have  been  made.  These  in- 
terpolations, as  they  are  admitted  by  the  con- 
servative school,  have  been  ranged  in  five 
groups  in  Rammer's  work  entitled  DieEinheit 
der  Odyssee  nach  Widerlegung  der  Ansichten 
von  Lachmann-Steinthal,  Kochly,  Hennings 
und  Kirchhoff  dargestellt  (1873).  The  first 
group  comprises  those  which  carry  out  the 
original  plan,  but  nevertheless  modify  it  by  ad- 
ditions and  introductions  of  new  themes ;  they 
are  the  largest  of  all,  mostly  found  in  the  sec- 
ond part  of  the  Odyssey,  and  in  part  have  a 
high  poetical  value.  The  second  group  consists 
of  those  which  extend  the  poem,  but  have  lit- 
tle or  no  poetical  value.  The  third  are  edito- 
rial interpolations  which  attempt  to  establish  a 
stronger  connection  between  a  loose  theme  and 
the  preceding  portions  by  introducing  prepara- 
tory verses;  the  fourth,  interpolations  which 
enlarge  on  certain  scenes,  and  are  probably  due 
to  the  loquacity  of  rhapsodists,  but  are  out  of 
taste  and  poor  in  thought;  the  fifth,  interpola- 
tions due  to  a  thoughtless  introduction  of  Ho- 
meric verses  in  a  wrong  connection.  Grote 
supposes  that  the  Iliad  consisted  originally  of  a 
comparatively  small  poem  on  the  exploits  of 
Achilles,  which  he  calls  the  Achilleid,  and  that 
the  other  portions  of  the  Iliad  were  not  inclu- 
ded in  the  first  plan  of  it.  He  sums  up  the 
controversy  with  a  statement  which  probably 
all  critics  of  the  Homeric  poems  are  ready  to 
accept:  " For,  in  truth,  our  means  of  knowl- 
edge are  so  limited,  that  no  man  can  produce 
arguments  sufficiently  cogent  to  contend  against 
opposing  preconceptions.  .  .  .  We  have  noth- 
ing to  teach  us  the  history  of  these  poems  ex- 
cept the  poems  themselves.  Not  only  do  we 
possess  no  collateral  information  respecting 
them  or  their  authors,  but  we  have  no  one  to 
describe  to  us  the  age  in  which  they  origina- 
ted ;  our  knowledge  respecting  contemporary 
Homeric  society  is  collected  exclusively  from 
the  Homeric  compositions  themselves.  We 
are  ignorant  whether  any  other  or  what  other 
poems  preceded  them,  or  divided  with  them 
the  public  favor ;  nor  have  we  anything  better 
than  conjecture  to  determine  either  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  they  were  brought 
before  the  hearers,  or  the  conditions  which  a 
bard  of  that  day  was  required  t6  satisfy. "- 
Recent  works  on  the  grammar  and  vocabulary 
of  the  Homeric  text  are  :  Forstemann,  Bemer- 
Tcungen  uber  den  Gebrauch  des  Artikels  bei  Ho- 
mer (Salzwedel,  1861) ;  Buttmann,  Lexilogus, 
oder  Beitrdge  zur  griechischen  Worterlcltirung, 
hauptsdchlich  fur  Homer  und  Hesiod  (2  vols., 
6th  ed.,  Berlin,  1864);  Classen,  Beobach- 
tungen  fur  den  homerischen  Sprachgebrauch 
(Frankfort,  1867) ;  Seiler,  Vollstdndiges  Grie- 
chisch-Deutsches  Worterbuch  uber  die  Gedichte 


HOMESTEAD 


781 


des  Homeros  und  der  Homeriden  (7th  ed.,  Leip- 
sic,  1872).  Critical  works  on  questions  con- 
nected with  the  origin  and  contents  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems  are :  Nitzsch,  Die  Sagenpoesie  der 
Griechen  (Brunswick,  1852) ;  Hoffmann,  Ho- 
merische  Untersuchungen  (Clausthal,  1857-'9); 
Kochly,  De  Iliadis  Carminibus  Dissertationes 
(Zurich,  1857-'9),  and  De  Odyssey  Carmini- 
bus Dissertations  (1862-'3) ;  Kirchhoff,  Die 
homerische  Odyssee  und  ihre  Entstehung,  Text 
und  Erlduterungen  (Berlin,  1859);  Bergk, 
Emendationes  Homeric®  (Halle,  1859-61);  Na- 
gelsbach,  Homerische  Theologie  (2d  ed.,  Nu- 
remberg, 1861),  and  AnmerTcungen  zur  Ilias 
(3d  ed.,  1864) ;  Bonitz,  Ueber  den  Ursprung 
homerischer  Gedichte  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1864); 
Lachmann,  Betrachtungen  uber  Homers  Ilias, 
mit  Zusdtzen  von  Moritz  Haupt  (Berlin,  1865) ; 
La  Roche,  Die  homerische  Textkritik  im  Alter- 
thum  (Leipsic,  1866) ;  Baletta,  'Orfpov  Bfof  /cat 
UoL^ara  (London,  1867) ;  O.  Meyer,  Quastiones 
Homeric®  (Bonn,  1868)  ;  Diintzer,  Die  Home- 
rischen Fragen  (Paderborn,  1874).  Several  of 
these  works  have  been  translated  into  English. 
As  the  Homeric  poems  are  considered  not  only 
a  principal  source  of  the  Grecian  mythology, 
but  also  of  the  earliest  history  of  the  Greeks, 
and  as  their  influence  upon  the  general  culture 
of  that  people  was  immense,  they  are  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  histories  of  Greece  by  Thirhvall, 
Grote,  Curtius,  and  Cox ;  and  also  in  works  on 
the  history  of  Greek  literature,  as  those  by 
Mure,  K.  O.  Mtiller,  and  Nicolai.  As  poetical 
productions  and  models  of  the  epic  art,  they 
have  been  treated  and  liberally  borrowed  from 
by  eminent  writers  of  all  civilized  nations. 
Among  the  best  editions  of  the  Homeric  poems 
are  those  of  Heyne,  Wolf,  and  Bothe.  More  re- 
cent editions  have  been  published  by  Biirmlein 
(Leipsic,  1854),  Sengebusch  (Leipsic,  1855-16), 
Bekker  (Bonn,  1858),  Charles  Anthon  (New 
York,  1858),  Baumeister  (Leipsic,  1860),  Hoff- 
mann (Clausthal,  1864),  Ameis  (Leipsic,  1865- 
'8),  F.  A.  Paley  (London,  1866),  Hermann  (Leip- 
sic, 1866),  Duntzer  (Paderborn,  1866-'7),  Faesi 
(Berlin,  1867),  La  Roche  (Leipsic,  1867-'8), 
Hayman  (London,  1867),  G.  Dindorf  (Paris, 
1868),  and  V.-H.  Koch  (Hanover,  1868-'9). 
Among  translations  of  Homeric  poems  may 
be  mentioned  those  in  German  by  Voss  (first 
published  in  1780,  in  constant  demand;  last 
ed.,  1873),  Uschner  (Berlin,  .1862),  Ehrenthal 
(Hildburghausen,  1865),  Carlo witz  (Dresden, 
1868),  and  Wiedasch  (Stuttgart,  1869);  in 
French  by  Dugas-Montbel  (Paris,  1853),  Big- 
nan  (1853),  Pessonneaux  (1861),  and  Feillet 
(1865);  in  English  by  Chapman,  Pope,  Cow- 
per,  Munford  (1846),  Newman  (1856),  Wors- 
ley  and  Conington  (1861-'5),  Dean  Alford 
(1861),  Simcox  (1865),  Lord  Derby  (1865), 
Herschel  (1866),  Merivale  (1869),  and  W.  C. 
Bryant  (1870-'71). 

HOMESTEAD,  the  place  where  one's  dwelling 

By  this  is  meant  the  home  itself,  with  the 

outbuildings  connected  with  it,  and  a  portion 

of  the  land,  as  the  garden,  and  it  may  be  some 


782 


HOMICIDE 


fields,  &c.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  where 
one  occupies  and  uses  in  connection  with  his 
dwelling  a  considerable  tract  of  land,  the  term 
homestead  must  be  somewhat  indefinite,  and 
if  employed  in  deeds  or  contracts,  its  precise 
meaning  must  be  determined  by  the  context 
and  surrounding  circumstances.  Of  late  it  has 
become  common  in  the  United  States,  by  con- 
stitutional or  statutory  provisions,  to  exempt 
a  homestead  to  a  specified  amount  or  value 
from  attachment  or  sale  for  debt.  Under 
these,  if  the  debtor  have  more  than  the  requi- 
site amount  or  value  lying  in  one  body,  he  is 
usually  permitted  to  make  selection  within  the 
specified  limits ;  •  but  failing  to  do  this,  or  if  the 
circumstances  present  impediments,  it  will  be 
done  for  him  by  the  court  in  which  proceedings 
to  enforce  debts  against  him  are  taken. 

HOMICIDE,  in  criminal  law,  the  killing  of  one 
human  being  by  another.  By  the  common  law, 
it  is  not  homicide  to  kill  an  infant  before  its 
birth,  the  authorities  declaring  that  if  one  pur- 
posely kills  a  babe  not  yet  born,  it  is  only  a 
misdemeanor  and  not  a  felony;  but  if  the  child 
is  born  alive  and  then  dies  from  the  previous 
injury,  it  is  felony.  So,  if  one  intending  to  pro- 
cure abortion  does  an  act  which  causes  a  child 
to  be  born  prematurely,  and  being  so  born,  it 
dies  because  not  mature  enough  to  live,  this  is 
murder.  But  where  a  woman  cut  off  the  head 
of  her  child  before  it  was  wholly  born,  it  was 
held  not  to  be  murder.  The  crime  of  child 
murder  and  wilful  abortion  is  made  punishable 
in  many  of  our  states  by  statute.  Homicide  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  justifiable,  excusable, 
and  felonious.  Felonious  homicide  is  either 
manslaughter  or  murder,  which  will  be  treated 
under  those  titles.  In  this  article  we  shall 
speak  only  of  homicide  which  is  justifiable,  and 
that  which  is  excusable.  These  two  are  often 
confounded,  and  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  if 
they  were  the  same  thing,  even  in  technical 
books  of  criminal  law.  But  this  is  an  inaccu- 
racy. Justifiable  homicide  is  that  which  is  just 
and  right,  and  not  to  be  regretted ;  while  ex- 
cusable homicide  is  that  for  which  excuses  may 
be  offered  which  take  away  wilful  guilt  from 
the  killer,  however  much  the  act  may  be  la- 
mented. In  this  strict  sense,  there  is  perhaps 
no  justifiable  homicide  except  that  which  is 
committed  officially  and  in  the  discharge  of  a 
legal  duty;  that  is,  there  is  no  homicide 
strictly  justifiable  except  the  homicide  by  an 
executioner,  or  that  of  a  public  enemy  in  open 
war.  If  one,  at  great  risk  to  himself,  and  in 
defence  of  the  innocent,  encounters  and  de- 
stroys an  assassin,  who  could  not  otherwise  be 
prevented  from  putting  many  to  death  and  in- 
flicting injuries  worse  than  death,  he  may  de- 
serve and  receive  general  applause.  And  the 
excuse  extends  much  beyond  those  crimes 
which  are  punishable  with  death;  because  a 
man  would  be  excused  for  putting  an  offender 
to  death  if  that  were  the  only  way  of  prevent- 
ing certain  crimes  which  if  committed  might 
not  be  punished  with  death,  such  as  rape,  bur- 


glary with  arms,  or  robbery  with  arms.  Again, 
the  excuse  in  this  case,  as  in  that  of  self- 
defence,  does  not  depend  altogether  upon  the 
actual  facts  of  the  case,  but  much,  and  perhaps 
principally,  upon  the  appearance  of  it  to  the 
person  committing  the  homicide ;  for  if,  as  a 
reasonable  man,  he  was  fully  justified  in  believ- 
ing that  the  peril  from  which  he  could  deliver 
himself  only  by  homicide  was  actual  and  immi- 
nent, the  excuse  is  not  taken  away  by  proof 
that  he  was  deceived.  Thus,  if  one  were  at- 
tacked by  an  assailant  threatening  to  shoot 
him  with  a  pistol,  and  would  be  justified  under 
the  circumstances  in  killing  his  assailant  if  the 
pistol  were  loaded  and  the  assailant  intended 
to  use  it,  and  the  assailed  party  had  reason  to 
believe  this  to  be  the  case,  his  excuse  would 
not  be  lessened  by  proof  that  the  pistol  was 
not  loaded  and  his  death  not  intended.  Tho 
excuses  for  homicide  sometimes  mingle ;  thus 
one  who  is  attacked  by  a  murderer  and  cannot 
otherwise  escape,  may  put  him  to  death,  either 
to  prevent  this  felony,  or  to  save  his  own  life. 
But  one  who  would  escape  the  consequences 
of  homicide  by  the  excuse  of  self-defence,  must 
be  able  to  show  that  there  was  some  overt  act 
on  the  part  of  the  assailant,  and  that  the  as- 
sailed was  not  moved  by  threats  only,  or  mere- 
ly by  fears  of  what  would  be  done,  however 
just  and  rational  they  might  be;  but  waited 
until  some  act  took  place  to  protect  himself, 
not  merely  from  fatal  violence,  but  from  griev- 
ous bodily  injury.  What  this  means  is  not 
plainly  defined  by  the  law ;  but  it  does  not 
mean  the  injury  caused  by  a  blow  from  a  fist 
or  a  stick,  or  a  slight  wound,  which  might  be 
painful  for  a  time,  but  from  all  effects  of  which 
the  injured  person  would  certainly  and  entirely 
recover  within  a  few  days.  And  here,  too,  as 
before,  death  must  not  be  inflicted  until  noth- 
ing but  this  remains.  That  is,  the  party  as- 
sailed must  retreat  as  long  and  as  far  as  lie  can 
retreat;  must  seek  'and  use  any  refuge  or 
means  of  escape  open  to  him ;  and  only  when 
these  are  exhausted,  or  non-existent,  can  he  put 
his  assailant  to  death.  It  should  however  be 
stated,  as  a  settled  rule  of  law,  that  an  assailed 
party,  in  danger  of  death  or  grievous  harm,  is 
bound  to  retreat  only  when  he  can  do  this  with 
safety.  For  if  retreat  will  only  increase  a  dan- 
ger already  imminent,  and  give  his  assailant 
new  power  over  him,  he  need  not  retreat  at  all, 
but  may  at  once  inflict  death  upon  his  assailant. 
So,  too,  homicide  is  excusable  if  inflicted  as  the 
only  means  of  preventing  a  great  crime.  Here 
the  law  comes  in  with  what  may  seem  to  be  a 
definition ;  for  it  says  that  one  may  inflict  death 
if  there  be  no  other  way  to  prevent  a  felony. 
But  the  reader  will  see,  under  the  title  FELO- 
NY, that  its  meaning  is  quite  undetermined; 
and  there  are  things  which  are  still  called  felo- 
nies, at  least  in  England,  of  which  we  should 
be  unwilling  to  say  that  they  might  lawfully 
be  prevented  by  putting  the  offender  to  death. 
And  yet  it  must  be  certain  that  the  law  would 
call  this  only  excusable  homicide,  and  not 


HOMMAIRE  DE   HELL 

justifiable.  Excusable  homicide  is  then  that 
which  is  caused  by  self-defence,  or  tbe  preven- 
tion of  great  crime,  or  accident.  It  is  excusable 
by  reason  of  self-defence,  if  it  was  strictly 
necessary  for  this  purpose,  and  not  otherwise. 
We  believe  that  there  is  no  rule  of  criminal 
law  which  ought  to  be  more  certain,  and  more 
universally  acknowledged,  than  that  homicide 
in  self-defence  must  be  grounded  upon  a  strict 
and  absolute  necessity.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  any  one  may  save  his  own  life  by  taking- 
the  life  of  his  assailant ;  but  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain, as  matter  of  law,  that  he  must  not  secure 
his  safety  by  homicide  provided  he  could  secure 
it  in  any  other  way,  as  by  retreating,  or  seek- 
ing refuge,  or  inflicting  a  less  than  fatal  injury. 
We  suppose  that  any  difficulty  which  belongs 
to  this  subject  must  attend  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles,  and  not  upon  the  prin- 
ciples themselves.  Thus,  it  is  certain  that  the 
laws  of  England  and  of  the  United  States  agree 
in  an  absolute  refusal  to  recognize  the  point  of 
honor  in  cases  of  homicide.  Juries,  and  possi- 
bly courts,  may  be  influenced  by  it,  perbaps 
unconsciously ;  but  the  law  ignores  it.  If  one 
attacks  another  with  every  form  and  method 
of  insult,  and  the  attacked  party,  finding  no 
other  way  of  stopping  the  insult,  or  escaping 
from  it,  puts  the  assailant  to  death,  it  is  felo- 
nious and  not  excusable  homicide.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  excuse  of  accident  also,  it  may  be 
mingled  with  another.  Thus,  while  one  has 
no  right  to  protect  himself  from  slight  bodily 
injury  by  putting  his  assailant  to  death,  or  to 
use  that  means  of  preventing  wrongful  conduct 
not  of  the  gravest  sort,  yet  he  has  a  right  to 
defend  himself  against  any  assault,  and  to  pro- 
tect himself  from  any  injury,  and  to  prevent 
any  wrong  doing.  And  if  in  all  this  he  uses  no 
weapons  likely  to  produce  death,  and  does  not 
manifest  by  violence  and  excess  a  fatal  purpose, 
he  would  be  excused  although  the  death  of  the 
wrong  doer  was  the  unintended  result.  Thus, 
one  may  turn  a  mere  intruder  out  of  his  house, 
although  he  is  quiet  there,  and,  if  necessary, 
put  him  out  by  force ;  but  must  not  put  him 
to  death  because  he  will  not  go  out.  But  if, 
while  using  only  such  force  as  may  seem  neces- 
sary, he  kills  the  intruder,  he  would  be  ex- 
cused. In  reference  to  this  right  of  self-pro- 
tection, the  question  has  been  raised  whether 
the  use  of  spring  guns  is  lawful.  It  seems  to 
be  the  law  that  one  may  use  a  spring  gun  to 
prevent  felony,  and  that  homicide  caused  by  it 
would  be  excusable ;  but  that  it  is  not  justi- 
fiable to  use  such  instruments  for  protection 
against  mere  trespassers. 

HOMMAIRE  DE  HELL,  Ignace  Xavier  Morand, 
a  French  traveller,  born  at  Altkirch,  Nov.  24, 
1812,  died  in  Ispahan,  Persia,  Aug.  29,  1848. 
He  studied  at  the  college  of  Dijon  and  at  the 
school  of  mines  in  St.  Etienne,  and  after 
having  been  employed  in  railway  surveys 
was  in  1835  appointed  by  the  Turkish  gov- 
ernment to  make  a  scientific  exploration  of 
the  region  around  Constantinople.  In  1838 
410  VOL.  vin. — 50 


HOMOEOPATHY 


783 


he  was  commissioned  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment to  explore  the  Crimea  and  the  steppes 
of  southern  Russia.  Ill  health  compelled  him 
to  return  to  France  in  1842,  when  he  present- 
ed to  the  academy  of  sciences  a  paper  on  the 
difference  of  level  between  the  Caspian  sea 
and  the  sea  of  Azov  ;  and  for  his  first  volume 
of  travels  (Strasburg,  1844)  he  received  the 
prize  of  the  French  geographical  society.  In 
1845  he  was  commissioned  by  the  French  au- 
thorities to  explore  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas ; 
and  after  having  made  in  1846  a  survey  of  the 
former  and  subsequently  explored  the  interior 
of  Persia,  he  succumbed  to  illness  at  Teheran. 
The  numerous  geological  specimens  which  he 
had  collected  were  purchased  by  the  French 
museum  of  natural  history.  The  narrative  of 
his  later  travels,  Voyage  en  Turquie  et  en  Perse 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1854-'60),  was  published  at  the 
cost  of  the  French  government.  The  fourth 
volume,  containing  an  account  of  his  last  jour- 
ney, was  edited  by  Jules  Laurens,  the  painter, 
who  was  his  travelling  companion. — ADELE, 
his  wife,  born  about  1820,  accompanied  him 
for  five  years,  and  assisted  him  in  Les  steppes  de 
la  mer  Caspienne  (3  vols.,  1844-'7),  contribu- 
ting the  picturesque  descriptions  and  the  sketch- 
es of  manners,  character,  and  physiognomy, 
and  in  his  last  work  on  Turkey  and  Persia. 
She  also  published  in  1845  a  volume  of  poetry, 
Reveries  cPun  voyageur ;  and  in  1860  appeared 
her  Voyage  dans  les  steppes  de  la  mer  Caspienne 
et  dans  la  Rmsie  meridionale  (2d  ed.,  1868). 

HOMOCERCAL.     See  HKTEROCERCAL. 

HOMEOPATHY  (Gr.  %>«*,  like,  and  nade'iv, 
to  be  affected),  a  system  of  medicine  first 
definitely  propounded  by  Hahnemann.  (See 
HAHNEMANN,  SAMUEL.)  Its  cardinal  principle, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name,  is  expressed 
in  the  aphorism,  Similia  similibus  curantur, 
"Like  cures  like;1'  that  is,  the  proper  medi- 
cines to  be  administered  in  disease  are  those 
which  produce  similar  symptoms  in  a  healthy 
person.  This  principle  had  been  partially 
enunciated  by  Hippocrates,  the  "father  of 
medicine"  (about  460  B.  C.),  who  asserted 
that  medicines  sometimes  acted  according  to 
the  rule  of  similia,  and  at  others  according  to 
that  of  contraria  ;  thus  intimating  the  truth  of 
both  the  allopathic  law  of  contraria  and  the 
homoeopathic  law  of  similia.  Antiphanes, 
who  lived  about  the  same  time,  wrote  a  poem 
which  contains  the  earliest  known  announce- 
ment of  the  homoeopathic  theory.  Galen  (born 
A.  D.  130),  the  first  great  light  in  medical 
history  after  Hippocrates,  first  gave  form  and 
shape  to  that  law  of  contraria  which  for  many 
centuries  ruled  the  medical  world.  Starting 
up,  however,  from  time  to  time,  during  the 
centuries  which  intervened  between  Hippo- 
crates and  Hahnemann,  were  Paracelsus, 
Stahl,  Haller,  and  others,  who  insisted  upon 
the  truth  of  the  law  similia,  and  pushed  their 
investigations  with  more  or  less  success  in  that 
direction;  but  it  was  not  until  it  attracted 
the  attention  of  Hahnemann  that  it  created 


784: 


HOMCEOPATHY 


much  attention,  or  assumed  the  definite  form 
of  an  important  law  in  medical  science.  Hah- 
nemann  at  the  age  of  35  occupied  a  prominent 
position  as  a  scholar  and  chemist.  While 
translating  (1790)  into  German  Cullen's  "Ma- 
teria  Medica,"  the  passage  in  which  Cullen  de- 
scribes the  action  of  cinchona  bark  excited 
his  curiosity  as  to  how  this  substance  acted 
in  curing  ague.  By  way  of  experiment  he 
took  four  drams  of  it  in  different  doses,  being 
at  the  time  in  perfect  health.  In  a  few  days 
he  experienced  all  the  symptoms  of  ague. 
Was  this  ague,  he  inquired,  the  result  of  the 
action  of  the  cinchona,  or  did  it  arise  from  the 
usual  causes  of  the  disease?  There  were  two 
ways  of  testing  this  matter.  One  was  to  ex- 
amine collections  of  reported  cures,  in  order 
to  ascertain  whether  among  them  any  notice 
was  to  be  found  of  instances  in  which  the 
remedy  employed  was  known  to  possess  the 
property  of  exciting  symptoms  in  the  healthy 
similar  to  those  which  it  cured  in  the  sick. 
The  other  was  to  ascertain  by  experiment 
what  was  the  effect  of  medicinal  substances 
when  taken  by  those  in  health,  and  then  to 
administer  them  to  those  who  were  ill,  and 
whose  illness  presented  symptoms  similar  to 
those  caused  by  these  substances.  The  result 
of  his  historical  researches  is  given  in  the 
"Introduction  to  the  Organon  of  Medicine." 
He  collected  from  an  immense  variety  of 
sources  testimony  in  regard  to  the  twofold 
action  of  more  than  30  medicinal  substances ; 
and  one  set  of  authorities  proved  the  power 
of  a  certain  drug  to  produce  symptoms  similar 
to  those  reported  by  other  authors  to  have 
been  cured  by  the  very  same  means.  Medical 
works  in  the  present  time  are  full  of  similar 
illustrations.  For  example,  in  the  "Cyclopoo- 
dia  of  Practical  Medicine,"  edited  by  Forbes, 
Tweedy,  and  Connolly,  we  read,  under  the 
head  of  Fever :  "  Arsenical  solution  is  the 
anti-periodic  medicine  on  which,  next  to  qui- 
nine, most  reliance  may  be  placed."  One  of 
the  recognized  authorities  on  the  subject  of 
ague  is  Dr.  Boudin,  who,  after  quoting  a  simi- 
lar experience  by  M.  Biot,  says:  "For  my 
part,  I  saw  an  intermittent  quotidian  fever 
supervene,  which  I  was  obliged  to  combat 
with  quinine,  in  a  patient  to  whom  I  had  given 
for  ichthyosis  about  five  grains  of  arsenic  in 
twelve  days."  This  occurred  when  there  was 
no  ague  in  the  place.  Thus,  on  the  one  hand, 
we  have  arsenic  producing  the  disease,  and  on 
the  other  curing  it.  Dr.  Copland,  editor  of 
the  "Dictionary  of  Practical  Medicine,"  says: 
"  Ipecac  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  that  can 
be  resorted  to  for  asthma;"  and  Dr.  Pereira, 
the  author  of  the  great  work  on  materia  medica, 
says :  "  In  asthma  benefit  is  obtained  from  ipe- 
cac in  small  and  repeated  doses."  Sir  John 
Forbes,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  physicians 
of  his  time,  says:  "  Practitioners  of  experience, 
without  subscribing  to  the  doctrine  of  homoe- 
opathy, will  certainly  think  more  favorably 
of  ipecac  on  account  of  its  peculiar  tendency 


to  induce  fits  of  asthma  in  the  predisposed." 
This  direct  antidote  to  asthma  is  known  to 
cause  asthmatic  attacks  in  many  persons. 
"  How  singular,"  says  Dr.  Marshall  Hall,  "  that 
ipecac  taken  into  the  bronchia  should  excite 
asthma."  "  If  I  remain  in  a  room,"  says  Mr. 
Roberts  of  Dudley,  "  where  the  preparation 
of  ipecac  is  going  on,  I  am  sure  to  have  a  regu- 
lar attack  of  asthma."  Sulphur  cures  peculiar 
forms  of  eruptive  diseases ;  and  all  frequenters 
of  the  baths  of  sulphurous  waters  are  acquaint- 
ed with  its  effects  in  producing  similar  erup- 
tions. Laennec,  the  discoverer  of  the  stetho- 
scope, says  of  tartar  emetic  :  "  From  its  use 
we  sometimes  find  patients,  doomed  to  almost 
certain  death,  out  of  all  danger  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  hours,  without  having  experienced 
any  evacuation  or  change  but  the  rapid  and 
progressive  amelioration  of  the  disease."  Dr. 
Williams,  a  celebrated  medical  author,  says: 
"Next  to  blood-letting  tartar  emetic  is  the 
most  powerful  remedy  we  can  employ  for  the 
cure  of  acute  pulmonary  inflammation."  Tar- 
tar emetic,  according  to  these  writers,  and 
very  general  experience,  cures  pulmonary  in- 
flammation. The  great  French  physiologist 
Magendie  made  this  drug  the  subject  of  special 
experiment.  After  describing  other  changes 
it  produced  in  animals  which  he  poisoned  with 
it,  he  says:  "It  acts  specifically  in  inflaming 
the  lungs."  M.  Pelletrier,  who  has  written 
the  best  monograph  on  this  drug,  says:  "Its 
effect  on  the  respiratory  organs  is  to  produce 
difficulty  of  breathing  in  dogs ;  the  lungs  were 
found  hepatized.  One  would  imagine  that,  ad- 
mitting its  action  in  man  to  be  similar,  far 
from  being  useful,  its  administration  would  be 
particularly  pernicious  in  the  treatment  of 
pneumonia." — For  several  years  Hahnemann 
seemed  to  be  groping  among  specifics  before  he 
discovered  the  key  to  their  successful  adminis- 
tration. Medicines  were  given  at  first  in 
massive  doses,  which,  notwithstanding  they 
generally  cured  the  patient,  sometimes  pro- 
duced fearful  aggravations.  At  length,  after  a 
long  course  of  experiment,  the  idea  became 
firmly  established  in  his  rnind  that  the  organ- 
ism through  disease  became  exceedingly  sus- 
ceptible to  the  action  of  a  drug  given  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law  of  similia,  and  whose 
action  was  that  of  a  direct  specific  on  the  dis- 
eased part.  In  1799  an  unusually  fatal  epi- 
demic of  scarlet  fever  prevailed  at  Konigs] ut- 
ter. Hahnemann,  guided  by  the  law  of  similia, 
selected  belladonna  as  the  appropriate  remedy, 
administering  it  in  minute  doses  ;  the  curative 
effect  was  marked  and  decided.  In  1801  his 
experiments  with  belladonna  in  scarlet  fever 
were  published  at  Gotha,  and  created  much 
interest  and  no  little  opposition  in  Germa- 
ny. In  the  same  year  he  published  a  reply  to 
the  objections  raised  against  his  statements  on 
the  ground  that  so  small  a  dose  must  be  pow- 
erless, in  which  he  says:  "To  the  ordinary 
practitioner  it  is  incredible  that  a  person  when 
sick  is  violently  affected  by  a  millionth  part  of 


HOMCEOPATHY 


785 


the  same  drug  that  he  swallowed  with  impu- 
nity when  he  was  well.  Will  physicians  ever 
learn  how  infinitely  small  may  be  the  dose 
that  is  sufficient  for  a  cure,  when  the  system 
of  the  patient  is  raised  to  a  condition  of  intense 
id  morbid  sensitiveness?  So  powerfully  do 
ich  small  quantities  act  upon  the  over-sensi- 
tive frame,  that  the  most  serious  disease  is 
)metimes  subdued  in  a  few  hours."  Dr. 
Jorg,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  opponents 
of  Hahnemann,  says:  "Medicines  operate 
most  powerfully  on  the  sick  when  their  symp- 
toms correspond  to  the  disease.  Where  there 
is  inflammation  of  the  intestines,  a  very  minute 
dose  of  mercury  will  produce  pain  and  other 
symptoms.  It  is  in  the  very  nature  of  things 
that  a  medicine  must  have  a  much  greater  ef- 
fect when  administered  to  a  person  already 
suffering  under  an  affection  similar  to  that 
which  the  medicine  is  capable  of  producing." 
Photography,  according  to  homoeopaths,  pre- 
sents a  striking  illustration  of  this  idea.  The 
Wealthy  body,  they  say,  may  be  compared  to 
he  plate  before  it  has  been  washed,  when  it 
eflects  the  rays  of  the  sun  without  its  surface 
being  at  all  affected  by  his  influence  ;  and  the 
unhealthy  body  to  the  same  plate  washed  by 
a  chemical  process,  and  thus  rendered  so  sen- 
sitive to  light  that  the  faintest  ray  makes  on 
it  an  indelible  impression. — Thus  far  Hahne- 
mann's  knowledge  of  the  specific  action  of 
medicine  had  been  derived  mostly  from  his 
collection  made  from  medical  history.  But 
this,  although  sufficient  to  establish  in  his  mind 
the  truth  of  the  law  of  similia,  was  not  suffi- 
ciently accurate  to  serve  as  a  foundation  upon 
which  to  build  the  structure  of  a  thoroughly 
scientific  system  of  therapeutics.  In  1805  he 
published  a  work  on  the  positive  effects  of 
medicine  and  the  effects  produced  by  them  on 
the  healthy  body,  containing  his  observations 
upon  25  substances,  most  of  them  powerful 
vegetable  medicines,  in  which  their  toxicologi- 
cal  action,  as  shown  by  actual  experiment 
on  the  healthy  living  body,  is  minutely  de- 
scribed. In  conducting  his  experiments,  the 
substance  to  be  tested  was  distributed  among 
his  assistants,  who  each  took  a  succession  of 
doses  and  carefully  recorded  the  symptoms. 
These  were  compared  with  his  own  ;"  and  sev- 
eral years  after,  when  the  same  drugs  were 
re-proved  by  a  society  at  Vienna,  every  one  of 
the  observations  of  Hahnemann  was  confirmed. 
In  1831  the  cholera  first  invaded  Europe.  In 
Hungary  8,000  died  out  of  10,000  who  were 
seized.  Medicine  seemed  powerless,  and  the 
consternation  was  universal.  Hahnemann, 
lided  by  his  law  of  similia,  selected  camphor 
i  the  appropriate  remedy  to  be  given  at  the 
:st  onset  of  the  disease  ;  and  experience  has 
ice  justified  the  wisdom  of  his  selection, 
ther  remedies  were  pointed  out  in  the  differ- 
it  stages  of  cholera,  but  the  usefulness  of 
imphor,  given  according  to  Hahnemann's  di- 
ctions, is  now  generally  admitted. — To  be 
tided  intelligently  by  the  law  of  similia,  the 


keynote  of  their  system,  homoeopathists  be- 
lieve we  must  have  an  accurate  picture  of  the 
pathological  changes  resulting  from  the  drug 
as  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  tissues  after 
death,  and  its  action  as  shown  upon  the  living 
structure  in  vivisection.  For  this  the  most 
careful  observation  is  required — not  only  the 
selection  of  cases  of  accidental  poisoning,  and 
others  from  historical  records  and  daily  prac- 
tice, but  the  actual  placing  of  the  system  un- 
der the  direct  action  of  the  drug,  and  the 
careful  noting  of  each  individual  symptom. 
Hence  has  arisen  the  plan  of  "  proving"  med- 
icines, as  inaugurated  by  Hahnemann,  and 
which  they  claim  as  the  only  correct  basis  of  a 
true  scientific  materia  medica.  Their  materia 
medica  is  made  up  of  drugs  so  tested  by  seve- 
ral observers,  and  the  symptoms  corresponding 
noted  as  the  characteristic  ones  of  the  drag. 
Growing  out  of  this  law,  as  a  natural  sequence, 
and  forming  the  second  grand  division  of  the 
system,  is  that  of  the  dynamization  of  medi- 
cines. The  system  having  become  sensitively 
acute  to  the  action  of  a  drug,  this,  when  given 
homceopathically,  or  in  accordance  with  the 
law  of  similia,  should  be  given  in  a  dose  so 
minute  as  only  to  act  on  the  part  morbidly  sus- 
ceptible. If  given  in  too  large  doses,  so  as  to 
produce  its  primary  or  drug  action,  no  relief 
would  be  obtained,  but  harm  might  ensue ; 
while  if  given  in  too  small  doses,  no  action 
whatever  would  result.  Hence  the  importance 
not  only  of  the  homoeopathic  selection  of  the 
remedy,  but  its  administration  in  doses  of  only 
sufficient  strength  to  produce  its  tonic  or  cu- 
rative .action.  The  homoeopath  insists  upon 
the  positive  purity  of  his  drugs,  and  in  those 
of  a  vegetable  character  usually  prefers  the 
expressed  juice,  discarding  the  inert  mate- 
rial. By  the  process  of  dynamization,  in  which 
the  particles  are  more  completely  broken  and 
subdivided,  it  is  believed  the  latent  power  or 
life  of  the  drug  is  often  set  at  liberty,  and  ma- 
terials which  in  their  crude  state  are  almost 
inert  are  found  to  possess  a  strong  influence 
as  remedial  agents.  Thus  mercury  or  quick- 
silver in  its  crude  state  has  no  medicinal  ac- 
tion ;  but  when  its  particles  are  subdivided  by 
trituration  with  a  non-medicinal  substance,  the 
conserve  of  rose,  we  get  blue  mass,  or  blue 
pill,  whose  power  is  well  known.  So,  in  the 
preparation  of  homoeopathic  attenuations,  the 
crude  drug,  carefully  divested  of  impurities,  is 
triturated  thoroughly  with  a  non-medicinal 
substance,  sugar  of  milk,  or  dissolved  in  alco- 
hol or  distilled  water.  One  grain  of  the  crude 
drug  triturated  with  nine  of  sugar  of  milk,  or 
dissolved  in  nine  drops  of  alcohol,  forms  the 
first  decimal  attenuation ;  and  one  part  of  the 
drug  combined  with  99  of  the  sugar  of  milk  or 
alcohol  forms  the  first  centesimal  attenuation. 
To  get  the  second  decimal  or  centesimal,  one 
part  of  the  first  is  combined  with  9  or  99  parts 
of  the  non-medicinal  substance;  and  so  on 
through  the  successive  steps  of  the  process. 
The  first  step  is  to  select  the  drug  homoeopathic 


786 


HOMOOUSIANS 


HOMS 


to  the  disease,  and  give  it  either  in  its  crude 
form  or  in  its  attenuation,  as  best  seems  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  the  case. — What  homoe- 
opaths claim  as  cardinal  principles  are :  1.  The 
law  of  similia,  or  the  treatment  of  disease  by 
medicines  whose  effects,  tested  on  the  living, 
healthy  organism,  are  similar  to  the  symptoms 
present  in  disease.  They  do  not  claim  this 
principle  as  universal  or  exclusive,  since  medi- 
cines are  often  required  for  their  mechanical, 
nutritive,  and  chemical  effect ;  but  they  assert 
that  it  is  of  great  value,  and,  when  carefully 
considered  and  correctly  applied,  gives  when 
indicated  the  most  satisfactory  results.  2. 
They  assert  that  the  law  of  similia  demands  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  the  drug 
upon  the  healthy  organism.  The  question  of 
dose  is  left  to  the  individual  judgment  of  the 
practitioner;  but  when  given  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  similia  it  is  found  that  a 
greatly  reduced  dose  gives  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results.  The  homoeopathic  doctrine,  as 
above  stated,  admits  of  a  wide  diversity  on 
minor  points.  Some  in  this  school  confine 
themselves  to  the  high  potencies ;  but  the  ma- 
jority range  in  their  prescriptions  from  the 
crude  drug  up  through  what  are  called  the  lower 
potencies ;  all  however  admitting,  as  the  key- 
stone of  the  system,  the  law  of  similia. — In 
1825  homoeopathy  was  introduced  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  by  Hans  B.  Gram,  a  native  of  Bos- 
ton, but  educated  in  Copenhagen.  His  success 
attracted  the  attention  of  several  physicians, 
among  whom  were  Gray,  Channing,  Willson, 
Hall,  and  Hering.  A  careful  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  new  theory  secured  their  adhe- 
rence ;  and  its  success,  not  only  in  ordinary 
diseases,  but  in  usually  fatal  epidemics,  soon 
won  for  the  system  a  large  support.  In  the 
United  States  the  school  now  (1874)  numbers 
about  6,000  physicians.  There  are  nine  ho- 
moeopathic colleges,  which  at  the  session  of 
1872-'3  graduated  204  students.  Every  college 
has  a  dispensary  connected  with  it  for  clinical 
teaching,  and  five  have  flourishing  hospitals; 
and  there  are  32  dispensaries  not  connected 
with  any  college.  There  are  31  hospitals  and 
asylums  under  the  charge  of  this  school. — The 
school,  for  its  age,  is  rich  in  practical  literature. 
Among  the  important  works  are :  Hahnemann's 
Organon,  Materia  Medica  Pura,  and  "  Chronic 
Diseases;"  Hartmann's  "Acute  and  Chronic 
Diseases;"  Jahr's  Symptomen- Codex  or  "Man- 
ual of  Materia  Medica ;"  Bonninghausen's 
"Therapeutics;"  Baehr's  "  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice ;"  Grauvogel's  "  Practice ;"  E.  Guernsey's 
"  Practice ;"  H.  H.  Guernsey's  "  Obstetrics ;" 
Dudgeon's  "Lectures;"  Hempel's  "Materia 
Medica;"  Helmuth's  "Surgery;"  and  Frank- 
lin's "  Surgery."  There  are  also  published  in 
the  United  States  13  periodicals  devoted  to 
homoeopathy. 

IIIMIIMH  si  \\s  (Gr.  a/xdf,  the  same,  and  ovaia, 
being,  essence),  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  term 
which  was  originated  in  the  4th  century  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Athanasian  or  orthodox  party  from 


the  Arians,  who  were  called,  among  other 
names,  Heterousiasts  (erepof,  different,  and 
ovaia),  and  the  Serni-Arians,  who  were  termed 
Homoiousians  (Gr.  b/noios,  similar,  and  ovaia). 
The  Homoousians  maintained  that  the  Son  was 
of  the  same  essence  as  the  Father ;  the  strict 
Arians,  that  he  was  of  different  essence ;  and 
the  Semi-Arians,  that  he  was  similar  to  the 
Father  in  essence,  but  not  identical  with  him. 
(See  ARIANISM.) 

HOMOPTERA.     See  HEMIPTERA. 

HOMPESCH,  Ferdinand  von,  the  last  grand 
master  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  born  in  Dussel- 
dorf,  Germany,  Nov.  9,  1744,  died  in  Mont- 
pellier,  France,  in  1803.  He  was  of  a  noble 
Prussian  family,  and  at  the  age  of  12  went  to 
Malta,  where  he  became  a  page  of  the  grand 
master  Kohan,  and  gradually  rose  to  the  rank 
of  grand  cross,  through  the  influence  of  Austria, 
of  which  he  was  for  25  years  the  representa- 
tive at  Malta.  In  1797  he  became  grand  mas- 
ter, succeeding  Rohan.  In  June,  1798,  Bona- 
parte, on  his  way  to  Egypt,  touched  at  Malta 
and  took  possession  of  the  island,  seizing  1,200 
guns  and  a  large  amount  of  treasure.  Hom- 
pesch  received  100,000  crowns  as  the  value  of 
his  plate,  and  was  offered  an  annuity  of  the 
same  amount,  which  he  refused  to  accept.  He 
was  sent  to  Trieste,  and  upon  his  arrival  there 
protested  against  the  seizure  of  Malta,  and 
made  over  his  grand  mastership  to  Paul  I., 
czar  of  Russia,  who  granted  him  a  pension. 
This  ceasing  on  the  death  of  the  czar,  Hom- 
pesch  fell  into  want,  and  went  to  France  to 
urge  the  French  government  to  pay  him  the 
annuity  which  he  had  previously  declined. 
He  received  a  grant  of  5,000  francs  in  1803. 

HOMS,  Hams,  or  Hems  (anc.  Emesa  or  Emissa), 
a  fortified  city  of  Syria,  90  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Da- 
mascus, about  1  m.  from  the  river  Aasy  or 
Orontes;  pop.  about  30,000,  including  7,000 
Greek  Christians.  It  is  a  prosperous  town, 
having  considerable  trade,  and  manufactories 
of  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  and  of  gold 
and  silver  thread.  The  houses  are  built  of 
black  basalt,  and  many  of  the  streets  are  paved 
with  the  same  material.  In  pagan  times  Emesa 
was  celebrated  for  its  magnificent  temple  of  the 
sun,  one  of  whose  priests,  Elagabalus,  was  made 
emperor  of  Rome  in  A.  D.  218  by  the  legions 
of  Syria.  Odenathus,  husband  of  Zenobia,  the 
renowned  queen  of  Palmyra,  was  murdered  in 
this  city  in  266,  and  Zenobia  herself  was  van- 
quished in  its  vicinity,  in  273,  by  the  emperor 
Aurelian.  Lying  in  the  direct  route  which  an 
army  must  traverse  in  passing  between  Egypt 
and  the  Euphrates,  the  ancient  Emesa  was  oc- 
cupied in  turn  by  invaders  from  either  direc- 
tion. In  636  it  was  captured  by  the  Saracens, 
and  it  passed  under  the  control  of  the  succes- 
sive Moslem  dynasties.  In  1099  it  was  taken 
by  the  crusaders,  and  in  1 175  by  Saladin.  After 
many  vicissitudes  it  was  in  1517  added  to  the 
Ottoman  empire.  In  July,  1932,  Ibrahim  Pasha 
of  Egypt  here  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  pasha  of  Aleppo.  In  1840  it  was  with  the 


HONDURAS 


rest  of  Syria  restored  to  Turkey  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  European  powers. 

HONDURAS,  a  republic  of  Central  America 
lying  between  lat.  13°  10'  and  16°  5'  N  and 
Ion.  83°  12'  and  89°  47'  W.,  and  bounded  N. 
and  E.  by  the  Caribbean  sea,  S.  by  Nicaragua 
(from  which  it  is  separated  for  about  half  its 
length  by  the  river  Segovia),  the  Pacific,  and 
San  Salvador,  and  W.  and  N.  W.  by  Guatemala ; 
length  from  E.  to  W.,  440  m. ;  greatest  breadth 
N.  to  S.,  200  m. ;  area,  about  50,000  sq.  m. 
The  coast  line  on  the  Atlantic  is  much  more  ex- 
tensive than  that  on  the  Pacific,  its  length  be- 
ing about  400  m. ;  it  is  comparatively  even, 
low  and  marshy  E.  of  Ion.  85°,  and  often  high 
and  rocky  W.  of  that  point.  The  Pacific  coast 
line  is  but  60  m.  in  length,  very  irregular  and 


787 


low,  and  subject  to  inundation  by  spring  tides 
Both  coasts  are  unhealthy,  but  the  miasmatic 
influence  does  not  extend  far  inland.  Off  the 
Atlantic  coast  are  Ruatan,  Guanaja  or  Bonaca 
Utila  Helena,  Barbaretta,  Morat,  and  other 
smaller  islands  dependent  upon  the  first  the 
whole  group  being  known  as  the  Bay  islands 
and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Jamaica  They 
are  chiefly  inhabited  by  British  subjects,  an 
occupation  in  violation  of  the  express  terms  of 
a  treaty  made  with  the  United  States  in  1850. 
Guanaja  is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  point 
from  which  Columbus  in  1502  descried  for  the 
first  time  the  Central  American  mainland.  The 
principal  ports  of  Honduras,  which  are  among 
the  most  commodious  in  Central  America,  are 
Omoa,  Trujillo,  Puerto  CortSs  (formerly  called 


Puerto  Caballos),  and  Amapala ;  the  first  three 
are  on  the  Caribbean  sea,  and  the  last  on  Fon- 
seca  bay  in  the  Pacific.  That  of  Omoa,  form- 
ed by  a  small  bay  opening  to  the  N.  W.,  and 
offering  safe  anchorage  to  vessels  of  the  deep- 
est draft,  is  the  exporting  and  importing  cen- 
tre for  the  departments  of  Yoro,  Olancho,  and 
part  of  Tegucigalpa;  the  town,  situated  \  m. 
from  the  harbor  in  a  marshy  region,  is  very 
unhealthy.  Trujillo,  on  a  delightful  bay  of  the 
same  name,  was  an  important  shipping  town 
in  colonial  times ;  but  being  situated  so  far 
from  the  populous  parts  of  the  country  and 
the  more  frequented  paths  (there  being  no 
roads),  it  has  gradually  lost  its  prestige.  Puer- 
to Cortds  was  for  more  than  two  centuries  the 
principal  entrepot  on  the  coast;  it  stands  on 
a  bay  9  m.  in  circumference,  at  a  short  dis- 


tance from  Omoa,  and  may  be  entered  by 
the  largest  ocean  steamers,  which  there  find 
secure  mooring  ground  and  convenient  docks. 
Amapala,  on  the  N.  E.  shore  of  the  island  of 
Tigre,  facing  the  island  of  Sacate  Grande,  the 
only  port  of  Honduras  on  the  Pacific,  has  ex- 
cellent anchorage,  thorough  shelter,  and  good 
facilities  for  repairing  ships.  All  the  ports  in 
the  republic  are  now  free;  that  of  Amapala 
was  declared  so  in  1857,  the  inhabitants  being 
exempt  from  military  service  and  all  imposts, 
save  in  time  of  war,  and  from  tithes  and  excise. 
The  bay  of  Fonseca,  washing  the  shores  of  San 
Salvador,  Honduras,  and  Nicaragua,  is  about 
35  m.  long  and  45  m.  wide,  and  contains  the 
finest  "  constellation  of  ports  "  on  the  W.  coast 
of  America.  Among  its  numerous  islands  are 
Sacate,  the  largest,  and  Tigre,  rising  like  a 


788 


HONDURAS 


huge  cone  to  an  altitude  of  1,950  ft.  Tigre  is 
20  m,  in  circumference,  and  is  mainly  covered 
with  valuable  timber. — Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
face  of  the  country  is  essentially  mountainous, 
and  though  nowhere  attaining  an  elevation 
equal  to  the  greatest  in  Guatemala,  the  surface 
is  more  diversified  than  in  that  state.  The 
only  consecutive  chain  of  mountains  is  the  Si- 
erra Madre,  which  enters  the  republic  at  the 
west  from  Guatemala,  and  separates  in  the  knot 
of  Merendon  into  two  great  branches,  N.  E. 
and  S.  E.  The  former  reaches  to  the  bay  of 
Honduras,  terminating  in  the  mountains  of 
Omoa,  the  mean  altitude  there  being  8,000 
ft.,  and  the  maximum  9,000  ft.;  it  takes  in 
its  course  thither  the  names  of  Sierra  del 
Espiritu  Santo  and  Grita.  The  latter,  trend- 
ing first  S.  E.,  then  E.,  under  the  name  of 
Pacaya  mountains,  deflects  to  the  N.  W.,  and 
forms  the  great  knot  designated  as  the  Se- 
laque  mountains,  whose  highest  peak,  10,000 
ft.,  may  be  regarded  as  the  culminating  point 
of  Honduras.  N.  E.  of  the  Selaque  group  are 
the  Puca  mountains,  presenting  also  a  lofty 
peak,  and  connected  by  a  S.  E.  range  of  com- 
paratively low  hills  with  the  Opalaca  chain, 
which  is  in  turn  linked  by  another  series  of 
hills  curving  S.  and  W.  to  the  mountains  of 
San  Juan,  and  these  again  to  the  Montecillos 
chain,  N.  of  which  are  two  parallel  chains, 
Santa  Barbara  to  the  west  and  Canchia  to  the 
east,  separated  by  the  broad  valley  of  Lake 
Yqjoa.  The  republic  is  here  bisected  by  the 
valleys  of  the  Humuya-Ulua  system  and  the 
Goascoran,  which  rivers,  rising  in  the  same 
ridge  8.  E.  of  the  Montecillos,  flow  N.  and  S. 
respectively,  the  Ulua  to  the  bay-  of  Honduras, 
and  the  Goascoran  to  Fonseca  bay.  East  of 
this  bisecting  line  are  the  Comayagua  moun- 
tains, with  a  few  lofty  summits;  the  Lepate- 
rique  chain  lies  S.  of  these,  and  the  remarkable 
Sulaco  group  N.  E.,  sending  down  from  their 
elevated  crests  waters  to  either  ocean.  Due 
S.  of  the  Sulaco  knot  are  the  Chili  mountains, 
forming  part  of  the  southern  boundary  with 
Nicaragua;  and  due  N.  of  it,  near  the  Atlan- 
tic coast,  rise  the  Oongrehoy  peaks,  ranging 
in  height  from  5,500  to  8,000  ft.  Of  the  orog- 
raphy of  the  country  stretching  E.  of  Ion.  86° 
30'  nothing  definite  is  known.  The  N.  E.  por- 
tion has  successive  mountain  ranges,  some  of 
which  descend  to  the  very  coast,  while  others 
dwindle  at  a  considerable  distance  inland ;  and 
all  are  separated  by  vast  terraced  plains,  such 
as  those  of  Yoro  and  Olancho,  celebrated  for 
the  number  and  excellence  of  their  cattle,  but 
inhabited  only  by  tribes  of  savage  Indians.  A 
feature  worthy  of  remark  in  the  mountain  sys- 
tem of  Honduras  is  the  absence  of  the  volcanic 
coast  range  on  the  Pacific,  which  is  so  exten- 
sively developed  in  the  other  Central  American 
states,  especially  in  Guatemala  and  San  Salva- 
dor, but  which  is  here  represented  by  the  nu- 
merous volcanic  islands  dotting  the  bay  of  Fon- 
seca, supposed  to  have  been  itself  formed  by 
volcanic  agency.  The  plain  of  Comayagua  is 


of  extraordinary  beauty ;  it  is  about  40  m. 
long  from  N.  to  S.,  with  a  mean  breadth  of 
perhaps  10  m.;  and  with  it  may  be  enumera- 
ted the  plain  of  Espino  immediately  N.  and  al- 
most contiguous  to  it ;  that  of  Sensenti,  wall- 
ed round  by  the  Merendon,  Pacaya,  and  Se- 
laque mountains ;  and  still  others,  all  extreme- 
ly picturesque  and  fertile. — In  Honduras,  as 
elsewhere  in  America,  the  principal  rivers  flow 
to  the  Atlantic.  The  Segovia,  called  also  Coco, 
Oro,  and  Wanks,  already  mentioned  as  forming 
a  portion  of  the  southern  boundary,  receives 
its  principal  waters  from  Honduras,  and  hence 
should  be  regarded  as  forming  a  part  of  its  river 
system ;  its  course,  about  350  m.,  through  an 
unbroken  wilderness,  is  over  a  rocky  bed, 
which,  together  with  a  succession  of  rapids, 
renders  the  river  unnavigable  except  by  ca- 
noes. The  largest  river  entirely  within  the 
territory  is  the  Ulua,  formed  by  the  united 
waters  of  the  Santiago  and  Humuya,  with  their 
respective  tributaries  the  Santa  Barbara  and 
Sulaco,  and  holding  a  course  N.  by  E.  to  the 
Atlantic,  into  which  it  falls  about  Ion.  87°  49' ; 
the  Humuya  is  the  main  branch,  rising  in  the 
mountains  on  the  southern  border  of  the  plain 
of  Comayagua.  There  is  but  9  ft.  of  water  on 
the  bar  traversing  the  mouth  of  the  Ulua,  but 
steamers  of  small  draft  can  ascend  as  far  as  the 
junction  of  the  Santiago,  a  distance  of  about 
70  m.  by  the  course  of  the  stream.  The  aggre- 
gate waters  of  the  Santiago-Humuya  system  are 
computed  to  drain  nearly  one  third  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  republic.  Next  in  order  is  the 
Rio  Tinto,  rising  in  the  mountains  bordering 
the  valley  of  Olanchito,  in  the  N.  E.  portion 
of  the  country,  and  with  a  course  of  perhaps 
150  m. ;  but  its  shallowness,  and  a  bar  with  but 
7  ft.  of  water  at  the  entrance,  impede  its  navi- 
gation except  by  small  craft,  which  go  up 
about  60  m.  The  Patuca,  still  further  E.,  is  a 
powerful  stream,  receiving  tributaries  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  from  most  of  the  moun- 
tains in  the  vast  department  of  Olancho  ;  one 
of  these  tributaries,  the  Guayape,  is  about  250 
m.  long,  and  remarkable  for  its  extensive  gold 
washings;  the  whole  course  of  the  Patuca 
proper  is  probably  not  less  than  200  m.  Its 
bed  presents  similar  obstructions  to  those  of 
the  other  rivers  named,  but  in  spite  of  this  the 
Patuca  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  small  steam- 
ers as  far  as  the  Portal  del  Infierno,  and  to  be 
for  commercial  intercourse  with  the  interior 
the  best  river  on  the  E.  coast  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. \The  Chamelican  rises  in  the  Merendon 
mountains,  and  after  a  serpentine  course,  gen- 
erally  N.  E.,  discharges  into  the  Caribbean 
sea  a  short  distance  W.  of  the  Ulua;  its  valley 
abounds  in  valuable  products,  but  it  has  little 
capacity  for  navigation.  The  other  streams, 
mostly  descending  from  the  Sulaco  mountains, 
and  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Lean  and  the 
Aguan,  are  relatively  unimportant.  Two  fine 
rivers  flow  southward  to  Fonseca  bay :  the 
Goascoran,  which  rises  but  a  few  miles  S.  of 
the  head  waters  of  the  Humuya,  and  is  about  80 


HONDURAS 


789 


in.  long,  and  easily  fordable  in  the  dry  season; 
and  the  Choluteca,  which  rises  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Lepaterique  mountains,  around  the 
N.  E.  extremity  of  which  it  sweeps,  and  then 
runs  S.  W.,  having  a  total  length  of  more  than 
150  m.,  and  passing  the  cities  of  Tegucigalpa 
and  Choluteca.  Large  canoes  (bongos')  and 
other  light  craft  navigate  the  latter  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  sea.  The  only  lake 
of  note  is  that  of  Yojoa,  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valley  between  the  mountains  of  Santa  Barbara 
and  Canchia,  at  an  elevation  of  2,050  ft. ;  it  is 
25  m.  long  by  about  7  wide,  with  an  average 
depth  of  4  fathoms ;  it  sends  to  the  Humuya 
two  tributaries,  the  Santa  Barbara  from  its 
southern  extremity,  and  the  Blanco  from  its 
northern,  which  join  the  Humuya  within  two 
or  three  miles  of  each  other.  Near  the  E. 
shore  of  Yojoa  an  immense  spring  of  crystal- 
line bluish  water,  75  ft.  in  diameter,  gushes 
from  the  earth,  and  flows  into  the  lake  in  a 
volume  equal  to  that  of  any  of  the  outlets  of 
the  latter.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  Carib- 
bean coast  is  lined  with  salt-water  lagoons  and 
marshes,  some  of  the  former  being  of  consider- 
able extent,  such  as  the  Laguna  de  Cartago,  40 
m.  long,  and  the  Laguna  de  Cartine,  50  m. 
long. — Mining,  in  early  times  the  absorbing  in- 
dustry of  the  country,  has  dwindled  almost  to 
insignificance  for  lack  of  capital  and  enterprise, 
and  of  suitable  roads  for  the  transport  of  ade- 
quate machinery  to  the  mining  districts.  Civil 
strife  has  also  contributed  to  restrict  opera- 
tions, and  hundreds  of  mines  susceptible  of 
being  profitably  worked  are  abandoned  in 
every  part  of  the  country.  Silver  and  gold 
are  the  most  abundant  metals;  the  silver  mines 
lie  mostly  in  the  S.  W.  ranges  of  mountains, 
while  gold  is  more  plentiful  toward  the  Atlan- 
tic. The  chief  silver  mines  are  those  of  Te- 
gucigalpa and  Gracias;  the  mineral  is  there 
found  in  various  combinations  with  iron,  lead, 
copper,  and  sometimes  antimony,  while  chlo- 
rides are  among  the  richest  of  all  the  ores. 
Few  gold  mines  are  now  worked,  those  of  San 
Andres  in  the  department  of  Gracias,  and 
others  near  San  Juan  Cantaranas  in  Teguci- 
galpa, forming  almost  the  only  exceptions. 
The  rivers  Guayape  and  Jalan,  as  also  the 
Guayambre,  in  the  department  of  Olancho, 
abound  in  auriferous  sands,  the  washing  of 
which  is  still  extensively  carried  on,  and  yields 
handsomely.  Copper  mines  are  numerous  and 
of  great  value ;  but  most  of  them  have  been 
abandoned,  or  rather  were  never  worked  ex- 
cept in  the  search  for  silver.  Coal  exists  in 
several  localities,  and  there  is  an  abundance 
of  limestone,  veined,  white,  and  blue,  in  every 
part  of  the  republic,  and  especially  in  the 
transverse  valley  extending  from  Fonseca  bay 
to  the  bay  of  Honduras  ;  and  there  are  quarries 
of  beautiful  marble  suited  for  statuary  in  the 
Omoa  mountains.  Ancient  monuments  in  the 
vicinity  of  Copan,  near  the  Guatemala  frontier, 
and  of  the  same  or  a  kindred  type  with  those 
of  Palenque,  would  seem  to  point  to  the  early 


occupation  of  that  region  by  a  civilized  people. 
(See  COPAN.) — The  climate  is  hot  on  the  Carib- 
bean coast,  but  remarkably  mild  and  equable 
in  the  highlands,  the  temperature  varying  for 
the  whole  year  from  62°  to  86°  F.,  according 
to  elevation.  In  the  interior  the  months  of ' 
April,  May,  and  June  are  the  hottest,  while  in 
November,  December,  and  January  the  atmo- 
sphere is  sufficiently  cool  to  admit  of  fire. 
Elsewhere  than  on  the  Caribbean  coast  the  dry 
season  lasts  from  November  to  June,  little 
rain  falling  during  that  period.  The  rainy  sea- 
son is  usually  ushered  in  by  violent  thunder- 
storms, which  rarely  occur  in  the  forenoon; 
while  thunder,  accompanied  by  northers,  is 
frequent  at  the  end  of  that  season.  Squier  says 
that  "  there  can  be  no  generalization  on  the 
subject  of  the  climate  of  Honduras,  except  so 
far  as  to  say  that  it  has  a  variety  adapted  to 
every  caprice,  and  a  temperature  suitable  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  products  of  every  zone." 
Miasmatic  and  intermittent  fevers  are  only 
known  on  the  coast ;  goitre  is  prevalent  in 
the  highlands.— The  soil  of  Honduras  is  ex- 
tremely fertile ;  in  the  coast  regions  the  various 
species  of  tropical  vegetation  are  luxuriant; 
and  on  the  elevated  table  lands  of  the  in- 
terior maize  and  the  several  European  grains 
yield  ample  harvests  with  the  rudest  cultiva- 
tion. The  sugar  cane  is  indigenous  in  Hondu- 
ras as  in  the  other  Central  American  states, 
and  of  a  distinct  species  from  that  cultivated 
in  the  Antilles ;  it  thrives  well  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  even  at  elevations  of  4,000  ft. 
Coffee  likewise  flourishes,  but  its  culture  is 
greatly  neglected ;  indigo  and  other  dyes  are 
produced  in  limited  quantities ;  but  cochineal 
is  no  longer  an  object  of  care,  although  the 
nopal  abounds  in  the  plain  of  Comayagua,  and 
its  leaves  are  covered  with  the  webs  of  the 
cochinilla  silvestre  or  wild  cochineal.  Tobacco 
of  excellent  quality  is  raised,  and  even  export- 
ed at  times  to  Cuba,  where  it  is  prepared  and 
sold  as  of  native  production.  Pimento,  capsi- 
cum, and  many  other  spices  are  plentiful.  The 
various  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  temperate 
zone  abound  in  the  interior  and  require  but 
little  care;  manioc  is  everywhere  produced; 
and  the  yams  of  Omoa  are  celebrated  alike  for 
their  prodigious  size  and  exquisite  flavor.  The 
arboreal  vegetation  of  Honduras  is  unsurpassed 
by  that  of  any  other  region  N.  of  the  Orinoco ; 
the  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  other  precious 
cabinet  wood's,  together  with  the  vast  forests 
of  timber  for  constructions  of  all  kinds,  may 
be  classed  among  the  chief  sources  of  the  na- 
tional wealth.  Fustic,  Brazil  wood,  annatto, 
and  other  dyewoods,  and  also  gum  and  medi 
cinal  trees  and  plants,  as  copaiba,  copal,  liquid- 
amber,  and  India-rubber  trees,  ipecacuanha 
the  palma  Christ!  (yielding  castor  oil),  _  and 
many  others,  are  very  abundant.— The  indi- 
genous fauna  includes  animals  both  of  more 
northerly  and  of  the  equatorial  regions.  The 
felidffi  comprise  the  jaguar,  puma,  black  tiger 
(felis  discolor),  and  ocelot ;  the  coyote  or  Mex- 


790 


HONDURAS 


ican  wolf  is  common ;  there  are  several  varie- 
ties of  armadillos  and  ant-eaters ;  pacas  are 
numerous,  and  their  flesh  is  by  some  accounted 
a  delicacy  ;  and  to  these  may.  be  added  two  spe- 
cies of  deer,  red  and  brown,  peccaries,  warees 
(wild  hogs),  tapirs,  raccoons,  opossums,  squir- 
rels, and  hosts  of  monkeys  of  different  varieties. 
Alligators  abound  in  every  river  and  lake,  and 
sharks  along  both  coasts.  Lizards  of  various 
kinds  are  extremely  numerous,  among  them 
being  the  iguana,  often  4  ft.  in  length,  the  flesh 
of  which  is  commonly  eaten.  The  rattlesnake 
and  corral  are  the  only  venomous  serpents, 
but  many  harmless  species  exist.  The  green 
and  hawksbill  turtles,  the  latter  furnishing  the 
tortoise  shell  of  commerce,  and  many  kinds 
of  land  turtles,  are  found.  Endless  varieties 
of  edible  and  other  fish  inhabit  the  rivers  and 
lakes,  and  abound  on  the  coasts;  and  there 
are  several  species  of  edible  mollusks,  and 
crustaceans,  such  as  oysters,  lobsters,  crabs, 
&c.  Bees  are  plentiful  and  yield  large  quan- 
tities of  honey.  Mosquitoes  are  unknown, 
save  in  the  marshy  regions  of  the  Caribbean 
coast,  where  the  nigua,  a  small  insect  which 
burrows  under  the  skin  of  the  feet  producing 
sluggish  sores,  is  also  found  in  considerable 
numbers.  Tarantulas,  scorpions,  and  enor- 
mous scolopendrae  infest  all  regions ;  and  my- 
riads of  locusts  sometimes  visit  the  country, 
darkening  the  air  as  their  column  passes,  and 
utterly  destroying  every  green  thing  where 
they  alight.  Hawks,  vultures,  and  zopilotes 
or  turkey  buzzards  are  the  only  predatory 
birds ;  pelicans  and  many  other  aquatic  birds 
abound ;  partridge,  quail,  snipe,  pigeons,  wild 
turkeys,  plovers,  and  similar  birds  are  numer- 
ous in  the  interior ;  humming  birds  of  many 
varieties  are  found,  as  are  also  numerous  spe- 
cies of  warblers. — Agriculture  is  extremely 
backward ;  laborers  are  scarce,  and  the  na- 
tives are  strongly  opposed  to  continuous  ex- 
ertion, especially  in  the  open  air ;  so  that 
even  the  comparatively  small  portion  of  the 
country  under  cultivation  is  very  imperfectly 
tilled.  In  the  plains  of  the  interior  large 
numbers  of  cattle,  horses,  asses,  and  mules 
find  rich  and  abundant  pasture ;  yet  little  care 
is  taken  of  these  animals,  except  the  mules, 
by  which  almost  all  the  carrying  trade  is  per- 
formed ;  and  the  quantities  of  hides  and  other 
animal  products  exported  are  comparatively 
insignificant. — The  manufactures  consist  ex- 
clusively of  coarse  woollen  stuffs  and  rude 
utensils  for  domestic  and  field  uses,  and  are 
analogous  to  those  of  Guatemala  and  Mexico. 
Mahogany  cutting  is  an  important  occupation 
during  the  months  of  August,  September,  and 
October.  Of  the  commerce  of  the  republic  it 
is  difficult  to  give  accurate  statements,  there 
being  no  official  returns  published.  The  chief 
staples  of  export  are  mahogany,  tobacco,  cat- 
tle, hides,  sarsaparilla,  indigo,  and  other  dye- 
stuffs.  According  to  a  communication  of 
President  Medina  in  1872,  the  value  of  the 
exports  may  be  estimated  at  $1,230,000,  dis- 


tributed as  follows :  bullion,  $600,000 ;  indigo, 
$200,000;  cattle,  $150,000;  timber  (mahoga- 
ny, &c.),  $180,000;  hides,  &c.,  $100,000.  The 
imports  comprise  cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  hard- 
ware, and  machinery,  the  first  two  mainly  from 
Great  Britain,  and  much  of  the  others  from 
the  United  States.  The  internal  communica- 
tion is  chiefly  effected,  as  already  observed,  by 
mules;  on  some  of  the  rivers,  however,  the 
transportation  is  carried  on  in  bongos  or  large 
canoes.  There  is  an  interoceanic  railway  in 
process  of  construction  from  Amapala  to  Puer- 
to Cortes,  through  the  transverse  valley  of  the 
Goascoran  and  Humuya  rivers ;  the  total  length 
is  to  be  232  m. ;  the  first  section,  extending 
from  Puerto  Cortes  southward  56  m.,  is  built, 
and  it  was  reported  in  1873  that  the  traffic  was 
already  sufficient  to  almost  meet  the  running 
expenses.  The  line,  according  to  the  terms  of 
the  contract,  was  to  have  been  completed  in 
1872;  but  it  has  been  retarded  by  civil  wars 
and  the  lack  of  adequate  capital.  A  material 
drawback  to  the  public  welfare  is  the  want  of 
suitable  roads,  very  few  worthy  of  the  name 
as  yet  existing.  In  1873  some  measures  were 
taken  by  the  government  for  repairing  a  road 
leading  from  the  capital  to  Potrerillos,  and  other- 
wise facilitating  the  transportation  of  merchan- 
dise.— Honduras  is  divided  into  the  seven  de- 
partments of  Choluteca,  Comayagua,  Gracias, 
Olancho,  Santa  Barbara,  Tegucigalpa,  and 
Yoro,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  dis- 
tricts. The  same  uncertainty  attends  the  sta- 
tistics of  population  as  those  of  commerce  ;  no 
official  census  has  ever  been  taken,  nor  has 
the  government  published  any  data  on  the 
subject.  It  may  fairly  be  presumed,  however, 
that  Honduras  has  400,000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  some  184,000  are  Indians,  205,000  mes- 
tizos, 5,750  whites,  and  5,250  negroes.  The 
whole  country  E.  from  the  longitude  of  the 
river  Aguan  is  almost  exclusively  occupied  by 
independent  aboriginal  tribes,  the  two  best 
known  of  which  are  the  Jicaques  and  the 
Poyas,  both  probably  being  branches  of  the 
Carib  stock.  Numbers  of  them  have  embraced 
the  Catholic  faith,  and  are  fairly  entered  upon 
the  career  of  civilization  ;  their  chief  occupa- 
tion is  husbandry.  There  is  in  the  region 
adjacent  to  the  Laguna  de  Cartago  a  people 
called  black  Caribs,  who  have  evidently  a  large 
admixture  of  African  blood.  The  whites  are 
mostly  descended  from  the  early  Spanish  set- 
tlers ;  they  inhabit  the  larger  towns,  especial- 
ly the  seaports,  and  the  extensive  haciendas 
scattered  through  the  interior  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  country. — The  government  is 
based  upon  a  charter  promulgated  in  Novem- 
ber, 1865.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  president  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
and  aided  in  the  administration  by  a  council 
of  state  composed  of  two  ministers  appointed 
by  himself,  a  senator  elected  by  both  houses 
of  congress,  and  the  judge  of  the  supreme 
court.  The  legislative  power  rests  in  a  con- 
gress consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  chamber 


HONDURAS 

deputies.  The  finances  of  the  republic  are 
great  disorder,  nor  can  any  definite  state- 
ments thereof  be  obtained,  inasmuch  as  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  custom  house  are  usually  farmed 
out  to  merchants  and  other  capitalists,  whose 
interest  it  is  not  to  make  regular  returns. 
The  revenue,  one  third  of  which  is  derived 
from  imports,  is  estimated  at  $400,000  annu- 
ally. Nothing  is  known  of  the  home  debt; 
the  foreign  debt  amounted  at  the  end  of  1872 
to  $29,950,540,  made  up  of  three  loans:  the 
first  contracted  at  the  London  stock  exchange 
in  1867,  for  the  nominal  amount  of  £1,000,- 
000;  the  second  issued  at  the  Paris  bourse 
in  1868,  for  the  nominal  amount  of  62,252,- 
700  francs;  and  the  third  negotiated  at  the 
London  stock  exchange  in  1870,  for  the  nom- 
inal amount  of  £2,500,000.  The  English  loans 
were  at  10  per  cent,  interest,  and  issued  at 
the  price  of  80 ;  and  the  French  loan  at  6  per 
cent.,  issued  at  the  price  of  75 ;  and  all  were 
raised  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  the  in- 
teroceanic  railway.  In  May,  1872,  the  Hon- 
duras government  issued  in  London  the  pros- 
pectus of  a  "10  per  cent,  ship  railway  loan" 
of  £15,000,000,  "  for  the  purpose  of  adapting 
the  railway  now  in  course  of  construction  to  a 
ship  railway  across  the  republic  of  Honduras," 
that  is,  "a  railway  capable  of  conveying  ships 
of  heavy  tonnage,  without  disturbing  the  car- 
go, between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
to  and  from  Puerto  Cortes  and  Fonseca  bay." 
This  loan,  which  was  to  be  in  150,000  bonds 
of  £100  each,  at  the  price  of  80,  and  to  be  re- 
paid in  15  years,  met  with  no  subscribers  in 
England. — Education  is  at  a  low  ebb,  there  be- 
ing, besides  the  so-called  universities  of  Coma- 
yagua  and  Tegucigalpa,  very  few  schools,  and 
those  existing  devoted  only  to  the  primary 
branches.  Indeed,  the  children  of  such  as  can 
afford  the  expense  are  sent  either  to  Guate- 
mala or  to  Europe  for  their  education.  Presi- 
dent Arias,  shortly  after  his  accession  in  1872, 
signified  a  desire  that  an  adequate  number  of 
public  schools  should  be  established  throughout 
the  country.  The  religion  of  the  people  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop  of  Comayagua. — The  coast  of  Honduras 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1502 ;  and  in 
1526  Cortes,  at  the  head  of  an  army  which  he 
brought  from  Mexico,  composed  of  Europeans 
and  Indians,  took  possession  of  the  country, 
and  founded  the  towns  of  Trujillo  and  Puer- 
to Caballos  (now  Puerto  Cortes).  The  whole 
known  portion  of  Central  America  was  shortly 
afterward  proclaimed  to  belong  to  Spain,  and 
placed  under  the  government  of  the  audiencia 
de  los  confines,  the  seat  of  which  was  fixed  at 
the  present  town  of  Gracias,  which  from  that 
circumstance  rose  rapidly  in  importance.  In 
1823  Honduras  entered  into  the  Central  Amer- 
ican confederation;  but  it  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic  in  1839,  and  took  part  in  the 
wars  and  intrigues  which  followed  each  other 
in  rapid  succession  till  1862.  Civil  strife  also 
contributed  to  retard  the  material  progress  of  j 


HONDURAS   (BRITISH)  791 

the  country.  In  1861,  for  instance,  many  at- 
tempts were  made  at  insurrection,  the  princi- 
pal instigators  being  the  clergy,  who  preached 
dissension  from  the  pulpit.  Guardiola,  who 
was  at  that  time  president  of  the  republic, 
thwarted  all  their  designs,  but  granted  a  uni- 
versal amnesty,  not  excluding  even  the  vicar, 
who  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  discontent'. 
Guardiola  was  shortly  after  assassinated,  and 
Montes  succeeded  him.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  make  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  San  Sal- 
vador against  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua.  His 
army  was  defeated  at  Santa  Rosa  in  Guate- 
mala, and  one  of  his  generals,  Medina,  joined 
the  victorious  army  of  the  enemy,  overthrew 
Montes,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
president  (July,  1863).  Medina  resigned  the 
government  in  1864,  but  was  immediately  re- 
elected;  and  he  continued  in  the  presidency 
until  his  deposition  in  1872  by  Don  Celeo 
Arias,  now  (1874)  provisional  president  of  the 
republic.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  amity  with 
Spain  was  signed  March  15,  1866. 

HONDURAS,  Bay  of,  a  large  triangular  body 
of  water,  an  arm  of  the  Caribbean  sea,  lying 
between  the  republic  of  Honduras  and  the  pen- 
insula of  Yucatan.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
great  depth  of  water,  which  some  writers  sup- 
pose to  have  originated  the  name  Honduras 
(Sp.  hondura,  depth),  subsequently  applied  to 
a  portion  of  the  mainland.  The  S.  W.  portion 
of  the  bay,  penetrating  into  the  continent,  be- 
tween Guatemala  and  Honduras,  is  known  as 
the  bay  of  Amatique.  Along  the  coast  of  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan  the  bay  is  studded  with 
coral  keys  or  cays,  which  form  an  almost  con- 
tinuous line,  at  a  distance  of  10  to  25  m.  from 
the  shore,  and  act  as  a  kind  of  natural  break- 
water to  the  continent.  It  was  in  the  smooth 
water  behind  these  keys  that  the  buccaneers, 
well  acquainted  with  Njthe  intricate  channels 
between  them,  found  qrefuge  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Spanish  fleets.  Approach  to  the 
peninsula  is  at  all  times  difficult  and  sometimes 
dangerous,  and  many  vessels  are  annually  lost 
in  endeavoring  to  reach  the  coast  of  British 
Honduras.  The  most  dangerous  reefs  or  banks 
are  those  of  Chinchorro,  or  the  Northern 
Triangles.  On  the  side  of  Honduras  the  bay 
is  open,  the  water  deep,  and  navigation  only 
impeded  by  the  group  of  islands  known  as 
the  Bay  islands,  which  however  are  high,  and 
easily  avoided  by  mariners.  The  waters  of  the 
bay  are  generally  tranquil,  and  storms  occur 
only  during  the  prevalence  of  the  northers  in 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  which  sometimes  sweep 
over  it,  but  with  diminished  force.  Few  of 
the  cyclones  of  the  Antilles  reach  the  bay  of 
Honduras. 

HONDURAS,  British,  or  Balizc,  a  British  colony 
occupying  the  extreme  N.  E.  corner  of  Central 
America,  and  lying  between  lat.  15°  54'  and 
18°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  88°  and  90°  30'  W.  It  is 
bounded  N.  W.  and  N.  by  Yucatan,  E.  by  the 
bay  of  Honduras,  and  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Guate- 
mala; area,  about  13,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 


792 


HONDURAS   (BRITISH) 


24,710.  The  people  are  mainly  negroes,  the  de- 
scendants of  slaves,  with  some  Caribs  springing 
from  refugees  from  San  Vicente,  who  first  es- 
tablished themselves  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Honduras,  and  after  the  independence  of  that 
republic  settled  in  Balize.  There  are  some 
other  Indians  in  the  colony,  originally  from 
Yucatan;  but  of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  traces 
of  whose  handiwork  still  exist  in  the  tumuli 
called  by  the  mahogany  cutters  "  Indian  hills," 
none  are  now  to  be  found  anywhere  E.  of 
the  Chama  range  of  mountains.  Balize,  the 
capital  and  the  only  town  of  importance,  has 
a  population  of  about  6,000,  which  at  Christ- 
mas time,  however,  owing  to  the  mahogany 
trade,  increases  to  about  15,000.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  very  irregular,  though  none 
of  the  mountains  attain  a  greater  elevation 
than  4,000  ft.  The  coast  is  generally  low  and 
swampy,  and  the  shore  is  studded  with  islets 
or  keys,  clothed  with  a  dense  arboreal  vegeta- 
tion. These  keys,  while  they  serve  as  a  natu- 
ral breakwater  and  so  afford  secure  refuge  for 
ships  save  when  northers  prevail,  render  the 
approach  difficult.  The  country  on  receding 
from  the  coast  completely  changes  its  aspect, 
rising  into  low  hills  separated  by  delightful 
valleys ;  and  in  the  south  are  several  parallel 
ridges,  the  highest  of  which  are  the  Cocks- 
comb mountains.  The  rocks  are  principally 
primary  and  calcareous.  Gold  has  been  dis- 
covered in  the  streams ;  valuable  specimens  of 
crystals  have  been  found;  and  strata  of  fine 
marble  and  alabaster  formations  are  known  to 
exist. — Of  the  rivers,  the  Hondo,  forming  the 
northern  boundary  with  Yucatan,  is  the  long- 
est ;  it  rises  in  or  near  Lake  Gumustan  in  Vera 
Paz,  and  has  a  generally  N.  E.  course  of  per- 
haps 250  m.  to  its  mouth  on  the  Caribbean 
shore.  The  Balize  rises  in  the  same  region, 
holds  a  N.  E.  by  E.  course  of  about  200  m., 
and  discharges  into  the  Caribbean  sea  by  one 
mouth  at  the  town  of  the  same  name,  which  it 
divides  into  two  portions,  and  by  another  3| 
m.  N".  Laboring  creek,  a  branch  of  this  river, 
about  100  m.  inland,  is  remarkable  for  the  pet- 
rifying properties  of  its  waters,  which  have  a 
cathartic  effect  upon  strangers,  and  a  healing 
property  when  applied  to  ulcers.  New  river, 
between  and  parallel  to  the  two  first  men- 
tioned, is  also  a  fine  stream,  issuing  from  an 
extensive  lagoon.  About  35  m.  S.  of  Balize 
is  the  river  Manatee,  which  one  mile  from  its 
mouth  spreads  into  a  magnificent  sheet  of 
water,  several  leagues  in  extent;  the  pictu- 
resqueness  of  the  scenery  surrounding  this  la- 
goon is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  mountains  of 
the  same  name,  rising  on  its  southern  margin 
to  a  height  of  1,000  ft.  The  Sibun,  a  short 
distance  N.  of  the  Manatee,  is  like  that  re- 
markable for  rapids  of  considerable  acclivity, 
as  also  for  a  series  of  singular  and  beautiful 
caves  excavated  by  the  waters.  Still  further 
S.  a  half  dozen  other  streams  of  minor  pro- 
portions hurry  by  short  courses  to  the  sea. 
The  climate,  though  generally  mild,  is  said  to 


be  unfavorable  to  Europeans ;  the  heat  rarely 
exceeds  83°  F.,  and  the  annual  mean  is  con- 
siderably less  than  this  at  Balize  and  along  the 
whole  coast,  where  tempering  eastern  breezes 
prevail  nine  months  in  the  year.  During  the 
wet  season  from  June  to  October  heavy  rains 
are  frequent,  and  the  malaria  arising  from  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the  .low- 
lands renders  this  period  unhealthy.  The  soil 
in  most  parts  is  very  fertile.  In  this  respect 
the  country  is  distinguished  into  two  divisions, 
the  pine  and  the  Cahoum  ridges.  The  subsoil 
in  the  first  is  composed  of  a  loose  reddish  sand, 
peculiarly  genial  to  the  pine  from  which  it 
takes  its  name,  and  similar  productions;  and 
extensive  prairies  also  cover  this  soil.  In  the 
Cahoum  ridge  the  soil  consists  of  a  rich  deep 
loam,  suitable  for  every  species  of  European 
and  many  species  of  tropical  food  plants ;  brush- 
wood grows  thickly  here,  and  the  wild  cotton 
and  other  large  trees  abound.  Rice  and  arrow- 
root are  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  maize 
thrives  well,  yams  and  manioc  are  largely  pro- 
duced, and  there  is  a  great  variety  of  spon- 
taneous tropical  fruits.  Sugar,  coffee,  cotton, 
and  indigo  are  comparatively  neglected,  in 
spite  of  the  suitableness  of  the  soil  for  their 
culture.  Tobacco  culture  has  proved  remu- 
nerative, and  the  quality  of  the  plant  is  little 
inferior  to  that  of  the  finest  Cuban.  The  want 
of  adequate  capital  and  labor  prevents  the  ex- 
tension of  agricultural  industry.  A  company 
was  formed  about  1865,  with  a  considerable 
capital,  for  the  production  of  sugar ;  but  their 
efforts  have  not  been  very  successful.  The 
great  staple  of  export  is  mahogany,  the  felling 
of  which  constitutes  the  main  industry  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  float  the  logs  down  the  rivers, 
and  bring  them  for  sale  to  Balize  at  Christmas 
time.  As  many  as  10,000,000  ft.  of  the  wood 
have  been  exported  in  a  single  year.  Log- 
wood, next  in  importance  after  mahogany,  is 
found  in  immense  quantities ;  and  the  cahoum 
palm,  from  the  nut  of  which  is  extracted  an 
excellent  oil  for  exportation,  likewise  abounds, 
especially  in  the  Cahoum  ridge.  The  pinua 
occidentolis^  growing  to  a  height  of  60  ft.,  is 
valuable  for  its  tar  and  turpentine.  The  fauna 
of  this  territory  is  exactly  similar  to  that  of 
Honduras. — The  articles  exported  are  mainly 
mahogany,  logwood,  and  other  dyestuffs,  sugar 
unrefined,  coffee,  raw  cotton,  and  India  rubber. 
The  value  of  exports  to  Great  Britain  for  five 
years  was:  1868,  $703,600;  1869,  $946,050; 
1870,$480,110;  1871,  $780,185;  1872,  $879,- 
090.  The  imports  from  the  same  country  in 
the  same  period  were  as  follows:  1868,  $668,  < 
775;  1869,  $634,130;  1870,  $801,280;  1871, 
$829,385;  1872,  $737,960.  A  curious  article 
of  export  is  the  queen  conch  shell,  abundant 
on  the  coral  reefs  which  fringe  the  coast; 
12,000  of  these  were  sent  in  one  year  to  Paris, 
to  be  worked  into  cameo  brooches,  shirt  studs, 
&c.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  and  im- 
ports in  1871  was  $1,856,845.  Internal  com- 
munication is  here  hindered  by  the  same  diffi- 


HONE 

Ities  as  in  the  neighboring  states.  The  rev- 
me  in  1872  amounted  to  $193,595;  and  the 
public  debt  in  the  same  year  was  reduced 
to  $112,650.  The  colony  contributes  about 
$25,000  toward  defraying  an  expense  of  $66,820 
incurred  annually  by  the  mother  country  for 
maintaining  a  military  station  here.  Education 
is  little  attended  to,  and  the  few  schools  have 
but  a  small  attendance.  The  government  of 
British  Honduras  has  been  administered  by  a 
lieutenant  governor  since  May,  1862,  when  the 
settlement  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  colony. 
The  governor  is  appointed  by  the  crown.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  council  com- 
posed of  seven  magistrates  elected  annually  by 
the  people. — Little  is  known  of  the  early  set- 
tlement of  this  coast.  It  seems  to  have  been 
resorted  to  occasionally  by  wood  cutters  in 
the  16th  century.  Some  British  subjects,  at- 
tracted by  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  the 
mahogany  and  logwood,  came  from  Jamaica 
and  made  the  first  permanent  settlement ;  and 
this  throve  so  rapidly  that  the  immigrants  were 
soon  followed  by  a  large  number  of  others, 
who  extended  their  explorations  as  far  W.  as 
Carnpeachy,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  town  they 
established  some  colonies.  After  many  un- 
successful efforts  by  the  Spaniards  to  drive  out 
the  intruders,  these  were  at  last  compelled  to 
retreat  within  the  present  limits  of  the  terri- 
tory. In  1754  an  invading  expedition  of  1,500 
Spaniards  was  defeated  by  a  small  body  of 
English  settlers;  another  attack  was  made  in 
1779,  and  the  inhabitants  were  obliged  to  flee 
to  Merida  and  Havana,  where  many  of  them 
died  in  captivity.  By  1783  the  settlement  was 
again  prospering,  and  the  people,  after  repeated 
altercations  with  their  Spanish  neighbors,  on 
July  10,  1798,  repulsed  a  formidable  attack 
made  by  a  fleet  of  vessels  and  a  land  force  of 
2,000  men.  Since  that  time  the  country  has 
remained  in  tranquillity  as  a  British  possession, 
having  been  specially  excepted  from  the  treaty 
between  England  and  the  United  States,  June 
29,  1850,  by  which  the  two  powers  mutually 
agreed  "not  to  occupy,  fortify,  or  colonize 
any  part  of  Central  America." 

HONE,  William,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Bath  in  1779,  died  in  Tottenham,  Nov.  6,  1842. 
At  the  age  of  10  he  was  placed  with  an  at- 
torney in  London,  but  after  the  expiration  of 
his  apprenticeship  he  abandoned  the  law,  and 
in  1800  set  up  as  a  bookseller,  with  a  circula- 
ting library,  in  Lambeth  Walk.  During  the 
next  16  or  17  years  he  experienced  a  succes- 
sion of  vicissitudes.  Having  no  talent  for 
business,  he  failed  in  almost  every  enterprise 
he  undertook,  and  repeatedly  became  bankrupt. 
In  1817  he  brought  himself  into  great  notoriety 
by  the  series  of  political  satires  entitled  "  The 
Political  House  that  Jack  built,"  "The  Man 
in  the  Moon,"  "  The  Queen's  Matrimonial  Lad- 
der," "A  Slap  at  Slop,"  "  The  Political  Show- 
man," "  Non  Mi  Ricordo,"  &c.  Among  these 
were  several  in  the  nature  of  parodies  on  va- 
rious parts  of  the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer," 


HONEY 


793 


for  the  printing  and  publishing  of  which  Hone 
was  tried  on  three  separate  indictments  in  De- 
cember, 1817,  but  was  acquitted  in  each  in- 
stance. His  "Three  Trials,"  describing  the 
proceedings  on  this  occasion,  went  through  19 
editions  before  the  close  of  1818.  His  friends 
attempted  to  set  him  up  in  business  as  a  book 
auctioneer,  but  in  a  few  years  be  found  him- 
self the  inmate  of  the  King's  Bench  prison, 
where  during  a  confinement  of  about  three 


1829),  his  most  useful  works.  Upon  his  re- 
lease from  prison  he  attempted  to  establish 
himself  as  landlord  of  the  Grasshopper  coffee 
house,  but  failed.  Finally  he  joined  an  Inde- 
pendent church,  became  a  preacher,  and  offici- 
ated until  disabled  by  paralysis.  Among  his 
other  works  were:  "Ancient  Mysteries  De- 
scribed" (8vo,  1823);  an  edition  of  Strutt's 
"Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  English;"  and 
"  Early  Life  and  Conversion  of  William  Hone." 

HONESDALE,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Wayne  co.,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of 
the  state,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lackawaxen 
and  Dyberry  creeks,  113  m.  N.  of  Philadelphia, 
and  124  m.  N.  E.  of  Harrisburg ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,654.  It  is  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Erie 
railway,  135  m.  from  New  York,  and  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  canal  connects  it  with  the 
Hudson  river  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  It  is  an  ac- 
tive business  place,  the  greater  part  of  the  coal 
mined  bv  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal 
company  being  brought  here  from  the  Lacka- 
wanna  coal  fields,  16  m.  distant,  and  transferred 
to  canal  boats  and  cars.  It  is  neatly  built,  and 
has  water  and  gas  works,  founderies,  boot  and 
shoe  manufactories,  tanneries,  glass  works, 
flouring  mills,  a  national  bank,  a  savings  bank, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers. 

HONEY,  the  saccharine  juices  of  plants,  col- 
lected by  bees  from  flowers,  and  deposited  by 
them  in  the  waxen  cells  of  the  comb.  These 
juices  undergo  some  modification  in  the  honey 
bag  of  the  bee;  but  though  their  chemical 
character  is  somewhat  changed,  they  still  re- 
tain the  fla.vor  and  to  some  extent  the  peculiar 
properties  of  the  plants  from  which  they  were 
collected.  Under  a  powerful  microscope  the 
pollen  that  was  mixed  with  the  juices  may  be 
detected  in  the  honey,  and  even  referred  to 
the  particular  kind  of  plant  to  which  it  be- 
longed. The  prevalence  of  certain  varieties 
may  determine  what  sort  of  localities  have 
been  most  frequented  by  the  bees.  Flowers 
of  sweet  perfume  impart  agreeable  odor  and 
flavor  to  the  honey;  so  that  the  product  of 
some  districts  is  famed  and  prized,  while  the 
bees  of  others,  drawing  upon  very  different 
sources,  give  to  the  honey  they  make  the  dis- 
agreeable or  even  dangerous  properties  of  the 
plants  themselves.  Thus  the  honey  of  Mt.  Ida 
in  Crete  has  been  always  held  in  the  highest 
estimation,  as  also  that  of  Narbonne  and  Cha- 
mouni;  but  the  honey  of  Trebizond  causes 


794 


HONEY 


headache  and  vomiting,  and  possesses  poison- 
ous qualities,  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
rhododendron,  azalea  Pontica.  The  substances 
recognized  in  honey  are  grape  sugar,  manna, 
gum  mucilage,  extractive,  a  little  wax,  pollen, 
acid,  and  odoriferous  substances.  When  al- 
lowed to  drain  from  the  comb  it  is  wholly 
fluid,  and  this,  as  well  as  the  superior  quality 
first  made  in  the  season,  and  deposited  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  hives,  is  known  as  virgin 
honey.  But  as  ordinarily  pressed  out  it  holds 
a  solid  crystalline  sugar,  which  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  draining  and  pressing  the  fluid  por- 
tion through  a  linen  bag.  The  sugar  is  be- 
lieved to  be  identical  with  grape  sugar;  but 
excepting  its  consistency  and  tendency  to  crys- 
tallize, it  is  not  apparently  different  from  the 
fluid  honey.  Their  taste  and  chemical  proper- 
ties are  the  same.  The  proportion  of  crystal- 
lizable  sugar  increases  with  the  age  of  the 
honey,  so  as  to  give  it  in  time  a  granular  char- 
acter. The  consistency  of  honey  is  thus  very 
variable.  The  best  and  newest  of  the  spring 
season  is  a  clear  fluid  contained  in  a  white 
comb ;  older  honey  is  yellowish  and  reddish. 
It  is  freely  dissolved  in  cold  water,  and  in  this 
condition  honey  undergoes  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation. 'Various  substances  are  introduced 
into  honey  to  add  to  its  weight  or  to  improve 
its  color.  Starch  is  most  commonly  employed, 
but  chalk,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  pipe  clay  are 
also  used.  The  presence  of  such  matters  may 
be  detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  honey  in 
warm  water,  and  letting  the  mixture  stand  for 
the  deposit  to  fall,  when  its  character  may  be 
easily  ascertained.  The  different  sugars  are 
also  used  as  adulterants,  the  presence  of  all 
which  may  be  detected  either  by  microscopic 
observations  directed  to  the  forms  and  com- 
parative sizes  of  the  crystals,  or  to  the  presence 
of  the  sugar  acari,  or  by  the  chemical  tests  also 
cited  with  the  others  by  Dr.  Hassall  in  his 
work,  "Adulterations  Detected."  Starch  su- 
gar, possessing  the  same  chemical  properties 
as  the  sugar  of  honey,  cannot  be  detected ;  but 
being  often  accompanied  by  sulphate  of  lime, 
resulting  from  the  materials  used  in  its  prepa- 
ration, the  presence  of  this  is  an  indication  of 
adulteration  with  starch  sugar.  From  the  re- 
motest times  honey  has  been  employed  as  an 
article  of  food ;  and  to  the  ancients,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  sugar,  it  was  of  greater  importance 
than  to  the  moderns.  A  land  flowing  with 
milk  and  honey  was  to  them  a  region  abound- 
ing in  the  chief  necessaries  of  life. — As  an  ar- 
ticle of  diet  and  of  medicine,  honey  possesses 
the  properties  of  sugar,  and  is  perhaps  more 
laxative.  Many  constitutions,  especially  those 
subject  to  dyspepsia,  cannot  resist  its  disorder- 
ing tendency ;  but  those  accustomed  to  its  use 
find  it  wholesome  and  agreeable.  In  medicine 
its  use  is  principally  as  a  vehicle  for  other 
more  active  substances ;  but  its  composition  and 
action  upon  all  constitutions  being  somewhat 
uncertain,  a  solution  of  pure  sugar  is  generally 
preferred  even  for  this  purpose.  When  in 


HONEY  GUIDE 

combination  with  vinegar,  the  preparations 
are  called  oxymels.  Honey  is  easily  clarified 
by  heating  it  in  a  water  bath  till  it  becomes  so 
fluid  as  to  be  readily  strained  through  flannel. 
The  wax  and  lighter  impurities  may  be  re- 
moved by  skimming,  while  the  heavier  sub- 
stances sink  to  the  bottom. 

HONEY  ANT,  a  name  given  to  several  species 
of  ants,  of  Mexico  and  Texas,  the  major  work- 
ers of  which  secrete  a  saccharine  fluid  or  kind 
of  honey,  which  is  used  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  young  brood.  In  the  myrmecocystus  Mexi- 
canus,  the  abdomen  of  these  workers  becomes 
swollen  like  a  balloon,  and  filled  with  a  trans- 
parent honey;  these  individuals  are  inactive, 
not  quitting  the  nest,  their  sole  occupation 
being  apparently  the  elaboration  of  this  fluid, 
which  they  discharge  into  receptacles  prepared 
to  receive  it.  In  crematogaster  inflatus  there 
is  a  bladder-like  swelling  on  the  hinder  part 
of  the  thorax,  furnished  with  small  circular 
orifices  at  the  posterior  lateral  angles,  from 
which  the  saccharine  fluid  exudes. 

HONEY  BEE.     See  BEE. 

HONEY  DEW,  a  saccharine  liquid  found  upon 
trees,  and,  when  abundant,  sprinkled  upon  the 
surface  between  them.  This  phenomenon  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion  ;  by  some 
its  origin  is  attributed  to  insects,  and  by  others 
it  is  held  that  insects  have  no  agency  in  the 
matter.  It  would  appear  that  both  parties  are 
correct.  That  plant  lice  or  aphides  do  ex- 
crete a  saccharine  liquid  is  a  well  established 
fact  (see  APHIS),  of  which  any  one  by  careful 
observation  can  satisfy  himself.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  seems  to  be  equally  well  established 
that  sometimes  this  liquid  is  exuded  by  the 
leaves  of  trees,  without  any  insect  being  con- 
cerned in  the  operatioto.  What  causes  the 
plant  to  throw  off  sugar  in  this  manner,  and 
always  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  is 
a  question  needing  further  investigation.  Dry 
weather  is  most  favorable  to  its  production ;  it 
is  readily  washed  away  by  rains,  and  has  been 
observed  to  reappear  upon  the  same  tree  sev- 
eral times  in  succession.  The  production  of 
honey  dew  is  especially  frequent  upon  linden 
trees.  Bee-keepers  regard  this  as  of  some  im- 
portance as  a  source  of  honey,  and  ants  and 
other  insects  are  fond  of  it. 

HONEY  GUIDE,  a  bird  of  the  cuckoo  family, 
and  genus  indicator  (Vieill.).  The  bill  is  short, 
broad  at  the  base,  with  the  culmen  curved ; 
wings  long  and  pointed,  with  the  first  quill 
nearly  as  long  as  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth, 
which  are  equal  and  longest;  tail  moderate, 
emarginate  in  the  middle,  and  rounded  on  the 
sides ;  tarsi  very  short,  covered  with  trans- 
verse broad  scales  ;  toes  unequal,  the  outer  an- 
terior one  the  longest;  claws  moderate  and 
strong.  About  ten  species  are  described,  in- 
habiting the  wooded  districts  of  Africa,  India, 
and  the  Indian  islands.  It  is  about  as  large 
as  a  chaffinch,  and  flies  chattering  about  the 
trees  apparently  in  a  state  of  great  excite- 
ment in  order  to  attract  the  traveller's  atten- 


HONEY  LOCUST 

;  this  effected,  it  flies  in  a  certain  direc- 
ion  toward  the  nearest  wild  bees'  nest,  now 
id  then  perching  and  looking  back  to  see  if 
person  follows ;  arriving  at  the  tree  or  de- 
3d  ant  hill  containing  the  honey,  it  hovers 
over  it,  pointing  toward  it  with  the  bill,  and, 


HONEYSUCKLE 


795 


Honey  Guide. 

alighting  on  the  nearest  branch,  anxiously  and 
noisily  awaits  its  share  of  the  spoil.  It  some- 
times attacks  the  nests  on  its  own  account 
when  pressed  for  food,  and  is  occasionally 
found  dead  within  them,  stung  to  death  by 
the  bees,  and  covered  in  by  a  vault  of  wax  to 
prevent  the  inconveniences  caused  by  decay. 
It  will  sometimes  lead  to  two  or  three  nests 
in  succession.  The  natives  of  South  Africa 
trust  implicitly  to  their  guidance  in  search  of 
honey,  and  will  leave  almost  any  occupation  to 
follow  their  course,  uttering  as  they  go  sev- 
eral sentences  which  they  believe  have  magic 
power.  The  unwary  traveller,  however,  in- 
stead of  wild  honey  sometimes  finds  a  con- 
cealed crocodile  or  a  crouching  lion.  Persons 
following  it  should  answer  its  twitter  by  a 
constant  whistle.  The  natives  obtain  the 
honey  by  first  stupefying  the  bees  by  burn- 
ing grass  at  the  entrance  of  the  nest.  The 
flight  of  the  bird  is  heavy,  and  for  only  short 
distances  at  a  time ;  the  nest  is  made  in  the 
holes  of  trees  ;  the  e^gs  are  three  or  four,  and 
both  sexes  assist  in  incubation ;  the  birds  are 
usually  seen  in  pairs. 

HONEY  LOCUST,  the  common  name  for  Gle- 
ditschia  triacanthos,  a  leguminous  tree,  also 
called  three-thorned  acacia,  found  in  the  great- 
est abundance  in  the  southwestern  states,  and 
sparingly  in  the  Atlantic  states  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Florida.  The  tree  grows  to  the  height 
of  80  and  even  100  ft.,  with  branches  spread- 
ing somewhat  horizontally ;  the  young  stems 
are  armed  with  stout,  often  triple  thorns, 
and  upon  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  are 
produced  numerous  clusters  of  long,  much- 
branched  thorns,  which  often  give  the  tree  a 
formidable  aspect.  These  thorns  are  really 
branches  suppressed  in  their  development,  and 
may  frequently  be  seen  asserting  their  real 
nature  by  bearing  leaves.  The  foliage  of  the 
tree  is  exceedingly  light  and  graceful ;  the  leaves 


are  compound,  6  to  10  in.  long,  and  of  numerous 
leaflets  which  are  less  than  an  inch  long.  The 
small  flowers  are  in  racemes  1  to  2  in.  long, 
and,  as  in  most  of  the  suborder  to  which  it  be- 
longs (C(Ksalpiniece\  are  not  papilionaceous,  but 
nearly  regular ;  staminate  and  perfect  flowers 
occur  on  the  same  tree ;  the  fruit  is  a  narrow 
flat  pod,  1  to  2  ft.  long,  and  so  contorted  as  to 
have  been  compared  to  a  large  apple  paring; 
the  numerous  hard  brown  seeds  are  imbedded 
in  a  pulp,  which  when  the  pods  first  ripen  \s 
sweet,  but  soon  becomes  sour;  this  pulp  is 
much  relished  by  swine  and  other  domestic 
animals.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  hard  and 
coarse-grained,  and  splits  readily,  but  is  not  of 
much  value  except  for  fuel.  As  an  ornamental 
tree  the  honey  locust  has  its  merits  and  de- 
merits ;  while  its  foliage  is  too  thin  to  aflbrd  a 
satisfactory  shade,  its  graceful  character  and 
the  very  distinct  habit  of  the  tree  render  it 
useful  in  landscape  gardening.  It  is  not  suited 
for  a  lawn  tree  or  to  be  planted  near  dwellings, 
as  accidents  are  liable  to  happen  from  its  fierce 
thorns ;  the  clusters  of  these,  produced  so 
abundantly  upon  the  trunk,  are  often  easily 
detached,  and  hidden  in  the  grass  may  pro- 
duce a  serious  wound  upon  the  foot  of  the  ani- 
mal or  person  who  treads  upon  them.  There 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  thorniness  of  the 
specimens,  the  variety  inermis  being  nearly 
thornless ;  in  a  quantity  of  seedlings  plants  al- 
most without  thorns  may  be  found,  and  these 
should  be  selected  for  ornamental  planting. 
The  honey  locust  is  chiefly  valuable  as  a  hedge 
plant.  (See  HEDGE.)  In  Illinois,  and  more 


Honey  Locust  (Gleditschia  triacanthoa). 

common  southward,  is  found  the  water  locust, 
G.  monosperma,  which  has  smaller  thorns 
and  an  oval,  one-seeded  pod  without  any  pulp ; 
its  timber  is  of  even  less  value  than  that  of  the 
preceding. 

HONEYSUCKLE,  the  name  of  several  kinds  of 
twining  and  erect  shrubs  of  the  genus  Lonicera, 
in  the  order  caprifoliacea.  They  have  tubular 


796 


HONEYSUCKLE 


HONFLEUR 


flowers,  many  of  them  possess  fragrance,  and 
most  of  them  are  ornamental  and  among  the 
shrubs  generally  cultivated.  The  genus  Loni- 
cera  was  named  in  honor  of  Lonitzer,  a  Ger- 
man herbalist  of  the  16th  century.  The  trum- 
pet honeysuckle  (Z.  sempervirens,  Aiton)  is 


Trumpet  Honeysuckle  (Lonicera  semperyirens).- 

found  occasionally  on  rocky  places  in  Massa- 
chusetts, more  abundantly  near  New  York, 
and  thence  to  Virginia  and  southward.  Under 
cultivation  its  foliage  falls  off  toward  winter. 
The  flowers  are  numerous,  with  scentless 
corollas,  of  a  scarlet  or  deep  red  color  out- 
side, and  yellowish  within.  The  plant  is  a 
strong  and  vigorous  climber,  continuing  to 
bloom  from  spring  until  autumn ;  there  is  a 
variety  with  pale  yellow  blossoms.  The  Ameri- 
can woodbine  honeysuckle  (Z.  grata,  Ait.)  is 
also  cultivated  and  prized  for  its  fragrant  flow- 
ers, of  a  white  color  fading  into  yellowish, 
borne  in  whorls  in  the  axils  of  the  uppermost 
leaves.  The  yellow  honeysuckle  (L.  flava, 
Sims),  found  in  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and 
southward,  has  long  been  cultivated.  Its  flow- 
ers are  in  closely  approximate  whorls,  with 
corollas  of  a  light  yellow,  deeply  bilabiate,  the 
tube  hairy  within,  with  a  delicious  fragrance. 
The  small-flowered  honeysuckle  (L.  parviflora, 
Lamarck)  has  little  beauty  to  recommend  it,  it 
being  a  struggling  bush  2  to  4  ft.  high.  It  is 
found  mostly  in  northern  localities.  A  variety 
(Douglasii),  with  greener  leaves  and  dull  pur- 
ple or  crimson-colored  corolla,  occurs  in  the 
western  states.  The  hairy  honeysuckle  (Z. 
hirsuta,  Eaton)  has  large,  coarse,  hairy  leaves, 
and  bright,  orange-colored  corollas,  and  is  found 
from  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  northward.  The 
English  honeysuckle  (L.  periclymenum,  Linn.) 
has  its  leaves  all  separate,  deciduous,  ovate, 
obtuse,  attenuate  at  the  base.  Its  flowers  are 
in  terminal  heads,  and  are  deep  red  externally; 
its  berries  are  nearly  globular,  deep  red,  bitter, 
and  nauseous.  The  Dutch  honeysuckle  is  a 
variety  of  the  English  (Z.  p.  Belgica),  with 


smooth  purplish  branches,  and  flowers  reddish 
on  the  outside  and  yellowish  within,  of  a  very 
agreeable  odor.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
monthly  honeysuckle.  The  common  honey- 
suckle is  a  native  of  England,  and  is  there  like- 
wise called  the  woodbine,  a  corruption  of 
woodbind,  from  its  habit  of  winding  itself 
around  any  tree  or  shrub  within  reach.  It  is 
a  favorite  plant  with  the  poets,  and  often  enters 
into  their  descriptions.  The  perfoliate  honey- 
suckle (Z.  caprifolium,  Linn.)  has  deciduous, 
obovate,  acutish,  glaucous  leaves,  the  upper- 
most broader  and  connate,  the  flowers  highly 
fragrant,  2  in.  long,  with  a  blush-colored  tube. 
It  ranges  from  the  middle  and  south  of  Europe 
to  Siberia,  and  is  naturalized  in  England.  Z. 
Irachypoda,  a  Japanese  and  Chinese  species, 
also  called  Z.  Japonica  and  Z.  Sinemis,  is  now 
in  very  general  cultivation ;  its  oval  or  oblong 
leaves  are  nearly  evergreen  in  the  climate  of 
New  York,  and  quite  so  in  milder  localities ; 
its  flowers  are  neither  very  large  nor  showy, 
but  very  fragrant.  The  recently  introduced 
Z.  Hallii,  from  Japan,  is  probably  a  form  of 
this.  A  variety  of  it,  called  the  golden  Japa- 
nese honeysuckle  (var.  aureo-reticulata),  has 
the  leaves  beautifully  veined  and  variegated 
with  yellow ;  being  quite  hardy,  it  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  ornamental  climbers.  The 
climbing  honeysuckles  are  of  easy  cultivation, 
and  are  much  used  for  covering  porches,  ve- 
randas, &c. ;  they  are  readily  propagated  by 
cuttings  and  by  layers. — The  fly  honeysuckles, 
the  upright  or  bush  honeysuckles  of  the  nur- 
serymen, belong  to  a  distinct  section  of  Loni- 
cera, and  were  formerly  placed  as  a  separate 
genus  (xylosteon} ;  they  are  distinguished  by 
their  bushy,  non-climbing  habit,  single,  axilla- 
ry, two-flowered  peduncles,  with  the  two  ber- 
ries sometimes  united  into  one.  Z.  carulea, 
ciliata,  and  oblongifolia  are  the  native  species 
in  the  northern  states.  Z.  involucrata,  with 
its  flowers  surrounded  by  conspicuous  leafy 
bracts,  is  a  Californian  species,  which  extends 
eastward  to  Lake  Superior;  it  is  sometimes 
seen  in  gardens,  more  as  a  curious  than  an  ele- 
gant species.  Z.  Tariarjca,  the  Tartarian,  is 
the  most  common  bush  honeysuckle  of  the  gar- 
dens, and  is  ornamental  whether  for  its  abun- 
dant pink  or  white  flowers  or  its  red  berries. 
The  fragrant  honeysuckle  (Z.  fragrantissima), 
a  native  of  China,  puts  forth  in  early  spring, 
before  the  leaves,  a  profusion  of  pure  white, 
highly  odoriferous  flowers.  It  is  such  an  early 
bloomer  that  in  the  climate  of  New  York  its 
flowers  are  often  caught  by  the  frost ;  but  it  is 
worth  cultivating  even  if  the  season  is  only 
now  and  then  favorable  to  it.  The  name  bush 
honeysuckle  is  also  given  to  our  native  species 
of  Diervilla ;  the  shrub  commonly  called 
Weigela  properly  belongs  to  that  genus  also, 
and  this  and  the  native  species  will  be  treated 
under  WEIGELA.  Our  native  azaleas  are  fre- 
quently called  honeysuckles.  (See  AZALEA.) 

HO^FLEDR.  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Calvados,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 


HONG 

estuary  of  the  Seine,  here  7  m.  wide,  and 
nearly  opposite  Havre;  pop.  in  1866,  9,946.  It 
has  a  commodious  port,  which  is  only  acces- 
sible however  at  high  tide,  and  is  resorted  to 
chiefly  by  fishing  vessels  and  craft  engaged  in 
the  timber  trade.  Its  commerce,  which  was 
once  important,  is  now  engrossed  by  Havre, 
but  it  retains  a  trade  in  farm  and  dairy  pro- 
duce, large  quantities  of  eggs,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables being  exported  to  England.  It  has  fish- 
eries of  herring,  cod,  and  mackerel,  and  manu- 
factories of  lace,  rope,  leather,  casks,  mineral 
acids,  and  ship  biscuit.  Ship  building  is  also 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  town  is  ill 
built  and  ill  fortified,  but  contains  some  old 
and  interesting  edifices.  The  principal  public 
buildings  are  the  custom  house,  bank,  and  a 
chapel  on  a  neighboring  hill  which  is  a  favor- 
ite shrine  for  sailors.  It  contains  a  communal 
college,  chamber  of  commerce,  exchange,  and 
school  of  navigation.  Honfleur  was  long  in  the 

i  possession  of  the  English,  and  figures  largely 
in  their  French  wars. 

HONG,  the  Chinese  name  for  a  foreign  fac- 
tory or  mercantile  establishment.  The  word 
means  a  row  or  series,  and  is  applied  to  ware- 

!   houses  because  they  consist  of  a  succession  of 

j  rooms.  The  factories  at  Canton  are  built  in 
this  manner,  and  each  block  is  called  by  the 
natives  a  hong.  Formerly  the  European  trade 
at  Canton  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  was 
granted  by  the  government  as  a  monopoly  to 

I  10  or  12  great  merchants,  called  the  hong  mer- 
chants, through  whose  hands  all  foreign  car- 
goes passed,  and  by  whom  the  return  cargoes 

i   were  furnished.     They  became  security  for  the 

;  payment  of  duties  by  the  foreign  ships,  and 
maintained  a  high  reputation  for  integrity. 
This  monopoly  is  now  abolished. 

HONG  RONG  (Red  Harbor),  or  Hiang  Riang 
(Fragrant  Streams),  a  British  colony  in  China, 
comprising  the  island  of  Hong  Kong  and  a  part 
of  the  peninsula  of  Kooloon  on  the  mainland 
opposite.  The  island  lies  off  the  coast  of  the 
province  of  Kwangtung,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Chu-kiang  or  Canton  river,  35 
m.  E.  of  Macao  and  75  m.  S.  E.  of  Canton; 
area,  about  29  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  124,198. 
The  peninsula  of  Kooloon  has  an  area  of  5 
sq.  m.  The  island  has  a  coast  line  of  about 
26  m.,  and  is  very  irregular  in  shape,  being 
indented  by  numerous  bays.  Two  of  the  lar- 
gest of  these  are  on  the  S.  E.  side.  Tytam 
bay,  the  most  easterly  one,  extends  4  or  5  m. 
inland,  forming  two  long  peninsulas.  Tytam 
peninsula,  on  its  W.  side,  separates  it  from 
Stanley  bay,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  small 
town  of  Stanley.  On  the  N.  side  the  island  is 

il  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  ir- 
I  regular  strait,  which  at  the  Liinoon  pass  at  its 
I  E.  end  is  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  at 
I  Kooloon  point  a  little  .more  than  a  mile.  At 
the  W.  end  of  this  strait  are  Hong  Kong  road 

i  and  Victoria  bay,  the  latter  a  spacious  harbor, 
having  deep  water  close  in  shore  and  affording 
the  best  of  anchorage.  The  surface  of  the  isl- 


HONG  KONG 


797 


and  is  rugged  and  uneven,  consisting  of  a  range 
of  barren  granite  rocks,  running  nearly  E.  and 
W.,  the  highest  of  which  is  1,825  ft,  above  the 
sea,  broken  by  occasional  narrow  valleys,  with 
a  little  level  land  along  the  beach.  The  natu- 
ral vegetation  is  confined  mostly  to  rank  herb- 
age and  brushwood  growing  in  the  interstices 
of  the  rocks,  and  a  few  plants  on  the  margins 
of  the  streams.  There  are  no  large  trees.  The 
mango,  the  orange,  and  the  pear  are  indi- 
genous, and  the  English  have  introduced  the 
fruits  of  Canton  and  Macao.  But  a  very  small 
part  of  the  island  is  susceptible  of  cultivation, 
scarcely  enough  to  produce  vegetables  for  the 
consumption  of  the  inhabitants.  Rice,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  yams  are  raised  by  the  natives, 
and  potatoes  and  various  European  vegetables 
have  been  sucessfully  grown.  The  island  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  good  spring  water. 
The  climate  is  hot  but  comparatively  healthy, 
although  in  some  seasons  there  has  been  a  large 
mortality  from  malaria.  Of  the  population  in 
1871,  115,444  were  Chinese,  5,933  Europeans 
and  Americans,  including  the  military  and  na- 
val establishments,  and  2,623  East  Indians. 
The  resident  white  population  was  only  2,736, 
of  whom  1,367  were  Portuguese,  869  English, 
170  Germans,  133  Americans,  and  60  French. 
— The  chief  settlement  on  the  island  is  the 
city  of  Victoria,  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
in  lat.  22°  16'  30"  N.,  Ion  114°  8'  30"  E.  In- 
cluding the  Chinese  town,  it  extends  3  m. 
along  the  shore,  occupying  all  the  space  be- 
tween the  water  and  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and 
rising  up  the  latter  in  terraces.  The  public 
buildings,  which  are  of  stone  and  brick,  are 
superior  to  those  usually  seen  in  China.  The 
houses  of  the  merchants  are  large  and  elegant, 
with  broad  verandas  and  fine  gardens.  There 
are  water  works  and  gas  works,  and  the  main 
thoroughfare  is  protected  by  a  sea  wall.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  the  government  house, 
magistracy,  court  house,  exchange,  jail,  ord- 
nance and  engineers'  department,  club  house, 
and  public  offices.  There  are  also  a  cathedral 
and  bishop's  palace,  the  chapel  and  school  of 
the  London  missionary  society,  hospital  of 
the  medical  missionary  society,  Morrison  edu- 
cational society,  and  seamen's  and  military 
hospitals.  All  the  principal  foreign  nations 
have  consulates.  There  are  ten  banking  houses, 
one  French,  one  local,  and  the  rest  English ; 
two  daily  newspapers,  one  semi-weekly,  one 
weekly,  and  one  fortnightly,  all  English,  and 
the  weekly  a  government  publication;  one 
Portuguese  weekly,  and  one  in  Chinese  pub- 
lished every  second  day.  Fine  government 
gardens  have  been  laid  out,  and  much  has  been 
done  of  late  to  improve  the  appearance  and 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  95,000,  of  whom  more  than  90,- 
000  are  Chinese.  Many  of  the  latter  are  mer- 
chants, but  the  greater  part  are  laborers  and 
boatmen.  About  13,000  of  the  poorer  class 
live  in  boats  in  the  harbor.  The  natives  are 
not  allowed  to  go  abroad  without  a  pass  after 


798 


HONG  KONG 


HONITON 


8  o'clock  in  the  evening,  but  no  restrictions  are 
placed  on  the  foreign  population.  The  streets 
are  guarded  at  night  by  a  strong  police  force 
of  Indian  sepoys,  and  life  and  property  are 
now  secure.  The  government  has  paid  con- 
siderable attention  to  education,  and  native 
schools  have  been  established  in  Victoria  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  island.  The  village  schools 
are  purely  Chinese,  and  use  Chinese  text  books 
alone ;  but,  owing  to  the  extreme  poverty  of 
the  people,  only  a  fraction  of  the  children  at- 
tend them. — The  administration  of  the  colony 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor,  aided  by  an  ex- 
ecutive council  composed  of  the  colonial  secre- 
tary, the  officer  commanding  the  troops,  and 
the  attorney,  general.  There  is  also  a  legisla- 
tive council,  over  which  the  governor  presides, 
composed  of  the  chief  justice,  the  colonial 


secretary,  the  attorney  general,  the  treasurer, 
the  auditor  general,  the  surveyor  general,  and 
four  unofficial  members  nominated  by  the 
crown  on  the  recommendation  of  the  governor. 
Hong  Kong  is  mainly  a  factory  for  British 
commerce  with  China  and  the  headquarters 
for  the  British  military  and  naval  forces  in 
China  and  Japan.  It  is  a  free  port,  and  no 
dues  are  levied  on  goods  or  ships  entering,  dis- 
charging, or  loading.  The  revenue  is  derived 
from  land  rents,  licenses  to  sell  opium  and 
spirits,  postage,  taxes,  fines,  fees  of  office,  &c., 
which  generally  more  than  cover  the  expenses 
of  the  administration.  Since  1855  the  colony 
has  generally  had  a  surplus  above  its  expendi- 
tures. It  pays  at  present  £20,000  annually  to 
the  British  government  as  a  military  contribu- 
tion. Its  total  revenue  in  1870  was  £190,673, 


Hong  Kong. 


and  the  expenditure  £183,595.  In  1871  the 
revenue  was  £175,920,  of  which  £36,000  was 
derived  from  lands  and  rents,  £40,000  from 
taxes,  and  £23,000  from  the  opium  monopoly; 
expenditure,  £186,273,  of  which  a  large  por- 
tion was  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
police  force.  Hong  Kong  has  now  no  public 
debt.  Its  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Germany,  the 
first  absorbing  about  one  half  of  the  exports 
and  imports.  There  are  no  official  returns  of 
values,  but  according  to  mercantile  estimates, 
the  imports  average  about  £4,000,000  and  the 
exports  about  £2,000,000.  The  principal  im- 
ports are  textile  fabrics,  mainly  cotton  goods, 
and  the  exports  are  mostly  teas.  The  weights 
and  measures  both  of  China  and  of  Great  Brit- 
ain are  in  general  use.  The  money  in  circu- 
lation is  the  Mexican  dollar,  and  the  silver 


dollar  coined  at  Hong  Kong,  with  the  effigy  of 
the  British  sovereign  on  one  side  and  its  name 
and  value  in  Chinese  characters  on  the  reverse; 
and  for  smaller  sums  the  usual  Chinese  coins. 
The  new  American  dollar  has  been  recently 
introduced,  and  meets  with  much  favor. — 
Hong  Kong  was  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1841,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of 
Nankin  in  1842.  The  peninsula  of  Kooloon, 
which  commands  the  N.  side  of  Victoria  har- 
bor, was  ceded  in  1861.  The  population  be- 
fore the  cession  was  only  about  2,000,  a  poor 
and  ignorant  race,  subsisting  partly  by  fishing 
and  partly  by  the  cutting  of  building  stone. 

HONITON,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  England, 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Otter,  16  m.  N.  E.  of  Exeter,  and  142  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  3,470.  It 
is  neatly  built,  and  contains  many  good  houses 


HONOLULU 


IIONOPJUS 


here,  but  now  manufactured  in  many  locali- 
ties. Butter  is  largely  exported  to  London. 
Honiton  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
'or  many  centuries  till  1867,  when  it  lost  one 
lember,  owing  to  the  population  being  less 
than  10,000,  and  it  was  subsequently  disfran- 
jhised  altogether. 

HONOLULU,  the  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  isl- 
mds,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  island  of  Oahu  in  lat 
Jl°  18'  12"  N.,  Ion.  157°  55'  W. ;  pop.  in  1872,' 
14,852.     It  covers  the  lower  portion  of  Nuu- 
anu  valley,  and  extends  over  the  raised  coral 
reef  at  the  base  of  the  lofty  mountains  for 
>veral  miles.     The  houses  are  usually  of  wood, 
jldom  more  than  two  stories  high,  with  ca- 
acious  verandas,  and  mostly  surrounded  with 
trees.     The  supply  of  water  comes   from   a 
itain  stream,  and  is  distributed  by  pipes 


Parliament  House  in  Honolulu. 

throughout  the  city.  Honolulu  is  th  e  residence 
of  the  king  and  of  his  government,  and  the 
centre  of  the  chief  interests  of  the  islands.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  parliament 
house,  the  treasury,  the  supreme  court,  the 
general  post  office,  and  the  coral-built  palace 
of  the  king.  There  are  a  hotel,  a  theatre,  and 
a  bank.  American  gold  and  silver  coins  are 
the  standard  currency.  There  are  two  Ameri- 
can churches,  established  in  1833  and  1852,  a 
Catholic  cathedral,  an  Anglican  church,  estab- 
lished in  1862,  and  two  considerable  Hawaiian 
churches;  two  hospitals;  numerous  schools 
for  native  and  foreign  children;  an  academy 
called  Oahu  college,  attended  mainly  by  foreign 
youths;  and  three  weekly  and  two  monthly 
publications.  The  climate  of  Honolulu  is  re- 
markably mild  and  uniform  ;  the  extreme  range 
of  the  thermometer  is  between  60°  and  87°  F. 
The  rainfall  is  very  irregular ;  in  1870  it  was 
59-51  in.,  and  in  1871  40-09  in.  The  porous 
411  VOL.  viii.— 51 


799 


the 

complaints  are  rare.  The  scenery  about  Hono- 
lulu is  of  the  most  charming  tropical  charac- 
ter, and  there  is  a  pleasant  foreign  society  in 
the  capital,  principally  American  and  English. 
Ihe  value  of  the  imports  at  Honolulu  in  187° 
was  $1,583,583 ;  more  than  half  came  from 
ban  Francisco,  and  a  considerable  portion  from 
Oregon,  England,  and  Germany.  The  value 
of  the  exports  in  1872  was  $1,607,521,  of 
which  $1,345,585  consisted  of  domestic  pro- 
duce, and  $204,836  of  foreign  merchandise  re- 
exported.  The  total  custom-house  receipts  in 
the  same  year  were  $218,375.  The  number 
ot  American  merchant  vessels  arriving  was  86 
of  Hawaiian  vessels  22,  British  15,  German  6, 
Norwegian  and  Italian  each  3,  Tahitian  2,  Swe- 
dish 1 ;  total,  138.  Besides  these,  47  whalers 
arrived.  The  arrivals  from  Pacific  ports  of 
the  United  States  were  62,  from  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  26. 
The  number  of  nation- 
al vessels  was  7.  A 
line  of  English  mail 
steamers  runs  from  San 
Francisco  to  Melbourne 
and  Sydney,  touching 
at  Honolulu  and  the 
Feejee  islands. — Hono- 
lulu harbor  was  discov- 
ered in  1794  by  Capt. 
Brown  of  the  English 
ship  Butterworth,  who, 
together  with  Capt. 
Gardner  of  the  Prince 
Lee  Boo,  was  murdered 
by  the  natives  Jan.  1, 
1795.  The  harbor  is  a 
deep  basin  in  the  coral 
reef  which  surrounds 
the  island ;  it  is  secure 
at  all  seasons  and  under 
all  winds,  and  has  a 
depth  of  from  4i  to 
6  fathoms.  The  light- 
house of  the  port  stands  on  the  inner  edge  of 
the  reef,  a  mile  from  the  wharves ;  it  has  a 
Fresnel  light,  26  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  visible 
from  a  deck  9  m.  away.  The  wharves  are 
substantial  and  capacious. 

HONORIUS,  the  name  of  four  popes  and  one 
antipope.  I.  Born  in  Capua  toward  the  close 
of  the  6th  century,  died  in  Rome,  Oct.  12,  638. 
He  was  descended  from  a  consular  family,  be- 
came in  his  youth  a  canon  regular,  and  after 
the  death  of  Boniface  V.  (624  or  625)  was 
elected  pope.  In  the  beginning  of  his  pon- 
tificate he  encouraged  the  zeal  of  St.  Paulinus 
of  York  for  the  conversion  of  the  Northum- 
brians, sent  into  Britain  St.  Birinus,  who  con- 
verted the  royal  brothers  Cynegils  and  Cui- 
chelm,  and  made  the  Irish  and  Scotch  con- 
form to  the  general  law  for  the  celebration  of 
Easter.  He  also  put  an  end  to  the  70  years' 
schism  which  had  divided  the  churches  of  Is- 
tria.  But  what  has  rendered  his  name  memo- 


800 


HONORIUS 


rable  is  his  connection  with  the  Monothelite 
heresy.  The  emperor  Heraclius,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conciliating  the  numerous  Monophysite 
churches  in  the  East,  had  encouraged  the  adop- 
tion of  a  dogmatic  formula  affirming  that  in 
Christ  there  was  "only  one  mode  of  willing 
and  working."  This  formula,  recommended  by 
Sergius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  had  been 
embodied  by  Cyrus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  in 
the  7th  article  of  what  is  known  as  the  accom- 
modation, a  doctrinal  compromise  by  which 
thousands  of  Monophysites  were  reconciled  to 
the  church.  It  was  denounced  in  634  by  So- 
phronius,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  in  a  circular 
letter  to  the  bishops  of  Christendom  containing 
a  formal  statement  of  the  two  distinct  natures 
in  Christ.  Sergius  on  the  reception  of  this  let- 
ter wrote  to  Honorius  detailing  the  good  effect- 
ed by  the  adoption  of  the  formula,  and  urging 
him  to  put  a  stop  to  the  controversy  waged 
by  Sophronius.  Honorius  replied,  praising  Ser- 
gius for  discarding  all  novelties  of  expression, 
and  saying  that  it  is  enough  for  us  to  know 
that  the  one  person  of  the  Mediator  is  the 
author  of  every  act  produced  both  in  his  divine 
and  human  natures.  The  self-same  incarnate 
God,  he  says,  manifests  his  divine  power  by 
miracles,  and  his  human  infirmity  by  enduring 
suffering  and  shame.  Thefe  cannot  be  in  the 
Saviour,  born  above  the  condition  of  our  fallen 
nature,  the  struggle  between  the  law  of  con- 
cupiscence in  our  members  and  the  law  of  our 
minds;  because  he  assumed  our  nature  as  it 
was  created  in  innocence,  not  as  it  is  vitiated 
by  sin.  "  We  should  conform  our  wisdom  and 
zeal  to  the  divine  oracles,  and  reject  these  new 
formulas  which  prove  a  stumbling  block  to  the 
unwary.  The  little  ones  of  the  flock  will  con- 
sider us  Nestorians  if  we  persist  in  speaking  of 
a  twofold  operation  in  Christ ;  and  they  will 
deem  us  Eutychians  if  we  affirm  only  a  single 
operation."  In  a  second  letter  to  Sergius,  he 
says  that  he  has  written  to  the  bishops  of  Alex- 
andria and  Jerusalem  to  abstain  from  speaking 
in  this  unusual  way  either  of  a  single  or  of  a 
twofold  operation  in  Christ.  The  representa- 
tive of  Sophronius  has  pledged  himself  that  his 
superior  shall  in  future  avoid  the  term  "  two- 
fold operation,"  if  Cyrus  on  his  side  refrains 
from  using  that  of  "  single  operation."  The 
emperor  Oonstans  II.  subsequently  issued  an 
edict  called  "  Type  "  (T(wof  rfc  TUcreus),  en- 
joining the  same  prudential  silence ;  but  it  was 
condemned  by  Pope  Martin  I.  in  649.  The 
doctrine  of  Honorius  was  favorably  explained, 
however,  by  Pope  John  IV.  in  641,  and  by  St. 
Maximus  in  660,  as  well  as  by  some  bishops 
at  the  council  of  Constantinople  in  680-'81. 
But  that  council  in  the  13th  session  condemned 
both  his  letters  to  be  burned,  and  in  the  15th 
he  was  himself  anathematized.  His  fault,  ac- 
cording to  Archbishop  Manning,  lay  in  not 
using  his  authority,  when  appealed  to,  by  de- 
fining the  true  doctrine,  and  thereby  repress- 
ing the  incipient  heresy.  The  question  of  his 
heterodoxy  has  been  vehemently  discussed  in 


ancient  and  modern  times ;  and  the  dogma  of 
pontifical  infallibility,  defined  in  1870  by  the 
council  of  the  Vatican,  has  once  more  brought 
the  name  of  Honorius  prominently  forward. — 
See  Labbe's  collection  of  the  councils,  vol.  v., 
and  Collection  royale  or  du  Louvre,  vol.  xv. 
(II.)  Pietro  Cadalao,  Cadalns,  or  Cadalotts,  antipope, 
died  in  1072.  He  was  bishop  of  Parma  when 
he  was  nominated  pope  by  the  emperor  Henry 
IV.  in  opposition  to  Alexander  II.  He  was 
consecrated  by  the  new  bishop  of  Parma,  Oct. 
28, 1061,  and  immediately  marched  to  Rome  at 
the  head  of  an  army.  He  was  excommunica- 
ted by  the  bishops  of  Germany  and  Italy  in  the 
council  of  Augsburg,  1062,  and  deposed  by  the 
council  of  Mantua  in  1064.  Although  not  rec- 
ognized by  any  power  but  Germany,  he  main- 
tained his  claims  to  the  papacy  until  his  death. 
II.  Lamberto  di  Fagnano,  born  in  Bologna  about 
1070,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  14, 1130.  He  was  suc- 
cessively archdeacon  of  Bologna,  canon  regular 
of  St.  John  Lateran,  bishop  of  Velletri,  cardinal 
bishop  of  Ostia,  and  legate  to  the  emperor  Hen- 
ry V.  He  was  elected  pope  under  pressure  of 
popular  violence  Dec.  15,  1124,  but  resigned, 
and  was  reflected  unanimously  on  Dec.  21. 
From  the  beginning  he  labored  incessantly  for 
the  correction  of  clerical  abuses  and  the  reform 
of  manners.  He  had  the  reformatory  decrees 
of  the  first  Lateran  council  published  and  en- 
forced in  the  synods  of  Westminster,  Septem- 
ber, 1125,  and  May,  1127,  and  in  a  synod  of 
the  Norman  clergy  at  Rouen  in  October,  1128. 
In  France  he  used  the  influence  of  St.  Bernard 
to  reform  both  clergy  and  laity,  and  called 
several  councils:  that  of  Nantes,  for  all  Brit- 
tany, in  1127  ;  that  of  Troves,  in  1128,  at  which 
the  rule  and  white  habits  given  to  the  tem- 
plars by  St.  Bernard  were  approved ;  that  of 
Paris,  in  1129,  for  the  restoration  of  monastic 
discipline ;  and  that  of  Chalons-sur-Marne,  in 
the  same  year,  against  simoniacs.  The  order 
of  Premontr6  was  approved  Feb.  16,  1126. 
In  Germany  and  Italy  the  laws  against  simony 
were  enforced  by  the  papal  legates.  In  the 
council  of  Worms,  April,  1127,  the  simoniacal 
election  of  Godfrey,  archbishop  of  Treves,  was 
annulled;  and  in  that  of  Ravenna  the  schis- 
matic bishops  of  Aquileia  and  Grado  were  de- 
posed. The  Spanish  bishops  also  assembled  in 
Palencia  in  1129,  to  apply  to  their  churches  the 
reforms  ordered  by  the  pope.  Honorius,  at 
the  request  of  the  kings  of  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Bohemia,  sent  legates  to  their  respective 
countries  to  restore  morality  and  discipline.  In 
the  East  the  provinces  conquered  by  the  cru- 
saders were  erected  into  bishoprics,  and  great 
efforts  were  made  to  unite  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches.  Honorius  confirmed  the  election  of 
the  emperor  Lothaire  II.,  excommunicated  his 
opponents  Frederick  and  Conrad  of  Swabia, 
and  deposed  the  archbishop  of  Milan  for  hav- 
ing crowned  Conrad  at  Monza.  He  opposed 
by  force  of  arms  the  claim  of  Roger  of  Sicily 
to  Apulia  and  Calabria,  but  after  a  disas- 
trous war  sued  for  peace,  Roger  on  his  part 


HONORIUS 

demanding  of  the  pope  the  investiture  of  his 
kingdom.  Eleven  letters  of  Honorius  II.  are 
in  vol.  x.  of  Labbe's  collection  of  the  councils. 
III.  Ceneio  Savelli,  born  in  Rome,  died  there, 
March  18,  1227.  He  was  successively  a  canon 
regular  of  St.  John  Lateran,  tutor  to  Frederick 
II.,  cardinal  deacon,  cardinal  priest,  chamber- 
lain, and  vice  chancellor  of  the  Roman  church. 
He  was  elected  pope  in  Perugia,  July  18,  1216. 
One  of  his  first  cares  was  to  enforce  the  laws 
of  his  predecessor  Innocent  III.  for  promoting 
clerical  studies.  He  compelled  the  French  to 
acknowledge  Henry  III.  of  England  after  the 
death  of  John,  and  interfered  to  secure  the 
rights  of  Berengaria,  widow  of  Richard  I.  On 
the  day  after  his  consecration  he  wrote  to 
the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  to  the  principal  sov- 
ereigns, urging  them  to  succor  Palestine.  He 
crowned  Peter  de  Courtenay  as  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  April  9,  1217,  and  organized 
an  army  of  crusaders  under  Andrew  II.,  king  of 
Hungary.  In  order  to  enlist  the  forces  of  Ger- 
many in  the  same  cause,  he  negotiated  with 
his  former  pupil,  Frederick  II.,  crowned  his 
infant  son  king  of  the  Romans  in  April,  1220, 
and  Frederick  himself  as  emperor  in  the  fol- 
lowing November,  exacting  at  the  coronation 
a  solemn  promise,  which  was  not  redeemed, 
to  proceed  to  Palestine  with  an  army  within 
two  years.  Honorius  induced  Louis  VIII.  of 
France  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  Ray- 
mond of  Toulouse,  and  persuaded  the  Ger- 
man princes  to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of 
the  new  Christians  of  Prussia  and  Pome- 
rania.  His  letters  are  published  in  Innocent 
Ciron's  Compilatio  Epistolarum  Decretalium 
Eonorii  III.  (Toulouse,  1645).  IV.  Giaeomo 
Savelli,  born  in  Rome,  died  there,  April  3, 1287. 
He  was  educated  in  Paris,  became  a  canon  of 
Chalons-sur-Marne,  and  cardinal  deacon  of 
Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin.  He  was  elected 
pope  at  Perugia,  April  2,  1285,  in  violation  of 
the  constitution  of  Gregory  X.,  without  the 
formality  of  a  conclave,  which  the  new  pope 
termed  "  a  censurable  abuse  lately  introduced 
into  the  Roman  church."  He  endeavored 
without  success  to  introduce  the  study  of  ori- 
ental languages  into  the  university  of  Paris. 
Charles  the  Lame,  heir  to  the  kingdom  of 
Sicily,  being  held  a  prisoner  by  Alfonso  III. 
of  Aragon,  Honorius  encouraged  the  French 
king,  Philip  the  Bold,  to  make  war  on  Aragon, 
bestowing  for  that  purpose  on  the  latter  the 
tithe  of  all  ecclesiastical  revenues  in  France. 
He  suppressed  brigandage  in  his  own  states, 
and  gave  a  great  impulse  to  art  and  science. 
The  letters  of  Honorius,  preserved  in  Wadding's 
"Annals"  and  Ughelli's  Italia  Sacra,  bear  the 
stamp  of  wisdom  and  moderation ;  but  contem- 
porary historians  reproach  him  with  nepotism. 
HONORIUS,  Flavins,  a  Roman  emperor  of  the 
West,  second  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  born 
in  Constantinople  in  September,  384,  died  in 
Ravenna  in  August,  423.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  395  he  succeeded  to  the  possession  of 
the  West,  and  resided  during  several  years  of 


HOOD 


801 


his  minority  at  Milan,  while  his  commander-in- 
chief  and  father-in-law  Stilicho  carried  on  the 
war  against  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths. 
Stilicho  was  put  to  death  in  408  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  and  in  410  Rome  was  taken  and 
plundered  by  Alaric.  (See  STILIOHO,  and  ALA- 
RIO.)  While  insurrections  broke  out  in  many 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  his  general  Constan- 
tius  was  able  to  protect  only  Italy  and  por- 
tions of  the  transalpine  provinces,  Honorius  re- 
sided ingloriously  in  Ravenna.  He  was  weak, 
vacillating,  and  stupid,  and  his  long  reign  de- 
termined the  downfall  of  the  empire. 

HONT,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Hungary,  bound- 
ed S.  by  the  Danube ;  area,  986  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  123,800,  of  whom  about  47,000  were 
Magyars  and  57,000  Slavs,  76,000  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  34,000  Protestants.  In  the  north 
the  county  is  traversed  by  ramifications  of  the 
Carpathians,  gradually  sloping  southward  to 
the  Danube.  The  soil,  particularly  in  the  val- 
leys, is  generally  fertile,  producing  large  crops 
of  grain,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco.  Wine  is 
also  made  to  some  extent.  There  are  produc- 
tive mines  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron,  which 
have  long  been  worked,  particularly  around 
Schemnitz.  The  capital  is  Ipolysag,  but  the 
most  important  town  is  Schemnitz. 

HONTHEIM,  Jobann  Meolans  Ton,  a  German  ju- 
risconsult, born  in  Treves,  Jan.  27,  1701,  died 
at  Montquintin  in  Luxemburg,  Sept.  2,  1790. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  school  in  Treves, 
studied  jurisprudence  at  Louvain  and  Leyden, 
and  became  doctor  of  law  in  1724.  In  1728 
he  was  appointed  ecclesiastical  counsellor  of 
the  consistory  in  Treves,  in  1732  professor  of 
civil  law ;  and  in  1748  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Myriophis  in  partibus,  and  suffragan  of  the 
see  of  Treves.  He  became  favorably  known 
for  erudition,  and  published  several  works,  the 
most  famous  of  which  is  De  Statu  Ecclesia 
et  legitima  Potentate  Romani  Pontiftcis  (4to, 
1763),  published  under  the  pseudonyme  of 
Justinus  Febronius.  In  this  work,  which  at- 
tracted great  attention  and  was  translated  into 
French  and  Italian,  he  took  ultra-Gallican  or 
national  views,  and  propounded  a  system  of 
church  government  which  has  been  called 
Febronianism.  It  was  condemned  in  Germany 
and  in  France,  as  well  as  by  Clement  XIII.,  to 
whom  it  was  dedicated,  and  drew  forth  a  num- 
ber of  replies,  the  most  noteworthy  of  which 
were  those  of  Zaccaria  and  Ballerini.  In  1778 
the  author  issued  a  retractation,  but  this  was 
followed  by  a  commentary  (1781)  which  threw 
doubts  on  his  sincerity.  His  doctrines  led  to 
the  congress  at  Ems ;  but  as  the  French  revo- 
lution swept  away  the  Gallican  church  and 
the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy,  Hontheim's 
ideas  lay  dormant  until  the  present  century, 
when  they  have  been  revived  in  the  Old  Cath- 
olic movement. 

HOOD,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  Brazos  river,  and  watered  by  numerous 
tributaries  of  that  stream ;  area,  614  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,585,  of  whom  97  were  colored. 


802 


HOOD 


The  surface  is  greatly  diversified,  being  to  a 
considerable  extent  broken  and  rugged,  and 
consisting  of  mingled  prairie  and  timber  land. 
The  highest  point  is  Comanche  peak,  near  the 
centre  of  the  county,  rising  600  ft.  above  the 
Brazos.  The  soil  is  a  red  or  black  sandy  loam, 
and  is  very  productive.  Building  stone  is 
abundant.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
192,540  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  11,352  of  sweet 
potatoes,  45,155  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  779  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  3,442  horses,  3,348 
milch  cows,  16,098  other  cattle,  2,453  sheep, 
and  10,452  swine.  Capital,  Granbury. 

HOOD,  John  B.,  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Bath  co.,  Ky.,  about  1830.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1853,  and  was  mainly  engaged 
in  frontier  service  in  Texas  till  1859.  He  was 
severely  wounded  in  an  encounter  with  the 
Lipan  and  Comanche  Indians,  July  20,  1857, 
and  was  on  leave  of  absence  in  1860.  He  re- 
signed his  commission  April  16,  1861,  and  en- 
tered the  confederate  army,  in  which  he  soon 
rose  to  the  rank  of  major  general.  He  took 
part  in  the  Chickahominy  campaign,  and  sub- 
sequently fought  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Eun,  Antietam,  and  Frederick sburg.  At  Get- 
tysburg, where  he  commanded  a  division  of 
Longstreet's  corps,  he  lost  an  arm  on  the 
second  day  of  the  battle.  Rejoining  the  corps 
when  it  was  sent  to  Georgia,  he  was  at  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  where  he  lost  a  leg, 
and  was  made  lieutenant  general.  He  sub- 
sequently commanded  a  corps  in  the  army  of 
J.  E.  Johnston,  whom  he  succeeded  in  July, 
1864,  and  was  thereafter  in  command  of  the 
confederate  army  in  its  operations  against  Gen. 
Sherman.  After  three  bloody  and  unsuccess- 
ful attacks  on  that  general  before  Atlanta  (July 
20,  22,  28),  and  the  evacuation  of  that  city 
(Sept.  1),  he  undertook  a  hazardous  march 
northward,  and  fought  another  bloody  battle 
at  Franklin,  Tenn.  (Nov.  30),  against  Gen. 
Schofield,  but  suffered  a  crushing  defeat  near 
Nashville,  from  Gen.  Thomas,  Dec.  15-16, 1864, 
and  soon  after  was  relieved  from  his  command, 
being  succeeded  by  Gen.  Richard  Taylor. 

HOOD,  Robin,  an  English  outlaw,  supposed  to 
have  lived  at  the  end  of  the  12th  and  beginning 
of  the  13th  century  The  traditions  concern- 
ing him  are  mostly  embodied  in  the  account 
given  by  Stow :  "  In  this  time  (about  the  year 
1190,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.)  were  many 
robbers  and  outlawes,  among  which  Robin 
Hood  and  Little  John,  renowned  theeves,  con- 
tinued in  the  woods,  despoyling  and  robbing 
the  goods  of  the  rich.  They  killed  none  but 
such  as  would  invade  them,  or  by  resistance 
for  their  own  defence.  The  said  Robert  enter- 
tained an  hundred  tall  men  and  good  archers 
with  such  spoyls  and  thefts  as  he  got,  upon 
whom  400  (were  they  never  so  strong)  durst 
not  give  the  onset.  He  suffered  no  woman  to 
be  oppressed,  violated,  or  otherwise  molested ; 
poore  men's  goodes  he  spared,  abundantlie  re- 
lieving them  with  that  which  by  theft  he  got 
from  the  abbeys  and  the  houses  of  rich  old 


carles;  whom  Maior  (the  historian)  blameth  for 
his  rapine  and  theft,  but  of  all  the  theeves  he 
affirmeth  him  to  be  the  prince,  and  the  most 
gentle  theefe."  The  researches  of  modern 
scholars,  however,  tend  to  make  it  a  matter  of 
doubt  whether  Robin  Hood  ever  existed  at  all. 
No  contemporary  writer  makes  any  mention 
of  him,  the  first  allusion  to  him  by  any  histori- 
cal writer  being  in  the  Scotichronicon,  which 
was  written  partly  by  Fordnn,  canon  of  Aber- 
deen, between  1377  and  1384,  and  partly  by 
Bower,  abbot  of  St.  Columba,  about  1450. 
He  is  next  mentioned  by  Major,  in  his  Historia 
Majoris  Britannia,  written  in  the  early  part 
of  the  16th  century.  His  most  famous  asso- 
ciates were  "Little  John,"  his  chaplain  Friar 
Tuck,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  real 
monk,  and  his  paramour  Marian ;  and  Sher- 
wood forest,  in  Nottinghamshire,  was  the  the- 
atre of  most  of  his  exploits.  Robin  Hood  is 
said  to  have  been  bled  to  death  by  a  nun,  his 
cousin,  to  whom  he  repaired  for  advice  on  ac- 
count of  her  skill  in  medicine,  and  died  at  the 
nunnery  of  Kirklees,  Yorkshire.  An  apoc- 
ryphal epitaph  at  that  place  styles  him  Robert, 
earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  gives  "  24  Kal.  De- 
keinbris"  (perhaps  Dec.  24),  1247,  as  the  date 
of  his  death.  The  exploits  of  Robin  Hood 
were  a  favorite  subject  of  ballad  poetry  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  although 
many  of  these  ballads,  at  least  in  their  present 
shape,  are  comparatively  modern.  The  "  Lytel 
Geste  of  Robin  Hood  "  was  printed  by  Wynkin 
de  Worde  about  1495.  A  complete  collection 
of  the  Robin  Hood  ballads,  with  "  Historical 
Anecdotes,"  was  published  by  Ritson  (8vo, 
London,  1795),  and  enlarged  by  J.  M.  Gutch 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1847). 

HOOD.  I.  Samnel,  Viscount,  a  British  admi- 
ral, born  at  Thorncombe,  Devonshire,  Dec.  12, 
1724,  died  in  Bath,  Jan.  27,  1816.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  rector  of  his  native  place,  en- 
tered the  navy  at  the  age  of  16,  and  became 
post  captain  in  1756.  In  1757  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  command  of  the  Antelope,  a  50-gun 
ship,  with  which  he  captured  a  French  vessel 
of  equal  size;  and  in  1759,  having  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Vestal  of  32  guns,  and  attached 
to  the  expedition  sent  against  Quebec,  he  cap- 
tured the  French  frigate  Bellona,  after  a  battle 
of  four  hours.  On  his  return  he  was  present- 
ed to  George  II.,  who  gave  him  command  of 
the  Africa  of  64  guns.  He  was  present  at  the 
bombardment  of  Havre,  was  employed  two 
years  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  during  the 
remainder  of  the  war  under  Sir  Charles  Saun- 
ders  in  the  Mediterranean.  From  Nov.  14, 
1768,  to  July  13,  1769,  he  was  at  Boston,  then 
occupied  by  British  troops,  as  "  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  men-of-war  in  those  parts."  In 
1778  he  was  made  a  baronet,  and  in  1780  rear 
admiral  of  the  blue,  with  which  rank  he  joined 
Rodney  in  the  West  Indies  the  same  year.  On 
April  28, 1781,  he  encountered  De  Grasse  with 
a  French  fleet  superior  in  numbers,  but  the 
latter  avoided  an  engagement.  He  fought  a 


HOOD 

drawn  battle  with  De  Grasse  during  the  same 
year  near  Chesapeake  bay,  but  could  not  pre- 
vent its  blockade  nor  the  surrender  of  the  Brit- 
ish army.  In  the  great  battle  of  April  12,1 782, 
when  De  Grasse  was  defeated,  Hood  com- 
manded the  van  division  of  the  fleet  under 
Rodney,  and  was  in  the  same  year  created  an 
Irish  peer,  under  the  title  of  Baron  Hood. 
When  the  war  with  France  commenced  in  1793 
he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean  to  aid  the 
royalists  of  the  south,  who  surrendered  Toulon 
to  him.  When  the  republicans  under  Bona- 
parte were  about  to  regain  possession  of  the 
place,  which  was  no  longer  tenable,  Hood  de- 
stroyed the  arsenal  and  dockyard,  and  32 
French  ships,  and  withdrew  with  his  fleet. 
In  1794  he  expelled  the  French  from  Corsica 
and  blockaded  the  port  of  Genoa.  In  1796  he 
was  raised  to  the  English  peerage  as  Viscount 
Hood  of  Whitley,  and  in  1799  became  admiral 
of  the  red.  II.  Alexander,  Viscount  Bridport, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1727,  died  in 
Bath,  May  3,  1814.  He  entered  the  naval  ser- 
vice, and  early  became  distinguished  by  the 
capture  of  two  French  vessels  of  war  in  two 
actions  in  Hyeres  bay  in  1757.  He  passed  rap- 
idly through  the  lower  grades,  and  in  1782,  as 
rear  admiral,  was  second  in  command  of  the 
fleet  sent  out  under  Lord  Howe  to  relieve  Gib- 
raltar. In  1794  he  contributed  materially  to 
Lord  Howe's  great  victory  with  the  channel 
fleet,  his  flag  being  hoisted  on  the  Royal 
George,  which  sustained  the  hottest  of  the  fire. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  created  an  Irish  peer, 
under  the  title  of  Baron  Bridport.  In  1795 
he  attacked  the  French  fleet  of  12  ships  of  the 
line  and  10  frigates,  off  Lorient,  with  an  in- 
ferior force,  and  captured  three  sail  of  the  line. 
For  this  he  was  in  1796  made  a  British  peer  as 
Baron  Bridport,  and  in  1800  Viscount  Bridport. 
HOOD,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  in  Lon- 
don, May  23,  1798,  died  there,  May  3,  1845. 
His  father,  who  was  a  bookseller,  died  when 
he  was  but  12  years  old.  After  acquiring  the 
rudiments  of  an  education,  he  was  placed  in  a 
counting  house ;  but  the  confinement  of  a  mer- 
cantile life  so  affected  his  health  that  he  was 
sent  to  Dundee  to  recruit,  where  mountain 
tramps  and  roving  on  the  Tay  restored  his 
strength,  but  rendered  him  unwilling  to  re- 
sume a  commercial  life.  He  made  his  first 
literary  attempts  here,  in  the  "Dundee  Maga- 
zine," and  after  two  years'  residence  returned 
to  London  and  engaged  himself  to  an  uncle,  to 
learn  the  art  of  engraving.  He  continued  his 
attempts  at  versification,  which  attracted  some 
attention,  and  in  1821  was  made  sub-editor 
of  the  "  London  Magazine,"  which  had  passed 
into  the  hands  of  some  of  his  friends.  Through 
this  connection  he  became  acquainted  with 
Charles  Lamb,  Hartley  Coleridge,  De  Quincey, 
Hazlitt,  Bowring,  Taltburd,  Gary,  Procter,  and 
other  literary  men  who  were  among  the  con- 
tributors. With  Lamb  he  contracted  an  in- 
timacy which  was  uninterrupted  until  the  lat- 
ter's  death.  Hood's  first  book,  "  Odes  and 


HOOFT 


803 


Addresses  to  Great  People,"  was  published 
anonymously,  being  in  part  the  work  of  his 
brother-in-law  J.  H.  Reynolds.  In  1826  he 
published  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  papers 
under  the  title  of  "  Whims  and  Oddities."  His 
"National  Tales"  appeared  in  1827,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  published  a  volume  of  poems 
including  "  The  Plea  of  the  Midsummer  Fairies  " 
"Hero  and  Leander,"  and  "Lycus  the  Cen- 
taur," which  were  received  with  little  interest 
by  the  public.  Returning  to  his  lighter  and 
more  popular  style,  he  brought  out  a  second 
series  of  "  Whims  and  Oddities,"  which  was 
followed  in  1829  by  a  humorous  poem  called 
"  The  Epping  Hunt."  Hood  edited  the  "  Gem  " 
for  this  year,  and  wrote  for  it  his  "  Dream  of 
Eugene  Aram."  In  1830  he  began  the  publi- 
cation of  the  "Comic  Annual,"  which  was 
continued  through  10  volumes ;  and  after  an 
interruption  of  two  years  an  llth  was  issued 
in  1842.  A  selection  of  pieces  from  this  work, 
with  some  additions,  appeared  in  12  monthly 
numbers  in  ISSS-^,  under  the  title  of  "  Hood's 
Own."  In  1831  he  removed  to  a  residence  in 
Essex,  called  the  Lake  house,  where  he  wrote 
his  novel  of  "Tylney  Hall,"  but  pecuniary 
troubles  compelled  him  to  leave  it  in  1835.  In 
1837  he  went  to  the  continent  for  the  benefit 
of  his  health,  and  remained  abroad  several 
years,  publishing  while  in  Belgium  his  "Up 
the  Rhine,"  which  was  constructed  on  the 
groundwork  of  Smollett's  "Humphrey  Clink- 
er." Returning  to  England,  he  became  editor 
of  the  "New  Monthly  Magazine,"  from  which 
he  retired  in  1843,  collecting  some  of  his  contri- 
butions to  its  pages  in  a  volume  called  "  Whim- 
sicalities." In  1844  he  started  "  Hood's  Maga- 
zine," which  he  continued  to  the  time  of  his 
death ;  and  in  the  same  year  appeared  in 
"Punch"  his  "Song  of  the  Shirt,"  composed, 
like  the  "Bridge  of  Sighs"  and  the  "Lay  of 
the  Laborer,"  on  a  sick  bed  from  which  he  never 
rose'.  About  this  time  he  received  through 
the  favor  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  a  pension  of  £100, 
which  was  continued  after  his  death  to  his 
widow.  The  fullest  collections  of  Hood's  poems 
have  been  made  in  Boston,  one  edited  by  Epes 
Sargent  (4  vols.,  1856),  and  another  in  Prof. 
•Child's  edition  of  the  British  poets  (4  vols., 
1857).  "Memorials  of  Thomas  Hood,  collect- 
ed, arranged,  and  edited  by  his  Daughter," 
appeared  in  1860  (2  vols.),  and  "A  Collection 
of  the  favorite  Old  Tales,  told  in  Verse  by 
Tom  Hood,"  illustrated  by  Dore,  in  1865  (4to). 
HOOFT,  Pieter  Corneliszoon,  a  Dutch  historian 
and  poet,  born  in  Amsterdam,  March  16,  1581, 
died  at  the  Hague,  May  21,  1647.  After  fin- 
ishing his  education  at  Leyden,  he  spent  three 
years  in  foreign  travel,  principally  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  and  returned  to  Amster- 
dam in  1601.  In  1609  the  stadtholder  Maurice 
appointed  him  bailiff  of  Muiden  and  judge  of 
Gooland,  offices  which  he  retained  through  Me. 
He  wrote,  in  the  style  of  Tacitus,  Nederlandsche 
ffistorien  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1642-'54).  To 
acquire  his  style,  Hooft  is  said  to  have  read 


804 


HOOGLY 


HOOK 


Tacitus  through  52  times.  He  also  wrote  a 
life  of  Henry  IV.  (1626),  and  a  history  of  the 
house  of  Medici  (1649).  Among  his  poetical 
compositions  are  the  tragedies  Gerard  van  Vel- 
sen,  Baete^  and  several  minor  pieces. 

HOOGLY,  a  river  of  Bengal,  British  India, 
one  of  the  deltoid  mouths  of  the  Ganges, 
formed  by  the  junction,  in  lat.  23°  25'  N.,  Ion. 
88°  22'  E.,  of  three  branches  of  the  Ganges.  Its 
course  is  nearly  S.  with  many  windings,  and 
it  discharges  its  waters  into  the  bay  of  Bengal 
by  a  broad  estuary  about  35  m.  long  and  15 
m.  wide  at  its  mouth.  The  length  of  the 
Hoogly  from  the  junction  of  its  parent  streams 
to  the  head  of  the  estuary  is  125  m.  At  Cal- 
cutta it  is  nearly  a  mile  wide,  and  there  is  little 
increase  in  its  size  until  it  receives  the  Dum- 
modah  and  Rupnarain,  a  short  distance  above 
its  estuary.  It  is  navigable  by  vessels  of  1,400 
tons  as  high  as  Calcutta,  100  m.  from  the  bay, 
and  ships  of  the  line  could  formerly  ascend  to 
Ohandernagore,  17  m.  further.  It  is  feared 
that  the  bed  of  the  stream  is  being  gradually 
filled  up  with  mud  and  sand,  and  it  has  been 
proposed  to  construct  a  ship  canal  from  Cal- 
cutta to  the  Mutwal,  another  mouth  of  the 
Ganges  some  distance  E.  The  Hoogly  is  the 
only  channel  of  the  delta  now  frequented  by 
large  ships,  though  its  mouth  is  obstructed  by 
shoals.  The  Hindoos  regard  it  as  the  true  course 
of  the  sacred  Ganges.  The  tidal  phenomenon 
called  the  bore  is  often  witnessed  in  it. 

HOOGLY.  I.  A  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
province  of  Bengal,  bounded  N".  by  Burdwan, 
E.  by  the  Hoogly,  S.  by  the  Rupnarain,  and 
W.  by  Midnapore  and  Burdwan ;  area,  1,470 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  1,491,621.  The  surface 
is  low  and  flat  in  the  east  and  hilly  in  the  west 
and  northwest.  The  principal  streams  are  the 
Hoogly  and  its  tributaries,  the  Dummodah, 
Rupnarain,  and  Dalkissore.  The  soil  of  the 
low  lands  is  fertile,  and  in  some  places  is  im- 
pregnated with  salt.  The  most  important  pro- 
ductions are  rice,  sugar  cane,  indigo,  cotton, 
tobacco,  mustard,  oil  seeds,  ginger,  potatoes, 
garden  vegetables,  and  hemp.  Silkworms  are 
reared,  and  silk  is  one  of  the  principal  articles 
of  export.  II.  The  principal  town  of  the  dis- 
trict, situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  22  m.  above  Calcutta,  with 
which  it  has  communication  by  the  Calcutta 
and  Burdwan  railway ;  pop.  about  12,000.  It 
contains  a  fine  church  built  by  the  Jesuits 
in  1599,  and  a  college  erected  in  1836,  in 
which  both  English  and  oriental  branches  are 
taught.  This  institution  is  supported  by  en- 
dowment from  the  estate  of  a  wealthy  Mo- 
hammedan. Hoogly,  once  an  important  city, 
is  now  of  little  note,  having  declined  with  the 
rise  of  Calcutta.  The  town  was  probably 
founded  by  the  Portuguese  in  1537.  It  was 
taken  by  Shah  Jehan  in  1632,  when  1,000  Eu- 
ropeans were  slaughtered  and  4,400  made 
prisoners.  The  British  established  here  in 
1676  a  factory,  which,  being  fortified  five  years 
later,  and  furnished  with  a  guard  of  20  men, 


became  the  first  military  establishment  of  the 
East  India  company  in  Bengal.  The  first 
action  fought  by  the  English  in  Bengal  took 
place  here  in  1686,  when  the  nawaub's  troops 
were  defeated  and  500  houses  burned.  In 
1756  the  town  was  captured  by  Surajah  Dow- 
lah,  but  was  retaken  in  1757  by  Clive. 

HOOK,  Theodore  Edward,  an  English  author 
and  journalist,  born  in  London,  Sept.  22, 1788, 
died  in  Fulham,  Aug.  24,  1841.  As  a  boy  he 
showed  extraordinary  precocity.  After  a  very 
inadequate  education,  terminating  premature- 
ly at  Harrow,  he  rejoined  his  father,  then  mu- 
sical director  of  Vauxhall  gardens,  and  soon 
gave  evidence  of  his  talents  by  the  production 
of  several  songs,  for  which  he  also  composed 
the  music;  and  when  scarcely  16  he  wrote  a 
drama  entitled  "  The  Soldier's  Return,"  which 
was  well  received.  Elated  by  the  extravagant 
praises  of  friends,  he  produced  in  rapid  succes- 
sion a  number  of  farces  and  vaudevilles,  and 
at  an  age  when  most  boys  are  at*  school  was  a 
successful  dramatist,  the  wit  of  the  greenroom, 
and  the  companion  of  actors  and  playwrights. 
Yielding  to  the  fascinations  of  such  a  life,  he 
gradually  enlarged  the  circle  of  his  admirers 
by  his  facile  humor,  his  astonishing  faculty  of 
punning,  the  audacity  of  his  practical  jokes, 
and  his  brilliant  powers  of  improvisation,  until 
he  was  welcomed  to  the  most  aristocratic  soci- 
ety of  London,  and  even  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  prince  regent,  who  sent  him  in  1812  to 
Mauritius  as  accountant  general  and  treasu- 
rer, with  a  salary  of  £2,000.  In  1818  he  was 
brought  back  to  England  as  a  prisoner  under 
a  charge  of  embezzling  a  sum  of  the  public 
money  estimated  at  £20,000,  but  which  was 
subsequently  reduced  to  £12,000.  The  law 
officer  of  the  crown  decided  that  there  was  no 
ground  for  a  criminal  prosecution,  although 
his  carelessness  and  incapacity  were  displayed 
to  an  extent  almost  incredible ;  and  he  was  set 
at  liberty  and  once  more  commenced  the  ca- 
reer of  an  author.  In  1820  the  "John  Bull " 
newspaper  was  established  in  the  interest  of 
the  king,  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  the  sup- 
porters of  Queen  Caroline,  and  Hook's  powers 
of  satire  and  ridicule  suggested  him  as  a  fit 
person  to  conduct  it.  He  performed  the  task 
with  great  adroitness,  and  the  circulation  of 
the  paper  gave  him  a  handsome  income.  In 
1823  the  government  reasserted  its  claim 
against  him,  but  after  two  years'  confinement 
he  procured  a  stay  of  proceedings,  although  he 
never  made  any  attempt  to  discharge  the  debt. 
He  was  again  welcomed  to  society,  and  to  the 
close  of  his  life  remained  a  professed  diner-out 
and  wit.  He  employed  his  literary  powers  to 
some  purpose,  in  the  production  of  "  Sayings 
and  Doings,"  in  three  series,  "Gilbert  Gur- 
ney,"  "Maxwell,"  "Jack  Brag,"  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  novels.  Fashionable  dissipation, 
high  living,  hard  drinking,  the  excitement  of 
the  gaming  table,  and  the  constant  mental 
strain  to  which  he  was  subjected,  gradually  un- 
dermined his  constitution,  and  he  ended  his 


HOOK 

p,  to  adopt  his  own  words,  "done  up  in 
mrse,  in  mind,  and  in  body."  In  1849  appear- 
the  "  Life  and  Remains  of  Theodore  Hook," 
ay  the  Rev.  Mr.  Barham  (2  vols.  8vo). 
HOOK,  Walter  Farqnbar,  an  English  clergy- 
nephew  of  Theodore  Hook,  born  in  Lon- 
>n  in  1798.  He  graduated  at  Christchurch, 
>xford,  in  1821,  and  was  successively  curate 
Whippingham,  Isle  of  Wight,  and  in  Bir- 
lingham,  and  vicar  of  Trinity  church,  Coven- 
ry,  till  1837,  when  he  was  made  vicar  of  Leeds. 
Here,  during  his  incumbency  of  22  years,  21 
new  churches,  32  parsonages,  and  more  than 
60  schools  were  erected  in  his  parish,  chiefly 
through  his  instrumentality.  He  was  especially 
popular  among  the  working  classes.  In  1859 
he  became  dean  of  Chichester,  and  in  1862  a 
fellow  of  the  royal  society.  He  was  appointed 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  George  IV.  in  1827, 
and  retained  the  office  under  William  IV.  and 
Victoria,  preaching  on  the  accession  of  the 
latter,  from  the  text  "Hear  the  church,"  a 
sermon  of  which  more  than  100,000  copies 
were  sold  in  a  month.  He  has  published  "  An 
Ecclesiastical  Biography"  (8  vols.,  London, 
1845-'52);  "A  Church  Dictionary"  (8th  ed., 
1859) ;  "  Sermons  Suggested  by  the  Miracles 
of  our  Lord"  (2  vols.,  1847);  "Lives  of  the 
Archbishops  of  Canterbury  "  (9  vols.  published, 
1860  et  seq.) ;  and  numerous  pamphlets. 

HOOKE,  Nathaniel,  a  British  historian,  born 
in  Ireland  about  1690,  died  July  19, 1763.  He 
lost  his  fortune  in  the  South  sea  speculation, 
and  was  then  engaged  by  the  duchess  of  Marl- 
borough  to  assist  in  writing  her  memoirs 
(1742),  for  £5,000.  Being  a  zealous  Catholic, 
he  attempted  her  conversion,  and  a  quarrel 
was  the  consequence.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Pope,  and  brought  a  priest  to  hear  the  confes- 
sion of  the  poet  in  his  last  hours.  He  wrote 
"The  Roman  History,  from  the  Building  of 
Rome  to  the  Ruin  of  the  Commonwealth  "  (4 
vols.  4to,  1757-'71). 

HOOKE,  Robert,  an  English  mathematician, 
horn  at  Freshwater,  Isle  of  Wight,  July  18, 
1635,  died  at  Gresham  college,  London,  March 
3,  1703.  His  father,  a  clergyman,  destined 
him  for  the  church ;  but  his  health  being  too 
feeble  for  study,  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  in- 
vention. In  1655  he  was  appointed  assistant 
in  chemistry  to  Dr.  Thomas  Willis  at  Oxford, 
and  in  1664  he  became  professor  of  geometry 
in  Gresham  college,  and  first  Cutlerian  profes- 
sor of  mechanics  in  the  royal  society.  In  1666, 
having  produced  a  model  for  the  rebuilding  of 
London  after  the  great  fire,  he  was  appointed 
city  surveyor;  but  his  plan  was  not  carried 
into  execution.  In  1677  he  succeeded  Olden- 
burg as  secretary  of  the  royal  society.  In  1691 
he  was  made  a  doctor  of  physic  by  a  warrant 
from  Archbishop  Tillotson.  He  made  a  prac- 
tical improvement  in  the  pendulum  attached 
to  clocks,  causing  it  to  swing  in  small  arcs  by 
the  application  of  the  recoil  escapement.  (See 
CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES,  vol.  iv.,  p.  698.)  He 
also  applied  himself  to  devise  means  to  regulate 


HOOKER 


805 


watches,  and  when  Huygens  had  some  watches 
constructed,  the  balances  of  which  were  regu- 
lated by  a  spiral  spring,  Hooke  accused  Olden- 
burg, secretary  to  the  royal  society,  of  having 
communicated  to  strangers  discoveries  depos- 
ited in  the  society  registers.  But  that  the  ap- 
plication is  due  to  Huygens,  is  not  only  appa- 
rent from  a  perusal  of  the  latter's  description 
in  his  Machince  qucedam  et  Mechanicam  pub- 
lished in  1675,  but  is  proved  by  other  evi- 
dence. On  the  publication  of  Newton's  Prin- 
cipia,  he  also  claimed  the  previous  discovery  of 
the  principle  of  gravitation.  He  was  jealous 
of  all  other  inventors,  and  was  involved  in  con- 
tinual disputes  concerning  different  inventions, 
generally  pretending  that  they  were  all  taken 
from  ideas  of  his  own.  He  left  numerous 
works,  among  which  is  his  "  Micrographia,  or 
Physiological  Descriptions  of  Minute  Bodies 
made  by  Magnifying  Glasses"  (London,  1665). 
His  "  Posthumous  Works,  containing  his  Cut- 
lerian Lectures  and  other  Philosophical  Dis- 
courses," was  published  in  London  in  1705. 

HOOKER,  Joseph,  an  American  soldier,  born 
at  Hadley,  Mass.,  in  1815.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837,  served  in  the  Florida  war 
and  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was  succes- 
sively brevetted  as  captain,  major,  and  lieuten- 
ant colonel  for  gallant  and  meritorious  con- 
duct in  the  battles  of  Monterey,  the  National 
Bridge,  and  Chapultepec.  He  was  on  leave 
of  absence  from  1851  to  1853,  when  he  re- 
signed his  commission  and  became  a  farmer  in 
California,  serving  also  in  1858-'9  as  superin- 
tendent of  military  roads  in  Oregon.  He  re- 
entered  the  service  at  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war,  was  appointed  brigadier  general  of 
volunteers  March  17, 1861,  and  was  employed 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Washington  till  March, 
1862,  when  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
division  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He 
was  made  major  general  of  volunteers  May  5, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  McClellan's  pen- 
insular campaign,  especially  at  the  battles  of 
Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks,  Frazier's  Farm,  and 
Malvern  Hill,  and  in  the  subsequent  campaign 
at  Bristoe  Station,  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  Chantilly,  South  Mountain,  and  Antie- 
tam,  where  he  was  wounded.  He  was  made 
brigadier  general  of  the  United  States  army 
Sept.  20,  and  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg 
commanded  a  grand  division  under  Burnside. 
He  succeeded  Burnside  in  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  Jan.  26, 1863,  and  fought 
the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  in  the  beginning 
of  May.  On  June  27  he  resigned  his  command 
because  Gen.  Halleck  would  not  consent  to  the 
evacuation  of  Harper's  Ferry  and  the  placing 
of  the  10,000  men  there  under  Hooker  s  or- 
ders, for  a  demonstration  on  Lee's  rear,  who 
was  then  invading  Pennsylvania.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Gen.  Meade.  In  September  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  12th  and  13th  army 
corps,  which  were  concentrated  about  Chatta- 
nooga, and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  series  of 
battles  fought  there  in  November,  commanding 


806 


HOOKER 


in  the  action  on  Lookout  mountain,  for  which 
he  was  made  brevet  major  general.  Subse- 
quently, in  command  of  the  20th  army  corps, 
styled  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  he  was 
prominent  in  the  operations  about  Atlanta.  He 
resigned  the  command  of  this  corps  in  August, 
1864,  in  consequence  of  a  question  of  rank.  In 
September  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Northern  department,  in  1865  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  East,  and  in  1866  of  that  of  the 
Lakes.  He  was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer 
service  Sept.  1,  1866,  and  on  Oct.  15,  1868, 
was  made  brevet  major  general  of  the  United 
States  army  and  retired  from  the  service. 

HOOKER,  Joseph  Dalton,  an  English  botanist, 
son  of  Sir  William  Jackson  Hooker,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1817.  Having  taken  his  degree 
in  medicine,  he  devoted  himself  especially  to 
botany.  In  1839  he  went  as  assistant  surgeon 
on  Sir  James  0.  Ross's  antarctic  expedition, 
and  in  1847  set  out  on  a  botanical  exploration 
to  the  regions  of  the  Himalaya  mountains.  In 
1855,  having  previously  served  as  botanist  in 
the  geological  survey,  he  became  assistant  to 
his  father,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1865  as  direc- 
tor of  the  Kew  gardens.  In  1868  he  presided 
over  the  meeting  of  the  British  association  for 
the  advancement  of  science.  In  1867  he  vis- 
ited Morocco,  and  in  company  with  Mr.  Ball 
ascended  several  of  the  peaks  of  the  Atlas 
chain  ;  and  in  1871,  also  in  company  with  Mr. 
Ball,  ascended  the  Jebel  Tezah,  one  of  the  sum- 
mits, more  than  11,000  ft.  high,  which  no  Eu- 
ropean had  before  ascended.  In  1873  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  royal  society.  His 
principal  works  are:  "Flora  Antarctica"  (2 
vols.,  London,  1845-'8) ;  "  Rhododendrons  of 
the  Sikkim  Himalaya"  (1849-'51) ;  "Hima- 
layan Journals"  (2  vols.,  1854);  "Flora  of 
New  Zealand  "  (2  vols.,  1853-'5) ;  "Flora  Tas- 
maniae  "  (1855  et  seq.) ;  and  "  The  Student's 
Flora  of  the  British  Islands  "  (1870).  He  has 
also  published,  with  the  cooperation  of  George 
Bentham,  "Genera  Plantarum"  (vol.  i.,  1867; 
vol.  ii.,  part  i.,  1873). 

HOOKER,  Richard,  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Heavytree,  near  Exeter,  in  1553  or  1554,  died 
at  Bishopsbourne,  near  Canterbury,  Nov.  2, 
1600.  He  became  a  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi 
college,  Oxford,  in  1573,  and  a  fellow  and  mas- 
ter of  arts  in  1577,  was  made  deputy  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  1579,  was  expelled  from  this  of- 
fice after  three  months  with  four  other  fellows 
of  his  college,  but  was  immediately  restored, 
and  received  holy  orders  in  1581.  Being  ap- 
pointed to  preach  a  sermon  at  St.  Paul's  cross, 
London,  he  lodged  at  the  Shunamite's  house, 
a  dwelling  appropriated  to  preachers,  and  was 
skilfully  persuaded  by  the  landlady  "  that  it 
was  best  for  him  to  have  a  wife  that  might 
prove  a  nurse  to  him,  such  an  one  as  might 
prolong  his  life,  and  make  it  more  comfortable, 
and  such  an  one  as  she  could  and  would  pro- 
vide for  him  if  he  thought  fit  to  marry."  The 
unsuspecting  young  divine  agreed  to  abide  by 
her  choice,  which  fell  upon  her  own  daughter, 


who  proved  to  be,  as  Anthony  Wood  says,  a 
"  silly,  clownish  woman,  and  withal  a  mere 
Xantippe."  Resigning  his  fellowship  by  his 
marriage,  he  was  presented  in  1584  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Drayton-Beauchamp,  Buckinghamshire. 
There  he  was  visited  by  two  of  his  former  pu- 
pils, Edwin  Sandys  and  George  Cranmer,  who 
found  him  reading  Horace  while  tending  the 
sheep  in  the  field,  his  servant  having  gone  to  aid 
Mrs.  Hooker  in  the  household  labors.  On  go- 
ing with  them  to  the  house,  he  was  called  to 
rock  the  cradle,  and  the  lady  gave  such  other 
samples  of  hospitality  as  made  them  glad  to  de- 
part on  the  following  morning.  To  their  ex- 
pressions of  commiseration  Hooker  replied: 
"  If  saints  have  usually  a  double  share  of  the 
miseries  of  this  life,  I,  that  am  none,  ought  not 
to  repine  at  what  my  wise  Creator  hath  ap- 
pointed for  me ;  but  labor,  as  indeed  I  do  daily, 
to  submit  to  his  will  and  possess  my  soul  in  pa- 
tience and  peace."  Sandys  made  an  appeal  to 
his  father,  the  archbishop  of  York,  in  behalf 
of  his  former  tutor,  who  was  promoted  to  the 
mastership  of  the  Temple  in  London  in  1585. 
The  morning  and  afternoon  lectureship  belong- 
ed respectively  to  him  and  to  Walter  Travers, 
the  one  inclining  to  the  Arminian  view  and 
maintaining  the  Anglican  form  of  government, 
the  other  maintaining  Calvinistic  opinions  and 
inclining  to  the  Presbyterian  form ;  and  it  was 
soon  observed  that  "  the  forenoon  sermons 
spoke  Canterbury,  and  the  afternoon  Geneva." 
A  controversy  arose  which  was  the  occasion  of 
Hooker's  great  work  on  "  Ecclesiastical  Polity." 
Archbishop  Whitgift  prohibited  the  preaching 
of  Travers,  who  appealed  unsuccessfully  to  the 
privy  council,  and  published  his  memorial, 
which,  though  answered  by  his  opponent,  gain- 
ed for  him  many  powerful  adherents.  "To 
unbeguile  and  win  over  those  of  Mr.  Travers's 
judgment,  Hooker  designed  to  write  a  sober 
deliberate  treatise  of  the  church's  power  to 
make  canons  for  the  use  of  ceremonies,  and  by 
law  to  impose  an  obedience  to  them  as  upon 
her  children."  To  secure  the  requisite  quiet, 
he  requested  to  be  translated  to  some  country 
parsonage,  and  received  in  1591  the  rectory  of 
Boscombe,  Wiltshire,  where  he  completed  the 
first  four  books  of  the  "Ecclesiastical  Polity" 
(London,  1594).  In  the  following  year  he  was 
presented  to  the  rectory  of  Bishopsbourne, 
Kent,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  The  last  four  books  were  published  at  in- 
tervals, three  of  them  posthumously,  and  the 
eight  books  were  probably  first  collected  in 
1662,  although  some  contend  that  all  were  pub- 
lished together  as  early  as  1617.  The  sixth 
book  is  lost,  that  which  passes  for  it  having 
been  proved  to  be  a  totally  different  produc- 
tion, and  the  eighth  book  seems  to  have  been 
left  incomplete.  His  life  was  written  by  Izaak 
Walton.  The  latest  edition  of  his  works  was 
arranged  by  the  Rev.  John  Keble  (3d  ed.,  3 
vols.,  Oxford,  1845). 

HOOKER,  Thomas,  one  of  the  founders  of  tho 
colony  of  Connecticut,  born  in  Markfield,  Lei- 


1 


HOOKER 


cestersMre,  England,  in  1586,  died  in  Hartford 
Conn.,  July  7,  1647.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  After  gradu- 
ating at  Emmanuel  college,  Cambridge,  he  took 
orders,  preached  in  London,  and  was  chosen 
lecturer  at  Chelmsford  in  1626.  Having  been 
silenced  by  Laud  for  nonconformity,  he  "estab- 
lished a  grammar  school  at  Little  Baddow,  near 
Chelmsford,  in  which  John  Eliot,  "  the  apos- 
tle of  the  Indians,"  was  an  usher.  In  1630, 
being  still  persecuted  by  the  spiritual  court,  he 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  preached  at  Delft 
and  Rotterdam,  being  an  assistant  to  Dr.  Ames, 
who  said  of  him  that  "he  never  met  with  his 
equal,  either  in  preaching  or  disputation."  In 
1633  he  came  to  New  England  with  Cotton 
and  Stone,  and  was  settled  with  the  latter  at 
Newtown  (now  Cambridge),  being  ordained 
by  the  brethren  of  the  church.  In  1636  he  re- 
moved with  about  100  others  to  what  is  now 
Hartford,  Conn.,  where  he  and  Stone  were  the 
first  ministers  of  the  church.  He  was  a  re- 
markably animated  and  able  preacher,  com- 
monly using  no  notes.  Some  200  of  his  ser- 
mons were  transcribed  by  John  Higginson  and 
sent  to  England,  where  about  half  of  them 
were  published.  His  most  celebrated  work, 
"A  Survey  of  the  Summe  of  Church  Disci- 
pline," written  in  conjunction  with  John  Cot- 
ton, was  published  in  England  under  the  super- 
vision of  Dr.  Thomas  Goodwin  (4to,  1648).  A 
memoir  of  his  life,  with  a  selection  from  his 
writings,  has  been  published  by  the  Rev.  E. 
W.  Hooker,  D.  D.  (18mo,  Boston,  1849). 

HOOKER,  Sir  William  Jackson,  an  English  bot- 
anist, born  in  Norwich  in  1785,  died  Aug.  12, 
1865.  He  manifested  a  taste  for  botany  at  an 
unusually  early  age,  and  in  1809  he  visited  Ice- 
land for  the  purpose  of  studying  its  natural 
history.  The  collection  made  with  great  pains 
during  this  visit  was  subsequently  lost,  but  his 
copious  notes  and  excellent  memory  enabled 
him  to  give  an  account  of  the  botany  of  that 
region  in  his  "Tour  in  Iceland  in  1809  "  (Yar- 
mouth, 1811;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1813).  He  was  subsequently  engaged  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  editing  a  continuation  of  Cur- 
tis's  "Botanical  Magazine,"  from  1830  to  1833 
the  "Botanical  Miscellany,"  and  from  1834  to 
1851  the  "London  Journal  of  Botany."  He 
was  for  a  long  time  professor  of  botany  in  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  afterward  became 
director  of  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew,  in  which 
post  he  was  succeeded  at  his  death  by  his  son 
Joseph  Dalton  Hooker.  He  was  knighted  in 
1836.  Among  his  numerous  works  are :  "  Brit- 
ish Jungermanniae "  (4to,  London,  1816  ;  2d 
ed.,  1846);  "  Muscologia  Britannica "  (1818; 
enlarged,  1855);  "Flora  Scotica"  (1821); 
"  The  Exotic  Flora  "  (3  vols.,  1823-'7) ;  "  Icones 
Plantarum  "  (10  vols.,  1836-'54)  ;  "  Flora  Bo- 
reali-Americana "  (2  vols.  4to,  1829-'40)  ; 
"  British  Flora  "  (1830 ;  7th  ed.,  1855)  ;  "  Com- 
panion to  the  Botanical  Magazine"  (2  vols., 
1835-'6);  "Icones  Filicum"  (with  the  assist- 
ance of  Greville,  1829-'31) ;  "Botany  of  Capt. 


HOOPER 


807 


Beechey's  Voyage"  (1831-'41);  "Genera  of 
Ferns  "  (1838-'42) ;  "  Notes  on  the  Botany  of 
the  Antarctic  Voyage  of  Sir  James  C.  Ross " 
(1843) ;  "  Species  Filicum  "  (3  vols.,  1846-'o3)  • 
"Guide  to  Kew  Gardens"  (1847);  "Century 
of  Orchidaceous  Plants"  (1846);  "Victoria 
Regia"  (1851);  "Century  of  Ferns"  (1854); 
"Fihces  Exoticaa"  (1859);  "British  Ferns" 
and  "Second  Century  of  Ferns"  (1861);  and 
"Garden  Ferns  "  (1862). 

HOOKER,  Worthlngton,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  March  2, 1806, 
died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  6,  1867.  He 
received  his  academic  education  at  Yale  col- 
lege, and  graduated  in  medicine  at  Harvard 
university  in  1829.  He  then  settled  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  where  he  practised  his  profession 
till  1852,  when  he  was*  appointed  professor  of 
the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  med- 
ical institution  of  Yale  college,  which  post  he 
held  till  his  death.  In  1864  he  was  chosen 
vice  president  of  the  American  medical  asso- 
ciation. In  1849  he  published  a  work  entitled 
"  Physician  and  Patient,"  which  gained  him 
a  high  reputation  as  a  literary  and  medical 
scholar.  In  1850  appeared  his  "  Lessons  from 
the  History  of  Medical  Delusions,"  the  Rhode 
Island  prize  fund  dissertation  for  that  year. 
He  made  several  important  committee  reports 
to  the  American  medical  association,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  valuable  series  of  books  on  phy- 
siology, natural  history,  chemistry,  &c.,  for  the 
use  of  the  young. 

HOOLE,  John,  an  English  translator,  born  in 
London  in  1727,  died  near  Dorking,  Aug.  2, 
1803.  At  the  age  of  17  he  was  placed  as  a 
clerk  in  the  East  India  house,  where  he  re- 
mained nearly  40  years.  He  published  trans- 
lations of  the  "  Jerusalem  Delivered  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1763)  and  "  Rinaldo"  (1792)  of  Tasso,  the 
dramas  of  Metastasio  (2  vols.  12mo,  1767),  and 
the  "Orlando  Furioso "  of  Ariosto  (5  vols.  8vo, 
1773-'83).  Sir  Walter  Scott  speaks  of  Hoole 
as  "  a  noble  transmuter  of  gold  into  lead,"  and 
Southey  alludes  to  the  translation  of  the  Or- 
lando as  "  that  vile  version  of  Hoole's."  His 
dramatic  works  were  three  tragedies,  "Cyrus," 
"  Timanthes,"  and  "  Cleonice,  Princess  of  Baby- 
lon," all  of  which  failed. 

HOOPER,  John,  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Somersetshire  about  1495,  executed  in  Glouces- 
ter, Feb.  9, 1555.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  a  Cistercian  monk.  Returning  to 
Oxford,  he  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the 
reformation,  but  in  1539  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  chaplain  to  Sir  John  Arundel,  which  he 
was  obliged  to  relinquish  when  his  Protestant 
views  were  discovered.  He  then  went  to 
France,  and  afterward  returned  secretly  to 
England ;  but  being  recognized  he  escaped  to 
Ireland,  and  thence  passed  over  to  the  continent, 
remaining  in  Switzerland  until  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.,  when  he  went  back  to  England 
and  preached  the  reformation  in  London.  In 
1550  he  was  nominated  to  the  see  of  Glouces^ 
ter,  but  refusing  to  wear  the  episcopal  robes  of 


808 


HOOPER 


HOP 


to  swear  obedience  to  the  metropolitan,  and 
declaiming  violently  from  the  pulpit  against 
the  habits,  the  ordinal,  and  the  council,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Fleet,  Jan.  27,  1551.  After 
two  months'  confinement  his  objections  were 
overcome.  Fourteen  months  later  he  received 
the  bishopric  of  Worcester  in  commendam,  in 
addition  to  that  of  Gloucester.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  Mary  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
suffer.  He  was  deprived  of  his  see,  and  in 
July,  1553,  was  cast  into  the  Fleet  prison.  On 
Jan.  28,  1555,  he  was  summoned  with  five 
other  reformed  clergymen  before  a  spiritual 
court  over  which  Gardiner  presided.  One  of 
the  prisoners  recanted ;  one  begged  for  time ; 
Hooper,  Rogers,  Saunders,  and  Taylor  replied 
that  their  consciences  forbade  them  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  doctrines  established  by  law,  and 
they  were  consequently  excommunicated  and 
condemned  to  the  stake.  Hooper  met  his  fate 
with  firmness.  A  collection  of  his  works  in  2 
vols.  8vo  was  issued  by  the  Parker  society  in 
1843  and  1852. 

HOOPER,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
American  Declaration  of  Independence,  born 
in  Boston,  June  17, 1742,  died  in  Hillsborough, 
N.  C.,  in  October,  1790.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1760,  studied  law  with 
James  Otis  in  Boston,  and  removed  to  Wil- 
mington, N.  0.,  in  1767,  where  he  soon  rose 
to  eminence.  He  was  delegated  to  the  conti- 
nental congress  in  1775,  and  was  till  his  death 
a  leader  in  the  councils  of  North  Carolina. 

HOOPING  COUGH.     See  WHOOPING  COUGH. 

HOOPOE,  a  tenuirostral  bird  of  the  order  pas- 
seres  and  family  upupidce.  The  family  includes 
the  subfamilies  upupince  or  hoopoes,  and  epi- 
mnchincB  or  plumed  birds  of  New  Zealand  and 
Australia;  the  former  comprise  the  genera 
upupa  (Linn.),  irrisor  (Less.)  of  Africa,  and 
falculia  (Geoffr.)  of  Madagascar.  The  genus 
upupa  is  characterized  by  a  long,  slender, 
slightly  curved  bill,  with  acute  tip ;  wings  long 
and  rounded,  the  fourth  and  fifth  quills  equal 
and  longest ;  tail  long,  broad,  and  even ;  tarsi 
shorter  than  middle  toe  and  strong,  and  toes 
moderate.  About  half  a  dozen  species  are  de- 
scribed in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  they  are 
migratory,  preferring  moist  places  on  the  bor- 
der of  woods;  their  food  consists  of  insects, 
worms,  and  caterpillars,  which  they  seek  on 
the  ground  and  among  the  foliage ;  their  flight 
is  very  undulating,  and  on  this  their  principal 
safety  from  birds  of  prey  depends ;  the  nest  is 
made  in  the  holes  of  trees  and  crevices  of  rocks, 
and  is  composed  of  dried  grasses  lined  with 
softer  materials ;  the  eggs  are  four  or  five  in 
number.  These  birds  sometimes  congregate 
in  small  flocks.  The  tenuirostral  tribe,  which 
includes  the  humming  and  sun  birds,  the  birds 
of  paradise,  the  honey  suckers,  and  other  bril- 
liant species,  belongs  almost  entirely  to  tropi- 
cal climates.  The  hoopoe,  however  (U.  epops, 
Linn.),  is  found  even  in  northern  Europe, 
whither  it  comes  in  summer  from  Asia  and 
northern  Africa.  The  bird  is  about  the  size  of 


a  thrush  ;  the  head,  neck,  back,  and  breast  are 
reddish  gray,  with  tints  of  vinous  purple,  sha- 
ding into  pure  white  on  the  belly  and  vent, 
where  the  centre  of  the  feathers  is  dashed  with 
dark  brown ;  the  rump  is  white ;  the  wings 
black,  when  closed  exhibiting  five  white  bands ; 


Hoopoe  (Upupa  epops). 

tail  black,  with  an  angular  white  band  across 
the  centre,  and  the  outer  feather  narrowly 
edged  with  the  same ;  there  is  an  ample  crest 
of  erectile  feathers,  of  an  orange  brown  color 
of  varying  intensity,  nearly  white  at  the  end, 
with  a  terminal  oval  black  spot.  The  female 
is  less  bright,  and  her  crest  is  smaller.  It  is  a 
handsome  and  sprightly  bird,  and  useful  in  de- 
stroying larvae  and  insects. 

HOORN,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  21  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Amsterdam ; 
pop.  in  1868,  9,503.  It  has  10  churches,  a  Latin 
school,  a  school  of  design,  a  house  of  correc- 
tion, considerable  navigation,  and  manufac- 
tories of  gold  and  silver  ware.  A  brisk  trade 
is  carried  on  in  corn,  cattle,  cheese,  and  butter. 
The  former  fortifications  have  been  converted 
into  promenades. 

HOORNE.     See  HORN,  PHILIP. 

HOOSAC  TUNNEL.     See  TUNNEL. 

HOP  (Ger.  Hopferi),  humulus  lupulus,  a 
plant  which  with  canndbis,  the  hemp,  com- 
poses the  order  canndbinece ;  this  is  by  some 
botanists  regarded  as  a  suborder  of  the  nettle 
family,  the  urticacece.  The  plant  is  dioecious ; 
the  flowers  are  apetalous ;  the  staminate  ones 
have  five  sepals  and  as  many  stamens;  they 
are  in  loose  axillary  panicles ;  the  fertile  flowers 
are  in  short  catkins  of  leafy  scales,  each  of 
which  has  two  flowers;  calyx  of  a  single  sepal 
embracing  the  ovary,  which  has  a  style  with 
two  stigmas,  and  in  ripening  becomes  a  one- 
seeded  fruit  or  achene.  In  maturing,  the 
scales  of  the  catkin  increase  much  in  size  and 
form  a  membranaceous  cone  or  strobile ;  they 


HOP 


809 


are  covered  at  their  base  with  an  aromatic  res- 
inous substance  of  yellowish  color,  known  as 
lupuline.  This  constitutes  about  one  sixth  of 
the  weight  of  the  dried  catkins,  and  contains 
the  greater  portion  of  their  valuable  qualities. 
The  hop  is  a  vine,  with  a  perennial  root  from 


Hop  (Humulus  lupulus). 

which  spring  up  numerous  annual  shoots,  form- 
ing slender  flexible  stems,  angular  and  rough 
to  the  touch.  These  climb  spirally  upon  trees 
or  around  poles  to  the  height  of  20  or  30  ft. 
The  leaves  are  opposite  on  long  petioles,  heart- 
shaped,  and  three-  or  five-lobed.  The  hop  is 
found  wild  in  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  It 
has  long  been  cultivated  in  Germany,  where  its 
use  is  traced  back  as  far  as  the  9th  century. 
In  other  countries  it  has  become  an  important 
agricultural  product,  and  in  the  United  States 
is  now  largely  cultivated ;  portions  of  New 
York  and  Wisconsin  are  the  largest  hop-grow- 
ing sections,  but  considerable  quantities  are 
produced  in  other  states ;  hops  are  an  article 
of  both  export  and  import.  The  English,  who 
have  carried  its  culture  to  great  perfection,  first 
engaged  in  it  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
about  the  year  1524,  having  learned  from  people 
of  Artois  its  qualities  of  preserving  beer  from 
fermentation  and  imparting  an  agreeable  bitter 
flavor  to  the  liquor.  Previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  hops,  various  bitter  herbs  were  used 
in  beer,  especially  the  alehoof  or  ground  ivy, 
glechoma  hederacea,  and  the  use  of  hops  was 
strongly  protested  against.  The  S.  E.  part  of 
England  is  particularly  favorable  for  the  crop ; 
and  in  the  county  of  Kent  alone  from  25,000 
to  30,000  acres  have  long  been  appropriated  to 
it.  Hop  plantations  are  also  found  in  other 
counties ;  but  the  production  of  Kent  probably 
represents  one  half  of  the  whole  amount  raised 
in  England.  In  ordinary  seasons  this  county 
supplies  nearly  enough  hops  for  all  the  malt 
liquors  brewed  in  England ;  but  the  crop  is  very 
fluctuating,  and  in  seasons  of  scarcity  hops  are 
imported  from  Belgium  and  the  United  States. 
The  Belgian  hops  have  a  good  reputation ;  but 


those  of  Bavaria  are  the  best  of  all,  the  aroma 
being  more  perfectly  preserved  by  the  method  of 
preparation  in  practice  there.  The  American 
hops  are  not  so  highly  esteemed  in  England  as 
those  raised  there,  and  bring  a  lower  price. 
Several  varieties  are  known  to  cultivators 
such  as  the  English  cluster,  grape,  Pompey! 
and  others,  the  first  named  being  considered  the 
best.  The  situations  selected  for  hop  yards  are 
the  sunny  slopes  of  hills,  or  wherever  there  is 
a  free  circulation  of  air.  Such  soil  as  will  pro- 
duce a  good  crop  of  Indian  corn  is  suited  to 
hops,  but  it  is  essential  that  it  be  naturally 
or  artificially  drained,  as  success  is  impossible 
on  a  wet  soil.  The  planting  is  done  with 
"sets,"  which  are  the  underground  stems  of 
old  vines  cut  into  pieces  of  two  or  three  joints. 
The  plant  being  dioecious,  8  or  12  male  hills 
are  equally  distributed  in  each  acre.  The  hills 
are  marked  out  from  7  to  10  ft.  apart,  and 
from  three  to  five  sets  are  planted  in  a  hill. 
The  plants  are  well  cultivated  the  first  year, 
the  vines  being  allowed  to  spread  upon  the 
ground.  The  second  spring,  two  poles  16  to 
20  ft.  long  are  set  to  each  hill,  and  the  vines 
as  they  grow  are  assisted,  if  need  be,  to  twine 
upon  the  poles,  the  crop  being  kept  clear  of 
weeds.  Hops  are  subject  to  blight  of  various 
kinds  from  mould  or  rust,  and  the  devastation 
of  an  aphis  or  louse.  This  insect  probably  de- 
stroys more  than  half  the  crops,  and  much  of 
the  remainder  is  lost  by  unfavorable  seasons 
and  other  causes.  When  the  hops  are  mature, 
the  poles  are  pulled  up  with  the  vines  hanging 
to  them,  and  women  and  children  gather  the 
strobiles,  which  are  immediately  carried  to  the 
kilns,  called  hop  oasts,  in  which  they  are  dried 
upon  a  floor  of  wire  or  hair  cloth  at  a  heat  not 
exceeding  180°  F.  Fumes  of  burning  sulphur 
are  admitted  to  the  hops  while  drying,  by 
which  they  are  partially  bleached.  They  are 
then  packed  tightly  in  bags  or  pockets  with 
the  aid  of  a  press,  and  the  parcels  are  made  so 
compact  that  they  may  be  cut  into  blocks  with 
a  knife.  The  bales  may  be  kept  for  years  in 
a  dry  airy  situation.  The  Belgians  follow  the 
same  practice ;  but  the  Bavarians,  when  the 
hops  are  ripe,  cut  off  the  plants  close  to  the 
ground,  and  leave  them  upon  the  poles  to  dry 
in  the  sun.  This  is  thought  to  preserve  better 
the  aroma,  and  the  hops,  though  packed  loose- 
ly in  bags,  have  more  strength  and  flavor  than 
the  English  or  Belgian.  Several  years  ago  a 
plan  for  training  hops  on  strings  or  wires  was 
patented  under  the  name  of  the  horizontal  hop 
yard.  One  pole  about  7  ft.  high  is  placed  at 
each  hill,  and  the  tops  of  the  poles  are  con- 
nected by  twine  stretched  across  the  yard  in 
two  directions;  it  is  made  fast  to  the  end  poles 
in  each  row  and  wound  once  around  the  tops 
of  the  others.  When  the  hops  are  ripe  for 
picking,  the  strings  are  loosened,  and  as  many 
removed  as  may  be  convenient  for  the  pick- 
ers. The  quality  of  hops  is  judged  of  by  the 
weight  of  the  bags,  the  heavier  samples  having 
more  of  the  lupuline  or  hop  dust,  1  Ib.  of 


810 


HOP 


HOPE 


which  is  considered  equal  to  4  Ibs.  of  the  stro- 
biles deprived  of  it.  They  should  be  of  a  clear 
bright  color,  free  from  greenish  particles,  but 
full  of  hard  seeds  and  lupuline,  and  become 
sticky  with  the  heat  of  the  hand.  Being 
greatly  injured  by  dampness,  the  presence  of  a 
crust  thereby  produced  should  be  particularly 
looked  for.  The  essential  properties  of  the  hop, 
its  bitterness  and  fragrance,  appear  to  reside  in 
the  lupuline;  this  was  for  a  long  time  suppo- 
sed to  be  the  pollen  of  the  hop,  but  it  is  found 
only  on  the  pistillate  catkins,  and  consists  of 
peculiar  glands  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
scales;  their  appearance  when  magnified  is 
shown  in  the  engraving.  This  substance  was 
noticed  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  of  England  and  M. 
Planche  of  France,  and  its  properties  were  in- 
vestigated by  Dr.  A.  W.  Ives  of  New  York. 
When  hops  are  shaken  in  a  coarse  bag  a 
fine  yellow  powder  passes  through,  which  is 
shown  to  be  of  a  resinous  character  by  its 
agglutinating  under  a  moderate  heat,  and 
burning  with  a  white  flame.  Dr.  Ives  call- 
ed this  substance  lupuline,  but  this  name  is 
more  properly  applicable  to  the  bitter  prin- 
ciple it  contains.  In  120  grains  he  found  5 


Lupuline  Grains,  highly  magnified. 

of  tannin,  10  of  extractive,  11  of  bitter  prin- 
ciple, 12  of  wax,  36  of  resin,  and  46  of  lignine. 
A  volatile  oil  also  has  been  separated  by  Pa- 
yen  and  Chevallier,  by  distillation  of  the  lupu- 
line. This  oil  is  yellowish,  and  has  an  acrid 
taste  with  the  odor  of  hops.  The  oil  and  the 
bitter  principle  impart  the  virtues  of  the  hops 
to  water  and  alcohol.  The  separation  of  the 
resinous  powder  and  its  use  in  commerce  in- 
stead of  the  hops  was  strongly  recommended 
by  Dr.  Ives,  on  the  score  of  economy  in  saving 
transportation,  handling  of  bulky  materials, 
and  absorption  of  wort. — Besides  their  use  for 
preserving  and  flavoring  malt  liquors,  hops 
have  a  reputation  in  medical  practice  as  a 
tonic.  Their  efficacy  depends  both  upon  the 
bitter  principle  and,  to  a  less  degree,  the  vol- 
atile oil.  The  effect  of  the  former  is  chiefly 
obtained  from  malt  liquors,  where  it  is  of 
course  much  modified  by  the  alcohol  and  other 
constituents.  The  tincture  of  hops  and  tincture 
of  liipuline  are  preparations  in  which  the  alco- 
hol they  contain  is  more  active  than  the  hops. 
The  narcotic  and  sedative  effects  of  hops  and 
Inpuline  are  very  slight,  and  to  be  obtained 


chiefly  from  large  doses  of  the  latter  prepara- 
tion. A  hop  pillow  is  however  sometimes 
used  to  promote  sleep,  and  hop  poultices  and 
fomentations  are  occasionally  employed.  It 
is  very  probable,  however,  that  any  supposed 
specific  effect  from  the  hops  is  largely  due  to 
the  imagination.  Pills  of  lupuline  may  be 
prepared  by  rubbing  the  powder  in  a  warm 
mortar  until  it  becomes  plastic,  and  then  work- 
ing it  into  pills ;  these  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  6  to  12  grains.  In  hop-growing  countries 
the  young  shoots  are  often  blanched  by  cov- 
ering with  earth,  and  are  highly  esteemed  as  a 
table  delicacy,  being  prepared  like  asparagus. 
The  fibres  of  the  vine  are  strong  and  flexible, 
and  have  been  woven  into  coarse  cloth,  which 
served  for  the  sacks  in  which  the  hops  are  car- 
ried to  market.  Hop  vines  are  one  of  the 
many  substances  that  have  recently  been  pro- 
posed as  a  stock  for  paper  makers. — The  pro- 
duction of  hops  in  the  United  States  has  in- 
creased from  3,497,029  Ibs.  in  1850  to  10,991,- 
996  Ibs.  in  1860,  and  25,456,669  in  1870.  Of 
the  last  amount,  New  York  produced  17,558,- 
681  Ibs.,  Wisconsin  4,630,155,  Michigan  828,- 
269,  California  625,064,  and  Vermont  527,927. 
In  1872  there  were  under  cultivation  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  61,927  acres  of  hops.  The 
imports  for  that  year  amounted  to  135,965 
cwts.,  valued  at  £679,276,  of  which  66,930 
cwts.,  worth  £297,034,  were  from  Belgium, 
and  36,612  cwts.,  valued  at  £221,617,  from 
Germany. 

HOPE.  I.  Thomas,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1770,  died  Feb.  3,  1831.  He  inherited 
a  large  fortune,  and  at  the  age  of  18  started 
on  a  tour  in  Europe  and  the  East.  After  an 
absence  of  eight  years  he  returned  to  London, 
and  purchased  a  house  which  he  remodelled 
and  furnished  according  to  ideas  formed  on 
his  travels.  A  distinguishing  feature  was  the 
long  galleries  and  the  series  of  cabinets  stored 
with  pictures,  statuary,  and  objects  of  art 
and  mrtti.  In  1807  he  published  "  Household 
Furniture  and  External  Decorations,"  with  60 
plates,  in  which  a  full  description  of  his  own 
establishment  is  given,  with  hints  for  the  dec- 
oration of  houses.  In  1 809  appeared  his  "  Cos- 
tume of  the  Ancients  "  (2  vols.  8vo ;  3d  ed. 
with  additions,  1841),  a  magnificent  work,  con- 
taining 321  plates,  followed  in  1812  by  "De- 
signs of  Modern  Costume."  In  1819  he  pub- 
lished a  novel,  "Anastasius,  or  Memoirs  of  a 
Modern  Greek,  written  at  the  close  of  the  18th 
Century."  This  was  at  the  time  attributed  to 
Byron,  and  created  a  great  sensation,  but  is 
now  seldom  read.  Shortly  after  his  death  two 
posthumous  works  were  published  :  "  Essay 
on  the  Origin  and  Prospects  of  Man  "  (3  vols., 
1831),  and  a  "Historical  Essay  on  Architec- 
ture "  (2  vols.,  1837),  which  has  passed  through 
several  editions.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
art,  being  the  first  to  discover  and  appreciate 
the  genius  of  Thorwaldsen,  who  executed  for 
him  his  "Jason ;"  and  he  collected  one  of  the 
finest  private  galleries  of  pictures  in  Europe. 


HOPE 

His  wife,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Lord  Decies, 
archbishop  of  Tuam,  was  of  remarkable  beauty, 
and  was  remarried  after  his  death  to  Viscount 
Beresford.  She  died  in  1851. — His  eldest  son, 
HENEY  THOMAS  HOPE  of  Deepdene  (died  1862)' 
was  a  well  known  conservative  politician,  and 
was  M.  P.  for  Gloucester.  II.  Alexander  James 
Beresford  Beresford-Hope,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1820.  He  assumed  his  mother's  name 
Beresford  by  royal  license  in  1854.  He  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  Maidstone  from  1841 
to  1852,  and  was  reelected  in  1857.  In  1865  he 
was  elected  for  Stoke-upon  Trent,  and  in  1868 
for  the  university  of  Cambridge,  for  which  he 
was  reelected  in  1874.  In  1865-'7  he  was 
president  of  the  royal  institute  of  British 
architects.  He  is  the  author  of  "Essays" 
(London,  1844),  "  Letters  on  Church  Matters, 
by  D.  C.  L.,"  "The  English  Cathedral  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,"  and  numerous  pamphlets 
and  articles ;  and  is  celebrated  for  his  munifi- 
cent restoration  and  endowment  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's abbey,  Canterbury,  as  a  church  of  Eng- 
land missionary  college. 

HOPE,  Thomas  Charles,  a  Scottish  chemist, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  July  21,  1766,  died  there, 
June  13, 1844.  His  father,  Dr.  John  Hope,  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  1787  the  son  was  appointed  to  the 
chemical  chair  in  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
About  the  same  time  he  became  a  convert  to 
Lavoisier's  theory  of  combustion  and  oxygena- 
tion,  and  was  the  first  British  chemist  who  pub- 
licly taught  it.  In  1795  he  became  assistant  to 
Dr.  Black,  professor  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh, 
upon  whose  death  in  1799  he  succeeded  to  the 
chair,  which  he  filled  until  the  end  of  the  ses- 
sion of  1843.  As  a  teacher  and  lecturer  he 
had  few  equals.  His  principal  discovery  was 
the  presence  of  a  new  earth,  named  by  him 
strontites,  in  a  mineral  found  in  the  strontian 
lead  mines  in  Argyleshire. 

HOPE  AND  COMPANY,  a  firm  of  Amsterdam 
bankers,  established  in  the  17th  century  by 
Henry  Hope,  a  Scottish  gentleman.  One  of 
the  leading  members  of  the  house  in  the  early 
part  of  this  century,  when  it  was  in  the  zenith 
of  its  prosperity,  was  Henry  Hope,  who  was 
born  in  the  United  States,  the  son  of  a  Scot- 
tish loyalist  who  had  settled  in  Boston.  This 
Henry  Hope  lived  some  time  in  Quincy,  Mass., 
and  was  a  poor  youth  when  he  emigrated  from 
that  place  to  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century.  Mr.  John  Williams,  an  English- 
man, who  married  his  niece,  and  who  assumed 
the  name  of  John  Williams  Hope,  and  after- 
ward that  of  John  Hope,  was  the  manager  of 
the  establishment.  Among  the  silent  partners 
were  Adrian  Hope,  Henry  Philip  Hope,  and 
Thomas  Hope,  the  author  of  "  Anastasius." 
The  ablest  active  partner  was  Peter  Caesar  La- 
bouchere,  who  entered  the  house  in  the  capacity 
of  a  clerk,  and  who  married  in  1796  a  daughter 
of  Sir  Francis  Baring.  The  relationship  with 
the  Baring  family  was  continued  by  his  son, 
the  late  Lord  Taunton,  whose  first  wife  was 


HOPKINS 


811 


a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Baring.  In  concert 
with  the  house  of  Baring,  the  Hopes  negotiated 
the  great  loan  with  France  after  the  with- 
drawal of  the  allied  armies,  and  several  other 
loans.  The  governments  with  which  the  house 
of  Hope  entertain  the  most  intimate  financial 
relations  are  those  of  Holland  and  Russia. 
The  Hope  certificates,  as  the  stocks  are  called, 
which  the  Russian  government  gave  to  the 
Dutch  bankers  in  acknowledgment  of  its  debt 
amount  to  about  $25,000,000.  A  splendid 
villa  built  in  1782  for  one  of  the  Hopes  near 
Haarlem,  at  a  cost  of  $200,000,  was  purchased 
by  Louis  Bonaparte,  and  now  belongs  to  the 
Orange  dynasty.  The  present  representative 
of  the  family  is  Adrian  Elias  Hope,  lorn  April 
8,  1845,  the  son  of  Adrian  John  Hope. 

HOPKINS.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Texas, 
bounded  N.  by  the  S.  fork  of  Sulphur  river, 
and  drained  by  White  Oak  bayou  and  Lake 
fork  of  the  Sabine ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,651,  of  whom  1,620  were  colored. 
About  half  of  it  is  timbered  and  half  prairie 
land.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
340,676  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  44,872  of  sweet 
potatoes,  22,549  Ibs.  of  wool,  108,884  of  butter, 
and  5,417  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  6,210 
horses,  6,381  milch  cows,  1,571  working  oxen, 
14,916  other  cattle,  10,675  sheep,  and  23,747 
swine.  Capital,  Sulphur  Springs.  II.  A  W. 
county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  N.  E.  by  Green 
river,  E.  by  Pond  river,  and  S.  W.  by  Trade- 
water  creek;  area,  474  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
13,827,  of  whom  1,869  were  colored.  It  has 
a  fertile  soil  and  an  uneven  surface,  diversified 
by  hills  which  contain  iron  ore.  Anthracite 
coal  is  also  found.  The  St.  Louis  and  South- 
eastern and  the  Elizabethtown  and  Paducah 
railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  25,506  bushels  of  wheat, 
464,879  of  Indian  corn,  48,240  of  oats,  3,012,053 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  24,849  of  wool,  and  114,798  of 
butter.  There  were  3,511  horses,  1,428  mules 
and  asses,  6,554  cattle,  14,619  sheep,  and  22,892 
swine.  Capital,  Madisonville. 

HOPKINS,  Edward,  governor  of  the  colony  of 
Connecticut,  born  in  Shrewsbury,  England,  in 
1600,  died  in  London  in  March,  1657.  He  was 
a  prominent  merchant  of  London,  and  came  to 
Boston  in  1637,  but  soon  after  removed  to 
Hartford,  where  he  was  chosen  a  magistrate 
in  1639,  and  governor  of  the  colony  every 
other  year  from  1640  to  1654,  alternating  with 
Haynes.  He  aided  in  forming  the  union  of  the 
New  England  colonies  in  1643.  On  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother  he  went  back  to  England, 
and  became  warden  of  the  English  fleet,  com- 
missioner of  the  admiralty  and  navy,  and  mem- 
ber of  parliament.  But  he  never  lost  his  in- 
terest in  the  colonies,  and  at  his  death  be- 
queathed much  of  his  estate  to  New  England, 
giving  £1,000  for  the  support  of  grammar 
schools  in  Hartford  and  New  Haven,  which 
are  still  kept  up,  and  £500  which  was  assigned 
to  Harvard  college  and  the  grammar  school  at 
Cambridge. 


812 


HOPKINS 


HOPKINS,  Esek,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  in  1718,  died  in  North 
Providence,  Feb.  26,  1802.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolutionary  war  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  Gov.  Cooke  as  brigadier  general. 
On  Dec.  22,  1775,  he  received  a  commission 
from  the  continental  congress  as  commodore 
and  "  commander-in-chief "  of  the  navy.  He 
was  officially  addressed  by  Washington  as  Ad- 
miral Hopkins.  In  February,  1776,  he  put  to 
sea  with  the  first  squadron  sent  out  by  the 
colonies,  consisting  of  four  ships  and  three 
sloops.  The  fleet  sailed  for  the  Bahama  isl- 
ands, and  captured  the  forts  at  New  Provi- 
dence, with  80  cannon,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  ordnance  stores  and  ammunition.  On  his 
return,  when  off  Block  island,  Hopkins  took 
the  British  schooner  Hawke  and  the  bomb 
brig  Bolton.  For  this  act  the  president  of 
congress  complimented  him  officially.  Two 
days  afterward,  with  three  vessels,  he  attacked 
the  Glasgow,  of  29  guns ;  but  she  escaped,  and 
for  this  he  was  censured.  In  June,  1776,  he 
was  ordered  by  congress  to  appear  before  the 
naval  committee  to  reply  to  charges  which 
had  been  preferred  against  him  for  not  annoy- 
ing the  enemy's  ships  on  the  southern  coast. 
He  was  defended  by  John  Adams,  and  was 
acquitted.  The  unavoidable  delays  at  a  later 
period  in  getting  his  ships  ready  for  sea  gave 
another  chance  for  his  enemies  to  complain ; 
and  neglecting  a  citation  to  appear  at  Phila- 
delphia, he  was  dismissed  the  service,  Jan.  2, 
1777.  He  resided  near  Providence,  and  exerted 
during  a  long  life  a  great  political  influence  in 
Rhode  Island,  being  often  elected  to  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  that  state. 

HOPKINS,  John  Henry,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Dublin,  Jan.  30,  1792,  died  at  Rock 
Point,  Vt.,  Jan.  9, 1868.  He  came  to  America 
with  his  parents  in  1800,  and  was  intended  for 
the  law ;  but  after  receiving  a  classical  educa- 
tion he  passed  a  year  in  a  counting  room  in 
Philadelphia,  assisted  Wilson  the  ornithologist 
in  the  preparation  of  the  plates  to  the  first 
four  volumes  of  his  work,  and  about  1810  em- 
barked in  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Pennsylvania.  The  iron  business 
was  prostrated  by  the  peace  of  1815,  and  in 
October,  1817,  he  quitted  it  bankrupt  in  prop- 
erty, and  after  six  months'  study  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Pittsburgh ;  but  in  1823  he  left 
the  bar  for  the  ministry,  and  in  1824  became 
rector  of  Trinity  church,  Pittsburgh.  A  new 
building  being  needed,  he  became  its  architect, 
studying  Gothic  architecture  for  the  purpose. 
In  1826  he  was  sent  as  clerical  deputy  to  the 
general  convention,  and  again  in  1829,  taking 
in  both  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates.  In 
1831  he  accepted  a  call  to  Trinity  church,  Bos- 
ton, as  assistant  minister.  A  theological  semi- 
nary was  at  the  same  time  established  in  the 
diocese  of  Massachusetts,  in  which  he  became 
professor  of  systematic  divinity.  In  1832  he 
was  elected  the  first  bishop  of  Vermont,  and 
was  consecrated  in  New  York,  Oct.  31.  He 


immediately  proceeded  to  his  diocese,  accept- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  rectorship  of  St. 
Paul's  church,  Burlington.  He  soon  began  a 
boys'  school,  and  in  erecting  the  needed  build- 
ings became  involved  to  a  degree  which  re- 
sulted in  the  sacrifice  of  his  property.  He 
resigned  his  rectorship  in  1856,  in  order  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  work  of  the  diocese,  and 
the  building  up  at  Burlington  of  the  "  Vermont 
Episcopal  Institute."  Besides  pamphlets,  ser- 
mons, and  addresses,  he  published  "  Chris- 
tianity Vindicated,  in  a  Series  of  Seven  Dis- 
courses on  the  External  Evidences  of  the  New 
Testament"  (Burlington,  1833);  "The  Primi- 
tive Creed  Examined  and  Explained  "  (1834) ; 
"The  Primitive  Church  compared  with  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Present 
Day  "  (1835) ;  "  Essay  on  Gothic  Architecture  " 
(1836) ;  "  The  Church  of  Rome  in  her  Primi- 
tive Purity,  compared  with  the  Church  of 
Rome  at  the  Present  Day"  (1837);  "Twelve 
Canzonets,"  words  and  music  (New  York, 
1839);  "The  Novelties  which  Disturb  our 
Peace"  (Philadelphia,  1844);  "Causes,  Prin- 
ciple^, and  Results  of  the  British  Reforma- 
tion" (Philadelphia,  1844);  "History  of  the 
Confessional "  (New  York,  1850)  ;  "  A  Refuta- 
tion of  Milner's  'End  of  Controversy,'  in  a  Se- 
ries of  Letters"  (2  vols.,  1854);  "The  Ameri- 
can Citizen,  his  Rights  and  Duties"  (1857); 
"A  Scriptural,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Historical 
View  of  Slavery,"  sustaining  that  institution 
(1864);  "History  of  the  Church  in  Verse" 
(1866) ;  "  Law  of  Ritualism  Examined  "  (1867) ; 
and  "  Candid  Examination  whether  the  Pope 
is  the  Great  Antichrist  of  Scripture  "  (1869). 
He  was  a  strong  champion  of  the  high-church 
party.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Pan- 
Anglican  synod  at  Lambeth  (1867),  and  re- 
ceived from  Oxford  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L. 

HOPKINS,  Lemuel,  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Waterbury,  Conn.,  June  19,  1750,  died  in 
Hartford,  April  14,  1801.  He  practised  medi- 
cine at  Litchfield  from  1776  to  1784,  when 
he  removed  to  Hartford.  He  was  singular  in 
his  appearance,  manners,  and  opinions ;  in  his 
early  days  an  admirer  of  the  French  philoso- 
phers, but  in  his  later  years  a  diligent  student 
of  the  Bible.  He  is  said  to  have  written  for 
Barlow  the  version  of  the  137th  psalm  begin- 
ning, "  Along  the  banks  where  Babel's  current 
flows."  Among  his  poems,  the  best  known 
are  "  The  Hypocrite's  Hope  "  and  an  elegy  on 
"  The  Victim  of  a  Cancer  Quack." 

HOPKINS,  Mark,  an  American  scholar,  bora 
in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  4,  1802.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  college  in  1824,  and  having 
filled  a  tutorship  in  the  college  for  two  years, 
he  received  in  1828  the  degree  of  M.  D.,  and 
began  the  practice  of  medicine  in  New  York. 
In  1830  he  was  recalled  to  Williams  college 
as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric, 
and  in  1836  he  succeeded  Dr.  Griffin  as  presi- 
dent of  the  college,  which  post  he  held  till 
1872,  Vhen  he  resigned,  and  is  now  (1874) 
professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy.  He 


HOPKINS 


813 


received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Dartmouth 
college  in  1837,  and  of  LL.  D.  from  the  uni- 
versity of  New  York  in  1857.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  president  of  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions. 
He  has  published  "Lectures  on  the  Evidences 
of  Christianity  "  (8vo,  Boston,  1846 ;  new  ed., 
1864) ;  "  Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Discourses  " 
(1847) ;  "  Lectures  on  Moral  Science  "  (1862) ; 
"  Baccalaureate  Sermons  and  Occasional  Dis- 
courses" (1863);  "Law  of  Love,  Love  as  a 
Law  "  (1869) ;  "  An  Outline  Study  of  Man " 
(New  York,  1873) ;  and  a  number  of  occa- 
sional sermons  and  addresses. 

HOPKINS,  Samuel,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Waterbury,  Conn.,  Sept.  17, 1721,  died 
in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Dec.  20,  1803.  Till  about 
his  15th  year  he  was  occupied  chiefly  in  agri- 
cultural labor,  when  he  entered  Yale  college, 
where  he  graduated  in  1741,  after  which  he 
studied  divinity  with  Jonathan  Edwards.  In 
1743  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Housatonnuc  (now  Great  Barrington),  Mass., 
where  he  remained  till  January,  1769,  when  he 
was  dismissed,  and  began  preaching  in  New- 
port, R.  I.  In  April,  1770,  it  was  voted  not  to 
invite  him  to  settle  there,  as  many  were  dis- 
satisfied with  his  theological  sentiments.  He 
preached  a  farewell  discourse,  which  was  so 
touching  and  impressive  that  the  vote  was  im- 
mediately and  almost  unanimously  reversed, 
and  he  was  settled  as  pastor.  When  the  Brit- 
ish took  possession  of  Newport  in  1776,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  town,  and  preached  in 
various  places  till  1780,  when,  Newport  being 
evacuated,  he  returned  to  his  parish,  which 
was  so  much  reduced  and  impoverished  that 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  dependent 
for  his  maintenance  upon  weekly  contributions 
and  the  voluntary  aid  of  a  few  friends.  In 
1799  he  was  attacked  with  paralysis,  from 
which  he  never  entirely  recovered,  though  his 
mental  powers  were  uninjured,  and  he  was  af- 
terward able  to  preach  occasionally.  By  ser- 
mons and  his  famous  "  dialogues,"  by  letters 
to  public  men,  and  newspaper  essays,  he  stirred 
up  an  organized  and  political  action  against 
slavery,  so  that  in  1774  a  law  was  passed  for- 
bidding the  importation  of  negroes  into  the 
colony,  and  in  1784  it  was  declared  by  the  le- 
gislature that  all  children  of  slaves  born  after 
the  following  March  should  be  free.  He  also 
formed  a  plan  for  evangelizing  Africa,  and  col- 
onizing it  with  free  negroes  from  America,  as 
early  as  1773.  Besides  his  numerous  sermons, 
addresses,  and  pamphlets,  he  published  a  life 
of  President  Edwards,  and  lives  of  Susannah 
Anthony  and  Mrs.  Osborn,  and  left  behind  him 
sketches  of  his  own  life.  His  "  System  of  The- 
ology," however,  is  his  great  work,  which,  in 
connection  with  his  other  theological  writings, 
must  be  fully  understood  by  every  one  who 
would  rightly  appreciate  New  England  either 
in  its  progress  or  its  present  condition.  Of 
its  author  Dr.  Channing  writes  that  "  he  must 
always  fill  an  important  place  in  our  ecclesias- 


tical history."  The  entire  works  of  Dr.  Hop- 
kins were  published  by  Dr.  West  in  1805,  and 
again,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  and  charac- 
ter by  E.  A.  Park,  D.  D.,  by  the  doctrinal  tract 
and  book  society  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1852). 

HOPKINS,  Stephen,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
American  Declaration  of  Independence  born  in 
Scituate,  R.  L,  March  7,  1707,  died  in  Provi- 
dence, July  13,  1785.  In  early  life  he  took  up 
his  residence  in  Providence,  and  in  1733  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  general  assembly,  and 
in  1739  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  In  1755  he  was  elected  governor  of  the 
colony,  and  held  the  office,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  four  years,  till  1768.  In  1754  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  board  of  commis- 
sioners which  assembled  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  to 
concert  and  digest  a  plan  of  union  for  the  col- 
onies. In  1765  he  was  elected  chairman  of  a 
committee  appointed  at  a  special  town  meet- 
ing held  in  Providence  to  draft  instructions  to 
the  general  assembly  on  the  stamp  act.  The 
resolutions  reported  were  the  same  that  Pat- 
rick Henry  introduced  into  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses of  Virginia,  with  an  additional  one  sta- 
ting that "  we  are  not  bound  to  yield  obedience 
to  any  law  or  ordinance  designed  to  impose 
any  internal  taxation  whatever  upon  us,  other 
than  the  laws  and  ordinances  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and." These  resolves  passed  in  the  assembly, 
including  the  above,  which  had  been  rejected 
in  Virginia.  In  August,  1774,  he  was,  with 
Samuel  Ward,  elected  to  represent  the  state  in 
the  general  congress  held  at  Philadelphia,  and 
was  also  chosen  in  1775  and  1776.  His  signa- 
ture to  the  Declaration  of  Independence  trem- 
bles owing  to  a  nervous  affection.  He  was  one 
of  the  committee  that  drafted  the  articles  of 
confederation  for  the  government  of  the  states. 
John  Adams  says :  "  The  pleasantest  part  of 
my  labors  for  the  four  years  I  spent  in  con- 
gress, from  1774  to  1778,  was  in  this  naval 
committee.  Mr.  Lee  and  Mr.  Gadsden  were 
sensible  men  and  very  cheerful,  but  Gov.  Hop- 
kins of  Rhode  Island,  above  70  years  of  age, 
kept  us  all  alive.  Upon  business  his  experi- 
ence and  judgment  were  very  useful.  But 
when  the  business  of  the  evening  was  over,  he 
kept  us  in  conversation  till  11,  and  sometimes 
till  12  o'clock.  His  custom  was  to  drink  noth- 
ing all  day,  until  8  in  the  evening,  and  then  his 
beverage  was  Jamaica  spirits  and  water.  It 
gave  him  wit,  humor,  anecdotes,  science,  and 
learning.  He  had  read  Greek,  Roman,  and 
British  history,  and  was  familiar  with  English 
poetry,  particularly  Pope,  Thomson,  and  Mil- 
ton ;  and  the  flow  of  his  soul  made  all  his  read- 
ing our  own,  and  seemed  to  bring  in  recollec- 
tion in  all  of  us  all  we  had  ever  read.  I  could 
neither  eat  nor  drink  in  those  days;  the  oth- 
er gentlemen  were  very  temperate.  Hopkins 
never  drank  to  excess,  but  all  he  drank  was 
immediately  not  only  converted  into  wit,  sense, 
knowledge,  and  good  humor,  but  inspired  us 
with  similar  qualities."  In  1765  he  commenc- 
ed a  "  History  of  the  Planting  and  Growth  of 


814 


HOPKINSON 


HOP  TREE 


Providence,"  published  in  the  "  Providence 
Gazette."  He  also  published  "The  Rights  of 
the  Colonies  Examined,"  reprinted  in  London. 

HOPKINSON.  I.  Franeis,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  American  Declaration  of  Independence, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1737,  died  May  9,  1791. 
He  graduated  at  the  college  of  Philadelphia, 
having  been  the  first  student  who  entered 
that  institution,  and  afterward  studied  law.  In 
1766  he  went  to  England,  where  he  remained 
two  years,  and  then  settled  at  Bordentown, 
N.  J.  In  1776  he  was  sent  from  New  Jersey 
as  one  of  her  representatives  in  congress. 
During  the  revolution  he  distinguished  himself 
by  satirical  and  political  writings,  which  at- 
tained great  popularity.  In  1779  he  was  made 
judge  of  the  admiralty  of  Pennsylvania,  which 
office  he  held  for  ten  years,  until  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  federal  government,  when  it  ex- 
pired. As  soon  as  Washington  entered  upon 
his  duties  as  president  of  the  United  States,  he 
appointed  Hopkinson  United  States  district 
judge  for  Pennsylvania.  He  was  not  only 
familiar  with  science  as  it  then  existed,  but 
skilled  in  painting  and  music,  composing  pop- 
ular airs  for  his  own  songs.  His  political  wri- 
tings include  "  The  Pretty  Story  "  (Philadel- 
phia, 1774),  "The  Prophecy"  (1776),  and 
"  The  Political  Catechism  "  (1777).  The  best 
known  of  his  poems  are  "  The  Battle  of  the 
Kegs,"  a  humorous  ballad  (new  ed.,  Philadel- 
phia, 1866),  and  "  The  New  Roof,  a  Song  for 
Federal  Mechanics."  The  "Miscellaneous  Es- 
says and  Occasional  Writings  of  Francis  Hop- 
kinson" were  published  by  Dobson  (Philadel- 
phia, 1792).  II.  Joseph,  an  American  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Nov.  12,  1770,  died  there,  Jan.  15,  1842.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
studied  law,  and  began  to  practise  at  Easton, 
Pa.,  in  1791,  whence  he  returned  to  Philadel- 
phia. In  the  celebrated  case  of  Dr.  Rush 
against  William  Cobbett  in  1799,  he  was  lead- 
ing counsel  for  the  plaintiff,  and  for  the  defend- 
ants in  the  insurgent  trials  before  Judge  Chase 
in  1800.  Subsequently,  when  Judge  Chase 
was  impeached  before  the  United  States  senate, 
he  chose  Mr.  Hopkinson  to  defend  him.  From 
1815  to  1819  he  was  a  member  of  the  house  of 
representatives  from  Philadelphia,  where  he 
opposed  the  recharter  of  the  United  States 
bank.  In  1823  he  resumed  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  for  the  eastern  dis- 
trict of  Pennsylvania.  He  is  best  known  as 
the  author  of  the  national  song  "  Hail  Colum- 
bia," written  in  1798  for  the  benefit  of  an 
actor  named  Fox,  after  an  air  entitled  "The 
President's  March,"  composed  in  1789  by  a 
German  named  Feyles.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  confidential  friend  of  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
then  residing  at  Bordentown,  and  during  his 
absence  always  managed  his  affairs. 

HOPKINSVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Christian  co.,  Kentucky,  on  Little  river, 
and  on  the  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad, 


71  m.  N.  W.  of  Nashville,  and  170  m.  S.  W.  of 
Frankfort;  pop.  in  1870,  3,136,  of  whom  1,460 
were  colored.  It  is  well  built  and  regular- 
ly laid  out,  many  of  the  streets  being  paved 
and  bordered  with  shade  trees.  It  contains 
a  botanic  garden,  manufactories  of  tobacco, 
ploughs,  carriages,  &c.,  two  banks,  a  hand- 
some court  house,  two  weekly  newspapers, 
a  monthly  periodical,  and  eight  churches,  and 
has  an  extensive  trade  in  tobacco.  It  is  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  state  lunatic  asylums,  a 
handsome  building  368  ft.  long,  with  rooms  for 
300  patients.  Hopkinsville  was  laid  out  in 
1799,  and  incorporated  in  1806.  It  was  partly 
burned  by  the  confederates  during  the  civil  war. 

HOPPIN.  I.  Augustus,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  July  13,  1828.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  university  in  1848,  and 
was  subsequently  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Rhode 
Island ;  but  his  love  of  art  proved  too  strong 
to  admit  of  a  legal  career,  and  he  went  to 
Europe  to  study  the  works  of  the  great  masters. 
Of  late  years  he  has  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  drawing  upon  wood.  He  has  illustrated 
Butler's  poem  of  "  Nothing  to  Wear,"  "  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  "The  Poti- 
phar  Papers,"  "  The  Arabian  Days'  Entertain- 
ments," "Mrs.  Partington,"  and  a  variety  of 
other  publications.  Some  of  his  elaborate  pen 
and  ink  drawings  are  full  of  character  and 
noted  for  graceful  execution.  II.  Thomas  F., 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Providence 
in  August,  1816.  He  studied  painting  with  Paul 
Delaroche  in  1837-'8,  and  subsequently  de- 
signed the  figures  on  the  great  window  of 
Trinity  church  in  New  York.  He  has  pro- 
duced a  spirited  model  of  a  dog,  which  has 
been  cast  in  bronze,  and  numerous  etchings  in 
outline  and  designs  on  wood. 

HOP  TREE  (ptelea  trifoliata),  an  American 
shrub  of  the  rue  family  (rutacece),  also  called 
shrubby  trefoil.  It  is  a  tall  shrub,  forming  if 
kept  trimmed  to  a  single  stem  a  tree  30  or  40 
ft.  high,  and  is  found  from  Pennsylvania  south- 
ward and  westward.  The  leaves  are  trifoliate 
with  ovate,  pointed  leaflets,  which  are  downy 
when  young;  the  flowers,  borne  in  cymes 
at  the  ends  of  the  new  shoots,  are  small, 
greenish,  and  inconspicuous ;  they  are  polyga- 
mous— staminate,  pistillate,  and  perfect  ones 
occurring  on  the  same  plant;  each  has  three 
to  five  sepals  and  petals,  and  in  the  stami- 
nate and  perfect  ones  as  many  stamens ;  ova- 
ry one  with  a  short  style ;  the  fruit  is  two- 
celled  and  two-seeded,  being  surrounded  by  a 
broad  wing  and  resembling  very  much  the 
fruit  of  the  elm ;  the  name  ptelea  is  the  Greek 
for  elm,  applied  to  this  plant  on  account  of  the 
similarity  of  the  two  in  their  fruit.  The  flow- 
ers have  an  unpleasant  odor,  as  do  the  leaves 
when  bruised.  As  an  ornamental  shrub  the 
hop  tree  has  the  merit  of  being  exceedingly 
neat  in  appearance,  is  not  subject  to  the  at- 
tacks of  insects,  and  from  the  peculiar  charac- 
ter of  its  compound  leaves  makes  a  marked 
contrast  with  other  shrubs  and  trees ;  it  has 


HOR 

the  demerit  of  tardiness  in  the  spring,  its 
branches  remaining  bare  long  after  all  other 
shrubs  are  clothed  with  foliage ;  the  large  clus- 
ters of  winged  fruit  give  it  an  attractive  ap- 
pearance late  in  the  season.  The  fruit  is  in- 
tensely and  even  nauseously  bitter,  and,  though 


HORACE 


815 


Hop  Tree  (Ptelea  trifoliate). 

often  used  as  a  substitute  for  hops,  is  entirely 
without  the  aromatic  principle  which  qualifies 
the  bitterness  of  the  true  hop.  As  many  vege- 
table bitters  have  the  property  of  preventing 
alcoholic  fermentation  from  passing  into  the 
acetous,  no  doubt  the  fruit  of  this  will  answer 
the  same  purpose  as  heps  in  making  yeast. 
An  infusion  of  the  leaves  and  young  shoots 
is  said  to  possess  anthelmintic  properties. 

HOR,  in  Biblical  geography,  a  mountain  near 
the  southern  boundary  of  eastern  Palestine, 
upon  which  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses,  died. 
It  is  now  generally  identified  with  the  Jebel 
Nebi  Harun  (mountain  of  the  Prophet  Aaron), 
the  highest  and  most  conspicuous  of  the  range 
of  the  sandstone  mountains  of  Edom,  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Arabah.  Its 
height  is  4,800  ft.  above  the  Mediterranean. 

HORACE  (QuiNTus  HOKATIUS  FLACOTJS),  a 
Roman  poet,  born  in  Venusia,  Apulia,  Dec.  8,  65 
B.  C.,  died  Nov.  27,  8  B.  0.  His  father  was  a 
freedman,  collector,  and  proprietor  of  a  farm, 
and  though  of  servile  origin  determined  to  de- 
vote his  time  and  fortune  to  the  education  of 
his  son.  He  took  him  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
educated  as  the  son  of  a  knight  or  senator. 
One  of  his  teachers,  the  flogging  Orbilius 
(plagosum  Orbilium),  the  poet  has  immortal- 
ized. He  studied  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets, 
especially  Homer  and  Livius  Andronicus,  and 
went  through  the  usual  course  of  rhetorical 
instructions.  From  Rome  he  was  sent  in  his 
18th  year  to  Athens  to  continue  his  studies, 
and,  though  he  chiefly  attached  himself  to  the 
philosophical  tenets  of  the  Academy,  he  heard 
also  Cratippus  the  Peripatetic  and  Philodemus 
412  VOL.  VIIL — 52 


the  Epicurean.  There,  too,  he  read  Homer 
again,  the  masterpieces  of  Grecian  tragedy 
and  comedy,  and  especially  the  Greek  lyric 
poets.  When  Brutus  arrived  in  Athens  on  his 
way  to  Macedonia  after  the  death  of  Caesar, 
Horace  enthusiastically  joined  him  with  other 
Roman  students,  and  notwithstanding  his 
youth  and  inexperience  was  advanced  to  the 
rank  of  a  military  tribune  and  the  command 
of  a  legion  in  the  republican  army.  To  his 
share  in  the  battle  of  Philippi,  the  loss  of  his 
shield,  and  his  hasty  flight,  he  playfully  alludes 
(Carm.  ii.  7),  intimating  that  he  knew  when 
he  was  beaten,  and  ascribing  his  escape  to 
Mercury,  the  god  of  poets.  He  returned  to 
Rome  with  no  prospects,  his  paternal  estate 
having  been  confiscated,  but  was  enabled  to 
buy  a  clerkship  in  the  quaestor's  office,  which 
furnished  scanty  emolument.  Poverty,  he 
says,  impelled  him  to  write  verses.  His  ef- 
forts soon  won  the  attention  of  Virgil  and 
Varius,  who  introduced  him  to  Maecenas.  The 
latter  dismissed  him  with  few  words  and  no 
promises,  and  took  no  further  notice  of  him 
for  nine  months,  after  which  their  friendship 
rapidly  ripened  into  intimacy.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (37)  he  accompanied  his  patron  on  the 
journey  to  Brundusium  which  is  the  subject 
of  Satire  i.  5.  He  soon  after  received  from 
Maecenas  the  gift  of  his  Sabine  farm,  which  he 
has  often  described,  and  which  secured  him 
the  means  of  support  and  enjoyment  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  His  constant  intercourse  with 
Maecenas  introduced  him  to  the  society  of 
other  distinguished  men,  and  won  the  notice 
of  Augustus  himself,  who  was  ambitious  of 
being  celebrated  by  the  poet,  but  whose  offers 
of  advancement  the  latter  seems  to  have  de- 
clined, though  he  expresses  in  his  odes  the 
prevailing  admiration  for  "  the  tutelary  guar- 
dian of  peace,  civilization,  and  progress."  His 
friendship  with  Maecenas  was  unbroken  till  the 
death  of  the  latter,  who  in  his  last  words  com- 
mended him  to  the  emperor :  Horatii  Flacci, 
ut  mei,  este  memor.  Horace  died  a  few  weeks 
later,  so  suddenly  that  he  had  no  time  to  make 
his  will,  and  appointed  Augustus  his  executor 
and  heir.  He  was  buried  on  the  slope  of  the 
Esquiline  hill.  His  poems  contain  many  par- 
ticulars as  to  his  person,  habits,  tastes,  and 
temperament.  He  was  of  short  stature,  with 
dark  hair  which  early  turned  gray,  and  dark 
eyes,  and  in  advanced  life  was  very  corpulent. 
He  was  never  married.  He  appears  to  have 
been  of  a  singularly  contented  and  happy  na- 
ture, adopting  a  practical,  if  not  speculative, 
Epicureanism,  a  lover  of  choice  wines  and  good 
society,  but  generally  simple  and  frugal  in  his 
habits.  His  edes  are  exquisitely  finished,  and 
are  marked  by  a  faultless  taste  and  a  mastery 
of  metre  and  of  language,  by  keen  observation 
and  a  joyous  amenity.  His  satires  are  sketches 
of  the  life  and  manners  of  the  Romans  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  present  a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  more  grave  and  severe  productions 
of  Juvenal.  His  epistles,  including  De  Arte 


816 


HOK^E 


HORIZON 


Poetica,  are  the  most  perfect  of  his  poems,  fully 
exhibiting  his  terseness  and  elegance  of  style, 
and  abounding  in  wise  thoughts  and  just  sen- 
timents on  manners  and  society,  which  have 
made  Horace  the  favorite  companion  not  only 
of  scholars  but  of  men  of  the  world,  the  most 
read,  best  remembered,  and  most  frequently 
quoted  of  all  the  writers  of  antiquity.  Among 
the  editions  of  Horace  are  those  of  Lambinus 
(1561),  Torrentius(1608),  Heinsius(1612),  Bent- 
ley  (1711),  Burmann  (1713),  Sanadon  (1728), 
Doring  (1803),  Anthon,  with  English  notes 
(New  York,  1830),  Orelli  (Zurich,  1837),  Lin- 
coln (Boston,  1851),  Bitter  (Leipsic,  1855), 
LMdot  (Paris,  1855),  and  Wickham  (London, 
1873).  Translations  of  his  works  have  been 
made  into  nearly  all  European  languages,  but 
there  is  no  good  English  version  of  his  com- 
plete writings.  The  free  metrical  translations 
of  several  of  the  odes  and  satires  by  Dry- 
den,  Pope,  Swift,  and  others,  are  excellent. 
A  collection  of  translations  by  Ben  Jonson, 
Cowley,  Milton,  Dryden,  Addison,  Pope,  Chat- 
terton,  Byron,  &c.,  was  published  by  Valpy  as 
an  appendix  to  the  translation  of  the  works  of 
Horace  by  the  Rev.  Philip  Francis  (2  vols. 
London,  1831).  The  odes  have  also  been  ren- 
dered into  English  lyric  verse  by  Newman 
(1853),  Robinson  (1844-'59),  Lord  Ravensworth 
(1858),  Theodore  Martin  (1860),  Conington 
(1863),  and  Lord  Lytton  (1869);  and  into 
French  by  Count  Simeon  (1874).  Conington 
published  a  translation  of  the  satires  and  epis- 
tles in  1869.  Among  prose  versions  is  one  by 
J.  Lonsdale  and  S.  Lee  (London,  1873). 

IIOK  E  (Gr.  Tflpa«,  Lat.  Hora,  hours),  in  classi- 
cal mythology,  the  goddesses  of  the  order  of  na- 
ture. In  Homer  they  are  the  ministers  of  Zeus, 
guardians  of  the  gates  of  Olympus,  and  rulers 
of  the  clouds  and  weather.  In  Hesiod  they 
are  the  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Themis  (Jus- 
tice), who  provide  not  only  the  fruits  in  their 
season,  but  give  to  a  state  good  laws,  justice, 
and  peace.  They  are  usually  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  graces  and  the  nymphs  as  at- 
tendants on  the  Olympian  divinities,  adorned 
with  wreaths  of  flowers,  and  bringing  bless- 
ings to  men.  Their  number  was  indefinite ;  in 
Athens  two  only  were  worshipped,  Thallo  and 
Carpo,  the  Horse  of  spring  and  of  the  harvest 
season.  On  works  of  art  they  appear  as  bloom- 
ing maidens,  carrying  the  products  of  the  sea- 
sons. The  Hora  of  spring,  the  Chloris  of  the 
Greeks  and  Flora  of  the  Romans,  is  especially 
celebrated  in  sculptures  as  the  attendant  of 
Venus  rising  from  the  sea,  and  of  Proserpine 
on  her  ascent  from  the  lower  world. 

IIOREB.     See  SINAI. 

IIOREHOUND  (Ang.  Sax.  Jiora,  hoary,  and 
hune,  honey,  a  name  originally  applied  to  some 
related  honey-bearing  plant),  the  marrubium 
vulgare  (Linn.),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order 
labiata.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  now  common 
in  the  older  portions  of  this  country  in  waste 
places  and  by  roadsides.  It  is  a  herbaceous 
perennial,  with  four- angled  stems  12  or  18  in. 


Horehound  (Marrubium   vul- 
gare). 


high,  which,  as  well  as  the  roughish  opposite 
leaves,  are  whitish  downy ;  it  bears  in  July 
and  August  white  flowers  in  crowded  axillary 
whorls.  The  herb, 
like  many  others  of 
the  same  order,  is 
remarkable  for  its 
aromatic  odor  and 
tonic  properties,  so 
that  it  is  a  favorite 
domestic  medicine, 
being  used  in  the 
form  of  a  decoction, 
in  a  sirup,  and  in 
candy,  and  especial- 
ly for  colds  and  affec- 
tions  of  the  lungs. 
Its  bitter  taste  is 
imparted  to  water 
and  to  alcohol.  Its 
prolonged  use  is  apt 
to  derange  the  sto- 
mach. 

HORGM,  or  Hor- 
chen,  a  town  of  Swit- 
zerland, in  the  can- 
ton and  7  m.  S.  of 
the  city  of  Zurich,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  lake 
of  Zurich ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,199.  It  is  a  com- 
mon starting  point  for  those  wishing  to  ascend 
the  Rigi ;  has  a  beautiful  church,  and  manufac- 
tories of  silk  and  cotton  goods  and  of  chemicals. 

HORITES,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Mount 
Seir.  It  is  thought  that  they  formed  part  of 
the  rac$  to  which  the  Zuzims,  the  Rephaim, 
and  Emim  belonged,  and  inhabited  Mount 
Seir  before  the  Canaanites  took  possession  of 
Palestine.  Their  name,  which  is  derived  from 
Hori,  the  grandson  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  22), 
was  descriptive  of  their  habits  as  cave-dwell- 
ers. Their  excavated  dwellings  are  still  found 
in  hundreds  in  the  sandstone  cliffs  and  moun- 
tains of  Edom,  and  especially  ia  Petra.  They 
are  cut  in  the  natural  rock,  some  of  them 
having  rude  arches  carved  over  the  doorways ; 
and  some  are  inhabited  now,  as  they  have  been 
apparently  by  generation  after  generation. 
The  genealogy  of  the  Horites  is  twice  given  in 
the  Scriptures,  which  say  that  they  were  di- 
vided into  seven  tribes.  They  were  among  the 
nations  smitten  by  the  kings  of  the  east  in  the 
time  of  Abraham,  and  were  superseded,  or 
perhaps  supplanted  and  absorbed,  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  who  adopted  their  habits. 

HORIZON  (Gr.  tpifav,  from  dpi&iv,  to  bound 
or  define),  the  line  that  apparently  separates 
earth  and  sky.  In  astronomy,  the  apparent 
horizon  is  a  plane  tangent  to  the  earth  at  the 
observer,  and  the  real  horizon  is  a  plane 
through  the  centre  of  the  earth  parallel  to  the 
apparent  horizon.  The  artificial  horizon  is  a 
horizontal  mirror,  usually  the  surface  of  a  ba- 
sin of  mercury.  Half  the  angular  distance  be- 
tween a  star  and  its  image  seen  in  the  artificial 
horizon  is  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  star 
above  the  real  horizon. 


HOEMAYR 

HORMAIR,  Joseph,  baron,  a  Tyrolese  patriot 
and  historian,  born  in  Innspruck,  Jan.  20, 1781, 
died  in  Munich,  Nov.  5, 1848.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  military  service  in  1797,  served  in  the 
Tyrolese  militia,  and  afterward  became  direc- 
tor of  the  archives  at  Vienna.  One  of  the 
most  strenuous  opponents  of  Napoleon,  he  be- 
came the  chief  promoter  of  the  insurrection  in 
Tyrol  under  Hofer  against  the  French  and  Ba- 
varians. After  the  armistice  of  Znaym,  July, 
1809,  he  returned  to  Vienna,  where  he  was 
made  an  imperial  councillor.  In  1813  he  in- 
terrupted the  literary  labors  in  which  he  was 
engaged  to  make  a  new  attempt  to  revolu- 
tionize Tyrol ;  but  he  was  imprisoned  by  the 
Austrian  government,  which  was  impelled  to 
this  measure  by  fear  of  giving  umbrage  to 
Bavaria,  then  on  the  point  of  joining  the  alli- 
ance against  Napoleon.  He  was  released  in 
1815,  and  appointed  imperial  historiographer. 
He  lived  in  retirement  in  Brtlnn  from  1820 
to  1828,  after  which  he  held  various  impor- 
tant offices  in  the  Bavarian  service.  He  pub- 
lished Lebenabilder  aus  dem  Befreiungslcriege 
(3  parts,  1841-'4) ;  Geschichte  der  gefursteten 
Grafscnaft  Tirol  (2  vols.,  1806-'8) ;  Allge- 
meine  Geschickte  der  neuesten  Zeit  (3  vols., 
181 7-' 19) ;  and  Das  Land  Tirol  und  der  Tiro- 
lerlcrieg  von  1809  (2  vols.,.  1845). 

HORN,  a  modification  of  the  epidermis,  pre- 
senting the  same  structure,  whether  in  the  nails 
of  man,  the  claws  of  the  carnivora  and  birds, 
the  hoofs  and  horns  of  ruminants,  the  spines 
of  the  porcupine  and  hedgehog,  the  plates  of 
the  armadillo,  the  whalebone  of  cetaceans,  the 
quills  of  birds,  or  the  shell  of  tortoises.  The 
horns  of  the  stag  and  other  deciduous  antlers, 
strictly  speaking,  are  not  horn,  but  true  bone, 
belonging  to  the  dermal  or  exo-skeleton,  and 
shed  by  a  process  of  absorption  at  the  root 
analogous  to  that  by  which  dead  bone  is  cast 
off  in  necrosis.  Horn  is  composed  of  hardened 
albumen,  gelatine,  and  a  small  portion  of  phos- 
phate of  lime.  Its  structure  is  a  modification 
of  epidermic  cells,  harder  dried,  more  firmly 
adherent,  and  in  which  the  nucleus  is  generally 
invisible ;  the  cells  are  arranged  in  regular  lay- 
ers, each  indicating  a  period  of  growth,  and 
are  marked  by  perceptible  striae.  The  above 
named  horny  tissues  are  generally  attached  at 
the  base  to  the  dermis,  and  are  removed  with 
the  skin;  they  are  constantly  growing  and 
wearing  away,  and  are  liable  to  various  defor- 
mities from  accidental  circumstances ;  and  the 
younger  cells  may  contain  pigment  matter. 
Sections  of  horn  under  the  microscope  are 
very  beautiful  when  seen  by  polarized  light. 
The  horn  of  the  rhinoceros,  as  already  stated 
in  the  article  HAIE,  in  its  essential  character  is 
a  mere  bundle  of  hairs ;  the  substance  errone- 
ously called  whalebone,  formed  by  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  whale's  mouth,  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  bony  skeleton,  but  is  a  horny 
tissue,  composed  of  fibres  whose  central  por- 
tion, like  the  medullary  substance  of  hair,  con- 
tains easily  recognizable  cells.  In  the  ox, 


HORN 


817 


sheep,  and  the  hollow-horned  ruminants,  there 
is  a  central  core  of  bone  upon  which  the  horns 
are  moulded. — Horn  in  its  many  varieties  is 
adapted  to  numerous  useful  purposes ;  and  it  is 
an  article  of  trade,  horns  and  hoofs  of  cattle 
being  largely  exported  from  South  America 
southern  Africa,  and  Russia.  The  horns  of  the 
buffalo  are  brought  from  the  East  Indies.  From 
the  most  remote  periods  horns  have  been  ap- 
plied to  various  uses.  The  Egyptians  and  He- 
brews made  of  them  musical  instruments.  The 
Latin  name  cornu  was  also  the  name  for  trum- 
pet, and  the  English  name  retains  the  same  ap- 
plication, even  if  the  instrument  be  made  of 
brass  or  silver.  The  form  of  the  horn  adapted 
it  for  a  drinking  utensil,  and  the  word  is  still 
sometimes  employed  in  a  manner  to  suggest 
this  application.  Horn  was  anciently  employ- 
ed for  bows,  and  sometimes  for  scale  armor. 
It  also  served  instead  of  glass  for  windows. 
The  methods  now  in  use  for  working  horn  are 
described  in  Holtzapffel's  "  Mechanical  Manip- 
ulations." The  bony  horns  of  the  deer,  being 
cellular  within,  are  used  only  in  their  natural 
forms,  so  as  not  to  expose  their  internal  struc- 
ture. They  are  sawn  and  filed  into  the  shapes 
required  for  handles  of  knives  and  other  im- 
plements. The  horns  particularly  adapted  for 
being  converted  into  useful  shapes  are  those  of 
the  ox,  antelope,  goat,  and  sheep  kinds,  which 
by  reason  of  their  laminated  structure  are  read- 
ily separated  into  layers.  They  contain  just 
enough  gelatine  to  admit  of  their  being  softened 
by  the  application  of  less  heat  than  is  required 
for  melting  lead.  The  material  may  then  be 
cut  open  with  knives  or  shears,  flattened  into 
plates,  divided  into  leaves,  and  finally  struck 
between  dies  like  metal.  The  first  step  in  the 
treatment  of  horn  is  to  separate  the  bony  core. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  macerated  several  weeks 
in  water,  which  causes  the  lining  membrane  to 
putrefy,  so  that  the  core  will  fall  out.  This  is 
burned,  to  make  the  bone  earth  used  for  cupels 
in  assaying.  The  solid  tip  of  the  horn  is  sawn 
off,  and  is  reserved  for  handles  for  knives,  um- 
brellas, &c.,  and  for  buttons.  The  remainder, 
either  cut  into  short  lengths  or  entire,  is  soft- 
ened by  immersion  in  boiling  water,  and  then 
by  heating  in  the  flame  of  a  fire  nearly  to 
the  temperature  of  melted  lead.  The  pieces, 
unless  intended  for  horn  cups  or  similar  ob- 
jects, are  then  split  open  with  a  sharp-point- 
ed knife,  and  spread  out  flat.  A  solid  block 
of  iron  with  a  conical  hole,  and  an  iron  plug  to 
fit  it,  are  also  used  to  open  horns  without  en- 
dangering the  scorching  of  them.  Both  being 
heated  to  the  right  temperature,  the  horn  slit 
with  a  knife  is  inserted  in  the  hole,  and  the 
plug  driven  into  the  horn  with  a  mallet.  In  a 
minute  it  is  sufficiently  softened  to  be  easily 
opened.  The  pieces,  now  called  flats,  are  laid 
between  boards,  or  between  heated  iron  plates, 
and  subjected  to  pressure.  The  amount  of 
this  for  general  purposes,  as  for  combs,  is  mod- 
erate, for  much  pressure  tends  to  make  the 
horn  split  into  thin  lamina.  But  if  thin  plates 


818 


HORN 


are  to  be  made,  such  as  are  used  for  lanterns, 
a  heavy  pressure  is  required,  and  if  the  horn  is 
light-colored  this  increases  its  transparency. 
Such  plates,  when  separated,  are  scraped  with 
a  wiry-edged  knife  till  sufficiently  thin,  and  are 
then  rubbed  with  a  woollen  cloth  dipped  in 
charcoal  dust  and  water,  then  with  rotten 
stone,  and  lastly  polished  with  horn  shavings. 
The  horn  may  be  dyed  by  boiling  it  in  infusions 
of  various  colored  ingredients.  A  rich  red 
brown  color  is  given  to  it  by  a  mixture  of 
quicklime,  pearlash,  and  litharge  which  has 
been  boiled  half  an  hour  in  water  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  pulverized  dragon's  blood. 
The  compound  is  applied  hot  wherever  the 
color  is  wanted,  and  a  deeper  tinge  is  given  by 
renewing  the  application. 

HORN,  a  musical  wind  instrument,  originally 
formed,  as  its  name  denotes,  from  the  horn  of 
an  animal.  The  name  includes  a  large  family 
of  instruments,  many  of  which  have  fallen  into 
disuse.  The  hunting  horn,  a  brass  or  copper 
tube  gradually  expanding  into  a  bell-shaped 
mouth,  and  bent  into  a  semicircle,  was  long 
the  chief  form.  The  instrument  has  been  so 
greatly  improved  as  to  rank  among  the  first  in 
the  orchestra.  The  French  horn  consists  of  a 
metallic  tube,  about  ten  feet  in  length,  bent 
into  several  circular  folds,  and  gradually  widen- 
ing toward  the  end  whence  the  sound  issues, 
called  by  the  French  the  pavilion.  It  is  blown 
through  a  cup-shaped  mouthpiece,  and  the 
sounds  are  regulated  by  the  motion  of  the  play- 
er's lips,  the  pressure  of  his  breath,  and  by  in- 
serting a  hand  or  a  pasteboard  cone  in  the  pa- 
vilion. Horns  are  generally  used  in  pairs,  and 
are  blown  in  different  manners,  the  first  horn 
in  the  orchestra  generally  making  use  of  two 
octaves,  and  the  second  of  three.  For  the 
purpose  of  adapting  them  to  different  keys, 
shifting  pieces,  called  crooks  or  shanks,  are  add- 
ed to  the  lower  part  of  the  tube.  Music  for 
the  horn  is  always  written  in  the  key  of  0,  an 
octave  higher  than  it  is  played.  In  order  to 
procure  clear  and  distinct  sounds  of  all  the 
notes,  the  piston  was  added  to  the  horn  by 
Stoelzel.  (See  CORNET-A-PISTONS.)  Great  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  the  instrument 
by  Sax  of  Paris,  whose  horn,  modelled  after 
the  antique,  affords  a  far  greater  volume  of 
sound  than  the  old  instrument.  The  basset 
horn  and  the  English  horn  are  not  properly 
horns,  the  former  belonging  to  the  clarinets 
and  the  latter  to  the  hautboys.  The  Russian 
horn  is  a  straight  brass  tube  of  various  size, 
expanding  toward  the  lower  end. 

HORN,  Cape.     See  CAPE  HORN. 

HORN,  Gnstaf,  count,  a  Swedish  general,  born 
in  Upland,  Oct.  23,  1592,  died  at  Skara,  May 
16,  1657.  He  studied  in  Rostock,  Jena,  and 
Tubingen,  served  for  a  time  in  Holland  under 
Prince  Maurice,  was  afterward  employed  in  the 
Swedish  diplomatic  service,  and  became  sena- 
tor in  1 624.  Receiving  a  command  in  the  army 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  he  conquered  Dorpat 
in  1625  and  Kolberg  in  1630,  and  commanded 


the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  1631. 
He  subsequently  fought  in  the  battles  on  the 
Lech  and  at  Ltitzen  (1632).  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  who  called  him  his  right 
arm,  he  joined  the  duke  of  Weimar.  He  was 
made  a  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Nordlingen 
(1634),  which  was  fought  against  his  advice, 
and  remained  in  captivity  seven  years.  Ob- 
taining his  freedom  by  exchange  for  three 
other  generals,  in  1642,  he  fought  against  the 
Danes  in  Scania,  was  made  minister  of  war  in 
1652,  and  died  as  field  marshal  and  governor 
of  Livonia  and  Scania. 

HORN,  or  Hoorne,  Philip  II.  de  Montmoreney- 
Niyelle,  count  of,  a  Flemish  statesman,  born  in 
1522,  executed  at  Brussels,  June  5,  1568.  His 
father  was  descended  from  the  noble  French 
family  of  Montmorency,  and  on  his  mother's 
side  he  was  related  to  Lamoral  Egmont,  with 
whose  fate  his  own  was  destined  to  be  unhap- 
pily linked.  His  mother,  becoming  a  widow 
when  he  was  about  eight  years  of  age,  was 
married  again  to  John,  count  of  Horn,  one  of 
the  wealthiest  nobles  of  the  Netherlands,  who, 
having  no  children  of  his  own,  left  his  estates 
to  his  wife's  children,  on  the  condition  that 
they  should  assume  his  name.  Philip  count  of 
Horn  thus  at  the  outset  of  his  career  became 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  his  order,  and 
subsequently  received  from  the  emperor  Charles 
Y.  and  from  Philip  II.  the  appointments  of 
governor  of  Geldern  and  Zutphen,  admiral  of 
the  Flemish  fleet,  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
fought  with  reputation  in  the  battles  of  St. 
Quentin  and  Gravelines,  and  in  1559  accompa- 
nied Philip  II.  to  Spain,  where  during  a  resi- 
dence of  two  years  he  is  supposed  to  have  re- 
ceived information  of  the  designs  of  the  Span- 
ish court  against  the  Netherlands,  and  to  have 
communicated  them  to  the  prince  of  Orange. 
Returning  to  the  Netherlands,  he  joined  Orange 
and  Egmont  in  resisting  the  aggressive  policy 
of  Philip,  and  in  urging  him  to  recall  Cardinal 
Granvelle ;  and  with  them  he  retired  from  the 
state  councils  until  the  departure  of  the  ob- 
noxious minister.  Like  Egmont  and  William 
of  Orange,  he  also  declined  to  sign  the  com- 
promise of  Breda  against  the  introduction  of 
the  Spanish  inquisition  into  the  Netherlands, 
in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  lesser  Flem- 
ish nobility  were  interested ;  but  his  accidental 
presence  with  his  friends  at  a  banquet  at  which 
the  signers  of  the  compromise  first  took  the 
name  of  gueux  or  "beggars"  (April,  1566), 
proved  afterward  a  serious  charge  against  him. 
After  the  excesses  committed  by  the  iconoclasts 
in  the  same  year,  he  was  instrumental  in  pre- 
venting a  general  massacre  of  Catholics  at  Tour- 
nay ;  but  his  permission  to  Protestants  to  wor- 
ship in  the  clothiers'  hall,  within  the  city,  sub- 
jected him  to  a  severe  reprimand  from  the 
regent  Margaret,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
offered  to  resign  all  his  offices,  and  wrote  a  let- 
ter to  the  king  complaining  of  the  policy  pur- 
sued by  the  regent,  and  protesting  that  he  would 
no  longer  treat  of  affairs  of  business  with  wo- 


Ien.  His  possessions  had  meanwhile  been 
>ry  considerably  reduced  by  disbursements 
made  in  the  king's  service,  for  which  he  had 
received  no  recompense ;  and  he  retired  to  his 
estates,  discontented  and  smarting  under  many 
injuries  real  or  fancied,  but  still  loyal  to  the 
crown  and  indisposed  to  accept  the  doctrine  of 
resistance  already  broached  by  the  prince  of 
Orange.  He  refused  at  first  to  take  the  new 
test  oath  exacted  by  Margaret;  but  after  the 
retirement  of  the  prince  to  Germany  he  made 
her  an  offer  of  his  services,  and  agreed  to  take 
the  oath.  This  new  proof  of  loyalty  was  of  no 
avail  with  Philip,  who  had  long  decided  upon 
the  death  of  Horn;  and  upon  the  arrival  of 
Alva  in  Brussels,  both  Egmont  and  Horn  were 
enticed  to  that  city  and  there  arrested,  Sept.  9, 
1567,  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  other  high 
offences.  (See  EGMONT.)  His  wife  and  moth- 
er made  ceaseless  efforts  to  obtain  for  him  a 
fair  trial,  and,  as  in  Egmont's  case,  appeals  for 
royal  clemency  in  his  behalf  were  made  to 
Philip  by  potentates  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 
He  was  executed  after  Egmont,  and  met  his 
fate  with  composure,  although,  when  his  sen- 
tence was  first  made  known  to  him,  he  protest- 
ed against  its  injustice,  exclaiming  that  it  was 
a  poor  requital  for  28  years  of  faithful  services. 
HORNBEAM.  I.  The  common  name  of  a 
genus  of  trees  (carpinus)  having  wood  of  a 
horny  texture,  and  the  general  appearance  of 
the  beech,  the  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
beech  or  birch.  The  hornbeams  are  included 
with  the  oaks  in  the  order  cupulifera.  In  the 
United  States  the  genus  is  represented  by  C. 
Americana,  (Mx.),  the  American  hornbeam, 
a  small  tree  from  10  to  20  ft.  high,  growing 
along  streams.  Its  leaves  are  ovate-oblong, 
doubly  serrate,  nearly  smooth ;  the  barren 
flowers  are  borne  in  catkins  on  the  sides  of  the 
branches,  and  appear  before  the  leaves  ex- 
pand ;  the  fertile  flowers  come  out  of  the 
same  bud  with  the  leaves.  The  mature  cat- 
kins consists  of  a  series  of  unequally  three- 
lobed  bracts,  each  subtending  -a  small  ovate, 
several-nerved  nut.  The  American  hornbeam, 
where  it  has  had  ample  space  in  which  to 
grow,  is  a  low  tree  with  a  broad,  round, 
crowded,  leafy  head,  the  lower  branches  bend- 
ing nearly  to  the  ground  on  every  side.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  from  other  trees  by  its 
ridged  trunk,  which  is  clothed  with  smooth  bark 
of  a  slaty  or  bluish  color,  on  which  account  it 
is  often  called,  especially  in  western  localities, 
the  blue  beech ;  the  ridges,  which  run  down 
from  the  under  sides  of  the  branches,  are  often 
so  strong  as  to  give  the  trunk  the  appearance  of 
a  fluted  column.  It  is  thus  a  tree  of  some  claim 
to  beauty,  and  it  forms  an  interesting  object 
in  the  forest,  especially  in  autumn,  at  which 
season  there  are  few  trees  which  present  a 
greater  variety  of  brilliant  tints.  Easily  cul- 
tivated, it  is  worthy  of  regard  in  arboriculture. 
The  close-grained,  white  wood  is  used  for  le- 
vers, beetles,  and  other  purposes  where  great 
strength  is  required,  and  is  frequently  called 


HORNBEAM 


819 


ironwood.  Its  geographical  range  is  from 
Canada  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  common 
hornbeam  of  Europe  ( C.  betulus,  Linn.)  is  a  small 
rigid  tree,  which  under  favorable  circumstances 
will  reach  to  the  height  of  60  or  70  ft. ;  but  it 
is  very  seldom  allowed  to  become  a  timber 
tree;  as  it  grows  freely  after  being  cut  down, 


European  Hornbeam  (Carpinus  betulus). 

it  is  generally  grown  in  copses  to  furnish  small 
wood;  this  was  formerly  used  as  a  hedge  plant 
and  in  forming  bosquets.  The  tree  seems  to 
have  been  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  £tryia  or  yoke  tree  from 
the  use  made  of  its  wood.  The  oriental  horn- 
beam ( G.  orientalis,  Lamarck)  is  only  a  dwarf 


Hop  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  Virginica). 

tree  or  shrub,  rising  to  the  height  of  12  ft.,  and 
found  wild  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Levant.  J 
leaves  are  much  smaller,  and  the  branches 
grow  closer  together,  than  those  of  the  English 
hornbeam.  There  are  a  few  other  little  knowr 
and  unimportant  species.  II.  Hop  Hornbeam, 


nORNBILL 


a  tree  of  the  genus  ostrya  (the  ancient  classical 
name),  closely  related  to  carpinus  in  botanical 
characters ;  in  this  the  bracts  of  the  fertile 
aments  are  tubular,  and  at  maturity  each  be- 
comes a  closed,  bladdery,  oblong  bag,  enclo- 
sing a  smooth  nut;  these  bag-like  involucres 
together  form  a  sort  of  strobile,  in  size  and  ap- 
pearance so  like  that  of  the  hop  as  to  justify 
the  common  name.  The  tree,  which  has  the 
same  geographical  range  as  the  American 
hornbeam,  never  attains  a  large  size,  and  bears 
a  strong  general  resemblance  to  the  black 
birch  in  manner  of  growth  and  the  shape  of 
its  leaves ;  it  is  a  handsome  tree  when  in  fruit, 
and  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  plant- 
ing for  ornament.  The  wood  has  the  same 
general  character  as  that  of  the  hornbeam,  is 
used  for  the  same  purposes,  and  like  that  is 
called  ironwood.  The  European  hop  horn- 
beam (0.  vulgaris),  a  native  of  southern  Eu- 
rope, so  closely  resembles  our  native  tree  that 
some  have  supposed  that  they  may  be  forms 
of  the  same  species. 

IIORNBILL  (buceros,  Linn.),  a  genus  of  coni- 
rostral  birds  of  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  of 
the  family  fiucerotidce.  The  principal  genus 
buceros  is  characterized  by  an  enormous  bill, 
long,  broad,  curved,  surmounted  by  helmet- 
like  prominences  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
with  compressed  sides  and  acute  tip  ;  the  lat- 
eral margins  are  more  or  less  jagged  and  ser- 
rated in  the  adult ;  the  nostrils  are  basal,  lat- 
eral, and  small;  the  wings  are  rather  short, 
with  the  third  quills  nearly  as  long  as  the 
fourth  and  fifth,  which  are  equal  and  longest ; 
tail  long  and  broad,  more  or  less  graduated ; 
tarsi  short,  robust,  covered  in  front  by  large 
transverse  scales;  toes  broad  and  long,  and 
united  at  the  base  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  sole ; 
the  hind  toe  large  and  flat,  giving  a  firm  sup- 
port in  their  leaping  mode  of  progression; 
claws  long,  curved,  and  sharp.  The  face  and 
throat  are  more  or  less  naked,  sometimes  with 
a  gular  pouch  ;  above  the  eyes  are  a  few  bris- 
tly hairs,  like  lashes ;  the  tongue  is  small  and 
cartilaginous.  Nearly  40  species  are  described, 
in  which  the  bill,  always  large,  has  a  great  di- 
versity of  form,  varying  in  its  protuberances 
according  to  age  ;  bulky  though  it  be,  it  is  of 
a  light  and  cellular  structure,  and  by  no  means 
the  formidable  weapon  its  size  would  indicate ; 
its  awkward  shape  and  slight  mechanical  sup- 
port render  it  difficult  for  the  bird  to  manage 
except  for  seizing  objects  requiring  slight 
force ;  its  thin  edges,  broken  by  use,  undergo 
a  constant  process  of  repair.  Most  of  the  spe- 
cies are  of  large  size ;  they  are  observed  singly 
or  in  parties,  in  the  dense  jungles  and  woods, 
perched  on  the  highest  branches,  especially  on 
decayed  limbs  near  rivers;  they  feed  upon 
pulpy  fruits,  small  quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  insects,  which  they  crush  with  the  bill,  and, 
after  tossing  them  into  the  air,  swallow  whole ; 
when  hard  pressed  they  will  not  refuse  carri- 
on. The  flight  is  heavy  and  straight,  general- 
ly at  a  considerable  height,  and  accompanied 


by  a  remarkable  noise ;  the  cries  are  hoarse 
croaks  or  harsh  screams ;  the  nest  is  hollowed 
in  a  decayed  tree,  and  the  eggs  are  about  four. 
The  largest  species  is  the  rhinoceros  hornbill 
(JB.  rhinoceros,  Linn.),  nearly  4  ft.  long,  with 
an  expanse  of  wings  of  about  3  ft. ;  the  bill  is 


Bhinoceros  Hornbill  (Buceros  rhinoceros). 

nearly  a  foot  long,  the  upper  mandible  having 
a  recurved  prominence  like  a  rhinoceros  horn, 
giving  the  head  the  appearance  of  being  top- 
heavy;  the  general  color  is  black,  the  tail 
being  tipped  with  dirty  white ;  the  bill  is 
black  at  the  base,  reddish  in  the  middle,  and 
light  yellow  at  the  point.  It  is  a  stupid  and 
cowardly  bird,  seldom  showing  any  vivacity 
except  when  in  search  of  food  ;  it  is  found  in 


Ked-billed  Hornbill  (Buceros  erythrorhynchus). 

India  and  its  archipelago,  and  is  common  in 
collections  of  natural  history  ;  it  is  voracious, 
and  in  captivity  is  decidedly  omnivorous. 
The  red-bitted  hornbill  (B.  erythrorhynchus, 
Temm.),  a  native  of  Africa,  like  the  rest  of 
the  genus,  breeds  in  hollow  trees  ;  it  occupies 


HORNBLENDE 

loles,  according  to  Livingstone,  in  the  mopane 
tree  (Bauhinia),  a  very  hard  wood  ;  the  female 
makes  her  nest  in  February,  lining  it  with  her 
own  feathers,  and  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  of  the 
size  of  a  pigeon's,  and  of  a  white  color ;  she 
remains  a  close  prisoner  in  the  hole  until  the 
young  are  fully  fledged,  a  period  of  eight  or 
ten  weeks ;  during  this  time  the  opening  is 
plastered  up  with  clay  by  the  male,  with  the 
exception  of  a  slit  three  or  four  inches  long 
and  about  half  an  inch  wide,  exactly  fitting 
the  shape  of  his  beak,  and  through  this  he 
feeds  the  female  and  the  young.  While  thus 
imprisoned  she  gets  very  fat,  and  is  esteemed 
by  the  natives  a  dainty  morsel ;  they  often  dig 
her  out,  letting  alone  the  lean  and  overworked 
male.  The  female  sometimes  hatches  out  two 
young,  and  by  the  time  these  are  fully  fledged 
two  others  are  just  out  of  the  egg ;  she  then 
leaves  the  nest  with  the  two  oldest,  and  the 
hole  is  again  plastered  up,  both  parents  attend- 
ing to  the  wants  of  the  remaining  young  until 
they  too  are  able  to  come  forth. 

HORNBLENDE  (amphibole  of  Hatiy),  a  mine- 
ral species  placed  by  Dana  in  the  augite  section 
of  the  anhydrous  silicates.  The  chemical  com- 
position of  hornblende  was  formerly  repre- 
sented by  the  general  formula  4KO  3SiOs,  in 
which  RO  may  be  either  calcium,  magnesium, 
iron  and  sodium,  or  sometimes  manganese  and 
potassium  ;  but  Rammelsberg  by  comparing 
his  analyses  with  those  of  others,  concludes 
that  all  hornblendes  are  metasilicates  of  the 
general  formula  M2OSiO2,  or  M2SiO3.  In  some 
varieties  the  silica  is  replaced  by  alumina.  The 
application  of  the  law  of  isomorphism  brings 
together  under  the  same  species  many  mine- 
rals that  were  formerly  regarded  as  distinct ; 
and  thus  actinolite,  tremolite,  asbestus,  and  oth- 
ers, are  now  properly  included  in  this  species. 
In  common  use  the  name  is  limited,  as  it  was 
formerly  applied,  only  to  the  dark  crystalline 
minerals  which  are  met  with  in  long  slender 
prisms,  either  scattered  in  quartz,  granite,  and 
other  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks,  or  gen- 
erally disseminated  throughout  their  mass; 
constituting  with  feldspar  alone  greenstone 
and  varieties  of  the  trappean  rocks,  and  also 
hornblende  slate;  with  feldspar  and  quartz, 
the  rock  syenite,  or  if  mica  too  be  present, 
syenitic  granite.  The  crystals  are  also  aggre- 
gated together  to  form  rocks  called  hornblende 
or  amphibole  rocks,  the  texture  of  which  is 
sometimes  granular.  The  color  of  the  mineral 
is  usually  black  or  dark  green,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  much  iron ;  its  hardness  is  5-6 ; 
specific  gravity,  3-1-3-4.  It  has  close  affinities 
with  augite,  and  on  cooling  after  fusion  it  has 
been  found  to  assume  the  form  and  cleavage 
of  this  mineral.  It  appears  to  have  been  pro- 
duced under  conditions  of  fusion  and  cooling 
which  cannot  be  imitated  in  the  laboratory, 
the  crystals  obtained  artificially  being  of  the 
augite  type. 

HORNE,  George,  an  English  bishop,  born  at 
Otham,  Kent,  Nov.  1,  1730,  died  in  Bath,  Jan. 


HORNE 


821 


17,  1792.  He  took  orders  in  1753,  and  soon 
became  distinguished  as  a  preacher.  He  be- 
came president  of  Magdalen  college,  Oxford, 
in  1768;  chaplain  to  the  king  in  1771;  vice 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford  in  1776 ; 
dean  of  Canterbury  in  1781;  and  bishop  of 
Norwich  in  1790.  Sympathizing  with  the  views 
of  John  Hutchinson,  his  first  publication  was 
an  ironical  attack  on  the  philosophy  of  New- 
ton in  1751,  in  which  he  draws  a  parallel  be- 
tween the  heathen  notions  of  Cicero's  Somni- 
um  Scipionis  and  the  Newtonian  doctrines. 
This  was  followed  by  other  similar  works  at- 
tacking such  men  as  Kennicott  and  Shuckford. 
He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons; 
"Letters  to  Dr.  Priestley;"  "Letters  on  Infi- 
delity ;"  and  a  letter  to  Adam  Smith  on  the 
life,  death,  and"  philosophy  of  David  Hume. 
His  chief  work  is  his  "  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms  "  (2  vols.  4to,  Oxford,  1776),  on  which 
he  labored  20  years.  His  writings  were  pub- 
lished in  1795,  in  6  vols.,  with  a  memoir  of  his 
life,  &c.,  by  his  chaplain,  the  Rev.  William 
Jones;  and  his  "Aphorisms,"  with  a  biogra- 
phy, in  1857. 

HORNE,  Richard  Hengist,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  about  1803.  Educated  at  the 
royal  military  college,  Sandhurst,  he  entered 
the  Mexican  navy  as  a  midshipman,  and  serv- 
ed until  the  conclusion  of  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence. Returning  to  England,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  literature,  and  wrote  "  Cosmo  de  Medi- 
cis,"  "The  Death  of  Marlowe,"  and  "The 
Death  Fetch,"  tragedies  founded  on  Eliza- 
bethan models;  followed  by  "The  Adven- 
tures of  a  London  Doll,"  "The  Good-Natured 
Bear,"  and  "  An  Exposition  of  the  False  Me- 
dium, and  Barriers  excluding  Men  of  Genius 
from  the  Public"  (1838).  Subsequently  he 
produced  a  tragedy,  "  Gregory  the  Seventh  " 
(1840),  preceded  by  an  essay  on  tragic  influ- 
ence; a  "Life  of  Napoleon"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1841);  and  "Orion,  an  Epic  Poem"  (1843), 
the  price  of  which  was  announced  upon  the 
title  page  to  be  one  farthing.  This  sarcasm 
upon  the  public  appreciation  of  modern  epic 
poetry  attracted  attention,  and  three  large  edi- 
tions were  sold  at  a  farthing  a  copy.  In  the 
fourth  edition  the  price  was  raised  to  a  shil- 
ling and  in  the  fifth  to  a  crown.  This  poem 
was  followed  by  "  A  New  Spirit  of  the  Age," 
being  criticisms  upon  living  British  authors 
(1844)  ;  "  Spirit  of  Peers  and  People  "  (1846) ; 
"Ballads  and  Romances"  (1846);  "Judas 
Iscariot,  a  Miracle  Play"  (1848);  "The  Poor 
Artist,  or  Seven  Eyesights  and  One  Object 
(1850) ;  and  "  The  Dreamer  and  the  Worker 
(1851)  He  also  contributed  largely  to  periodi- 
cal literature.  In  1852  Home  went  to  Aus- 
tralia, where,  after  digging  in  the  gold  mines, 
he  became  successively  chief  of  police,  gold 
commissioner,  and  territorial  magistrate,  and 
in  1859  published  "Australian  Facts  and  Prin- 
ciples." He  returned  to  England  in  1870. 

HORNE,  Thomas  Hartwell,  an  English  author, 
born  Oct.  20,  1780,  died  Jan.  27,  1862.     He 


822 


HORNED  FROG 


HORNEMANN 


was  educated  at  Christ's  hospital,  became  a 
clerk  in  a  barrister's  office,  and  in  his  19th  year 
published  his  "  Brief  View  of  the  Necessity  and 
Truth  of  the  Christian  Revelation."  He  pro- 
duced in  1818  his  "  Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures," 
and  was  admitted  to  holy  orders.  He  also  pub- 
lished "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliogra- 
phy "  (2  vols.,  1814) ;  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Hogarth  (2  vols.,  1821) ;  "  Manual  for  the 
Afflicted"  (1832);  "Protestant  Memorial" 
(1835);  "Manual  of  Biblical  Bibliography" 
(1839);  "Mariolatry,  or  Facts  and  Evidences 
demonstrating  the  Worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
by  the  Church  of  Rome"  (1840);  and  "Po- 
pery the  Enemy  and  Falsifier  of  Scripture" 
(1844).  But  his  principal  work  is  the  "  Intro- 
duction "  to  the  Scriptures,  which  has  been 
often  republished. 

HORNED  FROG,  or  Horned  Toad,  an  iguanian 
lizard  of  the  genus  phrynosoma  (Wiegmann).  In 
its  general  aspect  it  somewhat  resembles  a  frog, 
and  in  its  sluggishness  a  toad,  hence  the  com- 
mon names ;  but  it  is  a  true  lizard,  and  in  no 
respect  a  batrachian.  The  genus,  which  com- 
prises about  half  a  dozen  species,  all  North 
American,  is  characterized  by  a  more  or  less 
circular  or  oval  body,  flattened  and  covered 
with  tuberculated  scales ;  head  short,  triangu- 
lar, with  prominent  vertex,  and  sharp  spines 
or  rough  knobs ;  the  temporal  region  much  de- 
veloped ;  neck  very  short  and  with  transverse 
folds  underneath;  nostrils  lateral,  near  the 
snout ;  tympanum  visible  but  depressed ;  den- 
tated  margin  on  the  flanks ;  no  spinal  or  cau- 
dal crest ;  tail  short  and  conical,  with  similar 
spiny  scales ;  legs  of  nearly  equal  length  and 
size,  with  five  toes  on  each,  moderate,  the  sec- 
ond the  longest,  and  with  sharp  and  curved 
nails ;  femoral  pores,  but  no  anal  present.  The 
species  are  found  in  California,  Oregon,  Mexi- 
co, and  the  S.  W.  states.  For  full  descriptions 


Phrynosoma  cornutum. 

of  the  species  by  Messrs.  Baird  and  Girard,  see 
Capt.  Stansbury's  "Expedition  to  Great  Salt 
Lake,"  and  vol.  ii.  of  the  "  Mexican  Boundary 
Survey."  The  best  known  species  is  the  P. 
cornutum,  about  4£  inches  long ;  the  general 
color  above  is  a  dusky  gray,  with  black  bars 


and  markings;  below,  silvery  white.  This 
species  is  not  unfrequently  carried  to  the  north 
from  Texas ;  in  confinement  it  is  sluggish  and 
will  rarely  take  food,  but  it  is  said  to  be  active 
in  pursuit  of  its  insect  prey  in  the  wild  state  ; 
it  is  very  gentle  in  its  disposition.  It  passes 


Ceratophrys  cornuta. 

the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy  in  holes  dug 
by  various  rodents,  appearing  about  April  and 
disappearing  about  October,  at  which  seasons 
travellers  are  frequently  annoyed  by  their  seek- 
ing shelter  from  the  cold  night  air  in  the  folds 
of  their  blankets ;  their  spiny  covering  makes 
them  not  very  comfortable  bedfellows. — This 
name  has  also  been  given  to  a  true  batrachian, 
a  frog  of  the  genus  ceratophrys,  in  which  the 
head  is  more  or  less  roughened  and  spiny ;  it 
is  three  times  as  large  as  the  common  frog,  with 
an  enormous  mouth.  All  the  species  live  in 
tropical  South  America,  and  feed  upon  small 
rodents,  birds,  other  frogs,  toads,  and  mollusks. 

HORNED  POUT.     See  CATFISH. 

HORNELLSVILLE,  a  town  and  village  of  Steu- 
ben  co.,  New  York,  at  the  junction  of  Canaca- 
dea  creek  with  the  Canisteo  river,  and  at  the 
intersection  of  the  Buffalo  division  with  the 
main  line  of  the  Erie  railway,  200  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  Albany,  and  90  m.  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Buffalo ; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1870,  5,837;  of  the  village, 
4,552.  The  village  contains  a  sash  and  blind 
factory,  several  car  factories,  a  boot  and  shoe 
and  a  mowing  machine  factory,  tanneries,  two 
banks,  six  hotels,  and  one  tri-weekly  and  three 
weekly  newspapers. 

HORNE3IANN,  Friedrieli  Ronrad,  a  German  trav- 
eller, born  hi  Hildesheim  in  October,  1772,  and 
last  heard  from  April  7,  1800.  He  studied 
theology  at  Gottingen,  and  became  a  teacher 
in  Hanover.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Afri- 
can society  of  London  he  went  to  Egypt  in 
1797,  and  after  various  vicissitudes  reached 
Moorzook,  when  he  and  his  companion  Freu- 
denburg  were  taken  ill,  and  the  latter  died. 
Immediately  after  his  recovery  he  proceeded 
to  Tripoli,  whence  he  forwarded  the  itinerary 


HORNER 

of  his  journey  to  his  friends  in  Europe.  Re- 
turning to  Moorzook,  he  joined  a  caravan  for 
the  interior,  after  which  all  traces  of  him  were 
lost.  Konig  published  at  Weimar  in  1802  Hor- 
nemann's  TagebucJi  einer  Reise  von  Cairo  nach 
Murzuck,  an  English  translation  appearing  at 
the  same  time  in  London.  It  was  translated 
into  French  by  Griffet  de  la  Baume,  with  ad- 
ditions on  the  geography  and  the  oases  of  Af- 
rica (2  vols.,  Paris,  1803). 

HOMER.  I.  Francis,  a  British  statesman, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  12, 1778,  died  in  Pisa, 
Feb.  8,  1817.  He  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  and  university  of  Edinburgh,  studied  for 
the  bar,  and  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
"Edinburgh  Review."  In  1803  he  removed 
to  London,  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1804,  was  one  of  the  commission- 
ers appointed  by  the  East  India  company  for 
settling  the  nabob  of  Arcot's  debts,  and  in  1806 
entered  parliament.  After  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1812  he  became  a  leader  of  the  whig 
party  in  the  house;  but  he  disagreed  wi$ 
Lord  Grenville  on  the  question  of  war  after 
Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  and  consequent- 
ly tendered  the  resignation  of  his  seat,  which 
was  not  accepted.  His  last  speech  was  on 
June  25,  1816,  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  claims 
and  deprecating  the  harsh  treatment  of  Ire- 
land ;  soon  after  which  he  made  a  visit  to  Italy 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  died  abroad. 
A  monument  to  him  by  Chantrey  has  been 
erected  in  Westminster  abbey,  and  his  "  Me- 
moirs and  Correspondence,"  edited  by  his 
brother,  was  published  at  London  in  1843  (2 
vols.  8vo).  II.  Leonard,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  in  Edinburgh  about  1785,  died  in 
London,  March  5,  1864.  In  1827  he  became 
warden  of  the  university  of  London,  and  in 
1833  an  inspector  of  factories.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  geological  society.  Be- 
sides many  pamphlets  on  social  questions,  he 
published  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of 
Francis  Homer "  (1843),  and  a  translation  of 
Villari's  "  Life  of  Savonarola  "  (1862). 

HORNET,  a  stinging  hymenopterous  insect, 
of  the  family  diploptera  and  tribe  of  vespiaria 
or  wasps,  under  which  title  their  family  and 
generic  characters  will  be  given.  The  Euro- 
pean hornet  (cespa  crabro,  Linn.)  is  about  an 
inch  long,  larger  than  the  common  wasp ;  the 
thorax  is  black  in  the  middle,  and  brown  else- 
where ;  the  abdomen  is  black  with  yellow  bor- 
ders, and  below  yellow  with  black  spots ;  the 
upper  lip  yellow,  and  the  eyes  blackish;  the 
body  smooth ;  the  wings  are  longitudinally 
folded,  and  the  mandibles  strong  and  dentated. 
The  hornets,  like  the  wasps,  live  in  society,  in 
nests  containing  males,  females,  and  neuters, 
the  last  two  of  which  do  all  the  work  and  are 
armed  with  a  venomous  sting;  their  societies 
are  republican,  several  females  and  their  broods 
living  and  working  harmoniously  together. 
The  nest  is  built  on  decayed  trees,  old  posts, 
and  in  almost  any  sheltered  place  in  barns 
and  porticoes ;  it  is  of  a  rounded  form,  made 


HORNET  823 

of  coarse  materials,  and  of  the  color  of  faded 
leaves ;  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  prepared  from  particles  of  old  wood  or 
bark  by  their  mandibles,  reduced  to  a  kind  of 
papier  mache  or  soft  pasteboard;  with  this,  af- 
ter the  inside  of  the  nest  has  been  thickly  plas- 


Hornet  and  Nest 

tered,  they  make  horizontal  combs  suspended 
from  above  by  strong  columns,  the  central  be- 
ing the  largest ;  the  cells  are  hexagonal,  with 
the  opening  downward.  A  few  females,  or  per- 
haps a  single  one,  having  escaped  the  rigors  of 
winter,  begin  to  construct  a  few  cells  and  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  spring,  the  first  broods  being 
neuters,  which  when  perfect  help  their  mothers 
in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  nest ;  the  larvro 
are  footless,  each  enclosed  in  a  separate  cell, 
where  it  is  fed  on  insects  and  honey  stolen 
from  bees ;  when  the  larvsD  have  acquired  their 
full  growth,  they  line  the  cell  with  silk,  cover- 
ing the  opening,  and  in  this  undergo  their  meta- 
morphosis. The  neuters  aid  in  building  the 
other  nests,  and  in  feeding  the  successive  broods 
of  larvse  ;  as  the  family  increases,  new  cells 
and  additional  platforms  are  constructed.  The 
young  females  and  young  males  come  forth 
about  the  beginning  of  autumn,  and  all  larvaa 
which  cannot  become  perfect  before  cold 
weather  are  destroyed  by  the  neuters;  the 
males  perform  no  labor;  both  sexes  meet  on 
the  trees  in  autumn,  feeding  on  saccharine 
juices,  and  soon  perish  from  the  cold.  There 
are  about  150  individuals  in  a  nest.  Hornets 
prey  upon  other  insects,  especially  flies,  upon 
flesh,  and  ripe  and  sweet  fruits ;  they  also  rob 
bees  of  their  honey ;  a  hornet's  nest  suspended 
in  a  place  infested  by  flies  will  soon  perceptibly 
diminish  their  numbers.  If  their  nest  be  dis- 
turbed, they  fiercely  attack  and  sting  the  in- 
truder, causing  a  painful  and  frequently  dan- 
gerous wound.  The  wasp  called  hornet  or 
"yellow  jacket"  in  New  England  is  the  V 
maculata  (Linn.);  it  is  too  common  to  need 
any  description,  and  its  habits  are  those  of  the 


HORNPIPE 


HORSE 


family  ;  it  is  often  seen  on  trees  infested  with 
aphides  or  plant  lice,  for  the  sake  of  devouring 
and  of  carrying  to  its  young  the  honey  dew  or 
sugary  excretion  of  these  insects.  This  species 
is  very  fierce  if  attacked.  The  nests  of  some 
of  the  South  American  species,  cleared  of  the 
platforms  of  cells,  are  used  as  baskets,  being 
light,  strong,  and  very  tight.  Hornets,  like 
the  other  wasps,  make  no  honey.  Many  large 
wasps,  varied  with  black  and  yellow,  are  called 
hornets  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

HORNPIPE,  a  wind  instrument,  once  a  fa- 
vorite with  the  Welsh  peasantry,  and  probably 
still  in  use  among  them,  consisting  of  a  wooden 
pipe  with  holes  at  stated  distances,  and  a  horn 
at  each  end.  The  tone  is  pleasing,  and  some- 
what resembles  that  of  the  hautboy.  For  this 
instrument  was  composed  the  lively  dance  tune 
known  as  the  hornpipe,  a  name  applied  also  to 
the  dance  which  accompanies  it.  Both  the 
tune  and  the  dance  are  supposed  to  be  of  Eng- 
lish invention,  and  the  former  is  generally  in 
triple  time,  six  crotchets  in  a  bar. 

HORROX,  or  Horroeks,  Jeremiah,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Toxteth,  near  Liverpool, 
about  1616,  died  there,  Jan.  3,  1641.  He  was 
matriculated  as  a  sizar  at  Emmanuel  college, 
Cambridge,  July  5,  1632,  but  left  without  a 
degree.  Devoting  himself  to  astronomy,  he 
found  difficulty  in  procuring  the  books  and  in- 
struments he  desired.  He  was  for  a  time  mis- 
led and  induced  to  distrust  the  accuracy  of  his 
own  observations  by  their  incompatibility  with 
those  of  Lansberg,  but  was  set  right  by  the 
study  of  Tycho  Brahe  and  of  Kepler.  His  tel- 
escope, which  he  did  not  obtain  until  May, 

1638,  cost  him  only  2s.  6<Z.,  but  it  enabled  him 
to  make  the  first  observation  ever  made  of  the 
transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk,  Nov.  24, 

1639.  The  transit  in  1631  had  been  predicted 
by  Kepler,  but  he  had  failed  to  point  out  that 
of  1639.     The  tables  of  Lansberg  indicated  the 
latter,  but  did  not  give  the  time.     Horrox  sup- 
plied the  omission  by  his  own  calculations,  and 
prepared  to  watch  the  phenomenon.     At  this 
time  he  was  curate  of  Hoole,  a  small  village 
near  Preston.    The  transit,  according  to  his  cal- 
culation, would  take  place  about  3  o'clock  of  a 
Sunday  afternoon,  but  to  avoid  mistake  he  be- 
gan his  observations  at  noon  the  preceding  day. 
After  careful  watching  for  more  than  24  hours, 
except  during  the  time  of  divine  service,  which 
he  would  not  neglect  even  in  the  interest  of  sci- 
ence, he  was  rewarded  for  all  his  toil  and  anxie- 
ty.    This  transit  was  observed  only  by  himself 
and  his  friend  Crabtree,  whom  he  apprised  of  the 
coming  event  the  preceding  month.     Horrox's 
account  of  it,  entitled  Venus  in  Sole  visa,  was 
printed  by  Hevelius  at  the  end  of  his  Mercu- 
rius  in  Sole  visus  (Dantzic,   1662).     He  re- 
mained at  Hoole  only  about  six  months  after 
this  great  achievement.     The  last  three  months 
of  his  life  were  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  tides,  from  which  he  hoped  to 
obtain  a  demonstration  of  the  rotation  of  the 
earth.     He  was  also  the  author  of  the  theory 


that  the  lunar  motions  might  be  represented 
by  supposing  an  elliptic  orbit,  if  the  eccentrici- 
ty of  the  ellipse  were  made  to  vary,  and  an 
oscillatory  motion  given  to  the  line  of  apsides. 
Newton  afterward  verified  his  suppositions,  and 
showed  that  they  were  consequences  of  the 
law  of  gravitation,  but  he  attributed  to  Halley 
what  properly  belonged  to  Horrox.  The  re- 
maining works  of  Horrox  were  published  by 
Wallis  in  1672,  with  an  exposition  of  his  lunar 
theory  by  Flam  steed.  A  translation  of  the 
Venus  in  Sole  visa  is  appended  to  the  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Labors  of  the  Rev.  Jere- 
miah Horrox,"  by  Whatton  (London,  1859;  2d 
ed.,  1869). 

HORRY,  an  E.  county  of  South  Carolina, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Little  Pedee,  which  flows 
into  the  Great  Pedee  on  the  S.  W.  border  of 
the  county,  and  drained  by  the  Waccamaw 
river ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,- 
721,  of  whom  3,235  were  colored.  It  has  a 
Iqw  marshy  surface,  and  is  partly  covered  with 
large  forests  of  pine.  The  soil  is  generally 
poor.  The  Wilmington,  Columbia,  and  Au- 
gusta railroad  touches  the  N.  corner.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  62,039  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  72,232  of  sweet  potatoes,  74 
bales  of  cotton,  and  417,507  Ibs  of  rice.  There 
were  451  horses,  3,347  milch  cows,  6,431  other 
cattle,  7,592  sheep,  and  17,399  swine;  3  saw 
mills,  and  8  manufactories  of  tar  and  turpen- 
tine. Capital,  Conwayborough. 

HORSA.     See  HENGIST. 

HORSCHELT,  Tlieodor,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Munich,  March  16,  1829,  died  there,  April 
3,  1871.  He  travelled  in  1853  in  Spain  and 
Algeria,  and  was  from  1858  to  1863  in  the 
Caucasus  with  the  Russian  army.  He  was  es- 
pecially distinguished  for  his  pictures  of  bat- 
tles and  of  life  in  the  Caucasus. 

HORSE,  a  simple  -  hoofed,  non  -  ruminating 
quadruped,  constituting  the  soliped  family  of 
Cuvier's  order  of  packydermata,  and,  in  Prof. 
Owen's  system,  the  family  solidungula,  of  the 
order  perissodactyla  (odd-toed),  of  the  group 
ungulata  (hoofed),  and  of  the  mammalian  sub- 
class gyrencephala  (wave-brained).  Zoologi- 
cally considered,  the  family  consists  of  the 
single  genus  equus  (Linn.),  distinguished  from 
all  other  quadrupeds  by  having  only  one  ap- 
parent toe  and  a  single  solid  hoof  on  each  foot, 
although  under  the  skin,  on  the  sides  of  the 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones,  are  the  rudi- 
ments of  two  others  on  each  limb.  The  den- 
tition is  :  six  sharp  and  cutting  incisors  in  each 
jaw ;  six  molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  with 
crowns  of  a  quadrangular  form,  and  having 
the  surface  intersected  by  deep  plates  of  enamel 
arranged  in  four  crescentic  masses,  and  with  a 
small  additional  disk  of  enamel  on  the  inner 
border  of  the  upper  teeth ;  there  are  also,  in 
the  males,  two  small  upper  canines,  and  some- 
timeslower  ones,  usually  absent  in  thefemales; 
there  is  a  considerable  space  between  the  ca- 
nines and  the  molars,  opposite  the  commissure 


HORSE 


825 


of  the  lips,  which  man  has  availed  himself  of 
to  introduce  the  bit,  hy  which  this  animal  is 
subjugated  to  his  uses;  in  the  young  animal 
there  are  also  deciduous  molars.  The  different 
species  of  equus,  as  the  zebras  and  the  asses, 
so  resemble  each  other  in  outward  form  and 
internal  economy  that  the  description  of  the 
typical  species,  the  horse,  will  answer  for  all, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  structural  pecu- 
liarities; they  are  so  nearly  related  to  each 
other  that  they  will  breed  together,  producing 
more  or  less  fertile  hybrids,  as  in  the  cases  of 
the  horse  and  ass,  and  both  with  the  zebra, 
&c.  The  skull  of  the  horse  is  remarkable  for 
the  great  width  between  the  orbits,  its  flatness, 
the  length  of  the  face  compared  with  the  crani- 
um, and  the  vertical  depth  of  the  lower  jaw ; 
the  intermaxillaries  project  considerably  be- 
yond the  nasal  bones,  the  latter  overhanging 
the  cavity  of  the  nostrils ;  the  temporal  arch  is 
short,  straight,  and  situated  in  the  posterior 
third  of  the  skull.  The  cervical  vertebrae  are 
of  large  size,  and  the  posterior  are  oblong  with 
short  processes,  so  as  to  secure  great  freedom 
of  motion  in  the  neck ;  the  dorsals  are  18,  with 
short  transverse  processes,  and  very  long  spi- 
nous  anteriorly  to  afford  origins  for  the  liga- 
ment which  supports  the  head ;  the  lumbar  are 
six  (but  five  in  the  ass),  broad  and  firmly  joined 
together,  with  remarkably  well  developed  pro- 
cesses, especially  the  transverse ;  the  sacrum  is 
a  single  bone,  made  up  of  five  consolidated  ver- 
tebras, in  a  continuous  line  with  the  rest  of  the 
spine,  and  united  to  the  last  lumbar  by  the 
very  large  articulating  oblique  processes  of  the 
latter,  securing  a  springiness  in  this  region  in 
leaping  and  galloping ;  the  caudals  vary  from 
17  to  21,  having  the  form  of  vertebrae  only  in 
the  upper  ones.  The  chest  is  capacious,  com- 
pressed laterally  in  front,  and  prolonged  in  ad- 
vance of  the  first  rib  so  as  somewhat  to  resem- 
ble the  thorax  of  a  bird ;  in  the  middle  and 
posterior  portions  it  is  rounded,  and  extends 
far  back  toward  the  pelvis;  the  ribs  are  18 
pairs,  the  anterior  broad  and  massive  (8  being 
true),  and  the  posterior  more  slender.  The 
clavicles  are  absent,  and  the  coracoid  process 
very  rudimentary ;  the  shoulder  blades  are  tri- 
angular, with  a  prominent  spine,  closely  ap- 
proximated to  the  chest,  transmitting  the 
weight  of  this  half  of  the  body  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  ground ;  the  arm  bone  is  short  and 
strong ;  the  forearm  consists  almost  entirely 
of  the  greatly  developed  radius,  the  ulna  be- 
ing a  mere  appendage  consolidated  in  the  adult 
animal  to  its  posterior  surface,  though  its  ole- 
cranon  process  is  of  large  size,  affording  a  pow- 
erful purchase  to  the  extensor  muscles ;  there 
are  no  movements  of  pronation  and  supination, 
but  only  of  hinge-like  flexion  and  extension. 
The  carpus  or  wrist  has  seven  bones  in  two 
rows,  four  in  the  upper  and  three  in  the  low- 
er; the  metacarpus  consists  of  a  single  long 
bone,  the  shank  or  cannon  bone,  and  of  two 
smaller  supplementary  pieces ;  this  long  bone 
represents  the  middle-finger  metacarpal  of  the 


human  hand,  and  the  others  the  ring  and  fore- 
finger metacarpals,  those  of  the  thumb  and 
little  finger  being  absent.  The  fore  foot  is 
made  up  of  three  bones  representing  the  tbree 
phalanges  of  a  middle  finger,  called  respective- 
ly the  great  and  little  pastern  and  coffin  bones, 
the  latter  large  and  crescentic,  supporting  the 
hoof;  there  are  also  three  sesamoid  bones  im- 
planted in  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot.  The 
pelvis  is  remarkable  for  the  elongation  of  tbe 
ilium  and  the  outward  extension  of  the  crest 
and  spine ;  the  thigh  bone  is  massive,  and  so 
short  that  it  is  entirely  concealed  under  the 
integuments  of  the  trunk,  what  is  commonly 
called  the  thigh  being  in  reality  the  leg;  the 
leg  is  formed  almost  entirely  by  the  tibia, 
which  is  very  strong  at  its  upper  portion,  the 
fibula  being  a  long  slender  bone  among  the 
muscles  lost  about  the  lower  third  of  the  tibia; 
the  tarsus  consists  of  six  bones,  the  astragalus 
or  cockal  bone,  the  os  calcis  or  heel  bone,  the 
cuboid,  the  navicular,  and  the  middle  and  lesser 
cuneiform  bones,  the  internal  or  great  cunei- 
form being  absent  with  the  great  toe  which  it 
supports ;  the  metatarsus  and  the  hind  foot  are 
constituted  as  in  the  anterior  limb,  and  the 
bones  have  received  the  same  names.  The 
muscular  system  of  the  horse  is  very  different 
from  that  of  man,  and  has  been  described  mi- 
nutely in  treatises  on  veterinary  medicine.  The 
panniculus  carnosus,  of  which  the  platysma 
myoides  of  man  is  a  rudiment,  is  greatly  devel- 
oped and  very  movable,  affording  support  and 
protection  to  various  organs.  The  spinal  mus- 
cles are  of  great  extent  and  strength,  especially 
in  the  neck  and  tail,  which  admit  of  much  pre- 
cision and  grace  of  motion ;  the  extensors  of 
the  forearm,  the  glutens  mediw  (the  kicking 
muscle),  and  the  muscles  of  the  loins,  extremi- 
ties, and  neck  are  generally  very  powerful ;  the 
muscles  of  the  face,  particularly  those  of  the 
lips  and  nostrils,  are  largely  developed,  giving 
the  well  known  variety  of  facial  expression  in 
this  animal.  The  molar  teeth  of  the  horse  may 
be  known  from  those  of  other  herbivora  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  patches  of  enamel  above  re- 
ferred to,  and  by  their  great  length  before  they 
divide  into  fangs.  The  incisors  are  close  together 
in  a  circle  at  the  end  of  the  jaws,  slightly  curved, 
with  long  simple  fangs ;  the  crowns  are  broad, 
thick,  and  short,  of  an  elliptical  form  before 
they  are  much  worn ;  a  fold  of  enamel  pene- 
trates the  crown  like  the  inverted  finger  of  a 
glove,  which  presents  an  island  of  enamel  en- 
closing a  cavity  partly  filled  with  cement  and 
partly  by  the  food;  this  is  called  the  "mark," 
and  is  useful  in  determining  the  age  of  the  ani- 
mal, disappearing  in  very  old  horses,  whose  teeth 
get  worn  below  the  penetrating  fold  ;  accord- 
ing to  Owen,  it  is  usually  obliterated  in  the 
middle  incisors  of  the  second  set  at  the  sixth 
year,  and  in  the  next  and  outer  pairs  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  years  respectively  in  the 
lower  jaw,  remaining  longer  in  the  upper,  and 
in  both  its  place  is  indicated  for  years  by  the 
darker  color  of  the  cement,  even  to  the  age  of 


826 


HORSE 


16,  after  which  the  summits  begin  to  assume 
a  triangular  form;  the  milk  incisors  are  all 
shed  before  the  age  of  five  years.  The  saliva- 
ry glands,  especially  the  parotid,  are  remark- 
ably developed ;  the  stomach  is  simple  and  ca- 
pacious ;  the  intestinal  canal  is  long,  but  short 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  ruminants ;  but 
the  colon  is  of  enormous  capacity,  as  also  is 
the  cfflcum,  apparently  occupying  the  greater 
portion  of  the  abdominal  cavity;  the  small 
intestine  is  about  56  ft.  long,  with  a  circum- 
ference of  from  2£  to  6  in. ;  the  caecum  is  2£ 
ft.  long,  and  2  ft.  in  circumference  at  the  wi- 
dest part ;  the  colon  and  rectum  are  21  ft.  long, 
the  former  averaging  2  ft.  in  circumference ; 
the  whole  canal,  therefore,  is  about  80  ft.  long. 
The  liver  weighs  between  4  and  5  Ibs.,  having 
no  gall  bladder,  and  the  spleen  12  oz. ;  the 
urinary  bladder  is  small  in  comparison  with 
the  size  of  the  animal,  its  circumference  when 
moderately  distended  being  about  1£  ft. ;  the 
mammary  nipples  are  two,  inguinal,  and  have 
at  the  base  a  hollow  cavity  which  permits  the 
accumulation  of  a  considerable  quantity  of 
milk,  which  is  often  used  by  man  as  an  article 
of  diet,  especially  for  invalids.  The  hoof  of 
the  horse  presents  an  admirable  adaptation  to 
secure  solidity  and  elasticity  in  an  instrument 
of  progression  ;  the  whole  exterior  horny  cov- 
ering, to  which  the  shoe  is  attached,  composed 
of  modified  epidermic  structure,  is  a  hollow 
cone  truncated  above,  into  which  the  coffin 
bone  is  received  ;  highest  in  front,  it  gradually 
diminishes  backward,  where  it  is  suddenly 
turned  inward,  becoming  mixed  with  the  sole, 
supporting  the  under  parts  of  the  foot,  and 
protecting  the  sole  and  the  frog  from  too  rough 
pressure  against  the  ground ;  this  internal  wall, 
called  the  "  bars  of  the  foot,"  by  its  sloping 
direction,  distributes  the  weight  of  the  body 
toward  the  sides  of  the  hoof,  with  whose  nu- 
merous perpendicular  horny  laminae  interdigi- 
tate  similar  processes  from  the  vascular  sur- 
face of  the  coffin  bone.  In  the  triangular 
space  in  the  centre  of  the  foot  is  an  elastic 
horny  mass  called  the  frog,  its  base  connecting 
the  posterior  curves  of  the  hoof,  the  sides  uni- 
ted with  the  bar,  and  the  point  extending  about 
to  the  centre  of  the  sole  ;  on  the  sides  are  deep 
channels,  to  allow  of  its  expansion  and  render 
the  foot  elastic ;  its  actual  thickness  in  horn 
is  not  so  great  as  farriers  seem  to  think,  from 
the  freedom  with  which  they  use  the  paring 
knife ;  in  a  well  formed  foot,  the  base  of  the 
frog  ought  to  occupy  one  sixth  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle  of  the  hoof;  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  frog  is  a  horny  conical  cavity  of  con- 
siderable depth,  which  protects  the  partially 
cleft  foot  from  further  rupture,  adds  to  the 
elasticity,  secures  a  firmer  hold  on  loose  soils, 
and  passing  above  into  the  substance  of  the 
sensitive  frog  serves  to  unite  firmly  the  two 
halves  of  the  foot,  which  are  completely  divi- 
ded in  ruminants;  this  horny  cone  has  been 
called  the  frogstay  or  bolt.  The  sensitive  frog 
falls  into  the  inverted  arch  of  the  horny  frog, 


which  are  thus  held  mutually  in  place  and 
preserved  from  external  shock.  The  sole  is 
an  irregular  plate  of  horn,  closing  up  the  lower 
opening  of  the  foot,  of  an  arched  form,  abutting 
everywhere  against  the  sides  of  the  wall,  an- 
other contrivance  for  securing  elasticity.  The 
!  foot  of  the  horse,  therefore,  though  solid  in 
front,  is  partially  cleft  behind,  so  that  the  terms 
solidungula  and  soUpeda  cannot  strictly  be 
applied  to  it ;  indeed  a  solid,  continuous,  un- 
yielding circle  of  horn  would  be  very  painful 
if  not  entirely  useless  as  an  instrument  of  ac- 
tive progression ;  this  beautiful  structure,  how- 
ever, is  sadly  interfered  with  in  almost  all 
methods  of  shoeing.  Immediately  under  the 
hoof  are  extensive  cartilages,  attached  to  the 
last  two  bones,  protecting  the  upper  part  of 
the  structure  and  adding  greatly  to  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  foot,  and  permitting  the  move- 
ments of  the  coffin  bone  with  the  hoof;  in  old 
horses  these  cartilages  may  become  partially 
ossified,  and  are  then  called  ring-bones.  Un- 
der the  hoof  is  also  a  very  sensitive  and  vas- 
cular layer,  from  which  the  hoof  originates, 
analogous  to  the  soft  core  of  hollow  horns  and 
the  matrix  of  nails.  The  eyes  of  the  horse  are 
large,  and  the  sight  is  excellent,  and  capable  of 
distinguishing  objects  by  night ;  the  ears  are 
large  and  very  movable,  and  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing is  very  acute,  as  in  other  timid  and  com- 
paratively defenceless  animals;  the  sense  of 
smell  is  also  acute,  as  is  seen  in  their  selection 
of  food  and  in  the  recognition  of  their  masters ; 
the  cutaneous  sense  is  very  fine,  and  the  tactile 
powers  of  the  movable  lips  exquisite.  The 
food  in  a  state  of  nature  is  exclusively  vege- 
table. The  time  of  gestation  is  about  eleven 
months,  and  the  foal  in  the  domesticated  state 
sucks  six  or  seven  months ;  the  sexes  are  sepa- 
rated at  two  years ;  at  three  they  may  be  bro- 
ken, and  at  four  be  ridden.  The  disposition 
of  the  horse  is  naturally  gentle  and  confident, 
which  qualities  have  made  it  the  most  useful 
of  animals  in  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war  ;  it 
is  bold  in  the  defence  of  its  young,  and  occa- 
sionally an  animal  is  vicious,  either  naturally 
or  from  bad  treatment  in  youth.  As  we  have 
horses  varying  in  size  from  the  Shetland  pony 
to  the  Flanders  dray  horse,  and  in  proportions 
from  the  thorough-bred  racer  to  the  Canadian 
cob,  with  every  variety  of  color,  so  we  find 
great  diversity  in  their  moral  qualities  ;  some 
are  bold,  intelligent,  or  good-natured,  and 
others  timid,  stupid,  or  cross,  and  by  care  or 
from  neglect  each  of  these  qualities  becomes 
the  characteristic  of  a  race.  Their  movements 
are  many ;  besides  the  walk,  trot,  gallop,  and 
amble,  pace,  or  rack,  some  horses  gallop  with 
the  fore  legs  and  trot  witk  the  hind,  others 
move  each  leg  separately  in  succession,  and 
others  execute  many  artificial  movements,  the 
result  of  education.  The  horse  is  quick  to 
perceive  and  has  an  excellent  memory,  two 
qualities  which  render  his  education  easy  ;  he 
is  capable  also  of  deep  and  lasting  attachment. 
The  neigh  or  voice  of  the  horse  is  well  known, 


HORSE 


827 


the  females  exercising  it  less  frequently  than 
the  males.  The  horse  rarely  lives  to  a  greater 
age  than  30  years,  and  is  not  serviceable  for 
speed  or  very  hard  work  for  more  than  half 
this  period.  In  compact  form,  elegance  of 
proportions,  and  grace  of  movement,  combining 
speed  and  strength,  it  is  surpassed  by  no  ani- 
mal. Almost  every  part  of  the  horse  after 
death  is  useful  to  man ;  his  skin  is  valuable  for 
gloves,  his  hair  for  making  cloth,  his  bones  for 
buttons  and  for  grinding  into  fertilizers,  his 
flesh  as  food  for  hounds  if  not  for  man,  his 
hoofs  for  making  glue,  and  his  intestines  for 
the  manufacture  of  delicate  membranous  tis- 
sues. The  experience  of  continental  Europe 
has  amply  proved  that  horse  flesh  is  a  savory, 
nutritious,  and'wholesome  article  of  food. — The 
original  native  country  of  the  horse  (equus  ca- 
~ballus,  Linn.)  is  not  certainly  known ;  but  he 
was  most  probably  first  brought  under  the 
subjection  of  man  in  central  Asia  or  in  the 
part  of  northern  Africa  adjacent  to  Nubia 


Shetland  Pony. 

and  Abyssinia.  Useful  as  is  the  horse  to  man, 
the  ass  was  preferred  by  nations  of  antiqui- 
ty, from  its  easier  management,  hardier  na- 
ture, and  the  cheaper  food  required  to  keep 
it  in  good  condition;  when  greater  wealth 
became  common,  the  horse  was  more  highly 
prized.  Horses  exist  in  the  wild  state  in  north- 
ern Asia  and  in  America,  the  descendants  of 
individuals  formerly  domesticated;  in  such 
cases  they  live  in  large  troops,  conducted  in 
their  wanderings  and  battles  by  an  old  male 
who  has  conquered  the  position  of  chief  by 
superior  strength  and  courage,  and  who,  when 
his  powers  fail,  is  peacefully  superseded  by 
another.  When  danger  threatens,  they  close 
their  ranks,  and  present  an  unbroken  circle 
of  heels  to  the  enemy,  which  is  generally  some 
of  the  larger  carnivora.  The  horse,  whether 
originating  in  northern  Africa  or  in  northern 
Asia,  probably  exists  nowhere  at  the  present 
time  in  its  original  character ;  but  wild  horses, 
which  have  lived  independently  for  many  gen- 
erations, entirely  exempt  from  the  influence  of 


man,  afford  a  tolerable  idea  of  what  the  prime- 
val animal  was.  Wild  horses,  as  now  met  with, 
are  generally  smaller  but  more  muscular  than 
the  domesticated  ones,  with  less  variety  of  col- 
or, stronger  limbs,  larger  head,  longer  and  less 
erect  ears,  more  bushy  mane,  less  sleek  coats, 


Mustang, 

and  smaller  and  more  pointed  hoofs.  When 
these  troops  fall  in  with  domesticated  horses, 
the  latter  almost  always  rush  with  them  in  a 
wild  stampede  and  are  irrecoverably  lost.  The 
wild  horse,  or  mustang,  even  when  adult,  is 
readily  brought  to  the  domesticated  state ;  the 
American  Indians  are  very  dexterous  in  taking 
them  on  the  prairies  and  the  pampas  by  means 
of  lassos,  and  much  of  the  wealth  of  many  tribes 
consists  in  their  herds  of  these  animals  roaming 
without  any  apparent  control.  The  wild  troops 
have  no  fixed  place  of  abode  or  of  repose,  fre- 
quenting the  richest  pasturages,  and  resting 
at  night  in  dry  and  sheltered  situations ;  they 
have  great  dread  of  storms  and  high  winds, 
and  a  loud  thunder  clap  will  put  them  to  flight 
in  the  utmost  confusion  and  alarm. — Most 
countries  have  peculiar  breeds  of  horses,  adapt- 


Arabian  Horse. 

ed  to  the  climate  and  wants  of  the  region.  In 
Arabia  we  find  a  horse  remarkable  for  fleet 
ness,  endurance,  and  docility  ;  its  blood  by  IE 
termixture  has  been  made  to  improve  other 
races  of  all  sizes  and  constitutions,  producing 
the  breeds  most  highly  valued  both  in  Europe 


828 


HORSE 


HOESE  CHESTNUT 


and  America.  The  Tartar  horses  are  small, 
but  hardy,  accustomed  to  inclemencies  of 
weather  and  scarcity  of  food,  performing  long 
journeys  with  great  speed.  The  Persian  horse 
is  descended  from  the  Arab,  but  is  inferior  in 
speed  and  less  enduring;  it  was  brought  to 


English  Eace  Horse. 

England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  by  its 
cross  produced  an  excellent  breed.  The  Span- 
ish breed,  derived  from  the  horse  of  Barbary, 
long  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  in  Europe 
both  for  civil  and  military  purposes ;  but  they 
have  now  much  degenerated  from  want  of 
care.  The  Turkish  horses  have  many  charac- 
teristics of  the  Arab,  from  which  they  are  de- 
scended. The  horses  of  Germany  and  France 
have  been  modified  by  all  the  above  breeds, 
and  are  very  hardy ;  the  Dutch  breed  are  very 
large,  and  excellent  for  draught.  The  English 
have  paid  the  most  attention  to  the  breeding 
of  horses,  and  have  surpassed  all  other  nations 
in  the  quality  of  speed;  the  English  racer 
is  unequalled  for  quickness  and  endurance,  in 
which  respects  he  exceeds  the  best  horses  of 
the  original  oriental  stock.  America  has  taken 
advantage  of  the  best  breeds  of  the  old  world, 
and  can  compare  favorably  with  any  country ; 
her  trotting  horses  have  no  superiors  in  their 
peculiar  gait.  The  race  horse  is  the  product  of 
the  Arabian  with  the  native  English  breed,  com- 
menced by  James  I.,  improved  by  Charles  II., 
who  imported  barbs  and  Turkish  stallions,  and 
crossed  by  the  Darley  and  Godolphin  Arabian. 
Crossing  the  thoroughbred  with  cold-blooded 
mares  produces  the  more  strong-limbed  varie- 
ties used  as  carriage  horses,  roadsters,  chargers, 
and  cavalry  horses.  Another  race  is  seen  in 
the  different  kinds  of  dray  horses,  remarkable 
for  strength,  intelligence,  and  docility.— There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  horse  was  unknown  to  the 
natives  of  America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
by  Europeans,  and  it  is  certain  also  that  the  an- 
imal inhabited  this  country  during  the  postplio- 
cene  period,  contemporaneously  with  the  mas- 
todon and  megalonyx  ;  its  fossil  remains,  chief- 
ly molar  teeth,  have  been  so  frequently  found, 
especially  in  the  southern  and  western  states 
and  in  South  America,  and  have  been  so  care- 
fully examined  by  competent  palaeontologists, 
that  no  doubt  can  remain  of  the  former  exist- 


ence of  the  horse  in  the  western  world.  The 
E.  neogwm  (Lund)  and  E.  major  (De  Kay),  two 
species  of  the  closely  allied  genus  hipparion, 
and  one  of  hippotherium,  indicate  that  the 
equine  family  were  well  represented  in  America 
in  former  geological  periods ;  whether  this  an- 
cient horse,  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  re- 
cent one,  and  distinguished  by  the  usually  more 
complex  folds  of  the  enamel  of  the  molars,  be- 
came entirely  extinct  before  the  appearance  of 
man,  may  admit  of  question.  Prof.  Leidy  says 
there  is  no  room  to  doubt  the  former  exist- 
ence of  the  horse  on  the  American  continent, 
at  the  same  time  with  the  mastodon,  and  that 
"man  probably  was  his  companion."  The 
fossil  horse  has  also  been  found  in  the  old  world, 
in  the  pliocene  of  Europe  with '  the  mastodon 
and  tapir  and  through  all  the  diluvial  period, 
and  in  the  upper  tertiary  of  Asia ;  there  are 
two  or  three  species  described  in  Europe,  and 
as  many  in  Asia.  From  this  it  appears  that 
the  horse  inhabited  the  old  world  as  well  as 
the  new  before  the  advent  of  man  ;  and  some 
of  these  antediluvian  species  may  have  become 
extinct,  while  others  persisted  in  a  declining 
condition  during  the  early  part  of  the  human 
epoch.  (See  HIPPAEION.) 

HORSE  CHESTNUT  (cesculus,  Linn.),  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  sapindacece,  comprising  about 
a  dozen  species,  of  which  the  most  common 
and  best  known  is  ^fi.  hippocastanum  (Linn.), 
a  handsome  tree,  with  broad,  digitate  leaves, 


Common  Horse  Chestnut  (JSsculus  hippocastanum). 

and  large  and  showy  spikes  of  white  flowers, 
spotted  with  crimson  and  yellow,  solely  culti- 
vated for  ornamenting  parks  and  streets,  its 
wood  being  soft  and  of  little  value.  The  buds 
are  remarkably  large,  and  covered  with  a 
gummy  varnish ;  the  shoots  push  from  them 


HOKSE  CHESTNUT 


829 


with  great  rapidity  in  spring,  and  the  whole 
growth  of  the  tree  for  the  year  is  made  in  very 
short  time.  This  species  has  long  been  in  cul- 
tivation, but  its  native  habitat  has  never  been 
ascertained.  The  tree  has  been  sometimes 
known  to  grow  to  the  height  of  80  ft.,  though 
ordinarily  it  does  not  attain  to  more  than  40. 
Its  bark  is  astringent, 
and  abounds  in  tan- 
nin ;  its  fruit  contains 
much  starch,  and  has 
been  used  in  fattening 
cattle,  and  given  to 
horses  afflicted  with 
colds  and  coughs ; 
from  this  circum- 
stance it  is  said  to 
have  received  its  com- 
mon name.  It  is  un- 
fit for  the  food  of  man. 
The  nuts  if  not  allow- 
ed to  dry  germinate 
freely,  and  penetrate 
the  soil  at  once,  by 
means  of  a  strong  tap 

root ;  the  extremity  of  the  root  is  sometimes 
broken  off  before  they  are  set  out,  or  sown  af- 
ter germination,  thereby  insuring  the  growth 
of  more  lateral  roots.  The  fruit  of  the  horse 
chestnut  consists  of  its  polished  seed  covered 
with  a  thick  prickly  husk  that  divides  into 
three  segments  before  it  falls.  There  is  a 
very  handsome  variety  with  deep  rose-col- 
ored flowers,  by  some  considered  a  species, 
one  with  double  flowers,  besides  a  form  with 
variegated  flowers,  one  with  the  leaflets  deep- 
ly cut,  &c. — The  Ohio  buckeye  (^J.  gldbra, 


Fruit  of  Common  Horse 
Chestnut. 


Bed  Buckeye  (^Esculus  Pavia). 

Willd.)  is  a  smaller  tree  than  the  preceding,  but 
sometimes  reaching  the  height  of  50  ft.,  with 
pale  yellow  inelegant  flowers;  it  grows  on 
river  banks  in  western  Pennsylvania,  Ken- 
tucky, Ohio,  and  Michigan;  its  bark  exhales 
an  unpleasant  odor,  and  its  fruit  is  not  half  the 


size  of  the  common  horse  chestnut ;  the  timber 
is  worthless.  A  number  of  the  species  have 
the  husk  of  the  fruit  without  prickles ;  these 
smooth-fruited  ones  were  formerly  placed  in  a 
separate  genus,  pavia,  but  botanists  now  in- 
clude them  under  cesculus.  The  red  buckeye 


Dwarf  Buckeye  (JSsculus  parvlflora). 

(JE.  Pwia,  Linn.)  is  an  ornamental  species, 
cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  which 
both  in  calyx  and  corolla  are  of  a  bright  red ; 
it  is  a  small  tree  or  large  shrub,  growing  spon- 
taneously from  Virginia  to  Arkansas.  The 
sweet  buckeye  (M.  flava,  Aiton),  a  large  tree 
60  or  70  ft.  high,  with  pale  yellow  blossoms, 
occurs  in  rich  woods  from  Virginia  to  Indiana 
and  southward,  where  it  is  only  a  shrub  4  to  6 
ft.  in  height.  Its  timber  is  sometimes  used  in 
building  log  cabins,  and  bowls  are  sometimes 
turned  from  the  wood.  The  variety  purpu- 
rescens  (JE.  discolor,  Pursh)  is  a  southern  form, 
with  the  leaves  downy  beneath  and  the  flowers 
tinged  with  flesh  color  or  dull  purple.  The 
dwarf  horse  chestnut  or  dwarf  buckeye  (JE. 
parviflora ;  Pavia  macrostacliya  of  the  cata- 
logues) is  always  a  shrub,  and  one  of  the  finest 
ornaments  for  the  lawn ;  it  forms  a  dense  mass 
much  broader  than  high,  and  in  July  bears  nu- 
merous long  slender  spikes  of  white  flowers,  to 
which  the  long  stamens  give  a  fine  feathery  ap- 
pearance ;  it  multiplies  abundantly  by  suckers. 
The  California  buckeye  or  horse  chestnut  (^E. 
California)  is  a  low  spreading  tree,  found 
along  streams;  the  rose-tinted  flowers  are 
smaller  than  in  the  next  preceding,  and  in  a  long 
more  compact  raceme ;  it  is  very  ornamental. 
—The  Spanish  buckeye  is  a  name  given  in 
Texas  to  Ungnadia  speciosa,  a  shrub  5  to  10  ft. 
high  found  in  western  Texas.  The  genus  dif- 
fers from  aisculus  in  having  alternate  leaves 
and  in  the  structure  of  the  flower ;  the  nut, 
the  size  of  a  boy's  marble,  is  nearly  black  and 
shining ;  the  kernel  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the 
taste,  but  with  decided  emetic  properties. 
It  is  a  pleasing  ornamental  shrub,  hardy  in 
Georgia,  but  not  tested  much  further  north. 


830 


HORSE  FLY 


HORSE  RADISH 


The  genus  was  named  in  honor  of  Baron 
Ungnad,  who  as  Austrian  ambassador  to 
Constantinople  first  sent  the  seeds  of  the  com- 
mon horse  chestnut  to  Vienna  in  1815,  and 
thus  introduced  that  tree  into  western  Europe. 

HORSE  FLY.     See  DIPTERA,  vol.  vi.,  p.  129. 

HORSE  MACKEREL.     See  TUNNY  (American). 

HORSENS,  a  seaport  town  of  Denmark,  in 
Jutland,  at  the  head  of  the  Horsensfiord  on  the 
Baltic  sea,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bygholms-Aa, 
45  m.  S.  E.  of  Viborg;  pop.  in  1869,  10,501. 
It  has  a  Latin  school,  manufactories  of  tobacco, 
soap,  and  woollen  goods,  and  a  brisk  trade  in 
corn  and  fish. 

HORSE  POWER,  in  machinery,  a  measure  by 
which  the  capacity  of  engines  is  rated,  estab- 
lished by  Boulton  and  Watt  at  33,000  Ibs.  raised 
one  foot  high  per  minute.  On  this  basis  Watt 
reckoned  the  force  of  his  steam  engines,  and 
the  term  has  continued  in  use  for  want  of  a 
better.  It  is  unsatisfactory  when  applied  to  a 
steam  engine,  as  it  is  apparent  that  the  power 
of  the  machine  varies  with  the  pressure  of 
steam  employed.  A  small  steam  cylinder  of 
great  strength  furnished  with  abundant  boiler 
room  may  be  made  to  do  the  work  of  a  much 
larger  engine  with  little  boiler  capacity ;  and 
it  may  also  be  objected  to  the  use  of  the  word, 
that  it  has  no  reference  to  the  quantity  of  fuel 
the  engine  may  consume  in  working  up  to  the 
power  named.  The  expression  is  moreover  de- 
fective, inasmuch  as  the  work  of  a  horse  does 
not  continue  in  action,  as  may  that  of  the  en- 
gine, but  is  interrupted  at  intervals  of  a  few 
hours,  the  length  of  which  varies  with  the  force 
exerted.  Boulton  and  Watt  allowed  in  their 
estimate  eight  hours  as  the  period  of  work  for 
the  horse.  If  the  measure  then  is  regarded  as 
anything  more  than  a  mere  conventional  unit 
and  as  suggesting  an  actual  comparative  esti- 
mate, the  power  of  the  engine,  continuing 
throughout  the  24  hours,  should  be  called  three 
times  as  great  as  the  number  commonly  as- 
signed to  it.  Computations  that  have  been 
made  by  different  engineers  of  the  average 
power  of  horses  differ  greatly  in  their  results. 
This  is  to  be  expected  in  consequence  of  the 
various  modes  in  which  their  strength  is  ap- 
plied, of  the  various  rates  of  speed  (the  effec- 
tive force  rapidly  decreasing  with  the  increase 
of  speed),  and  also  of  the  different  qualities  of 
the  horses.  Watt  based  his  calculations  upon 
the  work  of  the  powerful  draught  horses  em- 
ployed at  the  London  breweries.  D' Aubuisson 
estimated  the  work  done  by  average-sized 
horses  in  whims  or  hoisting  machines  at  the 
mines  of  Freiberg,  working  8  hours  out  of 
24  in  two  relays  of  4  hours  each,  amounting 
to  16,440  Ibs.  raised  one  foot  high  per  minute, 
less  than  half  the  result  of  Watt's  calcula- 
tions ;  while  Desaguliers  made  an  estimate  of 
44,000  Ibs.,  under  similar  circumstances  as  to 
the  duration  of  work.  Smeaton's  estimate  was 
22,000  Ibs.,  and  Tredgold's  27,500.  Different 
formulas  are  given  for  computing  the  horse 
power  of  engines,  but  they  may  be  reduced  to 


the  simple  rule  of  multiplying  the  effective 
pressure  upon  the  piston  in  pounds  per  square 
inch  by  the  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per 
minute,  and  dividing  by  33,000.  (See  STEAM 
ENGINE.) — Horse  power  is  also  a  name  given 
to  various  machines  contrived  to  be  worked 
by  horses.  The  common  horse  whim  in  use 
at  mines  is  one  of  these.  It  consists  of  a  large 
drum  upon  a  vertical  shaft,  which  is  turned 
round  by  horses  attached  to  its  horizontal  arms. 
The  drum  is  elevated  sufficiently  for  the  horses 
to  pass  under  the  rope,  which  is  wound  and 
unwound  by  its  revolutions.  Similar  machines 
are  made  of  cast  iron  in  portable  forms,  by 
which  toothed  wheels  or  belts  are  made  to 
drive  other  machinery.  Upon  ferry  boats  the 
horse  power  has  usually  consisted  of  a  revolv- 
ing circular  platform,  upon  which  the  horse, 
generally  a  blind  one,  travels,  pushing  this 
round  under  his  feet  as  he  draws  upon  the 
traces,  which  are  fastened  to  a  fixed  object. 
For  threshing  machines,  circular  saws,  &c., 
machines  are  used  in  which  the  horse  works 
upon  a  narrow  platform  supported  by  endless 
chains,  and  carried  round  two  drums;  the 
chains  are  also  supported  upon  friction  rollers. 
HORSE  RADISH  (cochlearia  Armoracia,  but 
by  some  botanists  placed  in  nasturtium),  a  cru- 
ciferous plant  having  a  root  from  an  inch  to  2£ 
in.  in  diameter,  and  a  stem  2  to  3  ft.  high 
rising  from  the  midst  of  numerous  large  radi- 
cal leaves.  The  stem  supports  smaller  leaves 
and  clusters  of  white  flowers,  which  bloom  in 
June.  The  pod  is  small,  of  elliptical  form,  but 
is  very  rarely  formed  in  this  country  or  in  Eng- 
land. The  plant  is  probably  a  native  of  southern 
Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  sake 
of  its  root,  which  is  used  as  a  condiment,  and 
also  to  some  extent  as  a  medicine.  It  has 
when  freshly  scraped  a  hot,  biting  taste,  and  a 
pungent  odor,  due  to  a  volatile  oil  which  is 
dissipated  by  drying.  This  oil  is  similar  to,  if 
not  identical  with,  that  of  mustard.  It  is 
highly  stimulating  in  its  action,  promoting  di- 
gestion in  the  same  way  and  under  the  same 
limitations  as  the  other  aromatics.  It  has  be- 
sides a  marked  effect  in  increasing  the  secre- 
tion of  the  kidneys,  and  has  been  used  in 
dropsy  and  in  chronic  rheumatism,  in  the  latter 
disease  both  externally  and  internally.  It  is 
an  antiscorbutic.  Horse  radish  bears  a  slight 
resemblance  to  aconite,  and  the  root  of  the 
latter  has  sometimes  been  mistakenly  sub- 
stituted for  the  former  with  fatal  results. 
Horse  radish  is  a  minor  crop  of  some  impor- 
tance, the  root  sometimes  selling  as  high  as 
$200  per  ton,  but  its  price  fluctuates  greatly, 
and  the  average  is  not  more  than  half  that.  It 
is  usually  grown  as  a  second  crop;  the  sets, 
which  are  pieces  of  the  lateral  roots,  4  to  6  in. 
long,  are  dibbled  in  between  the  rows  of  early 
cabbages,  about  18  in.  apart.  In  cultivating 
the  cabbages  no  regard  is  had  to  the  horse 
radish,  but  if  any  growth  pushes  from  the  sets 
it  is  hoed  off  as  if  it  were  a  weed.  The  cab- 
bages are  taken  off  in  June,  and  the  ground 


HOESE  SHOE 

is  left  to  the  horse  radish.  An  acre  produces 
about  five  tons  of  roots,  which  are  taken  up 
before  the  ground  freezes  and  stored  in  pits. 
The  root  is  grated  and  put  up  in  bottles  with 


HORSETAIL 


831 


Horse  Eadish  (Cochlearia  or  Nasturtium  Armoracia). 

vinegar,  but  soon  loses  strength.  In  old  gar- 
dens tbe  horse  radish  often  becomes  a  persis- 
tent weed. 

HORSE  SHOE,  a  strip  of  iron  bent  around 
in  the  form  of  the  hoof  of  the  horse,  and  fast- 
ened upon  the  bottom  of  the  same  by  nails 
driven  through  the  outer  corneous  layer,  and 
clinched  upon  the  outside.  An  additional  se- 
curity is  sometimes  given  to  it  by  turning  up 
a  piece  of  iron  welded  to  the  front  part  of  the 
shoe  and  fitting  this  closely  into  the  toe  of  the 
hoof;  this  serves  also  still  more  to  protect  the 
hoof  from  wear.  For  use  upon  icy  roads,  and 
also  upon  stone  or  wooden  pavements,  the 
shoes  are  provided  with  steel  points  called 
corks,  one  at  each  heel  of  the  shoe  and  one 
at  the  toe.  In  the  country  the  heel  corks  are 
usually  made  by  turning  down  the  iron  shoe, 
and  are  not  of  steel,  like  the  toe,  cork.  Oxen 
also  are  furnished  with  iron  shoes,  each  of 
which  is  made,  on  account  of  the  cleft  in  the 
foot,  in  two  parts,  shaped  to  fit  the  bottom 
of  the  hoof.  The  need  of  such  a  protection 
to  the  feet  of  the  horses  and  mules  employed 
in  war  was  greatly  felt  by  the  ancients,  and  the 
value  of  sound  and  strong  hoofs  was  no  less 
appreciated  by  them  than  by  the  moderns. 
Xenophon,  Vegetius,  and  other  authors  gave 
certain  methods  of  rendering  the  hoofs  harder ; 
but  no  clear  intimation  is  anywhere  to  be  found 
that  either  the  Greeks  or  Romans  made  a  prac- 
tice of  shoeing  horses  to  protect  their  hoofs 
from  wear.  In  several  campaigns  the  cavalry 
were  rendered  useless,  and  the  horses  were 
sent  away  till  their  hoofs  could  be  restored. 
Camels  were  sometimes  provided  with  leather 
coverings  for  the  feet,  and  the  feet  of  oxen 
were  protected  by  a  bandage  woven  or  plaited 
413  VOL.  viii.— 53 


with  the  fibres  of  plants.  Beckmann  is  of 
opinion  that  modern  horse  shoes  when  first 
introduced  were  known  by  the  Greek  name 
ffetyvaia,  from  their  moon  shape ;  and  the  ear- 
liest use  of  this  that  he  could  discover  was  in 
the  works  of  the  emperor  Leo  the  Philosopher 
of  the  9th  century.  It  is  expressly  stated  that 
these  are  made  of  iron,  and  that  nails  belong 
to  them.  Horse  shoeing  is  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England  by  William  the 
Conqueror.  In  the  graves  of  some  old  Ger- 
mans and  Vandals  of  unknown  antiquity  in  the 
northern  countries,  Beckmann  states  that  horse 
shoes  have  been  found  with  other  horse  furni- 
ture.—Horse  shoes  were  always  made  by  hand 
until  the  introduction  of  the  machines  invented 
by  Henry  Burden  of  Troy,  N.  Y.  These  are 
among  the  most  efficient  and  perfect  of  the  la- 
bor-saving machines  of  the  day.  A  shoe, 
turned  to  the  proper  shape  and  grooved  to 
receive  the  heads  of  the  nails,  is  formed  in 
passing  through  one  machine.  A  full  descrip- 
tion would  require  several  pages  and  many 
drawings ;  its  general  action  is  as  follows.  A 
bar  of  well  worked  iron  is  passed  through  rollers 
until  it  is  made  of  the  proper  size.  This  while 
red  hot  is  introduced  into  one  side  of  the  ma- 
chine between  two  rollers.  After  it  has  en- 
tered a  certain  distance  it  is  cut  off  by  shears 
worked  automatically.  The  piece  cut  off  is  of 
exactly  the  length  required  for  the  shoe,  and 
it  is  bent  in  the  middle  over  a  form  by  the  ac- 
tion of  a  tongue  moved  by  a  cam  wheel.  This 
form  is  placed  upon  a  heavy  revolving  cylinder 
about  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  in  its  revolu- 
tion carries  the  shoe  beneath  a  die  placed  upon 
another  cylinder,  by  which  the  shape  is  given 
to  it.  It  is  then  transferred  to  another  die 
formed  in  two  other  cylinders,  by  which  the 
groove  is  cut,  and  places  indicated  by  indenta- 
tions for  afterward  punching  the  holes,  which 
operation  is  performed  by  hand  with  a  power 
machine.  After  passing  through  the  second 
die  the  shoe  is  dropped  upon  an  endless  chain, 
which  passes  under  the  machine  and  also  un- 
der a  number  of  other  machines  placed  in  a 
row.  By  this  means  they  are  conveyed  to 
an  adjoining  room  and  dumped  upon  a  car, 
which  carries  them  to  different  parts  of  a 
vast  semicircle  where  the  machines  for  punch- 
ing the  holes  and  finishing  are  placed.  Each 
machine  occupies  a  space  of  about  8  ft.  in 
length  by  6  in  width  and  7  in  height,  weigh- 
ing several  tons,  and  is  capable  of  making 
from  50  to  60  shoes  per  minute. — Horse  shoes 
have  long  been  the  subject  of  a  singular  su- 
perstition. They  were  thought  to  be  a  pro- 
tection against  evil  spirits  and  witches,  pre- 
venting these  from  passing  the  threshold  at 
which  one  was  nailed.  Aubrey  in  his  "Mis- 
cellanies" says  that  in  his  time  (the  latter 
half  of  the  17th  century)  most  of  the  houses 
of  the  west  end  of  London  were  thus  protected. 
HORSETAIL,  the  name  of  plants  of  the  genus 
equisetum  (Lat.  equm,  a  horse,  and  seta,  a 
bristle),  which  belongs  to  the  great  series  of 


832 


IIOKSETAIL 


HORTENSE 


cryptogamous  or  flowerless  plants.  They  have 
rush-like,  hollow,  jointed  stems,  with  toothed 
sheaths  at  the  joints,  and  terminated  by  a  sort 
of  cone  of  shield-shaped  scales;  the  spore 
cases  or  parts  concerned  in  reproduction  are 


Common  Horsetail  (Equisetum  arvense) — Scales  and 
Spores,  and  Barren  and  Fertile  Stems. 

attached  to  the  under  side  of  these  scales ; 
each  spore  has  attached  to  it  four  long  elastic 
filaments,  which  coil  closely  around  it  when 
moist,  and  uncoil  when  dry ;  these  motions, 
which  may  be  induced  at  will  by  breathing 
upon  the  spores,  render  them  interesting  ob- 
jects for  the  microscope.  The  cuticle  of  these 
plants  abounds  so  largely  in  silex  that  some 
are  used  in  polishing ;  hence  scouring  rush  is 
the  common  name  for  some  species.  The  most 
common  or  field  horsetail,  E.  arvense,  is  a  plant 
of  wide  distribution,  it  being  found  in  every 
continent  and  from  the  Arctic  zone  to  Africa ; 
this  species  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  it  is  alleged 
to  be  poisonous  to  cattle.  Like  some  others, 
it  produces  two  sorts  of  stems;  the  fertile  ones, 
which  appear  in  very  early  spring,  especially 
in  moist  places,  are  4  to  10  in.  high,  simple, 
succulent,  of  a  light  brown  color  with  black 
sheaths,  and  wither  soon  after  the  spores  are 
discharged.  The  barren  stems  appear  later, 
and  are  green  and  ribbed,  appearing  quite  un- 
like the  others ;  they  bear  numerous  generally 
simple  branches  at  each  node,  and  have  so 
much  the  appearance  of  a  young  seedling  pine- 
tree  that  in  some  localities  the  plant  is  called 
low  pine  and  ground  pine.  The  plant  is  very 
generally  regarded  by  farmers  as  poisonous  to 
animals,  but  in  this,  as  in  other  cases  of  plants 
reputed  to  be  injurious,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
procure  positive  evidence.  It  would  seem  to 
be  quite  certain  that  the  dried  plant  is  not 
poisonous,  as  it  is  often  cut  with  the  grass 


when  mown  for  hay,  and  we  have  known  hay 
largely  mixed  with  horsetail  to  be  fed  without 
injury.  The  sterile  stem  of  this  is  also  annual. 
There  are  several  perennial-stemmed  species, 
the  largest  of  which,  E.  robustum,  3  to  6  ft. 
high,  grows  along  the  western  rivers. 

IIOKSF1EL1),  Thomas,  an  English  traveller  and 
naturalist,  ~born  about  1773,  died  in  1859.  He 
went  to  Java  in  1802  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Dutch  colonial  government,  and  remained 
there  during  its  temporary  occupation  by  the 
East  India  company.  After  having  thorough- 
ly studied  the  natural  history  of  the  island, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1817  with  a  large 
collection  of  animals  and  plants.  The  former 
are  described  in  his  "Zoological  Researches 
in  Java  and  the  Neighboring  Islands"  (4to, 
1821-'4)  ;  the  latter  in  a  work  entitled  Plantce 
Javaniccs  rariores  (1838-'52). 

IIORSLEY,  John  Callcott,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London,  Jan.  29,  1817.  His  father  was 
the  musician  William  Horsley.  He  became 
known  for  his  genre  pictures,  gained  in  1843  a 
prize  of  £200  for  his  cartoon  representing  "  St. 
Augustine  Preaching,"  and  subsequently  exe- 
cuted many  frescoes  for  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment. Among  his  best  known  works  are  "  L' Al- 
legro and  II  Penseroso,"  painted  for  Prince 
Albert,  "A  Scene  from  Don  Quixote,"  "Under 
the  Mistletoes,"  and  "  Caught  Napping." 

HORSLEY,  Samuel,  an  English  prelate  and 
scholar,  born  in  St.  Martin's-in-the-fields,  Lon- 
don, in  1733,  died  in  Brighton,  Oct.  4,  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  took  orders 
in  1759,  and  held  successively  several  impor- 
tant livings.  In  1788  he  was  made  bishop  of 
St.  Davids,  in  1793  of  Rochester,  and  in  1802 
of  St.  Asaph.  For  this  rapid  and  unusual 
preferment  he  was  in  part  indebted  to  his  con- 
troversy with  Dr.  Priestley  on  the  divinity  of 
Christ.  He  published  an  edition  of  Apollonius 
Perga3us  (1770),  and  of  the  works  of  Newton 
(!779-'85).  From  1773  he  was  for  several 
years  secretary  of  the  royal  society.  Among 
his  works  are :  "  Critical  Disquisitions  on  the 
18th  Chapter  of  Isaiah;"  "Hosea,  a  New 
Translation,  with  Notes ;"  a  translation  of  the 
Psalms;  "Biblical  Criticism;"  elementary  trea- 
tises on  mathematics ;  essays  on  the  prosodies 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages;  and  nu- 
merous papers  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions." His  theological  works  have  been  pub- 
lished in  6  vols.  8vo  (London,  1845). 

HORTA,  a  town,  capital  of  the  island  of  Fayal, 
one  of  the  Azores,  situated  on  the  S.  E.  coast 
of  the  island,  on  a  wide  bay  between  two 
rocky  headlands;  pop.  in  1864,  8,549.  Its 
port  is  defended  by  several  forts.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine. 

HORTENSE,  Queen.  See  BEAUHABNAIS,  HOE- 
TENSE  EUGENIE. 


END   OF   VOLUME   EIGHTH. 


CONTENTS    OF  VOLUME  VIII. 


PAGE 

Glasgow 5 

Glass 6 

Glass,  Soluble 24 

Glassites.    See  Sandemanians. 

Glass  Painting 25 

Glass  Snake 2T 

Glass  Sponge 28 

Glastonbury 29 

Glatz .- 29 

Glauber,  Johann  Kudolf 29 

Glauber's  Salt 80 

Glauchau 30 

Glaucus  (two) 80 

Gleig,  George  Kobert 80 

Gleim,  Johann  Wilhelm  Ludwig 31 

Gleiwitz 81 

Glencoe 31 

Glendower,  Owen 31 

Glengarry  co 82 

Glen's  Falls 32 

Gliddon,  George  Eobins 82 

Globe,  Artificial 82 

Globe  Fish.    See  Sea  Porcupine. 

Globigerina 84 

Glogau 35 

Glommen 85 

Glory  Pea 35 

Glossop 85 

Gloucester  co.,  N.  J 85 

Gloucester  co.,  Va 36 

Gloucester  co.,  N.  B 86 

Gloucester,  Mass 36 

Gloucester,  Eng 87 

Gloucestershire 33 

Glove 38 

Glover,  Richard 89 

Gloversville 39 

Glowworm 89 

Glucina 41 

Gluck,  Christoph  Wilibald  von 41 

Gluckstadt 45 

Glue 45 

Glukhov 46 

Gluten 46 

Glutton 46 

Glycerine 47 

Glynn  co 48 

Glyptodon 48 

Gmelin,  Johann  Georg 49 

Gmelin,  Samuel  Gottlieb 49 

Gmelin,  Johann  Friedrich 49 

Gmelin,  Leopold 49 

Gmiind 49 

Gnat 49 

Gneisenau,  August,  Count 51 

Gneiss -. 52 

Gneist,  Kudolf 52 

Gnesen 52 

Gnossus.    See  Cnossus. 

Gnostics 52 

Gnu 55 

Goa 56 

Goalpara 56 

Goat 56 

Goatsucker 58 

Gobelins,  Manufactory  of  the 59 

Gobert,  Napoleon,  Baron 60 


Gobi 

Goby 

Godavery 

Goddard,  Arabella 

Goderich 

Goderich,    Viscount.       See   Ripon, 
Earl  of. 

Godfrey,  Thomas 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon.    See  Bouillon. 
Godiva.    See  Coventry. 

Godkin,  Edward  Laurence 

Godman,  John  D 

Godolphin,  Sidney,  Earl  of 

Godoy,  Manuel  de 

Godunoff,  Boris  Fedorovitch,  Czar. . . 

Godwin,  Earl  of  Wessex 

Godwin,  George 

Godwin,  Parke 

Godwin,  William 

Godwin,  Mary  Wollstonecraft 

Godwit 

Goentoer 

Goertz.    See  Gortz. 

Goes 

Goes,  Hugo  van  der 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von 

Goffe,  William 

Gog  and  Magog 

Gogol,  Nikolai 

Gogra 

Goitacazes 

Goitre 

Golconda 

Gold 

Gold-Beating 

Goldberg 

Gold  Coast 

Golden  Fleece.    See  Argonauts. 

Golden  Fleece,  Order  of  the 

Golden  Number 

Goldenrod 

Golden  Seal.    See  Puccoon. 

Goldfinch 

Gold  Fish 

Gold  Hill 

Goldoni,  Carlo 

Goldsborough,  Louis  Malesherbes. . . 

Goldschmidt,  Hermann 

Goldsmith,  Oliver 

Goldstiicker,  Theodor 

Goldthread.    See  Coptis. 

Golf. 

Golgotha.    See  Calvary. 

Goliad  co 

Golius,  Jacobus 

Gollnow 

Golovnin,  Vasili 

Goltz,  Bogumil 

Gombo.    See  Gumbo. 

Gomer 

Gomez,  Estevan 

Gomor  co 

Gomorrah 

Gonaives 

Gondar 

Gondokoro 

Gondola 

Gonds 


Gongora  y  Argote,  Lnis  de 98 

Goniatites 99 

Goniometer 98 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova 98 

Gonzaga 99 

Gonzaga,  family  of 99 

Gonzaga,  Luigi  (St.  Aloysius) 100 

Gonzaga,  Thomas  Antonio  Costa  de,  100 

Gonzales  co 106 

Goochland  co 100 

Good,  John  Mason ioo 

Goodall,  Edward 100 

Goodall,  Frederick . .  101 

Good  Friday 101 

Good  Hope.  Cape  of.    See  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

Goodhue  co 101 

Goodrich,  Elizur 101 

Goodrich,  Chauncey  Allen :. . .  102 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold 102 

Goodrich,  Frank  Boot 102 

Goodwill 102 

Goodwin  Sands 108 

Goodyear,  Charles 108 

Gookin,  Daniel 108 

Goole 104 

Goomtee 104 

Goosander 104 

Goose 104 

Gooseberry 108 

Goose  Fish 109 

Gopher 110 

Goppert,  Heiurich  Robert Ill 

Goppingen Ill 

Gordian  Knot.    See  Gordius. 
Gordianus.  Marcus  Antonius,  Em- 
peror    Ill 

Gordianus,  Marcus  Antonius  Pius, 

Emperor Ill 

Gordius,  King Ill 

Gordon  co 112 

Gordon,  George,  Lord 112 

Gordon,  Sir  John  Watson 112 

Gordon,  William 112 

Gore,  Catharine  Grace 112 

Gore,  Christopher 118 

Goree 118 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando 11 

Gorges,  Ferdinando 114 

GSrgey,  Arthur 114 

Gorgias 116 

Gorgona Mj 

Gorgons ** 

Gorilla 116 

Goritz.    See  Gurz. 

Gorkhas 118 

Gorkum 118 

GSrlitz H8 

Gorres,  Jakob  Joseph  von 11 

GSrres,  Guido 118 

Gortchakoff,  Petr  (two) 119 

Gortchakoff,  Dimitri 11 

Gortchakoff,  Alexander  (two) 11 

Gortchakoff,  Andrei 11' 

Gortchakoff,  Mikhail  (two) 119 

Gorton,  Samuel 12 

Gortyna 120 

Gortz,  George  Heinrich,  Baron 120 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Goruckpoor 121 

Gore 121 

Guschen,  George  Joachim 121 

Goshawk 121 

Goshen 122 

Goshen,  N.  Y 122 

Goslar 122 

Gosnold,  Bartholomew 122 

Gospel 122 

Gosport 122 

Gosse,  Philip  Henry 128 

Gosselies 123 

Gotha 128 

Gotham 123 

Gothenburg 123 

Gothic  Language  and  Literature.. .  124 
Gothland.    See  Gottland. 

Goths 125 

Gottingen 1 2T 

Gottland 127 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau 127 

Gottschalk,  Rudolph 127 

Gottsched,  Johann  Christoph 138 

Gouda 128 

Gough,  Hugh,  Viscount 128 

Gough,  John  B 128 

Gough,  Richard 128 

Gouiet,  Claude  Pierre 128 

Goujon,  Jean 129 

Gouibura 129 

Goulburn,  Edward  Meyrich 129 

Gould,  Augustus  Addison 129 

Gould,  Benjamin  Apthorp 129 

Gould,  Hannah  Flagg 130 

Gould,  John 180 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois 130 

Gour 180 

Gourd 131 

Gourgaud,  Gaspard,  Baron 131 

Gourgues,  Dominique  de 182 

Gousset,  Thomas  Marie  Joseph 182 

Gout 182 

Gouvion  Saint-Cyr,  Laurent 183 

Governor's  Island 188 

Gower,  John 184 

Goya 184 

Goyanna 184 

Goyaz 134 

Gozo.    See  Malta. 

Gozzi,  Carlo,  Count 185 

Gozzi,  Gaspare 135 

Graaf,  Regnier  de 185 

Graal,  The  Holy 185 

Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius 186 

Gracchus,  Caius  Sempronius 186 

Graces,  The 187 

Gracias 187 

Gracias  a  Dies,  Cape 187 

Graciosa 137 

Graduation 187 

Graevius,  Johann  Georg 188 

Grafe,  Karl  Ferdinand  von 188 

Grafe,  Albrecht  von 188 

Grafe,  Alfred  Karl 183 

Grafenberg.    See  Priessnitz. 

Grafting 188 

Grafton  co 141 

Grafton 142 

Gragnano 142 

Graham  co 142 

Graham,  Kansas 142 

Graham,  Isabella 142 

Graham,  John,  Lord 142 

Graham,  Sylvester 142 

Graham,  Thomas 148 

Graham,  William  Alexander 148 

Graham  Island 148 

Grahame,  James  (two) 144 

Graham's  Town 144 

GraiLHoly.    See  Graal. 

Grain 144 

Grain  Coast 145 

Grainger  co 145 

Grakle 145 

Grammar.    See  Language. 

Gramme , 146 

Gramont,  Antoine  III.,  Duke  de.. . .  146 

Gramont,  Philibert,  Count  de 146 

Gramont,  Antoine  Agenor  Alfred, 

Duke  de 146 

Grampians 147 

Grampus 147 


PAGE 

Gran 147 

Granada,  Nicaragua 147 

Granada,  Spain 148 

Granada,  New.    See  Colombia. 

Granadilla 149 

Granby,  John  Manners 149 

Grand  co 149 

Grandee 149 

Grand  Forks  co 150 

Grand  Haven 150 

Grand  Isle  co 150 

Grand  Manan 150 

Grandpre,     Louis     Marie    Joseph 

Ohier,  Count  de 150 

Grand  Rapids 150 

Grand  River  (two) 151 

Grand  Traverse  co 151 

Grandville,  Jean  Iguace  Isidore 151 

Grane 151 

Grange,  National.    See  Husbandry, 
Patrons  of. 

Granger,  Gideon 151 

Granger,  Francis 151 

Granicus 151 

Granier,  Adolphe  Bernard 152 

Granite 152 

Granson 154 

Grant 154 

Grant  co.,  Va 154 

Grant  parish,  La 154 

Grant  co.,  Ark 155 

Grant  co.,  Ky 155 

Grant  co.,  Ind 155 

Grant  co.,  Wis 155 

Grant  co.,  Minn 155 

Grant  co.,  Neb 155 

Grant  co.,  Oregon 155 

Grant  co.,  Dak.  Terr 155 

Grant  co..  New  Mexico 155 

Grant,  Anne 155 

Grant,  Sir  Francis 156 

Grant,  James  (two) 156 

Grant,  James  Augustus 156 

Grant,  Sir  James  Hope 156 

Grant,  Ulysses  8 156 

Granvelle,  Antoine  Perrenot,  Cardi- 
nal de  160 

Granville  co 161 

Granville,  Ohio 161 

Granville,  France 161 

Granville,  George 161 

Granville,  Granville  George  Leve- 

Bon  Gower,  Earl 162 

Granville,  John  Carteret,  Earl 162 

Grape 162 

Grape  Shot 164 

Graphite 165 

Graptolites 165 

Grass  Cloth,    See  Ramie. 

Grasse,  La 165 

Grasses 166 

Grasshopper 169 

Grassmann,  Hermann  Giinther 171 

Grass  Tree 171 

Gratian,  Emperor 171 

Gratiot  co 172 

Gratry,  Auguste  Joseph  Alphonse. .  172 

Grattan,  Henry 172 

Grattan,  Thomas  Colley 178 

Grattoni,  Severiuo 173 

Gratz 173 

Graubunden.    See  Grisons. 

Graudenz 173 

Graun,  Karl  Heinrich 173 

Grave  Creek.    See  Moundsville. 

Gravel 173 

Gravel,  a  disease 174 

Gravelines 174 

Gravelotte 174 

Graves  co 175 

Graves,  Robert 175 

Gravesande,  Willem  Jakob  van  's. .  175 

Gravesend 175 

Gravier,  Jacques 175 

Gravina 175 

Gravina,  Giovanni  Vincenzo 175 

Gravity 175 

Gravity,  Specific 177 

Gray 178 

Gray,  Asa 178 

Gray,  David 179 

Gray,  Henry  Peters 179 


PAGE 

Gray,  John  Edward 179 

Gray,  George  Robert 180 

Gray,  Thomas 180 

Graydon,  Alexander 181 

Grayling 181 

Grayson  co.,  Va 181 

Grayson  co.,  Texas 1«1 

Grayson  co.,  Ky 182 

Graziani,  Francesco 182 

Graziani,  Ludovico 182 

Great  Barrington 182 

Great  Basin 182 

Great  Bear  Lake.    See  Bear  Lake. 

Great  Britain 182 

Great  Falls.    See  Somersworth. 

Great  Grimsby 188 

Great  Kanawha  River 183 

Great  Marlow 188 

Greatorex,  Eliza 188 

Greatrakes,  Valentine 1^8 

Great  Salt  Lake 183 

Great  Slave  Lake 184 

Greaves,  John 184 

Grebe 184 

Greece 1&5 

Greece,  Language  and  Literature  of,  207 

Greece,  Wines  of 216 

Greek  Church 217 

Greek  Fire 221 

Greek  Mythology.    See  Mythology. 

Greeley  co.,  Neb 222 

Greeley  co.,  Dak.  Terr 222 

Greeley 222 

Greeley,  Horace 222 

Green.    See  Light,  and  Paints. 

Green  co.,  Ky 225 

Green  co.,  Wis 225 

Green,  Ashbel 225 

Green,  Horace 225 

Green,  Jacob 225 

Green.  Samuel 226 

Green,  Seth 226 

Green,  William  Mercer 226 

Green  Bay 226 

Green  Bay,  Wis 226 

Greenbrier  co 226 

Greenbush 227 

Greencastle 227 

Greene  co.,  N.  Y 227 

Greene  co.,  Pa 227 

Greene  co.,  Va 227 

Greene  co.,  N.  C 227 

Greene  co.,  Ga '227 

Greene  co.,  Ala 227 

Greene  co.,  Miss 227 

Greene  co.,  Ark 228 

Greene  co.,  Tenn 228 

Greene  co.,  Ohio 228 

Greene  co.,  Ind 228 

Greene  co.,  Ill 228 

Greene  co.,  Iowa 228 

Greene  co.,  Mo 228 

Greene,  Christopher 228 

Greene,  George  Washington 229 

Greene,  Nathanael 229 

Greene,  Nathaniel 280 

Greene,  Charles  Gordon 230 

Greene,  Robert 280 

Greenfield 280 

Greenheart 281 

Greenhouse 231 

Green  Lake  co 282 

Greenland 282 

Greenleaf,  Simon 235 

Green  Mountains 285 

Greenock 286 

Greenough,  Horatio 236 

Greenport 236 

Green  River  (two) 237 

Greensand 287 

Greensboro 288 

Green  Snake.    See  Coluber. 

Greenstone 288 

Greenup  co 238 

Greenville  co.,  Va 289 

Greenville  co.,  8.  C 289 

Greenville,  8.  C 239 

Greenville,  Tenn 289 

Green  Vitriol.    Bee  Copperas. 

Greenwich,  Conn 289 

Greenwich,  Eng 239 

Greenwood  co.,  Kansas 240 


PAGE 

Greenwood  co..  Col 240 

Greenwood,  Francis  William  Pitt..  240 

Greer  co 241 

Greg,  William  Eathbone 241 

Gregarina 241 

Gr6goire,  Henri 241 

Gregorian  Chant 242 

Gregorovius,  Ferdinand 242 

Gregory  co 242 

Gregory,  Popes 242 

Gregory,  James 245 

Gregory,  David 246 

Gregory,  John 246 

Gregory,  Olinthus  Gilbert 246 

Gregory  the  Illuminator,  Saint 246 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Saint 246 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Saint 247 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Saint 247 

Gregory  of  Tours,  Saint 247 

Greifswald 248 

Greiner,  John 248 

Greiz 248 

Grellet,  Stephen 248 

Grenada 248 

Grenada  co 249 

Grenoble 249 

Grenville  co 249 

Grenville,  George 249 

Grenville,  Richard.      See  Temple, 
Earl. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard 249 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas 250 

Greslon,  Adrien 250 

Gresset,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis 250 

Greswell,  Edward 250 

Gretch,  Nikolai 250 

Gretna  Green 250 

Gretry,  Andr6  Ernest  Modeste 251 

Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste 251 

Greville,  Sir  Fulke 251 

Grevy,  Francois  Paul  Jules 251 

Grew,  Nehemiah 251 

Grey  co 251 

Grey,  Charles,  Earl 252 

Grey,  Henry  George,  Earl 252 

Grey,  Sir  George 252 

Grey,  Lady  Jane 252 

Greyhound 258 

Greytown.    See  San  Juan  de  Nica- 
ragua. 
Gribeauval,  Jean  Baptiste  Vaquette 

de „ 2M 

Gridley,  Jeremy 254 

Gridley,  Richard 254 

Griesbach,  Johann  Jakob 254 

Griffin 254 

Griffin,  Edward  Dorr 255 

Griffin,  Gerald 255 

Griffin  City 255 

Griffith,  William 255 

Grijalva,  Juan  de 255 

Grillparzer,  Franz 255 

Grimaldi,  family  of 255 

Grimaldi,  Ranieri  II 256 

Grimaldi,  Carlo  II 256 

Grimaldi,  Antonio,  Admiral 256 

Grimaldi,  Giovanni 256 

Grimaldi,  Domenico 256 

Grimaldi,  Geronimo 256 

Grimes  co 256 

Grimes,  James  Wilson 256 

Grimke,  Thomas  Smith 256 

Grimke,  Frederick 256 

Grimk6,  Sarah  Moore 256 

Grimm,  Friedrich  Melchior,  Baron,  257 
Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig. . .  257 

Grimm,  Wilhelm  Karl 258 

Grimm,  Ludwig  Emil 258 

Grimm,  Hermann  Friedrich 258 

Grimma 258 

Grindal,  Edmund 258 

Grindelwald 258 

Grinnell 259 

Grinnell  Land 259 

Griquas 259 

Grisar,  Albert 259 

Griscom,  John 259 

Griscom,  John  Hoskins 259 

Grisebach,  August  Heinrich  Rudolf,  260 

Grisi,  Giulia...  260 

Grisons...  260 

Grisseh ..  261 


CONTENTS 


Griswold,  Alexander  Viets  .....       i 
Gnswold,  Rufus  Wilmot.  . 


268 


269 


270 


Groat  .....  ...... 

Grodno  ........... 

Groningen  ............... 

Gronovius,  John  Frederick  (two)...  262 
faronovius,  Jacobus  ...............  262 

Gronovius,  Abraham  ____ 

Gronovius,  Laurentius  Theodoras 
Groot,  Gerhard  .................  .' 

Gros,  Antoine  Jean,  Baron.  ...      . 

Gros,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis,  Baron. 
Grosbeak  ................  ..  263 

Grose,  Francis  ....................  264 

Groseilliers,  Medard  Chouart  de.  .  .  .  264 

Gross,  Samuel  D  .............  265 

Grosse,  Julius  Waldemar  ..........  265 

Grossenhain  ..............  265 

Grosseteste,  Robert  ...............  265 

Grosseto  ..........................  266 

Gross-Glogau.    See  Glogau.  ' 
Grosswardein  .....................  266 

Gros  Ventres  .....................  266 

Grote,  George  .............      "     '  267 

Grotefend,  Georg  Friedrich  ........  267 

Grotius,  Hugo  ....................  267 

Groton,  Mass  .....................  269 

Groton,  Conn  .....................  269 

Grotto  ............................  269 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel,  Marquis  de  . 

Ground  Hog.    See  Woodchuck. 

Ground  Nut.    See  Peanut. 

Ground  Pine.    See  Horsetail. 

Groundsel 

Ground  Squirrel.    See  Chipmunk. 

Grouse  ............................  270 

Grousset,  Paschal  .................  272 

Grove,  Sir  William  Robert  .........  272 

Groveton.    See  Bull  Run. 

Gruber,  Johann  Gottfried  ..........  278 

Griin,  Anastasius.    See  Auersperg. 
Griinberg  .............  .  ...........  278 

Grundtvig,  Nicolai  Frederik  Severin,  278 
Grundy  co.,  Tenn  .................  278 

Grundy  co.,  Ill  ....................  278 

Grundy  co.,  Iowa  .................  273 

Grundy  co.,  Mo  ...................  278 

Grundy,  Felix  .....................  274 

Gruner,  Wilhelm  Heinrich  Ludwig,  274 
Grutli  ............................  274 

Gruyere  ..........................  274 

Gryphius,  Andreas  ................  274 

Guacharo  .........................  274 

Guaco  ............................  275 

Guadalajara,  Mexico  ...............  275 

Guadalajara,  Spain  .................  275 

Guadalquivir  ......................  275 

Guadalupe,  a  river  ................  276 

Guadalupe  co  .....................  276 

Guadalupe,  Mexico  ................  276 

Guadeloupe  .......................  276 

Guadiana  ........................  276 

Guadix  ...........................  276 

Guahan  ...........................  276 

Guaiacum  ........................  277 

Guaicarus  ........................  277 

Gualeyguay,  a  river  ...............  277 

Gualeyguay,  a  town  ...............  278 

Gualeyguaychu  ...................  278 

Guam.    See  Guahan. 

Guamanga.    See  Ayacucho. 

Guan  ............................  278 

Guanabacoa  .......................  27 

Guanacache  ......................  278 

Guanacaste  .......................  278 

Guanaco.    See  Llama. 

Guanajuato  .......................  279 

Guanare  .........................  280 

Guanches  ........................  280 

Guancabelica.      See  Huancavelica. 
Guano,  a  town  ....................  280 

Guano  ............................  2b° 

Guapey.    See  Rio  Grande. 

Guarana  .........................  ^** 

Guaranis.    See  Tupi-Guaranis. 
Guaranty  ........................  288 

Guaratingueta  ....................  286 

Guard,  National  ...................  286 

Guardian  .........................  286 

Guarini,  Giovanni  Battista  .........  287 


111 


PACK 

Guarneri,  Andrea 

Guarneri,  Giuseppe 

Guarneri,  Pietro 288 

Guarneri,  Giuseppe  Antonio. . '. . '. 


Guatemala 

Guatemala  la  Nueva.!.'! 

Guatemala  la  Antigua 292 

Guatemozin 292 

Guatusos .".'.'  292 

Guava ',  tft 

Guaxaca.    See  Oajaca. 
Guayana.    See  Guiana,  and  Vene- 
zuela. 

Guayape 298 

Guayaquil .".'.'  298 

Guayaquil,  a  river 294 

£  uayas 294 

Guaymas •'.( 

Gubbio 

Guben 294 

Gubitz,  Friedrich  Wilhelm. ..'.'.'.'.'.'.  294 

Gudgeon 294 

Gudin,  Jean  Antoine  Theodore. ...  295 

Guebres 295 

Guebwiller.    See  Gebweiler. 
Guelderland.    See  Gelderland. 

Guelder  Rose 295 

Guelphs 296 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 296 

Guenon.    See  Monkey. 
Guepard.    See  Leopard. 

Guerande 297 

Guerazzi.    See  Guerrazzi. 
Guercino  (Giovanni  Francesco  Bar- 

bieri) 297 

Gueret 297 

Guericke,   Heinrich    Ernst   Ferdi- 
nand   297 

Guericke,  Otto  von 298 

Guerin,  Jean  Baptiste  Paulin 298 

Guerin-Meneville,  Felix  Edouard...  298 

Guernsey 298 

Guernsey  co 298 

Gueroult,  Adolphe 298 

Guerrazzi,  Francesco  Domenico. . . .  299 

Guerrero 299 

Guerrero,  Vicente 2<J9 

Guesclin.    See  Du  Guesclin. 

Guess,  George 800 

Guettee,  Wladimir 800 

Guggenbuhl,  Louis 800 

Guiana 800 

Guiana,  British 802 

Guiana,  Dutch 808 

Guiana,  French 808 

Guicciardini,  Francesco 808 

Guiccioli,  Teresa,  Countess 803 

Guicowar,  Dominion  of  the 808 

Guidi,  Tommaso.    See  Masaccio. 
Guido  Aretino.    See  Aretino. 

GuidoBeni 804 

Guienne 804 

Guignes,  Joseph  de 804 

Guignes,  Chretien  Louis  Joseph.. .  804 

Guild 804 

Guildford 808 

Guilford  co 808 

Guilford 808 

Guilford  Court  House 809 

Guillemot 809 

Guillim,  John 810 

Guillotin,  Joseph  Ignace 810 

Guillotine 810 

Guilmeth,  Alexandre  Auguste 81 

Guimaraens 811 

Guinand 811 

Guinea,  a  coin 81 

Guinea 812 

Guinea,  Gulf  of 813 

Guinea  Fowl 81: 

Guinea  Grass 811 

Guinea  Pig 818 

Guinea  Worm.    See  Entozoa. 

Guipuzcoa 814 

Guiscard,  Robert 81 

Guiscard,  Karl  Gottlieb 815 

Guise fl* 

Guise,  House  of. »15 

Guise,  Claude  de  Lorraine,  Duke  of,  815 
Guise,  Francois  de  Lorraine,  Duke  of,  815 
Guise,  Henri  I.  de  Lorraine,  Duke  of;  815 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 

Guise,  Charles  de  Lorraine,  Duke 

of.  . 816 

Guise,  Henri  II.  de  Lorraine,  Duke 

of.. 316 

Guise,  Louis  Joseph  de  Lorraine, 

Duke  of 816 

Guise,  Louis  de  Lorraine,  Cardinal 

de  (two) 816 

Guitar 816 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume.  316 
Guizot,  Elisabeth  Charlotte  Pauline 

deMeulan 818 

Guizot,  Marguerite  Andree  Elisa. . .  818 

Guizot,  Henrietta 818 

Guizot,  Pauline 819 

Guizot,  Maurice  Guillaume 818 

Gujerat.    See  Guzerat. 

Gulf  Weed.    See  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Gull 818 

Gull,  Sir  William  Whitby 820 

Gum 320 

Gum  Arabic 320 

Gum  Tragacanth 821 

Gum,  Cherry  Tree 321 

Gum  Mezquite 821 

Gumbinnen 321 

Gumbo 821 

Gum  Resins , . .  821 

Gum  Tree.    See  Black  Gum. 
Gun.     See   Cannon,  Musket,  and 

Rifle. 

Gun  Cotton 822 

G  underode,  Karoline  von 824 

Gunduk 324 

Gundwana.    See  Gonds: 
Gunnel.    See  Blenny. 

Gunnery 824 

Gunny 82T 

Gunpowder ^ 827 

Guns 882 

Gun-shot  Wounds 832 

Gunter,  Edmund 833 

Gunter's  Chain 833 

Gunter's  Line 838 

Gunters  Quadrant 884 

Gunter's  Scale 884 

Gunther,  Anton 884 

Gurley,  Kalph  Randolph 834 

Gurnard 884 

Gurney,  Sir  Gold  worthy 335 

Gurney,  Joseph  John 885 

Gurowski,  Adam,  Count 886 

Gunvhal 836 

Gurwood,  John 886 

Guryev 886 

Gustavus  1 837 

Gustavus  II 838 

Gustavus  III 339 

Gustavus  IV 840 

Gustrow 841 

Gutenberg,  Johann 841 

Guthrie  co 842 

Guthrie.  Thomas 842 

Guthrie,  William 842 

Guts  -  Muths,     Johann    Christoph 

Friedrich 842 

Gutta  Percha 843 

Gutzkow,  Karl  Ferdinand 845 

Gutzlaff,  Karl 845 

Guy,  Thomas 845 

Guyon,  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de  la 

Motte 846 

Guyot,  Arnold  Henry 847 

Guysborough  co 847 

Guyton  de  Morveau,  Louia  Bernard,  848 

Guzerat 848 

Gwalior 848 

Gwilt,  Joseph 349 

Gwinnett  co 349 

Gwinnett,  Button 850 

Gwynn,  Eleanor 850 

Gyges,  King 850 

Gymnasium 850 

Gymnastics 851 

Gymnosophists 856 

Gymnotus.    See  Electric  Fishes. 

Gyongyos 856 

Gypsies 856 

Gypsum 858 

Gyroscope 869 

Gyrowetz,  Adalbert 861 

Gyula 861 


H 


PAGE 

H 861 

Haarlem 3(52 

Haarlem  Meer 862 

Habakkuk 868 

Habeas  Corpus 863 

Habeneck,  Antoine  Francois 865 

Habeneck,  Corentin 365 

Habeneck,  Joseph 865 

Habersham  co 365 

Habington,  William 865 

Hachette,  Jean  Nicolas  Pierre 865 

Hackberry 865 

Hackee.    See  Chipmunk. 

Hackert,  Philipp 866 

Hackett,  Horatio  Balch 866 

Hackett,  James  Henry 866 

Hackliinder,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von,  867 
Hackmatack.    See  Larch. 

Haddingtonshire 867 

Haddock 367 

Hadersleben 868 

Hades 868 

Hadji 868 

Hadji  Khalfa,  Mustapha  Ben  Ab- 

dallah 368 

Hadley,  James 368 

Hadley,  John 869 

Hadramaut 869 

Hadrian,  Publius  ^Elius,  Emperor. .  870 

Hadrosaurus 870 

Hadrurnetum 871 

Hadziewicz,  Rafael 871 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich 371 

Haemoptysis 878 

Haemorrhage 878 

Haemorrhoids 874 

Haff 375 

Hafiz,  Mohammed  Shems  ed-Din . .  875 

Hagar 876 

Hagen 376 

Hagen,  Ernst  August 876 

Hagenau 876 

Hagenbach.  Karl  Rudolf. 876 

Hagerstown 876 

Hag  Fish.    See  Myxinoids. 

Haggai 877 

Hagiographa 877 

Hague,  The 877 

Hague,  William 878 

Hahn,  August 878 

Hahn-Hahn,  Ida  Marie  Luise  Sophie 

Friederike  Gustave,  Countess. . . .  878 

Hahnel,  Ernst  Julius 878 

Hahnemann,  Samuel  Christian  Frie- 
drich   878 

Hail 879 

Hailes,  Lord.     See  Dalrymple,  Sir 

David. 

Hainan 882 

Hainau 882 

Hainaut 882 

Hair 882 

Hair  Worm 384 

Haizinger,  Anton 884 

Haizinger,  Amalie 884 

Haje.    See  Asp,  and  Cobra  de  Ca- 

pello. 

Hake 885 

Hakluyt,  Richard 885 

Ilakodadi 886 

Halas 887 

Halberstadt 387 

Halbig,  Johann 887 

Haldane,  Robert 887 

Haldane,  James  Alexander 887 

Haldeman,  8.  Stehman 887 

Haldimand  co 888 

Hale  co 888 

Hale,  Benjamin 888 

Hale,  David 888 

Hale,  Edward  Everett 888 

Hale,  John  Parker 888 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew 889 

Hale,  Nathan  (two) 890 

Hale,  Sarah  Josepha 890 

Hales,  Alexander  of.   See  Alexander 

of  Hales. 

Hales,  Stephen 890 

Hal6vy.  Jacques  Francois  Fromen- 

thalftte. ..  ..891 


PAGE 

Halevy,  Leon 891 

Halevy,  Ludovic 891 

Halford,  Sir  Henry 891 

Haliburton,  Thomas  Chandler 891 

Halibut 892 

Halicarnassus 892 

Halicore.    See  Dugong. 

Halifax  co.,  Va . .  894 

Halifax  co.,  N.  C ..  894 

Halifax  co.,  Canada 894 

Halifax,  Canada 894 

Halifax,  Eng 895 

Halifax,  Earl  of.     See  Montague, 

Charles. 
Halifax,   Marquis  of.     See  Savile, 

George. 

Halim  Pasha.    See  Abd-el-IIalim. 
Haliotidaj.    See  Ear  Shell. 

Hall  co.,  Ga 896 

Hall  co.,  Neb 896 

Hall,  Tyrol 896 

Hall,  Wiirtemberg  ...  . .  896 

Hall,  Basil 896 

Hall,  Charles  Francis 397 

Hall,  Dominick  Augustine 897 

Hall,  Gordon 897 

Hall.  James  (two) 898 

Hall,  John  E 898 

Hall,  Charles  Edward 899 

Hall,  John 899 

Hall,  Joseph 899 

Hall,  Lyman 400 

Hall,  Marshall 400 

Hall,  Newman 40u 

Hall,  Robert 400 

Hall,  Samuel  Carter 401 

Hall,  Anne  Maria  Fielding 401 

Hallam,  Henry 401 

Hallam,  Arthur  Henry 401 

Halle 402 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene 402 

Halleck,  Henry  Wager 403 

Hallein 408 

Haller,  Albrecht  von 408 

Halley,  Edmund 404 

Halliwell,  James  Orchard 404 

Hallowell 404 

Hallow  Eve 405 

Halo 405 

Hals,  Franciscus 407 

Halstead,  Murat 407 

Halton 407 

Halyburton,  Thomas 407 

Halys 407 

Ham,  a  town 407 

Ham 408 

Hamadan 408 

Hamah 408 

Haman 409 

Hamann,  Johann  Georg 409 

Hambach 409 

Hamblen  co 410 

Hamburg 410 

Hameln 411 

Hamerling,  Robert 412 

Hamerton,  Philip  Gilbert 412 

Hamilcar  Barca ,.  412 

Hamilton  co.,  N.  Y 412 

Hamilton  co.,  Fla 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Texas 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Tenn 413 

Hamilton  co.,  Ohio 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Ind 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Ill 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Iowa 418 

Hamilton  co.,  Neb 418 

Hamilton,  N.  Y 418 

Hamilton,  Ohio 414 

Hamilton,  Nev 414 

Hamilton,  Canada 414 

Hamilton,  Scotland 415 

Hamilton,  Alexander 415 

Hamilton,  Count  Anthony 420 

Hamilton,  Elizabeth 420 

Hamilton,  Gavin 420 

Hamilton,  James 420 

Hamilton,  Robert 421 

Hamilton,  William 421 

Hamilton,  Sir  William 421 

Hamilton,  Emma  Lyon,  Lady 421 

Hamilton,  Sir  William 429 

Hamilton,  William  Gerard 428 


CONTENTS 


PAOK 

Hamilton,  William  Richard 423 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Eowan 424 

Hamilton  College 424 

Hamlet,  Prince . .   ...  425 

Hamlin  co 425 

Hamlin,  Hannibal 425 

Hamline,  Leonidas  Lent 425 

Hamm 426 

Hamme 426 

Hammer 426 

Hammer,  Julius 427 

Hammerfest 427 

Hammer-Purgstall,  Joseph  von. ...  427 

Hammersmith 428 

Hammond,  James  Hamilton 428 

Hammond,  Samuel 428 

Hammond,  William  Alexander 428' 

Hamon,  Jean  Louis 428 

Hampden  co 429 

Hampden,  John 429 

Hampden,  Ren  Dickson 430 

Hampden  Sidney  College 430 

Hampshire  co.,  Mass 430 

Hampshire  co.,  Va 430 

Hampshire 430 

Hampstead 431 

Hampton,  Va 431 

Hampton,  Eng 431 

Hampton,  Wade  (two) 432 

Hampton  Roads 432 

Hamster 433 

Hanau 433 

Hancock  co.,  Me 433 

Hancock  co.,  Va 484 

Hancock  co.,  Ga 434 

Hancock  co.,  Miss 434 

Hancock  co.,  Tenn 434 

Hancock  co.,  Ky 434 

Hancock  co.,  Ohio 484 

Hancock  co.,  Ind 434 

Hancock  co.,  Ill 484 

Hancock  co.,  Iowa 435 

Hancock,  John 435 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott 435 

Hand  co 436 

Handel,  Georg  Friedrich 436 

Haneberg,  Daniel 440 

Hangchow 440 

Hang-Nest.    See  Baltimore  Bird. 

Hango 440 

Hanifah,  Abu 441 

Hanka,  Venceslav 441 

Hankel,  Wilhelm  Gottlieb 441 

Hankow 441 

Hanley 441 

Hannay,  James 441 

Hannibal,  acity 441 

Hannibal 442 

Hanno  (two) 444 

Hanover  co.,  Va 445 

Hanover,  N.  H 445 

Hanover,  Ind 445 

Hanover 445 

Hanover   Court   House,  Battle  of. 

See  Chickahominy,  vol.  iv.,  p.  411. 

Hanseatic  League 447 

Hansen,  Peter  Andreas 448 

Hanson  co 448 

Hanssens,  Charles  Louis 448 

Hansteen,  Christopher 448 

Hants  co 449 

Hanway,  Jonas 449 

Hapsburg 449 

Haraforas 450 

Haralson  co 450 

Harar 450 

Harbaugh,  Henry 451 

Harbor  Grace 451 

Harburg 451 

Harcourt,  Sir  William  George  Gran- 

ville  Vernon 461 

Hardee,  William  J 451 

Hardeman  co.,  Texas 451 

Hardeman  co.,  Tenn 451 

Hardenberg,  Friedrich  von,  Baron. .  452 
Hardenberg,    Karl     August     von, 

Prince .7  452 

Harderwyk 452 

Hardback.    See  Spiraea. 
Hardhead.    See  Menhaden. 

Hardicanute,  King 453 

Hardin  co.,  Texas 453 


Hardin  co.,  Tenn 453 

Hardin  co.,  Ky '453 

Hardin  co.,  Ohio '453 

Hardin  co.,  Ill 

Hardin  co.,  Iowa '. ' '  453 

Harding,  Chester. .'  453 

Hardinge,  Henry,  Viscount. '.'.'.    '. '. '.  454 
Hardinge,    Charles    Stewart,   Vis- 
count,   454 

Hardouin,  Jean . . . 

Hard  wick,  Charles. '.'.'. 

Hardwicke,  Philip  Yorke,  Earls  of,  456 

Hardwicke,  Charles  Philip  Yorke, 

Earl  of P .'455 

Hardy  co 455 

Hare 455 

Hare,  Julius  Charles'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.     ..    457 

Hare,  Augustus  William !  458 

Hare,  Augustus  Julius  Charles..'.'."  458 

Hare,  Robert 453 

Harebell "  '  459 

Hare  Lip 459 

Harem 459 

Harfleur 431 

Harford  co .*".!!.'.'!  461 

Hargraves,  Edward  Hammond  ..'.."  461 

Haring,  Wilhelm 462 

Harington,  Sir  John 462 

Hariri,  Abu  Mohammed  Kasem  ben 

Ali 462 

Harlan  co.,  Ky 463 

Harlan  co.,  Neb 463 

Harlay,  Achille  de 463 

Harlem.    See  Haarlem. 

Harlequin 468 

Harless,  Gottlieb  Christoph  Adolf. .  463 

Harley,  Robert 464 

Harlingen 464 

Harlow,  George  Henry 465 

Harmattan 465 

Harmer,  Thomas 465 

Harmodius  and  Aristogiton 465 

Harmonica 465 

Harmonists.    See  Rapp,  Georg. 

Harmony 466 

Harms,  Claus 470 

Harness,  William 470 

Harnett  co 470 

Harnett,  Cornelius 470 

Harold  I.,  King 470 

Harold  II.,  King 471 

Haroun  al-Rashid 471 

Harp 472 

Harp,  a  mollusk 472 

Harper  co 472 

Harper,  Robert  Goodloe 472 

Harper  and  Brothers 478 

Harper's  Ferry 473 

Harpies 474 

Harpocrates.    See  Horus. 

Harpocration,  Valerius 474 

Harpsichord 474 

Harpy,  in  mythology.   See  Harpies. 

Harpy 475 

Harrier,  a  hound. 475 

Harrier,  a  hawk 475 

Barring,  Harro  Paul 476 

Harrington,  James 476 

Harrington,  Sir  John.    See  Haring- 
ton. 

Harriot,  Thomas 477 

Harris  co.,  Ga 477 

Harris  co.,  Texas 477 

Harris,  James 477 

Harris,  John 477 

Harris,  Thaddeus  William 478 

Harris,  Thomas  Lake 478 

Harris,  William 479 

Harris,  William  Torrey 479 

Harrisburg 479 

Harrison  co.,  Va 480 

Harrison  co.,  Miss 480 

Harrison  co.,  Texas 480 

Harrison  co.,  Ky 481 

Harrison  co.,  Ohio 481 

Harrison  co.,  Ind 4» 

Harrison  co.,  Iowa 481 

Harrison  co.,  Mo 481 

Harrison,  Benjamin 481 

Harrison,  John 481 

Harrison,  John 482 

Harrison,  WiJUam  Henry 482 


Harrodsburg' 433 

Harrogate 403 

Harrow 

Hart  co.,  Ga '.'. 

Hart  co.,  Ky 433 

Hart,  James  McDougal  t-;{ 

Hart,  Joel  T. . .  404 

Hart,  John 

Hart,  John  Seely "    484 

Hart,  Solomon  Alexander  ...  CM 

Hart,  William 

Harte,  Francis  Bret 486 

Harte,  Walter 486 

Hartebeest    See  Antelope. 

Hartford  co 435 

Hartford 486 

Hartford  Convention 489 

Hartlepool 490 

Hartley,  David '."  490 

Hartley,  David 491 

Hartmann,  Eduard  von 491 

Hartmann,  Moritz 491 

Hartshorn,  Spirits  of.     See  Ammo- 
nia. 

Hartsoeker,  Nicolaas 491 

Hartsville. 492 

Hartwick 492 

Harte '. 

Hartzenbusch,  Juan  Eugenio 498 

Harvard,John " 494 

Harvard  University 494 

HarvestFly 601 

Harvey  co .    608 

Harvey,  Sir  George 608 

Harvey,  William 608 

Harvey,  William ..604 

Harwich 604 

Harwood,  Edward 504 

Hasdrubal  (three) 604 

Hasdrubal 606 

Hase,  Karl  August. 605 

Hasenclever,  Peter 506 

Hasenclever,  Johann  Peter 505 

Hasenpflug,  Karl  Georg  Adolf 506 

Hashish.    See  Hemp. 

Haskelco 608 

Haslam,  John 505 

Haslingden 605 

Hasse,  Friedrich  Christian  August.  606 

Hasse,  Friedrich  Rudolf 506 

Hasse,  Karl  Ewald 606 

Hasse,  Johann  Adolf. 606 

Hasselquist,  Fredrik 606 

Hasselt 606 

Hastings,  a  viking 606 

Hastings,  Eng 607 

Hastings,  Canada 507 

Hastings,  Minn 607 

Hastings,  Francis  Rawdon  Hastings, 

Marquis  of. 607 

Hastings,  Warren 608 

Hat...     509 

Hatras 512 

Hatteraa.    See  Cape  Hatteras. 

Hatti-Sherif. 618 

Hauch,  Johannes  Carsten  von 518 

Haug,  Martin 618 

Haughton,  William 518 

Hauksbee,  Francis 518 

Haupt,  Moritz 518 

Hauptmann,  Moritz 514 

Haureau,  Jean  Barthelemy 514 

Hauser,  Kaspar 614 

Hausser,  Ludwig 515 

Haussmann,GeorgesEugene,Baron,  515 

Hautboy 515 

Haute-Garonne 516 

Haute-Loire 516 

Haute-Marne 516 

Hautes-Alpes 616 

Haute-Saone 616 

Haute-Savoie 616 

Hautes-Pyrenees 517 

Haute- Vienna 617 

Haut-Rhin 517 

Hauy,  Ren6  Just 617< 

Hauy,  Valentin 518 

Havana j» 

Havel 22 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry 621 

Haven,  Alice  Bradley. 6* 

Haven,  Erastus  Otta &» 


VI 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

Haven,  Gilbert 523 

Haven,  Joseph 528 

Haverford  College 528 

Haverfordwest 523 

Haverhill 528 

Haverstraw 524 

Havre 524 

Havre  de  Grace 525 

Hawaiian  Islands 525 

Hawes,  Joel 529 

Hawfinch 529 

Hawick 529 

Hawk 530 

Hawke,  Edward,  Baron 530 

Hawkesworth,  John 531 

Hawking.    See  Falconry. 

Hawkins  co ." 531 

Hawkins,  Benjamin  Waterhouse. . .  531 

Hawkins,  Sir  John 531 

Hawkins,  Sir  John 532 

Hawk  Moth 532 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister 533 

Hawk's  Bill.    See  Turtle. 

Hawksmoor,  Nicholas 534 

Hawkwood,  Sir  John 584 

Hawley,  Gideon 534 

Hawley,  Joseph 584 

Hawthorn.    See  Thorn. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel 535 

Hawthorne,  Sophia  Peabody 537 

Hawthorne,  Julian 537 

Haxthausen,  Franz  Ludwig  Marie 

August,  Baron 537 

Hay,  John    537 

Hay  Cold 537 

Hayden,  Ferdinand  Vande veer.. ..  538 

Haydn,  Joseph '. 538 

Haydn,  Michael 548 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Eobert 548 

Hayduks 544 

Hayel 544 

Hayes,  Augustus  Allen 544 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel 545 

Hayley,  William 545 

Haym,  Kudolf 645 

Haynau,  Julius  Jakob  von 546 

Hayne,  Isaac 546 

Hayne,  Paul  Hamilton 547 

Hayne,  Robert  Young 547 

Haynes,  John 547 

Haynes,  Lemuel 547 

Hayes  co 548 

Hays,  William  Jacob 548 

Hayti,  an  island 548 

Hayti,  a  republic 549 

Hayward,  Abraham 553 

Haywood  co.,  N.  C 553 

Haywood  co.,  Tenn 558 

Hazard,  Rowland  Gibson 553 

Hazardville,  Conn.    See  Enfield. 

Hazebrouck 558 

Hazel 554 

Hazleton 555 

Hazlitt,  William  (two^ 555 

Hazlitt,  William  Carew 655 

Head,  Sir  George 555 

Head,  Sir  Francis  Bond 655 

Headley,  Joel  Tyler 666 

Healy,  George  Peter  Alexander. ...  556 

Heard  co 656 

Hearing.    See  Acoustics,  and  Ear. 

Hearne,  Samuel 656 

Hearne,  Thomas 556 

Heart 657 

Heart,  Diseases  of  the 660 

Heart's  Content 566 

Heat 667 

Heath 579 

Heath,  William 580 

Heathfield,  Lord.  See  Eliott,  George 

Augustus. 

HebbeL  Friedrich 581 

Hebe 681 

Hebel,  Johann  Peter 681 

Heber,  Reginald 681 

Heber,  Richard 681 

Hebert,  Antoine  Auguste  Ernest. . .  582 

H6bert,  Jacques  Rene 682 

Hebrews 682 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the 699 

Hebrides 600 

Hebron ..  601 


PACK 

Hebrus.    See  Maritza. 

Hecatseus 601 

Hecate , 601 

Hecker,  Friedrich  Karl  Franz 601 

Hecker,  Isaac  Thomas 602 

Heckewelder,  John 602 

Hecla 602 

Hector 603 

Hecuba 603 

Hedding,  Elijah 608 

Hedge 604 

Hedge,  Frederick  Henry 605 

Hedgehog 605 

Hedjaz 606 

Heemskerk.    See  Hemskerk. 

Heer,  Oswald 606 

Heeren,  Arnold  Hermann  Ludwig. .  607 

Hefele,  Karl  Joseph  von 607 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich. . .  607 

Hegira 612 

Heiberg,  Johann  Ludwig 618 

Heidelberg 618 

Heidenheim 614 

Heights,  Measurement  of.    See  Ba- 
rometrical Measurement. 

Heilbronn 614 

Heiligenstadt 614 

Heim,  Francois  Joseph 614 

Heine,  Heinrich 614 

Heineccius,  Johann  Gottlieb 615 

Heinecken,  Christian  Heinrich 615 

Heinicke,  Samuel 615 

Heinse,  Johann  Jakob  Wilhelm 616 

Heinsius,  Antonius 616 

Heinsius,  Daniel 616 

Heinsius,  Nicolaas 616 

Heir 616 

Helder,  The 617 

Helen 617 

Helena,  Ark 617 

Helena,  Montana 617 

Helena,  Saint,  an  island.    See  Saint 
Helena. 

Helena,  Saint 618 

Helianthus.    See  Sunflower. 

Helicon 618 

Heligoland 618 

Heliodorus 619 

Heliogabalus.    See  Elagabalus. 

Heliometer 619 

Heliopolis 619 

Helios 619 

Helioscope.    See  Telescope. 

Heliostat 620 

Heliotrope 620 

Helix...   620 

Helix,  in  Conchology.    See  Snail. 

Hell,  Maximilian 620 

Hellas.    See  Greece. 

Helle 621 

Hellebore 621 

Hellen.    See  Greece,  vol.  viii.,  p.  187. 

Heller,  Joseph 622 

Heller,  Karl  Bartholomaus 622 

Heller,  Stephan 622 

Hellespont 622 

Hellin 622 

Helm.    See  Steering  Apparatus. 

Helmers,  Jan  Frederik 622 

Helmet  Shell 622 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  Ludwig  Fer- 
dinand   622 

Helminths.    See  Entozoa. 

Helmont,  Jan  Baptista  van 624 

Helmstedt 625 

Helmund 625 

HeloTse 625 

Helos 625 

Helots 625 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur 626 

Helsingborg 626 

Helsingfors 626 

Helsingor.    See  Elsinore. 

Heist,  Bartholomeus  van  der 627 

Helvellyn 627 

Helvetii 627 

Helvetius,  Claude  Adrien 627 

Helvoetsluis 628 

Helyot,  Pierre 628 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea 628 

Hematine 628 

Hematite.    See  Iron  Ores. 


PAOB 

Hemigale 628 

Hemiptera 629 

Hemling.    See  Memling. 

Hemlock 680 

Hemlock  Spruce 680 

Hemp \  631 

•Hempel,  Charles  Julius 634 

Hempstead  co 034 

Hemskerk,  Martin  van j  634 

Hemsterhuys,  Tiberius 634 

Hemsterhuys,  Frans 634 

Hen.    See  Cock. 

Henbane 684 

Henderson  co.,  N.  C ti85 

Henderson  co.,  Texas 685 

Henderson  co.,  Tenn 686 

Henderson  co.,  Ky 

Henderson  co.,  Ill 

Henderson 

Hendricks  co 635 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews ....      636 

Hengist 636 

Hengstenberg,  Ernst  Wilhelm. 
Hen  Hawk.    See  Harrier. 
Henle,  Friedrich  Gustav  Jakob. 

Henley,  John 637 

Henlopen,   Cape.     See  Cape  Hen 
lopen. 

Henna f 637 

Hennepin  co 638 

Hennepin,  Louis 638 

Henningsen,  Charles  Frederick 639 

Henrico  co 689 

Henrietta,  Anna 639 

Henrietta  Maria,  Queen 639 

Henriquel-Dupont,  Louis  Pierre...  640 

Henry  co.,  Va 640 

Henry  co.,  Ga 640 

Henry  co.,  Ala 640 

Henry  co.,  Tenn 640 

Henry  co.,  Ky 640 

Henry  co.,  Ohio 640 

Henry  co.,  Ind 641 

Henry  co.,  Ill 641 

Henry  co.,  Iowa 641 

Henry  co.,  Mo 641 

Henry  I.,  England 641 

Henry  II.,  England 642 

Henry  III.,  England 043 

Henry  IV.,  England 644 

Henry  V.,  England 644 

Henry  VI.,  England 646 

Henry  VII.,  England 647 

Henry  VIII.,  England 647 

Henry  I.,  France 658 

Henry  II.,  France 654 

Henry  III.,  France 654 

Henry  IV.,  France 655 

Henry  I.,  Germany 657 

Henry  II.,  Germany 657 

Henry  III.,  Germany 658 

Henry  IV.,  Germany 658 

Henry  V.,  Germany 659 

Henry  VI.,  Germany 659 

Henry  VII.,  Germany 660 

Henry,  Caleb  Sprague 660 

Henry,  Joseph 660 

Henry,  Matthew 661 

Henry,  Patrick 661 

Henry,  Philip 666 

Henry,  Robert 666 

Henry,  William 666 

Henry  the  Hermit 666 

Henry  the  Lion 666 

Henry  the  Navigator 667 

Henryson,  Robert 6(57 

Hensel,  Wilhelm 668 

Hensel,  Fanny 668 

Hensel,  Luise 668 

Hensel,  Wilhelmine 668 

Henselt,  Adolph 66S 

Henshaw,  John  Prentiss  Kewley. . .  66S 
Hensler,  Eliza.   See  Ferdinand  (Au- 
gustus Francis  Anthony). 

Hentz,  Caroline  Lee 668 

Henzey,  Leon  Alexandre 6&S 

Hepatica 668 

Hephsestion COO 

Hephaestus.    See  Vulcan. 
Heptarchy.    See  England,  vol.  vi., 

p.  607. 
Hepworth,  George  Hughes 669 


PAGE 

Hera.    See  Juno. 

Heraclea 669 

Heracles.    See  Hercules, 
lleraclidae.    See  Greece,  vol.  viii., 
p.  187. 

Heraclitus 670 

Heraclius 670 

Heraldry 671 

Herapath,  William 674 

Herat 674 

Herault 675 

Herault  de  Sechelles,  Marie  Jean  . .  675 

Herbarium 676 

Herbart,  Johann  Friedrich 676 

Herbelot,  Barthelemy  d' 676 

Herbert,  Edward 677 

Herbert,  George 677 

Herbert,  Henry  William 677 

Herbert,  John  Rogers 678 

Herbert,  Sir  Thomas 678 

Herbert,  William 678 

Herbivora 678 

Herculaneum 678 

Hercules 679 

Hercules1  Club 680 

Hercynia  Silva 680 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  von 680 

Hereditaments 681 

Hereford 681 

Herefordshire 681 

Herford 682 

Hering,  Constantin 682 

Heriot,  George 682 

Herisau 682 

Herkimer  co 682 

Hermann.    See  Arminius. 

Hermann,  Johann  Gottfried  Jakob,  682 

Hermannstadt 683 

Hermaphrodite 688 

Hernias  (two) 6S4 

Hermes.    See  Mercury. 

Hermes,  Georg 684 

Hermes  Trismegistus 684 

Hermit.    See  Anchoret. 
Hermitage    Wine.      See    France, 
Wines  of. 

Hennon 685 

Hermopolis  Magna 685 

Hermosillo 685 

Hernando  co 685 

Herndon,  William  Lewis 685 

Hernia 685 

Hernici 686 

Hernosand.    See  Wester  Norrland. 
Hero.    See  Heron. 

Hero,  in  mythology 686 

Herod  the  Great 686 

Herod  Agrippa  1 687 

Herod  Agrippa  II 687 

Herod  Antipas 687 

Herodes  Atticus.    See  Atticus. 

Herodian 687 

Herodotus 688 

Herold,  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand. . .  689 

Heron,  a  bird 689 

Heron,  a  philosopher 691 

Herophilus 692 

Herostratus.    See  Erostratus. 

Herpetology 692 

Herrera,  Fernando  de 695 

Herrera,  Francisco  de 695 

Herrera,  Francisco  de 696 

Herrera  y  Tordesillas,  Antonio  de,  696 

Herrick,  Robert 696 

Herring 696 

Herring,  John  Frederick x. . .  698 

Herrnhut.    See  Moravians. 

Herschel,  Sir  William 698 

Herschel,  Caroline  Lucretia 699 

Herschel,  Sir  John  Frederick  Wil- 
liam   700 

Hereent,  Louis 701 

Hersfeld ..  701 

Herstal 701 

Hertford  co...,                   701 

Hertford 701 

Hertfordshire 701 

Hertha 702 

Hertz,  Henrik 702 

Hertzen,  Alexander 702 

Heruli....                    703 

Herve....                                     ....  703 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Hervey,  James 703 

Hervey,  John "  703 

Hervey,  Thomas  Kibble. ...  708 
Hervey  de  Saint  Denis,  Marie  Jean 

Leon  de,  Marquis....  703 

Herwegh,  Georg 708 

Herz,  Henriette  703 

Herzegovina .".  704 

Herzen.    See  Hertzen. 

Hesiod 704 

Hesperides !!..'.*!.  "  705 

Hess,  Karl  Adolf  Heinrich' ! ! !       ."705 

Hess,  Karl  Ernst  Christoph 705 

Hess,  Peter  von 705 

Hess,  Heinrich  von  ...  ! !  705 

Hesse  (two) 705 

Hesse,  Adolph  Friedrich 706 

Hesse,  Nicolas  Auguste 707 

Hesse,  Alexandre  Jean  Baptiste  ...  707 

Hesse-Cassel 707 

Hesse-Darmstadt.    See  Hesse  II. 

Hesse-Homburg 708 

Hesse-Nassau 708 

Hessian  Fly ! .'  703. 

Hesychius,  Saint 709 

Hesychius  of  Alexandria 709 

Hesychius  of  Jerusalem 709 

Hesychius  of  Miletus 709. 

Heterocercal 709 

Heteropoda,     See   Nucleobranchi- 

ates. 

Heteroptera.    See  Hemiptera. 
Hetman.    See  Attaman. 

Heuglin,  Theodor  von,  Baron 710 

Hevelius,  Johannes 710 

Heves  co 710 

Heves 710 

Hewes,  Joseph 710 

Heyden,  Jan  van  der 710 

Heylin,  Peter 710 

Heyne,  Christian  Gottlob 710 

Heyse,  Karl  Wilhelm  Ludwig 711 

Heyse,  Johann  Ludwig  Paul 711 

Heyward,  Thomas 711 

Heywood 711 

Heywood,  John 711 

Heywood,  Thomas 711 

Hezekiah 711 

Hiacoomes 711 

Hibbard,  Freeborn  Garretson 712 

Hibernation 712 

Hibernia.    See  Ireland. 

Hibiscus 718 

Hiccough 714 

Hickes,  George 714 

Hickman  co.,  Tenn : 714 

Hickman  co.,  Ky 715 

Hickok,  Laurens  Perseus 715 

Hickory 715 

Hickory  co 716 

Hicks,  Elias 716 

Hicks,  Thomas 717 

Hidalgo 717 

Hidalgo  co 717 

Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  Don  Miguel. ...  717 
Hides.    See  Leather. 

Hierapolis,  Phrygia 717 

Hierapolis,  Syria 718 

Hiero'(two) 718 

Hieroglyphics 718 

Hieronymus.    See  Jerome. 

Hierophant 721 

Higginson,  Francis 721 

Higginson,  John 721 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth...  722 

Highgate 722 

Highland  co.,  Va 722 

Highland  co.,  Ohio 722 

Highlands 722 

Highmore,  Joseph 72 

Highway 723 

Hilarion,  Saint 728 

Hilary,  Pope 723 

Hilary,  Saint J28 

Hilda,  Saint 724 

Hildburghausen  (two) 724 

Hildebrand.    See  Gregory  VII. 

Hildebrandt,  Ferdinand  Theodor. . .  724 

Hildebrandt,  Eduard 724 

Hildegard,  Saint 724 

Hildesheim 725 

Hildreth,  Richard 725 


Vll 


PACK 

nnico 726 

Hill,  Ambrose  Powell. . . 

Hill,  Daniel  Harvey 

Hill,  Isaac 726 

Hill,  Rowland... 

Hill,  Rowland,  Viscount.!! 

Hill,  Sir  Rowland  . 

Hill,  Thomas ! 

Hillard,  George  Stilhnan 

Hilleh 

Hillel '.;  728 

Killer,  Ferdinand.... 

Hillhouse,  James 728 

Hillhouse,  James  Abraham ....  7 .'  > 

Hilliard,  Nicholas 728 

Hilliard  d'Auberteuil.  Michel  Rene,  72s 

Uillsborough  co.,  N.  H 7'29 

Hillsborough  co.,  Fla . .  729 

Hillsdaleco.... 

Hillsdale .'  729 

Hilo 729 

Hilton,  William 780 

Himalaya  Mountains 780 

HLmera 783 

Himilco  (two) 784 

Himmel,  Friedrich  Heinrich 784 

Himyarites 784 

Hinckley 786 

Hincks,  Edward 786 

Hincks,  Sir  Francis 788 

Hincmar 786 

Hind,  John  Russell 787 

Hindoo  Koosh 787 

Hindostan.    See  India. 

Hinds  co...,  ..  788 


Hinsdale  co 

Hinton,  John  Howard 

Hiogo 

Hipparchus 

Hipparchus.  See  Hippias  and  Hip- 
parchus. 

Hipparion 

Hippeau,  Celestin 

Hippias  and  Hipparchus 

Hippo 

Hippocrates 

Hippocrene 

Hippodrome 

Hippolytus.    See  Phaedra. 

Hippolytus,  Saint : 

Hipponax  

Hippopotamus 

Hiram 

Hiring 

Hirpini 

Hirschberg 

Hirst,  Henry  B 

Hirtius,  Aulus 

Hispania.    See  Spain. 

Hispaniola.    See  Havti. 

Histisea ." 

Histology 

Hit....     

Hitchcock  co 

Hitchcock,  Edward 

Hitchcock,  Charles  H 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  Allen .... 

Hitchcock,  Roswell  Dwight 

Hittorff,  Jacques  Ignace 

Hitzig,  Ferdinand 

Hoadley,  Benjamin  (two). . . 

Hoadley,  John 

Hoang-hai.    See  Yellow  Sea. 

Hoang-ho.    See  China. 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  Rockwood 

Hoare,  Sir  Richard  Colt 

Hoare,  William 

Hoare,  Prince 

Hobart,  John  Henry 

Hobart  Town 

Hobbema,  Minderhout 

Hobbes,  Thomas 

Hobby 

Hobhouse,  John  Cam 

Hoboken  

Hoche,  Lazare 

Hochelaga  co 

Hochheim.  See  Germany,  Wines 
of. 

Hochkirch 

Hochst 


188 


789 


740 

71" 
740 

Tin 
Til 
Til 
748 

T4:; 

741 
144 

T4t 

T1J 


788 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Hochstadt 752 

Hock.    See  Germany,  Wines  of. 

Hocking  co 752 

Hocking 752 

Hodeida 752 

Hodge,  Charles 752 

Hodge,  Archibald  Alexander 752 

Hodgeman  co 758 

Hodges,  William 753 

Hodgkinson,  Eaton 753 

Hodgson.  John  E 758 

Hoeven,  Jan  van  der 758 

Hof 753 

Hofer,  Andreas 753 

Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno 754 

Hoffman,  David 754 

Hoffman,  Murray 754 

Hoffmann,  Daniel 754 

Hoffmann,  Ernst  Theodor  Wilhelm,  755 

Hoffmann,  Friedrich 755 

Hoffmannsegg,  Johann   Centurius, 

Count 755 

Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  August 

Heinrich 755 

Hofhuf. 755 

Hofland,  Barbara 756 

Hofler,  Karl  Adolph  Konstantin . . .  756 

Hofmann,  August  Wilhelm 756 

HofwyL    See  Fellenberg. 

Hog 756 

Hogan,  John 758 

Hogarth,  George 759 

Hogarth,  William 759 

Hogg,  James 760 

Hogshead 760 

Hogue,  La.    See  Cape  La  Hague. 

Hohenlinden 760 

Hohenlohe,  family  of 761 

Hohenlohe,  Ludwig  Casimir 761 

Hohenlohe,  Friedrich  Ludwig,Prince  761 
Hohenlohe-Waldenburg  -  Schillings- 
furst,  Alexander   Leopold  Franz 

Emmerich 761 

Hohenlohe  -Waldenburg-Schillings- 

furst,  Chlodwig  Karl  Victor 761 

Hohenstaufen,  family  of 761 

Hohenzollern 762 

Hohenzollcrn,  family  of 762 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  Charles 

Anthony,  Prince 763 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,Leopold, 

Prince ...........  763 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  Charles.  763 
Hohenzollern  -  Sigmarlngen,      An- 
thony   763 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,    Frede- 
rick   763 

Holbach,  Paul  Henri  Thyry  d\  Bar- 
on   768 

Holbein,  Hans 764 

Holberg,  Ludvig,  Baron 764 

Holbrook,  John  Edwards 764 

Holcroft,  Thomas 764 

Holinshed,  Raphael 765 

Holland 765 

Holland,  North 765 

Holland,  South 765 

Holland,  Sir  Henry 765 

Holland,    Henry   Richard   Vassal!, 

Baron 766 

Holland,  Henry  Edward,  Baron. ...  766 

Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert 766 

Holland.  Sir  Nathaniel  Dance 7<>7 

Holland,  Philemon 767 

Hollar,  Wenzel 767 

Hollidaysburg 767 

Hollins,  George  N 767 

Hollis,  Thomas 767 

Hollis,  Thomas  (two) 768 

Holloway,  Thomas 768 

Holly 768 

Hollyhock 769 

Holman,  James 770 


PAGE 

Holrnboe,  Christopher  Andreas 770 

Holmes  co.,  Fla 770 

Holmes  co.,  Miss 770 

Holmes  co.,  Ohio 770 

Holmes,  Abiel 770 

Holmes,  George  Frederick 771 

Holmes,  John 771 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell 771 

Holothurians.    See  Sea  Cucumber. 

Hoist,  Hans  Peder 772 

Holstein 772 

Holston 772 

Holt  co.,  Neb 778 

Holt  co.,  Mo 773 

Holt,  Sir  John 773 

Holt,  Joseph 773 

Holty,  Ludwig  Heinrich  Christoph,  773 

Holtzendorff,  Franz  von 773 

Holy  Alliance 773 

Holyhead 774 

Holyoake,  George  Jacob 774 

Holyoke 775 

Holyoke,  Edward  Augustus 775 

Holyrood  Palace.    See  Edinburgh. 

Holy  Spirit  Plant 775 

Holy  Week 776 

Holywell 776 

Homburg 777 

Home,  Daniel  Dunglas 777 

Home,  Sir  Everard 777 

Home,  Henry,  Lord  Kames.     See 

Kames. 

Home,  John 777 

Homer 778 

Homestead 781 

Homicide 782 

Hommaire  de  Hell,  Ignace  Xavier 

Morand 783 

Hommaire  de  Hell,  Adele 783 

Homocercal.    See  Heterocercal. 

Homoeopathy 783 

Homoousians 786 

Homoptera.    See  Hemiptera. 

Hompesch,  Ferdinand  von 786 

Horns 786 

Honduras 787 

Honduras,  Bay  of 791 

Honduras,  British 791 

Hone,  William 798 

Honesdale 793 

Honey 793 

Honey  Ant 794 

Honey  Bee.    See  Bee. 

Honey  Dew 794 

Honey  Guide 794 

Honey  Locust 795 

Honeysuckle 795 

Honfleur 7f»6 

Hong 797 

Hong  Kong 797 

Honiton 798 

Honolulu 799 

Honorius,  Popes 799 

Honorius,  Flavius 801 

Hont  co 801 

Hontheim,  Johanu  Nicolaus  von. ...  801 

Hood  co 801 

Hood,  John  B 802 

Hood,  Robin 802 

Hood,  Samuel,  Viscount 802 

Hood,  Alexander 803 

Hood,  Thomas 808 

Hooft,  Pieter  Corneliszoon 803 

Hoogly,  ariver 804 

Hoogly: 804 

Hook,  Theodore  Edward 804 

Hook,  Walter  Farquhar 805 

Hooke,  Nathaniel 805 

Hooke,  Robert 805 

Hooker,  Joseph 805 

Hooker,  Joseph  Dalton 806 

Hooker,  Richard 806 

Hooker,  Thomas 806 


Hooker,  Sir  William  Jackson 807 

Hooker,  Worthington 807 

Hoole,  John 807 

Hooper, John 807 

Hooper,  William 808 

Hooping   Cough.      See  Whooping 

Hoopoe 808 

Hoorn gos 

Hoorne.    See  Horn,  Philip. 
Hoosac  Tunnel.    See  Tunnel. 

Hop 808 

Hope,  Thomas 810 

Hope,  Henry  Thomas 811 

Hope,  Alexander  James  Beresford.  811 

Hope,  Thomas  Charles 811 

Hope  and  Company 811 

Hopkins  co.,  Texas 811 

Hopkins  co.,  Ky 811 

Hopkins,  Edward 811 

Hopkins,  Esek 812 

Hopkins,  John  Henry 812 

Hopkins,  Lemuel 812 

Hopkins,  Mark 812 

Hopkins,  Samuel 813 

Hopkins,  Stephen 813 

Hopkinson,  Francis 814 

Hopkinson,  Joseph 814 

Hopkinsville 814 

Hoppin,  Augustus 814 

Hoppin,  Thomas  F 814 

Hop  Tree 814 

Hor 815 

Horace 815 

Horse 816 

Horeb.    See  Sinai. 

Horehound 816 

Horgen 816 

Horites 816 

Horizon 816 

Hormayr,  Joseph,  Baron 817 

Horn 817 

Horn,  a  musical  instrument 818 

Horn,  Cape.    See  Cape  Horn. 

Horn,  Gustaf,  Count 818 

Horn,  Philip  II.  de  Montmorency-  ' 

Nivelle,  Count  of. 818 

Hornbeam 819 

Hornbeam,  Hop 819 

Hornbill 820 

Hornblende 8-21 

Home,  George 821 

Home,  Richard  Hengist 821 

Home,  Thomas  Hartwell 821 

Home  d  Frog 822 

Horned  Pout 822 

Hornellsville 822 

Hornemann,  Friedrich  Konrad 822 

Homer,  Francis  .*. . .  828 

Homer,  Leonard 823 

Hornet 823 

Hornpipe 824 

Horrox,  Jeremiah 824 

Horry  co 824 

Horsa.    See  Hengist. 

Horschelt,  Theodor 824 

Horse 824 

Horse  Chestnut 828 

Horse  Fly.    See  Diptera,  vol.  vi.,  p. 

129.      ' 

Horse  Mackerel.  See  Tunny  (Amer- 
ican). 

Horsens 830 

Horse  Power 880 

Horse  Radish 880 

Horse  Shoe 881 

Horsetail 881 

Horsefleld,  Thomas 882 

Horsley,  John  Callcott 832 

Horsley,  Samuel 882 

Horta.. 832 

Hortense,  Queen.    See  Beauharnais, 
Hortense  Eugenie. 


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