Full text of "The American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge. Edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana"

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA

VOL, XL
MAGNETISM-MOTRIL,

522

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA:

GENEBAL KNOWLEDGE.

EDITED BY

GEORGE RIPLEY AND CHARLES A. DANA.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED.

VOLUME XL
MAGNETISM-MOTRIL.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

549 AND 651 BROADWAY.
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BKITAIK

1879.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the
Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, hi the year 1875, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the
Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Among the Contributors to the Eleventh Volume of the Revised Edition are

the following :

Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE, Washington, D. 0.
METEOROLOGY.

Rev. R. W. ALLEN, Cliftondale, Mass.

MASSASOIT.

HENRY CARET BAIED, Philadelphia.

MINT.
MONET.

Prof. C. W. BENNETT, D. D., Syracuse Univer-
sity.

METHODISM.

JULIUS BlNG.

MAKIE ANTOINETTE,

MAXIMILIAN, Emperor of Mexico,

MOLTKE, HELMITTH KARL BERNHARD VON, Count,

and other articles in biography, geography, and

history.

FRANCIS C. BOWMAN.

MARENZIO, LUCA.
MARSCHNER, HEINRICH.
MARX, ADOLPH BERNHARD.

EDWARD L. BTIRLINGAME, Ph. D.

MONK, GEORGE, Duke of Albemarle,

and other articles in biography and history.

Rev. CHARLES P. BUSH, D. D.

MISSIONS, FOREIGN (Protestant).

ROBERT CARTER.
MAHMOUD,
MAMELUKES,
MANN, HORACE,
MORMONS,

and other articles in biography and history.

JOHN D. CHAMPLIN, Jr.

MANUSCRIPT,
MNEMONICS,
MOROCCO,
Moscow,

and other articles in biography and geography.

Prof. JOHN A. CHURCH.
MINERALOGY.

Prof. E. H. CLARKE, M. D., Harvard University.

MERCURY (in Medicine),

and other articles in materia medica.

T. M. COAN, M. D.

MAUI.

MAUNA KEA.

MAUNA LOA.

MONCURE D. CONWAT, London, Eng.

MORLEY, HENRY.
MORLEY, JOHN.

JOHN ESTEN COOKE, Richmond, Ya.
MONROE, JAMES.

Prof. JOSIAH P. Cooke, Jr., Harvard University.

MOLECULE.

Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Michigan Univer-
sity, Ann Arbor.

MASTER AND SERVANT,
MILITIA,
MITTIMUS,
MORTGAGE,

and other legal articles.

Prof. J. C. DALTON, M. D.

MALPIGHI, MAHCELLO,
MARROW,

and medical and physiological articles.

EATON S. DRONE.
MAINE,

MASSACHUSETTS,
MINNESOTA,
MISSOURI,

and other articles in American geography.

Prof. THOMAS M. DROWN, M. D., Lafayette
College, Easton, Pa.

METAL.
METALLURGY.

ROBERT T. EDES, M. D., Harvard University.

Articles in materia medica.

W. M. FERRISS.

MATHEMATICS.
MOHAMMEDANISM.

Pres. WILLIAM W. FOLWELL, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
MINNESOTA, UNIVERSITY OF.

Prof. W. E. GRIFFIS, Imperial College, Tokio,
Japan.

MATSUMAE.
MIKADO.

J. W. HAWES.

MANITOBA,

MARYLAND,

MICHIGAN,

MISSISSIPPI,

MONTANA,

and other articles in American geography.

Hon. CHARLES C. HAZEWELL, Boston, Mass.

MARY STUART, Queen.

M. HEILPRIN.

MAIMONIDES, MOSES.
MARSI.
MASINISSA, King.

Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, LL. D., Smithsonian In-
stitution, Washington.
MAGNETISM.

CHARLES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D.
MECHANICS.

ROSSITER JOHNSON.

MAY, SAMUEL JOSEPH,
MEADE, RICHARD WORSAM,
MOBILE (war history),
MORKIS, WILLIAM,

and other articles in biography and geography.

Prof. C. A. JOY, Ph. D., Columbia College,
New York.

MANGANESE,
MOLYBDENUM,

and other chemical articles.

Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, Boston.
MAMMALIA,
MAMMOTH,
MOLLUSCA,

and other articles in zoOlogy.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME.

Rev. SAMUEL LOOKWOOD, Freehold, N. J.

MATER, ALFBED MARSHALL.

JAMES MCCARROLL, Esq., Montreal, Canada.

MONTREAL.

Prof. A. M. MAYER, Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology, Hoboken, N. J.
MICROSCOPE.

Prof. J. S. NEWBERRY, LL. D., Columbia Col-
lege, New York.
MINERAL DEPOSITS.

Rev. FRANKLIN NOBLE.

MANDBLAY,
MKRODACH,
MESSAPIA,
MONZA,

and other articles in biography and geography.

Rev. BERNARD O'REILLY, D. D.

MARTIN, Popes,

MISSIONS, FOREIGN (Roman Catholic),

MONACHTSM,

and other articles in ecclesiastical history.

Prof. S. F. PECKHAM, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn.

MALTHA.

Count L. F. DE POURTALES, Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

V. PBECHT.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

MINERAL WATERS, ARTIFICIAL.

RICHARD A. PROCTOR, A. M., London.

MARS,
MERCURY,
METEOR,
MOON,

and other astronomical articles.

Prof. A. RAUSCHENBUSCH, Rochester Theologi-
cal Seminary, Rochester, N. Y.
MENNONITKS.
MENNO STMONS.

Pfof. ROSSITER W. RAYMOND, Ph. D.

MERCURY.

METALLURGY (Ore Dressing).

MINE.

PHILIP RIPLEY.

MARIETTE, AUGUSTS EDOCABD.

MONT DE Pi&rfi.

MORGUB.

Prof. PHILIP SCHAFF, D. D., Union Theological
Seminary, New York.

MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP.

Prof. A. J. SCHEM.

MARK, SAINT,

and other articles in biography and history.

Rev. EDMOND SCHWEINITZ, D. D., Bethlehem,
Pa.

MORAVIANS.

J. G. SHEA, LL. D.

MlNNETAREES.
MODOCB.
MOHEGANS.
MOQUIB.

Rev. E. L. SMITH.

MASON, FRANCIS.

Prof. J. A. SPENCER, D. D., College of the
City of New York.

MATTLAND, SAMUEL EOFFEY,
MASKELL, WILLIAM,

and other articles in ecclesiastical biography.

Rev. WILLIAM L. SYMONDS, Portland, Me.

MANZONI, ALESSANDRO, Count.

MASSINGER, PHILIP.

MOLIERE.

MONTAIGNE, MICHEL, Seigneur de.

Prof. GEORGE THURBER.

MAGNOLIA,

MAPLE,

MELON,

and other botanical articles.

Prof. G. A. F. VAN RHYN, Ph. D.

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN EACES AND LANGUAGES,

MANICH^EANS,

MOAB,

and other archaeological, oriental, and philological

articles.

I. DE VEITELLE.

MALAGA,
MANILA,
MEXICO,

and other geographical and biographical articles.

C. S. WEYMAN.

MINIATURE PAINTING.
MOSAIC.

Prof. J. H. WORMAN, A. M., Assistant Editor
of "Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological,
and Ecclesiastical Literature."

MOFFAT, ROBERT.
MOGILA, PETER.

Gen. JAMES HARRISON WILSON.

MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA

MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM, the name given to the phenom-
ena displayed by magnets. If a bar of
slightly tempered steel be held vertically and
struck several blows with a wooden mallet, it
will acquire the property of attracting iron
filings at its two extremities. The same prop-
erty may be communicated from one bar of
steel to any number of similar bars, by rub-
bing one half of the length of each of the lat-
ter with the end of the former which was to-
ward the earth in the experiment above men-
tioned, and the remaining half with the other
end of the same bar. In this process a remark-
able fact becomes evident, namely, that the
bar which is employed to impart the magnetic
property loses none of its own power ; on the
contrary, if the process is properly performed,
it will become stronger ; and hence we deduce
the conclusion, that in magnetization there is
no transfer of any substance from one body to
another, but the development of a latent prin-
ciple. If a magnetized bar be suspended by a
fibre of untwisted silk, in such a manner as to
have perfect freedom of motion, it will assume
a N. and S. direction ; that is, it will exhibit
the phenomena called polarity. If to either
end of a magnetized bar thus suspended a
piece of soft iron be approached, attraction
will be exhibited between them ; when a simi-
lar bar is rolled in iron filings, the latter will
be found to adhere in thick clusters at the two
ends or poles, while none will attach them-
selves to the middle of the bar. If, instead of
presenting to the suspended magnet pieces of
soft iron, we bring near to its two ends in suc-
cession the two poles of another magnetized
bar, repulsion as well as attraction will be
exhibited-; and by an attentive study of the
phenomena we shall find that similarly mag-
netized ends repel, and dissimilarly magnetized
ends attract each other. These forces act at
great distances, through all interposed bodies,

and like gravitation diminish in intensity with
the square of the distance from each pole. If
a number of bars of soft iron be placed near
each other in the same straight line, and the
N. end, for example, .of a strongly magnetized
steel bar be brought near one end of the series,
each piece of iron will become magnetic and
exhibit polarity. The near end of the first
magnet will be a S. pole, the far end a N. pole,
and so on throughout the series, as follows :

N. S. N. 8.

S. N. S. N. 8. N.

When the magnet is removed, the polarity of
the iron bars ceases ; and when the pole of the
developing magnet is reversed, the polarity of
the whole series is also reversed. The develop-
ment of magnetism in this way is called induc-
tion, and by it we are enabled to explain many
facts which would be otherwise perplexing. In
accordance with this principle, we can assert
that a magnet does not attract soft iron in its
natural state, but that it first renders the metal
magnetic, and then the attraction takes place
between the dissimilar poles of two magnets.
Again, when we sprinkle iron filings on a paper
placed over a magnetic bar, they arrange them-
selves in beautiful curves radiating from each
pole and joining near the equator of the bar.
These lines result from the fact that each
particle of iron becomes by induction a sepa-
rate magnet, and attracts the adjacent filings,
their arrangement in this case being the same
as that of a series of small needles when under
the influence of the two poles of a magnetic
bar. The induction takes place readily in soft
iron, and disappears as soon as the inducing
magnet is removed, but not so with hardened
steel; though the effect is less powerful in
this, the polarity is permanent. The method
of making steel magnets of great^power, which
we have found from long experience the sim-

MAGNETISM

pleat and most etVu-ient, is as follows: Procure
say ten flat bars of good steel bent into the
usual form of a horse shoe; let these be well
hardened and fitted with their flat sides to-
gether so as to form a compound magnet.
Each of the members of this bundle may be
magnetized separately to a small degree by
supporting one of the legs on the lower end of
a long rod of iron held nearly perpendicular in
thi- latitude, and the other leg on the upper
end of the same rod ; or by rubbing one leg
with the N. pole of a magnetized bar and the
other with the S. pole. The several shoes, or
bars, being in this way feebly magnetized,
eight of them are joined together with their
similar polos in contact, forming a compound
magnet with which the remaining two bars are
to be magnetized to a higher degree. For this
purpose the latter are placed on a table on
their flat sides, the N. pole of the one in con-
taet with the 8. pole of the other, so as to form
a closed circuit; on any part of this circuit
the compound horse shoe is placed perpendicu-
lar to the plane of the table, with its N. pole
in the direction of the S. pole of the bar or
shoe on which it rests, and then caused to
slide in either direction entirely around the
circuit, care being taken to retain its per-
pendicularity. After having gone over the
surface of the two shoes in this way several
times, they are turned over without separating
their ends, and the process is repeated on the
side which was previously under. By this
method the two bars will receive a magnetic
power nearly equal to the sum of the powers
of tho eight magnets in the bundle. Next
these two bars are placed in the bundle, and
two others are taken out and subjected to the
same process. These in turn are put into the
bundle, and two others are taken out and
rubbed in the same way, until each pair of
bars has been gone over two or three times in
succession. By this method, with the most
feeble beginning, the magnetism of the several
shoes may be developed to their full capacity,
and a magnetic battery produced of great
power. A compound horse shoe of this kind
is the most convenient instrument for magnet-
-t might bars of hardened steel for prac-
tical uses. Suppose, for example^ we wish to
magnetize four bars, eadi 1C, indies long, an
inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick;
these are placed on their flat sides in the form
of a rectangular parallelogram with their ends
in contact ; the compound horse shoe is then
placed perpendicularly on the middle of one oi
the bars, and slid entirely around the parallel-
ogram several times in succession ; each bar is
then turned over in its place so as to bring its
lowt-r side upward, and the process repeated
care being taken to keep the horse shoe per
pendi'-ular to the plane- of the parallelogram,
and its poles in the same relative positions
<e of the bars. By this method, if the
compound horse shoe is sufficiently powerful
the four bars can be magnetized to saturation

n the course of a few minutes. If there are
but two bars to be magnetized, the parallel-
ogram is completed by joining the ends of
these with two similar bars of soft iron, and
the same process of rubbing performed as
before We have seen, in the article ELECTRO-
MAGNETISM, that the most powerful magnetic
induction is produced in soft iron by trans-
mitting around a bar of this metal a current
of galvanism, and that temporary magnets
of great power can be produced in this way.
The same method affords the readiest means
of strongly magnetizing steel bars. Whatever
may be the nature of the change which takes
place in iron at the moment of magnetization,
we are certain that it pertains to the atoms or
molecules of the body, and not to the assem-
blage of these as a whole. To be convinced of
this, it is only necessary to magnetize a steel
rod, for example a thick knitting needle, the
polarity of which will be exhibited near its two
ends, while no attraction will be manifested
near the middle. If however we break this
into two pieces, we shall find each half is a
perfect magnet ; the separated ends which
were previously joined together in the middle
o* the whole length will now exhibit polarity.
If each of these pieces be again broken in two,
we shall have four perfect magnets ; and how-
ever frequent the division or small the parts
into which the needle is divided, each part will
still exhibit a N. and S. pole. We may con-
tinue, at least in thought, this division, and we
have no reason to doubt that however far it
might be carried, the same result would be
produced. We infer from this experiment that
the reason why the middle of a bar exhibits no
magnetism is not that none really exists there,
but that it is neutralized by opposite polarities.
We are also certain that magnetization is at-
tended with at least a momentary motion of
the atoms of the iron. This is proved by the
fact that during the sudden magnetisation of a
bar of iron, by means of a current of elec-
tricity transmitted through a spiral conductor
enclosing the bar, a sound is emitted ; and if
the bar be rapidly magnetized and demagnet-
ized by an interruption of the current, a mu-
sical sound will be produced. This fact was
first noted by Dr. Page of the United States,
and subsequently experimented upon by De la
Rive, Becquerel, and others in Europe. The
fact that a change takes place in the molecules
is also rendered evident by an experiment of
Mr. Joule of Manchester, England, in which he
found that, although the whole capacity of the
iron bar did not change on being magnetized,
yet its dimensions varied, its length being in-
creased and its width correspondingly dimin-
ished. That the magnetic force resides on or
very near the surface of a magnet has been
shown by Jamin, who finds that for every
magnet there is a certain relation between the
quantity of magnetism and the solid and super-
ficial contents, such as to establish a limit be-
yond which a given bar cannot exert magnetic

MAGNETISM

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 7

power. (See Comptes rendus, Paris, June,
1874.) Again, in the magnetization of iron, it
is found that time is required to produce a full
effect, as if it were necessary that inertia
should be overcome ; and Mr. Grove has shown
that, in rapidly changing the polarity of a bar
by means of an alternating current of electri-
city, the iron increases in temperature. The
fact that a magnet heated to a white heat per-
manently loses its magnetism is well known ;
and in general the magnetism is diminished
by any elevation of temperature. Dr. Maggie
of Verona asserts that a circular plate of ho-
mogeneous iron, when magnetized, conducts
heat better in a direction perpendicular to the
line joining the poles than in the direction of
this line itself. It is also stated that iron
strongly magnetized resists the action of the
file in a greater degree than in its ordinary
state. It was formerly supposed that mag-
netism could be developed only in iron, nickel,
and cobalt; but we now know from the re-
searches of Faraday, that all bodies exhibit
signs of an inductive influence, provided the
magnetic power applied be sufficiently great.
From the results of his experiments, Faraday
was led to divide all bodies into two great
classes : those like iron, nickel, and cobalt,
which, on being suspended between the poles
of an electro-magnet, assume an axial direc-
tion, were denominated magnetic bodies, or
paramagnetic; while those which arrange
themselves at right angles to the magnetic
meridian were denominated diamagnetic. (See
DIAMAGNETISM.) The following series exhib-
its some of the last results obtained by Fara-
day on the magnetic and diamagnetic powers
of bodies, in which the angle of torsion neces-
sary to balance the force of a magnet expresses
the power of the various substances, volume
for volume, + representing the paramagnetic
bodies, and the diamagnetic : proto-ammo-
niate of copper, +134-23; oxygen, + 17'5;
air, + 3'4; nitrogen, + 0'3; carbonic acid
gas, 0-0; hydrogen, 0'1; glass, 18*2
pure zinc, 74'6; alcohol, 78-7 ; wax
86-73; nitric acid, 87-96 ; water, 96'6
sulphuric acid, 104-47; sulphur, 118
bismuth, 1967"6. Faraday discovered an
other remarkable evidence of the action of
magnetism on liquids and solids, as manifest
in the effect produced on a polarized beam of
light. Let a piece of gas pipe 18 inches long
be closed at each end with a plate of tourma-
line and filled with water. Let the axes of
the tourmalines be placed transversely, so that
the polarized beam of light which passes
through the first may not be transmitted
through the second. If while the apparatus
is in this condition the iron be magnetized by
a current of electricity passing through a long
wire helix surrounding the tube, the beam of
light will be partially transmitted by the sec-
ond tourmaline. It is evident from this result
that the magnetization of the iron has pro-
duced an effect on the particles of the liquid,

which has enabled them to react on the polar-
ized beam of light and to produce as it were
a twist in its plane of polarization. A simi-
lar result will be produced if the liquid be con-
tained in a tube of glass or any other sub-
stance, and placed between the poles of a pow-
erful magnet. To observe the effect however
in this case, the poles of the magnet should be
perforated for the transmission of the light.
A similar effect is produced upon solid trans-
parent bodies, and particularly upon heavy
glass of the silicio-borate of lead. The phe-
nomena of magnetism admit of being investi-
gated quantitatively and mathematically with-
out adopting any particular ideas as to the
fundamental nature of this force ; the most
complete investigations of this kind have been
those of J. Clerk Maxwell (" Treatise on Elec-
tricity and Magnetism," Oxford, 1873), who
has been able thus to show the profound sig-
nificance of Faraday's lines of force, and to
make some progress in the reduction of this
study to a dynamical science. Quite recently
Bichat has published a very extended experi-
mental investigation of this subject, and among
other things has established the fact that the
power of this magnetic influence diminishes as
the temperature rises. Faraday also discover-
ed the fact that crystallization exerts a con-
siderable influence upon the direction of crys-
tallized bodies placed between the poles of a
powerful electro-magnet ; Plucker found that
the axis of crystallization tended to assume the
axial or equatorial direction ; and Tyndall and
Knoblauch established the fact that if the mole-
cules of any body are more condensed in one.
direction than in any other, the magnetism will
act along this direction with greatest intensity.
If the substance is paramagnetic, the line of
greatest condensation will assume an axial posi-
tion ; if diamagnetic, the same line will come
into a state of rest in the equator. This is
shown by mixing carbonate of iron with gum
into a stiff paste, a disk of which being com-
pressed between the fingers, so as to give a
greater density in one direction, and afterward
suspended between the poles of a powerful elec-
tro-magnet, will settle with its line of greatest
condensation in the axial direction. If a simi-
lar experiment be made with a compound of
powdered bismuth and gum, the line of great-
est condensation of this factitious substance
will assume an equatorial position. Various
attempts have been made to show a direct
magnetizing influence in the solar beam to
develop magnetism in soft iron needles, and it
has even been asserted that the direct radia-
tion from the moon has a powerful disturbing
effect upon the needle of the mariner's com-
pass ; but the most delicate experiments made
by those best qualified for such investigations
have failed to exhibit any result of this kind.

MAGNETISM, Animal. See ANIMAL MAGNET-
ISM.

MAGNETISM, Terrestrial. Gilbert in 1600 was
the first to announce the bold hypothesis that

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

the earth is a great magnet, and that the need]
assumes a N. and 3. direction because it is at
by the dissimilar and repelled by th
tilar poles of the terrestrial sphere. H
tte<lthishvp<>th(-is i iy magnetizing ana
globes of steel ; but this illustration, though i
served in a general way to represent the phe
nomena, is not strictly correct. In the firs
place, the magnetism of the earth is not sym
metrical like that of a steel magnet, but is to
I Arable degree irregular; and secondly, i
is not permanent, but subject within certaii
limits to almost continual changes both in di
n and intensity. Indeed, the magnetu
ly ever absolutely stationary
fnun one moment to another, but is constantly
exhibiting minute variations. If the earth is a
magnet, the free needle at any place should as
same a definite direction ; but it does not fol-
low from the hypothesis that this direction
mu-t be the true north and south, since the
magnetic poles of the earth do not necessarily
coincide with its geographical poles. If the
two pole-* he in the same meridian with a given
'he needle will at that place point to the
true north ; but if the magnetic pole lie either
W. or E. of the meridian of a given place, the
S. end of the needle will deviate either E. or
W. of the true north, and the phenomenon
of the declination or variation of the compass
will be exhibited. That the needle does not
point to the true north had long been known,
and it was observed by Columbus in his first
voyage of discovery that the direction of the
i- not the same for all portions of the
4arth. Thousands of observations have since
been made to obtain the data for constructing
charts to represent for the use of the mariner
the declination in various parts of the earth,
if we assume that the earth is a great
magnet, it will follow that in passing from the
magnetic equator, the needle which is accu-
rately balanced, so as to settle horizontally at
the former pla<-e. will incline or dip as we ad-
vance to either pole. That this is really the
HIM discovered by Robert Norman in
Furthermore, if the earth is a magnet
should expert that the magnetic intensity
the strength of the action would not be the
wme at all po.i.ts of its surface, and this infer-
isiOsobeen found to be true. Bycount-
thc vibrations of a delicate dipping needle
we find that the strength of the magnetism of
he ...creases .as we go from the equator
ward th, pole. The magnetic intensity, how-
ever, exhibited by observations of this kind
not indicate as rapid an increase of force
approach the magnetic pole as might be
expected from such a distribution of magnet-
ism as would result from a magnetized sphere
ron. In conformity with the three majr-
'"nt* we have mention,-,! nanidv the
variation, the dip, and the intcnsi'tv, it !^'
tnagnetic condition of
Jl!! ''"V" ! irnob y ^ree systems of
lines supposed to be drawn on the surface of

the globe. These are as follows: 1, the line
drawn through all places where the needle
points to the true north or south, to 6 W., to
6 E., 10 W. and 10 E., and so on, called the
isogonic lines, or lines of equal variation or de-
clination ; 2, lines nearly at right angles to the
former, drawn through all places exhibiting
the same angle of dip of the needle, called iso-
clinal lines; and 3, a system of lines joining
all places having the same magnetic intensity,
and consequently known by the name of iso-
dynamic lines. It is a problem of much prac-
tical importance in regard to the art of navi-
gation, as well as to the study of the phenome-
na of terrestrial magnetism, that these three
systems of lines should be accurately deter-
mined ; and accordingly expeditions have been
fitted out by different nations almost expressly
for this purpose. All the observations, how-
ever, which have been made in regard to them,
indicate the fact that they are not permanent,
but are constantly undergoing a change, of
which the law is exceedingly complex. Hal-
ley's chart of declination for 1700 is very dif-
ferent from that of Barlow for 1833 ; and Han-
steen's dip chart for 1780 does not represent
the isoclinal lines of the present day. The
^reat practical object then of investigation in
;his branch of science is to discover the law of
;hese changes, in order that, the position and
! orm of these lines being determined for a
pven epoch, they may be calculated for any
future time. The phenomena were first refer-
red to a very small magnet at the centre of the
earth, the direction of which is subject to
Regular changes. Tobias Mayer, instead of
supposing a magnet to be placed at the centre
of the earth, conceived one to be situated at
ibout the seventh part of the earth's radius
rom the centre, and from this hypothesis he
was enabled to calculate the variation and dip
n places not far distant from those in which
hese quantities had been determined by actual
observation. Hansteen of Norway, who col-
scted an immense number of observations, en-
.eavored to represent the phenomena by the
lypothesis of two small eccentric magnets of
nequal strength placed at the centre of the
arth, giving rise to four magnetic poles, two
n each hemisphere. In order to represent the
anations of the needle, the poles of each of
hese two magnets were supposed to perform
revolution around an intermediate line, with
fferent velocities. Gauss of Gottingen, how-
rer, made the first rigid investigation of the
roblem m accordance with a definite plan.
' founded his research oil the assumption
hat the terrestrial magnetic force, or that
vnicn is exerted on a needle freely suspended
y its centre of gravity, is the resultant action
the magnetized particles of the earth's
ass. According to this assumption, the so v-
rning power which affects the needle is due
o the magnetism of the eartli itself, while the
brent perturbations to which the needle is
subjected are the results of extraneous forces

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

To give clearness of perception, he represents
magnetization as consisting in the separation
of two magnetic fluids, giving magnetic polari-
ty to each particle, or in other words in a re-
pulsive and attractive force acting inversely as
the square of the distance. No change would
be produced in the result by adopting the hy-

Eothesis Of Ampere, in which magnetism is
eld to consist of constant magnetic currents ;
nor would there be any difference if terrestrial
magnetism were ascribed to a mixed origin, as
consisting partly of actual electrical currents
and partly of permanently magnetized masses.
Starting from these assumptions, Gauss obtain-
ed a general mathematical expression for the
action of the whole globe on a magnetic needle,
however irregular might be the distribution of
the magnetism of the former. In other words,
he obtained an expression by which, if the dis-
tribution of the magnetism of the earth were
known, and the intensity of its action ascer-
tained with reference to a unit of distance and
intensity, the position of the needle and the
magnetic force by which it was acted upon
at any point could be determined ; and con-
versely, if the action of the earth on the needle
were known for a large number of places on
the surface of the earth, the distribution of the
magnetism might be considered the unknown
quantity, and might be approximately found
from the data thus afforded by observation.
In this way Gauss was enabled to give a meth-
od of constructing general charts to represent in
every part of the earth the magnetic declina-
tion, inclination, and isodynamic lines, the in-
tensity and direction of the magnetic force be-
ing known at a given number of places. The
data necessary for improved charts of this kind
have been furnished by the magnetic surveys
made in various parts of the world in recent
times, at the suggestion and principally under
the direction of the British association. By
repeating the construction of such charts for
different epochs, the secular changes in dif-
ferent parts of the earth will become known ;
and it is hoped that, in due time, if the sys-
tem of magnetic observations which has been
established should be continued, the law of the
changes will ultimately be fully ascertained.
The investigations of Gauss have shown that
the hypothesis of two movable magnets at the
centre of the earth does not explain the phe-
nomena of terrestrial magnetism. He defines
a magnetic pole to be the place at which the
needle points directly downward, or at which
the dip is 90. Indeed, he has pointed out
the very obvious fact, that if there be two
such points in the northern hemisphere, then
there must be somewhere between the two
a third point at which the needle would also
assume the vertical position. Gauss, how-
ever, arrives at the remarkable conclusion that
the place of greatest magnetic intensity does
not coincide with that which is usually de-
nominated the pole ; and it would appear that
there may be a diffused space in the northern

hemisphere around which the isodynamic lines
may be drawn, representing apparently at least
two centres of greater magnetic attraction.
These phenomena are best represented by the
hypothesis of magnetism due to currents of
electricity in the earth, but as yet no definite
hypothesis has been advanced as to the nature
of such currents. It is true, they have been
referred to thermo-electricity ; but how the
varying heat of the sun or the high tempera-
ture of the interior can give rise to currents
constantly circulating round the earth, of such
intensity and such flexures as would account
for the observed direction and intensity of ter-
restrial magnetism, has not yet even approxi-
mately been made out. What we have said in
regard to the magnetism of the earth princi-
pally relates to its state at a particular time.
We shall now briefly give an account of the
discoveries which have been made in regard to
the changes to which terrestrial magnetism is
subject; and for the data from which these
have been deduced science is indebted to the
several magnetic observatories established in
different parts of the earth. These are fur-
nished with improved instruments, which in
their present perfect state constantly record,
by means of photography, the minutest changes
in intensity and direction of the magnetic force.
The magnetic perturbations were at first sup-
posed to consist of two classes, namely, peri-
odical and fitful. Many perturbations, how-
ever, which had been regarded as fitful are
now known to recur at regular periods, and
are therefore not properly designated by this
term. The changes of terrestrial magnetism
are of three classes. The first consists in a
movement of the magnetic poles, around the
true poles of the earth, from E. to W. in both
hemispheres. This motion is inferred from
the secular changes which have been found to
affect the position of the magnetic lines, as
.well as from the secular changes in the posi-
tion of the magnetic needle at any given sta-
tion. The magnetic lines at any given epoch
present great irregularity of shape, because
very slight differences of magnetic declination,
due to local peculiarities, may largely affect
the position of the magnetic lines. But when
the changes of declination at any given station
are considered, they are found to correspond,
at least during the period within which sys-
tematic observations have been made, to an
oscillation such as would result from the mo-
tion of the magnetic poles around the true
poles of the earth in a period of between six
and seven centuries. Thus in 1576 the decli-
nation needle in London pointed 11 15' E. ;
in 1657 or thereabouts the needle pointed due
K ; in 1760 it pointed W. by 19 30'. The
westerly declination attained its maximum in
1819, when it amounted to 24f. Since then
the needle has been slowly travelling east-
ward, the present annual rate of decrease be-
ing more than 8'. The mean westerly decli-
nation for the year 1873 was 19 30'. Again,

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

in Paris, which lies 2 20' E. of London, th<
needle points! lue N. in 1663. Its subsequen
us have closely resembled those of the
London needle ; but the Paris needle ceased to
move westward as early as 1817, and attainec
a maximum declination of only 22$. Now il
unltiiie these facts with the changes ol
.dination, we see at once that they poin
to a movement of the northern magnetic pole
from a position between London and the N.
pole in the middle of the 17th century to its
present position in the extreme north of the
lean continent (or rather in the archi-
pelago which lies beyond those parts north-
ward i. Fur in the middle of the 17th century
the needle pointed northward, while afterward
it pi MM! iMl \\i-t\vard. Then the magnetic pole
lay at that time either directly beyond the N.
pole of the earth, or somewhere on (or near)
the arc joining London and the K pole. But
if the magnetic pole had lain beyond the true
pole, the inclination would have been much
less than that corresponding to a magnetic pole
at the true pole of the earth, that is, less than
61$. Instead of this, however, the inclina-
tion was much greater. Moreover, the incli-
nation, which would then have been at a mini-
mum had the magnetic pole been beyond the
true pole, appears to have then been at a maxi-
mum. For though exact observations of the
inclination have not been made during so many
years as observations of the declination, we
find that in 1720 the inclination was 74 42' in
London ; in 1800, 70 85' ; in 1865, 68 9' ; in
1870, 67 55'; and in 1873, 67 45'. The
northern magnetic pole was therefore between
London and the N. pole of the earth in the
middle of the 17th century, and has since trav-
elled westward, or in a direction from E. to
W. around the true pole. If we assume the
motion to be uniform (which is probably not
the case), and that the needle at Greenwich
responds uniformly to such motion (which is
certainly not the case), we may calculate the
period of polar revolution. Thus, taking the
magnetic pole as due N. in 1657, and in 1833,
according t i:,,Ws observations, as 95 W. of
Greenwich, we have for the period of revolu-
tion ^(18831857) years = 667 years about.
< ming Ross's estimate with the Paris
epoch, we get a period of ^(1833^-1663)
years = 644 years about. We may take 650
rears as a not improbable period of revolution
I may be added, as confirming the above, that
m Ku- M^netic inclination has now

iched a minimum, while in Peking it is in-
M cau-i- of this change is at pres-
ely unknown ; it has no analogy with
tier class of physical phenomena with
which we are acquainted. By a rough com-
n of the isothermal lines and the lines of
equal magnetic intensity, a general similarity
has been observed, and hence the two have
>een considered as referable to the same cause-

but it will be perceived that this analogy does
not hold, since the magnetic lines are in con-
stant motion, while the isothermal lines retain
very nearly a fixed position, or at least change
in comparison with the other lines with ex-
treme slowness. The second system of changes
has evident relation to the annual position of
the earth in its orbit round the sun, and its
revolution on its axis. These were at first
ascribed to the influence of the heat of the sun
on different parts of the earth ; but they have
the remarkable characteristic of exhibiting
notably the same amount in the southern
hemisphere as in the northern, and in the
tropical as in the temperate zones. The mag-
netic force is found to be greater in the months
of December, January, and February, when
the sun is nearest to the earth, than in those
of May, June, and July, when it is most dis-
tant from it ; whereas, were the effect due to
temperature, the two hemispheres would be
oppositely instead of similarly affected in each
of these two periods. We must therefore
ascribe the effect to the direct magnetism of
the sun itself, and consider it established that
this luminary like the earth possesses attract-
ing and repelling poles, and that the effects on
the needle result from the different positions
of the earth in regard to these centres of ac-
tion. The pole of the needle which is least
distant from the sun makes a deuble diurnal
movement in the following manner. It arrives
it its greatest western excursion four or five
hours before the sun passes the meridian of the
place, as if it were repelled ; it then turns east-
ward with increasing celerity, and reaches the
limit of its eastern excursion one or two hours
after that passage. As the sun passes the in-
ferior meridian, there is repeated in the night
the same variation as that which took place in
the day. To illustrate the action, let us sup-
pose two globes, a larger and a smaller, placed
upon the same plane, with their axes of revo-
lution not precisely parallel to each other, as
n the case of the earth and the sun ; and let
as further suppose that one globe is made to
revolve round the other, the axis of the former
being constantly parallel to itself. It is evi-
dent that in one half of the orbit of the mov-
ng globe the northern poles will be inclined
toward each other, while in the other half of
"he orbit the southern poles will be similarly
nclined; and if we further suppose that the
magnetic axis of the sun, as in the case of the
earth, does not differ very much from the axis
of rotation, we shall have an explanation of
the effects observed in the records of the diur-
nal motions of the needle. The K end of the
needle, which is attracted by the N. pole of
;he earth, will be repelled by the N. pole of
iie sun, provided it has dissimilar magnetism
to that of the earth, and consequently will de-
Jlme from the sun ; and as, on account of the
revolution of the earth on its axis, this lumi-
ary appears on the E. of every place in the
rthern hemisphere in the morning and on.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

the W. side in the afternoon, corresponding
variations in the needle will be exhibited. In
the other half of the year, for a similar reason,
the S. end of the needle will be affected in an
analogous but opposite manner ; the strength
of the magnetism of the earth will be increased
by the nearer approach of the sun, in the same
way that two magnets having their dissimilar
poles opposite each other are increased or
diminished in magnetic power by a diminu-
tion or decrease of distance. We are indebted
for the interesting discovery of the polar ac-
tion of the sun to Gen. Sabine of England,
who has had charge of the reduction of all the
magnetic observations of the English colo-
nial observatories ; and to Dr. Kriel of Aus-
tria for another of the same character, which
leads us to extend the principle of magnetism
to the moon. It is found that there is a varia-
tion of each of the magnetic elements corre-
sponding with the diurnal position of the moon
in regard to the earth ; but this resembles the
tides in exhibiting two maxima and two mini-
ma in the course of 24 hours, regularly chang-
ing in time with the motion of the moon in her
orbit around the earth. These phenomena in-
dicate that the moon is not magnetic per se,
that is, possessed of permanent magnetism, but
its magnetic condition resembles that of soft
iron developed by the continued but varying
inductive influence on account of change of
distance of the earth and the sun. That these
changes in the magnetic elements cannot be
due to heat in this case, must be evident, since
the temperature of the moon as a mass is but
little greater than that of celestial space. The
third class of variations, which was formerly
denominated fitful, is now known in a cer-
tain sense to be periodical. They were called
by Hnmboldt magnetic storms, and were found
by Arago to accompany the appearance of
the aurora borealis. Although it is impos-
sible to predict from our present knowledge
the recurrence of individual cases of these great
perturbations in the intensity and direction of
the magnetism of the earth, yet they are known
to increase in number and magnitude of ac-
tion within the period of a little more than
five years, and gradually to diminish .through
nearly an equal period, the whole cycle being
completed in a little more than 11 years. The
magnetic storms have been observed in the
most distant parts of the earth, and no doubt
can now exist as to their cosmical character.
The lunar influence of which we have just
spoken does not appear to participate in or be
connected with this inequality. The period-
icity of these apparently fitful variations of
magnetism was first pointed out by Gen. Sa-
bine, and has since been established by the in-
vestigations of Prof. Lloyd of Ireland, Dr. La-
ment of Germany, and by those of Prof. Bache
from the observations made under his direc-
tion at Girard college. But the most astonish-
ing result in regard to this class of perturba-
tions is that they coincide with the periodical

recurrence of the maxima and minima of the
spots on the sun. A German astronomer,
Schwabe, has established, by nearly 30 years of
unremitting daily observation, the periodicity
of this phenomenon. He finds that the solar
spots increase in magnitude for about 5 years,
and diminish through an equal period, the cy-
cle, as in the case of magnetic storms, being
completed in about 11 years. The discovery
of a connection of this remarkable kind gives
to magnetism a high position in the scale of
distinct natural forces, and assigns to it equally
with gravitation a truly cosmical character. It
is not impossible that the spots on the sun may
be connected with the falling into its gaseous
envelope of meteorites, and this suggestion is
favored by an observation of Mr. Carrington
of England, in which a remarkable appear-
ance was observed on the surface of the sun,
analogous to that which would have been pro-
duced by an occurrence of the kind we have
mentioned. Recently Prof. Loomis of Yale
college has published his analysis of the obser-
vations of many past years, apparently placing
beyond all question the existence of a connec-
tion between the sun-spot period, terrestrial
magnetic disturbances, and the frequency of
auroras. One of the most interesting ques-
tions belonging to the future of this subject, is
the possible existence of an association be-
tween the phenomena of the sun's colored
prominences and the magnetic activity of the
earth. Observations by Prof. Young of Dart-
mouth college seem to show the extreme prob-
ability of such an association. Moreover, the
observations which have been made on the
prominences, by showing a connection between
these objects and the solar spots, seem to force
upon us the conclusion that some relation ex-
ists between the colored flames and the phe-
nomena of terrestrial magnetism, since the
partial dependence of these upon the sun's con-
dition as to spots has been very nearly if not
quite demonstrated. It is not intended by
what has been said to convey the idea that
meteorological changes may not affect the po-
sition of the needle, and that even the magnet-
ic condition of the atmosphere, according to
the hypothesis of Faraday, may not produce
appreciable results ; but as yet the actions of
these appear to neutralize each other, and to
leave no definite record of their existence in
the course of periods of considerable length.
It is probable, however, that with the im-
proved photometrical instruments and a more
minute scrutiny of their records, the effects
due to these causes will be shown. Since the
agitation of the atoms of an iron bar is found
to favor the development of magnetism by in-
duction, it is not improbable that the magnet-
ism of the earth may be disturbed during the
continuance and shortly after the occurrence
of an earthquake.

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY. As shown in the
article ELECTKO-MAGNETISM, great magnetic
power is developed by passing a current of

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

galvanism around a bar of soft iron ; and since
in all cases a mechanical action is accompanies
by an equal amount of reaction, it is reasonable
to suppose that electricity ought to be evolved
by magnetism. Various fruitless attempts
were however made to obtain this result ; the
form in whi.-h tin- Affect was to appear was
unknown, and it was not till 1881 that Faraday
succeeded in exhibiting currents of electricity
in a \v ms of magnetic reaction. It

has also been stated in the same article that,
In ac< ith the theory of Ampere,

the mechanical properties of an ordinary mag-
net may be exhibited by currents of electricity
transmit! .-.I through spiral conductors; and
hence, in order to present the phenomena of
lass in the simplest form, we shall begin
with stating the fundamental facts of what is
called electro-dynamic induction, or electricity
i nd need by a galvanic current. 1. Let a por-
i a copp-r wire be extended in a straight
line horizontally, and the two ends at a dis-
tance be connected with a galvanometer so as
in a closed circuit in which a current may
be induced. Let also a portion of another
win-, connect. <! with a galvanic battery, be
placed parallel to the first, and a current sent
_-h it. If the wire transmitting the bat-
irrent be suddenly brought near the wire
connected with the galvanometer, during the
approach of the second wire toward the first a
current of the natural electricity of the latter
will pass through the galvanometer in a direc-
tion adverse to that of the inducing current.
2. The induced current continues only during
the motion of the inducing conductor ; when
the motion of this is stopped, the induced cur-
rent ceases, and while the current of the bat-
tery remains stationary and continues the same
in quantity and intensity, no perceptible effect
is exhibited in the adjoining wire. 3. When
the inducing current is suddenly moved away
from the tir-t wire, a current is observed to pass
through the galvanometer in the opposite direc-
I'oriuer induced current, or in the
same direction as the battery current. 4. Let
the two wires be placed parallel and near to
ach other, while the circuit of the battery
current is interrupted. If in this condition the
surrent from the battery be suddenly estab-
fh the inducing conductor, an in-
taced current of electricity will pass through
the galvanometer in a direction adverse to that
ry current ; or in other words, the
effect will I* the same as that of the approach
the battery current to the inducing wire as
1. 5. DviQg the continuance of the
' unimpaired strength and

<ty no dMurl-aii.-,. (lf the natnral dec _

'ining wire is perceived: but

ie moment the current of the battery is

rtopped | l,v a rupture of the circuit, a current

.-'h the galvanometer in the same

Jon as that of the current of the batterv

e phenomena are j,, accordance with

the hypothesis that dunii-r the transmission of

a current of electricity through a wire, there is
exerted in space on every side an inductive
action diminishing with the distance which
disturbs the natural electricity of any conduct-
ing matter which may be brought within its
influence ; that while the conductor remains at
rest within this influence an abnormal equi-
librium exists; and when the conductor is
removed from this influence, or when the lat-
ter ceases, the usual equilibrium is established
by a reverse motion. Since, according to the
theory of Ampere, magnetism consists of cur-
rents of electricity revolving at right angles to
the length of the magnetized bar, it follows
that analogous results ought to be produced
by magnetism; and for this purpose, instead
of the battery current in the last series of ex-
periments, let there be substituted a magnetized
bar held at right angles to the wire connected
with the galvanometer. 1. If this bar be sud-
denly brought down upon the wire perpendicu-
lar to its length, the galvanometer will indicate
a current in an opposite direction to the hy-
pothetical current in the lower side of the mag-
net. If the wire be E. and W. and the magnet
be held across it with its N. pole toward the
north, the current in the lower side of the mag-
net will be from the E. to the W., while the in-
duced current will be in an opposite direction,
i. e., from W. to E. 2. When the motion of
the magnet toward the wire is stopped, the in-
duced current ceases, and no sign of electricity
is exhibited so long as the magnet remains at
rest. 3. When the magnet is suddenly removed
from its proximity to the wire, a current in the
opposite direction to that of the first, that is, in
the same direction as .the current in the lower
side of the magnet, is indicated by the galvan-
ometer. 4. When a bar of soft iron is placed
across the wire at right angles, and this is sud-
denly magnetized, either by a galvanic current
or by touching its ends to the poles of a horse-
jhoe magnet, a momentary current is produced
n the wire in a direction opposite to that of the
lypothetical currents of the near side of the
magnet. 5. So long as the soft iron bar re-
mains at rest and its magnetism suffers no
change, no current is indicated by the galvan-
ometer^ but the moment the bar is umnag-
netized a reverse current takes place. The
two series of results we have given above are
precisely analogous; the latter being merely a
case of the former, in which the hypothetical
currents of the magnet are substituted for the
real current of the battery. All the effects
-hat we have described are produced with
nuch more intensity, when, instead of using
ctended wires parallel to each other, we em-
loy wires in the form of spirals, either flat or
ndncal. For example, to obtain an induced
rent of considerable intensity by means of
tism, we place on a rod of iron, say four
nclies long, a spool of long wire covered with
^ ] , may OCGU Py two inches of the
ph of the middle of the iron. If the two
f this rod projecting beyond the spool

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

be suddenly brought into contact with the two
poles of a horse-shoe magnet, an induced cur-
rent will be developed for a moment in the sur-
rounding wire ; and when the same rod is sud-
denly detached from the poles, a current in an
opposite direction will take place ; and in this
way a continued series of alternate currents
may be developed by alternately making and
severing the contact of the poles of the magnet
and the ends of the rod. A still greater effect
may be produced by causing the rod to revolve
on an axis at right angles to the middle of its
length, before the poles of the magnet, so that
each end in rapid succession may be brought in
contact first with the K and then with the S.
pole, and so on. Shortly after the discovery
by Faraday of the laws we have stated, Mr.
Joseph Saxton of this country, then a tem-
porary resident of London, afterward attached
to the United States coast survey, invented
(1832) the first machine for giving sparks and
shocks in accordance with the arrangement we
have just described. Instead of a single bob-
bin of wire on the middle of a straight bar,
he employed two, one on each leg of a bar of
soft iron bent into the form of a horse shoe,
which were made rapidly to revolve by means
of a multiplying wheel before the poles of a
magnet. At each half revolution the mag-
netism of the soft iron was entirely reversed,
and in this way a series of currents was in-
duced, of sufficient intensity to decompose
water, fire combustible bodies, and powerfully
to affect the nervous system. An instrument
maker in London, who was employed to con-
struct these machines, made a slight change in
the arrangement, which principally consisted in
placing the inducing horse-shoe magnet in a
vertical position, and in causing the spools of
wire to revolve in a plane parallel to its flat
side, instead of parallel to its poles. This
change, instead of improving the instrument,
produced an opposite effect, since the strength
of the induction was much diminished. The
author of it, however, succeeded by advertise-
ments, and an actual exhibition of it in France,
in attaching his name to the invention, to the
exclusion of that of Saxton. It is, however,
gratifying to see that in the German works on
the subject, and also in the better class of Eng-
lish publications, justice is done to the original
inventor. The next important series of inves-
tigations on this subject, after the original dis-
covery of Faraday, was by Professor Henry of
Princeton, now secretary of the Smithsonian
institution at Washington. He found that at
the beginning and ending of the galvanic cur-
rent in a long wire, an induced current was
produced by an action which has sometimes
been called the induction of a current on itself.
To illustrate this, let the circuit of a small
battery of a single element be closed by a short
wire of about a foot in length, dipping into
a cup of mercury. When the circuit is broken,
no spark, or but a very feeble one, will be ob-
served ; but if we now substitute for the short

wire one of say 100 feet in length and of con-
siderable thickness, a vivid spark will be ex-
hibited when the circuit is interrupted. To
obtain this result in the most striking manner,
we should employ a copper ribbon at least an
inch and a half wide and 100 ft. long, well
covered with two thicknesses of silk, and rolled
into the form of a flat spiral. At the rupture
of a battery circuit of which this forms a part,
a loud snap and deflagration of the metal will
be produced, when with a short wire, the bat-
tery remaining the same, scarcely any but a
very feeble spark would be observed. By this
arrangement several spires of ribbon react on
each other, and increase the effect. By coiling
a bell wire covered with silk of >600 or TOO ft.
in length into a spiral ring, the intensity will
be so much increased that shocks may be ob-
tained by means of a small galvapic battery of
a single element. If the same wire be coiled
into the form of an elongated spiral, and in
the centre of this a rod of soft iron be placed,
or what is better, a bundle of iron wire, the
intensity is still more exalted. In this case the
magnetic reaction is combined with that of the
current of galvanism, and the two actions be-
ing in the same direction conspire to increase
the effect. To produce, however, the most
powerful inductive apparatus, a bundle of var-
nished iron wires of about 15 in. in length, and
together forming a diameter of about an inch,
is surrounded with a coil of thick copper wire
well covered with silk of 300 or 400 ft. in
length. Around this, but separated from it by
a cylinder of glass or pasteboard soaked in
shell lac, is coiled a fine copper wire of 4 or 5
m. in length, care being taken that each spire
be well insulated from every other. When a
current of galvanism from a battery of even
a single element is transmitted through the
thick copper wire which surrounds the inner
core or bundle of iron wire, the latter becomes
magnetic; and at the instant the rupture is
made in the battery current, a sudden cessation
of the magnetism, as well as that of the cur-
rent itself, induces a current of great intensity,
though of small quantity, in the outer sur-
rounding fine wire. Each spire of the long
wire in this arrangement is subjected to the
inductive influence ; and the rapidity of mo-
tion of the electricity of the wire, were it not
for the increased resistance, would be in pro-
portion to the number of spires, or in other
words to the length of the wire. This appa-
ratus has received various ingenious improve-
ments, the principle in all cases remaining the
same. Dr. Page \vas the first to invent an ap-
paratus on this plan by which the rupture of
the battery current was rendered automatic ;
the magnetization of the iron core caused the
attraction of a small magnet attached to one
end of a lever which broke the circuit, and the
consequent disappearance of the same magnet-
ism allowed the end of the lever to fall into a
cup of mercury and thus again complete the
circuit. This instrument was much enlarged

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

ami improve.! l.y Kulunkorff of Paris, and was
Mill further jii-rfi-rti-d by an ingenious Ameri-

FKJ. 1. Lighthouse Machine.

can artisan, E. S. Ritchie of Boston. The es-
sential desideratum in the construction of this
instrument is the perfect insulation of the sev-
eral spires of wire, so that the
intense electricity which is pro-
duced may not strike across
from one spire to another ; and
Mr. Ritchie effected this by
means of an ingenious process
of winding, together with an
improved insulation. An ap-
preciable time is required to
overcome the resistance of the
wire and to give it a full charge
of the current of electricity,
and also to magnetize iron ;
hence in the instrument we
have described, when a single
battery is employed, the in-
duced current, which gives the
intense spark, is that which is
produced at the rupture of the
battery current. We can how-
increase the intensity at
tin- he-inning of the current,
ly employing a battery of a
number of elements, which,
producing electricity of greater
intensity, more suddenly estab-
lishes the current in the wire,
and more rapidly develops the
magnetism of the iron. The
improvements that have been
made of late in the construc-
tion of magneto-electric or in-
dootion machines have been so
iMUngattO warrant the hope
-hall eventually derive great advan-
tages from the powerful electric currents that

h* I

can thus be instantaneously generated, produ-
cing light, heat, or other effects in any locality
whither the conducting
wires are led. The ac-
companying figures il-
lustrate the forms of the
most notable machines
that have been con-
structed. The first is
the machine construct-
ed by the compagnie
cfalliance of Paris on
the plans of Clarke and
Nollet. In Clarke's ma-
chine, which is but a
slight modification of
Saxton's, two soft iron
cores, connected by cop-
per and iron bars, re-
volve rapidly in front
of the poles of a power-
ful horse-shoe magnet.
Around these cores is
coiled an insulated cop-
per wire, whose ends
are so connected with
a "commutator" that

the alternating currents of electricity circulate
always in the same direction through the exter-
nal circuit. In the machines of the Alliance
company the use of the commutator may be

FIG. 8. Wilde's Machine.

omitted if the currents are designed only for the
production of light, since in this case the rapid
reversals of the current are an advantage. In
bieraens's machine, fig. 2, invented in 1854, a

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

peculiar core replaces the double iron armature
of Saxton and Clarke ; this is a long cylinder
around which a wire is wound lengthwise.
The cylinder is made to revolve rapidly be-
tween the opposite poles of a series of horse-
shoe magnets ; the perpetually reversing mag-
netism induced in the core by the magnets is
carried in successive currents by the insulated
wire coil to the commutator, and thence through
the external circuit. In Wilde's machine, fig.
3, the external current from a small Siemens
machine, M, is made to pass through a large
coil, A B, enclosing a soft iron horse-shoe bar,
which is thereby magnetized and acts as a per-
manent magnet on a second revolving core, F,
larger than but similar to that of the smaller
apparatus. The latter core collects a much
more powerful current than that first pro-
duced, and this can be used to generate a third
or higher order of current; but with each
such increase of current we increase the power
required to turn the cores ; and 'though the
heat and light are magnificent, yet in no case
can we convert into electrical energy more than
a certain per cent, of the mechanical energy
consumed. In the machine devised by Ladd
in 1867, as shown in fig. 4, a principle has been
introduced suggested a short time previously
by both Siemens and Wheatstone. Two plates
of soft iron, B B', are so placed that if they
possess the least initial magnetism, as is ordi-
narily the case, then the rotation of the Sie-
mens armature, a', collects the currents, which
are at once led into the coils about B and B',
and thus elevate the original magnetism of the
plates to a high degree of intensity. Between
the opposite poles of the magnets rotates a
second Siemens armature, , which collects the

FIG. 4. Ladd's Machine.

current for the external circuit. Gramme's ma-
chine, invented in 1871, two views of which are
given in figs. 5 and 6, differs materially from
its predecessors in that it offers a really con-
tinuous current instead of rapid alternations.
This is effected by using a circular-ring of soft
iron, A A, for the core in which the magnetism
is to be induced. The coil of wire around the
core offers a continuous metallic circuit, di-
vided into numerous sections, the ends of the
wires in each so connected with radial metallic
523 VOL. XL 2

arms, R R, that as the ring rotates the induced
current flows continuously from these arms to
certain fixed metallic pieces in frictional con-
tact with them, and thence to the external cir-

FIG. 5. Gramme's Machine.

cuit. By dividing the current, one half may
be led back to the exciting magnets, SON,
and be used to increase the power of the ma-
chine. The effect produced by these machines
increases proportion-
ately to the velocity
of rotation up to an
unknown limit ; it
also increases with
the number of coils
encircling the ring
core. The machines
of the Alliance com-
pany have been em-
ployed for illumina-
ting purposes at some
French lighthouses,
and those of Wilde F IG . 6. Gramme's Machine,
have been similarly

employed in Great Britain. The Gramme ma-
chine has been used for the illumination of the
Victoria tower in London, and in the galvano-
plastic works of M. Christofle in Paris. Cur-
rents of different Orders. An induced cur-
rent, by its action on a third conductor, may
produce another current, and this another, and
so on. If we call the current of the battery
a current of the first order, the first induced
current is named that of the second order, and
so on. The discovery and investigation of the
principle and properties of currents of the dif-
ferent orders is mainly due to Prof. Henry.
On reflecting a little, it will be evident that
these currents cannot be produced immediately
by placing several straight wires parallel to each
other and passing a current of electricity through
one of them ; in this case the battery current
would act on the surrounding wires, and simply
produce in each of them an induced current of
the second order. To obtain, therefore, cur-
rents of the different higher orders, we employ
a number of flat spirals, through one of which
placed horizontally on a table is transmitted
the current from the battery. Immediately
above this, and separated from it by a stratum
of air or a plate of glass, is a second flat spiral,
the ends of which are connected with a third

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

spiral placed at such a distance as to be entire-
ly out of the influence of the battery current.
Placing on the third a fourth (the two being
separated as before by a plate of glass), and
joining the ends of this with the ends of a fifth
spiral, and so on, we shall have a series of
successive currents. The current of the first
order induced by the battery current induces a
secondary oomot in the second' spiral, which
passes through the third spiral, and, thus free
from the influence of the battery current, in-
duces a current of the third order in the fourth
spiral, which in turn, passing through the fifth
spiral, iii-luces a current of the fourth order in
the sixth, and so on. Since each induced cur-
rent must have a beginning and an ending, the
current of the third order must in reality con-
gist of two currents in immediate succession
ami in opposite directions, one produced at the
beginning and the other at the ending; and for
a similar reason a current of the fourth order
HUM consist of four currents in immediate suc-
cession and opposite directions. On this ac-
count currents of the higher orders do not
definitely deflect the needle of the galvanome-
ter, but merely give it a slight tremor ; the im-
in opposite directions follow each other
so rapidly that the inertia of the needle is not
overcome in the interval between the two.
The existence therefore of currents of differ-
ent higher orders could not be determined by
the galvanometer ; they however give intense
shocks, and also permanently magnetize steel
needles. This latter effect will be understood
when it is recollected that, although the series
of waves in different directions are the same in
quantity, they differ very much in intensity ;
that at the beginning of the agitation they
have much the greatest energy. Hence the
currents of different orders exhibit dominant
impulses in definite directions. If the direc-
tion of the battery current be represented by
+ . the current of the second order at the be-
ginning of the battery current will be repre-
sented by ; the dominant current of the
third order + , of the fourth , and so on;
while the series of dominant impulses at the
ending of the battery current will be +, +,
. + , , + . When a circular plate of cop-
per or any other conducting substance is inter-
posed between two spirals placed one above
nid a current from the battery is
transmitted through, for example, the lower
induced current at the ending of the
current "f the Lattery, in the upper spiral, will
affect the galvanometer as if no plate were in-
terposed, while the physiological effect, or the
P wer * & n * 8hocks i wi tf be entirely neu-
tralized. This remarkable effect is due to an
''nt in the interposed conductor,
w Inch i-i rendered evident by cutting out a slip
of the metal extending from the centre to the
circumference of the plate; or in other words,
hy removm- ,,m- of the radii of which the cir-
cular plate may he conceived to be made up,
mid thus interrupting the circuit, in which an

induced current otherwise could be produced ;
the shocks with the plate thus cut will be near-
ly as intense as when the plate is entirely re-
moved. The same effect takes place when in-
stead of the plates a third flat spiral is intro-
duced between the first and second spirals ; so
long as the ends of this spiral are separated, its
presence produces apparently no effect ; but if
the ends be closed so as to form a perfect cir-
cuit which can be traversed by the induced cur-
rent, the power of giving shocks is neutralized.
But the question naturally arises as to how the
current in the plate affects the current in the
upper spiral so as to destroy its power of giving
shocks. The explanation of this is to be found
in the fact, that while the current in the battery
tends to induce a current both in the plate and
in the spiral above it, each of these currents
tends to induce an opposite current in the con-
ductor of the other ; we may therefore consider
the upper spiral as being under the -h influence
of the current from the battery, and the
influence of the current of the plate ; but as the
current in the plate produces an equal inductive
action in opposite directions at its beginning and
ending, the only effect of it will be to prolong
the action of the induced current in the upper
spiral, or in other words, to diminish its inten-
sity, and hence to neutralize its power to give
shocks without perceptibly diminishing its ef-
fects on the galvanometer. These facts are
of importance in the construction, of the induc-
tive apparatus previously described ; for if two
points of two adjacent spires of the long wire
happen to be in metallic contact, so as to form
a closed circuit, the effect is the same as that of
the interposition of a plate or spiral between
the battery current and the induced current ;
the intensity of the latter will be neutralized,
and hence the necessity of the perfect insula-
tion of the several spires of the long wire.
For the same reason, if the iron core be en-
closed in a hollow cylinder of copper or any
other conducting metal so as to separate it
from the outer coil of long wire, the great in-
ductive power of the instrument will be neu-
tralized ; and it is also on this account that a
bundle of varnished iron wires is employed
for the core instead of a solid rod of iron. If
however the copper cylinder we have just
mentioned be interrupted by sawing out a thin
slip parallel to its axis, and the solid iron core
sawed down from its circumference to its cen-
tre, forming a saw-gash in the direction of the
radius and in the plane of the axis, the inter-
fering induced currents will be prevented. We
have stated that an induced current of con-
siderable intensity is generated in the conduc-
tor of the battery itself at the moment of the
rupture of the circuit. This also produces, on
the principle of the interposed plate, an ad-
verse action which tends to diminish the ener-
gy of the induction apparatus ; a defect in the
instrument which M. Fesso has remedied by
causing the rupture to take place in a cup of
mercury the surface of which is covered with

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

oil ; the current of the battery is interrupted
by drawing the end of the conductor out of
the mercury while it still remains in the oil,
which being a bad conductor stops in part the
induced current. A similar effect is pro-
duced by suffering the extra current to expend
itself on a large sheet of metal called a conden-
ser. The facts we have here stated have been
confirmed and extended by Masson, Yerdet, and
Acre of France, Dove, Wartmann, Riess, and
Lentz of Germany, Marianini of Italy, and De
la Rive of Geneva. Induced Currents from
Discharges of ordinary Electricity. When a
discharge from a Leyden jar is transmitted
through two spiral conductors separated by a
pane of glass or a stratum of air, induced cur-
rents analogous to those we have described are
generated of great intensity, and under favor-
able circumstances the effect may be exhibited
at a great distance. Prof. Henry succeeded in
magnetizing needles with induced currents at
the distance of several hundred yards, by stretch-
ing two long wires parallel to each other, and
transmitting a discharge from a Leyden jar
through one Of them. He also obtained induc-
tive effects of the same kind from the discharges
of the thunder cloud at a distance of several
miles. The direction of induced currents from
discharges of the Leyden jar is apparently very
capricious ; they do not deflect the needle of
the galvanometer, and the direction indicated
by the magnetization of needles, enclosed in a
small helix which forms apart of the circuit, is
subject to very complex variations. For exam-
ple, when the two conductors are near each
other, the direction indicated by the magnetiza-
tion of the needle is opposite to that of the cur-
rent from the jar. If the two parallel wires or
flat spirals be separated to a greater distance, the
magnetization of the needle will indicate either
a feeble current or one in an opposite direction ;
and if the distance be still further increased,
the opposite polarity of a greater intensity will
be exhibited. A change also in the direction
of the magnetization of the needle will be pro-
duced by an interruption in the circuit of the
induced current, or by the proximity of another
closed circuit. These results have led European
physicists to attempt to ascertain the direction
of the current by chemical decomposition and
other effects, but the results do not settle the
question or throw much additional light on the
character of the phenomena. Prof. Henry,
however, after a very extended series of experi-
ments, was enabled to refer them all to the pe-
culiarity of the electrical discharge from the
Leyden jar. This does not consist of a single
discharge from the inside to the outside of the
jar, as has been generally supposed, but in a
series of discharges forward and backward
alternately, until an equilibrium, as it were, is
established by a series of oscillations, decreas-
ing in intensity on account of the resistance
of the wire, until the normal electrical equi-
librium is attained. Induction in Masses of
Metal in motion. Arago in 1824 discovered

that when a copper plate -is made to revolve
rapidly immediately under a magnetic bar freely
suspended by an untwisted thread, the motion
will be communicated to the latter even through
a plate of glass ; and also that when a magnetic
needle is made to vibrate immediately over a
plate of copper, it will come to rest much sooner
than when the metal is removed. These facts
remained entirely isolated until Faraday showed
that they were the results of currents induced
in the plate by the action of the magnet. We
have seen that when a wire is made to approach
at right angles to a magnetized bar, a current is
produced in the former opposite to that of the
hypothetical current in the near side of the
magnet. A similar result must be produced
when a plate of metal is moved in the vicinity
of a magnetic pole. To illustrate this, let the
N". pole of a strong magnetic bar be placed
perpendicularly on the middle of an oblong
plate of copper, extended in a N. and S. direc-
tion ; while the bar retains this position, let
the plate be drawn in the direction of its
length, say southward, under the magnetic
pole. A magnetic bar thus placed with its N.
pole downward has hypothetical currents re-
volving around it from W. to E. on the K
side, and from E. to W. on the S. side. If the
plate therefore be moved southward, the N.
part, which is approaching the pole, will have
induced in it a current in an opposite direction
to that of the current in the magnet, which will
in this case be a current directed toward the
west, while the S. part of the plate receding
from the magnet will have currents produced
in it in the same direction as those in the mag-
net; but the currents on the S. side of the
magnet are moving toward the west, and hence
we shall have on both sides of the magnetic
pole of the bar currents directed toward the
west during the time the plate is drawn from
the north toward the south. If we reverse
the motion of the plate, the direction of the sys-
tem of currents will also be reversed. If the
poles of a horse-shoe magnet be furnished with
two pieces of iron so as to form acting poles at
a small distance from each other, and nearly jn
the same line, and between these a circular disk
of copper be made to revolve on an axis parallel
to the line joining the poles, so that the latter
shall be near the outer circumference, a system
of currents from the centre to the circumference
of the plate will be produced ; the radii of the
plate which are approaching and 'those which
are receding from the line joining the magnetic
poles will both conspire to produce this effect.
If one end of a galvanometer be brought in con-
tact with the axis of the circular plate, and the
other made to touch the circumference while it
is thus revolving, a constant current will be in-
dicated by the instrument. If the direction of
the revolution of the disk be changed, an oppo-
site current will be produced ; or if the velocity
of the rotation be increased, a corresponding
increase will be observed in the intensity of the
current. If the magnet employed in this ex-

18 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY

periment be one of soft iron and sud<l<

j a -al\ aiiic current, the popper disk pre-
viously put in rapid motion will instantly be
topped. Tin- current in the radii of the plate
which an- approaching the magnetic pole, being

ppoflfee direction to those in the magnet,
will In- repelled ; while those in the radii on the
other ride of the p<-lc, l.-in^ in the same direc-
tion with the current in the magnet, will be at-
tracted ; and hence the resultant action of all the
induced currents will he to stop the plate. A
himilar rc-ult is produced when a cube of cop-

ahoiit an inch in diameter is suspended
between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet,
and caused rapidly to revolve, from the un-

_r ..f a thread hy which it is suspended;
when th- magnet is suddenly excited, the revo-
lutinn ( .f the cube is instantaneously arrested,
and brought to rest without the least oscillation,
l ni momentum and consequently the iner-
tia of the mass were instantly annihilated. If,
in tin- case of the arrangement of the revolving
disk wt: 1 1 a vi- mentioned, a rapid motion be
communicated to it hy a train of wheels in op-
po*ition to the resistance between the induced 1
currents and the magnet, a considerable exer-
tion will be required to continue the motion ;
and since, according to the principle of the con-
servation of force, tin muscular power expend-
ed must produce some effect, and no change
is found in the condition of the metal after
the experiment, the conclusion was drawn that
the energy exerted was expended in generating
heat, the truth of which was established by
Foucatilt. The disk thus made to revolve in op-
position to the force of the magnet increases in
temperature, and soon becomes sufficiently hot
to set fire to an ordinary match. The Magnet-
ism induced from the Earth and the Sun. The
earth being a great magnet, currents of elec-
tricity HUM he induced in all conducting ma-
terial in which motion takes place at its surface.
These curn-nN are, however, of feeble intensity,
but their existence may be shown by connect-
ing the ends of a copper wire several hundred
yard- in h-nirth. cov.-r.-d with silk and wound

around a w I n cylinder of about 2 ft. in

with a galvanometer, and by suddenly
turning tin- -'^i- of th,- former from ahorizontal

D into the direction of the dipping needle.
Daring the downward motion of the. X. end of
the cylind.T, the LMlv.iriom.-t.-r will indicate an

1 current in an opposite direction to that
of the hypothetical current of the earth, and,
w-hen the motion is reversed, an induced cur-

r ' -tlt in 'he n ! -, t ;,.n as that of the current

in the earth. From this result it must be in-
ferred that elect rieal eurreiits are constantly

d hy tin- ma/m-t im of the earth, since

i th.- direction and position of a

an take place without devel-

! inductive action. Moreover, >im-r

i has been proved i" he a <rreat magnet,

t-xcrting a powerful action on the ear'h. the

i of th.- lattermust object it to an

inductive m-tioM. -imilar to that we have de-

MAGXOLIA

scribed in the revolving plate of copper. There
can be no doubt, in the present state of science,
that such currents actually do take place, but
their direction and intensity have not yet been
ascertained. But from the association of the
magnetic storms we have previously described
with the occurrence of the aurora borealis, and
also with that of the maximum number of
spots on the sun, we are led to the conclusion
that the three classes of phenomena are inti-
mately connected, and that they furnish a sub-
iect of cosmical research of perhaps as great
interest as any which have ever occupied the
attention of the scientific world.

MAGMFYIXG GLASS. See MICROSCOPE.

MAGXIN, Charles, a French author, born in
Paris, Nov. 4, 1793, died there, Oct. 7, 1862.
He received a brilliant education, and became
in 1813 assistant in the imperial library, and in
1832 one of the directors of that institution.
His theatrical criticisms in the Globe (1826-
'30), his lectures at the Sorbonne (1834-'5) on
the origin of the modern stage, and his various
writings won for him the praise of Sainte-
Beuve, and a seat in the academy of inscrip-
tions and belles-lettres. He also wrote poetry
and plays. His principal works are : Oritjiius
du theatre moderne (1838) ; Cauteries et medi"
tations (2 vols., 1843) ; Theatre de Hroswitlia
(1845, with text and translation) ; and Histoire
des marionettes (1852).

MAG\OLIA, a genus of trees and shrubs dedi-
cated by Linnaeus to Pierre Magnol, professor
of botany at Montpellier, France, at the close
of the 17th century, and who was the fir?t to
apply the term " family " to designate groups
of botanical genera. The genus is the type of
the Magnoliacece, a family as to the limits of
which botanists are not agreed ; as accepted by
Bentham and Hooker (Genera Plantaruni), it
includes nine genera, four of which, Magnolia,
liriodendron, illicium, and schizandra, are rep-
resented within the United States. In Mag-
nolia there are fourteen species, six of which
belong to Japan, China, and the Himalayas y
and the remainder to North America, including
Mexico. While a few are low shrubs, the ma-
jority are fine trees, some reaching the height
of 50, 60, and even 100 ft. ; there are both
evergreen and deciduous species, and nearly
all are ornamental by reason of their fine foli-
age and flowers. The leaves are alternate,
sometimes so crowded upon the stem as to ap-
pear whorled, entire, furnished with stout pe-
tioles, which when they fall leave broad scars
upon the stems ; the leaves proceed from cylin-
drical, acute buds, the integuments or protect-
ing bud scales of which consist of the large
deciduous stipules, which are adherent to the
base of the petioles ; the stipule of each leaf
envelops the succeeding leaf next above it,
which is folded lengthwise and rests against
the next stipular sheath, and so on ; the stipules
fall away as the leaves unfold. The flowers,
usually large, are solitary and terminal, and
are white, greenish yellow, or purple; they

MAGNOLIA

have three petal-like sepals, which fall early,
and six to twelve petals in two to four series ;
the numerous stamens are in many series upon
base of the receptacle, which is prolonged
to the centre of the flower ; the anthers are
ar, longer than the filaments, and open in-
cn-d ; the pistils are numerous, consisting of
one-celled, two-ovuled ovary, pointed with a
ort style ; they are densely crowded upon
e upper part of the receptacle ; in maturirig,
e ovaries become red, fleshy, and coalesce to
rm a compound cone-like fruit ; when ripe
each carpel (ovary) opens and liberates the
two seeds, which have a fleshy bright red coat,
and are for a while suspended by extensile cob-
webby threads, which the microscope shows
to be uncoiled spiral vessels. Bitter and some-
what aromatic properties pervade the genus,
and the flowers of some species are highly fra-
grant. Our most widely distributed species
is the small or laurel magnolia, or sweet bay
(J/. glaued), growing in swamps from Cape
Ann, Mass., to Florida, usually not far inland ;
in its northern localities it is only a shrub or
low tree with numerous stems from the same
root, and is deciduous ; but in some of the
southern states it grows 50 ft. or more high
and becomes an evergreen. The bark of the
young shoots is green, and the oblong leaves
are dark green above and pale or glaucous
beneath ; the globular white flowers are about
2 in. across and delightfully fragrant. The
fruit is 2 in. long. The bark of the root, the
cones, and the seeds, made into a tincture
with spirits, are popularly used in some parts
of the country as a remedy in rheumatism,
and have also been successful in diseases of a
typhoid character in the hands of physicians.
In the southern states, where the tree grows
sufficiently large, the wood has been used for
finishing the interiors of houses, for furniture,
and similar work ; it is of a mahogany color
and takes a good polish. The terminal shoots,
bearing a flower and a cluster of leaves, are
sold in large numbers in the streets of New
York and other^cities. Like many other plants
which grow naturally in swamps, the small
magnolia flourishes when transferred to the
drier soil of the garden, and may be trained to
form a perfectly symmetrical little tree. It is
surpri:?mg that a native plant of such great
merit should be so seldom seen in cultivation ;
there is a popular impression that it is difficult
to manage, which is no doubt due to the fact
that large numbers of plants, pulled up rudely
from the swamp, are each year sold in cities
by itinerant vendors ; such plants when set out
are sure to die. All of the magnolias are dif-
ficult to transplant from their native localities,
but trees raised from the seed in nurseries, and
several times transplanted, are quite sure to
succeed. The manner of propagating the spe-
cies in general will be found below. This spe-
cies blooms when only 4 or 5 ft. high ; it has
produced several garden forms, which differ
from the original in the size and shape of their ]

leaves ; one of these, Thompson's magnolia (M.
Thompsoniand), is said to be a hybrid between
M. glauca and some other, but it is apparently
only a large-leaved variety ; it is valuable on
account of its fine foliage and long continued
bloom. The next northernmost species, known

Laurel Magnolia (M. glauca).

as the cucumber tree (M. acuminata), is found
from western New York westward to Illinois
and southward to Georgia, and with one ex-
ception is the largest of all our magnolias,
reaching from 60 to 90 ft. ; it grows rapidly,
assumes a fine shape, and its abundant foliage
renders it valuable as an ornamental or shade
tree ; the leaves are thin, 5 to 10 in. long, ob-
long, pointed, and slightly downy beneath. In
this species the flowers add nothing to the
beauty of the tree ; they are bell-shaped, about
3 in. broad, and consist of twisted or straggling
glaucous green petals which are tinged with
yellow ; the fruit, which is about 3 in. long,
resembles when young a small cucumber; the
wood is like that of the tulip tree, but is less
valuable, and with builders ranks in usefulness
with that of the linden ; it is somewhat used
for the inside work of houses; in the western
states it is valued above all other woods for
making pumps and for pipes for conveying
water. The great-leaved magnolia (M. ma-
cropTiylla) is a still more southern species, S.
E. Kentucky being its northernmost locality,
whence it extends to Georgia and Florida, but
is rare everywhere ; it grows to the height of
30 or 40 ft., its trunk and branches clothed
with a white bark. This species is the most
remarkable in the genus for the size of its
leaves and flowers ; the ovate-oblong leaves are
narrow and heart-shaped at the base and from
2 to 31 ft. long ; the petals are 6 in. long, and
the open, bell-shaped flower 8 or 10 in. across,
pure white, with a purple spot at the base of
each petal, and somewhat fragrant ; fruit ovate,
It is quite hardy in New York and in some
parts of Xew England, and is worthy of being

MAGNOLIA

planted wherever it will endure the climate,
n,,. uini.n-iia tree i.i/. Mifovlfe), also a fcrge-
leaved species, has York and Lancaster coun-
ties, Pa., for its northern limit, and is found
in most of the southern states ; it rarely ex-
ceeds 30 ft. in height ; the leaves are pointed

i ends and from 1 to 8 ft. long; as they
are crowded in a circle at the ends of the irreg-
tree presents the appearance
expressed in it- .-..mmon as well as its specific
name ; the flowers are 6 to 8 in. broad, pure
white, ami lave a sweet, heavy odor, which is
disagreeable to most persons ; its large, rose-
colored cones are 4 to 6 in. long and showy.

a rather straggling tree, it can hardly be
ron-id. ! '! as very ornamental, although it is
an interesting species ; it is hardy near Bos-
ton ; it was formerly called M. tripetala. The
ear-leaved umbrella tree (M. Fraseri, and for-
merly M. auriculabi) occurs in Virginia, Ken-
tucky, and southward along the mountains ; it
grows 40 to 50 ft. high, and though it has some
resemblance to the preceding, it is handsomer
in all respects ; its oblong-obovate or spatulate
leaves are auricled or have an ear-lobe-like
appendage on each side at the base; tbey are
seldom over a foot long, and are crowded at
the ends of the branches in an umbrella-like

; the flower is about 6 in. across, white
and pleasantly fragrant. The only other de-
ciiluous native species is the yellow cucumber
'A cordata), a native of North Carolina
and Georgia ; it grows 40 or 50 ft. high, and
has oval or roundish leaves, sometimes slight-
ly heart-shaped at base, about 6 in. long; the
flowers are 4 to 5 in. wide and of a lemon-yel-
low color, which contrasts finely with the rich
green of the foliage ; though a peculiarly south-
ern -pecies, this has proved hardy in New
England. On r only perfectly evergreen spe-
cies is the great-flowered magnolia ( J/". grandi-
jforti), also called the great laurel magnolia,
which grows from North Carolina to Florida
and westward to Louisiana. Probably no other
American tree has had so ranch written in its

as this and it is deserving of all the

encomiums tli.tt have been bestowed upon it;

for whether we regard it as a forest tree or

as a garden ornament, it is unsurpassed for

n< 'Mi-ness and beauty. It reaches its greatest

<>n in lijrht fertile soils, and those who

nave only seen the few poor starved specimens

that linger along on its northern limits can

i "f the beauty of well developed

"\vs to the height of 60 to

ami when nut crowded by other trees

M a form a* regularly pyramidal as if it

had been shaped by art ; its oblong or obovate

leaves are very thick and leathery, of thedark-

al.ove and ni-ty-colored be-

'V'-n. r, to 1-J in. Im.-; the' flowers, 6 to

'.' in. across, are of the purest whin- and deli-

vant ; they are produced during

April and May. arid after they are <_'..ne the

ihow with tin,- affect airainst the

dark-green foliar-. The flowers turn brown

in fading, and the slightest injury to the petals
shows itself as a brown spot ; if the petals of
this or any others of the white-flowered mag-
nolias be written upon with a sharp point, the

Great-flowered Magnolia (M. grandiflora).

writing will soon become legible in distinct,

dark-brown characters. In some situations in

England this tree endures without protection,

but generally it needs the shelter of a wood or

buildings ; in this country Philadelphia seems

to be its northern limit, and there its flowering

is of rare occurrence ; in more northern locali-

ties it must be regarded as a greenhouse plant ;

in those states where it will not only live but

thrive, it is deservedly popular, whether planted

as single specimens or to line an avenue. A

number of well marked varieties have been

raised from seeds, differing from the type in

form of the leaves,

size of the flowers,

and other particu-

lars; one of these

raised in Georgia is

an almost continu-

ous bloomer. Sev-

eral of the exotic

species are common

in cultivation, while

others, at the north

at least, are only

greenhouse plants;

some botanists have

placed these in sep-

arate genera, but

they are proper

magnolias. The best

known of these is

si<_Miifyinir lily tree, which is often met with as
a shrul) flowering when only 3 or 4 ft. high,
but which grows to a handsome tree of 30
to 50 ft. ; the flowers, which appear in early

MAGNOLIA

MAGNUSSON

spring (April), before the leaves, are large,
white, and fragrant; the leaves are obovate,
pointed, and downy when young; the fruit,
by the suppression of some of the carpels, is
often contorted into most grotesque shapes.
This tree is quite hardy in a much colder
climate than that of New York, and for its
large, early, fragrant flowers is a favorite with
many, while others object to it on account of
its naked appearance when in flower ; there is
a celebrated specimen near Newburgh, over 30
ft. high, symmetrical in form, and when in
bloom its flowers are estimated by thousands.
It is a great favorite with the Chinese, who
dwarf it, as they do other trees, by cramping
the roots in small pots. A row of seedlings of
this magnolia presents a great variety in foli-
age, and some of these are retained in cultiva-
tion under distinct names. The purple mag-
nolia (M. purpurea) is a native of Japan ; in
cultivation it seldom reaches above 10 ft. ; it
has the same habit of early flowering with the
preceding species ; the large flowers are pink-
ish purple outside and white within ; the leaves
are of a bright dark green ; it is somewhat less
hardy than the preceding, and in cold localities
is treated as a greenhouse plant. Soulange's
magnolia (M. Soulangeana of the nurseries) is
a hybrid between the two just noticed; the
tree has the habit and hardiness of M. con-
spicua, while the purple tinge in the petals
shows its relationship to M. purpurea. Lenne's
magnolia, of comparatively recent introduction,
is supposed to be a variety of M. purpurea,
from which it differs in its finer foliage and
larger and more deeply colored flowers. Sev-
eral other species or varieties of this group are
in cultivation, but their value remains to be
ascertained. There are a few other exotic spe-
cies, but they are rare in our gardens. Camp-
bell's magnolia (M. Campbellii}, of the Sikkim
Himalayas, is described as a large tree with fine
foliage, and crimson and white floAvers rivalling
those of M. grandiftora in size and exceeding
them in beauty. M. Kobm and M. obovata are
Japanese species grown in greenhouses. M.
fuscata is a small evergreen shrub with much
the appearance of a camellia ; its brown stems
are hairy, and its flowers, which are brownish
red or purple, are exceedingly fragrant; the
French call it the black-wooded magnolia on
account of the dark color of its wood. This
species grows in the open air in Georgia and
other southern states, where it is highly prized
for its fragrance, and is generally known as
the banana shrub ; it there forms a dense bush
8 or 10 ft. high. The magnolias are readily
raised from seeds, which germinate better if
sown as soon as ripe ; if they are to be kept
till spring, they must be preserved in slightly
damp sand, for if allowed to become perfectly
dry they will not germinate. The difficulty of
removing wild trees has already been alluded
to ; they form but few fibrous roots, and hence
are usually looked upon by nurserymen as
plants very difficult to handle ; but if nursery-

grown plants are frequently transplanted du-
ring their growth, fibrous roots are formed,
and they can be removed with safety ; in some
nurseries the trees are grown in pots, and
these, though necessarily small, are quite safe
for the planter to purchase, as they may be
turned into the open ground without disturb-
ing their roots. Magnolias are also multiplied
by layers, but the tall-growing ones thus treat-
ed never produce handsome-shaped trees, and
those from seed are preferable. The rarer
kinds, especially the Chinese, are grafted upon
some species which grows readily from seed,
the cucumber tree (M. acuminata) being usu-
ally selected as the stock upon which to graft.
Inarching is also sometimes resorted to to mul-
tiply these plants. (See GEAFTING.)

MAGNUS, Ednard, a German painter, born in
Berlin, Jan. 7, 1799, died there, Aug. 9, 1872.
He studied in Berlin and in Rome, and became
known as a member and professor of the Ber-
lin academy and as a portrait painter. He pub-
lished Ueber Einrichtung und Beleuch tung von
JRdumen zur Aufstellung von Gemalden und
Sculpturen (Berlin, 1864), and Die Poly chromie
vom Tcunstlerischen StandpunTcte (Bonn, 1872).

MAGNUS, Heinrich Gustav, a German chemist,
born in Berlin, May 2, 1802, died there, April
4, 1870. He graduated at the university of
Berlin in 1827, where he became in 1834 ex-
traordinary, and in 1845 ordinary professor of
physics and technology. In 1828 he discovered
the compound formed of the elements of chlo-
ride of platinum and of ammonia, the first of a
series of combinations of the same substances,
and known as the green salt of Magnus. He
afterward published " Researches on Capil-
larity " and observations upon evaporation in
capillary tubes. Almost simultaneously Mag-
nus and Regnault made public the results of
their experiments upon the coefficient of the
dilatation of gases, the former on Nov. 25,
1841, and the latter on Dec. 13, 1841. In
1860-'61 Magnus published his experiments on
the transmission of heat through gases in the
double aspect of conductibility and radiation,
which led to a protracted controversy with
Tyndall. His last publication was a memoir
on the emission, absorption, and reflection of
heat by bodies at low temperatures. His lec-
tures continued till near the close of his life,
and for their illustration he formed the physi-
cal cabinet of the university.

MAGNUSSON, or Magnusen, Finn, an Icelandic
scholar, born in Skalholt, Aug. 27, 1781, died in
Copenhagen, Dec. 24, 1847. He studied at the
university of Copenhagen, returned to Iceland
in 1803, and practised as an advocate. In 1812
he went again to Copenhagen, where in 1815
he was appointed professor, and in 1819 began
to lecture in the university and the academy
of fine arts on the old Norse literature and
mythology. In 1842 he was made keeper of
the archives. He was the author of many ar-
chaeological works, of which the most impor-
tant are : Bidrag til nordislc Archceologie (Co-

MAdoFFIN

MAGPIE

penhagen, 1 *_>"), in which he maintained th
s\iii!i..liriU ideality of the Norse myths
which makes them aa appropriate as those o
- reeks for artistic representation ; '

Boreal inm Mythologies Lexicon e
>e Calendarium (1828); a translation and
-, atin of the elder Edda, ^Eldre Edda
otfTMt og fort' -Is., 1821-'3); an

,'<*ren og dent Oprindelte (4 vols., 1824-
;i exposition of the whole doctrine of
Ma from the standpoint of comparative
mythology. In connection with Rafn he pro-
diiced vrfftfaub hUtoriske Mindesmcerker (3
vols., 1838-'42), and Antiquite* nue* (2 vols.,
I860-'.")-' i. II-- also wrote a work on runes,
Runaino og Runerne (1841).

HAGOFFIV, an E. county of Kentucky, wa-
tered by Licking river; area, about 600 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,684, of whom 179 were
<!. The surface is hilly and the soil
moderately fertile. The chief productions in
1870 were 5,971 bushels of wheat, 174,591 of
Iuli:tn corn, 17,488 of oats, 10,660 of potatoes,
; Ihs. of wool, and 45,537 of butter.
Thero were 1,063 horses, 1,532 milch cows,
2,908 other cattle, 6,130 sheep, and 5,848
swine. Capital, Salyersville.

M \(.oo>, KlMia L., an American clergyman,
born at Lebanon, N. II., Oct. 20, 1610. He
was the son of an architect who was impov-
eri-hed by sickness, and obtained a good edu-
cation by his earnings as a bricklayer. He
was ordained in 1840, and immediately settled
at Richmond Va., as pastor of the second
Baptist church, where he remained six years,
and then made the tour of Europe. On his
return he became pastor of a church in Cin-
cinnati. Here he remained till 1849, when he
IMT.-UIIO pastor of the Oliver street Baptist
church, Xe\v York. In 1857 he was called to
the pastorate in Albany, and about 1860 re-
moved to Philadelphia, where he now resides
il-^Th. Mo formed a valuable collection of
pictures especially in water colors, which he
sold to Vassar college, Poughkeepsie. In 1853
Rochester university conferred upon him the
degree of D. D. His published works are-
n of the American Revolution" (New
York, lsis ); - Li vinff Orators in America"
1849) ; "Proverbs for the Peo-
ple ; (Boston, 1848); "Republican Chris-
; and Westward Em-
w York, 1866).
MiCOT. SeeMACA<,

M1CPIK, a oontaMtral bird of the crow fam-

the genus pica, (Briss.). The bill is

long and strong, about as high as broad at the

we, with oomprened sides, hooked tip, and

covered wah hri<v f, a th,rs nearly to its mi*

nill TS 1!* and r ? Unde<1 ' W ' ith the firs t

1 short, falcate, and attenuated, and the

fourth and tifth Marij equal and lon^st

>* very long a.,,1 graduated the W

J WttMfl learoeh more than half the n.i.l-

||;1 " ""' '"'"Mle toe, strong

with broad scales in front- toes

strong, and the hind one long, with curved
sharp claws ; a naked patch behind and below
the eye ; head without crest ; nostrils circular.
Nearly a dozen species are described, inhabit-
ing the old world and North America; they
are seen generally in pairs, but sometimes in
flocks, noisy and restless ; they will eat vege-
tables, grains, mollusks, worms, insects, and
even carrion, and destroy eggs and young
birds. The nest is made upon high trees or in
thick bushes, of large size, of coarse materials
plastered with clay, and softly lined with wool,
hair, and feathers; there is generally a kind of
roof over the nest, with a narrow entrance for
the birds. The common magpie of Europe
(P melanoleuca, Vieill.) is 18 in. long, with
an extent of wings of 2 ft., the tail 10 in.,
and bill 1 in. ; the plumage of the head,
neck, back, anterior part of breast, and abdo-
men black ; the rest of the breast and the out-
er scapulars white ; the tail and wings splen-
dent with green and purple, most of the inner
web of the outer quills white ; iris dark. This
elegantly formed and handsome bird is gen-
erally distributed in the wooded districts of
Europe ; in form it approaches nearest to the
jackdaw, but the wings are shorter and the
tail much longer. It is fond of coming near
human habitations ; the flight is rather heavy,
but moderately rapid; the notes are almost
"ncessant and hard ; the tail is elevated while
valking. The eggs are from three to six, about
by 1 in., of a pale green with brown and
purplish freckles, or pale blue with smaller
spots resembling those of the jay; it is fond of
milding in the same locality, and frequently in
the same nest. From its docility it is an agree-
able pet, though it has the propensity common
to the crow family of stealing whatever objects,

American Magpie (Pica Hudsonica).

and especially bright ones, may attract its at-
ention. The American magpie (P. Hudsonica,
tJonap.), though closely resembling the Euro-
pean, is a distinct species; it has a much

MAGUIRE

MAHAN

longer tail, is of larger size, with a thicker bill,
grayish blue outer ring to the iris, the feathers
of the throat spotted with white, and the hind
part of the back grayish. It is found in the
arctic regions, and, in the United States, down
to California.

MAGUIRE, John Francis, an Irish journalist,
born in Cork in 1815, died there, Oct. 31, 1872.
He was called to the Irish bar in 1843. He
was member of parliament for Dungarvon
from 1852 to 1865, and afterward for Cork
until his death. He was mayor of Cork at
several periods from 1853 to 1864, was pro-
prietor and editor of the " Cork Examiner," a
leading journal of the south of Ireland, and
took a prominent part in promoting the linen
industry. He published " The Industrial Move-
ment in Ireland in 1852 " (1853) ; " Koine and
its Ruler" (1857; enlarged ed., 1859), which,
still further enlarged, was published in 1870
under the title, " The Pontificate of Pius IX.,"
and for this he received a gold medal from
the pope; "The Irish in America" (1858);
" Life of Father Mathew " (1863) ; and " The
Next Generation," a political novel (1871).

MAGYAR, Las/16, a Hungarian traveller, born
in Szabadka in 1817, died in south Africa,
Nov. 6, 1864. He attended the naval school
at Fiume, entered the Brazilian navy in 1844,
and took part in the war between Rosas and
Uruguay. He went in 1847 to the Portuguese
settlements on the W. coast of Africa, and
became commander of the fleet of the negro
ruler of Calabar. Having familiarized him-
self with several negro languages, he left Sao
Felipe de Benguela, Jan. 15, 1849, and crossed
the table land of Nano to a comparatively low
country, Bihe, where he married the daughter
of a chief. On Feb. 20, 1850, he left his new
home with his wife and nearly 300 armed men,
crossed the river Kokema, and explored the
interior, reaching in 1851 the Cazembe river.
He went westward as far as the Liba river,
and thence northward to the city of Matiamvo,
testing his observations by travelling over the
same region in different directions. The Por-
tuguese government promoted him to a high
civil office at Sao Paulo de Loanda,with the
rank of major. The narrative of his travels
from 1849 to 1857 was sent to Pesth ; the first
volume was published in 1859 at the expense
of the Hungarian academy, and was translated
into German by J. Hunfalvy.

MAGYARS. See HTJNGAKT, vol. ix., pp. 55
and 62.

MAHAJT, Asa, an American clergyman, born
in Vernon, N. Y., in 1799. He graduated at
Hamilton college in 1824, and at Andover theo-
logical seminary in 1827, and was ordained
pastor of the Presbyterian church in Pitts-
ford, N. Y., Nov. 10, 1829. He was pastor of
the Sixth street Presbyterian (now the first
Congregational) church, Cincinnati, from its
organization in 1831 till 1835, when he became
president of Oberlin college, and professor of
intellectual and moral philosophy and assistant

professor of theology. In 1850 he was chosen
president of the Cleveland university, in 1856
became pastor of the Congregational church in
Jackson, Mich., and in 1858 of the Congrega-
tional church in Adrian, Mich., and in 1861
president of Adrian college, which post he re-
signed in 1871, continuing to reside in Adrian.
He has been a distinguished advocate of the
religious views known as Perfectionist, and
has published a work entitled " Christian Per-
fection." His other works are : " The Science
of Intellectual Philosophy " (New York, 1845) ;
"The Doctrine of the Will" (1846); "The
True Believer" (1847); "Modern Mysteries
Explained and Refuted," relating to spiritual-
ist manifestations (Boston, 1855) ; " The Sci-
ence of Moral Philosophy" (Oberlin, 1856);
and " The Science of Logic " (New York, 1857).
He has of late been engaged upon a work en-
titled " A Critical History of Philosophy."

MAHAN. I. Deimis Hart, an American mili-
tary engineer, born in New York, April 2,
1802, drowned in the Hudson river, near Stony
Point, Sept. 16, 1871. He graduated at West
Point in 1824, was appointed second lieutenant
in the corps of engineers, and was made assistant
professor of mathematics in the military acad-
emy. In 1825 he became assistant professor
of engineering, and in 1826 was sent by the
war department to study in Europe, where he
remained four years. In 1832 he was appoint-
ed professor of military engineering, which
post he held till his death. He received the
degree of LL. D. from William and Mary and
Dartmouth colleges and Brown university. His
death was by suicide, during a temporary in-
sanity resulting from his distress on learning
that the board of visitors had recommended
that he should be put on the retired list. He
published "Treatise on Field Fortifications"
(1836); "Elementary Course of Civil En-
gineering" (1837; rewritten, 1868); "Ele-
mentary Treatise' on Advanced Guard, Out-
post, and Detachment Service of Troops "
(1847 ; improved ed., 1862) ; " Elementary
Treatise on Industrial Drawing" (1853) ; "De-
scriptive Geometry, as applied to the Drawing
of Fortification and Stereotomy " (1864) ; and
" Military Engineering : Part I., Field Forti-
fications, Military Mining, and Siege Opera-
tions " (1865), and " Part II., Permanent For-
tifications " (1867). He edited, with addi-
tions, an American reprint of Moseley's " Me-
chanical Principles of Engineering and Archi-
tecture " (1856). II. Milo, an American clergy-
man, brother of the preceding, born at Suf-
folk, Nansemond co., Va., May 24, 1819, died
in Baltimore, Sept. 3, 1870. He was educated
at St. Paul's college, Flushing, L. L, took or-
ders in the Protestant Episcopal church in
1845, became rector of Grace church, Jersey
City, in 1848, and two years later assistant
minister in St. Mark's church, Philadelphia.
He was elected professor of ecclesiastical his-
tory in the general theological seminary of
the Episcopal church in 1851, a post which he

^ MAHANOY CITY

held for 13 years. In July, 1864, he became
Ts church, Baltimore. Dr.
pul.lished "The Exercise of Faith
(1851); "Ili-tory of the Church, first Three

tion" (1868). His works have
been collected, with a memoir by the Rev. J.
II. I!.,]. kins jr. (S vols., New York, 1872-'5).

HAIIA.XOY CITY, a boroogh of Schuylkill co.,
Ivania, su in. X. \V. of Philadelphia
and 56 m. N. E. of Harrisburg ; pop. in 1870,
6,583; in 1*7-1, including suburbs, about 10,-
600. It is in the Mahanoy valley, 1,211 ft,
above the sea, near the watershed between the
Delaware ami Susquehanna, in the midst of a
rich anthracite region. It has railroad com-
munication with Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and
York, by means of the Lehigh Valley
and Philadelphia and Reading lines. It is sup-
ported by the neighboring mines, which dis-
burse nearly $200,000 in wages monthly. It
has a large foundery, a national and a state
bank, two insurance companies, two public
hall.-, three large school houses, a public li-
brary, two weekly newspapers, and 13 church-
es. The tir>t houses were erected in 1859.

MAIIAM I)I)Y, a river of India, rising about
lat. 21 N., Ion. 81 E. It flows N. E., S. E.,
and E., through the provinces of Berar and
and falls into the bay of Bengal through
numerous deltoid arms which divide just be-
low Cuttack, where during the rainy season it
i- -2 m. l.n.ad; its principal mouth is in lat. 20
18', Ion. 86 40'. It is about 480 m. long, and
is navigable during tliQ rains 300 m. ; but during
five or six months of the year a large part of
nncl is dry, and it is fordable even at
Cuttack. Diamonds of the finest quality are
found in it and in its tributaries.

MA II ASK A, a S. E. county of Iowa, inter-
sected by the Des Moines and the N. and S.
fork- of Skunk river; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop.
'. -J-J..">08. The surface consists in great
part of K-vrl or undulating prairies, diversified
with woodlands and the soil is productive.
Coal and limestone abound. The Des Moines
Valley railroad and the Central railroad of
Iowa pass through it. The chief productions in
1870 were 354,7:12 bushels of wheat, 1,861,282
<>f Indian corn, Il7.1n9 of oats, 127,146 of po-
tatoes, 138,512 Ibs. of wool, 582,402 of butter
tons of hay. There were 8,924
horses, ;,'.7o mild, cows, 11,302 other cattle,
~'<>l swine; 7 manufac-
tories of carriages and wagons, 2 of marble and
stone work, ii of xl ,h. door* and blinds, 4
" '"ill-. !' Hour mills, and 4 saw mills.

MUMliun I.. Miltan of Turkey, a son of

Mustapha II., born in Constantinople, Aug. 6

1M6, d .:. 1754. 11,- WM rai^-l i,l

man thn.n.- in 1 T:M. after the deposi-

hi- uncle Ahmed III. The janizaries,

wno Ij : aL'.-iinst the latter and made

MAHMOUD II.

Mahmoud sultan, exacted from him a promise
to continue the war begun against Nadir Shah
of Persia. His military operations, however,
were disastrous, and he finally concluded a
peace in 1736. In the mean while the Rus-
sians had begun hostilities, and in 1737 they
took Otchakov and Kinburn, while their Aus-
trian allies invaded Wallachia. The latter were
however defeated by the Turks at Krotzka
on the Danube in 1739, upon which the
court of Vienna made peace on disadvanta-
geous terms, relinquishing not only what its
forces had recently taken, but also Belgrade,
captured during a former war. The Russians
obtained a more favorable treaty, retaining
all their conquests. In 1743 hostilities again
broke out between Persia and Turkey, and
were closed by a treaty unfavorable to the
latter. Notwithstanding the wars in which
his army was engaged, Mahmoud was a man
of peaceful disposition, and Turkey was com-
paratively well governed under him. He was
succeeded by his brothef Osman III.

MAHMOUD II., sultan of Turkey, the young-
er son of Abdul Hamed, born in Constanti-
nople, July 20, 1785, died there, July 1, 1839.
During his youth, passed in the seraglio, he
became familiar with Persian and Turkish lit-
erature, and is said to have manifested at an
early age a character of great firmness not un-
mingled with cruelty. His elder brother Mus-
tapha IV., who ascended the throne in 1807,
had ordered him to be put to death as a possi-
ble rival, when Ramir Effendi, paymaster of
the army, rescued him. Bairaktar, the pasha
of Rustchuk, raised an insurrection, deposed
Mustapha, and placed Mahmoud on the throne,
July 28, 1808* Bairaktar became grand vizier,
and with the sultan boldly attempted to carry
out those European military reforms for pro-
moting which Selim III., the predecessor of
Mustapha, had been deposed. The janizaries,
whose organization was threatened by this,
rose in rebellion, and stormed the seraglio.
Bairaktar blew himself up with his enemies, and
Mahmoud as a desperate measure ordered Mus-
tapha IV. and his infant son to be strangled,
and his four pregnant sultanas to be sewn in
sacks and thrown into the Bosporus. After a
long struggle amid pillage and conflagrations,
the rebels gained a victory, and the sultan was
obliged to submit to thoir demands. As he
was however the only living descendant of
Osman, they recognized him - as their ruler,
dreading the anarchy which must ensue should
the royal family become extinct. He now, un-
der very unfavorable circumstances, and with-
out resources, continued the war with Russia
and the Servians, until, when totally exhausted,
his divan concluded a treaty with the Russians
at Bucharest, May 28, 1812, by which the Pruth
became the boundary of the two empires, the
Servians receiving the promise of an amnesty.
From this time the daring and despotic charac-
ter of Mahmoud manifested itself with striking
effect, both in reforms at home and in wars.

MAHMOUD

MAHOGANY

abroad. The Wahabees of Arabia were sub-
dued by Ibrahim Pasha, the son of the viceroy
of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. Dreading the increas-
ing power of Ali Pasha of Janina, Mahmoud
made war on him and crushed him in 1822.
In 1821 his Greek subjects revolted. By the
aid of Mehemet Ali he carried on a successful
war against them, but with such extreme cruel-
ty that France, Russia, and Great Britain re-
monstrated. Their mediation being disregard-
ed by Mahmoud, they attacked and destroyed
his fleet at Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. In 1826,
after a desperate struggle, in which he dis-
played great courage and ability, he had over-
thrown the janizaries, and organized an army
on European principles. With full confidence
in its power, he did not shrink from a war
against Russia, but was defeated, Diebitsch
even crossing the Balkan; and in consequence
of the mediation of England, France, and
Prussia, he signed the treaty of Adrianople,
Sept. 14, 1829. In 1832, Mehemet Ali having
refused to withdraw his troops from Syria,
which he had occupied, Mahmoud made en-
ergetic preparations against him, but was de-
feated by Ibrahim Pasha at Hems and Konieh,
and was only saved by Russian intervention
from being dethroned. The result was an alli-
ance for mutual defence between Turkey and
Russia. In the mean time Mahmoud had done
much to improve the domestic condition of
his kingdom. Roads were made, postal com-
munication was established, ambassadors were
appointed to the European courts, and women
were allowed to appear' in public ; measures
which did not fail to make him many enemies
among the conservative party. Justice was
speedily and severely admimst^ed, and an en-
ergetic though unscrupulous police, often aided
by the sultan himself, disguised, did much to es-
tablish order. But his oppression of all the high-
er officers of his kingdom, and the frequency
with which he plundered, displaced, or slew
them, sacrificing men of ability to unworthy
favorites, deprived him of trustworthy aid, and
his reign was a succession of revolts and trea-
sonable attempts. In 1839, being still deter-
mined to reduce Mehemet Ali, he drove him
into a new rebellion. His army was again de-
feated by Ibrahim at Nizib, but he died before
the news reached him. He was succeeded by
his son, Abdul Medjid.

MAHMOUD, sultan of Ghuzni. See GHUZOT.

MAHOGANY (Swietenia mahagoni), a tree of
the natural order meliacem, a native of South
America, Honduras, and the West India islands,
and among the most valuable of tropical tim-
ber trees. The genus is named in honor of
Baron Gerard van Swieten. The mahogany is
a large, spreading tree, with pinnate shining
leaves. The trunk often exceeds 50 ft. in
height and 4 or 5 ft. in diameter. The flowers,
in axillary panicles 3 or 4 in. long, are small
and greenish yellow, and are succeeded by
fruit or capsules of an oval form and the size
of a turkey's egg. Though the growth is very

rapid, the wood is hard, heavy, and close-
grained, of a dark, rich, brownish red color.
The so-called Spanish mahogany, which in-
cludes all the above, except that from Hondu-
ras, is imported in logs about 10 ft. long and
2 ft. square. The Honduras mahogany is
usually larger, the logs being from 12 to 18 ft.
long, and from 2 to 3 ft. square. It is chiefly
obtained upon low moist land, and is general-
ly soft and coarse. The trees which grow on
rocky elevated grounds are of smaller size, but
the wood is harder and more beautifully veined.
The collection of mahogany for commerce is
a most laborious business, often involving the
construction of a road through a dense forest
and in a most difficult country, upon which
the wood may be drawn to the nearest water-
course ; the logs are roughly squared to prevent
them from rolling off of the low rude trucks
upon which they are drawn. The natives make
this wood serve many useful purposes, as canoes

Mahogany.

and handles for tools. Some have supposed
the Honduras to be a different species from the
Spanish, from its being lighter in color, as well
as porous in texture ; but it is now ascertained
that these differences arise from the different
situations in which the trees are found. The
largest log ever cut in Honduras was IT ft.
long, 57 in. broad, and 64 in. deep, measuring
5,421 ft. of inch plank, and weighing up ward of
15 tons. The mahogany brought from Africa
and the East is decidedly inferior to either of
the above ; but a fine specimen sent from Cal-
cutta to the London exhibition of 1851 proves
that the best quality may be raised in the East
Indies. The Spanish mahogany is one of the
most useful of all woods for household furni-
ture, for which it is adapted especially by its
durability, beauty, hardness, and susceptibility
of polish, though of late years it has been less
fashionable than some other woods. The finer
kinds of furniture are of solid mahogany, but

2(J MAHOMET

the greater part of that in use is made of
cheaper woods covered with a thin veneer of
mahogany. Alkalies are often applied to the
colored wood in order to deepen the
;,ut the best etfect is produced by using
a colorless varnish, which brings out in fresh
beauty the rich veins, and leaves its natural
tints unchanged. The grain, or curl as it is
called, is sometimes so beautiful, that it in-
creases the value of the log to an enormous
price; several logs have been sold for over
$5,000 each ; in one instance three logs, each
i >ng and 38 in. square, produced from a
sin-le tree, brought $15,000. It is usually a
difficult matter for dealers to judge with pre-
cision of the worth of the wood in logs by in-
spection of the exterior. Mahogany is said to
have been employed about the year 1595 in
repairing some of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships,
but it was not used for cabinet work till 1720,
when a few planks from the West Indies were
riven to Dr. Gibbons of London. A man
named Wollaston, employed to make some ar-
(.111 this wood, discovered its rare quali-
tnd it was soon in high repute. See
s Botanical Miscellany," vol. i. (Lon-
don, 1830).

MAHOMET. See MOHAMMED.

MAHOX. See PORT MAHOX.

HAI10X, Lord. See STANHOPE, EAKL.

MAHOMVG, a N. E. county of Ohio, bor-
dering on Pennsylvania, drained by the Ma-
honing and Little Beaver rivers ; area, 422 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 31,001. It has an undula-
ting surface and a highly productive soil. Coal
and iron ore are found. It is traversed by the
Atlantic and Great Western and the Pittsburgh,
Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroads. The chief
productions in 1870 were 175,907 bushels of
wheat, 861,439 of Indian corn, 449,385 of oats,
124,758 of potatoes, 31,000 of flax seed, 2,684,-
.":;i Ihs. of flax, 91,757 of maple sugar, 295,-
467 of wool, 963,557 of butter, and 45,371 tons
of hay. There were 7,312 horses, 18,582 cat-
tle, 68,055 sheep, and 8,667 swine; 3 manufac-
"f machinery, 3 of woollen goods, 2 of
bolts and nuts, 1 of nails and spikes, 7 iron
furnaces, 4 founderies, 2 rolling mills, 12 tan-
ning and currying establishments, 5 flour mills,
and 27 saw mills. Capital, Canfield.

MAINUY, FrtQfls, an Irish journalist, born
in Cork about 1805, died in Paris, May 19,
He -tudied at a Jesuit college in Paris,
1'sequently in Rome, where he remained
for seven years, and took orders. He after-
ibandoned the clerical profession, and
the staff of "Fraser's Magazine," his
MBtritaftkmi to which were published in book
f-.nii. under th.- title of "Reliques of Father
Trout." in ls:ii;, :m d ri'publMied. with etch-
ing* by Macli>e, in I860. lie was also one
of the earliest and most popular contribu-
!;,-ntle\'s Mi-cellany" in 1837. Af-
ter travelling through Hungary, Greece, Egypt,
and Aia Minr, he originated the Roman cor-
tiie London "Daily News,"

MAHRATTAS

in which he powerfully advocated the cause
of Italy. His letters were collected under the
title " Facts and Figures from Italy, by Don
Jeremy Savonarola, Benedictine Monk " (Lon-
don, 1849). He was also for many years Paris
correspondent of the London "Globe." In
1864 he retired to a monastery in Paris, where
he passed the rest of his life. The "Final
Reliques of Father Prout" was edited by
Blanchard Jerrold (London, 1874).

MAIIBATTAS (Maha-rashtra, great people), a
people inhabiting the region in central and
western India bounded N. by the Satpoora
mountains, E. by the Wyne-Ganga and Manjera
rivers, S. by the Kistnah and Malpurda, and W.
by the Indian ocean. They eventually spread
themselves across the whole peninsula, through
the dominions of Holkar, Sindia (Gwalidr), and
the guicowar, and the country of Nagpore,
where they still form an important element in
the population. Some writers, however, regard
them as foreigners who emigrated from the W.
part of Persia about the 7th century, and Pick-
ering assigns them an Arabian or Egyptian ori-
gin. They are of Hindoo race, and are hardy,
active, and well proportioned, but very ill-fa-
vored ; their stature is small, their skin is dark,
and their features are irregular. They are much
given to athletic exercises, and are excellent
horsemen, but turbulent and predatory, and un-
fit for regular military service. They are cruel
and perfidious, and have exercised a disastrous
influence upon the countries they have conquer-
ed. They are devout Brahmans. They first
become conspicuous in history about the middle
of the 17th century, when they possessed a nar-
row tract of territory bordering on the Arabian
sea and extending nearly from Goa to Guzerat.
Sevajee (born in 1627, died in 1680), the son of
an officer in the service of the last Mohamme-
dan king of Bejapoor, was the founder of the
Mahratta empire. Having collected an army
among the mountains, he overthrew the king-
dom of Bejapoor, and gradually united under
his own rule the multitude of petty states
among which the Mahrattas were divided. His
son Sambajee extended his conquests, but was
finally put to death by Aurungzebe in 1689.
Under Saho, grandson of Sevajee, the heredi-
tary prime minister or peishwa became the ac-
tual ruler of the Mahrattas, and maintained
their supremacy against the repeated assaults
of Nizam ul-Mulk, the representative of the
Mogul emperor in the Deccan. At the culmi-
nation of their power, in the middle of the 18th
century, the peishwa, with his capital at Poo-
nah, was the recognized head of the confeder-
acy of great chiefs who ruled the several Mah-
ratta states. Guzerat, where subsequently arose
the independent power of the guicowar, and
a great part of Malwa, were overrun by the
Mahrattas, and about '1760 they made them-
selves masters of Delhi. Defeated however by
Ahmed Khan of Afghanistan in the great battle
of Paniput (1761), their downfall began; and
though they again occupied Delhi (1772), they

MAI

MAIMONIDES

lost valuable possessions to the armies of Tip-
poo Sahib, and were driven from the Moham-
medan metropolis by the British in 1803. A
few years later two other Mahratta chiefs, Hol-
kar and Sindia, who ruled the independent
states of Indore and Gwalior, founded some 70
years before, entered into a confederacy with
the peishwa and the rajah of Berar against the
British. After a protracted war the Mahratta
power was finally overthrown (1819), the pe-
ishwa became a fugitive, and his authority was
abolished. See Grant Duff's " History of the
Mahrattas" (3 vols. 8vo, London, 1826), and
Owen's " India on the Eve of the British Con-
quest " (London, 1872).

MAI, Angelo, an Italian scholar, born near Ber-
gamo, March 7, 1782, died at Albano, Sept. 8,
1854. He entered the novitiate of the society of
Jesus, and in 1813 was named an associate of the
Ambrosian college, and soon after one of the
sixteen attached to the Ambrosian library at
Milan. When the society of Jesus was formal-
ly revived by Pope Pius VII. in 1814, Mai, who
had never taken the solemn vows of the order,
was induced to remain a member of the secu-
lar clergy. In 1819 he became chief keeper of
the Vatican library at Rome, soon after libra-
rian, and in 1825 supernumerary prothonotary
apostolic. In 1833 he was appointed secretary
of the propaganda, and in 1838 prefect of the
congregation of the Index and cardinal. His lit-
erary reputation was established by his careful
exploration of the Ambrosian library, and by
several important discoveries in the then almost
unknown department of palimpsests. Among
his discoveries in Milan were fragments of the
orations of Cicero in defense of Scaurus, Tullius,
and Flaccus, and against Clodius (Milan, 1814) ;
several orations of Cornelius Fronto, and sev-
eral letters of the emperor Marcus Aurelius and
of Lucius Verus (Milan, 1815; new ed., Rome,
1846) ; a fragment of eight orations of Q. Aure-
lius Symmachus (Milan, 1815 ; new ed., Rome,
1846) ; the complete oration of Isaaus on the
inheritance of Cleonymus (Milan, 1815); an
oration of Themistius (1816) ; several books of
the " Roman Antiquities " of Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus (1816) ; an Itinerarium Alexandri,
and a work of Julius Valerius, Res Gestce Alex-
andri (1817) ; fragments of Eusebius and Philo,
and of Eusebius's Chronicorum Canonum Libri
duo (1818), which he restored, in conjunction
with Dr. Zohrab, from an Armenian manu-
script ; and fragments of the Iliad from the
oldest known manuscripts (Milan, 1819). He
also discovered at Rome the long-sought work
of Cicero, De Republica (Rome, 1822). As
keeper of the Vatican library, Mai resolved to
publish collections of the unpublished sacred
as well as profane authors from the Vatican
manuscripts, similar to those of Muratori, Ma-
billon, and Montfaucon, leaving to future
scholars the task of critically editing, com-
menting, and translating. On this plan he pre-
pared the magnificent Scriptorum Veterum
Nova Collectio e Vaticanis Codicibm edita (10

vols. 4to, Rome, 1825-'38), Auctores Classici e
Vaticanis Codicibus editi (10 vols. 8vo, 1828-
'38), and the Spicilegium Romanum (10 vols.,
183 9-' 44). His last publication, Nova Patrum
Bibliotheca (6 vols., 1845-'53), forms an in-
dispensable supplement to almost all collective
editions of the church fathers. He had also
prepared an edition of the celebrated Biblical
Codex Vaticanus, but died before the comple-
tion of the work, which was published by Ver-
cellane (Rome, 1857).

MAIDSTONE, a municipal and parliamentary
borough and market town of Kent, England,
on the Medway, 27 m. W. by S. of Canterbury,
and 32 m. S. S. E. of London ; pop. in 1871,
26,196. The principal manufacture is of paper.
It consists chiefly of four principal streets, in-
tersecting at the market place, well paved, and
lighted with gas. It contains a county jail oc-
cupying an area of 13 acres, one of the largest
parochial churches in England, supposed to be
of the 14th century, several other churches,
schools, and charitable institutions. All Saints'
college, founded in 1846, is kept in the build-
ing of the old college of All Saints, suppressed
by Edward VI. The navigation of the Med-
way has been improved, so that vessels of
above 70 tons can reach Maidstone.

MAIL, and Mail Coaches. See POST.

MAIL, Coat of. See AKMOK.

MAILiTH, Janos Nepomnk, count, a Hungarian
historian, born in Pesth, Oct. 5, 1786, died Jan.
3, 1855. He was employed in the public ser-
vice of Hungary until a disease of the eyes
compelled him to relinquish his post; he re-
sumed it at a subsequent period, but was final-
ly thrown out of office by the revolution of
1848. Poverty induced him to emigrate with
his daughter Henrietta to Vienna, and subse-
quently to Munich ; and to escape becoming a
burden to their friends, father and daughter
drowned themselves in the lake of Starnberg.
He wrote Oeschichte der Magyar en (5 vols.,
Vienna, 1828-'31); Der ungarische Reichstag
1830 (Pesth, 1831); Geschichte der Stadt Wien
(1832) ; OescMcJite des osterreichischen Kaiser-
hauses (5 vols., Hamburg, 1834-'50) ; and other
works, including original poems and numer-
ous translations from the Hungarian.

MA1MACHIN. See KIACHTA.

MAOI60FRG, Louis, a French historian, born
in Nancy about 1620, died in Paris, Aug. 13,
1686. At the age of 16 he entered the society of
Jesus, and in 1682 he was expelled for defend-
ing the tenets of the Gallican party ; but Louis
XIV. settled a pension on him. At the time
of his death he was writing a history of the
English reformation. He published Traite his-
torique sur les prerogatives de VEglise de Rome
(1681 ; new ed., 1831) ; Histoire du Wiclifia*
nisme (the Hague, 1682); Histoire du LutJie-
rianisme (1686) ; and Histoire du Calmnisme
(Paris, 1686). A uniform edition of his his-
tories appeared in 1686-7 (14 Vols. 8vo, Paris).

MAIMOMDES, Moses (Heb. Ralli Moshel "ben
Maimon, commonly abridged into the initial

MAIMoNIDES

name RaMBaM; Arab. Abu Amram Must
(bdalhih j'/y/j Maimon ul-Kortolti\ a Jew
ih theologian and philosoplu-r, born in Cor
ii, March 30, 1185, died in Cairo
. lec. i:;. rji'4. He was the descendan
: unily di>iini:ui-hed in the annals of thi
Jewish community of his native city, at tha
1 a principal seat of Arabic learning, am
1 from hi> father Maimon, a theologica
and astronomical writer in Arabic, a superio
elu. -ation. He \vas distinguished by a rar
pr>liciciicy in mathematics, astronomy, medi
cine, philosophy, and theology, as well as by a
--ing ability as a writer in Arabic anc
\v. In consequence of the great persecu
tion of Jews, Christians, and sectarian Moham
medans by the dynasty of the Almohades in
va, he retired with his father to Fez, and
,uently proceeded to Egypt (1165), pass-
ing through Acre and Jerusalem, where his
father died. He established himself in Mitzr
or Fostat (Old Cairo), where he maintained
if for some time by trade, until his sci-
entific acquirements secured his appointment
as physician to the court of Saladin, which
office he also held under two succeeding reigns.
At the same time he was active as a rabbi in
the Jewish congregation of Cairo, and espe-
cially as a theological teacher, his fame at-
tracting numerous pupils even from the most
distant countries of the West. But he exer-
cised a far more powerful influence upon his
brethren by his numerous writings, with few
exceptions in Arabic, almost all of which have
sin iv been acknowledged as standard works.
The most distinguished Hebrew translators of
the age vied in spreading his masterpieces all
over the Jewish world, and thus enabled him
to become almost the second lawgiver of his
people, and to inaugurate among them a period
of literary and philosophical activity, which is
still regarded as the golden age of the Jews in
exile. Of his works, of which numerous origi-
nal MSS. are extant in the libraries of Oxford,
Rome, Parma, &c., embracing among others
treatises on medicine, mathematics, and as-
tronomy, the most frequently reprinted (in
Hebrew translations or original) are: Permh
nhnah ("Commentary on the Mishnah"),
KBng in introduction and an ethical trea-
>\vn under the title of Shemonah pera-
KL-ht Chanters"); Sepher hammiLoth
Book of the Commandments"), a sys-
tematic compend of the Biblical command-

' ("rah ("The Copy of the Law"), a
of Jewish observances, written
illy in Hebrew, in many respects the
aost extraordinary strictly rabbinical produc-
, generally known under the appellation of

} tilt 'hfL7,lL.lh /'PI... <- TT__ III

l1 .' Hand"), from its

M dfrUons, )W H-rufyin- ha,,,], and the nu-
value of the letters of which the word
is composed bc-ing J4; and Moreh nebukhim

MAINE

(" The Guide of the Perplexed "), a philosophy
of Judaism, which from its influence on the de-
velopment of Jewish science and genius is the
most important production of the author. The
original Arabic text of the last named work,
in Hebrew letters, from an Oxford manuscript,
was published with a French translation and
notes by S. Munk (Le guide des egares, traite
de theologie et de philosophic par Moise ~ben
Maimoun, 3 vols., Paris, 1856-'66). Some of
the views of Maimonides having been violently
attacked by various western rabbis, his ortho-
doxy and the rights of philosophy in the syna-
gogue were vindicated among others by his
learned son and successor as physician to the
Egyptian court, Abraham ben Moses.

M \l.\ (Lat. Mamus), a river of Germany,
formed by two streams rising in N. E. Bavaria,
the White Main in the Fichtelgebirge and the
Red Main in the Franconian Jura, which unite
about -13 m. N. W. of Baireuth. From the
junction the river flows W., but with several
long bends S. and N., into the Rhine at Castel,
opposite Mentz; length about 250 m. It is
navigable for nearly 200 m. to its junction with
fhe Regnitz, and the Ludwig's canal connects
it with the Danube. The principal towns on
its banks are Schweinfurt, Wtirzburg, Aschaf-
fenburg, Offenbach, and Frankfort.

MAINE, one of the New England states, the
most easterly of the American Union, and the
tenth admitted under the constitution, between
lat. 42 57' and 47 32' N., and Ion. 66 52' and
71 6' W.', extreme length N. and S. 303 m.,
extreme width 212 m. ; area, 35,000 sq. m. It
.s bounded N. W. and N. by Quebec, E. by
New Brunswick, S. E. and S. by the Atlantic
ocean, and W. by New Hampshire. As estab-
ished by the treaty of 1842, the boundary on
;he east is the St. Croix river and a line run-

state Seal of Maine.

ning due N. from a monument at its source
;o bt, John river ; on the north the line fol-
ows the St. John and St. Francis rivers to
a monument at the outlet of Lake Pohena-
?amook; and on the northwest it follows the
nghlands from this lake in a S. W. direction

MAINE

the N. E. corner of New Hampshire. Maine
is divided into 16 counties, viz. : Androscog-
Aroostook, Cumberland, Franklin, Han-
cock, Kennebec, Knox, Lincoln, Oxford, Pe-
nobscot, Piscataquis, Sagadahoc, Somerset, Wal-
do, Washington, and York. The cities are
Augusta, the capital (pop. in 1870, 7,808), Au-
>urn (6,169), Bangor (18,289), Bath (7,371),
Jelfast (5,278), Biddeford (10,282), Calais
(5,944), Ellsworth (5,257), Gardiner (4,497),
HalloweU (3,007), Lewiston (13,600), Portland
(31,413), Rockland (7,074), and Saco (5,755).
Portland is the leading commercial city. The
largest towns are Brewer (3,214), Brunswick
(4,687), Bucksport (3,433), Camden (4,512),
Cape Elizabeth (5,106), Deer Isle (3,414), East-
port (3,736), Ellsworth (5,257), Farmington
(3,251), Gorham (3,351), Hampden (3,068),
Kittery (3,333), Skowhegan (3,893), Thomas-
ton (3,092), Waldoborough (4,174), Waterville
(4,852), and Westbrook (6,583). The popula-
tion of Maine and its rank in the Union, ac-
cording to the federal enumerations, have been
as follows :

DATE OF CENSUS.

White
persons.

Colored
persons.

Total

population.

Rank.

1790

96,002

538

96540

1800

150901

818

151 719

1810

227 736

969

228705

1820

297340

929

298 269

1880

398 263

1 192

899 455

1840

500438

1355

501 793

1850

581 813

1356

583169

I860

626 947

1,327

628 279

1STO

624,809

1,606

626,915

Of the total population in 1870, 313,103 were
males and 313,812 were females ; 578,034 were
native and 48,881 foreign born ; .and there were
499 Indians and 1 Chinaman enumerated. Of
those of native birth, 550,629 were born in
Maine, 11,139 in Massachusetts, and 9,753 in
New Hampshire. Of the foreigners, 26,788
were born in British America, 15,745 in Ire-
land, and 3,650 in England. The density of
population was 17'91 to a square mile. There
were 131,017 families, with an average of 4'78
to each, and 121,953 dwellings, with an aver-
age of 5-14 to each. Between 1860 and 1870
there was a decrease of 1,364 or 0*22 per cent,
in the total population, this being the only
state except New Hampshire in which there
was a loss. The number of male citizens 21
years old and upward was 153,160. ' There
were 175,588 persons from 5 to 18 years of
age ; the total number attending school was
155,140. Of persons 10 years of age and over,
13,486 were unable to read, and 19,052 could
not write, of whom 9,646 were males and 9,406
females, making the percentage of illiterates
10 years old and over, to the total population
(493,847) of the same age, 3 -86, which is less
than in any other state except Nevada, where
the percentage was 2*38, and New Hampshire,
where it was 3-81. In the total number (169,-
823) of male adults, 6,585, or 3'88 per cent,
were illiterates ; and of 174,068 adult females,

6,834, or 3 '91 per cent. The number of pau-
pers supported during the year ending June 1,
1870, was 4,619, at a cost of $367,000. Of the
total number (3,631) receiving support, June
1, 1870, 3,188 were natives and 443 foreigners.
The number of persons convicted of crime
during the year was 431. Of the total num-
ber (371) in prison June 1, 1870, 261 were of
native and 110 of foreign birth. There were
324 blind, 299 deaf and dumb, 792 insane, and
628 idiotic. Of the total population 10 years
of a^e and over (493,847), there were engaged
.in all occupations 208,225, of whom 179,784
were males and 28,441 females; in agricul-
ture, 82,011, of whom 24,738 were agricultural
laborers, and 56,941 farmers and planters;
in professional and personal services, 36,092,
including 890 clergymen, 11,321 domestic ser-
vants, 13,833 laborers not specified, 558 law-
yers, 818 physicians and surgeons, and 4,183
teachers not specified ; in trade and transpor-
tation, 28,115, of whom 11,670 were sailors;
in manufactures and mechanical and mining
industries, 62,007, including 2,697 blacksmiths,
8,757 boot and shoe makers, 6,474 carpenters
and joiners, 3,896 fishermen and oystermen,
1,765 lumbermen and raftsmen, 4,187 saw-mill
operatives, 2,256 ship carpenters, 2,432 wool-
len-mill operatives, 8,774 cotton-mill opera-
tives, and 1,131 mill and factory operatives not
specified. The total number of deaths from all
causes was 7,728 ; from consumption, 1,991,
there being 3'9 deaths from all causes to 1
from consumption ; from pneumonia, 495, or
15'6 deaths from all causes to 1 from pneu-
monia ; from diphtheria and scarlet fever, 502 ;
from intermittent and remittent fever, 39 ;
from cerebro-spinal, enteric, and typhus fe-
vers, 641 ; from diarrhoea, dysentery, and en-
teritis, 269. According to the census of 1870,
there was a greater number of deaths from
consumption in Maine, in proportion to the
total mortality, than in any other state, the
ratio being 25,598 deaths from consumption in
100,000 deaths from all causes ; while in New
Hampshire, the state ranking next in this re-
spect, the ratio was 22,209 in 100,000. The
coast of Maine extends in an E. N. E. direc-
tion, from Kittery point on the west to Quoddy
head on the east, about 218 m. in a straight
line ; but following its exact outline, and in-
cluding the islands, the length of shore line is
2,486 m. It is studded with numerous islands,
and indented by many bays and inlets, forming
excellent harbors. The largest island is Mount
Desert, having an area of 60,000 acres, and
lying W. of Frenchman's bay. Its formation
is very peculiar, and its scenery picturesque
and striking. Thirteen peaks, the highest of
which has an elevation of about 1,800 ft., rise
from its surface from W. to N. Besides this;
the principal islands are Isle au Haut, off tho
entrance of Penobscot bay, in which are Deer,
Long, and Fox islands, and the Isles of Shoals,
a group of eight belonging partly to New
Hampshire. Among the largest bays are Pas-

MAINE

-My. M:i-lii:is Plcasmt. Frenchman's,

M u-'-,. nirus, Ca-co. MIK! Saco. Maine

is abundantly supplied with watercourses. The

Walloofltook, tiowing into the St. John in

tlu- iiiTtli. ainl the Aroostook in the east,

. ith numerous trilmtarics, drain the N.

a of tin- -t-ite. The St. Croix, which
flows S. into PttMunAqaoddy bay, forms a por-
tion i.f tin- K. boundary between Maine and
New Brunswick. The IVnobscot, flowing into
'uy, is the largest river, draining
with its branches and connecting lakes the
of the state, and navigable for large
vessels to Bangor, 55 m. from its mouth. The
Ki-nn.-her. W. of the Penobscot, affords great
and valuable water power, and is navigable
for -hips to Hath, 12 m., and for smaller boats
to Augusta, 50 m. from its mouth. Further
W. are the Androscoggin and Saco. On the
southwest the Piscataqua separates Maine from
New Hampshire. Several of the rivers have
falls of considerable note. Scattered over the
surface of the state is a great number of

the largest of which is Moosehead, 35
in. long and from 4 to 12 m. wide; among
others are Sebago, Umbagog, Chesuncook, Bas-
kaheiran, Long, Portage, Eagle, Madawaska,
Pamrd'imcook, Millinoket, Sebec, andSchoodic.
The surface is generally hilly, mostly level
toward the coast, but rising in the interior. A
broken chain of eminences, apparently an ex-
tension of the White mountains of New Hamp-
shire, crosses the state from S. W. to N. E., ter-
minating in Mars hill on the borders of New
Brunswick. The highest elevation in the range
is Mt. Katahdin, 5,385 ft. above the sea. Sad-
dl.-hack. BL'dou', Abraham, North and South
Russell, and I lay-tack are among the others
1.. st known. Maine is almost exclusively a
region of the azoic rocks. The W. portion of

i to is granitic. The metamorphic rocks
abound in a great variety of interesting min-

nd Paris, Oxford co., is noted for its
beautiful colored tourmalines; Parsonsfield,
York co., arid Phippslmrg, on the coast of
Lincoln co., for varieties of garnet and various
other minerals; Brunswick and Topsham for
;.} and Bowdoinham for beryls,
of the country the drift for-
mation j> everywhere -[.read 'in the form of
bm\ Iders and -and and gravel. Even upon the
iiN are f.mnd scattered rounded

tits of formations situated in places fur-

-. Alting the S. portion of the state

ts >f tertiary clays are found in many
localities beneath the drift, They are charac-

i by beds of shells of the common clam
and in ]--,!, and consequently belong to the
newer pliocene. They extend into the interior
"id Hallou-,.11. and are pene-
trated by w.-IN -unk 50 ft. or more below the
Limestone quarries are worked in
a among the metamorphic rocks,
-liore of Passamaquoddy bay are
red sandstone, probably of the age of
the Connecticut river sandstone. It is pene-

trated by dikes of trap, and at the contact of
the two rocks are developed many interesting
minerals. On Campbell's island and on the
shores of Cobscook bay veins of galena are
found of some promise at the contact of trap
dikes and argillaceous limestone. Trap abounds
in this portion of the state, and in the interior
it forms hills of considerable extent. The
sources of the rivers are in a wild mountain-
ous territory spreading over the central portion
of the state. The mountains are in scattered
groups, with no appearance of regular ranges.
Their structure is of the metamorphic rocks ;
and so far as explored they present little of
economical importance. On the Aroostook are
numerous beds of limestone and one large body
of red hematite. Argillaceous slates and lime-
stones prevail over the N. portion of the state.
Maine is said to be rich in minerals, espe-
cially in Aroostook, Piscataquis, and Washing-
ton cos. Besides marble, slate, granite, and
limestone, which are sources of wealth, iron,
lead, tin, copper, zinc, and manganese exist.
There is also abundance of material for the
profitable manufacture of alum, copperas, and
sulphur. Granite is obtained in blocks of im-
mense size, some weighing more than 100 tons
each. It is of fine grain, beautiful in color,
and very durable. The marble is better adapt-
ed for building than for ornamental purposes.
The principal belt of roofing slate, which is
found in immense quantities, extends from the
Kennebec to the Penobscot river, a distance of
about 80 m. The principal quarries are in
Piscataquis co. Most of the slate is suitable
for tables, blackboards, writing slates, and
pencils. Few attempts Have been made to
work metallic ores. The climate is one of ex-
tremes. In the year the temperature ranges
between 20 or 30 below to 100 above zero ;
and the isothermal lines vary with the lati-
tude from 45$ to 37 F. The following me-
teorological summary for Portland, lat. 43
40' N. and Ion. 70 14' W., has been reported
by the United States signal bureau :

YEAR.

Month.

Mean ba-
rometer.

Mean
thermom-
eter.

Total
rainfall,
inches.

Prevailing
wind.

1871..
1872..

October
November. .
December. . .
January. ..
Fobniary. ..
March...
April....
May
June

80-058
29-926
80-004
29-910
29-924
29-900
29-949
20-955
29-950
29-919
80-007
80-020

50-0
83-0
28-0
22-5
28-0
28-3
41-8
52-8
62-0
6S-7
67-1
59-8

6-55
6-87
8-00
0-77
0-85
1-44
1-60
8-23
5-95
2-97
6-97
8-12

42-82

Southwest.
Northwest.
Southwest.
Southwest
Northwest.
Northwest.
Northwest.
South.
South.
South.
Southwest.
Southwest.

Southwest.

July

Aupruet
September. .

Ann'lmean.

29-963

48-9

In the extreme northern part of the state
the temperature ranges from 5 to 10 lower.
The winters are severe, but the temperature is
uniform and not subject to violent changes.
The snow lies on the ground for from three

MAINE

to five months. The northeast winds from
the Atlantic in the spring and early summer,
charged with cold fogs, constitute an unplea-
sant feature in the climate of a portion of
the state. The soil varies greatly, being sterile
in the mountains and fertile in the valleys;
the most productive land lies between the
Kennebec and Penobscot and in the valley of
the St. John. Great forests cover the central
and N. portions of the state, yielding immense
quantities of timber, which constitutes one of
the leading sources of wealth. The most prev-
alent trees are the pine, spruce, and hemlock ;
maple, birch, beech, and ash are common, and

I the butternut, poplar, elm, sassafras, and a
variety of others are found in particular dis-
tricts. Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees
thrive, but the peach has not been cultivated
with success. The dense forests still afford re-
treats for the moose and caribou. There are
also the bear, deer, wolf, catamount, wolverene,
beaver, marten, sable, weasel, raccoon, wood-
chuck, squirrel, &c. Wild geese and ducks,
eagles, hawks, partridges, pigeons, owls, quails,
crows, and humming birds are among the
most common birds. The waters off the coast
abound with fish, chiefly cod, herring, menha-
den, and mackerel ; and salmon, trout, pickerel,
&c., are found in great abundance in the lakes
and rivers. According to the census of 1870,
there were 59,804 farms, containing 2,917,-
793 acres of improved land, 2,224,740 of wood-
land, and 695,525 of other unimproved land.
The cash value of farms was $102,961,951 ; of
farming implements and machinery, $4,809,-
113; total amount of wages paid during the
year, including the value of board, $2,903,-
292 ; total (estimated) value of all farm pro-
ductions, including betterments and additions
to stock, $33,470,044; of orchard products,
$874,569 ; of produce of market gardens, $366,-
397; of forest products, $1,581,741; of home
manufactures, $450,988; of animals slaughtered
or sold for slaughter, $4,939,071 ; of all live
stock, $23,357,129. The agricultural produc-
tions were 278,793 bushels of wheat, 1,089,888
of Indian corn, 34,115 of rye, 2,351,354 of oats,
658,816 of barley, 466,635 of buckwheat, 264,-
502 of peas and beans, 7,771,363 of potatoes,
9,114 of grass and clover seed, 1,053,415 tons
of hay, 5,435 Ibs. of flax, 1,774,168 of wool,
296,850 of hops, 11,636,482 of butter, 1,152,-
590 of cheese, 160,805 of maple sugar, 155,640
of honey, 5,253 of wax, 1,374,091 gallons of
milk sold, 28,470 of maple molasses, and 7,047
of wine. There were on farms 71,514 horses,
336 mules and asses, 139,259 milch cows, 60,-
530 working oxen, 142,272 other cattle, 434,-
666 sheep, and 45,760 swine. The leading in-
dustries are directly connected with the natu-
ral yield of land and water, the most charac-
teristic being the production of lumber and
lime, the packing of ice, fish, and vegetables,
ship building, and stone quarrying. It is esti-
mated that the forests cover 10,505,711 acres,
or very nearly one half the entire area of the
524 VOL. XL 3

state. This is not exceeded in any of the other
great lumber-producing states except Michigan
and Pennsylvania ; while the ratio of the wood-
land to the entire area is greater in Maine than
in any other state. The abundant water power
renders the use of steam necessary in only a
small number of mills. The great lumber mart
is Bangor, where the amount surveyed during
the season reaches about 200,000,000 ft. The
most important centres of this industry are
Penobscot co., where a capital of about $2,-
000,000 is employed ; Washington co., about
$1,500,000; Hancock, Kennebec, and Piscata-
quis cos. According to the census of 1870,
the number of saw mills was 1,099, having 76
steam engines of 3,213 horse power, and 1,660
water wheels of 38,898 horse power, and em-
ploying 8,506 hands. The capital invested
amounted to $6,614,875; wages, $2,449,132;
materials, $6,872,723; products, $11,395,747.
Ship building, which declined during the civil
war, has within a few years attained a pros-
perity exceeding that of former times. In 1870
Maine ranked next to New York and Pennsyl-
vania in the value of work completed, and next
to New York in 1873. In the former year 116
establishments were reported, employing 1,810
hands, and a capital of $908,173; the value of
materials used was $1,267,146, and of products,
$2,365,745. During the year ending Jan. 1,
1874, there were built in the state 276 vessels
of 89,817 tons, being the largest tonnage ever
built in one year. Among the vessels were
10 ships of 14,594 tons, 25 barks, 12 brigs, 206
schooners, 12 sloops, and 9 steamers. The
principal yards are at Passamaquoddy, Machias,
Frenchman's Bay, Castine, Bangor, Belfast,
Waldoborough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and
Falmouth, and Kennebunk. According to the
census of 1870, the products of the Maine fish-
eries, exclusive of the whale fisheries, were
exceeded only by those of Massachusetts, the
value being $979,610. This included ^9,373
quintals of cod fish, 2,475 of haddock, 10,955
of hake, 2,653 barrels of herring, 31,901 of
mackerel, and 75,334 of miscellaneous fish,
besides 40,011 barrels of fish oil. The value
of fish cured and packed was $617,878. In
1873, 861 vessels of 46,196 tons were en-
gaged in the cod and mackerel fisheries.
About 2,000 men are employed in this indus-
try. The propagation of salmon and trout by
artificial means in the interior waters is car-
ried on with success under the direction of
the state commissioners of fisheries. Along
the coast, from Yarmouth to Cape Sable, the
packing of fish, lobsters, clams, &c., is exten-
sively carried on. The catching of lobsters is
perhaps more extensive here than anywhere
else in the country. The canning of vegetables
in the interior is an important industry. The
value of canned products in 1873 was $1,842,-
000; the number of cans was 735,700 dozens,
embracing 475,000 dozen cans of corn, 7,500
of succotash, 231,600 of lobsters, 20,000 of
salmon, and 1,600 of clams. Ice is gathered

MAINE

chiefly in Kennebec and Knox cos. for exporta-
tion to various parts of the world. In 1873,
,lMim. nts cut 301,000 tons, valued at
$662,000. Most of the granite quarries are
on tin- oi.-i-t. tho principal ones being in Knox

iurnln counties. Here the granite is
dressed ami shaped for use in buildings in dis-
tant parts of the country. The stone quarried

i waa valued at $536,738, and the slate
at $85,000. According to the census of 1870,
Maine had more capital invested in the pro-
duction of lime than any other state except
i ..rk, and produced more in value than
any except Pennsylvania ; the capital invested
amounting to $1,058,000, and the products to

$1,741,553. In the manufacture of cotton
goods Maine in 1870 ranked sixth among the
states. The manufacture of woollen goods is
also an important industry. The census of
1870 gives the number of manufacturing es-
tablishments at 5,550, using 354 steam engines
of 9,465 horse power, and 2,760 water wheels
of 70,108 horse power, and employing 49,180
hands, of whom 34,310 were males above 16
years of age, 13,448 females above 15, and
1,422 youth. The amount of capital invested
was $39,796,190; wages paid during the year,
$14,282,205; value of materials, $49,397,757;
of products, $79,497,521. The leading indus-
tries are indicated in the following statement :

INDUSTRIES.

No. of

eitablUh-
menti.

Steam
engines,
bone
power.

Water

wheels,
hone
power.

Hands
employed.

Capital.

Wages.

Materials.

Products.

Blackstnlthinfr

604

1,282

$417,595

$175,418

$346.191

$1,012,117

Bleaching and dyeing

175

263,500

661980

2,570,522

2,713,950

898

2.786

871,683

894,887

2,261,229

8,749,710

291

438

1,128

533,030

856,207

335,544

1,051,488

Clothing men's .

148

4,563

551,610

509,013

1,863,891

2,881,863

820

7,908

9,879

9,789,685

2,550,597

6,671,280

11,739,781

" batting and wadding

' 8

2,000

600

4,500

5,000

43,000

14,000

71,000

98,800

ISO

541

260

214,750

111,882

113,767

342,050

450

160,920

70,230

359,087

617,878

Kloiirinc uii'l grist mill products

205

200

8,191

559

944,350

115,308

8.887,370

4.415,993

780

120

463

550000

272,958

1,051,890

1 591 196

85,000

17,400

81,300

53,800

" nails and spikes, cut and wrought

2
44

850

00
224

22
501

80,000

704718

12,400
242654

24,590
845 427

40.636
749 275

" " stoves, heaters, and hollow
ware

7666

4818

15479

23C90

Leather, tanned

128

552

1,813

7S1

1,606740

285,882

3,621,127

8 779 227

109

126

219

238 209

64244

894 862

1 082 554

" morocco, tanned and curried .*...
board

1
2

J20

20,000
36 000

10,000
7300

40,850
12 600

50,000
28 000

Lini-

739

1 058 000

' 211 527

1 222 809

1 741 553

l.UllliilT, planed

828

107

129

'lO?' 800

41 940

'288^575

'322'375

sawed

1 099

8218

88 898

8 506

6 614 875

2 449 13'?

6 872 728

11 895 747

Molasses and sugar refined.

240

'l85

775 000

117 000

2 958 118

3 14'^ 132

Oil, floor cloth

....

297

525 000

149 500

850 200

1 314 000

111

876

Paper

1 608

382

899 000

864 153

Shfp building, repairing, and ship mate-

118

180

1 802

904,478

627 185

1 263 821

2 858 415

Vegetables, canned

....

803

84^ 000

8 9 500

247 000

605 000

Woollen goods

140

8,867

2,925

4,092,685

1,035,433

8,761,715

6,150,620

The industrial interests of Maine have been
greatly extended in recent years. The condi-
tion of the most important industries in 1873,
according to the state industrial statistician,
is approximately given in the following state-
ment, the number of establishments making
returns being less than the actual number :

Bsasr?

Wrick

.-.jods

wagons, and

- iiK-n's and boys'

at ting, warp,

-land packed.

112
98
88

69
43
16

5
20

81 7, IN')
825,000

180

:,:;

4,0*7

261

MM BrtMa

10,699 12,252,000

145| 180,000
480,000

.-".:,: t
1,842,000

824,550

Ml.'^l
12,151,750

INDUSTRIES.

<* J

Flouring and grist mill
products
Ice, prepared for market
Iron, cast, forged, and
rolled
Leather, tanned and cur-
ried

85
24

22
61

161
160

472
663

620.600
60,000

695,200
1 529 380

2,276.122
552,000

1,649,640
8 187300

Lime

456

l'099'soo

1 535 0^5

Lumber, long and short.
" planed
Machinery, cotton and
woollen

1,086
6

7,476

250

6,879,492
80,000

212 800

9,020.222
210,000

315 500

Machinery, steam en-
gines, cars, &c

1101

1 00~ 500

2 501 247

Oit fish ...

446

823 500

852 550

" kerosene
Pai>er, prinfg and wrap-
ping
Print ing and publishing.
Sash, doors, and blinds.
Shooks, box and hogs-
head

9
81
21

836
274
241

868

200,000

1,500,000
440,262
870,000

149 950

254,500

8,041.000
801,600
364,450

652 01 8

Woollen goods

2.727

3217000

f. MS 292

MAINE

According to the same authority, the total
number of establishments devoted to manu-
facturing and mechanical industry was 6,072,
employing 55,614 hands; the capital invest-
ed amounted to $48,808,448; materials used,
$57,911,468; wages paid, $16,584,164; value
of products, $96,209,136. The extensive sea-
coast and numerous harbors of Maine give the
state great facilities for commerce. The harbor
at Portland is one of the best on the Atlantic
coast There are 14 United States customs dis-
tricts, viz.: Aroostook (port of entry, Houl-
ton), Passamaquoddy (port of entry, Eastport),
Machias, Frenchman's Bay (port of entry, Ells-
worth), Castine, Bangor, Belfast, Waldobor-
ough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and Falmouth,
Saco, Kennebunk, and York. The imports from
foreign countries and domestic exports for the
year ending June 30, 1874, were as follows :

CUSTOMS DISTRICTS.

Imports.

Exports.

Aroostook

$40157

Bangor .

15834

$298 367

Bath

21.744

79,071

Belfast

15930

5787

Castine
Frenchman's Bay

Machias

2,919
400
13671

7,719
6,508
101 803

Passamaquoddy
Portland and Falmouth
Waldoborough

774,279
2,733,569

9,784

I,264,'l07
8,581,502

Wiscasset

148

27238

Total

$8,628,425

$5,372,102

The chief articles of import were coal, fish,
iron, sugar, molasses, and wool ; of export, cot-
ton goods, canned fruit, fish, and vegetables,
boots and shoes, bacon and hams, lard, and
lumber. The vessels entering from and clear-

ing for foreign countries, together with the
vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed in the
different districts, were as follows :

CUSTOMS DIS-
TRICTS.

ENTERED.

CLEARED.

REGISTERED,
AC.

No.

Tons.

No.

22
20
18
6
2
169
360

758
2
52
6

Tons.

19^27
7,123
8,446
2,501
904
1,808
25,717
160,131

280,788
830

8,827
1,885

No.

Tone.

Bangor

27
6
10
6

4,171
2,857
1,275
1,515
40

240

278
337
856
817
87
249
215

892
23

588
173
16

85,670
125.915
78,772
26,736
20,934
2,820
34,595
28,786

101,832
3.76(5
100,643
9,808
607

Bath

Belfast

Castine .

Frenchman's Bay.
Kennebunk

Machias
Passamaquoddy . . .
Portland and Fal-
mouth
Saco

227

428

2,071
136,396

218,351

Waldoborough
Wiscasset

22
1

1,910
110

York

Total

363,196

1^489

^12,287

750

3,221 ; 585,842

Besides these, there were entered in the coast-
ing trade and fisheries 2,291 vessels of 1,124,-
127 tons, and cleared 1,526 of 847,178 tons. Of
the total number registered, enrolled, and li-
censed, 3,157 of. 547,665 tons were sailing, and
63 of 18,025 tons were steam vessels. The
transit and transshipment trade at Portland is
larger than that of any other port in the United
States. Maine had 11 miles of railroad in 1841,
293 in 1851, 472 in 1861, 871 in 1871, and 945
in 1874. A board of three railroad commis-
sioners, appointed by the governor and council,
are required to examine into and report upon
the condition of the railroads in the state, the
cause of accidents, &c. The lines in operation
at the beginning of 1875, with their mileage,
were as follows :

NAME OF CORPORATION.

TERMINI.

Miles in
operation in
the state in
1874.

Length be-
tween termini
when different
from preceding.

From

Leeds Junction
Lewiston
Island Pond, Vt
Lewiston . ...

28
6
82
6
18
54
33
45
114
49
39
129
14
100
10
52
27
49
52
4
22
13

i49

iie

206

iio
'52
'n

Branch

Crowley's Junction. . .
Portland
Main line

Atlantic and St. Lawrence

Bucksport

Brewer
Abbot

Bangor and Piscataquis

Oldtown
Belfast

Belfast and Moosehead Lake

Boston, Mass
Bangor

Portland
St. John, N. B
Rockland

European and North American

Bath

Leeds Junction

Farmington
Bangor
Dexter

Maine Central

Newport and Dexter

Portland

Branch

Brunswick
Portland

Bath
Dalton, N. H

Canton

Portland and Ogdensburg

Portland and Oxford Central

Mechanic's Falls
Portland

Portland and Rochester

Rochester, N. H
Portsmouth, N. H . . . .
North Conway, N. H..
Princeton

Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth

Portland

Portsmouth, Great Falls, and Conway. .

Conway Junction
Calais

St. Croix and Penobscot

Somerset

West Waterville . . .

Norridcrewock. . .

Of the lines above mentioned, the Androscog-
gin, Belfast and Moosehead Lake, Leeds and
Farmington, Newport and Dexter, and Port-
land and Kennebec are leased and operated by
the Maine Central company; the Portland,

Saco, and Portsmouth, by the Eastern of Mas-
sachusetts ; the Atlantic and St. Lawrence by
the Grand Trunk of Canada; and the Bangor
and Piscataquis by the European and North
American railway company. Lines of steam-

MAINE

ere ply regularly between the larger cities and
Boston. Steamers also _ply between Portland,
New Y.uk, St. John, H. B., and Halifax, and
durim: tin- winter between Portland and Liver-
pool and Glasgow. The number of national
banks in operation in 1874 was 64, having a
paid-in capital of $9,840,000, and a circulation
..uMaiiding of $7,946,576. The circulation
per capita was $12 67, while the ratio of cir-
culation t.. wealth w;is 2'2 per cent., and to
bank capital 80-8 per cent. Savings banks are
well distributed throughout Maine, and are

,1 with jrrent care. In 1874 there were
5*. with s:<U>:> 1,963 deposits and 96,799 de-
positors, the average amount on deposit by
each being $320. The deposits in these in-
stitution^ amount to nearly $6,500,000 more
than the circulation and deposits of the na-
tional hanks of the state. The number of
tire, marine, and fire and marine insurance
companies do'in:: business in the state, Jan. 1,
JO, of which 41 were Maine com-
- The government of Maine is founded
on the constitution of 1820. Every adult male
citi/.en of the United States, not a pauper or
criminal, who has resided in the state three
months, is entitled to vote at elections. The
legislature is composed of a senate of 31 mem-
;iid a house of representatives of 151
members, all elected annually by the people.
The general election is held on the second
Monday in September, and the legislature meets
in Anjfosta on the first Wednesday in January
annually. The governor (salary $2,500) is also
elected annually, and is assisted in his executive
duties by a council of seven members, elected
on joint ballot by the legislature. The secretary
of state (salary $1,500) and the state treasurer
Salary $1,600) are also elected by the same
body ami in the same way. Other state officers
are 'the attorney general, adjutant general, su-
perintendent of common scnools, land agent,
insurance commissioner, bank examiner, three
railroad commissioners, superintendent of pub-
lic buildings, librarian, two assayers, inspector

1 of beef and pork, inspector general of
ti-h. two commissioners of fisheries, industrial

iun, and two Indian agents. The gov-
ernor appoints, with the advice and consent
of the council, besides certain judicial officers,

torney general, the sheriffs, coroners,
registers of probate, and notaries public.
The judiciary consists of a supreme court of
uL'e-. who are appointed by the gov-
ernor and council for a term of seven years,
and receive a salary of $3,000 a year each ; the
irt of Cumberland co., held in Port-

vitli one judge appointed in the same

way and for the same term ; probate courts

county, the judges being elected by

the people for term- of four \var-; municipal

and police court> : and trial justices, appointed

governor and council for seven years,

with iiiri-dictiou where the amount does not

is divided into three

j'ld'u i n. middle, and western,

in each of which the supreme court holds nn
annual session as a court of law. Trial terms
are also held in each county for civil and
criminal business, except that in Cumberland
co. the superior court has exclusive criminal
jurisdiction. In each county there is a judge
and register of probate. There is a state board
of immigration, consisting of the governor,
secretary of state, and land agent, who are re-
quired to appoint a commissioner of immigra-
tion. The board may give to each male adult
immigrant 100 acres of the public land on which
to settle. It is the duty of the industrial sta-
tistician, which office was created in 1873, to
collect and publish statistical information con-
cerning the manufacturing, mining, commer-
cial, agricultural, and other industrial interests,
together with the valuation and appropriations
for various purposes of the several towns and
cities of the state. Maine is represented in
congress by two senators and five representa-
tives, and has therefore seven votes in the
electoral college. The laws for the prevention
of intemperance in Maine have always been of
a rigid character. The present law vests the
sale of intoxicating liquors in special' agents
appointed by the state, and prohibits all other
persons from selling such liquors, including
ale, porter, strong beer, lager beer, and other
malt liquors, wine, and cider, as well as all dis-
tilled spirits. The manufacture of intoxicating
liquors for unlawful sale is also forbidden.
The provisions of the law, however, do not
extend to the manufacture and sale of unadul-
terated cider or wine made from fruit grown
in the state. The lawful sale of liquors is un-
der the direction of a commissioner who is ap-
pointed by the governor, and who is required
to furnish municipal officers of towns in Maine,
and duly authorized agents of other states, with
pure unadulterated intoxicating liquors, to be
sold for medicinal, mechanical, and manufac-
turing purposes. If an authorized agent vio-
lates the law, he is subject to a fine not exceed-
ing $30, and imprisonment not exceeding three
months ; while the penalty for a violation by
a common seller is $100 fine or three months'
imprisonment for the first, and $250 fine and
four months' imprisonment for the second and
each subsequent offence. Any one having been
injured by an intoxicated person may maintain
an action for damages against the person who
sold the liquor ; and the owner or lessee of the
building in which the liquor was sold is jointly
liable if cognizant that it was used for such
purposes. A married woman may hold in her
own right real and personal estate acquired by
descent, gift, or purchase, -and may convey or
devise the same by will, without the consent
of herjhusband, except such real estate as has
been directly or indirectly conveyed to her by
her husband or his relatives, in which case the
husband must join in the conveyance. A wo-
man does not lose and a husband does not ac-
quire rights to her property by marriage. The
husband is not liable for the debts of the wife

MAINE

contracted before marriage, nor for those after-
ward contracted in her own name ; but she is
liable in both cases, and may be sued. Mar-
riages, births, and deaths must be registered in
every town, and reported to the secretary of
state. Intention of marriage must be recorded
in the office of the town clerk at least five days
before the certificate is granted, and the mar-
riage must be solemnized by a minister or jus-
tice of the peace. White persons are prohib-
ited from marrying negroes, Indians, or mulat-
toes. Treason, murder in the first degree, and
arson of an occupied dwelling in the night, are
punishable with death ; so also is killing in a
duel, and the seconds are liable to the same
punishment as the principals. Rape, arson of a
dwelling in the day time, and burglary at night
by a person armed with a weapon, or making
an assault, are punishable with imprisonment
for life. Adultery is punished with imprison-
ment for not less than one nor more than five
years. The receipts into the state treasury
during the year ending Jan. 1, 1875, amounted
to $1,423,473, and the expenditures to $1,524,-
497. Of the receipts, $142,258 was from the
tax on savings banks, and $67,996 on public
lands, while nearly all of the remainder, about
$1,170,000, was from direct taxation. Of
the expenditures, $432,200 was on account of
interest, and $238,276 on account of sinking
fund and principal of public debt ; about $82,-
000 for special and exceptional appropriations ;
$407,477 to towns for common schools ; and
about $320,000 for general state purposes.
On Jan. 1, 1875, the entire amount of the pub-
lic- debt was $7,088,400, of which $2,'223,000
was in registered and $4,865,400 in coupon
bonds. Deducting the sinking fund ($1,514,-
022) held for the payment of the debt, the
liability of the state amounted to $5,574,378.
While in many other states a large portion of
the public revenues is raised by indirect taxa-
tion, in Maine nearly the entire amount is de-
rived from direct taxes. The rate on the val-
uation of 1874 was five mills on the dollar.
The total value of real and personal property
in 1874, estimated on a true cash basis, was
stated at $254,000,000. The assessed value of
real estate, as returned by the census of 1870,
was $134,580,157, and of personal property
$69,673,623; the true valuation of real and
personal estate was $348,155,671. The total
amount of taxation not national was $5,348,-
645, of which $1,350,305 was state, $315,199
county, and $3,683,141 town, city, &c. The
institutions supported wholly or in part by the
state are the insane hospital, reform school,
state prison, soldiers' orphans' home, and two
normal schools. The insane hospital in A\\-
gusta was opened in 1840, since which time
4,404 patients have been received, of whom
4,011 have been discharged, 1,770 recovered,
767 improved, 675 unimproved, and 799 have
died. The daily average under treatment in
1874 was 406. Of the 393 in the hospital at
the close of the year, 43 were supported by the

state, 291 were receiving state aid of $1 50 per
week, and 59 were supported by their friends
at the rate of $4 or $7 per week, according
to accommodations. The capacity of this in-
stitution is inadequate to the needs of the state,
and provision has been made for the erection
of another. The total expenditures on account
of the hospital in 1874 were $103,917, of which
the state paid about $34,000 for the support
of indigent insane, and towns and individuals
about $56,000. Maine has no state institutions
for the care of the deaf and dumb or the blind ;
but $14,179 was paid from the treasury in 1873
for the education in other institutions of 55
deaf and dumb and 11 blind beneficiaries. The
state prison at Thomaston at the beginning of
1874 contained 129 convicts, of whom 55 were
under sentence for larceny, 20 for burglary,
and 12 for murder. The average annual num-
ber of commitments during the ten years end-
ing with 1873 was about 51. With the ex-
ception of a period of about eight years, the
state has always employed the labor of the con-
victs in manufacturing operations on its own
account, producing carriages, harness, and boots
and shoes. In 1873 the labor of the convicts
defrayed all the expenses of the institution,
and yielded to the state a net profit of $6,645. *
During the 20 years ending with 1873 the sales
of the product of convict labor amounted to
$614,028. A beginning has been made of in-
troducing this system of industry into the va-
rious county jails. The average number of
convicts in the 13 jails of the state in 1873 was
76, making with the average number in the
state prison (146) a total of 222. The reform
school, opened in 1852, is about 4 m. from
Portland, where a farm of 160 acres is devoted
to the purposes of the institution. Boys be-
tween the ages of 8 and 16 years are received,
and besides attending school four hours a day
are occupied in farming, making bricks, shoes,
and chairs, and in general housework. The
average number of boys in 1874 was 137, and
the appropriation by the state amounted to
$20,000. An industrial school for girls was
opened in Hallowell in 1875. The military and
naval orphans' asylum at Bath affords a home
for the children of the soldiers who died in the
civil war. The number of inmates at the close
of 1874 was 55 ; state appropriation, $10,000.
There is also a general orphan asylum in Ban-
go r, which receives state aid. The Maine gen-
eral hospital in Portland is aided by the state.
The educational interests of the state are un-
der the supervision of a state superintendent,
appointed by the governor and council, and
there are city superintendents. Every city,
town, and plantation is required to raise and
expend annually for the support of schools
therein not less than $1 for each inhabitant,
under penalty of not receiving any share
of the state school fund. The permanent
school fund, derived chiefly from the sales of
wild lands belonging to the state, amounts to
Besides the income of this fund, the

MAINE

chief sources of revenue for school purposes are
tax of one mill per dollar of valuation,
tax of 80 cents per capita, and a tax
of one half mill per dollar of the deposits of sa-
vings banks. The cost of supporting the pubhc
*eh'ooN in 1*74 (current expenses) was $1,237,-
778 being about '005 on the state valuation,
$1 97 for each inhabitant, $5 49 for each per-
son of school age, and $11 21 according to the
average attendance. The school funds are ap-
mong the several towns according
to the number of persons between 4 and 21
years of age. The chief facts relating to the
schools of the state are as follows :

Number of persons between 4 and 21 years of age. 225,219

registered in summer schools.
Arerge attendi

regfetered in winter schools.

108,478

AYerSeduration of ^hook for'the year,'20 weeks and 2 days

Number of school districts J}48

" houses 4,iya

Estimated value of all school property $8,079,81 1

Male teachers in summer

in wint.T 1.928

Female teachers in summer 4.8bG

inwinter 2,367

Teachers, graduates of normal schools 294

Average wages of male teachers per month $36 17

- of female teachers per week *4 Oo

Amount of school money voted $678.314

Excess above amount required by law $187,782

Amount raised per scholar $2 90

recei ved from state treasury during 1S74. $367,009

By a recent act of the legislature a system of
five high schools throughout the state has been
established, the state defraying one half the
cost of instruction upon certain conditions. In
1*74 there were 355 terms of free high schools
open, with 14,820 pupils enrolled. The amount
paid by the state in aid of these was $39,969.
Sixteen teachers' institutes were held in 1874,
besides numerous educational conventions and
associations. The normal schools are under
the direction of seven trustees, five of whom
are appointed by the governor, who, with the
superintendent of common schools, is an ex

member. The western state normal
s-huol .-it Farminjiton was established in 1863,
anl in L87ft-'4had 8 instructors and 63 students
during tin- autumn and 86 during the spring

V-idi'9 31 in the model school. The
course mr-ipi.-* two years, and tuition is free
to those ph-iL'ing themselves to teach in the
pul .lie. schools of Maine for as long a period
as they have been connected with the normal
>chool. The eastern state normal school at
Castine was opened in 1867, and in 1873-'4 had
8 instructors and 94 students in the autumn, 58
in the winter, and 130 in the spring term ; 170
<>f tlu- total were females, and 112 males. Tu-
. but graduates are expected to be-
come teachi-r^ in tin- public schools of the state.
In 187 appropriated $17,500 for nor-

mal schiHiU. The state college of agriculture

ie m-"!i:inir arts at < )rono, has received

the grant of public lands made by congress for

the establishment and maintenance of such in-

*tituti..n- in - ttet, A farm of 370

rior land affords excellent facilities

for the experimental purposes of the institu-
tion. Five courses of instruction are offered :
in agriculture, civil engineering, mechanical en-
gineering, chemistry, and an elective course.
The studies of the several courses are essen-
tially in common during the first two years.
Prominence is given to military instruction, and
the students are required to devote not exceed-
in" three hours a day for five days in the week
to manual labor, for which they receive com-
pensation. This institution was opened in 1868,
and in 1874 had 8 instructors and 121 students.
It is provided with valuable apparatus and a
library of 2,000 volumes. The most promi-
nent educational institutions are Bowdoin col-
lege in Brunswick (see BOWDOIN COLLEGE),
Colby university (Baptist) at Waterville, and
Bates college (Freewill Baptist) at Lewiston.
Colby university was organized in 1820, and
in 1874 had 7 instructors and 62 students;
the library contains about 10,000 volumes ; 66
scholarships, each yielding from $36 to $60
per annum, have been founded for the ben-
efit of students needing aid ; the university is
open to students of both sexes. Bates college
was organized in 1863 ; connected with it is
a theological department, which was opened
in 1870; the libraries of the institution com-
prise 8,300 volumes; in 1874 there were 8 in-
structors and 104 students, besides 18 students
in the theological department. The theologi-
cal seminary at Bangor (Congregational), estab-
lished in 1820, is open to the Protestants of
every denomination ; the course of instruction
comprises three years ; in 1874 there were 4
professors, 40 students, 520 alumni, and a li-
brary of 14,000 volumes. Instruction in med-
icine is afforded by the medical department of
Bowdoin college, which is known as the med-
ical school of Maine, and by the Portland med-
ical school. The Maine Wesleyan seminary, at
Kent's Hill, and the Westbrook seminary (Uni-
versalist), with a collegiate course for young
ladies, at Deering, afford to students of both sex-
es classical, scientific, normal, and other courses.
In 1874 the former had 14 instructors and 389
pupils, of whom 176 were females, and a library
of 25,000 volumes, besides valuable collections.
The East Maine conference seminary and com-
mercial college, pleasantly situated at Bucks-
port, is also open to both sexes, and provides
several courses of instruction ; in 1874 there
were 6 instructors and 201 students, including
92 females. According to the census of 1870,
there were in the state 3,334 libraries, contain-
ing 984,510 volumes; of these, 1,872, with
450,963 volumes, were private, and 1,402, with
533,547 volumes^ were other than private, in-
cluding the state library with 20,000 volumes,
58 town and city with 14,649. volumes, 19 law
with 9,748, 25 school, college, &c., with 63,425,
1,079 Sabbath school with 277,742, 140 church
with 39,910, and 136 circulating with 100,273.
The principal libraries are the state library in
Augusta, which in 1874 contained 28,000 vol-
umes; Bowdoin college, 35,000- Portland in-

MAINE

stitute and public library, 15,378 ; Bangor theo-
logical seminary, 14,000; mechanics' associa-
tion library of Bangor, 13,700 ; Colby universi-
ty, 10,000 ; Bates college, 8,300 ; and Hallo well
social library, 5,000. The number of newspa-
pers and periodicals was 65, having an aggre-
gate circulation of 170,690, and issuing annually
9,867,680 copies. In 1870 there were 7 daily
newspapers, with a circulation of 10,700 ; 1 tri-
weekly, circulation 350 ; 47 weekly, circulation
114,600 ; 1 semi-monthly periodical, circulation
700 ; 8 monthly, circulation 42,840 ; and 1 quar-
terly, circulation 1,500. In 1874 there were 9
dailies, 56 weeklies, 1 semi-monthly, 4 month-
lies, and 1 quarterly. The total number of
religious organizations in 1870 was 1,326, hav-
ing 1,102 edifices with 376,038 sittings, and
property valued at $5,196,853. The denomi-
nations were represented as follows :

DENOMINATIONS.

Organiza-
tions.

Edifices.

Sittings.

Property.

Baptist, regular

262
218

213
154

70,966
46 223

$858,050
382 917

Christian
Congregational
Episcopal (Protestant)

44
231
25
23

20
219
23
23

4,922
83,985
8,975
7315

42,200
1,401,736
2S0.213
36400

Lutheran

500

800

Methodist ,
New Jerusalem (Swe-
denborprian)
Eoman Catholic
Second Advent
Shaker

327

23
2

264

2
32
13

82,530

1,200
17,822
3,175
700

895,237

53,000
461,700
13,050
4,000

Spiritualist

200

300

Unitarian

Universalist
Unknown (Union)

18
84
26

18
65
54

9,185
23,910
15,130

245,000
434,850
96,400

Maine was visited in 1602 by Bartholomew
Gosnold; in 1603 by Martin Pring; in 1604
by the French under De Monts, who wintered
near the present site of Calais on the St. Croix,
and in the following spring took possession of
the shores of the river Sagadahoc or Kenne-
bec; and in 1605 by Capt. George Wayinouth.
In 1607 the Plymouth company, having ob-
tained a grant which included this territory,
sent out a colony under George Popham and
Raleigh Gilbert, but it remained only one year.
In 1613 a French colony fitted out by Mme.
de Guercheville, a pious Catholic lady to whom
had been transferred the patent of De Monts,
landed at Mount Desert, with the purpose of
establishing a centre for missionary opera-
tions. The Virginia magistrates, however, sent
an armed force which dispersed the emi-
grants and destroyed their settlement. In
the following year Capt. John Smith arrived
at Monhegan island, and went at once to the
Kennebec, where he traded profitably with the
Indians, explored the coasts, and compiled a
short history of the country. In 1620 Sir
Ferdinando Gorges obtained a new patent
from James I., granting to the Plymouth com-
pany all the country between lat. 40 and 48
N., including that upon which the pilgrims
landed in the following December. Gorges
regarded these persons as intruders, and sub-

sequently endeavored to oust them as well as
the Massachusetts colony established under
Winthrop at Charlestown and Boston. In
1621 the company transferred to "William Al-
exander, afterward earl of Stirling, the country
E. of the St. Croix (then all designated Nova
Scotia), thus establishing the E. boundary of
Maine as it now stands. Monhegan, the first
or one of the first spots in Maine permanently
peopled by Europeans, was settled in 1622, and
Saco in 1623, or perhaps earlier. About 1629
the Plymouth company began to parcel out
their territory in grants to suit applicants. In
that year John Mason acquired the territory
lying between the Merrimack and Piscataqua
rivers, and called it New Hampshire, thereby
settling the western boundary of Maine. In the
course of two or three years the whole coast
had thus been disposed of as far E. as the Pe-
nobscot. The country between the Penobscot
and St. Croix, and even to the W. of the former
river, was claimed by the French, and long re-
mained a subject of dispute. In 1635 the Ply-
mouth company, having resolved to give up
its charter to the government, divided the ter-
ritory among its members, Gorges taking the
whole region between the Piscataqua and the
Kennebec, of which he subsequently (1639) re-
ceived a formal charter from Charles I. under
the title of the province of Maine. Gorges
was now appointed governor general of New
England, with almost unlimited powers. (See
GORGES.) His son Thomas was sent over as
deputy in 1640, and established himself at
Agamenticus, now York, where in 1642 arose
a city called Gorgeana. On the death of Sir
Ferdinando, Maine descended to his heirs. It
was now really placed under four different ju-
risdictions: 1, that of Gorges, extending from
the W. line to Kennebunk ; 2, that of Rigby,
from Kennebunk to the borders of the Kenne-
bec valley, held under grant from Sir Ferdi-
nando ; 3, the Sagadahoc, from the Kennebec
to the Penobscot; 4, the French (Acadia),
from the Penobscot to the St. Croix. Massa-
chusetts, apprehending that these fragmentary
and unsettled governments might fall into
hands hostile to her interests, and stimulated
by the wishes of many of the inhabitants, set
up (1651) a claim under her charter to the
province of Maine, and sent commissioners to
admit the people of Gorges's and Rigby's grants
into the jurisdiction of the Bay colony. The
governments of Gorges and Rigby remon-
strated, and carried the matter before the Eng-
lish parliament; but the Puritan party was
now in the ascendancy at home, and the claims
of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts were
heard with more favor than the protests of
zealous royalists and adherents of the estab-
lished church. In 1652, 150 freemen in five
towns took the oath of allegiance to Massa-
chusetts, which continued to exercise its au-
thority in such a way as to prove that, how-
ever slight its claim to jurisdiction, the trans-
fer was equally beneficial to both parties. The

MAINE

were governed in local matters nearly
as they are now, and the rules of church disci-
pline were less strict than in some other colo-
..].le being generally favorable to
is freedom. Xo acts of persecution
,cir history, and they frequently afford-
ed an asylum to fugitives from intolerance in
other parts. In 1653 Cromwell annulled the
transfer of Acadia to France, which had been
effected in 1632, and sent out Sir Thomas Tem-
ple as governor. He retained his post till
1667, when Acadia reverted to France in ac-
o.rdance with the treaty of Breda. In the
mean time the Stuarts had been recalled to the
throne of England, and the heirs of Gorges
petitioned for t lie restoration of their territory
in Maine. Royal commissioners were accord-
ingly sent by Charles II. in 1664 to reestablish
the authority of the grantees. Massachusetts
1, and a conflict of jurisdictions ensued,
which was terminated in 1677 by Massachusetts
purchasing the interests of the claimants for
.fl.-J'iO sterling. As early as 1607, according
to De Peyster's "Dutch in Maine," the Dutch
had attempted to gain and colonize this coast.
In 1674 they conquered the coasts of Nova
Scotia and Acadia adjacent to the Penobscot,
first capturing Fort Pentagoet or Pemtegeovett
(Castine). In 1676 Cornelis Steenwyck was
made governor of the conquered district by
the Dutch West India company. The Holland-
ers, however, were soon after expelled by set-
tlers from Boston. In 1675 the first Indian
war in Maine was begun by King Philip, at
whose instigation a series of unprovoked at-
tacks were made upon the settlers, and more
than 100 white persons were massacred within
three months. Thenceforth the savages held
the country in terror till 1700. Meanwnile dis-
putes were excited by the claims of the duke of
York, who, under a grant from Charles II. of
the I Hitch territories in North America, pro-
fessed to hold all that part of Maine lying be-
tween the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers. Sir
Edmund Andros was commissioned as gover-
nor of the duke's territories in New York and
Maine; but Massachusetts, having caused a
new survey of the E. limit of her patent to be
made, under which she pushed her boundary
i-d to the W. shore of Penobscot bay,
continued to hold possession of all the colony
Sagadahoc and Pemaquid. When the
duke came to the throne as James II., Andros
was made governor of New England, and vis-
ited Maine, where he was guilty of great ex-
tortion. The Massachusetts charter had al-
mdj bw-n de< lured forfeit. Tl..- n-v..luti,.n of
1688, however, restored things to their former
ind thenceforth the history of the col-
: Maine is merged in that of Massachu-
1-Yoni the close of Indian hostilities
began to make steady proirivsi in eivili-
md uvalt h. The war of the revolution
1 her hut little, hut diirinir that of 1812
M ML'ain expo,,-,! to the horrors of fron-
itish obtained possession

MAINE-ET-LOIRE

of a part of the country, and kept it until the
conclusion of peace. The final separation of
Maine from Massachusetts took place March
15, 1820, when she was admitted into the
Union as an independent state. Ever since the
treaty of 1783 a dispute had existed between
the government of the United States and Great
Britain as to the proper interpretation of that
treaty so far as it related to the boundary be-
tween Maine and the British possessions. This
controversy was finally settled by the treaty of
Washington in 1842, by which Maine and the
United States agreed to cede to Great Britain
a small portion of the territory claimed by her,
in return for the concession of Rouse's Point
and the free navigation of the river St. John.
The enterprise of founding a Swedish colony
in Aroostook, begun in 1870, has proved suc-
cessful. The place selected is called New Swe-
den, where in 1873 about 600 Swedes aided by
the state had settled upon 20,000 acres of land.
The colonists have their own municipal organ-
ization and schools, in which the chief study is
the English language.

MAINE, an ancient province of France, and
with Perche one of the great military govern-
ments of the kingdom, bounded N. by Norman-
dy, E. by Perche and Orleannais, S. by Tou-
raine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany. It is
now almost entirely included in the depart-
ments of Mayenne and Sarthe. Its capital was
Le Mans. Under the Carlovingian and early
Capetian kings the province was governed by
counts ; it was subsequently in turn united with
Normandy and Anjou, became subject to the
kings of England, was wrested from John by
Philip Augustus, and after various transfers
was united with the crown of France in 1481.

MAINE, Sir Henry James Simmer, an English ju-
rist, born in 1822. He graduated at Pembroke
college, Cambridge, in 1844, and was regius
professor of civil law at Cambridge from 1847
to 1854, when he became reader on jurispru-
dence in the Middle Temple. From 1862 to
1809 he was a law member of the government
in India, where he introduced several legisla-
tive reforms. In 1870 he was appointed to the
newly instituted Corpus professorship of juris-
prudence in Oxford university, and in 1871 a
member of the council for India. He has pub-
lished " Roman Law and Legal Education," in
" Cambridge Essays " (1856) ; " Ancient Law :
its Connection with the Early History of Soci-
ety" (8vp, 1861; 5th ed., 1874; reprinted,
with an introduction by Prof. T. W. Dwidit,
New York, 1864) ; and " Village Communities
in the East and West" (1871; 2d ed., 1874),
being six Oxford lectures, giving the results of
his observations in India, where he had stud-
ied the working in village communities of so-
cial organisms supposed to correspond with the
earliest rudiments of European civilization.

MAIXE-ET-LOIRE, a N. W. department of
France, comprising most of the former prov-
ince of Anjou, bordering on Mayenne, Sarthe,
Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Deux-SeVres, La Ven-

MAINE DE BIKAN

MAINTENON

dee, and Loire-Inf erieure ; area, 2,750 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1872, 518,471. It belongs to the basin
of the Loire, by which it is annually inundated ;
the other principal rivers are the Maine, Loir,
Sarthe, Mayenne, and Oudon. The surface is
almost level, with slight undulations, and the
soil very fertile, producing grain, wine, and
fruits. Iron is found, and slate quarries are
extensively worked. It has excellent breeds
of cattle and horses. The principal manu-
factures are of linen, especially table linen and
handkerchiefs, flannels, and cotton. It has a
considerable trade in grain, wine, brandy, and
cattle. It is divided into the arrondissements
of Angers, Bauge, Cholet, Saumur, and Segre.
Capital, Angers.

MAINE DE BIRAN, Francois Pierre Gonthier, a
French metaphysician, born at Grateloup, near
Bergerac, Nov. 29, 1766, died in Paris, July
16, 1824. He entered the body guard of Louis
XVI. in 1784, and was at Versailles during the
tumults of Oct. 5 and 6, 1789, but lived in re-
tirement during the revolution. In 1797 he
was chosen to the council of 500, from which
he was excluded on suspicion of royalism, and
under the empire became sub-prefect of the
department of Dordogne at Bergerac, and a
member of the legislative body. In 1813 he
was one of the commission appointed to draw
up an address to the emperor, which for the
first time manifested a decided opposition to
his policy. After the restoration he was re-
elected to the chamber of deputies, became
a councillor of state in 1816, and from 1818
retained his seat in the legislature, in which
he constantly maintained the prerogatives of
the crown. In a memoir entitled Influence de
Vlidbitude sur la faculte de penser^ which ob-
tained the prize of the institute in 1803, he
prepared for his departure from the reigning
philosophy of Condillac by maintaining a dis-
tinction between active and passive mental
habits, according to which the mind is active
in perception and passive in mere sensation.
In his second memoir, Sur la decomposition de
lapensee (1805), he abandoned the effort to
give a physiological origin to thought, sug-
gested that sensation could not furnish the
active and motive element in man, and was dis-
posed to admit a principle of intelligence dis-
tinct from the organism. This work was
rapidly followed by others, the most important
of which was the Examen des lecons de M. de
Laromiguiere (1817), in which he completely
passes from sensational to spiritual philosophy,
and develops his own system, which caused
Koyer-Collard to say of him : " He is the
master of us all." A complete edition of his
works was edited by Cousin (4 vols., Paris,
1841). See Naville, Maine de JSiran, sa vie et
ses pensees (Paris, 1857).

MAOiTENON, Fraiif ofce d'Aubigne, marchioness
de, second wife of Louis XIV. of France, born
in Niort, Nov. 27, 1635, died at St. Cyr, April
15, 1719. She was the daughter of Constant
d'Aubigne and Jeanne de Cardillac, and grand-

daughter of Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne", the
Huguenot historian of his time, and the friend
and companion of Henry IV. Constant d'Au-
bigne, after dissipating his fortune, formed a
project for establishing himself in the Carolinas.
His correspondence on this subject with the
English government was discovered and treat-
ed as treason, and he was imprisoned in the
chateau Trompette at Bordeaux, of which his
father-in-law was the keeper. After the death
of the latter he was removed to the concier-
gerie of Niort, his wife voluntarily sharing his
imprisonment, and there Franchise was born.
In 1639 Constant d'Aubigne' was discharged
from prison, and with his wife and children
emigrated to Martinique, where for a while
he prospered ; but he gambled away what he
acquired, and died in 1645 in complete poverty.
His widow with her children returned to
France, and Francoise was confided to the care
of her father's sister, Mme. de Villette, a Cal-
vinist, who trained her in the principles of the
Protestant faith. Mme. d'Aubigne", alarmed
at her daughter's refusal to attend mass, pro-
cured an order restoring the girl to her own
custody, and placed her as an inmate, in a de-
pendent and almost menial position, in the
house of her godmother, the countess de Neuil-
lant, who after a while, and with some diffi-
culty, converted her from Calvinism to Ca-
tholicism. The comic poet Scarron, who was
paralytic and a cripple, lived in the same street
with the countess de Neuillant, became inter-
ested in the young, beautiful, and intelligent
girl, whose adventures had been related to him,
and offered money to enable her to enter a
convent, which poverty had hitherto prevented
her from doing. Franchise refused the offer,
and shortly afterward the countess de Neuillant
placed her in an Ursuline convent, permitting
her occasionally to visit her house, where she
often met Scarron. Two years afterward, at
the age of 16, she was without a home, her
mother was dead, and she consented to become
the wife of the deformed Scarron, to whom
she was married in June, 1652. She was at
this time exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and
witty, and the house of Scarron soon became
the resort of the most brilliant intellects of
Paris. Scarron died in October, 1660, leaving
his young widow nearly penniless, his pension
ceasing at his death. Mme. Scarron petitioned
for the reversion of her husband's pension,
with small hope of success till Mme. de Mon-
tespan, the king's mistress, hearing of her des-
titution, interfered in her behalf, procured her
an annual allowance of 2,000 francs, and in
1669 made her the governess of the children
she had had by Louis XIV., much to the dissat-
isfaction of the king, who at first did not like
the extreme gravity and reserve of the young
widow. Her talents and wisdom, however,
soon attracted his attention, and she became
his confidant and adviser, was made a mar-
chioness, and took the name of Maintenon from
an estate at Versailles which the king purchased

40 MAIN/.

for b. - ' she was appoints!

the dauphiness, and she intlu-

enoed that princess to assist in bringing about

a permanent -rparation between the king and

Mmo. do Monte-pan. The ipioen became much

d to Mme. do Maintenon. and died in

MI-. .Inly 80 - -me time at'terwan

nig. who had long and vainly solicits

une his mi-tiv-s, VMS secretly mar

her at midnight in one of the cabinet!,
r-saillos. Pore la Chaise, the king's eon

feasor, performing the ceremony, in the pros-
f llarlay. archbishop of Paris, Hontems,
governor of Ver-aillcs, I.omois, and Mont
lil. a- witnesses. From this time till his
loath I.ouis was greatly under hor influence,
though her po\\er over him \\ as o\erci-ed with
;io prudence and moderation. She care-
fully shunned the appearance of meddling with
te. though in reality nothing
was done without hor knowledge and consent.

- at hor instigation that the edict of
Nanu--\\a- iv\ "ked and the Protestants per-

1. After tho death of the king, in 171.\

-he retired to the eon vent and seminary of St.

\\ Inch she had founded, and spent the rest

of lier life in acts of charity and in devotional

-cs, which from earliest youth she had

been accustomed scrupulously to observe. See

M<i>l<im dt Mniiitiiion ptintt par ?llf-ni< : i<<

(Paris. |S'_>(i), which contains her letters, and

f ilf Mine, dt Maintrnon. by the duke

lilies rJ vols.. Paris, ISIS).

M1IW. See Mi

Mliriltf'N. or Miypurfs, Indians of South
America, chiefly on the upper Orinoco and Ne-
;:r,. river-. Tho family includes the Caveres or
*, who u-.-re nearly annihilated by the Ca-
: 10 (iuaypunabis, who under their chiefs
:u stemmed the progress of
the Caribs and made themselves masters of the
Upper OrinOOO; the Pareni; tho Maipures prop-
er, amoii- whom (Jilii labored and wrote, and
who nre n. iw greatly reduced; the Moxos, who
extruded into iVru and Holivia; the Moepuro
(iuiana; the Kirrupa; and the
is, M remote branch, residing on the
Mela. These tribes were almost alf cannibals
Ad engaged in constant wars. Tho Mo\o, ,
oonquered by the inca Yupan.mi,
'o thus to souu- extent broiijiht within
the mtlurnce of Peruvian civili/ation. Thev
ere the only tribe among whom Christian mis-
' sivo conquests though

' hollt tf ri>:l - In 17J-J. before

i"H by the Portuguese, tin '
uned 80,000 no..] ;.._

1 eatoohis.n of the HOXO.
'dro Marban. wore published at
"1 ; and a grammar of the Haure, a
v .:i". i--till extant.

MAISTRE

turer. and surgeon t> the principal hospitals,
and latterly of the Hotel-I>iou. Ho acquired
celebrity by his bold and ingonions operations.
Hi- priiu-ipal work- are: l>n fxriottc ?t J t ..<<
t.

the -Paracelsus

P r ;. <>r " ln . r

tl In* , tiok

e in 188fi, and oecanu- prosector, lee-

\ S'tr In nwt. : Sur

< % .//;v (184S); Utmoires ur fa
(1" v '//' <' nourtlle int-

df cdthcft-risHK 1 (1855) ; J/< : ;</;< ttnr la
litj(tt\tr< ii nee (18t>0);

rurgfailf (- vols., 18t>8-*4); and
l<i< intoxications ehirunjit'iilf* (\*fi~}.

MllSOKnK, Paul de Chonrdry, sienr do.
first governor of Montreal, Canada, born in
Champagne, Franco, died in Paris, Sept. .),
107(5. lie entered the French army in his l;Uh
year, and was esteemed alike for piety and
bravery when he was selected as the leader of
colonists sent out by an association. He sailed
with them in three ships, and roaehod Quebec
Aug. 20, 1(541. Leaving the emigrants there,
he went on to Montreal, and was installed as
governor. The winter was spent in preparing
timber for houses, and the actual settlement of
the city began in May, 1642. Ten years later
he returned to France, and brought over an-
other body of settlers. His administration was
marked by ability ; he maintained great order
and discipline in the settlement, organi/ed the
militia for Indian warfare, and acquired the re-
spect of the hostile tribes, lie retained otVuv
under the Sulpitians after the Ulaml w as con-
veyed to them, but was removed in June, IIM! 5.
by De Mesy, the governor general, and sent
back to France by the marquis de Tracy in the
following year. The action was arbitrary, and
no charges were made against Maisomienve,
who, finding that there was no hope of being
restored to his post, resigned in HHW.

MUSI UK. I. Joseph/ count tie, an Italian
statesman, born in Chamben. Savoy, April 1,
1764, died in Turin, Feb. 20/1S21. 'llis father
was president of the senate of Savoy. After
having studied at the university of Turin, he
entered the magistracy in 1775, and became a
member of the senate *in January. 17SS. The
invasion of Savoy by the French in 1792 obliged
dim to retire to Turin; and when the kinir had
to give up his possessions on the continent ij V-
cember, 1798), De Maistre followed him to the
sland of Sardinia, where he was appointed
wand chancellor. This othYe lie retained till
when he was sent as ambassador to St.
Petersburg. He remained at the Kussian court
14 years, and wielded for some time consider-
due influence over the e/ar Alexander. On
tis return to Turin (1817) he was appointed min-
jter of state and regent of the grand chancery.
He commenced his literary career with an /
H rot } teUrAmHUt (1775). In an early speech
nade at the opening of the senate he remarked :
;0ur age has distinguished itself by a destruc-
IT spirit which has spared nothing, neither
:ius customs, nor political institutions: it has
Backed all, shaken all. and the devastation
Mil extend to limits which no one can as yet
-evoral works against the

MAISTRE

MAITLAND

revolutionary party in France, among which his
Considerations snr In, I-'nuiM CJT^'ij had the,
.itest circulation. Not withstanding the
Ht.ri<-t<-st prohibition, three editions appeared
in Paris in one year. Jn 1H10 IK- publi-hed sit.
St. Petersburg an Essai sur le principe genera-
te u.r <!<* constitutions politiques et des autres in-
stitutions liumaines, the object of which was to
show that (/od is the immediate source of all
authority upon earth, and every attack upon
religion is a prelude to the destruction of social
:uid political order. A translation of a work
of Plutarch, Sur let delais de la justice divine
dans la punition des coupables, with notes, ap-
peared at Lyons in 1816. His most celebra-
ted work is Du pape (Lyons, 1819). It treats
of the pope from four points of view : 1, in
his relation to the Catholic church ; 2, to tem-
pora.1 sovereignties; 8, to the civilization and
happiness of the nations; 4, to the schismatic
churches. It is considered as one of the stand-
ard ( latholic works in favor of the infallibil-
ity of the pope, which it infers from the neces-
sity of an infallible authority in the spiritual
order. Infallibility in the spiritual order is de-
dared to be synonymous with sovereignty in the
temporal order. From the same standpoint he
attacked the Gallicans in the work De VEglise
gallicane dans son rapport avec le souverain
pontife, pour servir de suite a Vouvrage inti-
tule : Du pape (Lyons, 1821). Among his
other works are the Soirees de St. Petersbourg,
ou Entretiens sur le gouvernement temporal de
la providence (2 vols., Paris, 1821), in which
the justness of war and capital punishment is
strongly advocated, and Lettre d'un gentil-
homme rime sur V inquisition espagnole (Paris,
1822). In his posthumous Examen de la phi-
losophic de Bacon (Paris, 1830) he depreciates
the English philosopher, and disparages critical
philosophy in general. A very lively discus-
sion was called forth by the publication of an-
other posthumous work, Memoires politiques
et correspondence diplomatique de Joseph de
Maistre, avec explications et commentaires his-
t or i<i H en, by Albert Blanc (2 vols., Paris, 1858-
'60), many passages in which seemed not fully
to agree with his other writings. De Maistre's
son Ilodolpho published Quatre chapitres ine-
dits sur la Russie, par le comte J. de Maistre
(Paris, 1859). II. Xavler, count do, a miscella-
neous author, brother of the preceding, born
in Chambdry in October, 1764, died in St. Pe-
tersburg, Juno 12, 1852. In early life he en-
tered the military service of Sardinia, but upon
the conquest of the country by the French he
emigrated to Russia, and supported himself for
some time by his pencil. After the arrival of
his brother as ambassador in St. Petersburg, he
was appointed in 1805 director of the library
and museum of the admiralty. He soon after-
ward entered the Russian army as lieutenant
colonel, and participated in the war against
Pel-sin, in which he obtained the rank of major
general. He subsequently established himself
in St. Petersburg, and devoted the remainder

of his life to literary and scientific pursuits. In
1794, being known then as a chemist and as a
landscape painter, he published at Turin an
ingenious philosophical trifle, entitled Voyage
autour de ma chambre, which had great
popularity, and of which numerous imitations
of various degrees of merit subsequently ap-
peared. In 1811 appeared Les lepreux de la
vallee d*Aoste (translated into English, Philadel-
phia, 1825), a work founded on fact, and not
less creditable to the author's literary capacity
than to his humanity. It was followed by
the Prisonniers du Caucasc, and Prascome, ou
la jeune Siberienne (translated into English,
Philadelphia, 1826), both containing vivid and
truthful pictures of scenery and manners in
the eastern and southern provinces of the Rus-
sian empire. His popular Voyage was followed
by Expedition noctutne autour de ma cham-
bre (1825). An edition of his works was pub-
lished at Paris in 1822, in 3 vols. 18mo.

MAITLAND, East and West, two contiguous
towns of New South Wales, Australia, on the
Hunter river, 75 m. N. of Sydney ; pop. in
1871, 13,642, of whom about 2,000 belong to
East Maitland. The surrounding region is
among the most productive of the globe, and
is commonly called the granary of New South
Wales. Maitland is the seat of a Roman Cath-
olic bishop, and there are numerous places of
worship of nearly all religious denominations.
East Maitland has a court house and a jail ;
West Maitland many large stores and some
good hotels. Two newspapers are published,
one of which, " The Maitland Mercury," is the
oldest provincial journal in the colony. There
is daily communication by railway to Newcas-
tle, and by steamboat thence to Sydney.

MAITLAND, Sir Richard, of Lethington, a Scot-
tish lawyer and poet, born in 1496, died March
20, 1586. He was educated at St. Andrews
and in Paris, became an advocate, held several
public offices, among others that of lord privy
seal, and was knighted. He was the author
of a " History and Chronicle of the House of
Seaton," and of several poems, the most im-
portant of which is that on " The Creation and
Paradyce Lost." A complete edition of his
poems was first published by the Maitland club
in 1830. He is celebrated as a collector of an-
cient Scottish poetry. His collections are yet
extant in manuscript in the Pepysian library,
Cambridge, and fill two large volumes. He
became blind in 1559.

MAITLAND, Samnel Roffey, an English clergy-
man, born in London in 1792, died at Lambeth
palace, London, Jan. 19, 1866. He graduated
at Trinity college, Cambridge, studied law, and
was called to the bar at the Inner Temple.
He afterward studied theology, took orders in
1821, and became perpetual curate of Christ's
church, Gloucester. He resigned this charge
in 1830, and thereafter turned his special at-
tention to literature. In 1838 he was appoint-
ed librarian to Dr. ' Howley, archbishop of
Canterbury, and keeper of the Lambeth manu-

MAIZE

scripts, which office ho held till the death of
the archl.Miop in 1*1*. Ilo was for several
years editor of tin- " British Magazine," to

he contributed A largo number of valu-
able essays and dissertations, chiefly on sub-
jeota of prophecy and its right interpretation,
church history, criticism, &c. His principal

are : " An Inquiry into the Grounds on
which the Prophetic Period of Daniel and St.

has been supposed to consist of 1260
years " (1826) ; " Letters on the Voluntary Sys-
tem " (1837) ; " The Dark Ages, being a series
intended to illustrate the state of
Religion and Literature in the 9th, 10th, llth,
and I'Jth Centuries" (1844; 3d ed., 1853);
iyg on the Reformation in England"
(1849)"; and " Eruvin, or Miscellaneous Essays
on Subjects connected with the Nature, His-
tory, aii.l Destiny of Man" (1850). He also
prepared an "Index of such English Books
printed before the year MDO. as are now in
the Archu-piscopol Library at Lambeth," which
was printed, but not published.

MAIZE, or Indian Cora (zea mays), a valuable
grass of the tribe of phalaridea. The stems,
unlike those of most grasses, are solid, with well
defined nodes, and often producing from the
lower nodes aerial or prop roots, some of which
reach the soil ; on the portion of the stem be-
tween the nodes is a broad shallow channel upon
alternate sides; the stem is simple above, but
often produces branches, or suckers, from the
lower joints. The long linear-lanceolate leaves
are flat, pointed, pubescent above, and with a
broad midrib channelled on the upper side;
sheaths smooth, downy on the margins, with a
short ligulo. The inflorescence is monoecious,

.M... -.

the staminate flowers in clustered spikes at the

summit ot the stem, forming what is ralK-d

the fcMMl ; the ^ikelet* are two-flowered, cad.

Imv.n- three .stani.-n* ; the pistillate

: denM spfkes crowded upon a

'he <-,.!; these are enveloped by the

sheaths of altered leaves, the husks ; the "whole
pistillate spike is called the ear, and appears at
the axils of the leaves ; each pistillate spikelet
is two-flowered with one flower abortive ; when
the grain is ripe the withered glumes, abortive
flower, and palets remain upon the cob as the
chaff ; the ovary is terminated by a long hair-
like style, which projects beyond the husks,
and is usually bifid at the extremity ; these
styles together are the silk ; after fertilization
the ovary enlarges to form the grain and the
styles wither; the grain is usually flattened
by crowding, wedge-shaped or round-kidney-
shaped, with a shallow groove containing the
embryo. In the different varieties from one
to four pistillate spikes or ears are borne by
each stalk, though rarely more than two, and
the number of rows of kernels varies from 8
to 12 or more, but they are always in even
numbers. It is not rare to find abnormal spe-
cimens in which pistillate flowers are borne
upon the tassel, where they perfect their grain,
and the end of the cob is sometimes pro-
longed and furnished with staminate flowers.
The maize plant is affected in a remarkable
degree by climate and soil ; it soon adapts it-
self to a locality, and by continuous cultiva-
tion from the same seed year after year, a local
variety or strain becomes established. Though
all the kinds of maize in cultivation, at least
in the United States, are regarded as of one
species, the varieties are almost endless ; these
are produced not only by local influences, but
by selection ; it is one of the species in which
any peculiarity may be readily fixed in a few
years by carefully selecting and sowing seeds
from those plants which have the desirable
features most strongly marked. In respect to
size, there are varieties from 2 or 3 ft. high
up to 15 and 18 ft., with the stalks and leaves
large in proportion ; the ears vary greatly in
size and number of rows of kernels, which
sometimes reach 24, 32, or more. There is a
great difference in the form and size of the
grain ; a miniature kind, known as Brazilian,
has ears about the size of one's little finger,
with grains not larger than a mustard seed ;
while at the other extreme are the large south-
ern varieties with kernels half an inch long.
In the variety called rice pop-corn the kernels
are pointed at both ends and but little com-
pressed, and in the dent varieties there is a
distinct depression at the upper end of the
grain; in some the grains have a sharp hook
at the end. In one variety, which has been
described by Bonafous as a distinct species, Z.
cryptosperma, the floral envelopes of the pistil-
late flowers, instead of being as is ordinarily
the case in a rudimentary or imperfect condi-
tion, are fully developed, and enclose the grain
when ripe in a miniature husk ; this variety has
been considered as the primitive type, but it is
said to lose its husky envelopes in cultivation ;
neither this nor any other form of maize has
been found in the wild state. The grains of
maize present a great variety in color, from

MAIZE

white through various shades of yellow to
orange, red, brown, violet, purple, and black ;
by the crossing of varieties kernels of two or
more colors in stripes and blotches are pro-
duced. In the Tuscarora and some others the
grain is dull and opaque, while in the so-called
flint varieties the mass of the grain, the albu-
men, is translucent ; the opaque kinds are very
starchy, while the others contain large propor-
tions of fatty matter. In the varieties known
as sweet corn the grain is very much wrinkled
and shrivelled ; in these the conversion of
sugar into starch is arrested, and the kernel
does not fill out. A well developed stalk of
maize is a most beautiful object; it has a state-
ly sub-tropical aspect, and were it not so com-
mon it would be prized with us, as it is in some
parts of Europe, as an ornamental plant. A
few years ago Mr. Thomas Hogg sent from
Japan a very distinct variety (if not species),
in which the leaves are finely striped with
white, and when young often with a tinge of
red ; the plant is only about 4 ft. high, but is
very leafy, and retains its markings all through
the season ; it at once became popular in Eng-
land, but is less frequently seen in our gardens
than its merits deserve. Some writers, inclu-
ding Bonafous (Histoire naturelle du ma/is,
Paris, 1836), have attributed an eastern origin
to maize, and the subject has been the occasion
of much discussion ; the matter has been thor-
oughly examined by Alphonse de Candolle
(Geographic ~botanique raisonnee, Paris, 1855),
who sums up thus: "Maize is of American
origin, and was not introduced into the old
world until after the discovery of the new."
It was found in cultivation by the aborigines
from New England to Chili ; varieties not now
in cultivation in Peru have been found in
tombs of an antiquity greater than that of the
Incas; and Darwin ("Geological Observations
on South America," London, 1846) discovered
"heads of maize, together with 18 species
of recent sea shells, imbedded in a beach which
had been upraised at least 85 ft. above the
level of the sea." It is estimated that maize
is eaten by a greater number of human beings
than any other grain except rice; its analysis
shows it to be admirably adapted to sustain life,
and to furnish materials for the growth of
both human beings and domestic animals. Ee-
cent analyses show the following percentage
of nutritive principles : albuminoids (flesh-
forming materials), 10 per cenf. ; carbohy-
drates (starch, sugar, &c.), 68; fat, 7. The
amount of ash is a little over 2 per cent., and
this contains a large proportion of phosphoric
acid in combination with lime and other bases.
The amount of fatty matter or oil is notable,
varying with the kind of corn from 6 to 11
per cent. ; the hard flinty varieties of northern
localities have the most, and the starchy kinds
the least ; wheat contains only about 1^- per
cent, of fatty matter. It will be seen that
maize is a highly concentrated nutriment, and
is capable of serving, as it does in some tropi-

cal countries, as almost the sole food of the
population ; it is more difficult of digestion
than some other grains, and where, as in Cen-
tral and South America, it is the chief food of
the common people, they almost invariably
accompany it with capsicum, in the form of
chili Colorado or chili verde, as a stimulus to
the stomach. While maize furnishes a large
share of the breadstuff of our farming popu-
lation, it is but little consumed in cities, except
to give variety upon the table ; but indirectly
it largely contributes to the support of city
populations in the way of meats, poultry, but-
ter, &c. In the unripe state maize in the form
of "green corn" is a generally esteemed vege-
table, and the quantities daily supplied during
the season to cities are enormous ; the varie-
ties already alluded to as sweet corn are in the
northern states raised exclusively for eating
in the green state ; the ears are plucked while
the contents of the kernels are still milky.
A large business is done in preserving this
kind of corn in tin cans for use when it can-
not be had fresh, and large quantities are dried,
being firi-st boiled and then cut from the cob.
The favorite dish called succotash consists of
unripe beans and green corn cooked together,
and in winter it is made from ripe beans and
dried sweet corn. One of the primitive meth-
ods of preparing the ripe grain for food is to
soak it in lye from wood ashes to remove the
pericarp or hull ; the grain in this process be-
comes softened, and after w r ashing to remove
the lye it is crushed into a paste upon an in-
clined stone by rubbing it with a smaller long
and narrow stone ; the resulting dough is then
patted into thin cakes and quickly baked upon
a tile or iron plate ; these cakes are the torti-
llas of the Mexicans and other Spanish Ameri-
cans, and it is probable that this method of
preparing corn is of great antiquity, as the
metatl, or stone for grinding, is found among
ruins so old that all tradition respecting them
is lost. Another simple method of preparing
corn in use by the Mexicans is as pinole; the
grain is roasted, then ground to a coarse meal,
which is mixed with sugar and spices ; this is
stirred with water to form a sort of gruel, and,
the grain being already cooked, it is very nu-
tritious ; pinole is often the sole provision car-
ried by travellers on long journeys, and forms
an important part of the rations of the sol-
diers. The hull may be removed from the grain
by beating ; this is done by hand in a wooden
mortar, or on a large scale by machinery ; corn
thus prepared is called hominy and samp,
names derived, with the method of prepara-
tion, from the aborigines; in the northern
states samp is the whole decorticated grain,
and hominy that which is broken or coarselj
ground, a distinction not made at the south ;
these preparations of corn are cooked by boil-
ing. Hulled corn is the grain from which the
hull has been removed by the use of lye, then
thoroughly soaked, and afterward boiled until
tender. In the form of meal maize is largely

MAIZE

consumed, it being made into a great variety I served is the manufacture of paper; an Aus-
of bread :in.l cake*, conspicuous among which, trian, Von Welsbach, invented a process by
U ,i ,-land brown bread, in which which the fibre of the stalks, leaves, and husks

:il i> mixed with the corn meal in the
proportion of OIK- third. Hasty pudding, the
I of which were celebrated in verse by
Uarlow, is ;i mush or stirabout of Indian meal
;tn.l water; this, eaten with milk, is an exceed-
ingly cheap and nutritive food. In some lo-
calitics only the dinty kinds of corn are used
for meal, while in others the starchy varieties
are preferred. Several varieties are known as
pop-corn, of which there are white and yellow
kinds, those with kernels pointed at the end,
and oth.Ts with the grain of the ordinary
shape; when gradually exposed to heat over a
bri-k tin-, the oil in the grain becomes con-
verted into gas, which at length ruptures the
irrain, causing a singular inversion of its con-

the corn thus popped is many times
larger than the original grain, and snowy
white ; as an article of food it is much prized
by children and others, and the preparation of
it is one of the small industries which in the
aggregate amount to a respectable. sum. Corn
is sometimes used as fuel ; upon prairie farms
where there is no wood, and at long distances
from a market where corn can be sold and coal
bought, it becomes the cheapest obtainable
fuel ; the cobs after the corn has been shelled
from them are in general use as fuel, and farm-
ers prefer them to any other to burn in smoke
houses, as they think meat thus cured is better
flavored than if wood is used; a pipe with a
bowl made from a corn cob is a favorite with
many smokers. Besides the uses of the grain,
the stalks and leaves are of great value as cat-
tle fodder; the old plan was to top the corn
when the grain began to ripen by cutting off
the stalk above the upper ear, and to strip off
the leaves from the rest, and this is still done by
some old-fashioned cultivators ; the improved
method is to cut up the stalks at the ground
as soon as the grain begins to harden, or is
"glazed," tie them in bundles, and set these up
in the field in largo stocks; treated in this way,

i ripen* thoroughly, and all the fodder
is saved in an excellent condition. Corn stalks
are cut for feeding, and if cut and steamed they
are considered equal in value to the common
kinds of hay; one ton of stalks is yielded on
the average for every 25 bushels of grain. Corn
is often sown for the sake of a crop of fodder
only ; in this case no regard is had to the grain,
and the seed is sown thickly and the corn al-
lowed to stand close in order to produce a more
succulent crop ; it is cut as soon as the tassels
open, and cured in small bundles. Large quan-
corn are grown in this manner to be
used as green forage; the plant flourishes best
in the hot siiniim-r months, the time when pas-
tures begin to fail. On dairy farms :l field of
fodder corn is of gri-at importance in krrpin-
up the supply of fo,,,l; the stalks are cut and
Q to the animals in their -tails. Among the
mi>eellaneous uses which the maize plant has

could be converted into paper; a few years ago
specimens of various grades, from the coarsest
to the finest papers, were exhibited in this
country, but the manufacture does not appear
to have extended. The juice of the stalk be-
fore the grain ripens is appreciably sweet, and
both sirup and sugar have been obtained from
it; the process of clarifying appears to be a
difficult one, and for sirup the maize cannot
compete with sorghum. The starch of the
grain is converted into grape sugar, which in
the form of a thick honey-like sirup is used by
brewers and wine makers. As with all other
forms of starch, that of maize, being capable
of conversion into sugar, is by one more step
capable of producing alcohol, and whiskey must
be mentioned as one of the incidental products
of the corn crop. The starch of maize when
examined with the microscope is found to be
of irregular grains with many sides, the result
of mutual compression, having a distinct hilum ;
the grains are only about one fourth as large as
those of potato starch. Corn starch carefully
prepared is much used in delicate cookery for
puddings and the like ; a similar preparation is
largely sold under the name of "maizena."
The oil furnished by corn has been found ex-
cellent for illuminating purposes, but on ac-
count of the expense of extracting it is not
likely to come into general use. The husks, or
shucks as they are called in some localities, are
put to many domestic uses ; slit into shreds they
are used for filling mattresses, both by farmers
and upholsterers ; large quantities are prepared
at factories in the southern cities, and they
form a regular article of commerce ; by select-
ing the more delicate inner ones and plaiting
them, table mats and other fancy articles, and
even bonnets and slippers, have been made
from them ; coarser ones are braided to form
door mats, horse collars, and other wares. In
America corn is cultivated from lat. 54 N. to
40 S., and in the eastern hemisphere from the
Azores to southeastern Europe, some being
raised in Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and China.
The early colonists of this country soon learned
its nses and manner of cultivation from the
Indians; large crops were raised on the James
river as early as 1608, and it has continued to
be one of the most important of our agricultu-
ral products.' In the older states it is a question
with agriculturists whether corn is a profitable
crop to raise simply for the grain ; upon poor
lands it requires abundant manuring, and clean
cultivation is essential to its success. In a ro-
tation it is of great value as a cleansing crop ;
i. e., the cultivation it demands leaves the land
in excellent condition for whatever crop is to
follow. Upon the rich lands of some of the
western states the grain can be raised at a sur-
prisingly low cost; the great fertility of the
soil allows crops to be taken year after year
without manure, and every mechanical appli-

MAIZE

MAJESTY

ance is brought into play to reduce the cost of
cultivation; corn planters and sulky cultiva-
tors allow one man to manage many acres ; and
now machinery has been invented to save the
'grower from the most irksome task of husk-
ing; and where the corn is sold in the shape
of beef and pork, the animals are turned into
the field and made to do their own harvesting.
In planting, the seed is put in hills or in drills,
the distance apart being governed by the kind
of corn and the richness of the soil; each
method of planting has its advocates; if the
land is full of weeds, it is said that these can be
more readily kept under if the corn is in hills,
to allow of cultivation by plough or cultivator
in both directions. By hill, an elevation is not
to be understood, but it is used to express the
station for the plants ; the old practice of hill-
ing, or drawing the earth up to form a mound
around the plants, is abandoned by good culti-
vators. The cultivator has numerous enemies
to contend with; crows and blackbirds will
take the seed when sprouting, or even before it
starts, and to prevent this a thin coating of tar
is sometimes applied; cutworms take off the
young shoot above ground, and the white grub
eats the roots below; the chief remedy for
these is to sow enough seed to allow for their
depredations. The boll worm, so destructive to
cotton, also attacks corn, even in the northern
states; the moth lays her eggs upon the silk,
and the young larva soon finds its way beneath

Alabama

16,977.948

Missouri
New York
North Carolina.
Ohio

.. 66,084,075
. 16,462,825
. 18,454,215
67 501 144

Georgia
Illinois

. . 17,646,459
129 921 395

Indiana
Iowa

. . 51,094,538
68,935,065

Pennsylvania..
Tennessee
Texas

. 34,702,006
. 41,343,614

. 20-554.588

Kansas
Kentucky
Michigan
Mississippi . . .

. . 17,025,525
. . 50,091,006
. . 14,086,238
. . 15,637,316

Virginia 17,649.304
Wisconsin 15,033,998

Corn Smut.

the husks, where it revels upon the tender ker-
nels. The most serious enemy to the crop is
not an insect but a fungus, mtilago maydis,
which produces what is known as smut; it
manifests itself by abnormal growths upon va-
rious parts of the plant, but more frequently

it attacks the growing grain ; a single kernel
will sometimes be found transformed into a
soft grayish fungoid mass, as large as an egg or
larger ; this when broken open will be found
to contain a blackish powder, the spores. This
is not only destructive to the corn, but danger-
ous to the animals which eat it ; the death of
animals has been directly traced to feeding on
corn stalks badly affected with smut, and it is
said that mules fed upon corn thus diseased lose
their hoofs, and that it produces abortion upon
cows; it seems to have properties similar to
those of the ergot of rye. According to the
federal census, the United States produced 592,-
071,104 bushels of Indian corn in 1850, 838,-
792, 742 in 1860, and 760,944,549 in 1870. The
states which produced more than 14,000,000
bushels in 1870 are as follows:

During the year ending June 30, 1873, 38,541,-
930 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $23,794,-
694, were exported from the United States,
chiefly to Great Britain, besides 403,111 bush-
els of meal, worth $1,474,827. In 1872 the
total import of Indian corn into Great Britain,
chiefly from the United States, amounted to
24,532,670 cwts., valued at 8,691,192. For
a full discussion of the origin of maize, see
De Candolle, GeograpMe botanique, quoted
above. A description of the leading varieties
is given in Fearing Burr, jr.'s "Field and Gar-
den Vegetables of America" (Boston, 1865).
A full and exhaustive treatise is Edward En-
field's "Indian Corn, its Value, Culture, and
Uses " (New York, 1866).

MAJESTY, a title of the highest honor, first
used by the Romans to designate the supreme
power and dignity of the people (majestas po-
puli Romani), as well as of its highest chosen
representatives or rulers, as dictators, consuls,
and the senate. On the overthrow of the re-
public, the emperors assumed the same title
(majestas Augusti), and in the middle ages it
was adopted by the German emperors. Of
kings, it was given to Louis XI. of France in
1461, and Henry VIII. of England assumed it
in 1520. When Charles V. was elected em-
peror of Germany in 1519, he took the title
also as king of Spain. It is now generally be-
stowed on all emperors and kings of Europe,
except the sultan, who is styled highness, as
well as on the emperor of Brazil. The emperor
of Austria is addressed as imperial and royal
apostolical majesty. The titles of Catholic
majesty and most Christian majesty were be-
stowed by the see of Rome on the kings of
Spain and France respectively. James I. of
England used the style " sacred " and " most
excellent majesty." Violations of the majesty

MAJORANO

of the people, ns for instance treason, were
vnn.-d l.y the K<>nians ,-r twin a laxce majesta-
ti, a term also used of violations of monar-

I iliirnity.

MUOIMNO, Kaetano. Bee < ' M'FMMau.
MAJORCA (Span. Mallorca), the largest of the
Balearic islands, in the Mediterranean, belong-
ing to Spain, about l-Ju in. S. S. E. of Barce-
lona, between l.-it. W 1-V and 40 N., and Ion.
2 20' and 3 30' E. ; length from E. to W.
nearlv fil in., breadth in some parts 40 m. ;
1,300 sq. m.; pop. about 230,000.
( >n tu- N. K. <-o:i<t are the large bays of Puer-
.,r and Puerto Menor, and on the S. E.
f I'alma; and there are several good
natural harbor.-. The northern half of the isl-
rod by mountains, the highest of
which i- upward of 5,000 ft. above the sea.
The southern half is comparatively level. The
are generally of secondary or tertiary
formation. There are five or six small rivers,
:md the hill* and plains generally are well sup-
plied with small streams, though in some of
the plain- the want of water makes cultivation
ditli -ult. The principal river, the Riera, rises
:it the foot of Mount Puigpunente and falls
into the sea at I'alma. The climate is temper-
ate, the thermometer in summer ranging only
from 84 to 88, while that of winter seldom
falls below 48. The island produces marbles
of great beauty and variety, 36 different speci-
mens of which were exhibited at Vienna in
1873, and also slate, granite, syenite, porphyry,
and some coal and iron. Lavender, rosemary,
thyme, marjoram, saffron, marsh mallow, jon-
quil, and wild celery are the commonest vege-
t.il.le productions. The island affords abun-
dant pasturage for large numbers of horses,
mul.-s, cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. The
:uv larire, ami produce great quantities
of fine wool. Game of the smaller kind, such
as hares, rabbits, quails, and partridges, is very
plentiful; and the preserving of thrushes as
well a-* of ti-h is an important industry. There
are scarcely any venomous animals. The soil
. .linrrly fertile, but the agricultural skill
of the islanders is imperfect. Wheat, barley,
nip, tlax, and silk are produced in con-
!e abundance, and the fruits include or-
leMi'-n-. citrons, dates, figs, and pome-
granates. The olive crop yields yearly 650,-
i lions of oil. The people manufacture a
ron-iderablo quantity of woollen stuffs, not
only for their own use, but for export to Spain,
Malta, Sardinia, and America. Other impor
:ianufactiires are hats and fine cabinet
ware. New factories have recently been con-
1 fur the production on a large scale ol
M, n.p.-. am] mrdaire, tihre for which is
now imported from Manila; the Spanish navy
was lately supplied entirely with rope made at
I'alma. The Ul.-md, wliieh in earlier days gave
ne to majoliea ware, now only produces
oMinion pnttery. The wines are excel
nd are largely exported, as are also bran
dy, oil. tijr-. and oranges. The total value o

MALABAR

,he exports in 1873, including the coasting
irade, was $6,076,339. The principal towns
are Palma, Seller, Manacor, Alcudia, Porreras,
and Inca. Palma is the capital, the seat of a
bishop and of the captaincy general of the Ba-
earic islands. A railway to connect it with
nca and Alcudia is in progress. The natives
resemble the Catalans in their appearance and
manners, are remarkably honest and hospita-
)le and make excellent soldiers. The upper
classes speak Castilian, but the lower orders
use a dialect which is a mixture of Greek, Lat-
n, Vandal, Arabic, Catalonian, and Languedo-
jian words, representing the various races by
which the island has been occupied. Little is
known of the early history of Majorca. There
were Carthaginian settlements in it prior to
500 B. C. The Roman Q. Metellus conquered
it A D 123, and the Vandals in 426. The
Moors seized it in 798, and held it till 1229,
when it was taken by James I. of Aragon, who
erected it into a kingdom (including the other
Balearic islands, the county of Montpellier,
Roussillon, and Cerdagne) in favor of his son
Don James, in 1262. It was finally annexed
to Aragon in 1343. The island declared for
Charles III. in the war of the Spanish succes-
sion ;' it rebelled against Philip V. in 1714, but
submitted in July, 1715. It was thrice visited
by epidemics in 1865, 1870, and 1873 at-
tended with frightful mortality. (See BA-
LEARIC ISLANDS.)
MARI. See LEMUR.

MALABAR, a district of British India, in the
province of Madras, on the W. coast, between
lat. 10 and 12 20' N. ; area, 6,262 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1871, 2,274,463, of whom about 24,000
were Christians. It is bounded N. by the dis-
trict of South Canara, S. by Cochin, W. by the
Indian ocean, and E. by the Western Ghauts,
which are here 4,000 ft. and upward in height.
Between these and the sea the country lies,
extending about 150 m. along the coast, with
an average breadth of 40 m. With trifling
exceptions, a low sandy strip, from 1 to 3 m.
broad, runs along the shore, and is covered
with a continuous and luxuriant grove of co-
coanut trees, to the cultivation and care of
which the natives give the greatest attention.
Behind this tract, hills of inconsiderable height
come down from the mountain chain which
forms the E. boundary. Between these hills
there are valleys of extreme fertility, being the
receptacle of the soil washed in the course of
ages by the heavy rains from the surrounding
eminences. The hills have level, or rather
perfectly horizontal summits of naked rock,
which is a peculiar characteristic of the face of
the country. Many of them have steep sides,
which are not unfrequently formed into ter-
races and cultivated. All the country that
borders on the Ghauts is covered with forests
and dense jungle, belts and detached portions
of which in places stretch to within a few
miles of the sea. Malabar is watered by innu-
merable short streams. The chief river is the

MALABAK

Beypoor, which is with its tributaries naviga-
ble for boats of considerable size for about 30
m. inland ; next to this is the Ponany river,
which is longer, but shallower. Several inlets
run along a short distance from the shore par-
allel to the coast, receive the mountain streams,
and communicate with the ocean by shallow
channels, and are navigable for small boats for
nearly the whole length of the province. It is
on the banks of the rivers and of these inlets,
in the valleys, and along the coast, that the in-
habitants reside. The climate is generally
healthful, though in the interior jungle fever is
prevalent at certain seasons. The hot season
is from February to May, the wet from May to
October, and the cool during the remainder of
the year. The thermometer seldom rises above
90 in the shade, and rarely falls below 70.
During the wet season very heavy rain falls
along the coast, increasing toward the interior ;
the average rainfall throughout the district is
more than 75 inches per annum, and at Cana-
nore it is 123 inches. The principal vegeta-
ble productions of Malabar are pepper, cocoa-
nuts, ginger, coffee, hemp, cardamoms, betel
nuts, turmeric, arrowroot, sapan wood, sandal
wood, timber of different sorts, and various
gums and resins. Besides teak, 120 other kinds
of valuable timber have been enumerated in
a report upon the forests of Malabar. Since
1843 large plantations of teak have been made.
Cardamoms are produced from the forest land
on the face of the mountains which bound the
province, at the height of from 2,000 to 4,000
ft. above the sea, growing spontaneously after
the felling and burning of the trees. Pepper,
which is the principal commercial product, and
is styled the money of Malabar, is chiefly cul-
tivated in the northern part, in the neighbor-
hood of Tellichery, and thrives especially in
the moist valleys of the Ghauts. The trailing
plant from which it is produced requires but
slight care, the cultivator having little more to
do than collect the produce. The culture of
coffee was introduced by British planters, on
estates situated on the slopes of the mountains,
some 2,000 ft. above the sea. The proprietary
system of land revenue prevails, under which
a percentage of the rent goes to the landlords
and the rest to the government. Eice is grown
throughout the province, but not in sufficient
quantities for internal consumption. The cul-
tivation of ginger, since its exportation to
Europe began, has been carried on with great
vigor. Iron is obtained from laterite in many
places, and gold in small quantities is found
in the mountain streams. Large herds of ele-
phants and buffaloes frequent the interior for-
ests. There are some tigers and numerous leo-
pards, deer of various kinds, elk, bears, hogs,
porcupines, squirrels, and monkeys. There are
small bullocks, which, together with buffaloes,
are used in tilling the ground ; in the level tracts
elephants are employed to drag timber to the
rivers, to be floated to the coast. There are
but few horses, and traffic is either carried on
525 VOL. xi. 4

by water or upon men's shoulders, as in China.
The population of Malabar is made up of
Hindoos, Mohammedans, and Christians. There
are a few Jews, both white and black, who are
principally settled in the southern part of the
district. The Brahmans, the highest class of
Hindoos, are here called Nainburis ; to limit
the numbers of their race, they prevent the
younger sons from marrying. There is another
caste of Brahmans called Puttar, who are much
more numerous. The next in rank are the
Nairs, who are of 11 castes, of various ranks
and professions, but all pretend to be born
soldiers. Their habits and manners are marked
by some strange peculiarities, among which
may be mentioned the want of that penurious
disposition natural to other Hindoos, and their
utter disuse of marriage. A girl on reaching
the age of puberty forms any connection she
thinks fit ; and the children, who have no claim
upon their natural father, become the heirs of
her brothers. The Tiars, or Theans, are con-
sidered next in rank to the Nairs, and are en-
gaged in various occupations, but principally
in cultivating the ground. The Poliars, or
Chermars, are a numerous class, who, before
the British interfered in their behalf, were held
in slavery, and bought and sold separately or
along with the land. The Madis are the low-
est specimens of all, and are outcasts consid-
ered so impure that even a Chermar would be
defiled by their touch. They wander about in
companies of 10 or 12, keeping at a little dis-
tance from the roads, and upon seeing a trav-
eller set up a cry for assistance. They re-
fuse all labor, subsist upon roots and any food
however loathsome, and live in wretched huts
built in secluded spots. The Chermars and
Niadis are supposed to be the descendants of
the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, and
are much smaller in stature and darker in com-
plexion than the Brahmans, Nairs, or Tiars,
who are all of good height and well formed,
with remarkably handsome features and olive-
colored complexion. The native Mussulmans,
denominated Mapilas, form about one fourth
of the population. They are descended from
Hindoo mothers by Arab fathers, who settled
in Malabar about the 7th or 8th century, and
are exceedingly fanatical and treacherous.
There are some Syrian Christians toward the
S. boundary of the province, who consider
themselves descendants of converts made by
the apostle St. Thomas in the 1st century (see
CHEISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS) ; and also a few
thousand converts to Christianity and descen-
dants of the Portuguese, who reside chiefly in
the neighborhood of their ancient settlements.
The Hindoo population of Malabar are not
prone to congregate in towns and villages, but
for the most part live in separate houses, neatly
built and kept scrupulously clean, throughout
the country. The towns owe their origin en-
tirely to foreign settlers, and the chief are
Calicut, Palghat, Tellichery, Cananore, Mahe
(which is a French colony), and Ponany. At

MALABAR COAST

Beypoor, 7 m. S. of Calicut, where the river
of the same name falls into the sea, is the
terminus of a railway connecting Madras with
the coast of Malabar. The attempts of the
English to manufacture iron here have not
been successful. Many ships have been built
at Beypoor, for the construction of which the
forests situated on the banks of the river sup-
ply teak timber of a darker color and better
description than is found elsewhere, and of
very large size. It was at Beypoor, and not
at Calicut as generally supposed, that the first
European navigator, Vasco da Gama, landed in
1498. At that time the Portuguese established
themselves in Malabar, and the Dutch made
some settlements there in 1 663. The exports of
Malabar amount in value to about $3,000,000
per annum. They consist chiefly of cocoanuts
and cocoanut oil, coir rope, arrack, betel nuts,
coarse cotton cloth, pepper, ginger, cardamoms,
camphor, coffee, kino, and various gums and
resins. The imports do not amount to more
than one third of the value of the exports.
The name Malabar is supposed to be a cor-
ruption of the Indian malayalam, signifying
skirting the hills, and the original Sanskrit
name is said to have been Kevala. It is sup-
posed that the country was conquered in very
early times by a king from the opposite side
of the mountains, and that the Nairs came at
the same time as a military body. They took
every opportunity to aggrandize themselves,
and continued to rule the country till Hyder
Ali invaded it in 1763. Hyder subdued the
country, plundered it almost to exhaustion,
and expelled all the rajahs except such as con-
ciliated him by immediate submission. His
son Tippoo Sahib proposed to the Hindoos to
embrace the Mohammedan faith, and followed
up his proposition by levying large contribu-
tions on his infidel subjects, and forcibly cir-
cumcising many of the Brahmans, Nairs, and
others. On the breaking out of the war be-
tween Tippoo and the British in 1790, the re-
fractory Nairs, many of whom had fled to the
forest to escape his persecution, joined the lat-
ter and succeeded in driving him from the
country. With some slight disturbances, Mala-
bar has since remained a portion of British
India. It was incorporated with the Madras
presidency in 1803, and since then the popula-
tion has more than quadrupled, and the coun-
try i* steadily advancing.

MALABAR COAST, an indefinite term applied
to the W. side of the Indian peninsula. In a
somewhat restricted sense it means the coasts
of Concan, Canara, Malabar proper, Cochin, and
Travancore. The coast of Malabar proper is
about 150 in. in length, and has numerous har-
bors, though most of them are so shallow as to
be available only to vessels of light draught
and coasters.

MALACCA. I. A British territory, one of the
Strait* S.-ttl.-m.-nN. on the W. side of the
Malay p-mn<ul.-i. U-t \veen lat. 2 and 2 30' N.,
extending 42 m. along the coast, and varying in

MALACCA

breadth inland from 14 to 24 m. ; area, 658 sq.
m pop. in 1870 (estimated), 67,267, of whom
2,648 were white. The territory lies in an ir-
regular triangle, the S. E. boundary or base of
which is formed by the Cassang river, which
rises near a remarkable conical hill named Mt.
Ophir, about 50 m. E. of the capital. In the
interior the country is arranged in a series of
undulating hills and valleys, generally lying
parallel to the seacoast. There are no great
ranges of hills, but a large number of detached
elevations are found, varying in height from
100 to 1,000 ft. Mt. Ophir, called by the na-
tives Ledang, is the only considerable elevation;
it rises to the height of about 5,000 ft. above the
level of the sea. The general formation of these
hills and of the territory is granitic, with a cov-
ering of laterite, or red clay ironstone. The
coast line may be divided into three portions
of distinct character. The N. W: portion, from
Lingie river to Tanjong Kling, 17 m., shows a
bold wooded elevation reaching to the sea.
Behind this coast plateau the series of hill and
valley commences immediately. The central
portion, or from Tanjong Kling to the town
of Malacca, 5 m., is a sandy beach, with ferru-
ginous rocks, appearing in points jutting into
the sea. The third part, 21 m., is a mud flat,
exposed for a great distance at low water ;
and the inner portion is covered with man-
grove jungle. Inland from the two latter por-
tions, an immense alluvial plain, with detached
hills, extends considerably beyond the inner
boundary of the territory. The district is
watered by five navigable rivers, of which the
Lingie is navigable for vessels of 200 tons as
far as Simpang, a distance of 8 m. Numer-
ous smaller streams fall into the sea. The
soil of the low lands is a rich alluvium, vary-
ing in color from light brown to red. The
territory is capable of producing in perfection
almost every article of intertropical culture,
and of late years the forests have been cleared
away to a considerable extent, and agriculture
is on the increase. It enjoys the equable tem-
perature and salubrious climate of the Malay
archipelago, to which it geologically and eth-
nologically belongs. The greatest recorded
range of the thermometer is from 68 to 86.
Tigers, leopards, black panthers, and other
ferocious animals abound. Among the other
animals are monkeys of various species, the
elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, wild ox, tapir,
several species of deer, the antelope, and musk
deer. The chief crops are rice, the cocoa-
nut, and tapioca. Nutmeg plants have been
brought from the Moluccas, and cultivated with
moderate success. Cinnamon, of superior
quality to that of Ceylon, is cultivated for
exportation. Cotton, chocolate, sugar cane,
indigo, and a great variety of fine fruits are
raised. Among the exports are tin, known in
commerce as "straits tin," ebony, ivory, rat-
tans, lac, eagle wood, hides, hogs, and fowls.
Gold is washed from the sands of all the
streams in fine dust. The trade is chiefly with

MALACCA

MALACHY

the neighboring British settlements, Penang
and Singapore. The annual exports amount
to about $2,000,000, and the imports to about
$2,250,000. (See MALAY PENINSULA, and
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.) II. A city, capital of
the territory, situated near the mouth of a
small river which falls into the straits of
Malacca, in lat. 2 14' N., Ion. 102 12' E. ;
pop. about 15,000. It was the chief em-
porium of oriental commerce before Euro-
peans visited the Indian seas. The Arabs,
Persians, and Hindoos resorted to its port to
procure the spices, gums, and other precious
products of the Malay archipelago, which they
afterward distributed throughout Asia, Af-
rica, and Europe. It owed its commercial
distinction to the freedom of its roadstead
from hurricanes or the influence of the mon-
soons, and to its advantageous situation in
the straits of Malacca, the great highway of
eastern commerce. It is a free port ; but its
trade has long ceased to be of any relative
importance, and is almost entirely confined
to the neighboring settlements. The harbor
is too shallow to admit large vessels. "When
first visited by the Portuguese, it contained
about 35,000 dwellings, and, according to
the lowest computation made at the time,
150,000 inhabitants. It was besieged and
taken by Albuquerque in 1511. The victor
captured more than 3,000 pieces of brass and
iron cannon, mounted upon the walls of the
city, which were said to be superior to any of
Portuguese fabrication of that period. The
Portuguese held possession of the city for 130
years, and during that period it underwent 19
sieges, 8 of which were undertaken by the
Malays, chiefly of the state of Acheen, and the
rest by the Dutch, who captured the place
after nine months' siege and blockade in 1641.
The Dutch held the city for 154 years, sur-
rendering to a British besieging force in
1795. In 1818 it was restored to the Dutch
government ; but it again reverted to the Brit-
ish in 1824, in exchange for Bencoolen in Su-
matra. There are many notable ruins of for-
tifications constructed by the ancient Malay
kings, and many of their tombs ; also ruins of
monasteries, churches, and fortifications con-
structed by Albuquerque, including those of
the monastery of Madre de Dios, on a hill in
the rear of the town, which contained the
remains of St. Francis Xavier till they were
transferred to Goa.

MALACCA, Straits of, the waters which separate
the Malay peninsula from the island of Suma-
tra. This channel is the most frequented route
of European vessels proceeding eastward to
Chinese and neighboring points ; and it is also
in the line of Australian and Malaysian com-
munication with continental India. It enjoys
with the Malaysian seas an entire exemption
from the hurricanes and typhoons which pre-
vail in the neighboring waters to the eastward
and westward. Two lighthouses constructed
by the British government, at the N. W. and

S. E. extremities, contribute greatly to the
safety of its navigation. The channel is about
600 m. long, and from 30 to about 200 m. wide.

MALACHI, the last of the minor prophets.
The name may be defined either "my mes-
senger" or "messenger of Jehovah." Noth-
ing is known of his person or history, and
many interpreters, as Umbreit, Hengste*nberg,
and others, are of opinion that Malachi is not
a proper name, but an official title ; and some
hold that Ezra was the writer of this book.
From the contents of the prophecy it may
be inferred that the prophet lived after Ze-
chariah, since in his time the second temple
was already built (iii. 10), and that he was
contemporary with Nehemiah (446 B. 0.).
The prophet reminds Israel of the kindness
of God toward them in the past, and com-
plains of the irreligiousness of the priests and
the people. He then announces the coming
of a messenger sent by the Lord to prepare
the way for him, and the coming of the Lord
himself to judgment, which will be condem-
nation of the wicked and a blessing on the
good. The prophecy of Malachi occupies the
last place in the canon of the Old Testament,
and is referred to in several places of the New
Testament. Among the more important com-
mentaries upon it are those of Hitzig, Ewald,
Maurer, Umbreit, Pressel, and Reinke. The
last, a Roman Catholic, has written the most
complete work on this book, containing the
Hebrew text and a translation, with a full crit-
ical, philological, and historical commentary
(Giessen, 1856).

MALACHITE. See COPPER, vol. v., p. 319.

MALACHY, Saint, archbishop of Armagh, born
in Armagh about 1095, died at Clairvaux,
France, Nov. 2, 1148. He was of noble birth,
became a monk, and was appointed vicar of
St. Celsus, archbishop of Armagh, who des-
tined him for his successor. He studied canon
law under St. Malchus, bishop of Lismore, and
rebuilt a portion of the monastery of Ben-
chor. About 1127 he was appointed bishop
of the united sees of Down and Connor. He
visited on foot every hamlet in both dioceses,
restored reverence for the matrimonial con-
tract, repaired churches, established schools,
obtained enlightened priests, and introduced
everywhere the Roman liturgy and ritual. He
became archbishop in 1129 ; but as the tempo-
ralities of Armagh had been confiscated, he con-
tinued to govern the diocese of Connor. This
city was sacked in a civil war, and with 120 dis-
ciples he retired into Munster, built the mon-
astery of Ibrach, and as primate made a visita-
tion of Munster and Connaught. Toward the
end of 1134 he took possession of the see of
Armagh, completed his reforms, and made a
second visitation of the dioceses of Munster.
In 1137 he resigned his archbishopric, conse-
crated a bishop for Connor, and reserved for
himself the poorer and obscurer see of Down,
where he founded various institutions. In 1189
he went to Rome, to confer with the pope about

MALACOLOGY

a thorough renovation of the Irish church, and
received full power as legate a latere. After
his return he visited every part of the island,
and in 1 14* lu-1.1 :i national council at Inis Padrig
or Patrick's Holme; disciplinary decrees were
enacted, and a petition was drawn up for the
establishment of two metropolitan sees. Avitn
these Malachy started for France, hoping to
meet Pope Eugenius III. at Clairvaux ; but he
arrived there after the pope's departure, fell
ill of a fever, and died in the arms of St. Ber-

-.vho pronounced a panegyric at his fu-
neral, and wrote his life (translated by Mattel).
He was canonized by Clement III. in 1190, and
his feast is celebrated on Nov. 3. A " Prophecy
concerning the Lives of the future Roman Pon-
tiffs " beginning with Celestine II., elected in
1143, popularly attributed to St. Malachy, is
now considered to have originated in the con-
clave of 1590. It was first published in 1595
by the Benedictine Arnould de Wyon, and is to
be found in Moreri's Dictionnaire historique.

MALACOLOGY (Gr. //aAa<5f, soft, and Myog,
discourse), that department of zoology which
treats of the mollusca, some of which were
termed even by Aristotle malakia (soft ani-
mals), including the examination both of the
external shells and the internal organs. In the
article CONOHOLOOY the outer shells of mollusks
have been sufficiently described, and their in-
ternal organization and habits will be noticed
under MOLLUSCA ; it only remains here to enu-
merate briefly some of the principal systems of
classification. Linnaeus (1766) placed mollusks
in his 6th and lowest class of vermes, with
worms and zoophytes. As early as 1812 Ouvier
had given to the world his views on the classi-
fication of animals, founded principally upon
his researches in comparative anatomy; he
makes the mollusca his second branch, with
the classes: 1, cephalopoda (like cuttle fishes);
2, pteropoda (like elio or whale bait) ; 3,
gasteropoda, with orders pulmonata (slugs and
snails), nudibranchia (naked marine genera
without shells, like doris), inferobranchia
(phyllidia), tectibranchia (bulla and aplysid),
heteropoda (carinaria), pectinibranchia (most
of the marine univalves, turbo, trochus, &c.),
tubulibranchia (like siliquaria}, scutibranchia
(haliotis, &c.), and cyclobranchia (patella and
chiton) ; 4, acephala, with orders testacea (oys-

i-ii. ami most bivalve shells) and tunicata
(ascidians); 6, brachiopoda, like terebratula,

.-. aii-l finyula; and 6, cirrhopoda (like
barnacles), now placed among articulata in

!a erustacea. Lamarck (1815-'22) ar-
ranged the mollusks in two classes: one his
llth, conchifera or bivalves, with the orders
ilimiinrM (having two separated muscular im-
pressions on the inside of the shells) and
monomyaria (with a nearly central single im-
pression); tin? otlu-r his 12th class, mollusca,
with th- orders pteropoda, gasteropoda, trache-
< hflii, &c.), cephalopoda, and heteropoda
trio); he placed the ascidians in his 4th
class, tunicata, among his apathetic animals;

he made of the cirripeds his 10th class, with
the orders sessilia and pedunculata, ranking
them and the next two classes among sensitive
animals. Ehrenberg (1836), in his division
of ganglioneura (with ganglionic nervous sys-
tem), and subdivision sphygmozoa (with a heart
and pulsating vessels), makes his 4th section
of mollusca, characterized by absence of artic-
ulations to the body and by the irregular dis-
persion of the nervous ganglia ; he gives the
classes cephalopoda, pteropoda, gasteropoda,
acephala, brachiopoda, tunicata (simple ascid-
ians), and aggregata (compound ascidians) ; the
cirripeds he places among crustaceans. Owen
(1843-'58), in his "Lectures on Comparative
Anatomy," and article " Mollusca " in the " En-
cyclopedia Britannica" (8th edition), divides
the province mollusca or heterogangliata into
two sections, acephala and encephala, accord-
ing to the absence or presence of a head and
its accompanying parts. I. Acephala, with
the classes: 1, tunicata; 2, brachiopoda; 3,
lamellibranchiata, with the groups monomy-
aria and dimyaria, with one or two adductor
muscles. II. Encephala, with the classes : 4,
pteropoda ; 5, gasteropoda, with the divisions
monacia and dicecia ; and 6, cephalopoda, with
orders tetrabranchiata and dibranchiata. The
cirripeds he places among articulates, though
in a class distinct from crustaceans, and he,
with his predecessors, retains the bryozoa
among radiates. Siebold (1848) makes three
classes as follows : 1, acephala, with orders
tunicata, Irachiopoda, and lamellibranchia
(with suborders monomya, dimya, and in-
clusa) ; 2, cephalophora, with orders ptero-
poda, heteropoda, and gasteropoda (with sub-
orders apneusta, heterobranchia, tubicolce, pec-
tinibranchia, and pulmonata); and 3, cephalo-
poda, without orders, but with families nautili-
na, octopoda, and loligina. (See Burnett's trans-
lation, Boston, 1854.) Leuckart (1848) divides
mollusca into four classes: 1, tunicata, with
orders ascidice and salpce (he is inclined to
make these not simply a class, but a type in-
termediate between echinoderms and worms) ;
2, acephala, with orders lamellibranchiata
and brachiopoda; 3, gasteropoda, with orders
heterobranchia, dermatobranchia, heteropoda,
ctenobranchia, pulmonata, and cyclobranchia;
and 4, cephalopoda. Before giving the classi-
fications of Milne-Edwards and Agassiz, which
seem to be the truest to nature, it will be in-
structive to glance at a few physio-philosophi-
cal and embryological systems as compared
with the preceding founded upon anatomical
structure. Oken (1809-'43) places the mol-
lusca in his province of dermatozoa (sensitive or
tegumentary animals) or splanchnozoa (visce-
ral or fleshless animals), and in the circle of
vascular, sexual animals, equivalent to mala-
cozoa and conchozoa (glandular or shell ani-
mals) ; according to the anatomical system, the'
vascular animals are either venous (like mus-
sels), arterial (like snails), or cardiac (like
kraken or cuttle fishes) ; according to the de-

MALACOLOGY

MALACOPTERYGIANS

lopment of the feeling sense, the sexual ani-
mals (the same as the vascular) are either ova-
rial, orchitic, or renal. In his system (see his
"Physiophilosophy," Kay society ed., 1847)
the first class of rnollusks (venous, ovarial
animals or mussels) has the following orders :
I. Protozooid mussels. II. Conchozooid mus-
sels; this corresponds to the acephala, and 'is
characterized by a membraneous heart with
two auricles. The second class (arterial, or-
chitic animals or snails) has the following
orders: III. Protozooid snails or androgyni
(bisexual). IV. Conchozooid snails or dicecii
(with separate sexes) ; this class corresponds
to gasteropods, having a membraneous heart
with one auricle. The third class (cardiac,
nephritic animals or kraken) has the following
orders: V. Protozooid kraken. VI. Concho-
zooid kraken. It will be seen from this sys-
tem that the principles of Cuvier respecting
the different plans of the four great divisions
of the animal kingdom are entirely set at
nought ; orders, according to Oken, represent-
ing in their respective classes the characteristic
features of the lower types. Among the em-
bryological systems may be mentioned those
of Von Baer, Kolliker, Van Beneden, and
Vogt. Von Baer (1827-'8) calls the mollusks
the massive type, as the body and its parts are
formed chiefly in round masses, the shape un-
symmetrical, the nervous ganglia diffused and
appearing late, and the movements slow and
feeble ; in the course of development identical
parts are produced, curving around a conical
or other space. According to Kolliker (1844),
in the mollusks the embryo arises from a
primitive part, grows uniformly in every di-
rection, and either entirely encloses the embry-
onal vesicle, early in gasteropods and acephala,
or late (forming a temporary vitelline sac) as
in Umax, or else contracts above the embryonal
vesicle, forming a genuine vitelline sac, as in
cephalopods. Van Beneden (1845-'55) places
mollusks with worms and radiates under his
group of allocotyledones or allovitellians, in
which the vitellus or yolk enters the body
neither from the ventral nor from the dorsal
side; his class mollusca, at the first date, in-
cluded cephalopods, gasteropods, pelecypods,
and brachiopods ; in his later work he added
acephala, tunicata, and bryozoa, removing the
last two from the polyps; the cephalopods,
however, are not allovitellians, and any classi-
fication which unites in one group mollusks,
worms, and radiates cannot be founded on cor-
rect principles. Vogt (1851) adopts the dis-
tinction of Kolliker, of animals in which the
embryo is developed from the whole yolk, and
those in which it arises from a definite part of
it, in the former of which he places mollusks,
with worms and radiates ; he makes a primary
division of the cephalopoda, in which the yolk
is cephalic, with a class of the same, with the
orders tetrabranchiata and dibranchiata. In
the division mollusca, with an irregular dis-
position of the organs, he makes the follow-

ing classes: cephalophora, acephala, tunicata,
ctenopkora, and bryozoa. The last three classes
constitute his mollvscoidea. The separation
of the cephalopods is unjustifiable, and the
transfer of the ctenophora from acalephan
radiates to mollusks cannot be maintained.
Milne-Edwards (1855) divides the third branch,
malacozoaria or mollusca, into the two sub-
branches : 1, mollusks proper, with the classes
of cephalopods. pteropods, gasteropods, and
acephala; and 2, inolluscoids, with the classes
tunicata and bryozoa. Agassiz, in his "Essay
on Classification" (1857), makes only three
classes of the branch of mollusks : I. Acepha-
la, with orders : 1, bryozoa (including the wr-
ticellce) ; 2, brachiopoda ; 3, tunicata ; and
4, lamellibranchiata. II. Gasteropoda, with
orders: 1, pteropoda; 2, heteropoda; and 3,
gasteropoda proper. III. Cephalopoda, with
orders: 1, tetrabranchiata, and 2, dibranchiata.
He includes bryozoa among mollusks, uniting
with them the vorticellidce, the plan of their
structure not being radiated, but distinctly
bilateral, and gradually leading through the
brachiopods and tunicates to the ordinary
acephala ; tunicata show in the simple ascid-
ians pedunculated young, resembling boltenia,
and forming a connecting link with the com-
pound ascidians ; cephalopods are homologous
with other mollusks in all their systems of
organs, and can no more properly be separated
from them on account of the partial segmenta-
tion of their yolk, than can the mammalia from
other vertebrates on account of its total seg-
mentation in their case. According to Prof.
Owen, some of the compound ascidians have
certain affinities to the zoophytes ; some of the
marine apneusta (like actceon and glaucus) are
related to some of the abranchiate annelids;
though cephalopods are the highest, they do
not pass into amphioxus or any other embryonic
form of vertebrate; he retains the bryozoa with
the polyps. Prof. Huxley makes the primary
divisions of molluscoids and mollusca ; the for-
mer including the polyzoa, tunicata, and bra-
chiopoda, the latter the lamellibranchiata,
gasteropoda, pteropoda, and cephalopoda. Prof.
Morse places the brachiopods among the worm-
like articulates ; and very likely the tunicates
and polyzoa belong with them. (See BRA-
OHIOPODA.)

MALACOPTERTGIMS, a division of fishes es-
tablished by Artedi in the early part of the
18th century, including such as have the fin
rays soft, except occasionally the first of the
dorsal or pectorals. Cuvier divided them into
three orders: 1, the abdominal, in which the
ventrals are suspended to the under part of
the abdomen, behind the pectorals, and not
attached to. the scapular arch, comprising the
greater part of fresh-water fishes, as the carp,
pike, cat fish, salmon, herring, and their allies ;
2, the subbrachian, having the ventrals at-
tached under the pectorals, the pelvis being
suspended to the scapular arch, comprising
fishes like the cod, flounder, turbot. &c. ; 3,

MALAGA

the apodal, wanting ventrals and sometimes
tli.- j.ectorals, including the eel family. J.
MQller limits the term to the group acombere-
tocida of the suborder pharyngognathi, in-
cluding the flying fish. This is rejected by
Van der Hoeven, who returns to Cuvier's
divisions, adding, however, a few families.
(See FISHES, and ICHTHYOLOGY.)

MALAGA. 1. A S. province of Spain, in An-
dalusia, bordering on Cadiz, Seville, Cordova,
Granada, and the Mediterranean ; area, 2,822
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 505,010. The surface is
irregular, being traversed from N. E. to S. W.
by ranges of the Sierra Nevada, forming most
picturesque and fertile plateaux and valleys,
watered by innumerable streams. The chief
rivers are the Jenil, constituting part of the N".
boundary, the Guadiaro, and the Guadaljorce,

Guadalmedina, and Velez-Malaga. Lead, iron,
tin, zinc, quicksilver, and manganese are found
in large quantities. The climate is one of the
hottest in Europe, but the great heat is tempered
by refreshing breezes from the southwest. The
vegetation is everywhere luxuriant ; the prin-
cipal products are grapes of various kinds, es-
pecially those named muscatel and Jaere, the
sugar cane, pineapples, chirrimoyas, and other
delicious tropical fruits, aniseed, cumin, liquor-
ice root, sumach, cork, and cochineal. The
manufactures include silks, satins, cotton and
hemp fabrics, morocco leather, wicker ware,
hats, paper, soap, chemicals, and above all the
far-famed Malaga wines. Agriculture and fish-
ing are the chief industries in the interior and
along the coast. The principal towns, besides
the capital, are Velez-Malaga, Alora, Anteque-

Malaga.

ra, Colmenar, Ronda, Marbella, and Estepona.
II. A city, capital of the province, on a gulf
of the same name in the Mediterranean, 262 m.
8. by W. of Madrid ; pop. about 100,000, or
with the suburbs, 130,000. It stands in the
centre of a wide bay, surrounded by walls with
nine gates, and flanked by high mountains, on
the base of which it rises in amphitheatre ; and
seen from the sea it presents, with the ruins
of its ancient fortifications and its Moorish cas-
tle, the Gibralfaro, on a lofty eminence to the
east, an aspect of much grandeur. The streets,
nr:iH\ all I'xtivmdy narrow, and many of them
not admitting vehicles, give the town a pecu-
\foorish appearance. The Guadalmedina,
crossed by two good bridges, traverses the city
from N. K. to S. W., dividing it into two quar-
ters; but th- rivor, which in winter becomes
a formidable torrent inundating the streets, is
dry in summer, whx-ii its bed serves as a thor-

oughfare. The houses (numbering about 7,000
in 1864) are large and high, and, being all white,
look remarkably gay and clean. Most of them
are built round a court. The Alameda, near
the port, one of the most beautiful promenades
in Spain, is surrounded by sumptuous edifices,
and embellished with a number of fountains
and statues, with rich marble seats at intervals
through the grounds. In the Plaza del Riego
is a monument to the memory of Torrijos and
his 49 confederates executed by order of Mo-
reno on Dec. 11, 1831 ; and the Paseo de Re-
ding is an agreeable resort. Chief among the
public buildings is the cathedral, begun in 1538,
and completed in 1719 ; it is a stately structure
in the composite style, with a spire 300 ft.
high, and magnificent decorations; the high
altar and choir are noteworthy for the perfec-
tion of their carved works representing the
twelve apostles and many saints. The episco-

MALAKHOFF

MALARIA

palace and the custom house are handsome
edifices. Among the other notable buildings
are four parish churches and two chapels, ele-
ven convents, ten nunneries, two foundling,
one military, and three general hospitals, a
prison, four barracks, the post office, and a
superb aqueduct. The places of amusement

e the theatre and the plaza de toros or bull

g, with a number of concert and dancing

ms. . Pipes for the supply of water from

e river Torremolinos, 6 m. distant, were laid
1874. The port is one of the finest and

st commodious on the Mediterranean, serv-
as a refuge for vessels compelled to leave

ibraltar during the prevalence of the S. W.
winds. A mole to the east upward of 1,200
ft. long, with a lighthouse upon its outer ex-
tremity, offers good protection ; and the har-
bor, which has good anchorage for about 500
ships, is defended by four forts. Among other
fortifications is the Gibralfaro, a Moorish cas-
tle on the site of a Roman fortress, on a hill
manding the city. The principal articles of

port are wines and raisins, including muscatel,
finest in the world, lejia or lye, and sun

.sins. The crop of muscatel grapes yielded
2,700,000 boxes of raisins, the best of which
go to England and Russia, and the lower grades
to the United States. Sugar is extensively
manufactured for export ; the total production
in 1872 was 21,960,000 Ibs. The export trade
in olive oil has greatly increased, mostly with
France, Germany, England, and Russia; France
and the United States take the most of the lead
exported. The total value of the exports to the
United States in the year ending Sept. 30, 1873,
was $2,814,682 79, raisins, lemons, and lead
forming the principal part. The chief imports
are linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, hard-
ware, machinery, and cutlery. The port move-
ments for the year ending June 30, 1873, were
1,028 steamers and 2,749 sailing vessels, with
an aggregate of 542,802 tons. The chief man-
ufactures are soap, cigars, hats, leather, white
lead, and porcelain ; and there are iron f oun-
deries, saw mills, lime and brick kilns, and silk-
weaving establishments. The educational in-
stitutions are a seminary, a naval school, two
endowed Latin, and a number of primary
schools. Malaga (anc. Malaca) was founded
by the Phoenicians, and subsequently passed
under the dominion of Carthage and of Rome.
Its name is variously derived. Humboldt as-
cribes it to the Iberians; others connect it
with mela'h, supposed to be the Phoenician
name for salt fish, for the exportation of which
the town was famous. In 714 it was seized
without opposition, by the Moors, who held it
till 1487, when it was taken by Ferdinand the
Catholic after a protracted siege. In 1810 Se-
bastiani, the French general, took the city, and
exacted a contribution of 12,000,000 reals. It
was again taken by the French in 1823.

MALAKHOFF, or Malakoff. See CRIMEA.

MALAN. I. Cesar Henri Abraham, a Swiss
theologian, born in Geneva, July 8, 1787, died

there, May 8, 1864. His ancestors, who were
noble and Protestant, fled on account of perse-
cution from Merindol in southern France to
Switzerland in tne 17th century. At an early
age he became a minister of the state church
and a regent in the college of Geneva. After-
ward, through the influence of Dr. Mason of
New York and Robert Haldane of Scotland,
from a Socinian he became a Trinitarian, and
received much sympathy from English and
Scotch Christians. He often visited England.
He published " The Church of Rome " (trans-
lated into English, New York, 1844) ; " Stories
for Children" (1852); and "Pictures from
Switzerland " (1854). The American tract so-
ciety and the publishing department of the
Dutch Reformed church have printed many of
his tracts. His most important work is his vol-
ume of hymns, entitled Chants de Sion (1826 ;
enlarged ed., 1841), of which he composed both
the words and the music. II. Solomon Crcsar,
an English clergyman, son of the preceding,
born in Geneva in 1812. After completing his
education at Geneva he went to Oxford, where
he graduated. He was appointed classical pro-
fessor in Bishop's college, Calcutta, in 1838,
but from impaired health returned in a few
years to England, and afterward resided some
time in Arabia. He became vicar of Broad-
windsor, Dorsetshire, in 1845, and prebendary
of Sarum in 1871. He is said to be able to
use in conversation familiarly upward of 20
languages, and to translate upward of 100.
Among other works, he has published "Three
Months in the Holy Land" (1843); "A Plain
Exposition of the Apostles' Creed" (1847);
" A Catalogue of the Eggs of British Birds,"
and "A Systematic List of British Birds"
(1848); "Magdala and Bethany," and "The
Coast of Tyre and Sidon" (1857); "On Ritu-
alism" (1867); "Life, Labors, &c., of Cassar
Malan " (1 869) ; " Our Lord's Miracles and Par-
ables" (1871); and numerous translations.

MALARIA (ItaJ. mala aria, bad air), or Marsh
Miasm (Gr. fiiaiveiv, to infect), an emanation
which produces in mankind intermitting and
remitting diseases. This poison is not cog-
nizable by the senses, nor can it be detected by
chemical tests ; it is known only by its effects.
The concurrence of vegetable matter suscepti-
ble of decay, of moisture either on the surface
or a short distance below it, and of a certain
elevation of temperature, is necessary for its
evolution; of these, long continued heat has
the greatest influence in increasing the intensity
of the poison. Comparatively harmless in the
northern part of the temperate zone, it becomes
malignant and deadly in places equally favor-
able to its production, just in proportion to
the increase in the mean annual temperature.
Marshes, whether salt or fresh, and wet mea-
dows are especially subject to malaria, particu-
larly when drying under a hot sun. Grounds
alternately flooded and drained are fertile
sources of it, and it is this which renders the
cultivation of rice so deleterious. Grounds

MALARIA

which, from the nature of the subsoil, retain
the moisture a short distance beneath the sur-
face, though that may be dry and parched, are
favorable to the production of malaria. The
process of clearing a new country of its woods,
and thus exposing the soil to the full action oi
the sun, is commonly followed by the prevalence
of fevers ; and the same evils often follow the
ploughing up of meadow lands. It is not ne-
cessary that the amount of the vegetable matter
be great or its growth recent, since malarious
diseases have often been caused by the drainage
of ponds and lakes ; and the fevers that pre-
vailed at Bourg-en-Bresse ceased on filling in
the half wet ditches of the fortifications. The
low grounds on the margin of lakes and the al-
luvial lands bordering rivers in warm countries
are always plagued with malaria. In India
ground covered with low thick growths of
brushwood or of weeds and grass, called jun-
gles, are so well known to produce malarious
fevers, that they are there termed jungle fevers ;
even open woods in tropical climates are pro-
ductive of malaria. The steeping of hemp and
flax, and the decay of vegetable refuse, pota-
toes, &e., in confined localities, as cellars or the
hold of a vessel, have resulted in fever. The
quantity of water required for the generation
of malaria is not large, a marsh completely
covered with water being innocuous ; it is only
when the moisture is drying up under the in-
fluence of the sun that it becomes pestilential.
So in tropical climates disease prevails chiefly
at the commencement and after the termina-
tion of the rainy season, and is less prevalent
while the earth is saturated. In some cases
the quantity of vegetable matter concerned in
the production of malaria must be exceedingly
small. Dr. Ferguson, one of the medical offi-
cers in the army of the duke of Wellington,
says: "In Spain, during the month of May,
109, which was cold and wet, the army re-
mained healthy ; but in June, which was re-
markably hot and dry, marching through a sin-
gularly dry, rocky country of considerable ele-
vation, several of the regiments bivouacking in
the hilly ravines which had lately been water-
courses, a number of the men were seized with
violent remittent fever (the first which had
shown itself on the inarch) before they could
move from the bivouac the next morning ; and
tin* portion of the troops exclusively were
affected with this disorder for some time. In
this instance, the half dried ravine having been
the stony bed of a torrent, in which soil never
could be, the very existence of vegetables, and
consequently of their humid decay and putre-
wns impossible, and the stagnant pools
of water still left among the rocks by the wa-
tercourse were perfectly sweet. Yet this sit-
uation proved as pestiferous as the bed of a
' < 'ii the Nature and History of Marsh
loison," Edinburgh, 1821.) Here, however,
otal absence of vegetable matter would be
inVult to prove, and would be in contradic-
tion with all other experience.Whatever may

MALATESTA

be the nature of malaria, it is most concentra-
ted near the surface of the earth, and becomes
weaker as we rise above it; it is also most
active at night, probably from the influence of
the sun in rarefying and producing currents in
the atmosphere, and perhaps, too, because it
has a peculiar affinity for the fogs that are then,
apt to prevail. In malarious countries it is
well known that exposure to the night air is
apt to be followed by fever, and that those
who sleep in the upper rooms of a house are
safer than those who lodge on the ground floor.
While as a general rule low and damp grounds
are much more unhealthy thali the hills in their
neighborhood, yet in numerous instances this
rule does not hold good, or is even reversed.
The experience of the British army in the East
and West Indies is conclusive on this point.
In many cases this can readily be explained by
the effect of winds and currents of air carry-
ing the malaria to the higher ground, which
had been generated on the lower ; thus in Italy
the malaria from the borders of Lake Agnano
reaches the convent of the Camaldules, situ-
ated on a high hill three miles distant. Con-
nected with the propagation of malaria by cur-
rents of air is the fact that woods sometimes
act as a screen, protecting a place from the ma-
laria which would otherwise be conveyed to it
from some neighboring source ; in Italy fevers
have frequently become prevalent on the cut-
ting down of trees which have thus served as a
shelter. It becomes an interesting question
bow far malaria can be carried by winds. This
has been very variously estimated ; probably
three or four miles is the maximum. The ef-
fects of malaria are by no means confined to
the production of fevers and diseases of an in-
termittent type, but it is only in warm climates
and in certain unfavorable localities that its full
effects upon the constitution are observed. In
such places the growth is stunted, the complex-
ion sallow, the limbs slender, the abdomen tu-
mid, the hair lank and scant, and the teeth de-
'ective ; life is commonly extinguished before
40 years of age, and the population is only
cept up by immigration from healthier locali-
ties. Yet it is remarkable that when in such
places persons live beyond their 40th year,
they frequently recover some measure of health
and attain to old age.

MALATESTA, a family of Italy, many of whose
members were rulers of Rimini and other cities
of the Romagna, and which became affiliated
with the house of Montefeltro and with the
dukes of Urbino. The founder of the family
was Count Carpegna la Penna de' Billi, who
ived in the llth century, and who on ac-
count of his violent disposition was called mala
l <e*ta (" bad head "), whence the surname of
us descendants. Among the latter was Mala-
;esta, count of Verrncchio, who distinguished
himself against the Ghibellines, became ruler
of Rimini in 1295, and died in 1312. He was
succeeded by his son Malatestino, a zealous en-
my of the Ghibellines, who in 1314 added Ce-

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES 55

sena to Rimini, and died in 1317. Throe of his
brothers were deformed. Giovanni, one of
most repulsive of them, had for wife Fran-
cesca da Polenta, daughter of Guido the elder,
lord of Ravenna. She became the mistress
her brother-in-law Paolo, though he was
30 married, and Giovanni killed his wife and
>rother with the same sword (1289). Dante, in
Inferno, gives a thrilling narrative of this
ragic end of Francesca and Paolo da Rimini,
nd the story is a favorite theme of poets and
ists. Malatestino was succeeded by his broth-
Pandolfo I., instead of by his son Ferrantino,
le former being confirmed by the pope on ac-
rant of his vigorous opposition to the Ghi-
sllines. He was munificent, but disgraced
lis reign by the murder of his nephew, the
>unt of Ghiazzolo. On the death of Pan-
)lfo in 1326, his nephew Ferrantino was in-
lied as ruler. He served against the infidels
Palestine, but after a conflict with one of
is relatives he was expelled from Rimini by
le pope in 1335, and died in 1353. Two sons
Pandolfo, Malatesta II. (died in 1364) and
Galeotto (died in 1385), became joint rulers
after the expulsion of Ferrantino. They made
3ace with the pope, and added to their do-
linion Fano, Fossombrone, Pesaro, and some
other possessions. Galeotto was succeeded
by his sons Carlo (died in 1429) and Pan-
dolfo III. (died in 1427). The former was
lord of Rimini and a part of Romagna, sided
with Pope Gregory XII. during the schism,
and represented him at the council of Con-
stance, after having commanded the Venetians
against the emperor Sigismund. Subsequently,
while aiding the Florentines to expel the Milan-
ese, he was for some time imprisoned at Milan
(1427). He was the best soldier and the most
renowned ruler of the whole family. Pan-
dolfo III., after having conquered Brescia and
Bergamo, was driven in 1421 from the latter
city by the duke of Milan. The most remark-
able among their descendants was Sigismondo
Pandolfo (died in 1468), who successively com-
manded the Florentine, Neapolitan, Aragonese,
Venetian, and Sienese armies, and conquered
for Venice a portion of the Morea. He was
excommunicated by the pope in 1462 for hav-
ing made war upon the Roman see. He was a
munificent patron of letters and art, and had
laces built and libraries established in Rimini,
first wife was a daughter of the marquis of
ste, and his second of Francesco Sf orza. The
last ruler of Rimini was Pandolfo IV., who in
1503 was robbed of his patrimony by Cesare
Borgia. After Borgia's death he returned to
Rimini, but was expelled in 1526 by Pope
Clement VII., and died in want at Ferrara.

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. See INDIAN ARCHI-
PELAGO.

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES.
le Malayo-Polynesians are the light-complex-
ioned, olive-colored, and straight-haired inhab-
itants of the islands of the Indian and Pacific
is, from the Andamans in the bay of Ben-

gal in the west to Easter island on the east, and
from Formosa and the Hawaiian islands in the
north to New Zealand in the south. They oc-
cupy also the Malay peninsula on the Asiatic
continent, and partly also the island of Mada-
gascar adjacent to the African coast. Ethno-
logically and linguistically they form two great
divisions, Malayans proper and Polynesians.
The former chiefly occupy the western islands,
and the latter the groups E. of the Philip-
pines and Booro, subdivided into Micronesia,
Melanesia, and Polynesia (in the narrower
sense). The original inhabitants of all these
islands were the Papuans, a dark race, with
woolly hair growing in tufts. (See PAPUAN
RACES AND LANGUAGES.) The Malayo-Poly-
nesians came from the S. E. of Asia, occupied
at first only the islands adjacent to it, and
gradually extended their territory to the east,
either extirpating the previous inhabitants, or
driving them into the interior of the islands
and taking possession of the coasts. Their
relation to the Papuan population of these
islands therefore is similar to that of the Ary-
ans to the Dravidas of India. Some contend
that Polynesia was the earliest home of these
races, and that they came originally from the
American continent, but the hypothesis seems
untenable. Though the Malayo-Polynesian
type and culture are purest and quite primi-
tive in the eastern groups of islands, yet the
character of their fauna and flora is exclusive-
ly Asiatic, and the numerous historical tradi-
tions current among the people record migra-
tions only from the west. These traditions,
together with the fact that many of the names
of the islands of Polynesia proper are varia-
tions of those belonging to the Tonga and Sa-
moa groups, point to the latter as the common
source of the population of the former. On
Tonga and Samoa there are traditions that the
paradise and cradle of the Polynesians is the
island called Bulotu or Purotu, which is proba-
bly Booro, E. of Celebes. From the great simi-
larities existing among the languages and cus-
toms of the various Polynesian races, it is in-
ferred that the migrations from Tonga and Sa-
moa do not date back to very remote periods.
The circumstance that the traditions leap from
Booro at once to Tonga, leaving the whole of
Melanesia entirely untouched, renders it prob-
able that the Polynesians on their departure
from Booro made no large settlements on
any of the islands between Papua and the Sa-
moan archipelago, and that the few who chose
to establish themselves on them accordingly
became largely intermixed with Papuan ele-
ments. Of a similar impure type are the Mi-
cronesian Polynesians. The separation of the
Polynesians from the Malayans and their emi-
gration from Booro may be fixed at about 1000
B. C., as the literature of the latter was de-
veloped before our era, and shows even then
a strong mixture of Old Indie or Sanskrit ele-
ments, which cannot be found in the speech of
the former. The Polynesian languages, there-

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES

fore, are considered to represent the primitive
forms of speech. To the western or Malayan
li\iMon of the Malayo-Polynesian races be-
long the Tagalas or Bisayas (inhabitants of the
Philippines), the Malays of Malacca, the Achee-
nese of Sumatra, the Sundanese, the Javanese,
the inhabitants of Bali and Madura, the Ba-
taks of tlic interior of Sumatra, the population
of Nias and Batoo islands, the Hovas of Mada-
gascar, the Dyaks of Borneo, the Mankasars
(Macassars) and the Bughis of Celebes, and the
Alfooras of the Moluccas and the adjacent isl-
ands. To the eastern or Polynesian division
belong the Polynesians proper, the Melane-
sians, and Micronesians. The Polynesian race
embraces the inhabitants of the Samoa group
or Navigator's islands, the population of the
Tonga group or Friendly islands, the Maoris
of New Zealand, the Tahitians, the inhabitants
of the Rarotonga group or Cook's islands, the
people of the Tubuai group or Austral islands,
of the Low archipelago or Touamotou islands,
of the Marquesas islands, of the Hawaiian or
Sandwich islands, and of numerous isolated
islands in the Pacific ocean. The most east-
ern island inhabited by Polynesians is Vaihu or
Easter island, and the most western Tikopia
or Tukopia. To Micronesia belong the islands
E.- of the Philippines to Ion. 180, and from
the Marianas or Ladrones in the north to the
equator in the south. The population of the
Marianas or Ladrones is in part extinct, and
many groups of the Carolines are also unin-
habited. The people of the Gilbert archipela-
go form the transition from the Micronesians
to the Polynesians. The Melanesians embrace
the inhabitants of the Feejee islands, of New
Caledonia, of the New Hebrides, and of sev-
eral of the islands extending thence to Papua,
whose ethnological character has not yet been
definitely established. The physical constitu-
tion of the Malayo-Polynesians (excepting the
Melanesians, who present a strong Papuan
type) presents three fundamental forms, gen-
erally designated as the Malayan, Batak, and
Polynesian. The pure Malayan type is com-
monly found among the Malays proper, Rejangs,
Acheenese, Javanese, Madurese, and Tagalas.
They are generally 4J or 5 ft. high ; the skull
is equally long and broad ; the back of the head
is short and square ; the cheek bones protrude ;
the jaw bone is broad and prominent ; the nose
Hat; the nostrils broad and large; the eyelids
not as large as those of the Mediterranean races
nor as narrow as those of the Mongolians; the
eyes are black, but not brilliant; the mouth
with thick lips, but not puffed up ; the
I copper-brown with a tint of yellow
H scarcely any beard, and the hair is
itraight, coarse, and black with a touch of
brown ; the loins and calves are thin and weak.
The women are shorter than the men: their
breasts are small, pointed, and firm, and their
bosoms little developed and often quite flat.
The Batak type is represented by the Bataks,
.abitunts of Nias, Batoo, and Bali the

Bughis, and the Mankasars and Alfooras. The
body is taller, larger, and more muscular, the
skull and face more oval, and the back of the
head rounder ; the cheek bones are less prom-
inent and the jaw not quite so broad ; the nose
is rather pointed and straight, and depressed
at the root ; the mouth is smaller and better
proportioned ; the skin is light brown, and the
cheeks show a tinge of red ; the hair is straight
but thinner, and with a clearer shade of brown ;
the breasts of the women are larger and hemi-
spherical, and the bosom is fuller and higher.
The Polynesians are of a still higher stature,
and their bodies are generally well propor-
tioned and athletic ; the women, however, are
rather short and stout, with breasts like those
of the Malays; the skin is several shades
darker, especially in the furthest north and
south, while the population of the equatorial
islands is the lightest of all; the eyes are
small, black, and not very vivid ; the hair is
straight, coarse, black with a tinge of blue, and
a little inclined to curl, the use of coral chalk
giving it sometimes a reddish or flaxen color ;
the growth of beard is little developed. The
principal trait of the character of the Malayo-
Polynesians is undoubtedly taciturnity and re-
serve, which is softened only in case of ad-
mixture with Papuan blood ; they dislike to be
approached very closely, and they lay great
stress on keeping within the bounds of deport-
ment which custom prescribes for the various
classes of society ; there is therefore an abun-
dance of ceremonial laws among the peoples
of the west, and of tabu laws among those of
the east. They are possessed also of an almost
incredible degree of savagery and bloodthirsti-
ness. They are the cannibals par eminence,
not through want of food but through the pe-
culiar hardness of their character. Cannibal-
ism is practised not only among the inhabitants
of the South sea islands, but even among sev-
eral of the half civilized races of the west,
such as the Bataks of Sumatra, who have pro-
duced a written literature, and who have can-
nibal fites in certain cases even prescribed
by law. They are generally good and fearless
seamen, and readily undertake long journeys
in boats apparently very unsafe. They possess
good powers of observation, and are inclined to
adopt the ideas of foreigners, and also to imi-
tate their customs. The sentiments of family
ties and obligations are but little developed.
Infanticide is of frequent occurrence ; old, fee-
ble, and sick persons are badly treated and some-
times killed ; prostitution is prevalent, and pa-
rents exercise but little authority. Love of
gain, however, is the strongest passion among
them, and lying, stealing, murder, and all man-
ner of crimes are unscrupulously employed
whenever they offer a chance of profit. The
hope of plunder is their principal cause of
war, and piracy is in the Indian archipelago
considered to be an honorable and chivalric
occupation. They are brave, but do not hesi-
tate to poison their weapons and to play cow-

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES

!y tricks on their enemies. They are easily
excited to religious emotions, and their rich
store of legends testifies to the vivacity of their
imagination. The Javanese are the most cul-
tured among them, and evince capacity for a
jh degree of intellectual development. (For
e peculiar customs of the various races, see
e articles descriptive of their habitats.)
LANGUAGES. The Malayo-Polynesian languages
form an independent group, unconnected with
other. They are derivatives of an extinct
mitive form of speech, which suffered three
four dialectical variations before it had
ined its complete development. They do
possess the same grammatical structure
roughout, but only agree more or less in the
tern of sounds, the general form of the ver-
roots, and the main principles of grammar,
degree of development the Polynesian lan-
guages stand lowest; the Micronesian and Me-
lanesian are a step higher ; and the Malayan,
and especially the Tagala languages, occupy the
highest rank. The known languages of the
eastern or Polynesian division are the idiom
of the Marianas or Ladrones, which forms the
connecting link with the Malayan languages ;
the languages of the Feejee, Annatom, Erro-
mango, Tanna, Malikolo, Mare, Lifoo, Baladea
(New Caledonia), Bauro, and Guadalcanal* isl-
ands, which are all more or less closely related ;
and the Maori, the language of New Zealand,
with its kindred languages of the Tonga, Raro-
tonga, Tahiti, Hawaiian, and Marquesas islands.
Of the western or Malayan division, there are
known in the Philippines the Tagala of the
south of Luzon, the Pampanga of the south-
west, the Ilocana and Bicol of the southeast, the
Ybanag of the province of Cagayan, the Bisaya
spoken on several islands south of Luzon, and
the Zebuana on Cebu and the adjacent islands.
Closely related to them are the languages of
Formosa, of which the Favorlang and Sideia
dialects are best known. Three dialects are
known of the Malagasy, or language of Mada-
gascar, viz. : the Ankova dialect, spoken by
the Hovas in the interior of the island, the
Betsimisaraka dialect of the east, and the Saka-
lava dialect of the west. The Malay language
proper, which is in extent and in regard to its
literature the first among the whole group, is
spoken on the Malay peninsula and the adja-
cent islands, and on the coasts of Sumatra.
Two dialects may be distinguished in it, the
Malacca and the Menankabow or Padang. Be-
sides these dialects, a literary or choice lan-
guage is employed by the Malays. Several au-
thors divide the various modes of speech ac-
cording to castes : bahdsa ddlam, the language
of the court ; bahdsa bansdvan, that of the edu-
cated classes ; bahdsa ddgah, that of merchants
and traders ; and the bahdsa Tcatiikan, that of
the common people. The Malay language pos-
sesses a large and varied literature, the begin-
nings of which date back to the 13th century
A. D., and which is especially rich in poetical
works, legendary narratives, Mohammedan the-

ology, jurisprudence, chronicles, travels, and
various paraphrases of Indie epics. Besides
the Malay proper, there are several minor lan-
guages spoken on Sumatra, as the Batak in the
interior of the northern portion of the island,
and the languages of the Rejang and the Lam-
pong in the south. Javanese is spoken on Java
and several adjacent islands, and stands in
importance next to Malay, but its literature
reaches back to the 1st century of our era.
(See JAVA, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF.) '
Closely related to Javanese is the Sunda lan-
guage, spoken on the western portion of Java.
Of the languages in Borneo, that of the Dyaks
is well known; according to the missionary
Hardeland, it has four dialects. The Dyaks
have not produced a written literature, but
they possess a number of ancient songs com-
posed in a peculiar and only partly intelligible
language, which they call basa sanian or the
language of the good beings, i. e., the spirits
of their ancestors. The Bughis and Mankasar
(Macassar) languages, spoken in Celebes, have
also been investigated. The statement above
made that these languages form an isolated
family of speech is in accordance with the la-
test researches of Friedrich Miiller, on whose
elaborate treatise on the Malayo-Polynesian
languages in the Eeise der osterreichischen Fre-
gatte Novara, : Linguistischer Theil (Vienna,
1867), and excellent ethnological account of the
races in his Allgemeine Ethnographic (Vienna,
1873), this article is based. Bopp, in the Ab~
handlungen der Berliner Akademie (1840), is
not of the same opinion. He holds the Malayo-
Polynesian languages to be a branch of the
Aryan or Indo-European family, and direct
descendants of the Indie group. He drew his
conclusion from the fact that the Malay and
Javanese languages contain a large amount of
Sanskrit elements, which however do not be-
long to the original stock, and were gradual-
ly incorporated, as both history and the ab-
sence of Indie forms in the Polynesian lan-
guages amply testify. Max Miiller has taken
still another view of the relation which these
languages hold to other families of speech.
In Bunsen's " Christianity and Mankind " he
attempts to establish that the Malayo-Polyne-
sian languages form a member of the great
so-called Turanian family, and that they are
especially closely related to the Tai languages.
He says : " A language which shares so many
grammatical principles in common with Khamti
and Siamese, and differs from Sanskrit on every
essential point of grammar, can no longer be
counted as a degraded member of the Aryan
family, however great the authority of him who
first endeavored to link Sanskrit and Malay to-
gether." Friedrich Miiller has a satisfactory
argument in the above cited work to show that
the seeming similarities of several grammatical
forms in the Tai and Malayo-Polynesian lan-
guages do not warrant us in considering the lat-
ter a derivative group of the former. Numbers
constitute one of the highest linguistic tests of

M MAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES

relationship, nncl the following table of the
first ten cardinal numbers in the most im-
portant of the Malayo-Polynesian languages

shows at once the close connection existing
among them, and their isolation from other
families :

InB P.KST TEX OARD, SA , NUMBEE9 l THE HXLATO-FOLTNESL.K IANOOAOES.

_____

lUUy.

Javan..

Sundanete.

Mankaaru

Dyak.

Tagala.

BUaya.

Ilocana.

(-ituor sa

Bft

Ba or sidi

ijaja

isa

ilahui

usa
duha

meysa
dua

Two

duva

dua or duva

ruva

tolo

tal

Uga

tigl

tilu

tallu

upat

FoDB

impat

papat

opat

appa

apat

lima

FIVE

lima

IBM

iK-iK-m

genap

annon

d,ahaven

pito

pit6

BETEX

tudoh

pltu

tud,uh

tud,u

udu

UQU

ualo

oalo

E[01IT

delApan

rulu

dalapan

sagantugu

haga

JflHB

scmbilan

sanl

salapah

salapan

d,alatien

Mpftloh

sapuluh

sampulo

sapulu

MArimneM.

MmUgiuy.

Samoa.

Tongfc

Maori.

Rarotonga.

Tahitian.

Hawaiian.

Feejee.

Oit

ynkha

isa or iray

tasi

taha

lahi

tai

tahi

dua

Two

vu-'ua

roa

lua

rua

lua

THREE

tulo

telo

tola

toru

torn

toru

kolu

FOCE ....

fafat

6fatra

Fiv

lima

dimy

lima

nima

rima

lima

BIX

punun

enina

ono

BEVEJC

fit!

fito

fltu

vitu

itu

hitu

hiku

vitu

EIGHT

piialo

valo

valu

varu

valu

NIKE.

Bium

sivy

iva

hiva

iva

civa

TEH

manot

folo

sefula

honofulu

nahura

nauru

ahuru

unii

tini

We shall state only the principal features of
the two groups. The Polynesian languages
possess the consonantal sounds fc, n, A, ', , n, ,
I, r, p, ro,/, w, v, and the vowels a, e, i, o, u,
both short and long. In several of the lan-
guages some of these consonants are absent,
and diphthongs are entirely unknown. Sylla-
bles may begin with a consonant, but must end
with a vowel; accumulations of consonantal
sounds are carefully avoided. The accent rests
generally on the penult, and seldom on the
antepenult or the ultimate. Roots, like those
of the Aryan and Turanian families, are not
found ; there are only a sort of verbal stems,
which in their external verbal movement re-
semble those of the Semitic languages, but con-
sist throughout of two syllables. The various
derivatives are formed from these either by
means of reduplication, or by prefixes or suf-
fixes. Distinctions of number like those in
the inflected languages are wanting. Nouns
designate thoughts or objects in a peculiar
vague manner, implying rather plurality than
pinirK-ness, and require the introduction of cer-
tain .-lenients into the sentence to render more
definite their use in the singular number. Some
of these elements represent the numeral one,
and others have the force of demonstration.
When it is .U-irc-d to render the plural number
more distinct and definite, the noun is coupled
t-itlu-r with a mnnTir;il expre^ion or with some
iii'l'-tinite pronominul stnn. A number of par-
are used to designate nominative, geni
ti\v. dative, accusative. instnuiK-ntal, locative
social, abessive, and ablative cases. As nouns

do not possess grammatical gender and do not
admit of inflection, adjectives also remain en-
tirely unchanged, and are used attributively by
placing them behind, and predicatively by pla-
cing them before their nouns. The dual and plu-
ral of pronouns are indicated by composition
with the numbers two and three, and possess an
exclusive and inclusive form, according as the
person addressed is excluded or included. The
Polynesian verb is extremely indefinite. Ex-
ternally indistinguishable from the noun, it is
recognized as a verb only by its position in the
sentence and its connection with the pronoun.
The essentials of time and voice remain vague ;
even whether an action or a state of being is
designated must be inferred from the introduc-
tion of certain affirmative particles. The Ma-
layan languages employ the consonants k, g, ii,
h, \ b & & V, *, d , n , *' I, r, p, 6, i, /, , and
the vowel sounds a, <?, a, , , e, e, o, , *, w, e, o
(see WRITING) ; genuine dipththongs are un-
known. This system of sounds does not in-
clude the foreign elements found in Malay and
Javanese. The Tagala languages have no pal-
atals; Javanese makes use also of cerebrals,
and Bughis of nasals. Malayan syllables al-
ways open with a single consonant, and the pe-
nult is always accented, causing a lengthening
of the vowel. Instead of roots, the Malayan
languages possess only stems or variations of
roots, which were originally dissyllabic, though
probably after having passed through trisyl-
labic forms developed from monosyllables.
Words of a single syllable now used are un-
mistakably contractions of dissyllables. Re-

MALAY PENINSULA

duplication, prefixing, suffixing, and infixing
are the processes of word-building. While the
Polynesian languages employ certain forms of
words as nouns and verbs without any special
changes and additions, the Malayan lan-
is attempt to distinguish the parts of
jh independently of their position in a

itence. A noun not specially qualified des-

lates the sum of all the persons or objects
Jf which it is the name, or has always the force

an indefinite plural. The numeral one, or a
demonstrative or possessive pronoun, added to
it, reduces a noun to the singular number. The
definite plural is formed either by reduplica-
tion, as in Malay rdda, king, rada-rdda, kings,
or by the addition of plural expressions, many,
mltitudes, &c. The cases are indicated by
>refixing prepositions. Adjectives remain in-
rariable; comparison also is made by exter-
aids. Besides the usual pronominal forms,

is customary, especially in Malay and Java-
nese, to employ servile and ceremonious ex-
pressions for the first and second persons.
The force of a verb is indicated by prefixes, its
relation to the object by suffixes ; and though
the Malayan verb differs somewhat from a
noun, yet it may take the place of the latter by
being merely placed in conjunction with parti-
cles used to modify nouns. In Malay the pres-
ent tense is determined by Idgi, still ; the pre-
terite by sudah or telah, done, passed ; and the
future by hendalc or mdu, to will, nanti, to ex-
)ect, or akan, to, in order to. See, besides the
works of Friedrich Miiller above cited, Ellis,
"Polynesian Researches" (London, 1829);
Yvan, " Six Months under the Malays " (Lon-
don, 1855) ; Turner, " Nineteen Years in Poly-
nesia " (London, 1860) ; Waitz, Anfhropologie
der Naturwlker, continued by Gerland (Leip-
sic, 18 60-' 6 9) ; Cameron, " Our Tropical Pos-
sessions in Malayan India" (London, 1865);
West, " Ten Years in South Central Polynesia "
(London, 1865) ; Wallace, " The Malay Archi-
pelago " (London, 1869) ; Semper, Die Philip-
pinen und ihre Bewohner (Wiirzburg, 1869) ;
and Perty, Anihropologie (Leipsic, 1873-'4).

MALAY PENINSULA, the name given by ge-
ographers to the long and narrow tract which

ejects southward from Indo- China, and
)rms the southern extremity of the Asiatic
continent, bounded E. by the China sea and
the gulf of Siam, and W. by the bay of Bengal
and the straits of Malacca. It is sometimes
called by the Malays Tana Malay u, "Malay
Land," and is supposed to be the Golden Cher-
sonesus of the ancients. It extends from the
parallel of the head of the gulf of Siam, in lat.
13 30' N., to Cape Burus on the southwest,
about 80 m. from Singapore, in lat. 1 15' N.,
and to Cape Romania on the southeast, in lat.
1 17' N. ; length about 900 m., greatest
1th about 180 m. ; estimated area, exclu-
sive of Tenasserim, about 80,000 sq. m. ; pop.
conjectured to be about 500,000. The upper

id narrower part of the peninsula has a
population composed chiefly of Siamese, or a

mixed race of Siamese and Malays called San-
sam. The western half, N. of lat. 10, forms
a part of the district of Tenasserim in British
Burmah. The lower part, or the peninsula
in the restricted sense, is the country of the
Malays, and has an area of about 60,000 sq. m.
Along the shores of the peninsula are many
islands, of which the principal are Salang, Tru-
tao, Lancava or Langkavi, and Penang on the
W. side, Singapore, Batan, and Bingtang at
the southern extremity, and Tantalem on the
E. coast. The most important political divi-
sion of the peninsula is the British Straits Set-
tlements (Penang, Malacca, and Singapore),
which, though small in area, have about half
the population of the country. With the ex-
ception of the portion included in Tenasserim,
the N. part of the peninsula, as far S. as the
bay of Chya on the E. coast, in about lat. 9
N., is subject to the king of Siam. The Malay
states are Quedah, Perak, and Salangore on the
W. side; Patani, Kalantan, Tringanu, and Pa-
hang on the E. side; Rumbowe, Jehole, and
Jompol in the interior; and the principality
of Johore, which comprises the southern ex-
tremity of the peninsula. A few of these are
dependent on Siam, several only nominally;
but most of them are independent and under
the protection of the British. A range of
granite mountains runs through the whole
length of the peninsula, on both sides of which
spread alluvial plains, not much elevated above
the sea. The maximum altitude of the range
is attained E. of Quedah, between lat. 6 and
7 N., where it is about 6,000 ft. Further N.
the loftiest peaks are only about half this
height. The most extensive of these plains are
on the W. side of the mountains. The rivers
are numerous but small, and few of them nav-
igable except so far as the tide ascends them ;
the largest are the Perak on the west and
the Pahang on the east. The only lake of any
considerable extent lies between Malacca and
Pahang. The zoology of the peninsula is va-
ried and extensive. There are ten species of
monkeys, and an ant-eater. There are several
species of bats, of which the most remarkable
is the Tcalung or vampire, which is larger than
a crow ; it flies high in great flocks, and is
very destructive to fruit. The only planti-
grade animal is a small bear (ursus Malayen-
sis). There are eight species of the feline fam-
ily, of which the largest are the tiger and the
leopard, both very numerous and destructive
to human life. The domestic cat has a tail
about half as long as that of the European cat.
The domestic dog exists as a vagrant without a
master, and there are said to be wild dogs in
the forests. The Indian elephant and two
species of rhinoceros are met with. The Ma-
lay tapir and the wild hog are abundant. The
ox and the domesticated buffalo are used for
riding and for draught. The domestic ox is
small and short-legged, but strong and hardy ;
and there are two species of wild ox, one of
which, called by the Malays saladang, seems to

MALAY PENINSULA

be pecnliar to the peninsula. There is a species
of wild goat, and a small species of domestic
goat Three species of deer are met with in the
peninsula, one of which is the small muntjac.
The sheep and the rabbit are not indigenous,
but have been introduced by Europeans. Swine
and fowls are very abundant. The most re-
markable birds are the marak or wild peacock,
the double-spurred peacock, a small and beau-
tiful species, several species of pheasants, a
partridge, snipe, sun birds, woodpeckers, the
wild cock, and the domestic cock, the last a
small but very courageous bird. The species of
pigeons are very numerous, and some are no
larger than a thrush ; the prevailing color is
green. The parrot family is numerous, but is
not remarkable for brilliancy of plumage. The
swallow whose nest is eaten by the Chinese is
found in the caves of the islands. The birds of
prey consist of a variety of kites and hawks.
Among the reptiles are the alligator, the iguana,
several species of small lizards, and about 40
species of snakes, of which three or four, among
them the cobra, are venomous. Fish are very
plentiful, and form the principal animal food
of the mass of the people. The white pomf ret,
called bawal by the Malays, is said to be one
of the most delicate fishes in the world to
the European palate. The only cetaceous ani-
mal is the dugong. The neighboring seas af-
ford a large and .beautiful variety of shells.
The forests yield ebony, sapan, and eagle
wood, and several species valuable for timber.
Rattans, bamboos, and palms furnish most of
the materials used by the Malays in construct-
ing their houses. Rice, cocoanuts, yams, the
sugar cane, and esculent fruits are the chief
products of agriculture. The grain used on
the peninsula is mostly imported from Sumatra
and Bengal. Among the fruits, those most es-
teemed are the durian and the mangosteen.
The durian is an oval spine-covered fruit, of a
green color and about as large as a cocoanut,
while the mangosteen is reddish brown in color
and spherical in shape. Pineapples are plenti-
fully produced in great perfection. Caoutchouc
and other valuable gums and resins, drugs, spi-
ces, ivory, and horns are exported, and coffee,
cotton, and tobacco are raised. The most re-
markable and valuable product of the penin-
sula, however, is the gutta percha tree, which
was here first made known to Europeans. The
tin mines in many parts of the country are ex-
tensive; but they are imperfectly worked, and
of late years, owing to the exhaustion of sur-

J'.i. Ores, tlir |.r.)ill|i-t !i:t-.lr.-lillr(l. Si Mill- IT< !(!

is produced. The climate of the peninsula is
hot and moist. The mean annual temperature
at the level of the sea is nearly 80, the mean
range being from 70 to 90. There is no
rainy season, but rain falls at short intervals
throughout the year, and there are heavy dews
find fiv(jiu-nt fogs. Generally the climate is
ilii'jilthy, though there are some spots
infected with a most pestiferous malaria.
The native population of the peninsula, with

MALBONE

the exception of the northern portion and the
black woolly-haired people known as the Se-
mangs, who inhabit the interior, are of the
Malay race, and speak the Malay language.
Most of the Malays are settled and civilized,
but others lead a nomad life on the land,
the rivers, or the sea. The land nomads prac-
tise a rude agriculture ; the river nomads live
entirely in boats, and subsist on fish and wild
roots. Their boats are about 20 ft. in length ;
at one end is the fireplace, in the middle are
their utensils, and at the stern is the sleep-
ing place, where beneath a mat a family of
five or six, together with a cat and dog, fre-
quently find shelter. In these boats they skirt
the shores of the rivers, collecting their food
from the forests, and when one spot is ex-
hausted proceed to another. These people are
pagans, and are very ignorant and filthy in
their mode of life. The sea rovers roam over
the whole archipelago in their pralms or boats,
and are genarally pirates. The civilized and
settled Malays are Mohammedans, and their
governments are despotic. The peninsula is
supposed by some writers to have been the
original seat of the Malay race. The civilized
Malays all claim to be descended from emi-
grants from Sumatra, who in the 12th century
(about 1160) entered the peninsula at its S. E.
extremity, where they founded Singapore, and
gradually drove back the indigenous inhabi-
tants into the mountains. At the close of the
13th century the Malays, who had been pagans
up to that time, adopted Mohammedanism, and
from the year 1276 Mohammedan monarchs
reigned at Malacca. In the 15th century a
large part of the peninsula became subject to
Siam. In 1511 Mohammed Shah, the Malayan
sultan, was overthrown by the Portuguese un-
der Albuquerque. At present the peninsula is
much less populous than formerly, owing to
foreign and intestine wars and the incursions
of pirates. (For British possessions on the
peninsula, see MALACCA, PENANG, SINGAPORE,
and STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.)

MALBONE, Edward G., an American portrait
painter, born in Newport, R. I., in August, 1777,
died in Savannah, Ga., May 7, 1807. When
very young he painted a landscape scene for the
Newport theatre, afterward employed himself
in drawing heads in miniature, and at 17 years
of age settled in Providence as a portrait
painter. He removed in the spring of 1796 to
Boston, where he was well received, and du-
ring the next four years pursued his art with
industry in various cities. In 1800 he accom-
panied Washington Allston to Charleston, and
in 1801 sailed, for Europe. Malbone remained
a few months in London, where he was urged
by Benjamin West, the president of the royal
academy, to take up his permanent residence ;
but he returned to Charleston in December.
For several years he painted miniatures in the
chief cities of the United States; and in 1806
he visited the West Indies, hoping to regain
his health, but in vain. His best picture is

MALCOLM

MALCZEWSKI

" The Hours," in which three female figures
represent the Present, Past, and Future.

MALCOLM, Sir John, a British diplomatist, born
in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, May 2, 1769, died
in London, May 31, 1833. He was sent to In-
ia at the age of 13, in the charge of his uncle,
Paisley, and received a cadetship under the
India company. In 1797 he was made
)tain, distinguished himself in a series of im-
rtant services by bravery and intelligence,
id after the fall of Seringapatam was secre-
to the commission appointed to divide
Lysore. In 1799 he was commissioned by
)rd Wellesley to negotiate with Persia a de-
fensive alliance against an anticipated French
ivasion of India. He had at this time ac-
lired several eastern languages, and had been
1792 staff interpreter of Persian. In 1801
was appointed private secretary to the gov-
or general, but was again sent to Persia in
following year. In February, 1803, he
commissioner of Mysore, and joined
army of Gen. Arthur Wellesley in the
[ahratta campaign. In 1805 he was recalled
Bengal, where he was actively occupied in
forming treaties of alliance with native princes.
In 1808 he went again to Persia, but did not
obtain the advantages hoped for by the British
government. On returning thither the next
year as plenipotentiary, owing to a change in
the ministry, he was received in the most flat-
tering manner, and on his departure in 1810
was honored with the order of the sun and
moon and made a khan and sepahdar of the
empire. In 1812 he went to England, was
knighted, and published a " History of Persia "
(2 vols. 4to, 1815), the materials for which he
had drawn from original Persian annals as well
as extensive personal research and observation.
On returning to India in 1817, he was appoint-
ed political agent in the Deccan, with the rank
of brigadier general in the army. He served
tinder Sir T. Hislop as second in command
during the Mahratta and Pindaree wars, and
iially distinguished himself at the battle
Mehidpoor, in which Holkar was routed.
After this war he was appointed governor of
Malwa and the adjoining provinces, with the
ik of major general. The country was then
a state of anarchy, brigandage and rapine
sing generally prevalent; he succeeded in
^storing order, and governed mildly but firm-
An account of this part of India was pub-
shed by him in 1823, under the title of "A
[emoir of Central India," He was in England
)m 1821 to 1827, when he was appointed
>vernor of Bombay, which office he held for
iree years, and then returned to England. He
fas elected not long afterward to parliament
for Launceston, and distinguished himself by
Jtive opposition to the reform bill. A monu-
mt was erected to his memory in Westmin-
abbey, and also an obelisk 100 ft. high near
igholm, in Eskdale. He also published a
1 Sketch of the Political History of India from
L784 to 1823 " (London, 1826), and a "Life of

Lord Clive" (1836). See "Life and Corre-
spondence of Sir John Malcolm," by John W.
Kaye (2 vols., London, 1856).

MALCOM, Howard, an American clergyman,
born in Philadelphia, Jan. 19, 1799. He en-
tered Dickinson college in 1813, was licensed
to preach in May, 1818, by a Baptist church in
Philadelphia, and entered Princeton theolo-
gical seminary, where he remained two years.
On finishing his studies he was settled over a
church in Hudson, N. Y., and afterward in
Boston and Philadelphia,. He was president
of the college at Georgetown, Ky., from 1839
to 1849, and of the university at Lewisburg,
Pa., from 1851 to 1859, having been obliged by
the failure of his voice to relinquish preaching.
In both institutions he filled also the chair of
metaphysics and moral philosophy. The dis-
ease in the throat increasing, he retired to pri-
vate life in Philadelphia. In 1841 he received
the degree of D. D. simultaneously from the
university of Vermont and Union college, N.
Y., and after his resignation at Lewisburg was
made LL. D. by that institution. He visited
most of the countries of Europe, and travelled
as a deputy from the Baptist missionary soci-
ety in Hindostan, Burmah, Siam, China, and
Africa. He was one of the founders of the
American tract society, of which he was a vice
president from the beginning. He was also
one of the prominent laborers in establishing
the American Sunday school union, having
visited on its behalf, when first organized,
every principal city in the United States.
Among his works are: a "Dictionary of the
Bible" (18mo, Boston, 1828; enlarged ed.,
1853); "The Extent of the Atonement;"
"The Christian Eule of Marriage" (1830);
" Memoir of Mrs. Malcom " (1833) ; " Travels
in Southeastern Asia" (2 vols. 12mo, Boston,
1839); and "Index to Eeligious Literature"
(2d ed., Philadelphia, 1870). He has also pub-
lished several addresses and other tracts, and
edited the "Imitation of Christ," Law's "Se-
rious Call," Keach's " Travels of True Godli-
ness," Henry's " Communicant's Companion,"
and Butler's " Analogy of Religion."

MALCZEWSKI, Antoiii. a Polish poet, born in
Volhynia about 1792, died in Warsaw, May 2,
1826. He served in the army from 1811 to
1816, and afterward travelled in Italy, Switzer-
land, and France. Having gone to Volhynia,
he eloped to Warsaw with the young wife of
one of his neighbors, whom he had cured of &
dangerous illness by magnetism. Want and
misery, however, soon embittered the life of
the lovers, and hastened the death of the poet.
His principal work, Marja (Warsaw, 1825), a
metrical romance in the style and spirit of
Byron, which appeared in the last year of his
life, was severely criticised, but is now gener-
ally recognized as one of the gems not only of
Polish but of modern poetry. It has passed
through numerous editions, and has been trans-
lated into French by Clemence Robert, and into
German by K. R. Vogel.

MALDEN

MiLDEN, a town of Middlesex co., Massachu-
setts, on a stream of the same name, navigable
by vessels of 800 tons to within half a mile of
the main village, and on the Boston and Maine
railroad and tin- SUULMIS branch of the Eastern
railroad, 5 in. N. of Boston ; pop. in 1870,
7,867. It is connected with Charlestown by a
bridge 2,420 ft. long. The manufacturing in-
dustry of the town is extensive, the chief arti-
cles produced being India-rubber boots and
shoes, lasts, boot trees, enamelled leather, coach
lace and tassels, and iron pipes. There are es-
tuMi-hments for dyeing silks, cottons, &c., and
staining glass. The town contains a national
bank, a laving! bank, good public schools, two
weekly newspapers, and eight churches.

MALDIVES, or Maltdiva Islands, a chain of
small coral islands in the Indian ocean, about
460 m. W. of Ceylon, extending in a straight
line from lat. 7 6' N. to 40' S., between
Ion. 72 48' and 78 48' E. The length of the
chain is about 650 m., and its breadth about
60 m. The number of islands is commonly
stated by the natives at 12,000, but is supposed
to be in reality nearly 50,000. Their aggregate
area is about 2,600 sq. m. The great majority
of them are mere rocks or sand banks, and
only the larger islands are inhabited. They
are divided into 17 atolls or circular groups,
each atoll being enclosed by a coral reef, gen-
erally about 90 m. in circumference. These
reefs have channels through them navigable by
the boats of the natives ; and though the sea
beats with great violence on the outside, the
water within the reefs is calm and generally
shallow. There are deep channels between the
atolls, four of which have been examined by
European vessels and found navigable by the
largest ships. The principal island is Male, in
lat. 4 10' N., Ion. 73 40' E. It is 7 m. in cir-
cumference, and contains 2,000 inhabitants. It
is the residence of the sovereign, who bears
the title of sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles,
and who acknowledges some degree of depen-
dence on the British government of Ceylon,
to which he annually sends an embassy with
tribute, and receives presents in return. The
population of the whole cluster is estimated at
from 150,000 to 200,000. The highest land in
the islands is only 20 ft. above the sea. Each
island is circular in form, and has a lagoon in
the centre. The soil is sandy, and at the depth
ft. a layer of sandstone is found. The
inhabited islands are richly wooded with palms,
fig trees, citron trees, and breadfruit trees.
They produce abundance of millet, and of a
similar small grain called brinby, of both which

e inhabitants reap two harvests in the year.
They also gather various roots, which, with
nee imported from Hindostan, and fish and
cocoanuts. constitute their food. The climate
-Hv.lv h,,t, though the nights are cool
and the earth is refreshed by heavy dews
The islands are unhealthy fur Europeans.
ma April to October is the rainy season,
during which the westerly winds are boisterous.

MALDIVES

In the dry season, from October to April, the
winds are easterly. The islands breed prodi-
gious numbers of wild ducks, pigeons, and other
wild fowl, which are much used for food, and
sold very cheap. There are no large quadru-
peds except a few sheep and cows. Cats, pole-
cats, and ferrets are found, and rats are very
numerous and troublesome. There is a poison-
ous species of water snake, and the mosquitoes
are said to be larger and fiercer than in any
other part of the East Indies. The Maldivians
are strict Mohammedans. They are handsome,
well made, and generally of an olive complex-
ion, though some have much fairer complexions
than others, which is probably attributable to
their descent from Persian or Arab stock, while
the majority of the population are obviously of
Hindoo origin. The people are ingenious and
industrious, and have attained to some degree
of civilization. They clothe themselves in silk
or cotton robes, and are cleanly in their habits,
both sexes bathing regularly once a day. The
men shave their heads, but allow their beards
to grow. The women allow the hair to grow
long, and fasten it up behind. They are not
kept secluded as in other Mohammedan coun-
tries, but enjoy a tolerable degree of liberty.
The Koran is the supreme law, but there are
various peculiar local laws and usages. An in-
solvent debtor becomes the servant of the cred-
itor until the debt is worked out. The ordinary
punishment for criminals is whipping, which is
sometimes inflicted so severely as to produce
death. Frequently criminals are punished by
banishment to the southern islands. The peo-
ple learn to read and write Arabic as well
as their own native language, and they have
schools in which the mathematics and naviga-
tion are taught. Polygamy to the extent of
three wives is tolerated, and divorce is restricted
only by the necessity of paying back the dowry
received with the wife. The people are a quiet
and pacific race, kind and hospitable to stran-
gers, though distrustful of foreigners. They
are friendly toward each other, and the ties
of kindred are cherished with much affection.
The internal commerce of the islands is con-
siderable, for each atoll has its peculiar branch
of industry ; in one the brewers reside, in
another the goldsmiths; locksmiths, mat ma-
kers, potters, turners, and joiners, each inhabit
exclusively their respective atolls. This divi-
sion of labor gives rise to a constant inter-
course and interchange of commodities, car-
ried on by means of boats, which are some-
times absent for a year from their own islands.
Every family, even the poorest, has a boat, and
the rich keep several. The multitude of rocks
and reefs is so great that this navigation is
extremely difficult, and much property is lost
by accidents at sea ; but the natives being uni-
versally good swimmers, their lives are seldom
endangered by these shipwrecks. There is
some trade with the continent of India, carried
on by native boats of about 30 tons burden,
built of cocoanut trees. With these boats they

MALEBRANCHE

MALE FERN

make voyages to Calcutta, Ceylon, Sumatra,
the Malabar coast, and other distant parts,
carrying cocoanuts, coir, mats, cocoanut oil,
tortoise shell, dried fish, and cowries, or small
shells, which pass as coin over all India. In
return they bring home gold and silver, rice,
tobacco, cotton and silk goods, and European
articles. The Maldives have been seldom vis-
ited by Europeans. The Portuguese touched at
Male in the 16th century. In the beginning of
the 17th a French merchant vessel was wrecked
upon them, and one of the survivors, Pyrard
de Laval, remained there nearly five years, and
wrote an account of the islands, which was
published in Paris in 1679.

MALEBRAXCHE, Nicolas, a French metaphysi-
cian, born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1638, died there,
Oct. 13, 1715. In his childhood he was feeble,
and was educated at home with great care.
Intended for the priesthood, he studied philoso-
phy at the college of La Marche and theology
at the Sorbonne, and in 1660 entered the con-
gregation of the Oratory. But he wearied of
theological and critical studies, and his phi-
losophical vocation was determined by reading
the Traite de Vhomme of Descartes, which he
accidentally met with, and which impressed
him so strongly that his perusal was more than
once interrupted by palpitations of the heart.
From that time (1664) he devoted himself to
philosophy, renouncing all other sciences ex-
cept mathematics, aiming thus to enlighten his
mind without burdening his memory. After
ten years he produced his principal work, De
la recherche de la verite (Paris, 1674), which
received numerous additions, and in its 6th
edition (1712) extended to four volumes. It
was translated into English by Richard Sault (2
vols. 8vo, London, 1692-'4; 2d and 3d eds.
by Thomas Taylor, fol., 1700 and 1720). In
1677 he published Conversations metaphysiques
et chretiennes, a discussion on the relation of
philosophy to religion and Christian dogmas,
which involved him in a long controversy with
theologians and Cartesian metaphysicians, es-
pecially with Arnauld and R6gis. In 1699 he
was elected an honorary member of the acad-
emy of sciences. Withering slowly away,
till he was hardly more than a skeleton, he
died "a tranquil spectator of his own long
dissolution." His later more important publi-
cations, partly philosophical and partly reli-
gious, were the Traite de la nature et de la
grace (1680) ; Meditations metaphysiques et
chretiennes (1683); Traite de morale (1684);
Entretiens sur la metaphysique et sur la re-
ligion (1687); and Reponses de Malebranche
d Arnauld (4 vols., 1709). A complete edi-
tion of his works was published at Paris in
1712, in 11 vols. The philosophical system
of Malebranche begins with the admission of

!the Cartesian doctrine that mind and matter
are utterly opposed and mutually impermeable,
the mind knowing nothing but its own states,
i which it sees in self-consciousness. It is like
one in the dark, who can perceive nothing but
526 VOL. xi. 5

himself. To this he added that we are able to
see external objects in God, who is the light
of our knowledge. He is the absolute sub-
stance, in whom exist alike the persons who
know and the ideas which they know. He is
the home of the world of ideas, as space is the
home of physical bodies ; and in him the mind
knows objects other than itself. Malebranche
recognized, with Descartes, three substances:
the thinking, the extended, and the infinite
substance, or the soul, matter, and God; but
there is throughout his system a tendency to
reduce them to one. In Descartes they describe
excentric circles; in Malebranche they are
concentric, including each other. Matter is
grasped by the soul, and souls by the Deity ;
ideas enter the mind, the mind itself existing
in God. Thus he marks the transition from
Descartes to Spinoza, recognizing a personal
God, but with pantheistic forms of thought,
tending to reduce spirit and matter to one ab-
solute substance. His most important works
are contained in the edition by De Genoude
(Paris, 1837), and in an edition by Jules Simon
(2 vols., Paris, 1853). La philosophic de Male-
tranche^ by Olle'-Laprune, received a prize
from the French academy in 1872.

MALE FERN (aspidium Jilix-mas). Theo-
phrastus and other ancient writers mention two
kinds of fern, the male and female ; whether
or not this was the fern referred to as the
male, it retains the name in common as well
as in botanical nomenclature. There are some-
thing over a dozen aspidiums or shield ferns
found in this country, some of which are very
common, while a few, including the male fern,
are exceedingly rare ; this, while one of the

Male Fern.

common ferns of Europe, has thus far been
found here only at Lake Superior. It has a
large scaly root stock, from which arise the
handsome fronds in a circular tuft, 2 to 3 ft.
high and of the outline shown in the engra-
ving ; its elegant appearance makes it a desirable

64 MALESHERBES

plant for the outdoor fernery, but its chief in-
terest lies in the use that has been made of the
,-k in medicine. It was known to the
ancients as an anthelmintic, but attention was
called to it anew by the widow of a Swiss
surgeon Mme. Nouffer, who had such great
gnccess in expelling tapeworms that Louis
XIV paid her 18,000 francs for her secret; it
was found that her principal remedy was the
root of the male fern, which was aided by pow-
erful purges. The root stocks are collected
when 3 to 6 in. long and dried, in which state
they are kept in the shops ; the male fern
roots, as they are called, contain about 10 per
cent, of oily and resinous matters, upon which
A orm-destroying properties depend ; the
oil of male fern is an ethereal extract, and
contains such constituents of the roots as are
soluble in that menstruum. Like other agents
for the destruction of tapeworms, it has had
a varying reputation, some attributing its effi-
cacy solely to the active cathartics used with
it ; on the other hand, it is asserted that while
it is effective against the unarmed tapeworm,
common among the Swiss, it has much less or
very little effect upon the armed tapeworm, the
one most common in this country. The medi-
cine appears to act as a poison upon the worm,
which is then easily expelled. The dose of the
powdered root is two or three drams, or of
the oil half a dram, followed by castor oil.

MALESHERBES, Chretien Gaillanme de Lamoi-
pnon de, a French statesman, born in Paris, Dec.
6, 1721, guillotined April 22, 1794. Of an illus-
trious family, son of a chancellor of France,
he was educated in the Jesuits' college, became
counsellor of the parliament of Paris in 1744,
succeeded his father in the presidency of the
court of aids in 1750, and was at the same time

vored the publication of the Encyclopedic and
other works of its authors in defiance of the
anathemas of the Sorbonne. He protested in
1770 and 1771 against the imposition of new
taxes and the abuses of lettres de cachet, for
which he was banished from Paris. After the
accession of Louis XVI. in 1774, he was called
.into the ministry with Turgot, and the de-
partment of Paris and the police of the king-
dom was intrusted to him. His counsels were
rejected, and he resigned in 1776 when Turgot

! '.-missed. He passed the time until the
revolution in travels in France, Holland, and
Switzerland, and in the pursuits of literature,
with the exception of a brief interval in 1787

he was called into the ministry. When
LMI'H XVI. was arraigned before the national

ntion in 1792, Malesherbes obtained the

rous honor of pleading his cause, and was
the last to take leave of the condemned
monarch. Kleven months afterward he was
d with his family by the revolutionary
tribunal, and condemned with them to the
scaffold. Hi- Itiscourset remontrames (1779)
nre valualil.- with reference to financial ques-
tions, and hi- paper Sur la liberte de la presse

MALHERBE

(1809) is remarkable for its enlightened views.
A monument was erected to his memory un-
der the restoration. See Boissy d'Anglas,
Essai sur la vie, les opinions et les ecrits de
Malesherbes (2 vols., 1818), and Sainte-Beuve,
Malesherbes, in Causeries du lundi, vol. ii.

MALET. Claude Francois de, a French conspira-
tor born in D61e, June 28, 1754, executed in
Paris, Oct. 29, 1812. In 1799 he distinguished
himself in the army during the passage of the
Little 'St. Bernard, and was made brigadier
general. He disapproved of the promotion of
Bonaparte to the consulate, but apparently
adhered to the empire, expressing in a letter
to Napoleon a hope of its becoming beneficial
to and not destructive of liberty. But Prince
Eugene expelled him from his headquarters
in Italy, on the charge of conspiring against
the emperor, and he was imprisoned during
ten months till May, 1808, and soon rearrest-
ed. In prison he continued to plan conspira-
cies with other opponents of Napoleon, espe-
cially in 1809, after the defeat at Essling, but
this attempt was abortive. The emperor or-
dered him to be transferred from La Force to
a regular state prison, but Fouch6 neglected to
do so, and even permitted him in June, 1812,
to remove to a private sanitary asylum. Here
he met the Polignacs and Abbe Laf on, the prin-
cipal Bourbon agents, while his wife, the cor-
poral Rateau, and others worked against Na-
poleon in the interior of the country. Malet's
plot was ripe in October, when he deemed the
anxiety respecting the Russian campaign favor-
able for its execution. In the night of Oct.
23-24, when the disastrous retreat from Mos-
cow became known, he announced to the gar-
rison of Paris the death of Napoleon, and at
first met with some success, with the aid of
his confederates, and by promising rewards to
those who would join him. He shot dead the
recalcitrant Gen. Hullin, commander of the
first division, but was disarmed by two officers,
who disclosed the deception which had been
practised, and the populace responded with
the cry, Vive Vempereur. The whole plot fell
to the ground, and Malet was sentenced to
death. His wife was arrested ; and as she sub-
sequently received a pension, and her son an
appointment, from Louis XVIII., it was sup-
posed that Malet had conspired in the interest
of the Bourbons, but it is generally believed
that he was a sincere republican.

MALHERBE, Francois de, a French poet, born
in Caen in 1555, died in Paris, Oct. 16, 1628.
While young he studied at Heidelberg and
Basel, and afterward bore arms in the wars of
the league. He acquired some reputation in
1600 by an ode on the arrival in France of
Maria de' Medici. In 1605, having gone to
Paris on business, Henry IV. sent for him,
praised his talents, and provided him with the
means of remaining at court. After the death
of Henry IV. his widow, Maria de' Medici, set-
tled on Malherbe a pension of 500 crowns, " in
! gratitude for the ode addressed to her." He

MALIBRAN

MALLET

was noted for his avarice, his pretended con-
tempt of poets, his fondness for female soci-
ety, his wit, and his dilettantism in language.
He wrote for the most part light lyrics, odes,
stanzas, epigrams, sonnets, and a few devo-
tional pieces. The latest edition of his works
is that of M. L. Lalanne (4 vols., Paris, 1865).
MALIBRAN, Maria Felicia, a Spanish singer,
horn in Paris, March 24, 1808, died in Man-
chester, England, Sept. 23, 1836. She was the
eldest daughter of the singer and instructor
Manuel Garcia, hy whom she was taken when
nine years old to England, where she remained
for a number of years. Her father instructed
her in singing, and by her 17th year she had
acquired so great a facility that on June 7,
1825, she was enabled to make her debut in
London as Rosina in the Barbiere di Semglia,
on the occasion of the sudden departure of
Mme. Pasta, who was to have undertaken the
part. She sang with success in other operas
and at private and public concerts in London,
Manchester, and Liverpool, during the same
season, giving promise of great future emi-
nence; and in the autumn of 1825 she accom-
panied her father to the United States as prima
donna of an opera company of which he had
assumed the direction. She appeared in New
York, Nov. 29, in the part of Rosina, the oc-
casion being memorable in musical annals as
that which witnessed the introduction of the
Italian opera into the United States. Her re-
ception was enthusiastic, and she appeared
successively in a number of parts, each of
which subsequently became a perfect creation
in her hands. In the midst of her triumphs
she was married, March 23, 1826, to Eugene
Malibran, an elderly French merchant of New
York, reputed to be possessed of considerable
wealth. He afterward failed, and Mme. Mali-
bran, offended by the readiness with which her
husband sought to retrieve his fortunes by her
professional labors, surrendered to his creditors
the property settled upon her as a marriage
dower, and in September, 1827, returned alone
to Europe. From Jan. 14, 1828, when she
made her first appearance before a Parisian
audience, until the close of her life, her career
was prosperous and brilliant. She was accus-
tomed to spend the winter in Paris and the
spring and autumn in England and the larger
continental cities ; and on two occasions she
made professional tours to Naples, Milan, and
other Italian cities. The French courts hav-
ing in 1835 pronounced her marriage with M.
Malibran void, she was married, March 29,
1836, to De Beriot, the celebrated violinist. In
April following she was injured by a fall from
her horse ; but professing to make light of the
matter, she appeared in opera in Brussels and
at Aix-la-Chapelle during the summer. In
September she went to the Manchester musi-
cal festival, and, contrary to the advice of her
physician, took part in the performances. A
nervous fever set in, which soon proved fatal.
Mme. Malibran was one of the first singers

of the age, and her dramatic ability was scarce-
ly less remarkable than her vocal. Her voice,
a mezzo-soprano approaching a contralto, of
great volume and purity, had been brought to
almost absolute perfection by the severe train-
ing of her father ; and in the variety and beau-
ty of her vocal embellishments, as well as in
the felicity and dramatic propriety with which
she interpreted her music, she has rarely been
equalled. Her range included some of the
finest roles, both tragic and comic, in the ope-
ras of Rossini, Bellini, and Mozart, including
those of Rosina, Semiramide, Tancredi, Desde-
mona, Romeo, Zerlina, Ninetta, Cenerentola,
and Amina. She also sang with wonderful
effect the sublime music of Handel's oratorios,
and many choice selections from Gluck and
others. Her personal qualities accorded with
her lyrical genius, and few women have been
more beloved for their amiability, generosity,
and professional enthusiasm. Her benefac-
tions amounted to such considerable sums
that her friends were frequently obliged to
interfere for the- purpose of regulating her
finances. Her intellect was of a high order,
and the charms of her conversation fascinated
all who were admitted into the circle of her
intimate friends. She was also an accom-
plished linguist, speaking fluently and singing
in the chief languages of Europe. She com-
posed several songs, nocturnes, and romances,
some of which have been published. A me-
moir of her, by the countess of Merlin (2 vols.),
appeared in England soon after her death, and
was republished in the United States.

MALINES. See MECHLIN.

MALLARD. See DUCK.

MALLET, Charles Aagnste, a French philoso-
pher, born in Lille, Jan. 1, 1807. He studied
at the normal school, and was professor in va-
rious colleges of the interior till 1842, when
he was called to the college St. Louis in Paris.
From 1848 to 1850 he was inspector of the
academy of Paris, and afterward rector of the
academy of Rouen, retiring in 1852. His prin-
cipal works are : Etudes pJiilosopMques (2 vols.,
Paris, 1837-'8 ; 2d ed., 1843) ; translation of
Beattie's " Elements of Moral Science " (2
vols., 1840) ; Histoire de la pTiilosophie ioni-
enne (1842) ; Histoire jde Vecole de Megare et
des eooles tfElis et d'Eretrie (1845) ; and Ele-
ments de morale (1864).

MALLET, David, a Scottish author, born at
Crieff, Perthshire, about 1700, died in London,
April 21, 1765. His original name was Mai-
loch, which he changed to Mallet in 1726. He
was educated at Aberdeen, and settled in Lon-
don as a literary man. In 1733 he published a
poem entitled "Verbal Criticism," which so
pleased Pope that he introduced him to Boling-
broke, who obtained for him the office of under
secretary to Frederick, prince of Wales, with a
salary of 200. From the Newcastle adminis-
tration he got a pension, said to have been the
reward of his attacks on Admiral Byng. His
pen was always at the service oi those who

MALLET

would pay for it, not sparing even his old f nend
Pope, whom after his death, at the instiga-
tion of Bolingbroko, he assailed in his preface
to that nobleman's " Idea of a Patriot King.
Bolingbroke made him his literary executor,
and the duchess of Marlborough left by her
will the sum of 1,000 to Glover and Mallet
jointly, provided they drew up from the family
papers a life of the great duke. Glover de-
,1m, ,1, but Mallet accepted, and on pretence of
being engaged upon the work received for the
rest of his life a pension from the second duke.
On his death, however, it was found that he had
never written a line of it. A collection of Mal-
let's works was published by himself (3 vols.,
1750). A new edition of his songs and ballads,
by Frederick Dinsdale, appeared in 1857.

" MALLET, Paul Henri, a Swiss historian, born
in Geneva, Aug. 20, 1730, died there, Feb. 8,
1807. After completing his education he went
to Copenhagen, where he was appointed regius
professor of belles-lettres in 1752. He em-
ployed his leisure in studying the language,
history, and archaeology of the ancient Scandi-
navians, and wrote his Introduction d Vhistoire
de Danemarlc (Copenhagen, 1755-'6). In 1760
Mallet returned to Geneva, and filled the chair
of history in the college of that city for four
years. The most important of his works, be-
sides that above named, are : Histoire de Dane-
mark (3 vols. 4to, Copenhagen, 1758-'77);
Memoires sur la literature du nord (6 vols. 8vo,
Copenhagen, 1769-'60); Histoire des Suisses
(4 vols. 8vo, Geneva, 1808) ; and Histoire de la
ligue Hanseatique (Geneva, 1805). His Intro-
duction d Vhittoire de DanemarTc was trans-
lated into English by Bishop Percy, under the
title of "Mallet's Northern Antiquities" (2
vols. 8vo, London, 1770 ; new ed., by I. A.
Blackwell, 1 vol. 12mo, 1847).

MALLOW, a common name for plants of the
genus maha (from Gr. /zaAdatretv, to soften, in
allusion to their softening and emollient prop-
erties). The genus, as at present restricted,
includes about 16 species, none of which are
indigenous to this country, though several of
them are more or less extensively naturalized ;
it is the type of the natural order mahacece,
which comprises many kindred genera dis-
tinguishable mainly in the structural differ-
ences of the fruit, but all agreeing in hav-
ing their stamens united into a tube by their
filaments, and in having one-celled anthers;
about 700 species are known, distributed among
69 genera. It is remarkable that none of the
order possess any unwholesome qualities, while
all abound in mucilage. The wild or high
mallow (M. tyhestris) is a handsome biennial,
with :IM i-rcct stem and kidney-shaped leaves
having five to seven deeply crenate lobes ; the
flowers are large, of a purple or a rosy color,
the calyx hairy, the carpels wrinkled. It
grows on waste places and roadsides in Eu-
rope, and is an introduced and naturalized
weed in the older portions of this count rv.
For fomentations and poultices, its properties

MALLOW

are not inferior in value to those of tlie marsh
mallow (see ALTH^A), and decoctions of its
eaves have been used in dysentery and urinary
troubles. This is the mauve of the French, who
use the dried flowers in preparing a tisane, or
diet drink, which is in great repute with them ;

"Wild Mallow (Malva sylvestris).

the name mauve is also applied to a dye re-
sembling the flowers of this plant in tint. ^ By
far the most common with us is the familiar
weed known as common or dwarf mallow (M.
rotundifolia), so abundant by the wayside, m
rich shaded dooryards, and cultivated grounds
generally. Its stems are prostrate, spreading,
and spring from a long, deeply buried root ; its
leaves are round-heart-shaped, somewhat lobed
and crenate on their edges ; the flowers small,
whitish, with purplish veins. The plant is
much prized by children, who in play seek its
flat and circular mucilaginous fruits under
the name of "cheeses." The musk mallow
(M. moschata) is a low perennial, sometimes
cultivated in gardens, from which it has to
some extent escaped, and is occasionally found
naturalized along waysides ; it has handsome,
deeply cut leaves, diffusing a pleasant, musky
fragrance, and large rose-colored or white
flowers. The curled mallow (M. crispa) is
likewise seen in old gardens, conspicuous for
its large, strong, tall stem, and rich, deep green,
singularly curled foliage, the beauty of which
supplies the defect of its flowers, which are
rather inconspicuous. The hollyhock mallow
(M. Alcea), a European perennial species about
3 ft. high, with palmately five-cleft leaves and
rosy-purple flowers 2 in. across, is cultivated
and has become naturalized in some parts of
Pennsylvania. The American species formerly
placed in malva are mostly now in the genus
malvastrum. There are many very showy
flowers belonging to the order malvacece, such
as those of Lavatera, malope, abutilon, and sida,
prized in border and greenhouse cultivation.

MALMAISON

MALMAISON, La, a village of France, in the
department of Seine-et-Oise, about 7 m. W. of
the enceinte of Paris, noted for a palace which
became celebrated through Josephine, the first
wife of Napoleon I. The Norman pirates com-
mitted ravages in this vicinity in the 9th cen-
tury, and the locality was thence called mala
mansio ("evil spot"). In the 17th century it
was owned by Christophe Perrot, councillor of
the parliament of Paris, styling himself lord of
Malmaison. Afterward it had various propri-
etors; and from Mme. Harenc, who received
here many literary and scientific notabilities, it
passed into the possession of M. Le Couteulx,
who in 1798 sold the domain to Josephine for
160,000 francs. She made it a brilliant centre
of fashionable and intellectual society, enlarg-
ing and embellishing the grounds after the
model of Marie Antoinette's Trianon, furnish-
ing it with a good library, and adding many
fine pictures and other works of art to the
collections. The chateau itself, however, re-
tained a rather unseemly appearance. Bona-
parte often resided here previous to his removal
to St. Cloud, and Malmaison preserved great
prestige until the establishment of the empire
in 1804. After her divorce (Dec. 16, 1809) Jose-
phine kept up here the semblance of a court,
and she was frequently visited by Napoleon,
who also spent several days here with Hortense
after the battle of Waterloo. The emperor
Alexander, as well as the king of Prussia and
his son, visited Josephine at Malmaison, on the
first occupation, of Paris. After her death here
(May 29, 1814) the property reverted to her son,
Eugene de Beauharnais. The Swedish banker
Haguerman purchased it in 1826, reducing the
grounds to their original small dimensions.
He sold it in 1842 to the dowager queen Maria
Christina of Spain for 500,000 francs, and she
resold it in 1861 for 1,500,000 francs to Napo-
leon III., who had it restored. Among the
works which he collected here are Isabey's
painting of "Bonaparte at La Malmaison,"
Hortense's portrait of herself, and a portrait
of Josephine. The room which Napoleon used
to occupy contains the bed on which he died
at St. Helena.

MAUIESBIRY, a parliamentary borough of
Wiltshire, England, on the Avon, which is here
crossed by six bridges, 82 m. W. of London ;
pop. in 1871, 6,880. Formerly the manufacture
of woollen cloth was the chief branch of indus-
try, but it has given way to wool-stapling.
The parish church is a portion of a famous old
Saxon nunnery, and contains a tomb reputed
to be that of King Athelstane. The town is
the birthplace of the philosopher Hobbes.

MALMESBCRY. I. James Harris, first earl of,
an English diplomatist, born in Salisbury, April
21, 1746, died in London, Nov. 20, 1820. He
was the eldest son of James Harris, secretary
and comptroller to Queen Charlotte, and author
of "Hermes," studied at Oxford and Leyden,
and was appointed in 1767 secretary of lega-
tion at Madrid. He was for four years Eng-

MALMO

lish ambassador in Berlin, and from 1777 to
1784 in St. Petersburg. In the house of com-
mons he was the follower of Fox, after whose
withdrawal from the cabinet he received from
Pitt the appointment of ambassador at the
Hague, and in September, 1788, was raised to
the peerage as Baron Malmesbury, having been
knighted in 1780. In 1793 he joined the party
of Pitt, who again appointed him to a mission
to Berlin. In 1794 he negotiated the marriage
between the prince of Wales and Caroline of
Brunswick, and accompanied the bride to Eng-
land. In 1796 and 1797 he was employed in
fruitless negotiations for peace with the French
republic. Becoming deaf, he spent the rest of
his life in retirement. In 1800 he was created
Viscount Fitz-Harris and earl of Malmesbury.
II. James Howard Harris, third earl of, grand-
son of the preceding, born in London, March
25, 1807. He studied at Eton and at Oxford,
where he graduated in 1828. He was returned
to the house of commons for the family bor-
ough of Wilton in June, 1841, and in Sep-
tember succeeded his father in the house of
lords. He was secretary of state for foreign
affairs in the Derby administration from March
to December, 1852; and being a personal
friend of Louis Napoleon, he was among the
first to urge the recognition of the second em-
pire. He was reappointed foreign secretary
in March, 1858, but resigned in April, 1859.
He was lord keeper of the privy seal from
1866 to the end of 1868, when he retired on
account of failing health. Besides editing the
" Diaries and Correspondence " of his grand-
father (4 vols., London, 1844), he has published
" The First Lord Malmesbury, his Family and
Friends : a Series of Letters from 1745 to
1820 " (2 vols., 1870).

MALMESBURY, William of, an English histo-
rian, born in Somersetshire about 1095, died at
Malmesbury about 1143. He was destined for
the church, and early entered the monastery
of Malmesbury, of which he became librarian.
Several of his numerous works were published
by Sir Henry Savile in 1596, in his Scriptores
post Bedam. His " History of the Kings of
England " and " Modern History " (De Gestis
JRegum and Histories Novellce), the former
translated by the Kev. John Sharpe (London,
1815), were reprinted in 1847 in Bohn's "An-
tiquarian Library."

MALMO (Swedish, MalmoJius). I. A Ian or
province of Sweden, bordering on Christian-
stad, the Baltic, and the Sound; area, 1,852
sq. m. ; pop. in 1873, 322,175. It is one of
the most fertile portions of Sweden, rears the
best horses and cattle, and produces excellent
cheese and great quantities of grain. It con-
tains several lakes, of which the largest is
Lake Ring. II. A city, capital of the Ian,
on the Sound, 16 m. S. E. of Copenhagen;
pop. in 1873, 27,485. It consists of the town
proper and two suburbs, Oster and Wester
Warn, connected with it by a canal. The streets
are spacious, and the market place is planted

MALMSEY

MALTA

with trees. The former fortifications have
nvorted into promenades. The ancient
c.i<tK' of M;ilrn<> is used for barracks, and for a
and penitentiary. Two churches, the
old town hall, and the theatre are among the
conspicuous buildings. There are a gymna-
sium and schools of technology and naviga-
tion. Among the charitable institutions is a
richly endowed lunatic asylum. Steamboats,
railways, and especially the improvement of
the harbor, have greatly promoted the mari-
time and commercial importance of Malmo.
About 5,000 vessels enter and leave the port
annually. The principal export is grain.

MALMSEY* See GREECE, WINES OF.

M \l.o\K. Edmond, an Irish Shakespearian
scholar, born in Dublin, Oct. 4, 1741, died in
London, May 25, 1812. He graduated at
Trinity college, Dublin, and was called to the
bar in 1767; but having inherited a consider-
able fortune, he removed to London, devoting
himself to literary pursuits. In 1780 he pub-
lished two supplementary volumes to Stee-
vens's edition of Shakespeare, and in 1790 his
own edition of the great dramatist appeared in
11 vols. 8vo. In 1796 he exposed the Shakes-
pearian forgeries of Samuel Ireland. At his
death he left a greatly improved edition of his
Shakespeare, which was published in 1821, un-
der the supervision of James Boswell, in 21 vols.
8vo. He edited " The Prose Works of John
Dryden, with a Memoir ;" " The Works of Wil-
liam Gerald Hamilton, with a Sketch of his
Life ;" " The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds,"
and other works. See "Life of Edmond
Malone," by Sir James Prior (London, 1860).

MALPIGHI, Mareello, an Italian anatomist,
born near Bologna in 1628, died in Rome, Nov.
29, 1694. In 1656 he was appointed by Fer-
dinand II. of Tuscany professor of medicine at
Pisa, where he made the acquaintance of the
celebrated mathematician Borelli, who first
convinced him of the propriety of applying
experimental researches to the elucidation of
physical science. Ill health, however, soon
compelled his return to Bologna, where he
continued to practise as a physician till 1662,
when he was called to a professorship at Mes-
sina. In 1691 he was invited to Rome by In-
XII.. who appointed him his chief
physician and chamberlain. His reputation is
mainly duo to the fact that he was the first to
?mploy the simple microscope, then recently
.vented, in investigating the anatomical struc-

e of plants and animals, and particularly

jipnn his discovery by this means of the capil-

ary circulation of the blood from the arteries

e veins. Harvey had already in 1628 de-

utrated the circulation of the blood as a
le; that is to say, the return of the blood

";' bad passed out from the heart by the
* b * gain to the heart by the veins.

mode in which the blood passed through

the substance of the tissues, from the arteries

t i- reins, was however still unknown ; and

) doubt it was partly this fact which prevent-

ed the ready acceptance of Harvey's doctrine
by the anatomists of the time. But in 1G61
Malpighi saw with the microscope the circula-
tion of the blood through the capillaries in the
frog's lung, and afterward in the mesentery ;
thus demonstrating its passage by minute ca-
nals from the arteries to the veins, and supply-
ing the only deficiency which had existed in
Harvey's discovery. His name has been per-
petuated in that of several anatomical textures
discovered and described by him, viz. : the rete
Malpighianum of the epidermis, the Malpi-
ghian bodies of the spleen, and the Malpighian
tufts of the kidney. His principal works are :
Observationes Anatomicce de Pulmonibus (fol.,
Bologna, 1661); De Viscerum.Structura Exer-
citationes Anatomicce (1666; many times re-
printed and translated into French) ; Disser-
tatio Epistolica de Formatione Pulli in Ovo
(London, 1673) ; Dissertatio Epistolica de Bom-
lyce (London, 1669) ; De Pulmonum Sulstan-
tia et Motu (Leyden, 1672) ; Anatome Planta-
rum (London, 1675-'9) ; and Epistola de Glan-
dulis Conglolatis (London, 1689). The only
complete collective edition of his works was
published at Venice in 1743.

MALPLAQFET, a village of France, in the de-
partment of Le Nord, 10 m. S. by W. of the
Belgian town of Mons, celebrated for a battle
between the allied forces under Marlborough
and Prince Eugene, and the French under
Marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 1709. The battle
commenced at 8 o'clock in the morning, the
principal attack of the allies being directed
upon the enemy's left, where Villars himself
held command. The French at first repelled
their assailants, but Villars having become
disabled by a wound, the allies succeeded in
forcing the position ; and the French, in spite
of desperate efforts by the new commander,
Bouflers, and the chevalier St. George, son of
James II., eventually succumbed, though they
effected their retreat in good order. In this
battle, the bloodiest in the war of the Span-
ish succession, the allies, who brought into the
field 80,000 men and 140 guns, lost in killed
and wounded more than 20,000 men; the
French, who numbered 70,000 men with 80
guns, lost more than half that number; but
some accounts place the loss on both sides as
high as 42,000. During the battle Marlbor-
ough exposed himself to frequent perils, and
the report of his death, which was at one
time prevalent in the French ranks, gave rise
to the once popular military refrain: Mal-
firook 8*en t>a fen guerre, which was repro-
duced from a song of the 16th century on the
death of the duke of Guise.

MALT. See BREWING.

MALTA (anc. Melita\ a British possession in
the Mediterranean, including the islands of
Malta, Gozo, and Comino, and the uninhabit-
ed islets of Cominotto and Filfla, the entire
group lying between lat. 35 43' and 36 5' ST.
and Ion. 14 10' and 14 35' E., about 60 m.
S. W. of the southernmost point of Sicily, and

MALTA

200 N. of Tripoli in Africa; area, about 145
sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 143,799, exclusive of the
. The area of Malta proper is about
100 sq. m. ; pop. about 130,000. There are
neither lakes nor rivers in the island, and no
forests or brushwood ; and most of the surface
is a calcareous rock exposed to the winds from
the African deserts, and but thinly covered
with an artificial soil, chiefly brought from
Sicily. This is, however, by careful cultiva-
tion made to yield abundant crops of cotton,
grains, beans, and grass, and excellent fruits,
of which the orange, olive, and fig are re-
nowned. In summer the heat is excessive day
and night. The sirocco prevails especially in
autumn, and there is little land or sea breeze.
But in winter the climate is delightful. The
atmosphere is so clear that at all times of the
year the summit of Mt. Etna may be distinctly
seen during the rising or setting of the sun, al-
though at a distance of 130 m. The E. portion
of the island contains all the towns and villages,
and is separated by a ridge from the TV. part,
which, although less densely settled, is well cul-
tivated, and abounds with the wild thyme and
other odoriferous plants, attracting bees, which
furnish excellent honey. There are about 25,-
000 head of live stock, including about 6,000
cattle. Cotton is the staple product, and gives
rise to an extensive manufacture of cotton
goods. The cabinet work of Malta enjoys a
high reputation. Soap, leather, macaroni, and
iron bedsteads are manufactured to some ex-
tent. The goldsmiths are noted for their ele-
gant workmanship, and the Maltese artisans
are generally able and intelligent. They are
excellent seamen, and their services are in
great demand in the Mediterranean. But the
bulk of the people are either employed in ag-
ricultural labor or in stone cutting. The isl-
and of Gozo or Gozzo, about 9 m. long and
5 m. broad, lies N. TV. of Malta, and is separa-
ted from it by a channel 3 m. wide. It is sur-
rounded by a belt of rocks and shoals, with
openings leading to several small harbors. The
interior is very rocky and hilly, with a thin
soil, which however is very fertile. Grain and
fruit are raised in abundance ; but the most im-
portant crop is cotton, much of which is spun
on the island. There are salt works at Port
Maggiore, on the S. side, and an alabaster quar-
ry in the northwest. The highest point of land
is near the centre of the island, and is crowned
with the fort of Rabato. The principal town
is Rabato (pop. about 2,000), and there are
several villages. The island contains a great
natural curiosity called the Giant's Tower, and
several Roman monuments. Comino, about
2 m. long and 1^ m. broad, lies in the channel
between Malta and Gozo. The surface is very
hilly and the coast deeply indented. The
principal settlement is Santa Maria. The Mal-
tese are derived from an Arabic stock ; it is
probable, however, that the Arab conquerors
have been mixed up with the previous Punic
population. Greek is supposed to have been

in ancient times the medium of conversation
of the higher classes, as English is at the pres-
ent day. The present common language is the
lingua franca, a patois of the Arabic, mixed
with Italian and other languages. The com-
plexion of the Maltese is almost as dark as that
of the natives of Barbary. The dress of the
working classes is a short loose waistcoat,
covering a cotton shirt, short loose trousers,
woollen caps in winter and straw hats in sum-
mer, and a kind of sandals resembling those
of the ancient Eomans. The women are of
dark complexion, and are small, delicate, and
generally graceful, and wear in the streets a
black veil (faldetta). The dress consists most-
ly of a cotton shift, blue striped petticoat, a
corset with sleeves, and a loose jacket cover-
ing the whole. Drunkenness is almost un-
known, and the people, although coarser in
their appearance, are less vindictive and im-
pulsive than other races of southern Europe.
They are fond of poetry, especially in the rural
districts, where the taste for improvisation
prevails extensively. In music they prefer
noisy instruments, as the tambourine, mando-
line, and particularly the bagpipe, which ac-
company the national dances. They marry at
an early age. Many of them seek employment
in the Levant, where they are however exceed-
ingly unpopular on account of their crafty and
treacherous nature, and they are generally em-
ployed only in the meanest labors. The fami-
lies ennobled by the knights of Malta have
dwindled down to a small number ; and the
few which remain are not very affluent. The
national religion is Roman Catholic, under the
direction of a bishop and more than 1,000
priests, the church property being considerable.
The number of Protestants is about 5,000,
whose places of worship consist only of a few
chapels. Education is promoted by the uni-
versity of Valetta, colleges at Citta Vecchia
and several other places, and about 50 public
and 100 private schools. The value of im-
ports paying duty in 1871 was $37,400,000 ;
of exports, $37,500,000. The number of
steamers arrived in 1871 was 1,737, tonnage
1,466,000; of sailing vessels arrived, 2,954,
tonnage 519,000; total number of vessels,
4,691, tonnage 1,985,000. The direct trade
with the United States is inconsiderable, but
a large number of American vessels are en-
gaged in the trade of foreign countries with
Malta. A new government grading dock, ca-
pable of receiving the largest men-of-war, has
been recently opened, and new submarine
telegraphs have been laid connecting Malta
with Algiers and Alexandria. The hydrau-
lic lift dock, completed in 1873, is of great
benefit to commerce, especially to the steamers
of the India route, as by means of it vessels
can be repaired without discharging their
cargo. The revenue in 1870 was 158,630 ;
expenditures, 171,788 ; public debt, 79,202.
Malta is a crown colony, the local govern-
ment being conducted by a governor who is

70 MALTA

at the same time coramander-in-chief, assisfr-
K-jrMutive matters by a council of 1
-M, of whom 10 are official and 8 elec-
[fa British troops and their families
ember, 1872, numbered 6,752 persons.
The duties of the native regiment, called the
fencibles, are exclusively local, and their
maintenance is defrayed out of the revenues
of the Elands. The central position, military
:h. and excellent harbor, one of the most
comm.Mlious and convenient in the Mediter-
n, render the possession of Malta of great
importance to Britain, and make it very ad-
vantageous for the accommodation and repair
of the men-of-war and merchant ships fre-
quenting the Mediterranean. The storehouses
or caricatori for grain are excavated in the
rock, making Malta an excellent centre of the
corn trade between the Mediterranean and
Black seas. Besides Valetta and Cittd Vec-
chia, and a few other towns, Malta possesses
about 40 casals or hamlets, chiefly remarkable
for their picturesque churches. The former
capital of Malta was Citta Vecchia. , The pres-
ent capital, Valetta, is one of the best forti-
fied places in the world, and serves as a station
for the Mediterranean fleet. The ancient Me-
lita was important as a commercial centre
among the nations of antiquity, and it was
occupied probably at a very early period by
a Phoenician colony. Afterward it became a
Carthaginian settlement. At a later period it
appears to have been in a measure Hellenized,
though there is no historical evidence of its
having been in the possession of the Greeks.
In 257 B. C. it was ravaged by a Roman fleet
under Atilius Regulus ; and surrendering to the
Romans at the beginning of the second Punic
war, it was annexed to the province of Sicily.
It became notorious as a resort of the Cili-
cian pirates, but was in a flourishing condi-
tion in the days of Cicero, who during periods
of disturbance entertained the project of reti-
ring thither. The Maltese cotton fabrics (vestis
Melitentu) were in great demand in Rome, and
\vere probably manufactured from the
cotton which still forms the principal product
of the island. In sacred history Malta is cele-
brated as the supposed scene of the shipwreck
Paul on his voyage to Italy (A. D. 60) ;
though according to some critics Melita (now
o in the Adriatic, on the coast of Dal-
matia, was more probably the island visited
by the apostle. After the fall of the Roman
empire the island was for some time in the
possession of the Vandals, but was taken from
th.-Ni by Belisarius (583), and was subject to
the Byzantine empire until the latter part of
the 9th century, when it was conquered by the
Arabs. It was wrested from them at the close
llth century by Count Roger, the Nor-
nnncror of Sicily, and it was united with
Si.-ily until the early part of the 16th century,
when (Mi;irl s V. took possession of that coun-
try and of Malta as heir of Aragon. Under
iperor the knights of Malta (see SAINT

MALTE-BRUN

JOHN, KNIGHTS OF) became its sovereigns, and
aeld it till 1798, when the French expedition
r o Egypt under Napoleon seized the island.
After the battle of the Nile the inhabitants rose
in insurrection and compelled the French to
shut themselves up in the fortress of Valetta.
They were subjected to a stringent blockade
until Sept. 5, 1800, when, reduced by famine,
they surrendered to the English, who had come
bo the assistance of the Maltese. The island
has since remained under British rule.

MALTE-BRUN. I. A Danish geographer, whose
actual name was MALTHE CONRAD BRUTTN, born
at Thisted in Jutland, Aug. 12, 1775, died in
Paris, Dec. 14, 1826. He studied in Copen-
hagen, devoting himself especially to literature
and politics. He embraced republican prin-
dples, and in 1795 published a pamphlet en-
itled "Catechism of the Aristocrats," for
which he was prosecuted by the government
and obliged to take refuge in Sweden. A
poem on the death of Bernstorff which he
published during his exile procured for him
permission to return to Denmark. But another
pamphlet against the aristocracy subjected
him to a new prosecution, and he left his
country, and finally took up his residence in
Paris. In December, 1800, the Danish courts
pronounced sentence of perpetual banishment
against him, which was rescinded about the
time of his death. In Paris he wrote largely
for various journals, and in 1806 became one
of the principal writers for the Journal des
Debate. He at first opposed the consular gov-
ernment, but subsequently became a zealous
imperialist, and after the fall of Napoleon an
equally zealous monarchist, publishing in 1824
Traite de la legitimite consideree comme base
du droit public de V Europe chretienne. In
the mean time he devoted himself especially to
geographical studies, and in 1803, in conjunc-
tion with Mentelle and Herbin, commenced the
publication of OeograpJiie mathematique, phy-
sique et politique, which was completed in
1807, comprising 16 volumes. In 1808 lie es-
tablished the periodical Annales des Voyages,
which was discontinued in 1814, and resumed
in 1819, with the collaboration of Eyries, under
the title, Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, and is
still issued under charge of his son. He was
one of the founders of the geographical society,
of which he became secretary. He wrote a
number of miscellaneous works, among which
is a posthumous collection, Melanges scienti-
fiques et litteraires (3 vols., 1828). His most
important work is Precis de geograpliie uni-
verselle (8 vols., 1810-'29, the last two volumes
being by Huot). This has been several times re-
published, the last edition by Lavall6e (6 vols.,
1856-'7). It was translated into English, and
an edition published at Boston, with notes and
additions by James G. Percival (3 vols. 4to,
1828-'32), and one at Philadelphia (5 vols.
8vo, with atlas, 1832-7). II. Victor Adolphe, a
French geographer, son of the preceding, born
in Paris in 1816. After having been profes-

MALTHA

MALTHUS

of history in several colleges, he devoted
himself especially to geographical studies. He
is secretary of the geographical society, and
principal editor of the Nouvelles Annales des

Voyages, and has published numerous works re-
lating to geography. Among these are : Jeunes
wyageurs en France (1840) ; Destinee de Sir
John Franklin devoilee (1860) ; Nouvelles ac-
quisitions des Busses dans VAsie orientale
(1861); Les Etats-Unis et le Mexique (1862) ;

Coup d'ceil sur le Yucatan, and Sonora et ses
mines (1864); Canal interoceanique du Da-
rien (1865) ; Histoire de Marcoussis (1867) ;
and Histoire geograpMque et statistique de
VAllemagne (4to, 1866-'8). He has also issued
a revised edition of his father's geography (8
vols., 1852-'5), and, in conjunction with others,
France illustree (3 vols., 1855-'7).

MALTHA (Gr. fidWa, soft wax ; also denoting
a mixture of wax and pitch, used for the sur-
face of writing tablets, and for some kinds of
cement). Pliny describes under this name an
inflammable mud flowing from a pool at Samo-
sata, on the Euphrates, which he says was simi-
lar in nature to naphtha ; and this use of the
word has led to its later application to viscid
bitumens. It is the proper name for mineral
tar, or all bitumens having the consistence of
tar, and holding water and air in mechanical
admixture in consequence of their viscidity. It
occurs on the surface of the ground and issuing
from springs, often accompanied by water, in
various parts of the world, but most frequently
in localities noted for the production of petro-
leum, for which substance maltha is frequently
mistaken. It appears to be a product of the
partial oxidation or decomposition of certain
unstable varieties of petroleum, and doubtless
in 'all cases has a common origin with it (see
PETROLEUM), as it passes by insensible degrees
into petroleum on the one hand and asphal-
tum on the other. It is found in this country
throughout the length of California, in Texas,
and at various places in the southwest, on both
flanks of the Rocky mountains, and in Alaska.
Among foreign localities may be mentioned
Enniskillen in Canada, the islands of Barba-
does and Trinidad, many localities in South
America, some of the islands of the Grecian
archipelago, and the Caucasus. In California,
where there are immense quantities of this
material, it occurs in every variety of density,
from 0-94 to 1. In consistence it varies from
that of a thin sirup to that of soft mortar. It
issues there from a stratum of shale of consid-
erable thickness which occurs in the miocene
sandstones of the Coast range. It oozes from
springs upon hillsides, over which it trickles ;
it accompanies water in pools, and flows upon
the surface of streams. It has been obtained
from artesian borings at a depth of more than
450 ft. of the consistence of tar, and at a depth
of 117 ft. so tenacious as to prevent the drill
from penetrating further. In a few localities
in this region the maltha is mixed with sand,
the mixture forming strata or beds of great

extent. At Enniskillen the maltha forms what
are known as " gum beds." Barbadoes tar was
long an article of commerce, used in medicine
as a liniment. The California malthas have
been used to some extent as a crude material
for the manufacture of kerosene; but they
have not been found to possess much value for
this purpose when treated in the same appara-
tus as is used for petroleum ; when it is distilled
under pressure, or " cracked," a better result
is obtained both as regards yield and quality.
Little is known regarding the chemical consti-
tution of maltha; but it is without doubt a
mixture of hydrocarbons more dense than those
found in petroleum. Some specimens contain
nitrogen, as is proved by the fact that maggots
are developed in immense numbers in pools of
this substance. It is also possible that oxygen
is a constituent of some varieties. While this
substance is widely distributed and occurs in
vast quantities in some localities, it is at present
very much less valuable than petroleum. It
is readily distinguished from it by its greater
viscidity and its tendency to froth when heated,
the froth often occupying 20 times the bulk of
the maltha at the temperature of boiling water.
MALTHUS, Thomas Robert, an English political
economist, born at Albury, Surrey, in 1766,
died in Bath, Dec. 29, 1834. His father was a
gentleman of fortune, interested in classical
and philosophical studies, and so intimate a
friend of Rousseau that he was appointed one
of his executors ; and David Hume was like-
wise among his friends. In 1784 he was ad-
mitted to Jesus college, Cambridge, and became
one of the first classical scholars. He received
his master's degree and a fellowship in 1797,
entered holy orders, and divided his time be-
tween the care of a small parish in Surrey and
his studies in Cambridge. In 1798 he published
anonymously the first edition of his work on
population, which was subsequently much en-
larged and modified. The title of the sixth and
last revision (1826) is : "An Essay on the Prin-
ciple of Population, or a View of its past and
present Effects on Human Happiness, with an
Inquiry into our Prospects respecting the future
Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which it oc-
casions." His object at first was to refute the
theories of Condorcet and Godwin on human
perfectibility and political optimism, by show-
ing the necessary sufferings of the poor from the
tendency of population to increase faster than
the means of subsistence. The condition of the
poor became the prominent feature of the sub-
sequent editions. In 1799 he visited Sweden,
Norway, Finland, and Russia, collecting, facts
and documents in illustration of his subject;
and during the interval of peace in 1802 he
explored France and Switzerland. He married
in 1805, and was appointed professor of history
and political economy in the East India college
at Haileybury, which post he held till his death.
His other principal writings are: "Observa-
tions on the Effects of the Corn Laws " (3d ed.,
1815) ; " An Inquiry into the Nature and Pro-

7J MALTITZ

gress of Rent " (1815) ; " Principles of Political
Economy" (1820); and "Definitions in Polit-
ic:.! Kconomy" (1827). His reputation rests
almost exclusively upon the views advanced in
his work on population. He held that popu-
lation, when unchecked, increases in a geomet-
itio, while food can be made to increase
at furthest only in an arithmetical ratio. Pow-
erful checks on population must be constantly
in action, which may be resolved into vice,
miserv, and moral or prudential restraint.

MALTITZ, ApoHonlns von, baron, a German
author, born in Konigsberg in 1795, died in
\\Vmiur, March 2, 1870. He was a brother
of the poet Franz Friedrich von Maltitz (1794-
1857), and like several of his relatives he
was employed in the diplomatic service of
Russia, representing that empire at Weimar
from 1841 to 1805. He published novels, poe-
try, dramas, tragedies, comedies, and an au-
tobiography (1863). His best known tragedies
ginia (1858), Anna BoUyn (I860), and
Spartacus. Another distinguished poet of the
same family was GOTTHILF AUGUST vox MAL-
TITZ (1794-1837).

MALTZAN, Hfinrleh Karl Eekardt Hellmnth, bar-
on of Wartenburg and Penzlin, a German trav-
eller, born in Dresden, Sept. 6, 1826, died in
Pisa, Italy, Feb. 22, 1874. He studied at sev-
eral German universities, made explorations
in north Africa, Arabia, and other countries,
and published Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von
Afrika (4 vols., Leipsic, 1863 ; 2d ed., 1868) ;
Wallfahrt nach MeTclca (2 vols., 1865); Seise
a"/ Ar Intel Sardinien (1869); Sitteribilder
aus Tunis und Algerien (1869) ; Reise in den
Regentschaften Tunis und Tripolis (3 vols.,
1870) ; and Reise nach Sudarabien (Brunswick,
1872). Jle was a high authority in Phoenician
and old Egyptian archaeology, and in S. Ara-
bian geography, ethnology, and philology.

MALI'S, Etlfnne Lonls, a French engineer and
physicist, born in Paris, June 23, 1775, died
there, Feb. 23, 1812. He belonged to a dis-
tinguished family, and his intellectual preco-
city manifested itself while he was at school
in the composition of an epic poem and of
two tragedies. At the same time he was
proficient in mathematics, and passed a bril-
liant examination as a military engineer. In
1793 he received the rank of sub-lieutenant,
1'iit :IH the school of M6zieres which had con-
f.-rn-d it was closed, he enlisted as a volun-
teer, and exhibited so much talent while em-

\\itli tin- LM-.-i'li- of sub-lieutenant; and next
y,-:ir la- t-nt.-r.-il the army as captain. He
dimngoiahed himself at the capture of Malta
and of Jaffa, where he narrowly escaped losing
btt life by the plague. He was among the
earliest members of the Egyptian institute and
in 17H9 he was made by Kleber chief of bat-
tattoa. Shortly aft.-r his return from the East
he married the .laughter of Chancellor Koch,

MALVOISINE

of the German university of Giessen, whose
acquaintance he had made while formerly sta-
tioned there. In 1804 he was commissioned
by Napoleon to draw up plans for the enlarge-
ment of the harbor and fortifications of Ant-
werp, and he subsequently superintended the
reconstruction of the fort at Kehl, opposite
Strasburg. In 1810 he became mayor, mem-
ber of the academy, and examiner at the poly-
technic school, and next year provisional direc-
tor of that institution. His chief publications
include a mathematical Traite d'optique, first
published in 1810, in which he promulgated
some valuable discoveries respecting the refrac-
tion of light in transparent media; and the
" Theory of Double Refraction " (Memoires
presentes d Vinstitut, vol. ii.), containing an
account of his discoveries respecting the po-
larization of light, and showing that light may
acquire properties identical with either of two
rays yielded by refraction through Iceland
spar by the process of simple reflection at a
particular angle from any transparent body.
This famous memoir received an academical
prize at the suggestion of Laplace. He also

published an

ay on the Measurement of

the Refractive Force of Opaque Bodies;" " Re-
marks on some new Optical Phenomena," in-
tended to prove that two portions of light are
always polarized together in opposite direc-
tions ; a paper " On Phenomena accompanying
Refraction and Reflection," and one "On the
Axis of Refraction of Crystals."

MALYERN, Great, a town of Worcestershire,
England, celebrated as a watering place, on
the E. side of the Malvern hills, 8 m. S. S. W.
of Worcester ; pop. in 1871, 7,825. The springs,
which are sulphuretted and slightly tepid, are
especially beneficial in glandular and skin com-
plaints. They are situated between Great and
Little Malvern, the latter place being 4 m. S.
of the former, which is surrounded by fine
country residences and contains delightful
walks and good accommodations for bathers
and visitors. There are several schools, an ex-
cellent library and reading room, and a chapel
of the countess of Huntingdon's connection.
The ancient church, formerly part of a monas-
tery founded by Edward the Confessor, is one
of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture
in England. The Malvern hills, which reach
a height of about 1,400 ft., extend about 9 m.
N. and S.

MALVERN HILL, Battle of. See CHICKAIIOMINY.

MALVOISINE, or Mawmoislne, William de, a Scot-
tish ecclesiastic, died July 9, 1238. He was
educated and perhaps born in France, but was
at an early age archdeacon of St. Andrews.
In 1199 he became chancellor of Scotland, in
1200 bishop of Glasgow, and in 1202 bishop of
St. Andrews, retaining the latter see until his
death. In 1211, as papal legate, in concert
with the bishop of Glasgow, and at the request
of the pope, he convened a council of the clergy
and people at Perth to urge an expedition to
the Holy Land. In 1214 he officiated at the

MALWA

MAMELUKES

Donation of Alexander II., and from 1215 to
L218 attended the fourth Laterari council as
of the representatives of the Scottish

mrch. He was a zealous churchman, and,
>rding to Fordun, was equally zealous in

ipport of his personal rights, having deprived
abbey of Dunfermline of the presentation
two livings because its monks had once neg-
to provide him with wine for supper.

[e introduced new monastic orders into Scot-

md, established many Dominican and other

invents, and wrote the lives of St. Ninian

id Kentigern.

MALWA, an old province of central India,

Hnprising a table land from 1,500 to 2,500
above the level of the sea, bounded N". E. by
valley of the Ganges, E. by Bundelcund, S.
>y the Vindhya, and W. by the Aravulli moun-

lins, and lying chiefly between lat. 22 and 24
and Ion. 74 and 78 E. ; length about 220
, average breadth 150 m. The people are
mostly Hindoos. It is divided into a number
of native states under British protection, and
includes part of the possessions of Sindia and
"lolkar. The surface is uneven, with a gradu-

descent from the Vindhya mountains. It is
watered by many rivers, the chief of which is
the Chumbul, an affluent of the Ganges. The
soil is fertile, producing cotton, tobacco, opium,
indigo, sugar, and grain, and affording pastur-
age for large numbers of sheep and cattle. The
rivers are not navigable, but a considerable
overland trade is carried on in cottons, printed
cloths, opium, and other products. The prin-
cipal towns are Oojein, Indore, Bhopal, and
Bilsa. Malwa became tributary to the sover-
eign of Delhi in the 13th century, but at the
beginning of the 15th threw off the yoke, and
for 130 years formed a powerful independent
kingdom. It was subsequently conquered by
Shir Khan, annexed to the Mogul empire by
Akbar, overrun by the Mahrattas early in the
18th century, and separated from the Mogul
territory about 1732. It was long desolated
by the Pindarrees, who were subdued by the
marquis of Hastings and Sir John Malcolm.
A police force of Bheels was subsequently or-
ganized by the British, and for some time
proved highly efficient, but a large portion of
it mutinied in 1857.

MAME, Alfred Henri Armand, a French printer,
born in Tours, Aug. 17, 1811. In 1833 the
printing establishment founded by his father
in Tours came into his possession, in partner-
ship with his cousin Charles Ernest Mame, who
was mayor of Tours from 1851 to 1865. The
cousins, who are also brothers-in-law, together
extended the business till 1845, when it came
under the sole direction of Alfred Mame, who
raised it to the greatest importance. The es-
tablishment includes departments for print-
ing, binding, and bookselling. About 700 per-
sons are employed within and 500 without the
premises. It produces daily about 20,000 vol-
umes, bound and unbound. Among the spe-
cial publications of this house are liturgical and

devotional works, small books for religious edu-
cation printed under the auspices of the arch-
bishop of Tours, editions of the classics, and
elementary treatises on science and education,
issued likewise under ecclesiastical authority.
Its small prayer books (Paroissiens), bound
in leather and with gilt edges, are sold at re-
tail for 35 centimes (about 7 cents). About
1854 M. Mame entered upon the publication
of richly illustrated works, among the most
celebrated of which is the Bible with illustra-
tions by Dore" (1865-'6). He obtained prizes
at the London exhibition of 1851, the grand
medal of honor at the French exposition .of
1855, and the grand prize at that of 1867. In
the last year he also received one of the prizes
of 10,000 francs offered to model establish-
ments in which the greatest social harmony
and comfort prevail among the workmen.

MAMELUKES (Arabic, memalik, a slave), a
body of soldiery who ruled Egypt for several
centuries. They were introduced into that
country by the sultan Malek el-Adel II. about
the middle of the 13th century, and were
composed originally of young captives pur-
chased from the Mongols. They were called
the Bahri Mamelukes, or Mamelukes of the
river, because they were trained on an island
in the Nile. They formed the body guard of
the sultan. Tjiran Shah, the son and suc-
cessor of Malek el-Adel, becoming unpopu-
lar, the Mamelukes deposed and murdered him
about 1250, and raised their commander Eybek
to the throne. A line of sultans known as
the Bahri or Turkish dynasty now followed,
all of whom were raised to power by the
Mamelukes, and many of them deposed and
slain. A new band of Mamelukes, however,
had been created by these sovereigns, composed
of Circassians and Georgians, who were called
Borgis, suggestive of a tower or castle, from
the fact that they had been employed on forti-
fications in Egypt. In 1382 the Borgi Mame-
lukes gained the ascendancy over the Bahris,
and made their commander Barkok sultan.
The Borgis continued in power till 1517,
when they were subdued by the Ottoman
Turks, and Egypt became a dependency of
Constantinople. The Turkish sultan, however,
placed the 24 provinces into which he di-
vided Egypt under Mameluke governors or
beys, who served to keep the Turkish viceroy
in check. The beys also had the right to elect
the governor of Cairo, an official of great pow-
er. The number of the Mamelukes was about
12,000, and they were nearly all from the
region between the Black sea and the Caspian,
whence they were brought in their youth to
Cairo, compelled or persuaded to embrace Mo-
hammedanism, and educated as soldiers. They
did not intermarry with the natives of Egypt,
but bought wives of their own race from the
traders in Circassian slaves. These women
from the north seldom bore children in Egypt,
or if they did their offspring were sickly and
short-lived. Though instances of hereditary

74 MAMELUKES

succession among the Mamelukes were not un-
kno\s ii, they were comparatively rare, and it
was generally from master to slave, and not
from father to son. Volney, who visited
Egypt in the latter part of the 18th century,
asserted that all Mameluke children perished
in the first or second descent. Each of the 24
beys maintained 500 or 600 followers, thor-
oughly armed and equipped, and forming an
admirable cavalry force. Each of the Mame-
lukes was attended by two armed slaves who
fought on foot. In 1798, when Bonaparte in-
vaded Egypt, his army first encountered the
Mamelukes while on the march from Alexan-
dria to Cairo. "The whole plain was covered
with Mamelukes," says Scott, "mounted on the
finest Arabian horses, and armed with pistols,
carbines, and blunderbusses of the best English
workmanship, their plumed turbans waving in
the air, and their rich dresses and arms glitter-
ing in the sun. Entertaining a high contempt
for the French force, as consisting almost en-
tirely of infantry, this splendid barbaric chiv-
alry watched every opportunity for charging
them, nor did a single straggler escape the un-
relenting edge of their sabres. Their charge
was almost as swift as the wind, and as their
severe bits enabled them to halt or wheel their
horses at full gallop, their retreat was as rapid
us their advance. Even the practised veterans
of Italy were at first embarrassed by this new
mode of fighting, and lost several men ; espe-
cially when fatigue caused any one to fall out
of the ranks, in which case his fate became
certain. But they were soon reconciled to
fighting the Mamelukes, when they discovered
that each of these horsemen carried about
him his fortune, and that it not uncommonly
amounted to considerable sums in gold." At
the battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798, the
Mamelukes mustered their full force, consisting
of 7,000 men under Murad Bey, and attacked
the French with desperate courage ; but they
were repulsed with terrible slaughter, and
about 2,500 of them who survived fled to Up-
per Egypt. " Could I have united the Mame-
luke horse to the French infantry," said Na-
poleon, " I would have reckoned myself master
of the world." After the French were driven
from Egypt by the British, the Mamelukes re-
gained in some degree their power, and a civil
war broke out between them and the Turks.
They were twice victims of treacherous mas-
sacres, and were completely crushed March 1,
1811, when Mehemet AH beguiled 470 chiefs
into the citadel of Cairo, and then closed the
gates and ordered his Albanian soldiers to fire
upon them. Only one escaped, a bey who
leaped his horse from the ramparts and alighted
uninjured, though the animal was killed by the
fall. Immediately afterward a general mas-
sacre of the Mamelukes in every province of
Egypt was ordered. The few who escaped
fled to Nubia, and especially to the province of
Sennaar, where they built the town of New
Dongola and attempted to keep up their force

MAMIANI

by disciplining negroes in their peculiar tac-
tics. They did not succeed, however, and a
few years later their number was reduced to
about 100, when they dispersed, and the Mame-
lukes ceased to exist.

MAMERTUiES. See MESSINA.

MAMIAJVI, Terenzlo della Rovere, count, an Ital-
ian philosopher, born in Pesaro about 1800.
He received a superior education, and in 1831
took part in the revolutionary movement in
the Romagna, and was proscribed. He took
refuge in Paris, where he was occupied in lit-
erary labors until he was permitted to return
to Italy by the amnesty granted in 1846 by
Pius IX. He became prominent among the
liberal statesmen who gathered around the
pope, and accepted a place in the administra-
tion. The vacillating policy of Pius IX., how-
ever, soon led to his retirement, and he went
to Turin, where with Gioberti and others he
founded a patriotic society, of which he became
president. In November, 1848, after the flight
of the pope to Gaeta, he returned to Rome
and became minister of foreign affairs ; . but he
soon retired in consequence of the predomi-
nance of the ultra-republican element, and also
resigned his seat in the constituent assembly.
After the restoration of the papal power in
1849 he went to Piedmont, and subsequently
became professor of philosophy in the Turin
university, and a member of parliament. He
warmly supported the policy of Cavour, and
in 1860 was appointed minister of public in-
struction. From 1861 to 1865 he was minister
at Athens. In 1866 he was accredited to
Switzerland, but soon afterward became a
member of the Italian senate. In 1870 he
was restored to the chair of the philosophy
of history in the Sapienza college at Rome,
which he had formerly held. He is promi-
nent among Italian ontologists. In his ear-
liest philosophical work, Del rinnovamento
dell 1 antica filosofia italiana (1834), he ad-
hered to the doctrine of empiricism based on
psychological investigation. But he soon be-
came a convert to Rosmini's opinion that the
experimental method alone cannot philosophi-
cally reconstruct the science of nature and
mind; and in his' Discorso sulV ontologia e sul
metodo (1841), and Dialoghi di scienza prima
(1846), he strove to find a philosophical basis
in common sense, and expressed for the first
time his doctrine of immediate perception as
the only foundation of a full insight into real-
ity. This last phase of his doctrine is ex-
pounded in his Confessioni di un metafisico
(1865), which is divided into two parts, re-
spectively relating to ontology and cosmology.
A complete edition of his poetical works
was published by M. Lemonnier (Florence,
1857). An English translation of his Princi-
pii della filosofia del diritto (" Rights of Na-
tions "), edited by Roger Acton, was published
in London in 1860. Among his later works
are: Rinascimento cattolico (1862) ; Saggi di
filosofia civile (1865); Meditazioni cartesian*

MAMMALIA

(1868) ; and Teoria della religione e dello state,
e del suoi rapporti speciali con Roma e colle
oni cattoliche (1868). He also contrib-
utes largely to the philosophical review La
losqfia delle Scuole italiane.
MAMMALIA, the highest vertebrated animals,
eluding man, warm-blooded, breathing by
gs separated from the abdominal cavity by
diaphragm, generally covered with hair, and
nging forth their young alive, which they
ourish by the secretion of mammary glands
whence their name). Most mammals are corn-
only known as quadrupeds, from their hav-
f our feet suited for progression on a solid
rf ace ; but the terms are not synonymous, as
st reptiles are four-footed, and the whales
,nnot be called quadrupeds. The form of
animals is very various ; among them we see
an walking erect, the flying bats, the swim-
ing cetaceans, the bulky elephant, the slow-
iving sloth, and the agile squirrel ; yet the
ree regions of head, neck, and trunk can al-
ways be recognized in the skeleton, and gen-
illy in the living animal. The neck, though
rying in length, from that of man (one sev-
th of the spinal column) to that of the giraffe
(three sevenths), with two or three exceptions,
consists of 7" vertebras ; some of the sloths
have 8 or 9, and some manatees are said to
have 6 only ; in the hoofed animals the length
of the neck depends on that of the fore legs,
for the purpose of grazing ; but the elephant
has a long proboscis to compensate for the
shortness of the neck rendered necessary by
the ponderous head ; the extra vertebras of the
sloths are by some considered as dorsals with
rudimentary ribs to give additional mobility to
the neck. The number of dorsal vertebras va-
ries from 11 in some of the bats to 22 in some
of the sloths, man having 12 ; the lumbar ver-
tebras, 5 in man, are 2 in the ornithorhynchus
and 9 in some lemurs, stronger than the dor-
sals, and without ribs, which are replaced by
long transverse processes ; the sacral vertebras,
usually 4, vary from 1 to 9 ; the rudimentary
tail of man, the os coccygis, consists of 4 bones,
but in the long-tailed manis there are 46 cau-
dal vertebras. The skull is articulated to the
spine by two occipital condyles, which permit
the upward and downward motions of the
head, the lateral and rotating movements de-
pending on the articulation between the first
and second vertebras ; in whales the short neck
is immovable as in fishes, and its bones are
very thin and more or less consolidated to-
gether ; the strong ligamentum nuchce, which
supports the head, is attached to the spinous
processes and skull. The caudal vertebras are
of two kinds, one having a spinal canal, the
other not, and the processes are always devel-
oped in accordance with the use made of the
tail ; in most mammals its movements are con-
fined to brushing away insects from the skin,
but in the kangaroo it forms with the hind
legs a firm tripod from which the animal

Kprings, and in some South American monkeys

it is prehensile and used as a fifth hand in
hanging from trees ; in the whales it becomes
a powerful swimming organ, is provided on its
under surface with V-shaped bones for the
protection of the blood vessels, and, being
horizontal, is used principally as an organ by
which to rise to the surface to breathe ; in the
beaver the transverse processes and the lower
spinous are very large for the attachment of the
muscles, which move the tail like a trowel
chiefly in a downward direction. The bones
of the spine are united by elastic fibro-cartila-
ges ; these, in whales, form osseous disks, sep-
arating on maceration, and frequently used by
arctic travellers for plates. As all mammals
breathe air, the mechanism of their respiration
depends on the movable ribs and the dia-
phragm ; man has 7 true and 5 false ribs, the
former united to the sternum, the latter not ;
the number is in proportion to that of the dor-
sal vertebras ; in the whale, of 12 ribs, 11 are
false, in the unau 11 out of 23, in the horse 8
out of 18, in the cats 4 out of 13, and in the
manatee 14 out of 16 ; in the carnivora they are
dense and narrow, in the herbivora large, broad,
and thick. The breast bone varies in shape
according to the presence or absence of clav-
icles; in non-claviculated mammals the chest
is compressed laterally, and the breast bone
has a projecting keel as in birds ; in bats it is
much keeled, in the higher apes flat as in man,
and in the moles it extends in front of the ribs,
forming a distinct piece ; in mammals with clav-
icles the chest approaches very nearly to that
of man ; the human chest, however, is the only
one in which the transverse exceeds the antero-
posterior diameter, causing the greater separa-
tion of the shoulders and the increased facility
of movement of the arms. The anterior ribs
always extend as far as the breast bone, and
are thus true ribs, differing in this respect from
those of birds. Each of the ribs is usually
connected by its head to an articular cavity
formed by the bodies of two vertebras, and by
its tubercle to the transverse process of the
posterior of the two ; in the monotremata they
are connected with the body alone, and in ceta-
ceans often only with the transverse processes.
The breast bone consists of several pieces, one
behind the other, to which the anterior or true
ribs are joined by cartilages which rarely be-
come ossified ; the posterior are the false or
floating ribs, and are not attached immediately
to the breast bone ; this arrangement gives mo-
bility to the chest and allows the elevation and
depression of the ribs during respiration. The
bones of the skull and face are immovably
connected with each other, a character which
does not occur in any of the lower classes ; the
brain cavity is larger than in birds and rep-
tiles ; the occipital condyles, near the centre of
the base in man, are gradually removed to the
posterior portion as we descend in the scale;
the number of cranial bones, eight in man, is
less than in most lower vertebrates. For the
general characters see COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,

MAMMALIA

where also are given sufficient details on the
organs of sense, teeth, digestive system, and
Lurv covering. The lower jaw consists of two
pieces, and is alone movable ; in man it is sus-
ceptible ..f iii..t ion up and down, laterally, and
from before backward ; in the carnivora the first
movement, in the ruminants the second, and
in the rodents the third, is specially provided
for 1'v the shape of the condyles and the form
of the glenoid cavity. The limbs of mammals
vary exceedingly in shape, according to the
offices to be performed by them ; we find the
hand of man with its thumb opposable to the
the four hands of the monkey, the

3 of the whale, the walking feet of the
horse, the wing of the bat, the paw of the lion,
the shovel of the mole, all constructed on the
same type and modified from the same bony
dements. The anterior limbs are always
present, with a well developed scapular arch,
usually kept in place by a clavicle ; this last
is present in man, monkeys, the insectivora,
squirrels, and bats, but absent in cetaceans, the
hoofed animals, and some edentates ; in most
carnivora and in some rodents it is imperfect-.
lv developed; it corresponds to the furcular
bone in birds, and the monotremata have in
ail-lition the second or coracoid clavicle of
birds. The shoulder blade is thin, flat, and
more or less triangular, generally with a well
marked spine ; it is long and narrow in herbi-
vora, and placed perpendicularly on the anterior
an 1 lateral portion of the chest; in carnivora
and rodents, requiring more freedom of motion,
it is oblique, and so of course is the glenoid
cavity ; jockeys are well aware that an upright
shoulder is the mark of a stumbling horse. The
arm bone is nearly straight in man, much bent
in the carnivora, long in monkeys and sloths,
aii'l short in ruminants and cetaceans; it is con-

1 by a ball and socket joint with the scap-
ula ; below it articulates with the radius and
ulna of the forearm by a hinge joint. The ulna
is the longest in man and lies on the inside, and
iv.vi ves the arm bone in a deep siginoid cavity ;
the radius is connected with the wrist, and
turns with the movements of the hand, rolling
around and upon the ulna ; this independence
of movement becomes less and less, acccording
as the limbs are more used as instruments of
ision; in the carnivora and rodents the
two bones are distinct, but the rotation is very
imperfect, and in the hoofed animals generally
the two make a single bone; the radius seems
to form the principal bone, the ulna being fre-
quently, as in the horse and bats, very rudi-
mentary. The wrist in man consists of eight
bones in two rows, in other mammals varying
from five to eleven; to these are attached the
five parallel metacarpal bones in man, followed
hy tne five fingers, each having three joints,
except the first or thumb, which has only two ;
ruminants the two metacarpals form
the single cannon bone, sometimes with rudi-

ry bones on the side, as the splint bones

horse; most pachyderms have three

metacarpals, the elephant having five. In ani-
mals which walk on the ends of the toes, the
metacarpus is so lengthened that it has been
mistaken for the forearm, and supposed there-
fore to be flexed in an opposite direction to
that of man ; but the lower part of the fore leg
of a horse, for instance, is in reality the meta-
carpus, and the part called the knee is the wrist
-joint. The fingers vary from one to five ; the
third or middle finger is the most constant, and
commonly the longest, and is the only one found
in the horse ; the thumb disappears first, then
the little finger, and then the fourth finger;
ruminants have the second and third, or fore
and middle fingers. The hind limbs are more
firmly connected to the trunk than the ante-
rior; the supporting arch is the pelvis, com-
posed of the ilium, ischium, and pubis on each
side, the first joining the sacrum, the second
forming the prominences upon which man sits,
and the third uniting in front; in cetaceans
there is only a rudiment of this bony arch, and
the hind limbs are absent. The thigh bone,
the longest in man, is in most other mammals
relatively shorter ; it is attached by a ball and
socket joint to the pelvis, in man its axis being
nearly that of the body, but in the lower mam-
mals bending more and more forward until
it forms an acute angle with the trunk. The
tibia and fibula correspond to the radius and
ulna of the forearm, and have the patella or
knee-pan in front of the articulation with the
thigh bone ; these are coalesced in various ani-
mals somewhat as are the radius and ulna ; the
tarsal bones correspond to the carpal, and are
followed in the same manner by the metatarsus
and toes. In the apes the great toe is opposable
to the others, like the thumb, whence they are
called quadrumana, four-handed ; while man
rests his whole foot, from the lieel to the toes,
on the ground, other mammals walk chiefly on
the toes ; the horse stands on the tips of the
middle fingers and toes, the heel being nearly
as high up as the knee in man, the cat on the
last two joints of several toes, and the bear on
the metatarsus and toes ; there is no animal, ex-
cept man, that can be properly said to touch
the ground with the entire foot ; in the seals
all the bones of the leg and foot may be recog-
nized, but they are united by a membranous web
into a kind of caudal fin. The bones of mam-
mals have not the air cells found in birds, but
are either solid or their cavities are filled with
an oily matter called marrow ; there are, how-
ever, air cavities called sinuses, especially large
in the frontal bone of ruminants, as in the ox
and sheep, and greatly developed in the fron-
tal region of the elephant ; these communicate
either with the nasal or auditory passages.
While most mammals resemble man in the
arrangement of the muscles, others approach
birds and even fishes in this respect ; as they
are less active than birds, their muscles are less
firm and the tendons less liable to ossify ; they
are generally fewer in number than in man,
and their variations from the human type are

MAMMALIA

loticed chiefly in the limbs ; in the mole, for
instance, the flexors of the arm, the great pec-
toral, and the latiasimus dorsi are very large ;
the herbivora and pachyderms require mas-
sive muscles,- and the agile carnivora compact
g and energetic ones ; the muscles of the ears
'are specially developed in the herbivora, and
those of the nose in the hog ; the glutceus max-
imus, the largest of all in man, is much small-
er in the monkeys, and very small in the low-
er mammals ; the nates in the horse are com-
posed principally of the glutceus medius ; the
muscles of the calf, so characteristic of man,
are small in all below him, and the short mus-
cles of the human hand are absent in the low-
er mammals ; those of the wings in bats are
arranged somewhat as in birds, and those of
cetaceans as in fishes. A muscle remarkably
developed in many mammals, but rudimen-
tary in man, is the cutaneous layer, the pan-
niculus carnosus, of which the human analogue
is the platysma my aides of the sides of the
neck and face ; we notice its action in the
horse when a fly or any irritating object touch-
es the skin, in the erection of the quills of
the porcupine, and in the coiling of the body
of the armadillo and hedgehog. The minute
coccygeal muscles of man are represented
by numerous and powerful ones in the pre-
hensile tail of certain monkeys, in the strong
trowel of the beaver, and in the fluke of
the whale, analogous to the human multifidus
%pin<K, In man and mammals the heart is
composed of two distinct halves, each divided
into two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle ;
the course of the blood is from the left ventri-
cle to the aorta and over the body, pure arte-
rial; then traversing the systemic capillaries
it enters into the veins, and is carried to the
right auricle ; thence it passes to the right ven-
tricle, and thence by the pulmonary artery to
the lungs, in whose capillaries it becomes pu-
rified by the oxygen of the respired air, and
is returned by the pulmonary veins to the
left auricle, whence it enters the left ventricle
to be distributed as before. Here, therefore,
the blood passes twice through the .heart and
through two systems of capillaries before com-
pleting its circle ; hence the circulation is called
double, and it is also complete, as the whole
mass of the blood is purified in the lungs before
it is sent over the body. Before birth, when the
lungs are impervious, the auricles communicate
directly, and one or more vessels pass from the
right ventricle to the aorta, conveying the blood
over the body without sending it to the lungs ;
but when respiration begins these communica-
tions between the arterial and venous systems
are closed. In the dugong the two ventricles
are separated by a deep cleft ; in some mam-
mals the right auricle receives three venae cavas ;
the apex is not inclined to the left, as in man, ex-
cept in some monkeys, and in some hoofed ani-
mals two small flat bones are imbedded in the
substance of the left ventricle. In cetaceans
there is a plexiform arrangement of the arte-

ries of the walls of the chest, allowing an ac-
cumulation of blood in them, to be used as re-
quired during prolonged submersion ; in many
ruminants the internal carotid forms a rete
mirabile, or network of vessels, at the entrance
of the skull, doubtless to prevent injury to the
brain from too great force of the blood while
the head is in a dependent position; in the
slow-moving sloths the arteries of the limbs
communicate very freely, rendering compres-
sion during their climbing impossible except in
a few vessels at a time. A similar disposition
prevails in the venous system ; in the seal and
otter, as in the ducks, the inferior cava is di-
lated into a receptacle which holds the blood
while they are under water, and only permits
it to pass on to the lungs when they come to
the surface; in the porpoise tortuous sinuses
receive the intercostal veins, and in the foot
of the horse a fine network is distributed on
the front of the coffin bone. The heart is
composed of muscular fibres, each cavity hav-
ing its own, arranged in a spiral manner from
the point to the base ; the course of the blood
is directed from the auricles to the ventricles
by the mitral valve on the left side and the
tricuspid on the right, kept in place by tendi-
nous cords attached to fleshy columns, and the
entrances of the aorta and pulmonary artery are
guarded each by three semilunar valves which
prevent regurgitation. The lungs of mammals
are almost always in pairs, and hang freely in
the chest suspended by the straight windpipe,
and enclosed within the serous cavity lined by
the pleura ; the air tubes are distributed to all
their parts, and the pulmonary cells are minute-
ly subdivided and do not communicate with
any other air cells in the body as they do iri
birds. The windpipe varies much in length,
in the number of its rings (which are from 14
to 78), and in their completeness ; the cartilages
do not generally form a complete circle, being
membranous posteriorly, and in the whales the
membranous portion is said to be in front. The
mechanism of the mammalian respiration has
been described under DIAPHRAGM, the muscular
partition which separates the thoracic and ab-
dominal cavities in this class. The voice, under
the control of the will, is produced by the pas-
sage of air from the lungs over certain organs
in the larynx or upper portion of the wind-
pipe ; in man the larynx is a short and wide
tube, suspended as it were from the hyoid
bone, formed of cartilaginous plates, called the
thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages ;
the prominence commonly called " Adam's
apple " is the anterior surface of the thyroid
cartilage. The mucous membrane forms two
lateral folds from before backward, like the
lips of a buttonhole, the vocal cords or liga-
ments ; above these are two other folds, be-
tween which and the vocal cords is a cavity
on each side, the ventricle of the larynx ; the
space between these four folds is the glottis,
which is covered above, during the passage of
food or drink, by a fibre-cartilaginous tongue,

MAMMALIA

the epiglottis. In ordinary respiration the air
passes noiselessly ; but when the will contracts
<>r otherwise modifies these cords, sound is
produced, which in man becomes articulate
speech by the action of the pharynx, nasal pas-
sages, and parts contained within the mouth.
The epiglottis exists in all mammals, but it is
sometimes divided at the upper end ; in ceta-
ceans, the larynx ascends to the posterior
nares and communicates with the blow-hole
on the top of the head. The lion's roar de-
pends on the great size of the larynx ; the
jrrunt of the hog is produced in cavities com-
municating with its ventricles; the neigh of
the horse by vibration of folds connected with
the vocal cords; the bray of the ass by re-
verberation in a large cavity with small aper-
ture under the thyroid cartilage ; in the howl-
ing monkeys the hyoid bone is dilated into
;i bony pouch, and each ventricle opens into
a large membranous sac, in which the loud
sounds of these animals are produced ; in the
marsupials the voice is very weak. The uri-
nary system of mammals consists of secretory
organs (the kidneys), and a reservoir for the
secreted fluid (the bladder), communicating
with the former by the ureters and externally
by the urethra. The kidneys of mammals pre-
sent the same external cortical and internal
tubular portions as in man, and also the supra-
renal capsules, in the lumbar region near the
vertebra and external to the peritoneal sac ;
they differ somewhat in form, being more or
less lobulated, as in the human foetus, in ceta-
ceans, seals, otters, bears, the elephant, and
ox; the lobules vary from 10 in the otter to
130 in the seals, in cetaceans resembling a
bunch of grapes ; in all, except the monotre-
mata, the ureters open into the bladder ; in
these into the urethra, as in cnelonians. The
bladder is generally more loosely connected in
other mammals than in man; it is largest in
the herbivora, smaller and more muscular in
the carnivora and rodents. The chemical com-
podtion of the urine is about the same in car-
nivoru as in man, except in the absence of uric
acid ; in the herbivora it is alkaline, contain-
ing hippuric acid and much earthy carbonate.
In the stags, below the inner angle of the
eyes, there is an opening communicating with
a large membranous pouch, from the glands of
\vhich is secreted a brownish liquid, flowing
down the sides of the face, like tears; many
nimals have glands on the abdomen, in the
groins, or about the genito-anal openings,
whose secretion is very odorous, as in the musk
deer, beaver, civet, and skunk. The special
internal male organs are the testes, which se-
i the sperm, with certain accessory glands
(as the prostate and Cowper's), and seminal

' " r Mrfwdfl it, &e tVinalr th,-

us are formed in the ovaries, whence thev

escape through the Fallopian tubes into the

uterus, and thence when full-grown externally

the name mammal imports, they have also

external glands for the secretion of milk, the

mamma or breasts. The testes may be per-
manently external, as in the dog; always ab-
dominal, as in the seal, elephant, and cetace-
ans; or external during the rutting season,
and at other times internal, as in the mole and
porcupine. The epididymis is usually largely
developed; the seminal vesicles are found in
monkeys, bats, rodents, and pachyderms, but
are wanting in carnivora, most plantigrades,
ruminants, and marsupials ; the prostate gland
exists in some form in all mammals; the ab-
sence of Cowper's glands in most pachyderms,
rodents, and carnivora shows that their action
is not essential to reproduction. The human
ovaries are two oval, glandular bodies, about
an inch long, in the posterior portion of the
broad ligaments ; each contains about 20 Graa-
fian vesicles, enclosing an ovum. All the in-
ternal organs, except the uterus, are much
alike in the other mammalia. This last organ,
single in the monkeys, is in carnivora, many
rodents, pachyderms, ruminants, and cetaceans,
generally divided at the base into two horns
(cornua), each sometimes having its distinct
opening ; in marsupials the ovaries are more
or less racemose, as in birds. In most mam-
mals, after the fecundated ovum has descend-
ed through the Fallopian tube (in the higher
orders about the 12th day), an intimate vas-
cular connection takes place between the si-
nuses of the parent and the chorion of the
foatus, forming the placenta, which continues
to supply the young with nutriment until it is
capable of an independent existence. The period
of utero-gestation, about 270 days in the human
mammal, varies in the different families. This
group of placental mammals has been called
monodelphians to distinguish them from the
didelphians, which include the marsupials and
monotremata ; the former have a more perfect
brain, with its hemispheres united by a corpus
callosum ; the latter bring forth their young
in a very imperfect condition, but have the
brain destitute of a corpus callosum, the ab-
dominal walls supported in front by two bones
arising from the pubis, and an external pouch
for the reception of the young. Prof. Jeffries
Wyman (" Proceedings of the Boston Society
of Natural History," vol. vi., p. 363), from the
examination of a large number of foetal pigs,
has shown that the above division of mammals
into " placentals " and " implacentals " is not
well defined; he found that in pigs there is,
strictly speaking, no placenta, the maternal
and foetal vessels being in relation only by
means of very minute diffused villi and slight
foldings of the chorion ; this condition is in-
termediate between those of marsupials and
ruminants, and shows such a gradual transi-
tion in this respect that the former must be
brought nearer than has been usually admitted
to ordinary mammalia. Mammary glands ex-
t in both sexes, but serve for purposes of
lactation only in the female ; the number is
generally in relation with the number of the
young at a birth; there are 2 in monkeys,

MAMMALIA

the elephant, the goat, and the horse ; 4 in
the cow, the stag, and the lion ; 8 in the cat ;
10 in the hog, rabbit, and rat ; and 12 or 14
in the agouti. The position also varies; in
monkeys and bats they are on the chest, in
most carnivora on the chest and abdomen, and
in the ruminants far back between the pos-
terior limbs ; in marsupials they are concealed
within the abdominal pouch. Some mammals
are born with the eyes open, and are at once
able to run in search of food ; many, however,
are born with the eyes closed and in a very
weak condition ; and a few, as the marsupials,
leave the uterus in such an imperfect state that
they would perish did not the parent place
them in her pouch, where they complete their
development, each suspended to a teat. In the
monotremata (ornithorhynchus, &c.), which
seem to form the connecting link between the
mammals and birds, in addition to the horny
bill, cloaca, and bird-like ovaries, there are the
form, external covering, skeleton, and milk-
secreting glands of the mammals. As to phys-
ical distribution, some mammals dwell entirely
in the sea, as the cetaceans and most seals ;
some of the latter and the sirenoid pachyderms
(manatee, &c.), live chiefly in fresh water ;
others, beavers, muskrats, the ornithorhyn-
chus, &c., frequent rivers and lakes ; but most
live upon the land, some on mountains like the
chamois and ibex, some on plains like the
antelopes and bison, some on trees like the
apes, squirrels, and sloths ; others sail or fly in
the air like the flying lemur and the bats, and
others live under ground like the moles. For
these different methods of progression and
habits of life, the limbs are variously adapted
by modifications of the same few osseous ele-
ments, and the study of fossil mammals de-
velops the same order in past geological ages.
The study of the geographical distribution of
mammals shows that the number of genera and
species increases from the poles to the equator,
with the exception of the whales and seals,
which are most numerous in the polar regions ;
within the northern arctic circle there are spe-
cies common to both hemispheres, as the arc-
tic fox, white bear, reindeer, and ermine ; in
temperate North America the species are dif-
ferent from those of the eastern hemisphere,
and in South America even the genera from
those of the old world, as those including the
peccary, llama, armadillo, ant-eater, sloth, cavy,
agouti, vampire bat, marmoset, the howling and
prehensile-tailed monkeys ; the raccoon and
muskrat are exclusively American; the hog,
horse, camel, rhinoceros, elephant, lion, tiger,
lemurs, and anthropoid apes belong now to
the eastern world ; the giraffe, hippopotamus,
chimpanzee, and most of the antelopes, are
African ; all the marsupials (except the Ameri-
can opossums) and the monotremata are Aus-
tralian, while the stags, squirrels, cats, bears,
dogs, and bats are absent from this region.
The marsupials, though forming scarcely one
fifteenth of the land mammals in the world,
527 VOL. xi. 6

constitute three fourths of the mammalian
fauna of Australia ; exclusive of cetaceans and
seals, the rodents form one third of the entire
number of species of the world, the bats and
carnivora one third, the remaining third being
chiefly the monkeys, ruminants, marsupials,
and insectivora, according to Van der Hoeven ;
in Europe, wanting marsupials and monkeys,
the rodents are one third, bats one sixth, and
insectivora about one thirteenth; in North
America the species of rodents form perhaps
half the entire number of land mammals ; the
large pachyderms, edentates, and the apes be-
long to the warm regions, most of the latter
being African ; the insectivora are almost pe-
culiar to the northern hemisphere, and the le-
murs are most common in the southern. Ex-
cepting the whales and bats, mammals do not
migrate, but spend the summer and winter in
the same locality ; the whales pass the summer
in the polar regions, and come southward in
winter into the lower Atlantic. The phenom-
ena of hibernation or winter-sleep in mammals
have been described under the former title.
MAMMALOGY includes the classification of mam-
malia. The mammalia were first separated from
other four-footed animals by Aristotle, who
called them zootoca or viviparous animals ; he
divided them into three sections according to
their locomotive organs : 1, dipoda, or bipeds;
2, tetrapoda, or quadrupeds ; 3, apoda, impeds
or whales. The quadrupeds, including all but
man and the cetaceans, he subdivided into two
great groups according to the modifications of
the organs of touch, in the first of which the
ends of the digits are left free for the sense of
feeling, the nail being on the upper surface
only, and in the second the feet ending in
hoofs, corresponding respectively to the un-
guiculata and ungulata of Ray. The unguicu-
lates he divided by the teeth into three fami-
lies : 1, those with cutting incisors and tritu-
rating or flattened molars, like the apes (pithe-
coida) and the bats (dermaptera) ; 2, those
with canine or carnivorous teeth, carcharo-
donta or gampsonucha ; 3, those correspond-
ing to the rodents, with the negative character
of the absence of canine teeth. The ungulate
or hoofed quadrupeds he divided, according to
the organs of motion, into : 1, polysckida or
multungulates, like the elephant ; 2, dischidcs
or bisulcates, including the ruminants (mery-
cizonta) and the hogs ; and 3, aschidce, or so-
lidungulates, like the horse. The apodal quad-
rupeds included the cetaceans or cetoda. It
thus appears that Aristotle clearly perceived
the principles upon which mammals are classi-
fied by the best modern naturalists. This ar-
rangement was not improved upon until John
Ray published his Synopsis in 1693 in London,
and his improvements relate to the four-foot-
ed mammals. In his ungulate quadrupeds he
places the solipedous (as the horse), the bisul-
cate ruminants (like the ox and stag) or non-
ruminants (as the hog), and the quadrisulcate
(rhinoceros and hippopotamus) ; in the un-

MAMMALIA

either bifid (as in the

(rnirnlato the feet are either bihd ^ we
camel), or multitid with digits adhering togeth-
er (as in the elephant), with distinct depressed
digits (as in apes), or compressed (as m car-
nivora, insectivora, rodents, and edentates).
Linnrous founded his primary divisions on
the locomotive organs, deriving his orders
from the modifications of the teeth ; in his
earlier editions of the Systema Natural, up to
the 10th, he called the class guadrupedia in-
cluding the cetaceans among fishes ; in his UTCD
edition (1766) he makes seven orders, as fol-
lows: A. Unguiculata: I., primates, with four
front cutting teeth, including man, the mon-
keys, and bats (4 genera); II., bruta, with no
front teeth in either jaw, including the ele-
phant walrus, and edentates (6 genera) ; 111.,
fern, with front teeth, conical and long canines,
including the carnivora, opossum, and msecti-
vora (10 genera); IV., glires, with two front
cutting teeth in each jaw, including the ro-
dents (6 genera). B. Ungulata : V., pecora,
with cutting front teeth in the lower jaw, but
none in the upper, including the ruminants (6
genera) : VI., belluas, with obtuse front teeth

/jaws, including the pachyderms gen-
erally (4 genera). C. Mutica: VII., cete, with
horny or bony teeth, pectoral fins instead of
feet, and horizontal flattened tail, including the
cetaceans (4 genera). He thus made 40 genera
in all. Linnceus followed Ray in placing the
elephant among the unguiculata, an error
avoided by Aristotle. In 1798 Cuvier pub-
lished his Tableau elementaire des animaux,
in which he laid down the basis of his classi-
fication, which was variously modified until
the second edition of his Regne animal in
1829 ; in that work he makes the nine fol-
lowing orders of mammalia: bimana, qua-
drumana, carnivora, marsupialia, rodentia,
edentata, pachydermata, ruminantia, and ce-
tacea. In his first edition the marsupials were
ranked among carnivora, and in the Tableau
klementaire there were three grand divisions :
I., unguiculata, with the orders bimana, qua-
drumana, cheiroptera, plantigrada, carnivo-
ra, pedimana, rodentia, edentata, and tardi-
grada ; II., ungulata, with the orders pachy-
dermata, ruminantia, and solipeda ; and III.,
mutica, with the orders amphibia and tetacea.
The systems of Blumenbach, Illiger, and
Desmarest differ little from that of Cuvier, ex-
cept in the names of the orders and their sub-
divisions. De Blainville (1822) makes in the
type otteozoaria, or vertebrates, the sub-type
' ra and the class pilifera or mammifera,
with the divisions monadelphya and didelphya
Temminck (1827) makes the 11 orders of man
monkeys, bats, carnivora, marsupials, rodents
edentates, pachyderms, ruminants, cetaceans
ami inimotiviiiMt.:. Fi-rluT, in his Synopsis
Mammalium (1829), makes the nine orders
of primates (man and monkeys), cheiroptera
(bats),/<rr (carnivora), bestia (insectivora and
marsupials), glires (rodont-i. f>rnta (edentates
and monotremata), bellua (pachyderms and

olipeds), pecora (ruminants), and cete (her-
bivorous and ordinary cetaceans). McLeay
1821) the founder of the quinary classifica-
ion makes five orders of mammals, which
nay be arranged in a tabular form as follows :

Ferae.
. Primates.

Glires.
Ungulata.

i. Cetacea.

Character!.
Carnivorous.
Omnivorous.
Frugivorous. -
Frequenting the vicin-
ity of water.
Aquatic.

Birdt.

Raptores.
Jnsessores.
Rasores.
Graliatores.

Natatores.

This shows the analogies between mammals
and birds, in regard to food and habits,
which were afterward modified by Swainson
V 1835) as follows: I., typical group, quadru-
mana, organized for grasping, analogous to
nsessorial birds ; II., sub-typical, fern, with
retractile claws and carnivorous, to the rap-
tores; III., aberrant group, including cetacea,
eminently aquatic, with very short feet, to
natatores; glires, with lengthened and point-
ed muzzle, to grallatores ; and ungulata, with
crests on the head, to rasores. Oken in 1802
divided animals into five classes according to
the organs of sense; this view is elaborated
m his " Physiophilosophy " (Ray society edi-
tion, 1847) ; of these five classes the fifth and
lighest is the ophthalmozoa or mammalia, so
called because in them the eyes are movable
and covered with two perfect lids, the other
sense organs having however suffered no deg-
radation ; he also calls them thricozoa or pi-
lose animals on account of their hairy cover-
ing, and aesthetic or sensorial animals from
the completion and combination of all the or-
gans of sense. They belong to his province
of sarcozoa or flesh animals. His divisions
are as follows: A. Splanchno-thricozoa : or-
der I., rodents; II., edentates and marsupials;
III., insectivora and cheiroptera. B. Sarco-
thricozoa: IV., ungulata. 0. JEsthesio -thri-
cozoa : V., unguiculata. Every family of the
thricozoa contains five genera, in accordance
with the five organs of sense; the human
family or genus has also five varieties on the
same principle: 1, the skin man, the black
African ; 2, the tongue man, the brown Aus-
tralian and Malay; 3, the nose man, the red
American ; 4, the ear man, the yellow Mongo-
lian; and 5, the eye man, the white Euro-
pean. Another philosophical system is that
of Cams. The mammalia are made the sev-
enth class of his third circle, the cephalozoa.
He makes ten orders, as follows: 1, natantia,
or herbivorous and carnivorous cetaceans, with
evident relations with fishes ; 2, reptantia, or
monotremata and edentates, related to rep-
tiles; 3, volitantia, bats and flying lemurs,
related to birds; 4, mergentia, seals and wal-
rus, a repetition of the first ; 5, marsupialia, a
repetition of the second ; 6, glires or rodents,
a repetition of the third ; 7, pachydermata, a
second repetition of the first; 8, ruminantia,
a second repetition of the second, indicated
by the fifth, which is half ruminant ; 9, fera,

MAMMALIA

a second repetition of the third ; and 10,
quadrumana, having relations with man.
The fundamental idea of the classification of
Eitzinger (1843) is the same as that of Oken,
the class mammalia having five series, accord-
ing to the development of the organs of sense,
and each series three orders, viz. :

TOUCH. TASTE. SMELL.

Cetacea. Pachydemnata. Edentata.

1. Balanodea. 1. Phocina, 1. Monotremata.

2. Delphinodea. 2. Obesa. 2. Lipodonta.

3. Sirenia. 8. Ruminantia. 3. Tardigrada.

HEARING. VISION.

Unguiculata. Primates.

1. Glires. 1. Chiropteri.

2. JSrutfi. 2. Hemipitheci.

8. Ferae. 8. AnthropomorpJii.

Of the embryological systems of classifica-
tion may be mentioned those of Von Baer,
Van Beneden, and Vogt. Von Baer (1828)
proposed the following divisions of this class
)f his doubly symmetrical or vertebrate type,
with osseous skeleton, lungs, an allantois, and
an umbilical cord: the cord may disappear
early, 1, without connection with the mother
(monotremata), or 2, after a short connection
with the mother (marsupialia) ; or the cord
may be longer persistent, 1, the yolk sac con-
tinuing to grow for a long time, the allantois
growing little (rodentia), moderately (insec-
tivora), or much (carnivora), or 2, the yolk
sac increasing slightly, the allantois growing
little and the umbilical cord very long (mon-
keys and man), continuing to grow for a
long time and the placenta in simple masses
(ruminants), or growing for a long time and
the placenta spreading (pachyderms and ceta-
ceans). According to Vogt (1851), mammals
may be arranged in two divisions: I., aplacen-
taria, with the orders monotremata smd^mar-
supialia; and II., placentaria, with series 1,
composed of the orders cetacea, pachyder-
mata, solidungula, ruminantia, and edentata ;
series 2, of the orders pinnipedia and carni-
vora ; and series 3, of the orders insectivora,
volitantia, glires, quadrumana, and bimana.
Van Beneden (1855), in the class mammalia
of his hypocotyledones or hypovitellians (ver-
tebrates), in which the vitellus or yolk enters
the body from the ventral side, establishes the
orders primates, cheiroptera, insectivora,
ntia, carnivora, edentata, proboscidea, un-
ilata, sirenoidea, and cetacea. Prof. Baird
in vol. viii. of the "Pacific Railroad Survey,"
1857) adopts the following arrangement: A,
inguiculata, with the orders: 1, quadrumana ;
cheiroptera; 3, rapacia ; 4, marsupialia;
rodentia ; and 6, edentata; B, ungulata,
<ith orders: 7, solidungula ; 8, pachyder-
ita ; and 9, ruminantia ; C, pinnata, with
>rders : 10, pinnipedia ; and 11, cetacea.
ill of these, except the first, are found in
forth America; the horse, though not now
asting native, was formerly an inhabitant of
lis country. Agassiz, in his essay on classifi-
ition (1857), makes mammals the eighth class

of vertebrates, with only the three orders of
marsupialia, herbivora, and carnivora. Owen
(in the article "Mammalia" in the "Cyclopae-
dia of Anatomy and Physiology," 1847) admits
in the sub-class of placentalia the ten orders
of bimana, quadrumana, cheiroptera, insecti-
vora, carnivora, cetacea, pachydermata, rumi-
nantia, edentata, and rodentia, and in the
sub-class implacentalia the orders marsupialia
and monotremata; the monkeys by the galeo-
pithecus are connected with the cheiroptera,
and by the lemurs with the carnivora; the
last by otaria are related to cetacea, which
in turn have certain affinities with the fishes;
the rodents are connected with ruminants by
the musk deer ; the monotremata lead to rep-
tiles. Before introducing the more recent
classification of mammals by Prof. Owen, ac-
cording to the cerebral system, the reader
should be reminded that until the time of
Cuvier the principal subdivisions were based
upon the Aristotelian characters derived from
the organs of locomotion, the secondary groups
being established on the peculiarities of the
dental system; Cuvier added others drawn
from the osseous and generative systems ; De
Blainville in 1816 first adopted the division,
according to the method of reproduction, into
monodelphs, didelphs, and ornithodelphs, or or-
dinary mammals, marsupials, and monotremes,
retaining for the most part the Linnsean or-
ders. Classification by the placenta seems to
have been first proposed by Sir Everard Home,
but, as modified by successive naturalists, leads
to many unnatural affinities ; placing, for, in-
stance, rodents and insectivora with monkeys,
and solipeds, pachyderms, and some ruminants
with the carnivorous cetaceans. Prince Bona-
parte, in his Sy sterna Vertebratorum (1840),
adopts the division of placentalia and impla-
centalia, subdividing the first into the sub-
classes of educabilia and ineducabilia, the lat-
ter including the orders bruta, cheiroptera, in-
sectivora, and rodentia, with the common char-
acter of a single-lobed cerebrum ; Prof. Owen
regards this as the most important improve-
ment since the establishment of the natural
character of the ovo-viviparous or implacental
division. In 1845 Isidore Geoffrey Saint-Hi-
laire raised the marsupials to the rank of a
distinct class, making its subdivisions orders
equivalent to those of the placentalia; Owen,
however, did not regard them as groups of
equal rank and value. In 1849 Prof. Owen,
from the consideration of the times of forma-
tion and the succession of the teeth, divided
mammals into two groups, monophyodonts, or
those which generate a single set of teeth (as
the monotremata, bruta, and cetacea), and the
diphyodonts, or those which generate two sets
of teeth (comprising the great bulk of the
class) ; at the same time he wished it to be
clearly understood that this dental character
is not so associated with other organic charac-
ters as to indicate natural or equivalent sub-
classes. As early as 1842 he drew attention

MAMMALIA

to the valne of the principal modifications ol
the mammalian brain in regard to their asso-
ciation with concurrent modifications in other
systems of organs; it was not till 1857, how-
ever, that he felt himself justified in proposing
to the Linnsean society a fourfold division of
this class, based upon the four leading modifi-
cations of the cerebral structure. His first
and lowest group or sub-class is called lyen-
cetphala, signifying the loose or disconnected
state of the cerebral hemispheres, which leave
exposed the olfactory ganglia, the cerebellum,
and more or less of the optic lobes, have the
surface generally smooth, and the anfractu-
osities, when present, few and simple ; in this
division the absence of the corpus callosum
commissure is associated with the marsupial
mode of development and the non-develop-
ment of the placenta ; it includes the mono-
tremes and marsupials. The next stage in the
development of the brain is where the corpus
oallosum is present, but the hemispheres leave
the olfactory lobes and cerebellum exposed,
and are commonly smooth or with few and
simple convolutions ; these are the listencepTia-
&, or smooth-brained mammals, or rodents,
insectivora, bats, and edentates, in many re-
spects, in common with the preceding subdi-
vision, resembling birds and reptiles. The
tldrd modification is an increased relative size

of the hemispheres, which extend over more
or less of the cerebellum and olfactory lobes,
and have their surface, except in a few of tho
lower quadrumana, folded into more or less
numerous gyri or convolutions ; hence this
sub-class is called gyrencephala ; among these
are not found marks of affinity with the ovi-
para, but the highest mammalian perfection is
attained, as shown by the size, strength, ac-
tivity, sagacity, and docility of many of its
members; this sub-class comprises the other
orders of mammals, man only excepted. In
man the hemispheres overlap the olfactory
lobes and cerebellum, extending in advance of
the former and further back than the latter ;
in man only is there what is called a third or
posterior lobe, and in him the superficial gray
matter attains its highest development through
the number and depth of its convolutions ; as
representing a distinct sub-class of mammalia,
and ruling naturally over all the other mem-
bers of the class, he proposes for man the
name of archencephala, signifying that he is
master of the earth and of the lower creation.
For details on the characters of the secondary
groups and their distribution in time and
space, the reader is referred to the original
paper in the "Proceedings of the Lmnsean
Society" of London, vol. ii., pp. 1-37, 1857.
His tabular arrangement is as follows :

f ABOHIHOKPHALA BIMAKA..

MAMMALIA.

f Unguiculata .

OTBIBOXPHALA.

Ungulate.

LnUKOXPHALA .

LTKfOIPBALA.

fQUADBTJMANA..,

[CABNIVOBA
ABTIODAOTTLA

PEBISSODAOTYLA...
PROBOSOIDIA .......

TOXODONTIA .......

f SlBENIA

[CETAOBA..

BBDTA

CHJBIBOPTEBA. .

INBEOTIVOBA.

EODENTIA.

I MONOTBEMATA . . .

The later classification of Huxley does not dif-
fer materially in its orders from that of Owen
"g the many recent American labor-
re in the department of mammalian classifica-
tion may be mentioned Prof. Theodore Gill
of Washington, D. C., whose articles on this
j'ilj.-rt too long to be condensed here, will
be found in the " Proceedings of the American

Family or genu. Example.

Homo Man.

Catarhina Ape.

Platyrhina Marmoset

Strepirhina Lemur.

Digitigrada Dog.

Plantigrada Bear.

Pinnigrada Seal.

Omnivora Hog.

Ruminantia Sheep.

J Solidungula Horse.

| Multungula Tapir.

j Elepha* Elephant.

DinotJierium Extinct.

Toxodon "

Nesodon

Manatus Sea cow.

Halicore Dugong

DelphinidcB Porpoise.

Balasnidce Whale.

BradypodidcB Sloth.

Dnsypodidce Armadillo.

Edentula Ant-eater.

Frugivora Roussette.

Insect irora Bat

Talpidce Mole.

Erinaceidce Hedgehog.

SoricidcR Shrew.

Non-claviculata. . . . Hare.

Clamculata Rat.

Rhizophaga Wombat.

Poephaga Kangaroo.

Carpophaga Phalanger.

Entomophaga Opossum.

Echidna Echidna.

Ornithorhynchus.. . . Duck-bill.

Association for the Advancement of Science "
for 1870 and 1871. The fossil mammals must
be considered before the student can form an
idea of the affinities of the class; these and the
orders of existing mammalia will be treated
under their respective titles. The mammalian
class has existed certainly from the lower oolitic
penod, and probably from the triassic ; during

MAMMARY GLANDS

MAMMEE APPLE

this immense lapse of time genera and species
have changed, either that they have been newly
created at the several epochs, or, as Darwin and
others maintain, have been modified by pro-
cesses of natural selection and development,
many original and intermediate forms having
become extinct, and, from the imperfection of
the geological record, as yet having afforded
no indication of their existence. None of the
mammalian genera of the secondary epoch have
been found in the tertiary ones; no genus of
the older eocene has been discovered in the
newer; very few eocene genera have been
found in the miocene, and none in the pliocene ;
many of the miocene genera are peculiar to
that division, and some indistinguishable from
existing species begin to appear only in the
newer pliocene; while the perissodactyls and
omnivorous artiodactyls have been gradually
dying out, the true ruminants have been in-
creasing in genera and species. One class of
organs seems to govern one order, and another
class another order; for example, the teeth,
which are so diversified in marsupials and
edentates, are remarkable for the constancy of
their characters in rodents and insectivora;
and as a general rule, the characters from the
dental, locomotive, and placental systems are
more closely correlated in the gyrencephala
than in the two inferior sub-classes.

MAMMARY GLANDS, the organs which secrete
the nutritive fluid, milk, by which the young
of man and the mammalia are nourished during
the early periods of life. They vary from
two in the human female to 10 or 12 in the
lower mammals, and may be pectoral as in
the former, or pectoral and abdominal, or only
abdominal, as in the latter. Each gland is
made up of a number of separate lobules,
more or less closely connected by fibrous tissue
and fat, and bound down by the same to the
pectoral or abdominal muscles. The lactifer-
ous tubes arising from the minute ultimate
follicles of the lobules terminate in the mam-
millary tubes of the nipple, 10 or 12 in the hu-
man female, straight but of variable size; at
the base of the nipple, and extending into the
gland, are reservoirs for containing a constant
supply during lactation ; these are often much
larger in the lower animals than in woman.
The skin covering them is very delicate and
smooth ; the colored circle around the nipple is
called the areola, which becomes darker during
and after gestation; the irregular surface of
the nipple is covered with a very sensitive skin,
and much erectile tissue enters into its sub-
stance. The tubes are lined with a very vascu-
lar mucous membrane, which has its own
secretion sometimes in considerable quantity.
These glands, especially during lactation, are
well supplied with blood from branches of the
subclavian and axillary arteries; their nerves
come from the brachial plexus and the inter-
costals, and the sympathetic plexus accompa-
nying the mammary arteries. The inner sur-
face of the follicles is covered with a layer of

epithelium cells, the real agents in the secreting
process. They present no great difference in
size in the sexes until near the age of puberty,
when a considerable enlargement takes place
in the female; from the increased supply of
blood during 'gestation, there is a sense of ten-
derness and distention which is one of the
earliest and most valuable signs of pregnancy.
These glands in the male are miniatures of
those of the female, but the essential structure
is the same, as is shown by the authentic cases
in which they have become sufficiently devel-
oped in men to produce a secretion of true milk.
Though the functional activity of these glands
is naturally limited to the period succeeding
parturition, their secretion is sometimes seen
in virgins and in aged women, in whom a
strong desire to furnish milk and a continual
irritation of the nipple by the infant's mouth
have stimulated the organs to unnatural ac-
tivity. The prolonged secretion of milk in
domestic cows, which usually lasts for about
ten months after calving, is simply a continued
action of these glands due to artificial treat-
ment. The presence of these organs has given
the name to the mammalia, the highest class
of vertebrated animals, implying a mode of
intra-uterine and extra-uterine development
not found in birds, reptiles, or fishes. Physio-
logically these glands belong to the generative
system, and are gradually removed from the
caudal to the pectoral region, as we ascend
from cetaceans to the human female ; the for-
ward, outward, and upward direction of the
nipples is exactly adapted to the position of
the child lying in its mother's arms, and the
greater abundance of the lactiferous tubes at
the lower portion of the breast forms a soft
cushion for its head to rest upon. In the
African and sometimes in other races, after lac-
tation, the skin covering the breasts becomes
so lax, and the organs so elongated, that they
can be thrown over the shoulders like bags.
The mammary glands are subject to many
painful and dangerous diseases, among which
may be mentioned acute and chronic inflam-
mations, abscesses, and encysted, fibrous, and
cancerous tumors; they are sometimes enor-
mously overloaded with fat.

MAMMEE APPLE (mammea Americana), a
handsome tree of 60 ft. in height, native of the
Caribbean islands and the neighboring conti-
nent. It has large, oval or obovate, shining,
leathery, opposite leaves, white, sweet-scented
flowers, and large, round, obsoletely three- or
four-cornered fruit, which sometimes grows to
the size of a child's head. The fruit is cov-
ered with a double rind ; the outer is leathery,
tough, and brownish yellow; the inner, thin,
yellow, closely adhering to the flesh, which is
firm, bright yellow, and of a singular pleasant
taste and a sweet aromatic smell ; but the skin
and seeds are very bitter and resinous. The
pulp is eaten alone, or cut up into slices with
wine and sugar, prepared as a jam or marma-
lade, or with sirup. From the yellowness of

MAMMOTH

the pulp, like that of an apricot, it is called by
in -h .if.rirot sauvage. This fruit is oc-
casionally brought to our seaport cities, but
rarely in an eatable condition. The seeds,

Mammce Apple.

which are sometimes as large as hen's eggs, are
used as anthelmintics, and an aromatic liquor
called eau de Creole is distilled from the flow-
ers. The tree belongs to the natural order of
guttiferce. Browne ("Natural History of Ja-
maica," London, 1756) speaks of the species
as among the largest trees of Jamaica, and
esteemed among the best timber trees. It has
been observed that no one can behold this
tree towering above a cluster of fruit trees
without a sentiment of respect for it. The
maminee tree has become naturalized in some
parts of Africa, where it produces excellent
fruit. Two or three other species, natives of
tropical Asia, are known to botanists.

MAMMOTH, the fossil elephant of Siberia
(elephas primigeniu*, Blumenbach), found in

Mammoth (Elephas primigenlun).

the diluvial strata of Europe and Asia, and

P-il,:ij>s also in North America. Large fossil

u>re alluded to by Theophrastqs, Pliny,

and many ancient authors, and were general-

ly supposed to be the remains of giant men.
They are abundant in the drift of central and
northern Europe, mingled with the bones of
other pachyderms, principally in river basins ;
in Great Britain, in the Kirkdale cavern of
Yorkshire ; in Sweden and Norway ; but most
abundantly in the frozen region of European
and Asiatic Russia, about the mouths of riv-
ers descending into the icy sea; there is in-
deed hardly a river in Siberia in whose bed
or on whose banks these "remains have not been
found, as well as in the neighboring plains, in
connection with bones of other animals now
strangers to the climate ; they are not found in
the elevated districts. . In Siberia fossil ivory is
so abundant and so well preserved that it gives
rise to a considerable traffic both for home and
foreign use. The most remarkable discovery
in relation to the mammoth was the occurrence
of a carcass found by a Tungus fisherman in
a block of ice on the border of the Arctic sea
in 1799, near the river Lena; in the course of

Skeleton of Mammoth.

a few years this immense mass was thawed
out, and it was found to be an elephant having
the flesh and soft parts well preserved, with
the exception of such portions as had been de-
voured by bears, dogs, and other carnivorous
animals ; the tusks were very fine, weighing
300 Ibs., and were removed by the fisherman.
In 1806 Mr. Adams, travelling for the museum
of St. Petersburg, visited the locality and
collected the remains, which were transported
to St. Petersburg, where this skeleton now is,
with many others, in a nearly perfect condi-
tion ; he ascertained that the skin had an abun-
dant covering of hair and wool, indicating that
it was fitted to resist a cold climate. It is evi-
dent that the climate of Siberia during the di-
luvial period was not like that of the regions
now inhabited by elephants ; it must have been
moderately cold, though such as would permit
the growth of a vegetation more luxuriant than
any in the present arctic regions, and sufficient
for the nourishment of these bulky animals.
Another more recently discovered specimen
allowed even a microscopic examination of the
tissues. The following are the differences be-

MAMMOTH

MAMMOTH CAVE

Tooth of
Mammoth.

tween the fossil and living elephants, as deter-
mined by Cuvier. In the former the laminae
of the teeth are narrower and more numerous
than in the Indian elephant, which they most
resemble, with the lines of enamel more slen-
jr and less festooned, and the teeth absolutely
and relatively wider. The tusks
are larger than in most living
specimens, and generally more
curved, but the structure is the
same. In the skull, there is much
greater length and perpendicular-
ity in the sockets for the tusks ;
the head is more elongated, with
a greater development of occiput,
and concave and nearly vertical
forehead; the long alveoli must
have modified the trunk, and have
given the animal a different physi-
ognomy from that of the pres-
ent elephant; the antero-posterior length of
the lower jaw is less, the lower molars are
parallel instead of converging forward, and
the jaw is truncated in front instead of having
a projecting grooved symphysis. The bones
of the limbs are more massive, and the usual
distance between the two condyles of the
femur is reduced to a narrow line. The skin
is like that of the living elephant, but is cov-
ered with hair of three kinds; the longest, 12
or 15 in., is brown and like horse hair; the
shorter, 9 or 10 in., is more delicate and fawn-
colored ; and the wool at the base of the hair,
4 or 5 in. long, is fine, smooth, fawn-colored,
and a little frizzled toward the roots ; there is
a mane on the neck, and the whole covering
is well suited for a cold climate. The mam-
moth has never been found living, nor have
any of the existing elephants been discovered
in the fossil state ; it was probably not much
if at all higher than the elephants of the pres-
ent epoch, but was stouter, more clumsy, and
heavier. Their bones are found mingled with
those of the rhinoceros, ox, antelope, horse,
often with marine animals, and sometimes with
fresh-water shells. They were undoubtedly
overwhelmed by a comparatively recent and
sudden catastrophe during some portion of the
long drift period, accompanied by a depression
of temperature, and probably by a subsidence
of the land and an invasion of the sea, general
over the northern regions of both hemispheres ;
during the preceding tertiary epoch there was
an elevation of temperature, permitting tropi-
cal animals to go far to. the north ; this tem-
perature gradually became colder, the animals
becoming adapted for it, as shown by their
external covering, until they suddenly became
extinct during the glacial period of the drift.
From the abundance of the remains found in
Siberia, it is inferred that elephants were more
numerous during the diluvian epoch than at
the present time. To the E. primigenius be-
long the Siberian fossils, and most, if not all,
of those of the drift of Europe. Several spe-
cies of fossil elephant have been found in

North America, referred by some to the E.
primigenius. Prof. H. D. Eogers (''Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory," vol. v., Feb. 1, 1854) drew attention to
the fact that while the European mammoth is
found in the drift stratum, the North Ameri-
can fossil elephant is imbedded in strata above
the drift, of a distinctly more recent age, and
was a contemporary of the mastodon giganteus,
their bones being found together in the marshy
alluvium of Big Bone Lick ; he maintains that
they lived together in the long period of sur-
face tranquillity which succeeded the strewing
of the general drift (the period of the Lauren-
tian clays), and were overtaken and extermi-
nated together by the same changes, partly of
climate, partly of a second but more local dis-
placement of the waters which reshifted the
drift, and formed the later lake and river ter-
races. From figures on bones, it is beyond
doubt that the mammoth lived with man in
the early stone age. In the pliocene deposits
of Kansas and Nebraska Dr. Hayden found
bones of mastodon and elephant (E. impera-
tor, Leidy), and a similar coexistence has been
ascertained in the pliocene of Europe ; the re-
mains of this and E. Americanus have been
found in Kentucky, Texas, Mexico, Spanish
America, from Alaska to Georgia and the Mis-
sissippi valley, and as far west as Oregon and
California. The elephants of the tertiary sub-
Himalayan Sivalik hills have been described
by Cautley and Falconer ; in these the dental
laminae are so separated that each forms the
summit of a ridge, making a transition from
elephant to mastodon, constituting the genus
stecodon (Cautley and Falconer). The mam-
moths of the American continent are now ad-
mitted to be different species from those of
Europe and Asia. For details on the mam-
moth, see Cuvier's articles in vol. viii. of the
Annales du Museum, and in vol. i. of the Osse-
mens fossiles ; Pictet's Traite de paleontologie,
vol. i. ; vol. v. of the "Naturalist's Library,"
which treats of the pachyderms ; and vols. ii.
and iv. of the " American Naturalist."

MAMMOTH CAVE, the largest cavern known,
situated in Edmondson co., near Green river, in
Kentucky, about 75 m. S. S. "W. of Louisville.
Its mouth is reached by passing down a wild
rocky ravine through a dense forest; it is an
irregular, funnel-shaped opening, from 50 to
100 ft. in diameter at the top, with steep walls
about 50 ft. high. The cave extends about
nine miles, and it is said that to visit the por-
tions already traversed requires from 150 to
200 miles of travel. This vast interior contains
a succession of marvellous avenues, chambers,
domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts,
&c., which for size and wonderful appearance
are unsurpassed. The rocks present numer-
ous forms and shapes of objects in the exter-
nal world, while stalagmites and stalactites of
gigantic size and fantastic form abound, though
not so brilliant and beautiful as are found in
some other caves. Chief among the objects of

gfl MAMMOTH CAVE

interest are Silliman's avenue, about H m. long,
from 20 to 200 ft. wide, and from 20 to 40 ft.
high; Marion's avenue, of about the same
dimensions; the Star chamber, about 500 ft.
long and 70 ft. wide, the ceiling of which, 70
ft. high, is composed of black gypsum, and is
stml.I.-d with innumerable white points, which
by a dim light present a most striking resem-
blance to stars; and Cleveland's cabinet, an
avenue about 2 m. long, spanned by an arch of
50 ft, with an average central height of 10 ft.
By many the last is regarded as the most won-
derful object in the cave. "It is incrusted
from end to end with the most beautiful for-
mations in every variety of form. The base
of the whole is sulphate of lime, in one part of
dazzling whiteness and perfectly smooth, and
in other places crystallized so as to glitter like
diamonds in the light. Growing from this, in
endless diversified forms, is a substance re-
sembling selenite, translucent and imperfectly
laminated. Some of the crystals bear a stri-
king resemblance to celery, and all are of about
the same length ; while others, a foot or more
in length, have the color and appearance of
vanilla cream candy ; others are set in sulphate
of lime, in the form of a rose ; and others still
roll out from the base in forms resembling the
ornaments on the capital of a Corinthian col-
umn. Some of the incrustations are massive
and splendid ; others are as delicate as the lily,
or as fancy work of shell or wood." Proctor's
arcade is a magnificent natural tunnel three
fourths of a mile long and 100 ft. wide, cov-
ered by a ceiling of smooth rock, 45 ft. high.
The Temple or Chief City is a chamber having
an area of between four and five acres, and
covered by a single dome of solid rock 120
ft high. Lucy's dome, the highest of the
objects of this class, is over 300 ft. high and
about 60 ft. in its greatest diameter. Mam-
moth dome and Stella's dome are each about
250 ft. high, while Gorin's dome is about 200
ft Sidesaddle pit, over which rests a dome
60 ft high, is about 90 ft. deep and .20 ft.
across. This and some of the other pits and
domes in the cave have been formed out of
the solid rock by the solvent action of water
charged with carbonic acid. The deepest of
the pits are the Maelstrom, 175 ft. in depth
and 20 in diameter, and the Bottomless pit,
of about the same depth. There are several
bodies of water in the cave, the most con-
siderable being Echo river, which is about
three fourths of a mile long, 200 ft. wide at
some points, and from 10 to 80 ft. deep ; its
course is beneath an arched ceiling of smooth
rock about 15 ft. high. This river has invisi-
ble communication with Green river, the depth
of water and the direction of the current in
the former being regulated by the stage of
water in the latter. The river Styx, 450 ft.
long, 15 to 40 wide, and from 30 to 40 deep, is
spanned by an interesting natural bridge about
80 ft. above it. Lake Lethe is about 450 ft.
long and from 10 to 40 wide, and varies in

MAN

depth from 3 to 30 ft. ; it lies beneath a ceil-
ing about 90 ft. above its surface ; its waters
sometimes rise to the height of 60 ft., in
consequence of freshets in Green river. The
Dead sea is a gloomy body of water somewhat
smaller than the preceding. Two remarkable
species of animal life are found in the cave,
in the form of an eyeless fish and an eyeless
crawfish, which are nearly white in color.
Another species of fish has been found with
eyes, but totally blind. Other animals known
to exist in the cave are lizards, frogs, crickets,
rats, bats, &c., besides ordinary fish and craw-
fish washed in from Green river. The atmos-
phere of the cave is pure and healthful; the
temperature, which averages 59, is about the
same in winter and summer, not being affected
by climatic changes without. The Mammoth
cave was discovered in 1809, and has always
been the property of private individuals. For
some time after its discovery saltpetre was
made here. In this vicinity are also Proctor's
cave, about 3 m. in length; White's cave,
Diamond cave, and Indian cave, each about a
mile long. Several accounts of this wonderful
curiosity have been published, the most recent
and complete being "The Mammoth Cave,"
by W. Stump Forwood (Philadelphia, 1870).

MAN. See ANATOMY, ARCHEOLOGY, COM-
PARATIVE ANATOMY, ETHNOLOGY, MAMMALIA,
PHILOSOPHY, and PHYSIOLOGY.

MAN, Isle of (Manx, Mannin, or Elian Van-
nin ; Lat. Monapia), an island belonging to
Great Britain, in the Irish sea, about mid-
way between England, Scotland, and Ireland,
its centre lying in lat. 54 16' K, Ion. 4 30'
W.; length N. N. E. and S. S. W. 31 m.,
greatest breadth 12 m. ; area, 227 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1871, 54,042. The coasts are very
irregular, and on the east and southwest are
precipitous. There are numerous bays with
good anchorage. A ridge of mountains trav-
erses the length of the island, culminating in
Mt. Snaefell at an elevation of 2,024 ft. above
the sea. Its prevailing geological formation is
clay slate, varied on the E. side with large
masses of granite. The principal rivers are
the Neb, Colby, and Black and Gray Waters,
all of which are very small. The climate is
mild and equable, the mean temperature of
summer being about 60 F. and of winter 42.
The chief mineral resources of the island con-
sist of lead, zinc, copper, and iron ; lead is ex-
tensively mined. The soil is fruitful, but agri-
culture is not in a very forward state. Oats,
barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and hay
the principal crops. A native breed of small
sturdy horses, an inferior kind of sheep,
horned cattle, and pigs in great number,
among the domestic animals. The island
sesses a breed of cats having either no
at most a merely rudimental substitute for it.
Sea birds and some rare kinds of fish are
found. The fisheries of herring were formerl
the principal reliance of the islanders, but
late have become inconsiderable. There

MANAGUA

MANAKIN

HI'

co:

e bleaching works, but few manufacturing
establishments. The government is vested in
the queen in council, the governor, and the
house of keys," a self -perpetuating body,
nsisting of 24 landed proprietors, who are
nsidered the representatives of the people,
and whose concurrence is necessary to give
validity to every law ; the acts of the British
parliament do not affect the isle of Man unless
expressly extended to it. The governor is ap-
pointed by the crown and assisted by a coun-
cil of officers. Besides the ordinary civil and
ecclesiastical courts, there are ancient tribu-
nals called "deemsters' courts," the judges of
which, called deemsters, are chosen by the
people, one for the N. and another for the S.
division of the island, and possess very exten-
sive authority. Questions relating to the her-
ring fishery are tried before an officer called
the water bailiff, who also appoints two fisher-
men called admirals to preserve order among
their fellows. The established religion is that
of the church of England, under the bishop of
Sodor and Man, who has a seat but no vote in
the British house of lords. The island was
originally peopled by the Manx, a Celtic tribe,
whose language, a sub-dialect of the Gaelic
or Celtic, forming one branch with the Erse
and Irish, is still spoken in the northwest and
west, though English is generally understood.
The island was held for some time as a feu-
dal sovereignty by the earls of Derby, and af-
terward by the dukes of Athol, from whom
the sovereignty and revenues were purchased
by the crown in 1765 for the sum of 70,000,
to which an annuity of 2,000 was subse-
quently added. In 1829 the ducal family's
remaining interests in the island, including
the manorial rights and patronage of the see,
were sold to the crown for 416,114. The
chief towns are Castletown (the capital), Peel,
Douglas, and Ramsay.

MANAGUA, a city and the capital of Nicaragua,
and of the department of Granada, situated on
the S. shore of the lake of the same name,
220 ft. above the level of the Pacific, in lat. 12
7' N., Ion. 86 12' W. ; pop. about 6,500, for
the most part proprietors of the fertile lands
which surround it, and which are productive
in all tropical staples. The public buildings
are few and devoid of beauty. The old parish
church, which was in a state of ruin, has been
demolished, and a new edifice is in process of
construction ; and there are four other churches.
The national palace is a low square edifice with
balconies in the Spanish style, the only ornate
portions of which are the congress halls and
those occupied by the president of the repub-
lic. A new structure beside the palace con-
tains the cdbildo or city hall, a prison, and
barracks. The environs of Managua are vry
picturesque; on the declivities of the moun-
tain range to the south there are more than
100 coffee plantations, yielding copious crops,
despite the lack of water for irrigation in some
of them ; and in another direction are the

lakes of Tiscapa-, Nejapa, and Asososca, near
the banks of which last exist curious antique
paintings. Managua owes its rank as capital
chiefly to the rivalries of the cities of Granada
and Leon, and partly to its central position.

MANAGUA, Lake, a beautiful body of water in
Nicaragua, about 40 m. long by 16 m. wide,
157 ft. above the Pacific ocean, from which it
is separated by a ridge of land 15 m. broad in
its narrowest part. It has a depth of water
varying from 2 to 40 fathoms ; but numerous
moving sand banks render its navigation diffi-
cult for large vessels. The N. and E. banks
are unhealthy marshy deserts ; the W. shores
are sandy, interspersed with bold rocks; and
there are several ports, that of Managua being
the best, and the point designated for the in-
land terminus of the projected railway from
the lake to the port of Corinto via Leon. It
has an outlet at its S. extremity called Eio
Tipitapa or Estero de Panaloya, connecting it
with Lake Nicaragua. The difference of level
between the two lakes, at average stages of
water, is 28 ft. The Rio Tipitapa, during se-
vere rainy seasons, has a considerable body
of water ; but it is frequently almost dry, the
evaporation from the surface of the lake ex-
ceeding the supply of water from its tributa-
ries, which are all intermittent streams, ex-
cept Sinogapa and Rio Viejo. In the various
projects for an interoceanic communication
through Nicaragua, it has been proposed to
connect the two lakes by means of a canal,
deepening the Tipitapa and constructing a se-
ries of locks to the superior lake, with another
canal from the lake to the port of Realejo,
or by means of the Estero Real to the bay of
Fonseca. Bet ween "the N. portion of the lake
and the Pacific there is only the magnificent
plain of Leon, having an elevation at its high-
est part of about 50 ft. above the level of
water in the lake. The volcano of Momo-
tombo projects boldly into the lake at its N.
extremity, and within the lake itself rises the
island cone of Moraotombita, which had a sa-
cred repute among the aborigines, and still
contains numbers of their idols and other
monuments, concealed beneath the shadows
of its dense forests. The city of Leon was
first built on the shore of the N. "W. extremity
of the lake, at a place called Imbita, abandoned
for the present site in 1610.

MANAKIN, the name applied to the denti-
rostral birds of the family ampelidce or chat-
terers and subfamily piprina; they are gen-
erally small and of brilliant colors, and with
one exception inhabitants of the warmer parts
of South America. They have a moderate or
short bill, depressed, with broad base, curved
ridge, compressed sides, and toothed tip; the
nostrils are hidden by the frontal feathers ; the
wings generally short and pointed ; tail short
and even ; tarsi moderate and slender ; toes long,
the outer united to the middle to beyond the
second joint ; claws acute. The red manakin
or chatterer (phoenicercus carnifex, Swains.) is

MANAKIN

about 7 in. long; the crest, lower back, rump,
lower belly, thighs, and vent, bright crimson ;
iv*t of plumage dull red, dusky on the back;
tail crinixm, with end and outer web dusky
brown; the female is of a general greenish
olive color, with tinges of red on the head, ab-

Eed Manakln (Phoenicercus carnifex).

domen, and tail ; the young birds are brown-
ish with whitish markings. This and the P.
nigricollis (Swains.) inhabit the eastern parts
of tropical South America. The blue-backed
manakin (pipra pareola, Linn.) is 4 in. long ;
the plumage is black, with the back and lesser
wing coverts blue, and a crest of bright crim-
son feathers ; the female and young are green-
ish. There are more than 30 other species.
These beautiful and active birds inhabit damp
woods, on the borders of which they live in
small flocks, seeking for insects and fruits.
The rock manakins belong to the genus rupi-
cola (Briss.), of which the best known species

Orange Manakin (Euplcola crocea).

is the orange manakin or cock of the rock (R.
crocta, Bonn.); the plumage is saffron orange
with the auffli partly whit,, and partly brown,
ami the wing coverts loose and fringed; it has
a singular crest of feathers arranged in two
planes, arising from the sides of the head and

MANATEE

meeting over and in front of the bill ; the size
is that of a small pigeon. This handsome spe-
cies inhabits rocky places near the borders of
the streams in Guiana, and its legs and feet are
nearly as stout as in a gallinaceous bird of the
same size, whence its common name ; it is ac-
tive and suspicious, feeding on fruits and ber-
ries; the nest is placed in holes in the rocks,
composed of roots, grass, and earth, lined with
finer materials ; it lays two white eggs, about
the size of those of a pigeon ; it is now com-
paratively rare, as it is hunted for the beauty
of its plumage. There is a species in Peru (JR.
Peruviana, Lath.), of a reddish saffron color,
with black quills and tail, and ashy wing cov-
erts ; it is a little larger than the other. The
only old-world representative of this subfam-
ily belongs to the genus calyptomena (Raffles)^
found in the thick forests of Java and Suma-
tra ; the plumage is shining green, with a spot
on each side of the nape, three oblique stripes
on the wings, and the quills, except the out-
er margins, dark-colored. The only species
described by Gray is the green manakin (0.
viridis, Raffi.), about 6 in. long; the color so
nearly resembles the foliage of the high trees
upon which it generally perches, that it is very
difficult to see and to procure ; its food is en-
tirely vegetable.

M \Ylss.ls JUNCTION, Battle of. See BULL
RUN.

MANiSSEH. I. The elder son of Joseph, son
of Jacob, adopted by the latter on his death-
bed to become the head of one of the tribes
of Israel, yet made inferior to his younger
brother Ephraim. At the time of the census
at Sinai the tribe of Manasseh numbered 32,-
200, and 40 years later 52,700. On the con-
quest of Palestine, half of the tribe received
from Moses its allotment E. of the Jordan, N.
of Gad, and the other half received from
Joshua the region W. of the Jordan, between
Issachar on the north and Ephraim on the
south, the Mediterranean forming the western
boundary. The eastern division contained
among others the districts of Ituraa, Tracho-
nitis, Gaulonitis, Batanaea, and part of Gilead-
itis, and the towns of Gadara, Ashtaroth,
Edrei, Gamala, Jabesh-Gilead, Mahanaim, and
Gerasa. The western division was less impor-
tant in history, it being almost always over-
shadowed by its southern neighbor, Ephraim.
II. A king of Judah, 696-641 B. C. See HE-
BREWS, vol. viii., p. 589.

MANATEE, Lamantin, or Sea Cow, a large aquat-
ic mammal (manatus, Cuv.), which was ar-
ranged by Cuvier among cetaceans, forming
with the dugong the herbivorous group of
this order, the family sirenia of Illiger. Re-
cently, on account of the many important dif-
ferences in their organization, they have been
removed from cetaceans and placed in an or-
der called sirenoids, intermediate between the
old order of pachyderms and the cetaceans.
The manatee has an elongated, fish-like body
like that of the whales, the anterior limbs be-

MANATEE

ing flattened into fins, and the posterior limbs
wanting and only represented by a rudimen-
tary pelvis ; the tail is oval, about one fourth
of the extent of the body, ending in a flatten-
ed, horizontal, rounded caudal expansion; in
these respects it resembles cetaceans. It dif-
fers from cetaceans in the separation of the
cervical vertebra ; the smaller total number in
the whole column, and the absence of osseous
disks between the bodies ; the articulation of
the ribs to two vertebral bodies and to trans-
verse processes ; the long and narrow scapula;
the regularly shaped huinerus ; the rounded
radius and ulna ; the compact structure of the
phalangeal bones ; the wide separation of the
occipital condyles, and their partly horizontal
position, and the large size of the occipital
foramen ; the well marked and strong su-
tures, and the absence of internal bony falces ;
the fusion of the parietals into one ; the posi-
tion of the frontals as usual in front of the
parietals ; the strong zygomatic arches ; the

Manatee (Manatus latirostris).

symmetry of the cranial bones and their usual
position ; the shape of the jaws, and the char-
acter of the molars ; and the structure of the
stomach and heart. Many other distinctions
are given in the " Proceedings " of the third
meeting of the American association for the
advancement of science, Charleston, S. C., 1850
(pp. 42-47). The head is conical, without a
distinct line of separation from the body ; the
fleshy nose much resembles that of a cow, the
nostrils opening as usual on the end of the
snout ; the full upper lip has on each side a
few bristly tufts of hair; the mouth is not
large, and the eyes are small; the openings
of the ears are very small. The swimming
paws are more free in their motions than in
cetaceans, and may be used also for crawling
up the muddy banks of the rivers in which
they dwell; the separate bones may be felt
through the skin, and the fingers are provided
with small nails. The skin is of a grayish
black color, becoming black on drying, with a
few scattered bristles. In the young animal

there are two sharp incisor teeth in the up-
per jaw, which afterward fall out ; there
are no canines ; the molars are generally f~f-,
with quadrangular flat crowns, divided by a
transverse groove. The bones are dense and
heavy, differing in this from cetaceans ; the
ribs are numerous and rounded ; the mamma}
are two and pectoral ; the intestinal canal is
10 or 12 times the length of the body, in ac-
cordance with the vegetable character of their
food ; the stomach has two csecal appendages
in the pyloric portion, which is separated from
the cardiac by a constriction. They inhabit
the sea shores, especially about the mouths of
rivers, and the rivers themselves, keeping
near the land, feeding upon algas and aquatic
plants; they do not feed upon the shores,
though they sometimes quit the water, and not
unf requently support themselves in the shallows
in a semi-erect position ; under these circum-
stances they present at a distance somewhat
of human appearance, increased by the dis-
tinct lips, the long whiskers in the male, and
the pectoral mammse in the female. The
largest and best known species is the Florida
manatee (M. latirostris, Harlan), which inhab-
its the gulf of Mexico and the West Indies ;
it sometimes attains a length of 15 or 20 ft.,
but is generally about 12. They are usually
seen in small troops, associating for mutual
protection and for the defence of their young ;
they are harmless even when attacked, of gen-
tle disposition, not afraid of man, and rarely
quarrelling with each other. Being found
only in shallow waters, they are easily cap-
tured. Their flesh is wholesome and palatable.
The South American manatee (Jf. australis,
Wiegm.), usually 9 or 10 ft. long, is not un-
common about the mouths of the great riv-
ers of northern Brazil and Guiana ; it ascends
the streams several hundred miles, and even
into inland fresh-water lakes ; the flesh of this
aquatic mammal is considered fish by the Eo-
man Catholic church in Brazil, and may conse-
quently be eaten on fast days ; salted and dried
in the sun, it is an excellent meat; the oil
from the blubber is of fine quality, and free
from smell ; the hide is made into harnesses
and whips, and is noted for strength and dura-
bility. An African species (M. Senegalensis,
Desm.) is rarely more than 9 ft. long. The
manatees are all tropical, but are not found in
the Pacific or Indian oceans, their place being
there taken by the allied dugongs (halicore, Illi-
ger). There was among the Kussians an animal
called the northern manatee or sea cow ; this is
the creature described by Steller, forming the
genus rhytina (111.) or Stellera (Cuv.). This,
the R. Stelleri (Desm.), was unknown before
1741, when Behring's second expedition was
wrecked on an island in the straits bearing his
name; its flesh formed the principal food of
the shipwrecked mariners for nearly a year ;
one of the party, Steller, described the ani-
mal, and his account was published in St. Pe-
tersburg, and probably contains all that will

MANATEE

ever be known concerning it, as in 1768 the
crews of the ships in pursuit of sea otters had
entirely exterminated it; it has met the fate
of the dodo, but at a much more recent pe-
riod ; a skull and a few fragments are said to
exist in European museums. It had no teeth,
the jaws being covered with an undulating
surface of horny tubular matter ; the head was
small, the body covered with a thick, fibrous,
fissured epidermis, and the caudal fin lunate.
It attained a length of 25 ft., and formerly lived
in the neighborhood of Behring island on the
coast of Kamtchatka. The epidermis had a
singular structure, being composed of perpen-
dicular horny tubes, sometimes an inch in
length, of a blackish brown color, rough and
wrinkled like the bark of a tree, and so tough
as to be with difficulty cut with an axe; it
served to protect the animal from the ice and
sharp rocks among which it fed. They lived
in shallow water in troops, the older protect-
ing the younger ; they were harmless and very
tame, and strongly attached to each other ;
they fed on fuci under water, and the skin, fat,
and flesh were esteemed by the natives.

MANATEE, a S. "W. county of Florida, bor-
dering on the gulf of Mexico, touching Lake
Okeechobee at the S. E. corner, bounded S.
by the Caloosahatchee river, and watered by
the Manatee river, Pease creek, and other
streams; area, 4,070 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
1,931, of whom 88 were colored. Along the
coast are numerous low sandy islands, within
which lie Sarasota bay and Charlotte harbor.
The surface of the mainland is low and level,
and not very fertile. The chief productions
in 1870 were 12,727 bushels of Indian corn,
21,652 of sweet potatoes, 29 bales of cotton,
41 hogsheads of sugar, and 71,452 Ibs. of rice.
There were 330 horses, 44,970 cattle, and 5,197
swine. Capital, Manatee, or Pine Level.
MAVAYUNK. See PHILADELPHIA.
MANBY, George William, an English officer,
born at Hilgay, Norfolk county, Nov. 28, 1765,
died at Southtown, Nov. 18, 1854. He was
educated at the military college of Woolwich,
and became in 1803 barrack master at Great
Yarmouth. Here he attempted casting a rope
from the shore to a wreck by means of gun-
powder. The problem to be solved was the
maintenance of the connection between the
rope and the mortar during its transmission.
Ch.iins were unable to stand the shock of the
discharge, but stout strips of raw hide closely
platted together were found to answer; and
on Feb. 12, 1808, the entire crew of the brig
Elizabeth, wrecked within 150 yards of the
beach, were rescued by this simple contrivance.
In 1810 his invention was brought before a
committee of the house of commons, and he
received a grant of money, and all the dan-
gerous stations on the British coasts were sup-
.vitli hi- apparatus. He also contrived a
pyrotechnic which renders vessels visible from
shore on the darkest night; and shells filled
with luminous matter, to enable the crew to

MANCHESTER

perceive the approach of the rope. He pub-
lished "The History and Antiquities of the
Parish of St. David, South Wales" (1801), and
kindred works; also "Journal of a Voyage to
Greenland in 1821 " (1822).

MAX HA, La, an old province of Spain, chiefly
in the S. part of New Castile, now included
in the central and eastern portions of Ciudad
Real, and the adjoining parts of Cuenca and
Albacete ; area, about 7,000 sq. m. ; pop. about
200,000. The N. W. and S. E. portions are
mountainous, and the centre in general a deso-
.ate sandy plateau. The towns are few and
uninteresting ; the cottages in the villages are
built of mud. Most of the country is denuded
of trees, exposed to the wintry blasts, and
scorched by the summer heat. The earth is
arid and stony; the dust is impregnated with
saltpetre, and the glare of the sun almost blinds
the eye. Water is wanting, and dry dung is
used for fuel. In some places, however, corn,
saffron, and wines are produced ; and the mules
of La Mancha are celebrated. The natives are
jovial, honest, industrious, brave, and temper-
ate. The scenery has become celebrated by
the descriptions in " Don Quixote."

M \\CIIK, La, a N. W. department of France,
in Normandy, bordering on the English chan-
nel and the departments of Calvados, Orne,
Mayenne, and llle-et-Vilaine ; area, 2,289 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1872, 544,776. The coast is gen-
erally flat, and lined with swamps. There
are several excellent harbors, the principal of
which are Cherbourg, La Hogue, and Gran-
ville. La Manche has several short but navi-
gable rivers, the principal of which is the Vire,
and is traversed from N. to S. by a hilly range
of moderate height, called Cotentin, which
gives its name to the peninsular portion of the
department. The rest of the surface is undu-
lating, the soil rich, and the climate moist and
mild. A prevailing crop is a species of black
oats. The quantity of cider made is very great.
A considerable portion of the land is under
pasturage. The horses are among the best in
France. Iron, lead, and coal are mined, and
granite, marble, slate, and limestone are quar-
ried. Salt is largely manufactured on the
coast, and in the towns iron, zinc, copper,
woollen, and cotton. The department is di-
vided into the six arrondissements of St. Ld,
Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain,
and Valognes. Capital, St. L6.

MANCHESTER, one of the shire towns of Hills-
borough co., New Hampshire, and the largest
city in the state, situated on both banks (but
chiefly on the E.) of the Merrimack river, 18m.
S. by E. of Concord, and 46 m. N. W. of Bos-
ton; pop. in 1850, 13,932 ; in 1860, 20,107; in
1870, 23,536, of whom 7,158 were foreigners,
including a considerable number of French Ca-
nadians. The villages of Amoskeag and Piscat-
aquog are on the W. side of the river, which is
crossed by five bridges. The city is regularly
laid out in squares, and the main street is 100
ft. wide, planted with elms on each side at in-

MANCHESTER

rals of 40 ft. for more than a mile. There are
five public squares of considerable extent in the
central portion, three of them containing ponds.
Valley cemetery, the largest in the city, is situ-
ated in the S. W. part, E. of the Merrimack ; and
there are two small cemeteries "W. of the river.
Manchester has railroad communication with
Boston, Concord, Portsmouth, and other points,
by means of the Concord, the Manchester and
Lawrence, the Manchester and North Weare,
and the Portsmouth railroads. It is one of the
rincipal manufacturing cities of New England,

being supplied with ample water power by
the Blodgett canal, built in 1816 around the
Amoskeag falls in the Merrimack. The fall is
47 ft., with rapids above, giving a total de-
scent of 54 ft. in the space of a mile. The
water power is owned by the Amoskeag man-
ufacturing company, which has a reservoir in
the N. E. part of the city capable of holding
11,000,000 gallons, for supplying the mills.
The following table exhibits the statistics of
the five corporations engaged in the manufac-
ture of cotton and woollen goods in 1874 :

CORPORATIONS.

Dale of
incorpora-
tion.

Capital.

No. of
looms.

Spindlei.

Opera-
tives.

Yardi manu-
factured per
week.

Lbs. of cotton
and wool con-
sumed per
week.

Amoskeag manufacturing company

1831

$3,000,000

8,500

125,000

4200

600000

200 000

Stark mills

1838

1 250 000

1 800

40000

1 200

880 000

110 000

1839

1 800 000

2150

loo'ooo

3000

400 000

110 000

Langdon manufacturing company

185T

600,000

704

33600

500

100000

28000

Namaske mill

185T

100,000

5,000

100

Total

$6 650 000

7654

303600

9000

1 430 000

448000

Of the operatives, 2,700 were males and 6,300
females. The Amoskeag company also manu-
factures steam fire engines, and the Manchester
company operates extensive print works. The
Manchester and Namaske companies manufac-
ture woollens as well as cottons, and the Stark
mills some linens ; the others, only cotton
goods. The principal kinds of goods are tick-
ings, denims, stripes, ginghams, sheetings, shirt-
ings, print cloths, balmorals, cotton flannels,
cotton duck, seamless bags, delaines, angola
flannels, fancy cassimeres, alpacas, poplins,
silesias, &c. The Amoskeag paper mill em-
ploys about 40 hands. There are also a manu-
factory of hosiery, one of boots and shoes, one
of edge tools, one of locomotives, several of
machinery and iron castings, of carriages, and
of circular saws, a brass foundery, and an ale
brewery. The city contains four national
banks, with an aggregate capital of $650,000 ;
five savings banks, with about 18,500 deposi-
tors and $7,250,000 deposits ; and a fire insu-
rance company, with $200,000 capital. It is
divided into seven wards, and is governed by a
mayor and a board of aldermen of one mem-
ber and a common council of three members
from each ward. There is an efficient police
force, and the fire department is well organ-
ized. The streets are well paved and sewered
and lighted with gas. Water is supplied from
Lake Massabesic on the N. E. border of the
city by works recently erected. The assessed
value of property in 1873 was $12,001,200;
tax, $300,768 ; value of city property, $717,-
120 45; net debt, Jan. 1, 1874, $807,860 16.
Manchester is the seat of the state reform
school, which occupies a brick building on the
E. bank of the Merrimack, capable of accom-
modating 150 inmates. The public schools are
in a flourishing condition, and in 1873 embraced
45 departments (1 high, 1 training or normal,
5 grammar, 6 middle, the rest primary or un-
graded) ; number of teachers, 69; pupils en-

rolled, 3,779; average attendance, 2,284; cost
of maintenance, $49,062 17, including $36,-
451 58 for teachers' wages ; value of school
property, $249,675. Besides these, evening
schools are maintained during a portion of the
year, and there are several Catholic schools
connected with the churches and convent. The
latter also conducts an orphan asylum. The
city library at the close of 1873 contained
17,672 volumes. Two daily and three weekly
newspapers and a monthly periodical are pub-
lished. The number of churches is 16, viz. :
2 Baptist, 1 Christian, 2 Congregational, 1
Episcopal, 2 Freewill Baptist, 2 Methodist, 3
Roman Catholic (1 French), 1 Second Advent,
1 Unitarian, and 1 TJniversalist, The place was
first settled near the falls about 1730, incorpo-
rated under the name of Derryfield in 1751,
and named Manchester by act of the legislature
in 1810. It received a city charter in 1846.

MANCHESTER, a town of Hartford co., Con-
necticut, on the Hartford, Providence, and
Fishkill railroad, 5 m. E. of Hartford ; pop. in
1870, 4,223. It contains extensive manufac-
tories of book, government, and bank-note
paper, of woollens and ginghams, print works,
a silk factory, several carriage factories, &c.
A weekly newspaper is published. The paper
mills are at North Manchester, 3 m. from
which is South Manchester, which has grown
up around the Cheney silk works, the most ex-
tensive in America. Dress silks and sewing
silks are manufactured in immense quanti-
ties, by ingenious machinery, much of which
was invented solely for use here. The cocoons
are imported, and all the work of spinning,
weaving, and dyeing is done here. The village
was laid out by a landscape gardener ; there
are no fences, and pigs and poultry are prohib-
ited. It is lighted with gas. There is a hand-
some public hall, with a library and reading
room, and a free school to which the opera-
tives are required to send their children.

MANCHESTER

MANCHESTER (anc. Mancunium), the most
important manufacturing city in Great Britain,
situated in the S. E. corner of Lancashire, on
both sides of the river Irwell, 162 m. N. N. W.
of London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool.
It consists of Manchester proper, including
several suburbs on the E. bank of the Irwell,
and the borough of Salford on the W. bank;
pop. in 1871, 475,990, of whom 351,189 were
in Manchester city, and 124,801 in Salford (ex-
clusive of suburban districts not lying within
the municipal limits). The two towns, although
having distinct municipal governments, consti-
tute in all other respects one city. They are
connected by eight bridges, among which are
the Victoria, of a single arch, and Blackfriars,
of three arches, of stone ; the bridges of Strange-
ways and Springfield Lane, of iron ; and the
iron suspension bridge of Broughton. The
streets are intersected by numerous canals,
crossed by bridges, and are generally well paved
and lighted ; but the site is low, and notwith-
standing the recent improved drainage and
the introduction of an abundant supply of
pure water, Manchester is still one of the most
unhealthy places in the kingdom, the annual
death rate being about 3 -2 per cent. A portion
of the place still presents an antiquated ap-
pearance, but there are many handsome streets,
such as Market street, Portland place, Grosve-
nor square, Mosley street, George street, King
street, Ardwick green, Salford crescent, &c.
There are several handsome public parks and
gardens, of which the most important are the
botanical and horticultural gardens ; the Peel
park, on the Irwell,
with an area of 32
acres; Victoria park,
between London and
Oxford roads, a space
of 140 acres, cov-
ered with villas ; the
Queen's park, Phillips
park, and Alexandra
park, opened in 1870.
The buildings devoted
to business and man-
ufactures have gener-
ally an imposing ap-
pearance. A marked
change has been made
of late years in the
architectural charac-
ter of the city. New
squares have been
l:i-l '"it, new streets
opened, and commer-
cial buildings of a
more ornamental ap-
pearance have been erected. In Manches-
T proper, in 1872, there were 168 places of
worship, of which 8 were Baptist, 51 Church

Kngland, 26 Independent, 45 Wesleyan and
other Methodist, 12 Roman Catholic, 9 Pres-
'>r. nan, and 5 Unitarian; including Salford
the whole number exceeds 200. The parish'

church, commenced by Lord Delaware in 1422,
and since 1847, when Manchester became a
bishopric, the cathedral, is a highly ornamented
Gothic structure, 216 ft. long and 120ft. wide;
but being built of a soft and mouldering stone,
many repairs have been necessary, which give
the structure a modern appearance; it has
within a few years been restored at a great ex-
pense, and a new tower has been added to re-
place the old one, which was found incapable
of restoration. There are several other hand-
some churches, among which are St. George's,
in the suburb of Hulme, and the Roman Cath-
olic cathedral of St. John, in Salford. Trin-
ity church in Salford, the oldest in the bor-
ough f has a fine Gothic tower, and is interest-
ing from the antique aspect of the interior.
The old town hall, in King street, is in the
Grecian style, and contains a hall 130 ft. long
by 38 ft. wide, having its walls and dome cov-
ered by allegorical frescoes ; but having become
inadequate to the needs of the city, a new town
hall, commenced in 1868, has been completed
at a cost of 250,000. The new exchange is
an Italian edifice, with a porch flanked by two
towers, the great hall having a clear breadth
of 120 ft. The corn exchange is an Ionic
structure capable of holding 2,400 persons.
The free-trade hall, somewhat irregular but
large and effective, occupies the site of the old
free-trade hall, and like it is noted in the his-
tory of Manchester as the place of several im-
portant political meetings. The new building,
erected in 1856, occupies an area of 20,700
sq. ft.; it contains a hall 134 ft. long, 78

Eoyal Exchange, Manchester.

wide, and 52 high, and will hold 5,000 per-
sons. The Salford town hall is one of the
handsomest buildings in the town. The new
royal exchange has a handsome front with
Corinthian columns; its great room is 207ft.
long, 193 wide, and 80 high ; the roof is sup-
ported by two rows of pillars, with a span of

MANCHESTER

rly 100 ft. between them. The new assize
courts were opened in 1864; the building is
Gothic, 270 ft. long and 140 deep, with a tower
210 ft. high. The branch bank of England, op-
>osite the town hall, is a fine structure, in the
rrecian style, with a Doric colonnade. The
infirmary, erected in 1755, is built on

three sides of a quadrangle, each with a por-
tico supported by four fluted Ionic columns,
the whole surrounded with grass borders and
walks, with a sheet of water in front ; it has
an income of 9,000, and annually relieves
more than 20,000 patients. Among the other
notable public buildings are the court halls,

The Assize Courts, Manchester.

the jails, and the asylum for the blind and the
deaf and dumb. In front of the new town
hall is the Albert memorial, including a statue
of Prince Albert. Two statues of Richard
Cobden were erected in 1867, one in St.
Anne's square, the other in Peel park. In
front of the royal infirmary is a statue of Dai-
ton ; and there are also statues of Watt, Wel-
lington, and Peel. Among scientific, literary,
and art associations are the royal Manches-
ter institution, occupying buildings which cost
40,000, and devoted to the exhibition of
paintings, lectures, &c. ; the mechanics' insti-
tution, founded in 1825, for which a new edi-
fice was erected in 1856, established for the
instruction of the working classes, male and
female, in the principles of the arts they prac-
tise and in other branches of useful knowledge ;
and natural history, botanical, horticultural, ge-
ological, statistical, and medical societies. The
royal school of medicine and surgery, founded
in 1824, has 80 to 100 students. The literary and
philosophical society, established in 1781, has
numbered many distinguished members, and
has issued several volumes of valuable trans-
actions. The Chetham society, established in
1843, has published 22 volumes of historical
and literary remains. There are many public
libraries. *The free library, founded by volun-
tary subscription, and maintained by a muni-
cipal rate, has four branches, and is divided
into two departments, reference and lending,

each having about 40,000 volumes. A free
library of about 25,000 volumes is attached to
Chetham's hospital, or the " College " as it is
now simply called, an institution founded in
1651 by Humphrey Chetham, for the educa-
tion of poor boys. Owens college was found-
ed in 1846 by the mtnificence of a merchant
of the city, who bequeathed for the purpose
more than 100,000, which has of late been
considerably enlarged by means of a fund raised
by public subscription ; it issues certificates
to candidates for the degrees of bachelor of
arts and bachelor of laws, to be conferred by
the university of London. The Lancashire In-
dependent college was established by the In-
dependents as a theological seminary, and will
accommodate 50 students. Manchester New
college, Unitarian, founded in 1786, was re-
moved to London in 1857 ; and in 1865 Memo-
rial Hall was erected in Manchester as a Uni-
tarian college. There is a free grammar school
founded by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter,
in 1515-'25. The Jubilee school trains pupils
for domestic service. Manchester is supplied
with water from a " gathering ground," about
24 m. distant, of nearly 20,000 acres. The
reservoirs form a series of 10 artificial lakes of
a capacity of 600,000,000 .cubic ft. The pure
water only is supplied to the city, the turbid
water being collected in separate reservoirs
and used for mill purposes. The water is con-
veyed in aqueducts 12 m. to Godley, thence to

MANCHESTER

two reservoirs at Denton, and thence 4 m. to
Manchester. The works are capable of fur-
nishing 40,000,000 gallons daily, and their cost
was about 1,050,000. Manchester is the cen-
tre of a great system of canals, and has rail-
way communication with nearly all parts of
England. The Liverpool and Manchester line
was the first railway on which was attempted
the practical application of steam power for
the transportation of passengers. The borough
of Manchester, comprising besides the city
itself the townships of Charlton-upon-Medlock,
Hulme, Ardwick, and Chetham, with the ex-
tra-parochial district of Beswick (total pop. in
1871, 379,374), was incorporated by royal char-
ter in October, 1838. The management of its
local affairs is intrusted to a town council of
64 members, styled respectively mayor, alder-
men, and councillors, who appoint from their
body committees for the transaction of public
business, who report their proceedings for ap-
proval at the general meeting of the council.
This council have introduced many valuable
improvements, notable among which are the
water works ; it is anticipated that when these
are fully completed, the sale of water for the
purposes of trade will be sufficient to defray
the entire expense, leaving free that required
for domestic purposes. The gas works are
also under control of the council, and notwith-
standing the price of gas has been frequent-
ly reduced, there is a profit of about 35,000
a year, which is expended in improving and
widening the streets. In 1846 the town coun-
cil purchased from Sir Oswald Mosley his ma-
norial rights for 200,000, of which 195,000
was left on mortgage at an interest of 3| per
cent. ; the income from this property now
amounts to 16,000 a year. The borough for-
merly returned two members to parliament,
but by the reform act of 1867 the number was
raised to three. The borough of Salford, con-
stituted by the reform act of 1832, returns two
members to parliament. It is governed by a
mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 councillors. Man-
chester has from a very remote period been con-
nected with industry and trade ; but its present
great importance is specially due to the mag-
nitude of its cotton manufactures, the great-
est in the world. It is mentioned as having
maintained a trade with the Greeks of Massilia
(Marseilles^. In 1552 an act was passed for the
better manufacture of "Manchester cottons;"
and in 1650 its manufactures ranked among
the first in extent and importance, and its peo-
ple were described as " the most industrious in
the northern parts of the kingdom." The in-
adequate supply of cotton goods about the
middle of the last century stimulated efforts
for increasing the means of production; and
the machines successively invented by Leigh,
Baches, Arkwright, llargreaves, and others,
Ini'l their efficiency vastly increased by the
steam engine of Watt. The value of the ex-
ports of the cotton industry in 1780 was 355,-
060; it rose in 1781 to 1,101,457, and in

1856 it had reached upward of 38,000,000.
The imports of raw cotton in 1751 were to the
amount of 2,976,610 Ibs. ; in 1780, upward of
6,700,000; in 1800, 56,000,000; and in 1860,
1,115,890,608. In 1857 an advance in the
price of American cotton caused the formation
in Manchester of the cotton supply association,
to procure the staple from other countries.
After the outbreak of the civil war in the Uni-
ted States, Manchester suffered severely from
the cotton famine, and in 1862 more than one
third of the operatives were thrown out of
employment. At the close of the war there
was a renewal of activity, though the import
of United States cotton in 1870 was but little
more than half the supply from the same source
in 1860. Sole reliance, however, is not now
placed on the American supply. During the
war the machinery of many of the mills was
altered to adapt it to the fibre from India and
Egypt, and these mills still continue to use to
a large extent the cotton from those countries.
Connected with the cotton manufacture are
many important and extensive branches of in-
dustry, such as bleaching, printing, and dyeing
works, manufactures of the various materials
employed in those processes, and particularly
the great establishments for the construction
of steam engines and machinery. It is also the
chief market in the world for cotton yarn or
thread, the supply of which passes through the
hands of numerous resident foreign merchants,
who export it to their respective countries,
giving to Manchester in this respect a char-
acter quite unique among inland cities. The
manufacture of silk and silk goods, and of
mixed cotton and silk fabrics, is also largely
carried on. The following table, furnished by
the inspector of factories, presents the statis'
tics of the manufacturing industry in 1871 :

MANUFACTURES.

No. of
works.

Steam
powwr.

Total No.
of persons
employed.

Textile fabrics and clothing:
Cotton factories
Worsted "

Ill
13

16,564
671

20,346
2538

Silk "

185

I'QSO

Bleaching and dyeing works . . .
Warehouses

26
80

769
1 218

2,281
1 236

Calendering and finishing works
Millinery, mantle, stay, corset,
and dress making
Tailors and clothiers
Miscellaneous

161

846

218
417

1,528
772

5,490

8.334
1,914
M76

Total

1 383

21 789

43595

Metal manufactures :
Manufacture of machinery
Miscellaneous

88
282

2,750

8,981

Total

Leather manufactures

118

677

Chemical works :
Glass making

1 348

Miscellaneous

Total

Manufactures connected with
food

882

604

MANCHINEEL

MANCINI

MANUFACT URES.

No. of
works.

Steam
power.

Total No.
of persona
employed.

Manufactures connected with
building, &c. :
Builders

161

1,185

Cabinet and furniture makers . .
Miscellaneous ....

99
858

106
533

1,183

2,059

Total

509

800

4427

191

581

Miscellaneous manufactures :
Letterpress printing

101

221
91

2,243
1,051

India rubber and gutta percha .
Others

4
288

611

484

840
4,999

Total

411

1407

9138

Grand total

2,783

28,515

78,235

The site of Manchester is mentioned as a chief
station of the druids, who had there an altar
called Meyne. In A. D. 500 it was an unfre-
quented woodland. In 620 it was taken by
Edwin, king of Northumbria, and shortly after
occupied by a colony of Angles. It then passed
to the Danes, who about 920 were expelled by
the king of Mercia. The charter conferring
the privileges of a borough was granted in
1301. Manchester cotton is first mentioned in
1352, by which was meant, however, a coarse
woollen cloth woven from unprepared fleece.
In 1579 the manor was sold to John Lacye, a
London cloth-worker, for 3,000, and resold
in 1596 to Sir Nicholas Mosley for 3,500. At
the time of the civil war it was distinguished
for active industry, and suffered much from
both parties. On Jan. 8, 1819, a great radical
meeting was held at St. Peter's field ; and an-
other great meeting, attended by 60,000 per-
sons, on Aug.' 16 of the same year, was dis-
persed by the yeomanry cavalry, eight persons
being killed. In 1857 an exhibition was held
from May to October for the display of the art
treasures of the kingdom. Among the objects
exhibited were 1,115 paintings, 969 water-color
drawings, 160 specimens of modern sculpture,
260 original sketches and drawings by the old
masters, and a museum of ornamental art com-
prising 17,000 choice specimens.

MANCHINEEL (hippomane mancinella}, a poi-
sonous evergreen tree growing wild in the
West India islands, along the shores of the Ca-
ribbean sea, and in southern Florida. It is of
the natural order euphorbiacece ; and the name
hippomane (Gr. iTriroc, horse, and paivsadai, to
be mad) is given to the genus from the sup-
posed maddening effect of its juice upon horses.
The manchineel tree grows to the height of 40
or 50 ft. ; it has a smooth brownish bark, and
short and thick branches. The leaves are about
3 in. long and half as wide, with two glands at
the junction of the blade with the short foot-
stalks ; the flowers grow in short thick spikes
at the end of the branches ; the fertile flowers
are solitary at the base of the spikes, and the
staminate ones in small clusters at its apex;
528 VOL. xi. 7

both kinds are obscure and without petals.
The fruit when ripe is of a yellow color, and
resembles an apple in appearance ; hence it is
called manzanillo (little apple), a name that in
Spanish American countries is applied to sev-
eral plants bearing fruit like an apple, or the
leaves and flowers of which have an apple-like
odor. Some early accounts state that this tree
is more deadly poisonous than the upas, assert-
ing that grass would not grow beneath it, that
death would follow sleeping under its shade,
and that a drop of its juice falling upon the
skin had the same effect as the application of
red-hot iron. While the milky juice of the
tree is highly poisonous, investigations have
shown the earlier reports to be greatly exag-
gerated, and that, like our poison sumach, it
affects some persons more seriously than oth-
ers. Those who, not knowing its character,
have inadvertently tasted of the fruit, have
suffered from severe blistering of the lips. The

Manchineel,

juice as well as the smoke from the burning
wood produces temporary blindness. Berthold
Seemann, the botanist, was blind after gather-
ing specimens, and a boat's crew of his ship,
the Herald, were blind for several days from
having used some of the wood in making a
fire. On account of the beauty of the brown
and white wood when polished, it is much used
for cabinet work. It is said that before stri-
king the axe into the trees the workmen take
care to light fires around them in order to
thicken the juice and drive off the volatile
poisonous quality ; and cabinet makers also
when working it protect their faces with veils
from the poisonous effects of the saw dust and
exhalations from the wood.

MANCHOORIA. See MANTCHOOKIA.

MANCINI, a Eoman family, founded in the
14th century by Pietro Omni-Santi, surnamed
Mancini dei Luci. Among his descendants
was Michele Lorenzo Mancini, a brother of
Cardinal Francesco Maria Mancini, who mar-

MANCINI

ried in 1634 a sister of Cardinal Mazarin. His
1 HI 1 1: liters became prominent, according to
Michelet, as " a battalion of Mazarin's nieces,
brought up under the cynical influence of
Christina of Sweden, and for whom one of
tlu-ir brothers, the duke de Nevers, had a more
than brotherly love." I. Lanre (1635-'57), the
least dissolute of the five sisters, though her
beauty captivated many persons, among whom
was the young Louis XIV., married the duke
de Mercosur. One of her two sons, the duke
de Vendome, became a famous warrior. II.
Olynpe (1639-1708), called on account of her
dark complexion and mischievous disposition
" black soul and black face," was a mistress
of Louis XIV. Her uncle found a husband
for her (1657) in Eugene de Carignan, of
the house of Savoy, who was on his mother's
side a French prince of the blood royal, and
for whom the cardinal revived the title of
count de Soissons. Though superseded fora
time in the king's favor by her sister Marie,
she soon regained her ascendancy, and they
lived openly together. Her husband died sud-
denly in 1673, and it was suspected that she
poisoned him. In 1679 she was compromised
by the revelations of the poisoner Voisin. But
she was considered to have been innocent as
regarded the death of her husband, to whom
she had borne eight children, and nothing was
proved against her in connection with Voisin.
She was however prosecuted by Louvois and
fled to Brussels, where she barely escaped be-
ing mobbed, and spent the rest of her life in
various countries. While in Spain, where she
met her fugitive sister Marie, King Charles II.
attributed the sudden and premature death of
his wife, Louise of France, to the frequent
and clandestine visits which Olympe had paid
to the queen in her illness, and to some milk
which she had prepared for her shortly before
her death. The celebrated soldier Prince Eu-
gene of Savoy was one of her five sons, and
she had three daughters. III. Marie (1640-1715)
excited the passion of Louis XIV. to such an
extent that he would have married her if the
cardinal had not sent her to a convent, while
he planned the king's union with Maria Theresa,
and Marie's marriage (1661) with the Roman
prince and constable Colonna, with a dowry
consisting of an annuity of 100,000 livres. She
bore him several children, but he was faithless,
and she furtively left Rome together with her
sister Hortense, both reaching Marseilles in
male attire in a destitute condition. Louis
XIV. had her removed to the abbaye du Lis,
and subsequently she led a wandering and ad-
v.-nturous life. It is not known where she
died. Michelet describes her as sombre-look-
ith large glittering eyes. She was the
least attractive of the sisters. IV. Hortense
(1646-'99), the prettiest of them all, courted
by Charles II. of England, Turenne, and Charles
de Lorraine, was married by her uncle to
Arrnand de la Porte, marquis de la Meilleraye.
The cardinal died in March, 1661, a month

after his niece's marriage with the marquis,
who assumed the name of duke of Mazarin.
His jealousy of the king and of other persons
bordered on insanity. She finally fled with
her brother, the duke of Nevers, and her re-
puted lover, the chevalier de Rohan, to the
house of one of her former admirers, Charles
de Lorraine, at Nancy, and thence to the court
of Charles Emanuel of Savoy at Chambery,
where she spent three years. On his death
in 1675 she was immediately expelled by his
widow. After an adventurous expedition to
the Netherlands and Germany, she paid a visit
to Charles II., who was still in love with her,
and added an annuity of 4,000 livres to that of
20,000 which had been granted to her by Louis
XIV. He also assigned to her a wing of St.
James's palace, where gambling and dissipation
became the order of the day. The Swedish
count Bannier, another lover of hers, was
killed in a duel by her nephew, the chevalier
de Soissons, who, though a mere boy, was
madly in love with his aunt. After the revo-
lution of 1688 her pension was cut off, and she
was accused of complicity in Jacobite plots.
But William III. restored to her one half of
her former English pension, and permitted her
to remain in England, and she ended her life
at Chelsea. Lafontaine celebrated her in
verses, giving her credit not only for all im-
aginable fine qualities of person, mind, and
heart, but also for being adored from one end
of the world to the other, and to such an ex-
tent as to create jealousy between England and
France. V. Marie Anne (1649-1714) reached
Paris only in 1655, much later than her sisters.
She was also prosecuted as an associate of the
poisoner Voisin, and did not live long with
her husband, Maurice Godefroi de la Tour,
duke de Bouillon, a nephew of Turenne, whom
she had married in 1662. She retired to the
palace of Chateau-Thierry, where she became
the patroness of Lafontaine. Subsequently,
after having rejoined her husband in Paris,
she made her home a literary centre, with
Moliere and the aged Corneille among the
habitues. Like her father and all her sisters,
she dabbled in necromancy as well as in poi-
son, and was obliged to leave Paris in 1680.
She lived for eight years with her sister the
duchess of Mazarin in England; and after
spending two years in Venice and Rome she
was permitted in 1690 to return to Paris,
where her society was courted to the last by
eminent men of letters.

MANCINI. I. Pasqnale, an Italian statesman,
born in Naples about 1815. He took his de-
gree at the university of his native city, where
he became professor of jurisprudence. . In
1848 he was a member of the Neapolitan par-
liament, and drew up the protest against the
king's violent proceedings of May 15. To es-
[ cape from the vengeance of the king he fled to
j Turin, where he was appointed professor of
i international law, which gave him an oppor-
| tunity to urge the rights of nationalities ; he

MANGO CAPAO

MANDAMUS

was also elected to the Sardinian chamber. In
1860 he became minister of justice and religion
at Naples, and was a leader of the liberal party
in the first Italian parliament, which met in
1861. In 1862 he was for a time minister of edu-
cation in the cabinet' of Rattazzi. He has pub-
lished Diritto Internationale (Naples, 1873). II.
Laura Beatrice Oliva, an Italian poetess, wife of
the preceding, born in Naples in 1823. She de-
voted the early part of her life to her invalid
father, to whom she was indebted for her edu-
cation. In 1840 she married against the wish
of her relatives, and wrote a play entitled Ines
founded upon the romantic circumstances of
this alliance, which was performed in Florence
in 1845. In 1846 appeared her poem Colombo
al convento delta Rdbida, and a volume of
miscellaneous poetry. In 1851 she addressed
a poem to Mr. Gladstone in gratitude for his
revelations in regard to the Neapolitan govern-
ment ; and one of her finest poems was elicited
by the death of Gioberti (L 1 Italia sulla tomba
di Vincenzo Gioberti, Turin, 1853). Upon the
establishment of the kingdom of Italy she com-
posed several poems for patriotic celebrations.
MANCO CAPAC. I. The mythical ancestor of
the incas of Peru. (See PERU, and QUICHUAS.)
II. Inca of Peru, killed in 1544. He was the
second son of the inca Huayna Oapac, the
conqueror of Quito, who died shortly before
the arrival of Pizarro, dividing his kingdom
between his legitimate successor Huascar and
a younger son Atahuallpa. The latter, after
having made war upon Huascar and put him
to death, was himself captured and executed
in 1533 by Pizarro, who then set up Toparca,
a brother of his victim, as a nominal sovereign,
under whose name the conquerors might them-
selves direct the government. Toparca died
within the year, and shortly afterward Manco
Capac appeared in the Spanish camp to an-
nounce his pretensions to the throne and claim
Pizarro's protection. The conqueror received
him cordially, and made it his first care after
the taking of Cuzco to place him on the throne.
After in vain petitioning for power to exercise
the sovereignty, he withdrew secretly from
Cuzco, but was overtaken, brought back, and
imprisoned. Again escaping, he roused the
whole nation to arms, and appeared before
Cuzco in February, 1536, with a host of In-
dians who covered the surrounding hills. He
destroyed a large part of the city by fire,
and reduced the Spaniards to extremities ; but
after the siege had lasted more than five
months, he had to draw off most of his fol-
lowers on account of the scarcity of food, and
retired to the fortress of Tambo in the val-
ley of the Yucay. Defeated here by Almagro,
and forsaken by most of his warriors, he
fled to the Andes, and for several years re-
mained a terror to the Spaniards, hovering
over their towns, lying in ambush on the
highways, sallying forth as occasion offered at
the head of a few followers, always eluding
pursuit in the wilds of the Cordilleras, and in

the event of civil war among the foreigners
throwing his weight into the weaker scale in
order to prolong their contests. Pizarro at-
tempted to negotiate with him, and sent him
rich presents by an African slave. The negro
was murdered on the way by some of Manco's
men; and Pizarro in revenge caused one of
the monarch's wives to be tied naked to a tree,
scourged, and shot to death with arrows. The
Spanish rulers who succeeded Pizarro, down
to Blasco Nunez, bore orders from the crown
to conciliate the formidable chief, but he re-
fused all offers of accommodation. He was
killed by a party of Spaniards belonging to the
younger Almagro's faction, who on the defeat
of their leader had taken refuge in the Peru-
vian camp. They were in turn massacred by
the Indians.

MANDAMUS, the name of a remedial writ, be-
longing to a once extensive class of precepts,
which bore the generic name of mandamus.
They derived their name from the significant
word of the mandatory clause, which, while
the writs were framed in Latin, ran : Nos igi-
tur tibi mandamus, &c., " We therefore com-
mand you." Their origin is referred to that
clause of Magna Charta which declares that to
no man will the king refuse or delay justice :
Nulli negabimus aut differemus justitiam vel
rectum. At a very early period, the injunction
was in form nothing but a letter from the
sovereign. Subsequently it became a parlia-
mentary writ, and issued on petition from the
king and his council. Later the king's bench
took jurisdiction, which in the recent judicial
changes in England has been transferred to the
supreme court. The writ is directed to per-
sons, corporations, or courts of inferior judi-
cature, and requires them to do some specific
act which belongs to their official duty, or
which exact justice demands. In this coun-
try the power to grant it is vested in the su-
preme judicial authority of the state, but in
some states, also, in inferior courts. Not only
does it form a branch of that general super-
visory control which the sovereign power must
possess over tribunals, magistrates, and all in-
deed who in any sense are invested with public
functions; but also, as it was originally con-
trived to prevent failure of justice and to
remedy defects of police, it is to be awarded in
cases for which the law affords no specific and
adequate remedy, yet where justice requires
that there should be one. By the judiciary
act of 1793 the United States supreme court
received power to issue writs of mandamus in
cases warranted by the principles and usages
of law "to any courts appointed or persons
holding office under the authority of the Uni-
ted States;" but in Marbury v. Madison, 1
Cranch, 137, the latter clause was held to be
unconstitutional and void, and the supreme
court refused to grant the writ to compel the
secretary of state to deliver a civil commission
alleged to be illegally withheld by him. Circuit
courts, too, were authorized to issue the writ

MANDAMUS

when necessary for the exercise of their juris-
diction. The award of the writ is generally a
matter of judicial discretion. He who seeks
this remedy must show that he is innocent of
laches, that he has a clear right in the prem-
ises, that there has been a distinct refusal to
do that which the petitioner would compel, and
finally that he has in the ordinary processes of
law no adequate remedy. The most common
practice is for the court in the first instance to
issue a writ commanding to be done that which
is prayed for, or that the respondent show
cause why it should not be done ; or an order
may issue in the first instance that the respon-
dent show cause why a peremptory mandamus
should not issue. In either case the defendant
makes answer, and if the petitioner, who is
usually called relator, is satisfied with the state-
ment of facts in the answer, he will demur
thereto, and the question will thus be referred
to the court on an issue of law. If the relator
is dissatisfied with the statement of facts in
the answer, he may join issue thereon, and this
issue of fact will be tried as the court may di-
rect. If either issue is decided in favor of the
relator, a peremptory mandamus is awarded.
In a very clear case the peremptory writ may
issue in the first instance. When directed to
a court, the writ merely sets such court in
motion; it bids it exercise a power which is
vested in it. It does not presume to revise
the decision of the inferior tribunal upon a
question either of fact or law addressed to its
judgment. As examples of this jurisdiction,
mandamus has been granted to compel the
sealing of a bill of exceptions or its amendment
according to the truth of the case ; or, at suit
of a defendant, to require the inferior court to
enter judgment upon a verdict, in the regular
course of proceedings, in order to enable the
defeated party to bring his writ of error. But
the writ does not lie to control courts in respect
to matters of practice under their rules, where
their authority is discretionary. Mandamus
often issues to commissioners of highways and
supervisors of counties, commanding them to
perform the peculiar duties of their office;
ordering them, for example, to open a road
regularly laid out; to estimate the damages
caused to landowners thereby, or to levy a
tax as they were required by law to do for the
payment of damages caused by laying out a
highway. Corporations, too, are often com-
1 by this process to do what their con-
tituent acta require. Thus railway corpora-
ions have been compelled to pursue, in cross-
ing rivers, the mode prescribed in their char-
ters, and have been forbidden to obstruct
navigation by the location of their track. Re-
tmnir public officers may also be compelled by
UIH writ to deliver official books and papers
t<> their successors, and corporations to admit
members to tlu-ir privileges, to restore a mem-
irregul.trlv disfranchised, and to allow di-
rectors, and in proper cases other corporators
to have inspection of books. It is a common

MANDANS

process to compel the performance of public
duties by public officers, but in such cases the
attorney general or other public prosecuting
officer should be relator, and a private citizen
would not be allowed to take action except
where some special and peculiar right of his
own was involved in the performance of the
public duty. The action of the executive,
however, in the performance of his peculiar
duties, is not to be controlled by this writ.

MANDANS, an Indian tribe of the Dakota
family, dwelling on the Upper Missouri. Ac-
cording to their traditions, they came from
under the earth, where they lived near a sub-
terranean lake. They ascended by means of a
grape vine, which a heavy woman broke, so
that part of the tribe were left below. About
1772 they are said to have resided 1,500 m. from
the mouth of the Missouri, in nine villages, en-
circled with earth walls, two on the east and
seven west of the river. The Sioux soon after
drove the eastern villages to the Rickaree or
Arickaree country, further up the river, and
they emigrated again before those on the west
followed them. Lewis and Clarke found them
1,600 ra. up the river, in two villages, one on
each side of the river, and as they were friend-
ly built Fort Mandan near them. By the ad-
vice of the explorers they made peace with
most of the neighboring tribes. In 1822 they
were estimated at 1,250 in number, and though
some placed the population much higher, it
did not probably exceed 2,500. They made a
treaty with Gen. Atkinson and the agent O'Fal-
lon, July 30, 1825, recognizing the authority
of the United States, and making peace. They
continued to lose severely by their wars with
the Sioux, who to this day pursue them with
unrelenting hatred, parties under White Bon-
net having twice attempted to destroy their
village in 1870. In 1832 they dwelt at Fort
Clarke, near the mouth of Knife river, and
were supposed to number 2,000. In 1837
the smallpox broke out among them, and re-
duced the tribe to 145 souls in all, chiefly
women and children. The survivors took
refuge with the Rickarees. They are often
spoken of as having been entirely swept away ;
but they gradually regained numbers, and al-
ways maintained a distinct tribal organization.
In 1845 they removed to their present abode.
In 1850 they numbered 50 lodges and 150
souls, and in 1852 had increased to 385. They
are now (1874) with the Rickarees and Min-
netarees at Fort Berthold, Dakota territory, on
the left bank of the Missouri, in lat. 47 34'
N., Ion. 101 50' W. An executive order of
April 12, 1870, set apart a reservation of
8,640,000 acres for the three tribes, in north-
western Dakota and eastern Montana, extend-
ing to the Yellowstone and Powder rivers.
Under a treaty made July 27, 1866, government
appropriates $75,000 a year for the three tribes,
The Mandans were reported in 1873 as num-
bering 479. Though always friendly, living in
a permanent village, they have had no mission-

MANDATE

aries and very feeble attempts at a school. The
Mandans live partly by agriculture, having 100
acres in corn and potatoes, and possessing 150
horses, but they have no cattle or proper im-
plements. They extend their hunts west to
the Kocky mountains, north to the British line,
and south to the Black hills. The Mandans are
of lighter complexion than many of the tribes,
and gray hair, even in young persons, is com-
mon. This, and a story based on very vague
y that Welsh soldiers at Fort Chartres
conversed in their language with the Mandans,
has led to many attempts to trace their origin-
to Madoc's supposed Welsh colony. Their
houses are of wood ; some of them are polygo-
nal in shape, with an excavated cellar in the
centre. The wooden frame is covered with
earth, and the roof is a favorite resort. Quad-
rangular log cabins are also used. Besides
pipes, arrows, bows, &c., they make matting
of wild rushes, baskets of willow bark woven

different and intricate colored patterns, large
beads, and a very substantial black pottery ;
some of the vessels hold three gallons and are
capable of standing great heat. Their canoes
are made of skins. They place the dead,
wrapped in skins, on scaffolds, and when these
fall they gather the skulls and place them in
circles. They have a strange annual religious
ceremony, relating to the great canoe and Nu-
mokhmuckanah, the first or only man. They
have many peculiar dances and a fearfully
cruel initiation rite for young warriors.

MANDATE, a law term derived from the
Eoman civil law. It may be defined as a bail-
ment (delivery) of a chattel or chattels to a per-
son who is to do something with or about the
things bailed, entirely without compensation.
The essential element of the contract lies in
the fact that there is not paid or promised, in
law or in fact, any compensation whatever for
the service to be rendered. The person deliv-
ering the chattels is called a mandator; and
the person receiving them and undertaking the
service is called a mandatary. As it must be a
service or an act, the whole benefit of which
rests with the mandator, this, by the ordinary
principles of bailment, determines the amount
of care to which the mandatary is bound, and
the degree of negligence for which he is an-
swerable. For negligence in a bailee has in
law three degrees: slight negligence, which
makes the bailee responsible where the bail-
ment was wholly for his benefit ; ordinary
negligence, for which he is responsible if the
bailment be for the benefit of both parties ;

id gross negligence, for which only the bailee

responsible where the contract is for the ex-
lusive benefit of the bailor. And as it is not

mandate if the bailee derives any benefit
whatever from the service, it follows that a
idatary is responsible for loss of or for in-
iry to the thing delivered to him, only when

is caused by his gross negligence. There is
especial form for the contract of mandate ;

may be in writing or by word only, and made

very solemnly or in the simplest way ; in either
case the law is the same. The mandator may
recall the thing delivered at any time, and so
rescind the contract. But if the nature of the
contract be such that a mandatary has ren-
dered the service in part, and will himself suf-
fer detriment if it be not completed, the man-
dator cannot now rescind it without providing
adequate indemnity to the mandatary. When
the contract is lawfully dissolved, the chattel
must be restored to the mandator ; but if in-
demnity be due to the mandatary, he would
have a lien on the chattel to secure it. So, too,
the contract would be dissolved by the death
of the mandator or of the mandatary, or by any
change in the state of the parties which from
its nature should recall it, as by insolvency of
either party, or insanity, or the marriage of a
woman, or the sale of the property, or the ter-
mination of a guardianship on which the man-
date rested. But in all these cases there must
be the same exception as to a service partially
rendered. So, too, it is believed that the man-
datary may at his own pleasure terminate the
contract ; and as he may do this at any time,
he may do it before he has begun to perform
the service at all. But this very question has
been more frequently and more elaborately
discussed than any or all others which have
arisen out of the contract of mandate. Banks
and bankers are so far mandataries, that they
receive notes for collection, and render, or en-
gage to render, by agreement or by mercantile
usage, these and similar services without any
especial or specific compensation. But it is
understood that they do this as a part of their
business, and for the general and indirect bene-
fit they derive from doing it ; and this is un-
doubtedly consideration enough to make them
liable for any injury to their customer caused
by their negligence ; and it is sufficient to make
them liable that their negligence was ordinary,
or consisted in the want of common care. We
have seen that a mandatary is, by law, liable
only for gross negligence. But it is a volun-
tary contract, and the parties may vary it in
any way, and make it more or less stringent,
at their pleasure. Where the parties enter
into no specific stipulations, there the law
sometimes varies their liabilities in accordance
with the particular circumstances of the case.
Thus, it is an obvious principle that the man-
dator has no right to require any more skill or
care than he has reason to expect. If an own-
er of a valuable chronometer carry it for re-
pair to an ordinary watchmaker who does no
business of this kind, and the instrument be
injured in his hand because no more care and
no better skill were applied to it than would
suffice for ordinary watches, the owner has no
one to blame but himself ; unless he can show
that the watchmaker especially undertook to
be able to do the work required, and that the
bailor had no means of knowing his incompe-
tency. On the other hand, if the owner in-
trusted his instrument to a person who was

100

MANDELAY

known to deal with those of like kind, who
professed this as his business, and expressly or
by implication asserted himself to possess suf-
ficient skill, this person would then be liable,
as for gross negligence, if he did not possess
the requisite skill, or did possess it but did
not make use of it, although he was strictly
a mandatary, and had undertaken the work
gratuitously. Here, however, a distinction
must be taken. If a workman who is paid for
his service asserts himself to have sufficient
skill, he is liable for injury resulting from the
want of that skill, although he does his best.
But if he is not paid for his service and makes
the same assertion, he is now not liable merely
for the want of it unless he made the assertion
fraudulently and knowing its falsehood ; but,
however honest, he is liable if, besides a want
of skill, he has been guilty of negligence. Man-
dates in the civil law were the orders of the
high functionaries, as the consuls and procon-
suls, and afterward the emperors, to subordi-

MANDEVILLE

nate officers, to instruct them as to the con-
duct they should pursue, either in general or
in particular cases. At common law, the word
mandate in a corresponding sense can hardly
be said to be known. But it is sometimes
used to signify an official command issued by
a court, or a magistrate, or any tribunal hav-
ing authority, in the form of a writ or pre-
cept. It is generally, if not always, confined to
commands issued to an inferior court, to con-
firm or set aside a judgment, as by the supreme
court of the United States to a circuit court,
or to a proper officer, to enforce or execute a
judgment, decree, or order. When the com-
mand is issued to an individual who is a party
before the tribunal, it is commonly known as
an injunction, prohibition, or the like.

MMDELAY, Mandalay, or Pattawapnra, the
present capital of the kingdon of Burmah, a
little N. of the former capital Amarapura, 3
m. from the Irrawaddy river, and 350 m. N. of
Rangoon ; pop. about 90,000. In 1856 its site

Mandelay.

was occupied by cultivated fields; but after
the royal determination to select a new capi-
tal, its erection was carried forward so rapidly
that by July, 1857, it was ready for the recep-
tion of the court. The city is laid out in three
parallelograms, one within another, of which
only the two inner are walled. Within the
inmost is the palace, which is also defended by
high palisades, and surrounded by courtyards,
gardens, and pools. Within this square are
also the various offices of government. The sec-
ond enclosure contains the houses of the civil
and military officers and the soldiers' quarters,
and is laid out in wide streets crossing at right
It is surrounded by a high wall flanked
with strong towers, with four massive gates,
are locked at night. There is also a

deep ditch. A wide interval separates this
quarter from the outer city, which is occupied
by the merchants, mechanics, &c. The forti-
fications are massive, and the palace, pagodas,
and cloisters are brilliant with color and gold ;
but the city still resembles the encampment of
a tribe of nomads, and many of the dwellings
are little more permanent than tents. Water
is obtained from the river by a canal, which
to obtain a proper level has to be carried a
distance of 16 m. Postal communication with
Rangoon is kept up by dak boats, which make
the voyage in eight days.

MANDEVILLE, Sir John, an English author,
born in St. Albans about 1300, died in Li6ge,
Nov. 17, 1372. He was a proficient in theolo-
gy, natural philosophy, and medicine, and even

MANDINGO

MAFETHO

101

practised as a physician for some time. In
1322 he proceeded to the East, visited the holy
places in Palestine, being favored by the sul-
tan of Egypt, and travelled in Armenia, Per-
sia, India, Tartary, and northern China (Ca-
thay). He returned to England about 1355,
and wrote a narrative of his travels and adven-
tures, first in Latin, and afterward in French
and in English, which he dedicated to Edward
III. This work is a singular mixture of fact
and fable, a monument at once of the author's
candor and credulity. The earliest edition of
it is that of Wynkin de Worde (Westminster,
1499), and the best of the old English editions
is that of 1725. A new edition was published
by J. O. Halliwell (London, 1839).

MANDINGO, a country in W. Africa, bounded
K by Kaarta, E. by Bambarra, S. by the Kong
mountains, and W. by Senegambia, lying be-
tween lat. 8 and 15 K, and Ion. 8 and 12
W. Much of this region is a high table land,
and contains the sources of the Senegal and
the Niger. Iron is abundant in the mountains,
and gold dust is found in the rivers. The
country is divided into a number of small
states, each of which is nearly independent of
the others. The most considerable of these
states are Bambook and Kankan. The Man-
dingos are remarkable for their industry and
energy. They are mostly Mohammedans. The
principal trade of that part of W. Africa which
lies between the equator and the great desert is
in their hands. They are shrewd -merchants,
industrious agriculturists, and breeders of cat-
tle, sheep, and goats. They are black in color,
tall and well shaped, with regular features and
woolly hair. They have been called the Hin-
doos of Africa. They are amiable and hospita-
ble, imaginative, credulous, truthful, and fond
of music, dancing, and poetry. They are adven-
turous travellers, extending their commercial
journeys over the greater part of Africa. They
trade chiefly in gold dust, ivory, and slaves.
Polygamy is practised, and each .wife has a
separate hut. Their language is the richest of
the negro tongues, is widely spread, and is
written in Arabic characters. The Mandingos
are the most numerous race of "W. Africa, and
have spread themselves to a great distance from
their original seat, being found all over the
valleys of the Gambia, Senegal, and Niger.

MA1VDR AGORA. See MANDBAKE.

MANDRAKE (mandragora officinarum), a
stemless plant, with lanceolate leaves, conceal-
ing beneath them several pale violet-colored
flowers, and having a large, forked, fleshy, per-
ennial root. It grows spontaneously in the
south of Europe. The plant belongs to the
natural order solanacem, which comprises many
poisonous species. Its large root is often divi-
ded into two or three forks, causing it to be
likened to the shape of the human body, a cir-
cumstance which in old time gave it the repu-
tation of being endowed with animal feelings ;
and there are fabulous stories of its uttering
shrieks when torn from the earth. The works

of the early herbalists have curious accounts
of the supposed virtues of this plant, of which
they distinguished male and female varieties.
According to Josephus, the collecting of man-

Mandragora officinarum.

drake was no easy matter ; after the earth had
been well dug from around the root a dog was
tied to it, and when the animal tried to follow
its master, its struggles pulled up the root ; the
dog died immediately, a fate which would have
befallen the man had he pulled it. Sibthorp
(Flora Grceca, London, 1806-'40) says that the
young Greeks wear small pieces of the root
about them to serve as love charms ; and among
the ancients it was held in high repute for
philters. The qualities of the mandrake are
aero-narcotic, purgative, and aphrodisiac. Ac-
cording to Lindley, Dr. T. H. Silvester has
shown that the root was formerly used in the
same way as chloroform and other anaesthetic
agents now are. The mandrake of the Old
Testament (Gen. xxx. and Canticles vii.) was
thought, according to some commentators, to
have the power of removing barrenness. The
American mandrake, also called May apple, is
podophyllum peltatum, a plant belonging to
a very different family, and now largely em-
ployed in medicine. (See PODOPHYLLUM.)

MANDRILL. See BABOON.

MANES. See MANICELEANS.
I MANES, in Eoman mythology, the souls of
the departed, who were generally recognized
as gods and propitiated by sacrifices at certain
seasons called ferics denicales, and more partic-
ularly at an annual festival kept on Feb. 19 un-
der the name of feralia or parentalia, when
each person made offerings to the souls of his
deceased parents and benefactors. The manes
were believed to have power only by night.

MANETHO, an Egyptian historian, who flour-
ished in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, at the
beginning of the 3d century B. C. He was a
priest of Sebennytus in Lower Egypt, and
wrote in Greek a work on the religion and an-

LOS

MANFRED

other on the history of his country, the title of
the former being Twv Qwrmuv 'Entro/ifa and of
the latter Aiyvrrrm/ca. Both books are lost, but
nuin.Tous fragments have been preserved by
Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, and by
Syncellus, who compiled from the two latter.
Tlu- list of the Egyptian dynasties, as preserved
in the Armenian version of Eusebius, is the
most valuable remnant of Manetho's history,
the dates of which appear to have been derived
from genuine documents, including the sacred
Looks of the Egyptian priests. Attacked as a
fabulist by various critics, Manetho has found
zealous defenders among the most distinguished
Egyptologists, and the recent discoveries in
hieroglyphic archaeology have vindicated his
authority (see EGYPT, vol. vi., pp. 458-'9) ; but
parts of the fragments are now generally ac-
knowledged to be spurious, as is the astrologi-
cal poem 'AirorefefffiaTiKd, which bears his name,
but is of late date. The best critical editions of
the fragments of Manetho are by Fruin (Ley-
den, 1847) and Mailer, in vol. ii. of the Frag-
mento Historicorum Qrcecorum (Paris, 1848).

MANFRED, prince of Tarentum, king of the
Two Sicilies, natural son of the emperor Fred-
erick II. and of Blanca, a daughter of Count
Lanzia of Lombardy, born in Sicily about 1233,
fell in the battle of Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266.
At his father's death in 1250 he was appointed
regent in Italy during the absence of his half
brother Conrad IV., the legitimate heir. Pope
Innocent IV. immediately excommunicated him,
declaring that the house of Swabia had ceased
to rule over Sicily, because Frederick II. had
died under the papal ban. Insurrections were
excited in Capua, Naples, and other cities, but
Manfred reduced most of the rebels, advanced
to meet Conrad at Pescara, delivered the gov-
ernment into his hands, and aided him in com-
pletely suppressing the revolt. He was, how-
ever, removed from any part in the administra-
tion, his principality of Tarentum was taxed,
and the Lanzias were exiled from it. Conrad
died in 1254, leaving the crown to his infant
son Conradin, and Manfred was again called to
the regency. Innocent IV. renewed his oppo-
sition to him, supported by the Guelph party in
the Two Sicilies, forced him to agree to hold
his possf-ions sis an iiiim.-iliati- li,-f ,,f tl K! holy
see, and had demanded from him an oath of
entire submission, when he made his escape to
the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by them, he
defeated the papal troops at Foggia, recovered
A pi ilia, and after the death of Innocent was rec-
ognized king of the Two Sicilies, and crowned
at Palermo, Aug. 11, 1258, a report of Con-
r.-i'l iii's death in Germany being at that time
spread through Italy. This report was imme-
contradicted by envoys, but Manfred
refused to resign the crown, and his bravery,
handsome person, accomplishments, and success
made the people willingly submit to his rule.
Regarded as the hereditary protector of the
Ghibellines, ho sent troops to Tuscany, by
whom the Guelphs were defeated at Monte-

MANGANESE

aperto. His court abounded with poets and art-
ists, and he himself was noted for poetic skill.
He was excommunicated by Pope Alexander
IV., who vainly, however, proclaimed a cru-
sade against him, and again by Urban IV., who
offered his kingdom for sale to any European
prince who had the strength to take it. Charles
of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, re-
ceived the investiture of the Sicilian kingdom,
was solemnly crowned by Pope Clement IV.
at Rome, Jan. 6, 1266, and marched thence
for the conquest of his realms. He was met
by Manfred beneath the walls of Benevento.
The latter was bravely supported by the Sara-
cens, but the Apulians refused to advance
against the enemy, the Sicilian army was
thrown into disorder, and Manfred fell cov-
ered with wounds in the thickest of the bat-
tle. Dante alludes to his death and to his in-
terment without religious rites (Purgatorio,
canto iii.). He was twice married, first to
Beatrice of Savoy, and next to Helena, a Greek
princess, and left three sons and one daugh-
ter, who became the prisoners of the victor.

MANFREDONIA, a seaport of Italy, in the prov-
ince and 22 m. N. E. of the city of Foggia;
pop. about 7,500. It is situated at the foot of
Mt. Gargano, and surrounded by walls, and the
harbor is protected by a strong castle. It is
well built, is the seat of an archbishop, and has
a Gothic cathedral, containing one of the lar-
gest bells in Italy, which stands in the old
town (originally Sipontum), about 1 m. S. W.
of the new. Salt is obtained from lagoons S.
of the town, and there is a considerable export
trade in that article, as well as m corn and or-
anges. The harbor is only accessible to small
vessels. Manfredonia was founded about the
middle of the 13th century by King Manfred.
It was nearly destroyed by the Turks in 1620.

MANGANESE, a metal having the symbol Mn
and the combining weight 55, long known in
the mineral pyrolusite, used to neutralize the
green color of glass. The ores containing it
were variously styled female magnets, magne-
sia nigra in contradistinction to magnesia alba,
alabandine from the city of Alabanda, manga^
desum by the glass makers, and subsequently*
by different chemists manganesium, mangani-
um, and finally manganese. In 1774 Scheele,
and Bergman described the black oxide as a pe-
culiar earth, and Gahn afterward succeeded in
isolating the metal from it by mixing the pulver-
ized mineral with charcoal and oil, forming the
mass into pellets, which were introduced into a
brasqued crucible and exposed for an hour to the
highest heat of a forge. The metal obtained in
this way is very brittle, and, like cast iron, con-
tains silicon and carbon, and has a variable spe-
cific gravity. Brunner adopted a method anal-
ogous to the one employed in the preparation
of aluminum ; the chloride of manganese was
fused with an equal weight of fluor spar and one
fifth its weight of metallic sodium. The metal
thus prepared is very hard and brittle, will
take a fine polish, cannot be scratched by a file,

MANGANESE

103

^ jts glass easily, does not change in moist air,
is not attracted by a magnet and is not itself
magnetic, and has the specific gravity of 7*16.
Deville reduced manganese oxide by mixing it
with one tenth its weight of sugar charcoal and
exposing it for three hours to a white heat in
a lime crucible enclosed in a brasqued crucible.
The product was a crystalline mass, the powder
of which decomposed water rapidly ; color like
bismuth; specific gravity 8'01 5. Loughlin has
subjected the above methods and numerous
others to a careful repetition in his laboratory,
and comes to the conclusion that the task of
producing perfectly pure manganese is one of
great difficulty. The discrepancy between the
specific gravities, ranging from 6*85 to 8'015 as
given by different experimenters, leads to the
conclusion either that manganese has several
allotropic modifications, or that the pure metal
has not yet been made. Some of the alloys of
manganese are of great value. With copper
it yields a product which possesses the color
and properties of German silver, while costing
much less. Elliot Savage of West Meriden,
Conn., has invented a process for preparing
this alloy by reducing pyrolusite and copper
ore directly in a gas furnace. Dr. Prieger of
Bonn and Valenciennes of Paris have pre-
pared several alloys of manganese and iron and
manganese and copper. An intimate mixture
of black oxide of manganese, powdered char-
coal, and iron filings or turnings is made in
a black-lead crucible holding 30 to 50 Ibs. A
covering is made of charcoal, fluor spar, and
common salt, and the contents of the crucible
are exposed for several hours to a white heat.
The alloy of manganese and copper is prepared
in a similar way, and both are very hard and
capable of a high polish. In England there are
36 patents involving the use of manganese in
iron and steel, the earliest of which was taken
out in 1799. Berthier made a large number of
alloys of manganese, and described their prop-
erties. Much use is now made of manganese in
the metallurgy of iron and steel, and the frank-
linite ore of New Jersey is largely employed
in the United States in the manufacture of crys-
talline burglar-proof iron and spiegel iron.
Manganese does not occur native, but is found
widely diffused in association with other ele-
ments. The following are the principal man-
ganese minerals, the first being the chief ore
of commerce : pyrolusite, braunite, manganite,
rhodonite, hausmannite, alabandine, diallagite,
wad, psilomelane, franklinite, crednerite, col-
umbite, wolfram, triphiline, and manganese
alum. Mines of manganese have been worked
at Bennington, Vt., West Stockbridge and Shef-
field, Mass., and later in North Carolina and
Virginia. In 1871 $20 a ton was paid in New
York for 70 per cent. Virginia ore. The an-
nual production of manganese ore in Europe
may be approximately stated as follows :

Huelva, Spain. 1,000,000 cwts.

Prussia 581,422 "

Thuringia 82.103 "

Saxony 18,579 cwts.

Austria 9,292 "

Sweden 2,400 "

Nearly nine tenths of the manganese of com-
merce is consumed in the manufacture of chlo-
rine and bleaching powders ; the other tenth is
employed in the following industries : to color
and decolorize glass ; in the manuf ature of iron
and steel ; in the painting and glazing of por-
celain and pottery ; in the production of oxy-
gen ; and in the preparation of the various salts
required in medicine and the arts. Manganese
enters as a base into two classes of compounds,
the manganous and manganic ; and also as an
acid into two classes of salts, the manganates and
permanganates. There are five well character-
ized oxides. 1. Manganous oxide, or manganese
monoxide, MnO, is a basic body furnishing a
series of manganous salts, pink-colored, which
rapidly absorb oxygen, and pass into a higher
state of oxidation. The pure oxide is a green-
ish powder obtained by heating the carbonate
in absence of air ; the hydrate is precipitated
as a white gelatinous mass, when an alkali is
added to a solution of a manganous salt. Of
the manganous salts the chief soluble ones are
the sulphate, MnS0 4 + 5H 2 O, and the chloride,
MnCl 2 +4H 2 O. The sulphide, MnS, and the
carbonate, MnCO 3 , are insoluble. 2. Manganic
oxide, or manganese sesquioxide, Mn 2 O 3 , exists
in nature as braunite, and may be prepared ar-
tificially by exposing manganous oxide to a red
heat. It forms a series of insoluble salts, of
which manganese alum is one of the most in-
teresting. 3. Red or mangano-manganic ox-
ide, Mn s O4, is a neutral body, corresponding
to the magnetic oxide of iron, and occurring
in nature as hausmannite. 4. Black oxide or
manganese dioxide, MnO 2 , is the chief ore of
commerce, the magnesia nigra of the ancients,
and termed pyrolusite by modern mineralo-
gists. It can be artificially formed by adding
a solution of bleaching powder to a manganous
salt. This compound yields one third of its
oxygen when heated to redness, and one half its
oxygen when heated with sulphuric acid. Ac-
cording to Gorgeu, Mn0 2 is capable of form-
ing manganite salts with alkaline bases. 5.
Permanganic acid, H 2 Mn 2 8 , is a dark green
heavy liquid, obtained by the action of strong
cold sulphuric acid upon potassium perman-
ganate. Manganic trioxide, its corresponding
hydrate, manganic acid, and the anhydride of
permanganic acid, are not known in a free
state. The salts of the permanganates, notably
the potassium permanganate, are now largely
employed as disinfectants, for bleaching, and
in the laboratory for the purpose of volumetric
analysis. Among numerous methods for the
preparation of potassium permanganates, the
following may be recommended : 500 Ibs. of
freshly prepared potash lye of 45 B. are mixed
with 105 Ibs of pure potassium chlorate, and
concentrated by evaporation in an iron kettle ;
and then, under constant stirring, 182 Ibs. of
finely pulverized black oxide of manganese are
added, and the heat continued until the whole
is fluid ; it is then stirred until cold ; the gran-
ular mass is again heated to redness in small

104

MANGANESE

in m ki-ttles until it is wholly fused, and is
then, after cooling, broken up, boiled with
water in a large pot, and allowed to settle;
the clear liquor is decanted and evaporated
to crystallization. In this way, from 180 Ibs.
of oxide of manganese, 98 to 100 Ibs. of potas-
sium permanganate, in beautiful long needles,
can -be obtained. For the bleaching of en-
irr:i\ ings and paper stock, for the purification
of drinking water, as a disinfectant in hospi-
tals, as a deodorizer of tainted meat in culinary
operations, as a tooth wash under the name of
Condy's liquid, for the evolution of ozone oxy-
gen, and for chemical analysis, there are few
agents more valuable than potassium perman-
ganates. Various colors or dyes are prepared
from salts of manganese. Nuremberg violet
is made by fusing finely pulverized pyrolusite
and phosphoric acid in proper proportions, di-
gesting in ammonia, filtering, evaporating to
dryness, and treating with water, when a violet
powder remains. Barium manganate affords
a fine green pigment, much safer than arsenic
colors. Potassium permanganate dyes wood in
imitation of mahogany and nut wood. The
employment of manganese in glass manufac-
ture was one of the earliest uses of this element.
The oxide of manganese is put into the glass
mixture to counteract the effect of oxides of
iron ; but in course of time it is itself oxidized
by the light and air, and colors the glass red.
As red glass intercepts the chemical rays of
light, the skylights of photographers and the
sashes of greenhouses have to be provided with
glass to which no manganese has been added.
The manufacture of oxygen on a commercial
scale, according to the process of Tessi6 du
Motay, is founded upon the property of the
black oxide of manganese, when fused with
caustic soda, to take up oxygen from a current
of hot air, which it yields up again to super-
heated steam, thus offering a cheap and con-
tinuous process. As the principal application
of the oxides of manganese is in the manufac-
ture of bleaching powders, their commercial
value depends upon the amount of oxygen they
can furnish, or, which comes to the same thing,
the quantity of chlorine which they are capable
of eliminating when treated with hydrochloric
acid. The methods of assaying the oxides of
manganese may be classed under four heads :
1. The determination of the amount of oxygen
disengaged by sulphuric acid ; 2, the oxidation
of oxalic acid ; 3, the evolution of chlorine
from hydrochloric acid ; 4, volumetric estima-
tion. For the details of these methods the
reader is referred to Fresenius's " Chemical
Analysis." The chloride of manganese, ob-
tairi.-.! by crystallization from the residues in
the manufacture of chlorine from the dioxide
and hydrochloric acid, is regenerated so as to
recover the dioxide to be employed again, by
neutralizing its solution with excess of manga-
nese and treating with hypochlorite of lime ;
by slightly elevating the temperature chlorine
is disengaged, and the hydrate of the dioxide is

MANGO

precipitated in great purity, thus accomplishing
a great saving in the quantity of hydrochloric
acid and manganese required in this important
industry. Several salts of manganese have
been used in medicine, the most important of
which are the dioxide, iodide, sulphate, and
phosphat'e, and permanganate of potassium.
The first of these is said, when slowly introduced
into the system, as happens to those engaged
in grinding the mineral, to act as a poison,
finally inducing paraplegia ; but this is by no
means a common occurrence. It has been
used as a tonic, and also as a local remedy in
dyspepsia. The iodide, sulphate, and phos-
phate are used together with or instead of the
corresponding salts of iron, and are supposed
to have a similar action. Minute quantities of
manganese have been found in the body, but it
is extremely doubtful whether its presence is
of physiological importance, or is in fact any-
thing more than an accident. Although the
therapeutic value of these compounds may be
doubted on theoretical grounds, yet practical-
ly they have been occasionally found of ser-
vice. Cases of anaemia that have proved re-
bellious to chalybeates will sometimes yield to
the salts of manganese. In chronic nervous
debility also these salts sometimes act favor-
ably as a tonic to the nervous system in
some unexplained way. The dose of the sul-
phate of manganese is from 5 to 10 grains.
The sirup of the iodide is one of the best prep-
arations of manganese for medicinal use; its
dose is from 10 to 20 drops three times a day,
and should be given in water soon after eating.

MANGEL WURZEL. See BEET.

MANGLES, James, a British traveller, born
about 1785, died about 1861. He entered the
navy in March, 1800, took part in the expedi-
tion to the Cape of Good Hope, and became a
commander in 1815. In 1816 he visited the
Levant, went up the Nile, and joined Belzoni
in clearing away the sand from the entrance
to the great temple of Ipsambul. They then
crossed the desert to Syria and the Dead sea,
whence in 1820 they returned to England. In
1823 they printed for private circulation a
selection from the letters written by them
while absent, republished in 1844 under the
title of "Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria,
and the Holy Land."

MANGOUSE, or Mongons. See ICHNEUMON.

MANGO, the native name of an East Indian
fruit, of species of mangifera, of which 14 are
known; some of them have been cultivated
and become completely naturalized in the West
Indies and other tropical countries. The genus
belongs to the anacardiacece or cashew family,
of which our native representatives are the
sumachs. The most important species is M.
Indica, of which there are numerous varieties ;
it is a large spreading tree, with simple, entire,
leathery, lanceolate leaves, and large terminal
panicles of flowers ; the calyx is four- or five-
parted, petals six ; the stamens four or five,
only one or two of which are fertile ; ovary

MANGOSTEEN

MANGROVE

105

me-celled, with a curved style; the fruit is
3 in. or more long, ovate, and very va-
iable in shape and color ; it is at first green,
id then becomes partly or wholly orange-
)lored ; beneath the skin there is in the better
arieties a rich delicious pulp, in the centre of
rhich is a large stone, to which the inner por-
ion of the pulp is attached by coarse fibres,

Mango (Mangifera Indica).

something after the manner of a clingstone
peach. The largest varieties weigh two pounds,
but the fruit is usually not larger than a goose
egg. In its fresh state the fruit is much prized
by the inhabitants of tropical countries, and
it is sometimes offered in a very poor con-
dition in our seaport cities. It is sent from
the West Indies in the form of a sweetmeat,
but in that state it is simply sweet and fla-
vorless. The green fruit, pickled and highly
spiced, is imported into England from the East
Indies ; an imitation of this pickle, called man-
goes, is made of green melons stuffed with aro-
matics. Some of the varieties are not edible on
account of their strong flavor of turpentine,
and being very stringy also, one writer com-
pares them to " a mixture of tow and turpen-
tine." The tree is sometimes cultivated under
glass as a curiosity. The wood is used together
with sandalwood by the Hindoos in burning
their dead ; the bark possesses astringent prop-
erties, and the tree when wounded exudes a
gum resin which is also astringent. The na-
tives of India are said to make use of the as-
tringent leaves and leaf stalks of the mango to
harden the gums, and they also employ them

remedial agents in other ways. The seeds
are said to possess anthehnintic properties, and
when boiled are eaten in times of scarcity.

MANGOSTEEN (Malay, mangostana ; Garci-
nia mangostana), a tree growing with an up-
right stem to the height of 20 ft., and bearing
a very beautiful and eatable berry, esteemed
the most delicious of East Indian fruits. The
genus Garcinia, of which there are over 30

species, belongs to the natural order guttiferce,
which contains trees that are natives of the
hottest parts of the world, and characterized
by thick, entire, opposite leaves and resinous
juices. Several species of Garcinia furnish a
portion of the gamboge of commerce. In the
mangosteen the leaves are about 7 or 8 in.
long, and about half as much in breadth at
the middle, gradually tapering at both ends, of
a shining green above, but of an olive color
beneath. The flower resembles a single rose,
composed of four roundish petals, of a dark
red color, which are thick at the base, but thin-
ner toward the margins. The fruit is about
the size and shape of an orange, and is crowned
by a broad peltate-lobed stigma ; the rind is
like that of the pomegranate, but softer,- thick-
er, and fuller of juice ; it is green at first, but
changes to a dark brown with some yellowish
spots; the inside is white or of a rose col-
or, and is divided into several cells by thin
partitions, in which the seeds are lodged, sur-
rounded by a soft, juicy pulp, of a delicious fla-
vor partaking of the strawberry and the grape ;
one writer describes its qualities as " utterly
inexpressible." It can be eaten in great quan-
tities without any inconvenience, and it is the
only fruit which sick people in India are al-
lowed to eat without scruple. It is said that
Solander, when in the last stage of a putrid
fever at Batavia, found great benefit from
sucking this delicious and refreshing fruit.
The pulp has a most happy mixture of the tart
and the sweet, and is no less salutary than
pleasant. The dried bark of the Garcinia is

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana).

astringent, and has been used in dysentery and
in infusion as a gargle for sore mouth ; the
Chinese employ it for dyeing black. The sev-
eral species are beautiful stove plants.

MANGROVE, a common name for three or
four tropical plants, but mainly applied to
species of rhizophora (Gr. /W'C, a root, and
, to bear), a genus so called on account

106

MANGROVE

of the aerial roots borne by the plants ; the
genus gives its name to the small family of
rhizophoraceas, which is nearly related to the
myrtle family. There are but few species, the

Mangrove.

best known of which is R. Mangle, a plant
common in tropical countries; its northern
limits upon this continent are southern Flor-
ida on the Atlantic and Lower California on
the Pacific coast. It is a tree sometimes 40
ft. high, but usually much smaller, with oppo-
site, entire, leathery leaves, and axillary, few-
flowered clusters of showy flowers; the per-
sistent calyx has an obovate tube and a four-
lobed limb ; the yellow petals are four, thick,
notched at the apex, and woolly on the mar-
gins; stamens eight; ovary two-celled with
two ovules in each cell;
fruit one-celled, indehis-
cent, at length perforated
by the radicle of the em-
bryo, which germinates
while the fruit is still upon
the tree. The mangrove
is found in muddy locali-
ties directly upon the sea-
shore, where it forms im-
penetrable thickets ; its
manner of growth is like
that of the banian tree
in miniature, as the stem
and branches produce long
slender roots, which final-
Fruit of Mangrove. ly reach the earth and be-
come fixed. The mangrove
not only prevents the encroachments of the sea
upon the land, but acts an aggressive part in
wr. -ting land from the sea; the seeds, which
might be washed away if they fell as soon as

MANICH.EANS

ripe germinate while yet attached to the
stem, and when one falls it is already pro-
vided with a long radicle ; in fact they are not
properly any longer seeds, but young plants,
which when they drop into the mud are ready
to grow at once; after the young tree has
formed a stem and head of branches, it is then
by means of its aerial roots enabled to spread
and occupy more territory, and thus advance
seaward, while its fruit will drop beyond the
line of the parent tree and new plants be pro-
duced further from dry land. The tangled
mass of stems and roots in a mangrove thicket
retains the debris from the land that may be
brought down by floods, and thus upon the
land side of the grove solid ground is gradually
formed. From the great quantity of decaying
vegetable matter collected in a mangrove
thicket, such localities are highly malarious.
The account of oysters growing upon trees is
not, as has been supposed, a traveller's fable,
for the submerged portions of the branch-like
roots of the mangrove are often studded with
these and other mollusks, and when the tide
recedes oysters may be literally gathered from
trees. Other species are found on the Malabar
coast, and one is found on the Feejee and neigh-
boring islands. The wood of the mangroves
is tough, hard, and durable in the water;
hence it is employed for boat building, a use
for which the natural curves of its branches
and its numerous knees especially adapt it.
The bark contains a large amount of tannin,
and is used all over the West Indies in the
preparation of leather, as well as by dyers,
giving with different mordants slate-colored
and various brown tints. Occasional ship-
ments of the bark have been made to England,
but as there are many products which are
much richer in tannin in proportion to their
bulk, it is not likely to become a regular article
of commerce. The fruit of the common man-
grove is ovate and crowned with the persistent
calyx, and said to be sweet and edible ; its fer-
mented juice makes a kind of light wine.
MANHATTAN ISLAND. See NEW YOEK.
HANHEIM. See MANNHEIM.
MANICHJDANS, a religious sect of the East,
founded about the middle of the 3d century.
Its origin is involved in obscurity, oriental and
occidental writers differing much in their ac-
counts of it. According to the latter, Manes
or Mani, the founder of the sect, was not the
originator of his doctrines. The fullest ac-
count of his life and of the source of his sys-
tem is given by Epiphanius, and is in all essen-
tials corroborated by Cyril, Socrates, Theo-
doret, Suidas, Cedrenus, and the Acta Disputa-
tionis S. Archelai from which their statements
were derived. This work, of uncertain author-
ship, and extant only in a corrupted form, is
rejected by some scholars as wholly unhistori-
cal. It contains an account of a disputation be-
tween Manes and Archelaus, bishop of Cascar.
It states substantially that a certain Seythianus,
an Arabian by birth, but a native of Scythia,

MANIOHJSANS

107

a man of much learning, wealth, and travel,
conceived the idea of a dualism, the doctrine
of good and bad principles. His disciple Tere-
binthus composed for him four books, entitled
Mvarvpia, Ke^a/lam, Evayy&iov, and Qr]Gavp6i.
Scythianus was intending to go to Judea, in
the time of the apostles, and teach his doc-
trines there (as he did, according to Epipha-
nius), when he suddenly died. Terebinthus fled
to Persia, took the name of Budda, and taught
the doctrine of Scythianus. Seeing that he was
not gaining disciples, he attempted to deceive
by magic arts, and while in the act fell from a
roof and died. The books of Scythianus be-
came the property of an old woman in whose
house he had been lodging, and whose slave,
Oubricus, called also Manes, inherited them at
her death. Manes studied the doctrine and
undertook to teach it, but with little success.
Attempting to cure a sick child of the king of
Persia with some of the remedies given in his
books, and failing, he was thrown into prison.
Shortly before this occurrence Manes had sent
his disciples Thomas, Hernias, and Addas or
Adda to Jerusalem to study the Christian reli-
gion. Upon their return they gave him the
Christian books which they had bought, and
he studied them in his prison, and embodied
many Christian doctrines, changed and falsi-
fied, in his own system. Shortly after he suc-
ceeded in making his escape. He challenged
Marcellus, a pious Christian of Cascar (Kas-
kar) in Babylonia, to a religious disputation,
and was defeated. He then went to a place
designated as Diodori Vicus, where he disputed
with the bishop Archelaus and the presbyter
Trypton, and was again discomfited. He was
finally taken prisoner and sent back to Persia,
where he was flayed alive, and his skin, stuffed
with straw, was publicly exhibited as a warn-
ing. Several reasons, as pointed out by Baur
(Das Manichdische Religionssystem, 1831), tend
to show that the strange particulars of Epi-
phanius's narrative are far from being all his-
torical. The Fihrist el-ulum ("List of Sci-
ences"), the oldest known literary history of
the Arabs, written about 987 by Abulf araj Mo-
hammed ben Ishak en-Nedim, a book which
still made use of the works of Manes and his
disciples, no longer extant, has statements in re-
gard to Manes which are at variance with those
of Epiphanius. According to this, Manes was
born in Ctesiphon, the son of Futtak Babek or
Fatek, of Hamadan, and of a woman probably
of Babylonian origin. When 12 years old Manes
became the subject of a divine inspiration, and
at the age of 24 he was asked to act as a pro-
phet. De Sacy, in his Memoires sur diverses
antiquites de la Perse, adduces several oriental
books which state that Manes, after hiding him-
self in a cave for a year, pretended to have come
from heaven, where he bad received a painted
slate, thereafter known as the Erteng-i-Mdni,
It is further stated that Manes alleged that he
had received his doctrine from the king of para-
dise through the mediation of an angel. He

j himself was the Paraclete of whom Christ had
spoken. His tenets were derived partly from
Christianity and partly from the Magi. His
writings were six in number, one in Persian
and five in Syriac, besides a multitude of epis-
tles. The graphic system employed by him-
self and his disciples is said to have been pecu-
liar, resembling both Persian and Syrian char-
acters. Most of the oriental writers agree
that Manes came to a violent death, and that
he was brought before a tribunal of priests,
charged with heresy, and condemned. Spiegel,
in his Erdnische AlterthumsTcunde (vol. ii.,
1873), is inclined to consider historical the
statements that Manes entered the career of a
prophet when he was 24 years old, and that
he addressed himself both to the Zoroastrians
and Christians of Mesopotamia. The Mani-
chaean system is a mixture of Parseeism, Chris-
tianity, Babylonian mythology, and Buddhism.
It contains a dualism different from that of the
Magi, and shows the same easy transition from
the concrete to the abstract characteristic of
the Iranian religion. It assumes that there are
two kingdoms existing from all eternity, those
of light and of darkness, coexisting with and
bordering on each other ; the former under
the dominion of God, the latter under the
dominion of the demon or Hyle (matter). (See
GNOSTICISM.) An inroad was made by the
kingdom of darkness, the barriers were broken
through, the primitive man, God's first-born
son, was for a time imprisoned, and the mate-
rials of light and darkness were intermixed.
God now caused the world to be made out
of this mixed material. It was made by the
" living spirit," in order that the unmixed
and imprisoned material of light, which is
called by the Latin writers Jesus patibilis,
might be separated by degrees, and the old
boundaries restored. This recapturing of the
material of light was effected by Christ and
the Holy Spirit, who inhabit respectively the
sun and moon and the air, while the demon and
evil spirits are fettered to the stars. Adam,
the progenitor of the human race, was created
after the image of the primitive man. Every
man has two souls, one of light, the other of
darkness; and it is his mission to subject the
latter to the former, uniting with his soul of
light some of the material of light imprisoned
in certain plants, and so fitting it for return to
the kingdom of light. The demon long led
men astray by the false religions of Judaism
and heathenism ; but at length Christ descended
from the sun, assumed a bodily appearance, and
taught true worship. He was not fully under-
stood even by his apostles; still less by their
successors, whom Manes contemptuously calls
Galileans. Hence Christ promised the Para-
clete, who appeared in Manes. The Manichae-
ans therefore rejected wholly the Old Testa-
ment, and partially the New. They appealed
to apocryphal writings, and especially to the
writings of Manes, which alone they acknowl-
edged as authoritative. The spirit of their

108

MANICILEANS

morality was self-conquest by asceticism, of
\\hi.-h they held to three degrees: 1, what the
Latin writers call signaculum oris, abstinence
from all impure words, and even thoughts,
and from any kind of food which might in-
crease the power of the body over the spirit,
and especially flesh, wine, and strong drinks ;
2, the signaculum manuum, abstinence from
such work as makes this world an attractive
home; 8, the signaculum sinus, abstinence
from sexual intercourse. Legal external mar-
riage was not absolutely forbidden, but celi-
bacy was strongly recommended, while absti-
nence from procreation was a moral duty.
This rigorous asceticism imposed on the bap-
tized members such privations that most Mani-
cheeans remained catechumens, postponing bap-
tism as long as possible. The worship of the
Manichaeans was very simple. Sunday was cel-
ebrated by fasting ; they kept the day of Manes's
death as an annual festival; they adminis-
tered baptism with oil, and admitted only bap-
tized members to the Lord's supper, which was
celebrated in secret. Manes himself sent out
12 apostles, and these were afterward repre-
sented by 12 magistri, with a 13th invisible
one, without doubt Manes himself, at their
head. After them followed 70 or 72 bishops,
who in turn had under them presbyters, dea-
cons, and the other electi, or baptized members
of the church. The cruel execution of Manes,
the date of which is commonly fixed at A. D.
276, in the reign of Bahram I., was undoubt-
edly followed by a persecution of his disciples.
The Manichseans consequently fled from Iranian
territory into lands occupied by Tartaric races,
where Buddhism was the general religion, and
toleration was shown to other sects. They re-
turned to the west only after the fall of the Sas-
sanian dynasty, and settled especially in Baby-
lon and its environs, which became the seat of
the Manichroan primate, and seems to have been
looked upon as a sort of holy city. Many emi-
grated to Khorasan in the reign of the caliph
Muktadir, and still more to Samarcand. Mos-
lem fanaticism did not disturb them here, as
the chief of the Turkish tribe of Tagazgaz, who
took an interest in them, threatened vengeance
against the Mohammedans in his territory if
any harm should be done to the Manichseans.
At the time of the author of the Fihrist, in
the 10th century, there were but few Mani-
chaeans in the west, and in Bagdad their num-
ber diminished, within his own recollection,
from 300 to 5. Manes had appointed Sis or
Sisinnius to be his successor as the head of
the church, and the succession was continued
for several centuries. But in the time of the
<"ili|'h Walid I. (705), while Mihr was the
head of the ManichaBans, a certain Zadhnrmn/
separated from the community and built in
Madain a temple, of which he declared himself
to be the chief. He appointed Miklas to be
hi* -m-cessor, and hence those who adhered to
him were called Miklasiya, and those who
recognized the authority of Mihr were called

Mihriya. It seems that the two sects were
subsequently reunited. During the caliphate
of Al-Mamoun (813-833) one Yazdanbakht
caused another schism, of which very little is
known. The doctrine of Manes succeeded in
gaining many converts, as it appealed large-
ly to the imaginative and philosophic charac-
ter of the oriental mind. Manichaeism spread
beyond Iran and Mesopotamia over Asia Mi-
nor and Africa, and it found its way into Eu-
rope. Its history may be divided into three
periods. The first period extends to the end
of the 6th century, until which time the Ma-
nichaean doctrines continued in a measure in
their original oriental form. In Africa its suc-
cess was sufficiently great to be looked upon
as the rival of Christianity. It numbered
among its converts many eminent and learned
men, as Alexander Lycopolitanus, Faustus of
Milevi, and even St. Augustine for at least nine
years. St. Augustine says that the name of
Manes or Mani was changed to Manichasus,
in order to avoid ribald remarks called forth
by the resemblance of the former to the Greek
fiavia. The persecutions of Diocletian, Con-
stantine, Gratian, Theodosius, Valentinian, and
Honorius finally succeeded in weakening their
power, and the Vandal kings drove them out
of Africa into Sicily and Italy, where Pope
Leo I. and Valentinian III, soon took measures
either to convert or destroy them. But a cen-
tury and a half later Gregory I. still complained
of the large number of Manichaeans in Christian
lands. Persecutions had taught them, how-
ever, the wisdom of appearing to adopt some
of the Christian rites and doctrines, which had
the effect of gradually perverting the oriental
faith into a Christian heresy, and thus Mani-
chaeism entered upon a new phase of its ex-
istence. The second period reaches from the
7th to the llth century. Cappadocia and Ar-
menia had been the cradle of strong Mani-
chaean communities, which, finally exiled into
Bulgaria, by degrees renounced even the name
and headship of Manes, and rejected various
doctrines seemingly unintelligible and un-
profitable. Constantinople was not as severe
on them as the Roman pontiffs and emperors,
though the East finally subjected them to the
same persecutions which their brethren had
suffered in the West. (See PAULIOIANS.) The
Manichaeans of Italy soon came under the in-
fluence of the Bulgarian reform, and a new
variety of the original doctrine sprung up in
the West. This third development embraces
the llth, 12th, and 13th centuries. Germany,
France, and Italy proceeded against the heretics
with unwavering severity, and even the popu-
lace joined in a general persecution of them,
surrendering them to the penalty of death.
(For the history of these new sects, see ALBI-
GENSES, and CATHARISTS.) In modern times
the various forms of Manichaeism have gradu-
ally disappeared, and to all appearance, per-
haps with the exception of a few in Bulgaria
and Persia, disciples of Manes are nowhere to

MANIKIN

MANILA

109

found. In theological polemics the term
Manichaean is still applied to doctrines repre-
senting evil as a substance, identifying it with
matter, or regarding the body of man as the
source or seat of sin. The writings of Manes
and his immediate disciples are not extant.
Fragments are found quoted in the writings
of their opponents, as in the Acta Disputa-
tionis Sancti Archelai, Episcopi Mesopotami-
ensis, cum Manete ; St. Augustine, Contra
Faustum Manichaum, and Contra Fortuna-
tum Manichceum; and St. Epiphanius. Be-
sides the accounts of Manichaaism found in
works on ecclesiastical history, and the spe-
cial works mentioned above, see Schmidt, His-
toire et doctrine de la secte des Cathares ou Al-
ligeois (2d ed., Paris, 1849), and Flugel, Mdn^
seine Lehre und seine Schriften, ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte des Manichaismus, aus dem Fihrist,
im Text nebst Uebersetzung (Leipsic, 1862).

MANIKIN. See ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.

MANILA, a city,
capital of the island
of Luzon, and of the
whole Philippine ar-
chipelago, near the
mouth of the Kio
Pasig, which emp-
ties into the bay of
Manila; lat. 14 36'
N., Ion. 121 E. ;
pop. (including the
suburbs) from 140,-
000 to 150,000, of
whom the Spaniards
and Creoles are about
one tenth, the re-
mainder being na-
tive Tagalas, mesti-
zos, and Chinese.
Most of the Chinese
are engaged in com-
merce, and but few
in agriculture. The
city is divided by the
river into two sec-
tions, Manila proper and Binondo. The for-
mer, which is the military town, is surrounded
by lofty walls, and communicates with Binon-
do by a fine stone bridge 511 ft. long, with 10
arches, first built in 1630, but rebuilt in 1814.
The situation of the town is beautiful. On
one side is the bay, in a framework of forest-
clad mountains declining gradually toward the
shore; and on another a picturesque plain,
where are the military parade ground and the
fashionable promenades, crowded in the even-
ing with showy equipages and gay equestrians
and pedestrians. The aspect of Manila proper
is somewhat dull and monotonous. The streets
are perfectly straight, macadamized, and pro-
vided with ample granite sidewalks. The
houses, which have in general a sort of pala-
tial appearance, are of two stories, and built
in a manner to resist the hurricanes and earth-
quakes so frequent here. The upper story,

commonly occupied by the family, is encircled
by a spacious gallery, from which the sun is
excluded by large sliding panels with mother-
of-pearl panes, sufficiently transparent to ad-
mit light to the apartments. In this town are
the cathedral and some other churches, with
all the monasteries and convents, both of which
are numerous ; the governor's palace ; the cit-
adel, overlooking both towns; the courts of
justice, custom house, barracks, arsenal, hospi-
tal, and other public buildings. Binondo, on
the N. bank of the river, is much larger and
more animated ; but the streets are less regu-
lar and many still unpaved. Numerous canals,
crowded with pirogues, gondolas, and other
boats, intersect this suburb, in which reside
the wealthy merchants, Spanish, English, In-
dian, Chinese, and mestizos. The newest and
most elegant houses on the banks of the Pa-
sig, though of unassuming exterior, are highly
adorned within. Each house has a landing

Manila.

place from the river, and little bamboo huts
to which the inhabitants repair several times
a day for bathing. In other parts of the town
there are sombre and massive structures inter-
spersed with airy bamboo cottages perched
on posts, in the midst of avenues of tropical
trees, giving to the place an appearance at
once Spanish and oriental. The only square
worthy of remark in either town is the Plaza
Mayor in Manila proper, some 300 ft. square,
and embellished with a fine statue of Charles
IV. of Spain, presented by Ferdinand VII. in
1824. The climate is intensely hot, but toler-
ably salubrious; hurricanes occur frequently,
and heavy rains fall at short intervals, espe-
cially during the wet monsoons, which prevail
five months out of the twelve. The tempera-
ture is equable, seldom rising above 99 F. or
descending below 70. Vessels of deep draught
have to anchor at Cavite", about 7 m. distant ;

110

MANILA

but the anchorage in the port of Manila is ex-
cellent for small vessels. Manila is by law the
sole emporium of foreign trade with the Span-
ish East Indies. The chief articles of export
are sugar, tobacco (exclusively to Great Brit-
ain and Spain, the latter receiving annually a
state tribute out of the tobacco crop to the
amount of $800,000), cigars, hemp, coffee, in-
digo, copper, and gums and other tropical
products. The imports include cotton, linen,
woollen, and silk fabrics, manufactured iron,
wines, beer, &c. The total value of the ex-
ports for the year ending Sept. 30, 1872, was
$18,679,770 19 ; of the imports, $2,557,227 42 ;
the amount f duties paid on the latter was
$284,406 81. The more important commer-
cial relations are with Spain, Great Britain, the
United States, France, Germany, China, Chili,
and the Hawaiian islands. The tobacco manu-
facture, a government monopoly, employs 20,-
000 workers of both sexes. (For other manu-
factures, see LUZON, and PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.)
Educational establishments are numerous in
Manila : there are the university of St. Thomas,
with 500 students; that of St. John, with 250 ;
a royal marine school (established in 1820), a
commercial (1840), and a number of primary
schools public and private. Manila was found-
ed by the Spaniards in 1571, on the site of a
Malay town defended by stockades. Miguel Lo-
pez de Legazpi, conqueror of the Philippines
and founder of the city, was indefatigable in
promoting its growth. He founded the cathe-
dral, the metropolitan church of all Catholic
Oceanica, and established a municipal organi-
zation, which was confirmed by Philip II. of
Spain, and continues to be the form of muni-
cipal government in Manila. Chinese laborers
and traders settled here in large numbers, and
in time Became very turbulent. In 1603 an
insurrection took place, and 23,000 Chinese
were massacred; notwithstanding which, the
Chinese population in 1639 numbered in Ma-
nila about 30,000. The severity of imposts
and religious persecution again led to insurrec-
tion, which terminated with the slaughter of
about 25,000 Chinese, and the banishment of
the remainder ; but they soon again resorted
to the city in large numbers, and assisted Ad-
miral Cornish and Sir William Draper in the
capture of it in 1762. The English expedition,
composed of 2,300 Europeans and sepoys,
which sailed from Madras, took the city by
storm, after a siege of ten days. The gover-
nor and archbishop agreed to pay $5,000,000
to save the rich cargoes then lying in the port;
but the king of Spain refused to ratify the
offer. Sir William Draper has been rendered
conspicuous by his controversy with Junius
concerning this ransom. Manila was restored
to Spain by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763.
The Japanese had much trade with the city,
and were settled in it in large numbers during
a portion of the 17th century, before their
laws excluded them from all communication
with the rest of the world. They imported

the raw material extensively used in their
manufactures directly from the Philippines.
Earthquakes have been frequent and disas-
trous; in that of 1645, 3,000 lives were lost;
and those of 1762, 1824, and 1852 were also
destructive of life and property ; while in that
of June, 1863, about 1,000 persons perished.
In March, 1833, about 10, 000 huts were burned,
some lives were lost, and about 30,000 people
left homeless.

MANILA, or Manila Hemp, the fibre of musa
textilis, a native of the Philippine islands, and
of the same genus with the banana and plan-
tain. The tree, known in the islands by the
native name of cibaca, has a similar habit of
growth to the banana and other musas; the

ManUa Hemp Tree (Musa textilis).

stem proper is small, and is surrounded by the
broad sheathing petioles of the leaves, together
making a kind of false stem, which in the abaca
is 15 or 20 ft. high ; the leaves are dark green,
and resemble those of the banana; the fruit
is small and triangular, resembling an abortive
banana, and full of black seeds; the plant is
readily multiplied by seeds and by suckers, and
propagates itself so freely as to take complete
possession of the land. When the stems are
about to flower they are cut down, and split
longitudinally in four pieces; the petioles,
which are the portion furnishing the fibre, are
then pulled off, the outer ones, which furnish
the coarsest and strongest fibre, being kept
separate from the inner; those which grow

MANILIUS

MANISSA

111

near the centre are rejected, as their fibres are
not strong enough to be useful. To separate
the fibre, the petioles are thoroughly beaten
with wooden clubs, by which much of the ad-
hering tissue is loosened ; and the separation is
further effected by the use of a coarse hackle,
after which the fibres are frequently washed,
and when freed of all extraneous matter they
are hung upon poles or ropes to dry. The
fibres are coarser or finer as they are from the
outer or inner petioles, and they are carefully
assorted, the coarsest being for cordage and
the finer for weaving. As a material for ropes
and other cordage its great tenacity and dura-
bility make it highly valuable, and large quan-
tities are used for this purpose. From the
finer fibres the inhabitants of the islands weave
tissues of great delicacy; the fibres are not
spun, but used in their natural state; those
of a proper size being selected, the single
fibres, which are about 15 ft. long, are tied to-
gether at their ends, and wound into a ball,
soaked in hot water, and dried, when they are
ready for weaving. Tissues woven from the
abaca fibre are almost transparent, somewhat
rigid, light, and cool to the touch ; muslins,
veils, napkins, &c., are made from it, and it is
even woven into shirts and other articles of
1 apparel ; the material readily takes dyes of all
colors. Large quantities of paper are made in
whole or in part from manila, usually in the
form of worn-out rope; it possesses great
toughness in proportion to its weight.

MAMLIIS, Marcos, a Latin poet, of unknown
date and history. Bentley supposed that he
was an Asiatic, and Huet that he was a Car-
thaginian, and there are indications in his only
known poem, the Astronomica, that it was
written under Augustus. The first manuscript
was discovered by Poggio in 1416, and was
printed at Nuremberg in 1472 or 1473. Other
MSS. were afterward found, from which later
editions were prepared. There is an English
metrical translation by Creech (London, 1697).
MAMN, Daniele, an Italian statesman, born in
Venice, May 13, 1804, died in Paris, Sept. 22,
1857. He studied law at the university of Pa-
dua, and commenced practice about 1830. He
early became a champion of the national party,
though aiming to combat Austria with legal
weapons. After the accession of Pius IX.
Manin and Tommaseo became the leaders of
| the reform movement in Venice (1847). Ma-
! nin asked for a separate government of Venice
!| and Lombardy, a revision of the codes, an an-
| nual budget, and freedom of religion and of
\ the press. Upon Radetzky's bloody suppres-
sion of a riot in Milan (Jan. 9, 1848), his and
i his colleague's protests (Jan. 18) resulted only
in the imprisonment of the two patriots. The
revolution which soon followed forced the
Austrian commander, Count Zichy, to surren-
der, March 22 ; the republic of Venice or St.
Mark was proclaimed, March 23, and Manin
and Tommaseo were placed at the head of
affairs. The Venetians prepared to form an
529 VOL. XL 8

independent republic in confederation with the
other Italian states; but the Venetian assem-
bly, convened June 3, agreed to the fusion
with Sardinia and Lombardy so as to form a
united kingdom of northern Italy under Charles
Albert. Manin resigned ; but after the king's
defeat at Custozza (July 25), the Venetians pre-
pared for a separate defence. The republican
banner of St. Mark was again hoisted, Aug. 11,
and a triumvirate was appointed to carry on a
dictatorial government on the 13th, Manin be-
ing its head. After the defeat of Charles Al-
bert's army at Novara, March 23, 1849, the
Austrians concentrated their efforts upon the
subjugation of Venice, while the French un-
dertook the reduction of Rome. Fort Mala-
ghera, one of the forts outside of Venice, fell
into the hands of the Austrians, May 26, and
Rome was occupied by the French at the be-
ginning of July. Venice, however, continued
its resistance under the military lead of Gen.
Pepe, and Manin only capitulated (Aug. 23)
upon terms of amnesty to all except 40 con-
spicuous leaders, including himself, who were
compelled to withdraw before the entrance of
Radetzky. He spent the rest of his life in ex-
ile in Paris, supporting himself by giving les-
sons in Italian, and occasionally writing for
the newspapers of Paris, London, and Turin.
After the liberation of Venice his remains
were brought from Paris at national expense,
and buried with great solemnity (March 22,
1868). An edition of some of his writings
was published under the title Documents et

Eis authentiques laisses par Daniel Manin
is, I860). See also Daniel Manin, by H.
in (Paris, 1859), and Errera, La vita ed i
tempi di Daniele Manin (Venice, 1872).
MANIOC, or Mandioca. See CASSAVA.
MAJVIS, an edentate animal of Asia and Af-
rica. See PANGOLIN.

MA MSS A, or Manisa (anc. Magnesia ad Sipy-
lum), a city of Asia Minor, in the vilayet of
Aidin, on the S. bank of the Hermus, and on
the N. slope of Mt. Sipylus, about 20 m. N. E.
of the city of Smyrna; pop. estimated from
30,000 to 60,000, chiefly Turks, with nearly
4,000 Greeks and a number of Armenians and
Jews. There are numerous masques, four Ro-
man Catholic and several Greek and Armenian
churches, and four synagogues. . Among the
public buildings are those for the Turkish
lieutenant governor and for the Greek bishop,
a splendid khan, a district lunatic asylum, the
Ottoman bank, the railway station, and the
new bazaar. The finest palace is occupied by
the Karaosmanglu family, the former princes
of Caramania, once omnipotent here, and still
large landed proprietors. The principal export
is cotton, which has been produced in consid-
erable quantities since the civil war in the
United States ; and the Smyrna railway, opened
in 1865, of which Manissa is the last station
before reaching Kassaba, has rendered the cot-
ton trade still more active in the two localities..
(See MAGNESIA.)

112

MANISTEE

MAIS' ISTEE, a N. W. county of the lower
peninsula of Michigan, bounded W. by Lake
Michigan, and watered by the Manistee river ;
area, about 550 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,074.
The surface is level, the soil fertile, and there
are extensive forests of pine. The chief pro-
ductions in 1870 were 5,517 bushels of wheat,
10 509 of Indian corn, 4,743 of oats, 29,360 of
potatoes, 12,730 Ibs. of butter, and 565 tons
of hay. There were 1 manufactory of engines
and boilers, 2 of sash, doors, and blinds, 1 of
cigars, and 20 saw mills. Capital, Manistee.

M IMSTKK, a city and the county seat of Ma-
nistee co., Michigan, on Lake Michigan, at the
mouth of Manistee river, 135 m. N. W. of Lan-
sing ; pop. in 1870, 3,343 ; in 1874, 4,894. It is
one of the chief lumber manufacturing points
on the lake. The mills, about 20 in number, are
situated on Manistee lake, an expansion of the
river above the city. There are also an extensive
tannery and seven shingle mills. Manistee has
some fine residences, a good union school, and
several churches. It was incorporated in 1869.

MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of
Canada, situated between lat. 49 and 50 30'
N., and Ion. 96 and 99 W. It is bounded S.
by Minnesota and Dakota, and on all other
sides by the Northwest territories, and is 135
m. long E. and W. by 104 m. in breadth, form-
ing nearly a parallelogram; area, 14,340 sq. m.
It is divided into four counties, Lisgar, Mar-
quette, Provencher, and Selkirk, which are
subdivided into parishes. The capital and chief
town is Winnipeg, on the N. bank of the As-
siniboin or Assiniboine river, at its confluence
with the Red, which has about 3,000 inhabi-
tants, and contains within its limits Fort Garry,
the American headquarters of the Hudson Bay
company. The population of the territory
now embraced within the province in 1823 was
about 600; in 1843, 5,143; in 1849, 5,291; in
1856, 6,523 ; in 1870 (census taken Dec. 24),
11,963, of whom 5,757 were French half-breeds,
4,083 English half-breeds, 1,565 whites, and
558 Indians; in 1874, about 20,000. The
half-breeds include all having any intermixture
of Indian blood, and are the descendants of
Indian mothers and French Canadian, English,
or Scotch fathers, the Scotch element predom-
inat'mtf over the English. The distinction of
French and English in the census is based
.rather upon language than lineage. Since 1870
a considerable immigration, particularly from
Ontario, has set in. The principal settlements
are on both banks of Red river, from about
20 m. X. to 15 m. S. of Winnipeg, and along
fthe Assiniboin for about 20 m. W. of that
town. N. of the half-breed settlements on Red
river is a village of settled and Christian In-
dians of the Swampy Cree tribe. The western-
most settlement on the Assiniboin is at Prairie
Portage (Portage-la-Prairie), 67 m. above Win-
nipeg. Besides the Indians enumerated there
arv uncivilized Saulteaux and Maskegons, or
Swarapies, in the province, and some Sioux
who have been driven from Minnesota. The

MANITOBA

half-breeds are a handsome race, large, strong,
and well made; they are generally swarthy,
but many exhibit no sign of Indian extraction.
Intrepid and indefatigable travellers, they mani-
fest the Indian instinct in the ability to find
their way through forests and across prairies.
Many are employed by the Hudson Bay com-
pany as boatmen, guides, and sledge drivers;
others are farmers ; while a large proportion,
especially of the French, pay comparatively
little attention to agriculture, but pursue the
buffalo in summer and winter on the plains
W. and S. W. of the province. In general
they are intelligent and hospitable, but prod-
igal of their earnings, fond of pleasure, in-
clined to drunkenness and indolence, and res-
tive of restraint. Those engaged in farming,
with a settled mode of life, have acquired
more stable and provident traits of character
than the hunters. The general surface is a
level prairie, 80 ft. above Lake Winnipeg and
700 ft. above the sea. It is broken by the Big
ridge and Pembina mountain, ancient beaches
of that lake which is supposed at one time
to have extended over this region. The Big
ridge, rising in places 60 or 70 ft. above the gen-
eral level, commences near Lake Manitoba, N.
of the Assiniboin river, and runs nearly par-
allel with that stream to the Red river, cross-
ing which below Winnipeg, it continues in a
S. E. direction to German creek, and thence
a little W. of S. to the Roseau river, which
it crosses near the United States boundary and
46 m. above its mouth. The Pembina moun-
tain enters the province near the 98th merid-
ian, and runs N. to the Assiniboin, just below
Prairie portage. It marks the ascent from the
general level to the hilly and undulating prai-
rie on the south and west, which is about 100
ft. higher. West of Pembina mountain, and
a little S. of the Assiniboin river, are the Blue
hills, 300 to 400 ft. above the plain. Stony
mountain, W. of Red river, and about 15 m.
N. of Winnipeg, rises 60 ft. above the sur-
rounding prairie. The valley of Red river
through most of its course is liable to inunda-
tion in spring, and on several occasions
suffered severely. N. E. and E. of the Bij
ridge, along the border of the province, tl
country is marshy and swampy, forming
of the marshy region that extends from 1
Winnipeg S. E. to Rainy lake. Marshes
occur at other points both E. and W. of
river. The only important lakes are Winni]
and Manitoba (from which the province derive
its name), a small portion of the S. part of t"
former occupying the N. E. and of the latt
the N. W. corner. The principal stream is
Red river of the North, which, rising in Mil
nesota, flows N. for 140 m. of its course
through the province, and empties into Lake
Winnipeg. It is navigable by steamers into
Minnesota. Red river divides Manitoba into
two unequal parts, about a third lying on the
E. and two thirds on the W. bank. The chief
tributaries from the east, commencing at the

MANITOBA

113

United States boundary and going N., are the
Roseau or Reedgrass river, Kat river, Oak
creek, and la riviere Seine or German creek,
which joins the Red just below Winnipeg.
On the west the Pembina river drains the S. W.
corner of the province, and flowing S. E. joins
Red river in Dakota, a little S. of the boun-
dary. Proceeding N., the other western tribu-
taries-are the Scratching river, la riviere Sale
or Stinking river, the Assiniboin, and Netley
creek, which joins the main stream near its
mouth. The Assiniboin, the largest tributary,
rises in about lat. 52, W. of Lake Winnipe-
gosis, flows first S. E., then bends E., and con-
tinues in this direction for about 150 m. of its
course through Manitoba, emptying into Red
river' about 50 m. above Lake Winnipeg. The
only other stream worth mentioning is White
Mud river, which flows into Lake Manitoba.
The geological formations occurring in the
province are the Silurian in the east, the De-
vonian in the centre, and the cretaceous in the
southwest, W. of Pembina mountain. These
series run parallel with each other in a N. 1ST. W.
and S. S. E. direction. The Laurentian series
occurs only in the N. E'. corner. The soil of
the greater portion, and particularly of the
prairies extending for 30 m. on each side of
Red river, consists of a deep alluvial deposit of
rich black mould, resting partly on limestone
and partly on a bed of hard clay. The lime-
stone crops out on the Red river below Win-
nipeg, where it is suitable for building ma-
terial. Stony mountain consists of limestone.
The elevated prairie W. of Pembina mountain
is covered with a light sandy clay loam, and
near Scratching river the soil is light and sandy.
Big ridge is composed of gravel, and Pembina
mountain consists of clay, gravel, and sand,
thickly strewn with granite boulders. Salt
springs are found in the valley of la riviere Sale,
and at one or two points on Red river further
S.; and there are saline deposits near Stony
mountain and in the vicinity of Lake Manitoba.
The climate is healthy, but exhibits great
extremes of temperature, the thermometer
falling in winter to 40 below zero and even
lower, and in summer rising as high as 100.
Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, the
cold is not severely felt, and horses winter on
the prairies without shelter, fattening on the
grasses which they dig from beneath the snow,
which is seldom very deep. The rainfall in
summer is ample for agricultural purposes, and
vegetation comes rapidly to maturity. Winter
sets in with the commencement of November,
and continues to the middle of April. Frosts
are liable to occur until the end of May, and
cold nights begin toward the end of August.
The mean temperature at Winnipeg of the year
ending May 31, 1873, was 33; of summer,
65-7; of autumn, 37'5; of winter, 3'3 ;
of spring, 32'1 ; warmest month (July), 67'6 ;
coldest month (December), 9. The total
precipitation of rain and melted snow was
22-33 inches. The soil is very fertile. Wheat

is the staple crop, and yields abundantly, 40
bushels to the acre being commonly raised.
Barley, oats, rye, potatoes, turnips, beets, car-
rots, parsnips, cabbage, lettuce, &c., also do
well. Indian corn is not much cultivated,
though some varieties come to maturity in the
driest soils. Flax and hemp have been suc-
cessfully grown. The prairie grasses furnish
good hay, and afford nutritious pasturage.
Considerable numbers of horses, cattle, sheep,
and swine are raised. Grasshoppers or locusts
are the chief pest of the farmer, and have
on several occasions destroyed all vegetation.
The principal wild fruits are strawberries,
currants, raspberries, plums, cherries, blue-
berries, whortleberries, and marsh and high-
bush cranberries. Wood is scarce, and is found
chiefly in narrow strips along the Red and
Assiniboin rivers, the timber belt extending
from -J m. to 2 m. back from the stream on
either bank. There are also portions of wood-
land along the other streams. The principal
trees are the elm, oak, maple, and poplar;
tamarack, spruce, cedar, and birch also occur.
The ridges afford small aspens and pines, and
clumps of willows and aspens are found in the
marshes, as well as on portions of the prairies.
The ash-leaved maple (negundo fraxinifoli-
iim) yields sugar. Among the wild animals are
elks, rabbits, badgers, and squirrels. There are
ducks, geese, cranes, swans, snipe, prairie hens,
and other birds. The rivers and lakes swarm
with whitefish, sturgeon, trout, cat fish, pike,
perch, and gold-eyes. There are no returns
of the trade with the other provinces of the
Dominion. The value of goods entered for
consumption from foreign countries for the
year ending June 30, 1873, was $1,029,130, of
which $509,838 were from Great Britain and
$441,559 from the United States. The exports
to foreign countries amounted to $246,983, all
but $4,915 consisting of furs. The greater
part of the exports were to Great Britain, the
rest to the United States. There are no rail-
roads in Manitoba, but the projected Canadian
Pacific line is to pass through it, and a railroad
has been commenced from Winnipeg to the
United States boundary, to connect with the
Minnesota system. There is telegraphic com-
munication with the United States. The gov-
ernment is based upon the British North Amer-
ican act (1867) of the imperial parliament, and
the Manitoba act (1870) of the Dominion par-
liament. The executive power is vested in a
lieutenant governor, appointed by the gover-
nor general of the Dominion in council, and
an executive council of six members, appointed
by the lieutenant governor, and responsible to
the assembly. The legislature consists of the
legislative council of seven members, appoint-
ed by the lieutenant governor for life, and the
legislative assembly of 24 members, elected by
districts for a term of four years. The sessions
are annual. Every male person 21 years of
age and upward, actually resident in the prov-
ince, being a British subject or having taken

114

MANITOBA

the oath of allegiance, is entitled to vote, npon
having his name entered by the sheriff on
the voters' list. Voting is viva voce. Quali-
fied voters are eligible to office. The judicial
power is vested in a court of queen's bench,
county courts, and justices of the peace. The
>l bench consists of a chief justice and
t\\ -.. puisne judges, appointed by the governor
trriuTJil in council, and has general jurisdic-
.V county court, having inferior jurisdic-
tion, is held for each county by a Judge of the
queen's bench without a jury. The records
and journals of the legislature are kept and
the laws are published in both English and
French. Either language may be used in le-
gal proceedings and in debates in the legisla-
ture. The common law does not prevail, but
the general principles in force are the same as
those recognized in Quebec, and are derived
from French and Roman sources. Manitoba
is represented in the Dominion parliament by
two senators and four members of the house
of commons (one from each county). The
amount appropriated for the support of the
government for 1872 was $81,425, including
$7,000 for common schools. The salaries of
the lieutenant governor and judges are paid
from the Dominion treasury, besides which the
province receives grants from the Dominion
amounting in the aggregate to $67,204 50 per
annum. The public schools are under the
charge of a board of education of 14- mem-
bers, of whom half are Catholics and half
Protestants, one of the members acting as su-
perintendent of the Catholic and another of
the Protestant schools. There are 40 com-
mon schools (20 Protestant and 20 Catholic),
three Protestant female schools, several con-
ventual academies and schools controlled by
the Catholics, and three colleges, viz. : St.
John's (Episcopal), St. Boniface (Catholic), and
Kildonan (Presbyterian). Three weekly news-
papers are published in the province (one each
in Kn^lish, French, and English and French),
and there are 32 post offices. A majority of
the population are Roman Catholics; the oth-
er principal denominations are Episcopalians,
vrian-. :md Wesleyan Methodists. The
i Catholics have an archbishop (arch-
bU'mp of St. Boniface), and the Episcopalians
. a bishop (bishop of Rupert's Land). There are
3-2 c Lurches, viz.: 15 Episcopal, 2 Methodist, 4
terian, and 11 Roman Catholic. Mani-
toba forms part of the territory granted in
1670 by Charles II. to the Hudson Bay corn-
pun v. which in 1811 sold a tract, including
wh it is now the province, to Thomas Douglas,
earl of Selkirk. Under his auspices a colony
was established, which was sometimes called
the Selkirk settlement, but more commonly the
Red River settlement. The first body of colo-
nists arrival from the highlands of Scotland
in lsi-2. an-l a si-roml pnrt.v in 1815, and set-
tled on the Red river near its confluence with
the As-inihoin. Subsequently other settlers
arrived, including a number of French Canadi-

an families in 1818; and as the colony gained
permanence many who had been in the em-
ployment of the Hudson Bay company (most-
ly natives of the Orkney islands) and others
connected with the fur trade, generally accom-
panied by Indian families, came in and took up
their residence in the settlement. Until 1821,
when the Northwest company was merged in
the Hudson Bay company, the colonists suf-
fered much from attacks by the employees of
the former. In 1835 the Hudson Bay com-
pany bought back from the heirs of Lord Sel-
kirk the territory granted to him in 1811, and
established a more regular government than
had previously existed, under the style of the
governor and council of Assiniboia, giving it
jurisdiction over the district embraced within
a radius of 50 m. from Fort Garry. The offi-
cers were appointed by the company, the coun-
cillors being chosen from among the most in-
fluential citizens of the district. Settlements
having been made W. of these limits, a pro-
visional government was formed at Prairie
Portage in 1867, with Mr. Spence as president
and a council of eight members styled the
council of Manitoba, but it dissolved before
the annexation of the country to Canada. The
act of parliament of 1867 creating the Domin-
ion of Canada contemplated the acquisition by.
that government of the Hudson Bay territory,
and Dec. 1, 1869, was subsequently fixed as the
date of transfer. In the mean time an act of
the Dominion parliament was passed providing
for the temporary government of the entire
region under the name of the Northwest ter-
ritories, a measure respecting which the inhab-
itants of Assiniboia were not consulted. This
fact, with other grounds of apprehension,
caused much dissatisfaction. Upon the ap-
proach of William McDougall, who was to act
as lieutenant governor of the Northwest ter-
ritories, the French half-breeds, under the
lead of Louis Kiel, resolved to prevent his en-
trance into the settlement until some guar-
antee was received that the rights of the in-
habitants would be respected ; and from about
Oct. 20, 1869, to Aug. 24, 1870, they held pos-
session of the country. A provisional govern-
ment was formed, with Kiel as president and
a council of 24 members (12 English and 12
French), and a bill of rights was adopted, the
most prominent feature of which was a de-
mand for representation in the Dominion par-
liament and for a local legislature elected by
the people. These were conceded by the
Manitoba act, which passed the Dominion par-
liament on May 20, 1870, and was accepted by
the legislative assembly of Assiniboia on June
24, providing for the admission of the prov-
ince from and after the day of the queers
proclamation annexing the Hudson Bay terri-
tory. The actual transfer of this region, de
layed by the disturbances, took place July 15 in
virtue of a royal proclamation of June 23. On
Aug. 24 the 60th rifles, under Col. (now Gen.)
Wolseley, entered Fort Garry, Pdel having

MANITOBA

MANKATO

115

previously vacated the place ; and on Sept. 3
Mr. Archibald, the lieutenant governor of the
province, arrived. The troops soon returned,
and were replaced by Canadian militia. See
"The Red River Settlement, its Rise, Pro-
gress, and Present State," by Alexander Ross
(London, 1856) ; " Narrative of the Canadian
Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857," &c.,
by H. Y. Hind (2 vols., London, 1860) ; Esquisse
le Nord- Quest de VAmerique, by Arch-
lop Tache (Montreal, 1869), translated by
ipt. D. R. Cameron, " Sketch of the North-
rest of America" (Montreal, 1870); "The
reation of Manitoba, or a History of the Red
Lver Troubles," .by Alexander Begg (Toron-
1871) ; " Manitoba and the Northwest of
s Dominion," by Thomas Spence (Toronto,
L871) ; and " Red River Country and its Re-
mrces," by J. J. Hargrave (Montreal, 1871).
MANITOBA, Lake, a body of water in the,
Northwest territories of Canada, intersected
the 51st parallel and 99th meridian, situ-
jd about 60 m. S. W. of Lake Winnipeg, into
which it discharges through the Little Saskatch-
ewan or Dauphin river, which expands near
the middle of its course into St. Martin's lake.
Lake Manitoba is about 120 m. long from N.
N. W. to S. S. E., and has a breadth not ex-
ceeding 25 m. ; area, about 1,900 sq. m. It is
40 ft. above Lake Winnipeg, and is navigable
by vessels drawing 10 ft., though its outlet only
admits small craft. At its N. extremity it re-
ceives through Water Hen river the waters of
Winnipegoos or Winnipegosis, Dauphin, and
Water Hen lakes, and at its S. extremity White
Mud river. It abounds in fish. The name sig-
nifies " supernatural strait," the Indians attrib-
uting the peculiar agitation of the water in a
portion of the lake to the presence of a spirit.
MANITOF, among some tribes of the Amer-
ican Indians, the name of any object of wor-
ship. "The Illinois," wrote -the Jesuit Marest,
*' adore a sort of genius, which they call mani-
tou ; to them it is the master of life, the spirit
rules all things. A bird, a buffalo, a bear,
feather, a skin that is their manitou." " If
e Indian word manitou," says Palfrey, "ap-
ared to denote something above or beside
common aspects and agencies of nature, it
light be natural, but it would be rash and mis-
ing, to confound its import with the Chris-
Mohammedan, Jewish, Egyptian, or Greek
inception of Deity, or with any compound of
selection from some or all of those ideas."
MANITOF, a county of Michigan, comprising
le Beaver, Fox, and Manitou islands in Lake
ichigan, off the N. W. coast of the lower pen-
isula; area, about 100 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
1. The largest island is Big Beaver; the
ther principal islands are Great Manitou, Lit-
Manitou, Little Beaver, Garden, Hog, South
''ox, and North Fox. The surface is rough and
soil only moderately fertile. Capital, St.
Fames, on Big Beaver island.
MANITOULIN ISLANDS, a group stretching E. t
id W. along the N. shore of Lake Huron from [

Georgian bay to the N. peninsula of Michigan,
the principal of which are Great Manitoulin or
Sacred island, Little Manitoulin or Cockburn,
and Drummond's. All but the last (which
belongs to Chippewa co., Mich.) are included
in Algoma district, Ontario, Canada; area,
1,183 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 2,011, of whom
1,562 were Indians. Great Manitoulin, about
80 m. long by from 5 to 30 broad, is deeply in-
dented by numerous bays, and has an elevated
and rugged surface, abounding in fine scenery.
The interior is densely wooded with pine, and
in the E. part are several lakes. Little Manitou-
lin, about 10 m. in diameter, resembles Great
Manitoulin in its general features. Drum-
mond's island is about 20 m. long by from 2 to
15 broad, and has an irregular surface, covered
with large masses of rock. It is separated from
the mainland of Michigan by a strait scarcely
a mile wide, which forms the principal passage
for vessels bound to Lake Superior.

MANITOWOC, an E. county of Wisconsin, bor-
dering on Lake Michigan, and drained by the
Manitowoc, E. and W. Twin, and Sheboygan
rivers; area, 612 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 33,364.
The soil is fertile and heavily timbered, pine
lumber being the principal article of export.
The chief productions in 1870 were 517,146
bushels of wheat, 92,881 of rye, 386,759 of
oats, 30,176 of barley, 108,180 of potatoes, 80,-
410 of peas and beans, 44,421 Ibs. of wool,
575,319 of butter, and 26,937 tons of hay.
There were 4,460 horses, 9,351 milch cows,
11,017 other cattle, 16,403 sheep, and 11,200
swine ; 15 flour mills, 21 saw mills, 3 woollen
mills, 11 tanneries, 11 currying establishments,
and 10 breweries. Capital, Manitowoc.

MANITOWOC, a city and the capital of Mani-
towoc co., Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan, at
the mouth of Manitowoc river, and on the
Milwaukee, Lake Shore, and Western railroad,
105 m. N. .E. of Madison, and 75 m. N. of Mil-
waukee ; pop. in 1860, 3,059 ; in 1870, 5,168,
of whom 2,577 were foreigners. It has a good
harbor and considerable trade, and contains
several ship-building establishments, tanneries,
and manufactories. There are a national bank,
graded schools, a semi-weekly and four weekly
(two German) newspapers, and five churches.

MANKATO, a city and the county seat of Blue
Earth co., Minnesota, on the right bank of the
Minnesota river, at the great bend, and on the
St. Paul and Sioux City and Chicago and North-
western (Minnesota division) railroads, 76 m.
S. W. of St. Paul ; pop. in 1870, 3,482 ; in
1874, about 6^000. It has an important trade
and thriving manufactures. The sales of mer-
chandise in 1873 amounted to $2,225,000 ; the
value of manufactures was $950,000. The
principal establishments are an extensive lin-
seed oil factory, two flouring mills, two plough
and agricultural implement factories, three
founderies, and manufactories of woollens,
bricks, furniture, and sash and doors. It con-
tains two national banks, a private bank, 15
hotels, three public halls, a driving park and

116

MANLEY

fair grounds, one of the state normal schools,
three large public school buildings, a denom-
inational school, a public library, four weekly
newspapers (one German), and 11 churches.

MANLEY, John, an American naval comman-
der, born at Torbay, Devonshire, Eng., in 1734,
di.-.l in Boston, Feb. 12, 1793. He settled at
Marblehead, Mass., and was master of a mer-
chantman. At the outbreak of the revolution-
ary war he had command of the armed schoon-
er Lee, with which he cruised along the coast
of Massachusetts bay, making captures of great
value to the American army then investing
Boston. Among these was an ordnance brig
laden with heavy guns, mortars, and intrench-
ing tools. He was commissioned as a captain
by congress Aug. 22, 1776; and on June 1,
1777, his ship, the Hancock, 32 guns, in com-
pany with the Boston, 24 guns, Capt. Hector
McXeil, encountered the British frigate Rain-
bow, 44 guns. While Manley was preparing
for action, McNeil deserted him ; and knowing
the disparity in strength, Manley tried to es-
cape, but was chased and captured. After a
rigorous confinement in Halifax, he was ex-
changed, and in 1782 was put in command of
the Hague frigate, which, after lying in a per-
ilous position on a sand bank off Guadeloupe
for three days, exposed to the fire of four Brit-
ish ships of the line, contrived to effect her
escape. This exploit closed the regular mari-
time operations of the United States during
the revolutionary war. Capt. Manley was sub-
sequently tried by a court martial for the loss
of the Hancock, but was honorably acquitted,
while McNeil was dismissed from the service.

MANLEY (DE LA. RIVIERE), Mary, an English
authoress, born in Guernsey about 1672, died
in London, July 11, 1724. She was the daugh-
ter of Sir Roger Manley, governor of the isl-
and of Guernsey, who was author of " History
of the late Wars of Denmark" (1670), and
Commentarii de Rebellione Anglicana (London,
1686). He carefully educated his daughter,
and dying when she was young committed her
to the care of his nephew, who, having already
another wife, enticed her into a marriage with
himself and abandoned her in London. The
duchess of Cleveland, formerly a mistress of
Charles II., then took her under her protection,
but soon deserted her. In this emergency she
began to write for the stage. Her "Royal
Mischief," a tragedy represented at Lincoln's
Inn Fields theatre in 1696, brought her into
great literary repute, and she almost imme-
diately became the centre of a brilliant circle
of men of fashion. Although engaged in nu-
merous intrigues, she soon produced her " Me-
moirs of the New Atalantis " (4 vols., London,
1709), a romance describing with ntuch free-
dom of language and under feigned names the
amours of several distinguished characters.
The work created so much scandal that a crim-
inal prosecution was commenced against the
printer and publisher, to screen whom from
ponkhment she rohmtarfly declared Benetf in

MANN

the court of king's bench the sole author. She
was in consequence imprisoned for a time, but
was subsequently released on bail. There were
several later editions of the work, and it was
translated into French. Upon the accession of
the tories to power in 1710, she resumed her
position as a leader of fashionable profligacy,
and employed her pen with effect in behalf of
the ministry, under the direction, it is said, and
with the approval of Swift. The "Vindica-
tion of the Duke of Maryborough" and other
political pamphlets testify to her industry ; and
she also conducted the "Examiner" for some
time after it had been relinquished by Swift,
and frequently finished pieces begun by him.
Among her remaining works are : the comedy
of "The Lost Lover, or the Jealous Husband "
(1696); "Lucius, the First Christian King of
Britain " (1717), a tragedy, for which Steele
wrote the prologue and Prior the epilogue;
and a variety of ephemeral novels, memoirs,
dramas, and poems. During the last few years
of her life she lived with her printer, John
Barber, an alderman of London.

MANLII, one of the most celebrated patrician
gentes of ancient Rome, members of which
held high offices in the state for about five
centuries. The first of them who attained to
the consulship was Cneius Manlius Cincinna-
tus, consul in 480 B. 0., who fell in battle
against the Etruscans. MARCUS MANLIUS CA-
PITOLINUS, consul in 392 B. C., obtained his
surname, according to Livy, from his defence
of the capitol against the Gauls (about 390).
Roused from sleep by the cackling of -the sa-
cred geese, he hastily collected a force, and
repulsed the enemy, who had already gained
the summit of the hill. He incurred the en-
mity of the patricians by his defence of ple-
beian debtors, was accused of aiming at the
kingly power, and was for a time imprisoned.
After his liberation, he instigated the plebeians
to take up arms, but was arraigned for high
treason before the people in the Campus Mar-
tius, was condemned to death, and was thrown
from the Tarpeian rock (381). The Manlian
gens determined that the name of Marcus should
be conferred in future upon none of its mem-
bers. The Torquati and Vulsones were fam-
ilies of the Manlian gens.

MANN, Horace, an American educationist, born
in Franklin, Mass., May 4, 1796, died at Yellow
Springs, Ohio, Aug. 2, 1859. His father was
a farmer in limited circumstances, and the edu-
cation of the son was obtained entirely from
the common district schools until the age of
20, when he fitted himself to enter the sopho-
more class of Brown university, at Providence,
R. I., where he graduated in 1819. The theme
of his oration, " The Progressive Character of
the Human Race," foreshadowed his future
career. After his graduation he was tutor in
Latin and Greek in Brown university; subse-
quently he studied in the law school of Litch-
field, Conn., was admitted to the bar in 1823,
and opened an office in Dedham, Mass. In

MANtf

117

1827 he was elected to the legislature, and im-
mediately took an active part in the discussion
of all important questions, especially such as
related to morals, public charities, education,
or the welfare of the poor, the ignorant, or un-
fortunate classes. He was foremost in procu-
ring the enactment of laws for the suppression
of intemperance and the traffic in lottery tick-
ets, and for improving the system of common
schools. The establishment of the state lunatic
hospital at Worcester was due to his untiring
efforts ; he was chairman of the commission
that erected the buildings, and in 1833 was
chairman of the board of trustees of the insti-
tution. He continued to be returned by large
majorities as a representative from Dedham
till 1833, when he removed to Boston and en-
tered into partnership with Edward G. Loring.
At the first election after he became a citizen
of Boston he was chosen a member of the
state senate, and by reflections was continued
a senator for four years. In 1836 and again
in 1837 he was president of the senate. While
in the legislature he was a member and for
part of the time chairman of the committee
for the revision of the state statutes; and
a large number of most salutary provisions
were incorporated into the code at his sugges-
tion. After the revised statutes were enacted,
he was appointed in conjunction with Judge
Metcalf to edit the work, for which he pre-
pared the marginal notes and the references to
judicial decisions. At the organization of the
Massachusetts board of education, June 29.
1837, he was elected its secretary, and for the
next eleven years was annually reflected. On
accepting this office he withdrew from all
other professional and business, engagements
and from politics. He introduced a thorough
reform in the school system of the state ; ex-
tensive changes in the law relating to schools
were adopted ; normal schools were estab-
lished; school committees were paid; a sys-
tem of county educational conventions was
instituted; by means of "school registers" the
actual condition of the schools was ascer-
tained; and from the detailed reports of the
school committees the secretary made valuable
abstracts, which he embodied in his annual re-
ports, forming several large volumes. In 1843,
under the auspices of the board, but at his
own expense, he visited Europe, to examine
schools and to obtain such information as
could be made available at home. His seventh
annual report, made on his return, embodied
the results of this tour. Many editions were
printed, not only in Massachusetts, but in
other states, sometimes by order of legisla-
tures, sometimes by private individuals; and
several editions were printed in England. This
report, in which he advocated the disuse of
corporal punishment in school discipline, in-
volved him in a controversy with some of the
Boston teachers, which resulted in the adop-
tion of his views on discipline in the schools.
The "Common School Journal," which he

edited and much of which he wrote, consists
of 10 vols. 8vo. He published a volume of
lectures on education, at the request of the
board. He travelled over the state every year
to hold conventions or teachers' institutes, at
which he often taught during the day and
lectured in the evening. His correspondence
was voluminous. He was continually called
upon for legal opinions in regard to school
matters, which he always gave gratuitously;
and whenever the cases were brought before
the courts, his opinions were invariably sus-
tained. He superintended the erection of two
state normal school houses, and drew plans
and gave directions for hundreds of others.
He says in his "Supplementary Report" in
1848: "From the time when I accepted the
secretaryship in June, 1837, until May, 1848,
when I tendered my resignation of it, I labored
in this cause an average of not less than 15
hours a day ; from the beginning to the end
of this period, I never took a single day for
relaxation, and months and months together
passed without my withdrawing a single even-
ing from working hours to call upon a friend.
My whole time was devoted, if not wisely, yet
continuously and cheerfully, to the great trust
confided to my hands." In the spring of 1848
he was elected to congress, to fill the vacancy
caused by the death of John Quincy Adams.
On June 30 he made his first speech in main-
tenance of the right of congress to legislate
for the territories of the United States, and
its duty to exclude slavery therefrom. In the
ensuing November he was reflected, receiving
11,000 out of 13,000 votes. During his first
session he volunteered as counsel for Drayton
and Sayres, indicted for stealing 76 slaves in
the District of Columbia, and at the trial was
engaged for 21 successive days in their de-
fence. In 1850 he engaged in a controversy
with Daniel Webster in regard to the exten-
sion of slavery and the fugitive slave law, and
Mr. Webster's famous speech of March 7 of
that year. At the ensuing election in Novem-
ber Mr. Webster's friends succeeded in the
whig convention in defeating by a single vote
Mr. Mann's renomination. He, however, ap-
pealed to the people as an independent anti-
slavery candidate, and was reflected. His last
speech in congress was on the slavery ques-
tion, Aug. 17, 1852. On Sept. 15 the state
convention of the free-soil party of Massachu-
setts nominated Mr. Mann for governor, and
on the same day he was chosen president of
Antioch college, a new institution just estab-
lished at Yellow Springs, Greene co., Ohio.
Failing in the election, he accepted the presi-
dency of the college, and continued there till
his death, laboring with zeal and energy in
the cause of education and philanthropy. He
carried the institution through its early pe-
cuniary and other difficulties, and satisfied
himself by the experiment that a college for
the common education of both sexes was prac-
ticable. Besides his annual reports, his vol-

118

MANX A

ume of lectures on education, and his volumi-
nous controversial writings, he published "A
Few Thoughts for a Young Man" (B.oston,
^lavery: Letters and Speeches "
(1851); "Lectures on Intemperance " (1852) ;
and "Powers and Duties of Woman" (1853).
See " Life of Horace Mann," by his wife, Mary
Peabody Mann {Boston, 1865) ; his " Life and
Works" (2 vols., Cambridge, 1867); and
" Thoughts selected from his Writings "
(1869). His lectures on education were trans-
lated into French by Eugene de Guer, under
the title De T importance de V education dans
une repuUique, with a preface and biographi-
cal sketch by Laboulaye (Paris, 1873).

MANNA, the concrete juice of several species
otfraxinu*, or ash. Several of the ashes have
flowers producing distinct petals, a character
which some botanists consider a sufficient rea-
son for placing them in a distinct genus, or-
nus, the flowering ashes. (See ASH.) The
principal manna-bearing species are F. ornus
and F. rotundifolia, natives of southern Eu-
rope and Asia Minor. The juice spontane-

The Manna Ash (Fraxtnus ornus).

ously exudes in the summer months, from the
punctures of an insect, cicada omi, but is in-
creased by transverse incisions made for the
purpose in the bark. The finer kind, known
as flake manna, is from incisions in the upper
part of tin- stem ; it dries upon the tree in long
flakes, which when removed have the under
surface conformed to the trunk of the tree and
the upper of irregular and somewhat stalactitic
appearance. The coarser kinds are obtained
ill-sir the roots of the tree, where the juice is
(1 in joints of the prickly pear (opuntid),
or upon straw placed to receive it. It is an
articl.- of import for the sake of its medicinal
1 11 all ties, and is obtained chiefly from Sicily
ilabria. The best is of a whitish or
IL'ht yellow color in flakes and tears, while the
sorts are darker colored from the im-
with which they are mixed. It pos-

MANNHEIM

sesses a sweet, somewhat nauseous taste, and is
soluble in water or in alcohol. From its boil-
in<* saturated solution it separates on cooling in
crystalline form. It consists of a crystallizable
sweet principle called mannite, which some-
times amounts to 75 per cent. ; of true sugar ;
and of a yellow nauseous matter, which it is
supposed gives to the manna its purgative
property. For the sake of this it is used in
medicine, and is commonly prescribed with
other purgatives, as senna, rhubarb, magnesia,
&c., the taste of which it conceals, while it
increases their effect. When given alone, the
dose for an adult is one or two ounces. Vari-
ous other saccharine exudations of plants are
called manna; the manna of Briangon, which
appears upon the twigs of the European larch
(larix Europcea), is formed during the night,
and soon disappears after the sun falls upon it.
Another substance called manna is obtained by
the Bedouin Arabs from the tamarix mannife-
ra. After collecting it from among the twigs
and leaves, they boil it, then strain it through
cloth, and put it away in leathern bags to be
eaten like honey with bread, as a delicate arti-
cle of food. Dr. Robinson, in his "Biblical
Researches in Palestine," mentions its being
collected in small quantities by the Arabs of
Mt. Sinai, and sold at very high prices to the
Russians. According to Berthelot, the tama-
risk manna from Sinai contains 55 per cent, of
cane sugar, 25 of inverted sugar, and 20 of
dextrine, &c. Manna from Kurdistan contains
61 per cent, of cane sugar, 16*5 of inverted
sugar, and 22 '5 of dextrine. The Sinai manna
is soluble in water or alcohol, and the aqueous
solution readily undergoes fermentation, yield-
ing an alcohol possessing a butyric acid odor.
Though the name is probably derived from
the Syriac mano, a gift, which was applied to
the Scriptural manna, it cannot be proved that
there is any relationship between the natural
products designated by this name and the sub-
stance mentioned in Scripture (Heb. man) as
miraculously supplied to the Israelites.

MANNERS, John. See GRANBY.

MANNHEIM, or Manheim, a town of the grand
duchy of Baden, capital of the circle of the
Lower Rhine, situated on the right bank of the
Rhine, at the confluence of the Neckar with
that river, 43 m. S. S. W. of Frankfort ; pop.
in 1871, 39,614. It is connected by steamers
with Cologne and other places on the Rhine,
and by railway with the principal towns of
Europe. Goethe has appropriately called it
" the pleasant, cleanly Mannheim." The regu-
larity of the buildings, however, gives it a
somewhat monotonous appearance. It con-
sists of 11 straight streets, crossed by 10 other
streets at right angles, forming '110 regular
squares. It is divided into two parts by the
great street leading from the palace to the
suspension bridge over the Neckar. The prin-
cipal public squares are the Plankenplatz and
the Schillerplatz, where Schiller resided in the
house called zum Karlsberg, and which is

MANNING

119

lorned with fountains, and statues of Schil-
ler, Dalberg, and Iffland. The theatre is a fine
building, and in it Schiller's " Eobbers " was
first acted. Behind the palace, which contains
collections of art, a large library, and a cabinet
of natural history, are beautiful gardens, end-
ing in a raised terrace upon the brink of the
Rhine (JRheindamm). Along the banks of the
Neckar, in the outskirts of the town, are hand-
some private gardens, and a broad avenue
(Plankemtrasse) between the Heidelberg and
Rhine gates is planted with trees. In spite of
its fine position on two navigable rivers, the
trade of the place was formerly unimportant ;
but of late years, owing to its railway connec-
tions, it has become the first commercial town
in the grand duchy. The town was founded
in 1606, and from 1720 to 1777 it was the capi-
tal of the Palatinate. It suffered severely in
the thirty years' war, and was almost de-
stroyed by the French in 1688 after a siege
of 17 days. It was soon rebuilt, and was
strongly fortified in 1699; but in the early
part of the present century the ramparts were
removed. During the wars of the revolution,
the French attacked, the town in December,
1794, and occupied it Sept. 20, 1795. During
the long siege only 14 houses remained unin-
jured, and half of the palace was burnt. By
the peace of Luneville (1801), Mannheim was
allotted to Baden.

MANNING, Henry Edward, an English Roman
Catholic archbishop, born at Totteridge, Hert-
fordshire, July 15, 1808. He was educated as
a member of the Anglican church at Harrow
and Balliol college, Oxford, graduated in 1830,
and was chosen fellow of Merton college and
one of the select preachers in the university.
In 1834 he was appointed rector of Laving-
ton and Graffham in Sussex, and in 1840
archdeacon of Ohichester. In 1842 he pub-
lished his first work, on the "Unity of the
Church," which classed him among the Pusey-
ites. Two volumes of sermons published re-
spectively in 1842 and 1846 attracted much
attention. He also published three series of
" Sermons preached before the University of
Oxford" (1844, 1848, and 1850). The Gor-
ham decision, leaving the doctrine of the effect
of baptism an open question in the church of
England, called forth a declaration from him,
and other well known clergymen and laymen
of the establishment, that, unless that decision
was formally repudiated, it would be of bind-
ing force upon the English church. They strove
to free that which they conceived to be the
church of Christ from submission to a doctri-
nal decision given by the crown. Their at-
tempt, however, was without result, and, with
the exception of one or two protests, the ac-
tion of the court was acquiesced in. Dr.
Manning consequently gave up his preferments
in 1851, and was received into the Roman
Catholic church. He then went to Rome,
where he remained till 1854. In 1857 he was
ordained priest by Cardinal Wiseman, and ap-

pointed rector of St. Helen and St. Mary's,
Bayswater, where he established a house of Ob-
lates of St. Charles Borromeo, an association
of secular missionary priests founded in the
16th century. About the same time the de-
gree of D. D. was conferred on him by Pius
IX., with the office of provost of the Roman
Catholic diocese of Westminster and the rank
of prothonotary apostolic. On the death of
Cardinal Wiseman, Dr. Manning was nominated
by the pope archbishop of Westminster, and
consecrated June 8, 1865. He immediately set
about promoting temperance, benevolent guilds,
and elementary education among the poor Cath-
olics of London, and purchased a site for a
cathedral which was to be a memorial to Car-
dinal Wiseman, but declared that not one stone
of this edifice should be laid till every poor
child in his flock was provided with a Catholic
free school. In 1871 he conceived the project
of a Roman Catholic university, appealed to
the public, created a fund, and organized a
senate and a corps of professors. The institu-
tion was opened in Kensington Oct. 15, 1874.
On July 2, 1869, he dedicated the pro-cathedral
of Our Lady of Victories, Newland terrace,
Kensington. At this time a controversy arose
between Archbishop Manning and Bishop Du-
panloup concerning the opportuneness of urging
a definition of the doctrine of papal infalli-
bility. The archbishop before departing for
the oecumenical council addressed a pastoral
letter to his flock on the question of infal-
libility, which, with two others on the man-
ner in which the deliberations of the coun-
cil were conducted, and in elucidation of the
defined dogma, was published, with the title
of Petri Privilegium (London, 1871). In 1868
he addressed to Earl de Grey a remarkable let-
ter on Ireland, in which he sets forth the mis-
chief of English misrule in that country, and
pleads strongly for justice. Since then he has
been prominent in encouraging the " Home
Rule " movement, and has taken an active part
in denouncing the course pursued in Germany
and Switzerland toward the Roman Catholic
church. The principal works of Archbishop
Manning, besides those mentioned, are the fol-
lowing : " The Temporal Mission of the Holy
Ghost " (London, 1865) ; " The Temporal Pow-
er of the Pope in its Political Aspect " (1866) ;
"England and Christendom" (1867); "The
Fourfold Sovereignty of God" (1871); and
" Sermons on Ecclesiastical Subjects " (1872).
MIMING, James, an American clergyman,
born in Elizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 22, 1738,
died in Providence, R. L, July 29, 1791. He
graduated at Princeton college in 1762, became
pastor of a Baptist church at Morristown, N.
J., in 1763, and soon afterward in Warren,
R. L, where he opened a Latin school. In
1763, at the request of an association formed
for the purpose in Philadelphia, he proposed
to several influential gentlemen of the denom-
ination, assembled at Newport, the organiza-
tion of " a seminary of polite literature, subject

120

MANNITE

to the government of the Baptists," and drew
up a plan for such an institution. In 1764 the
k-jjNlature granted them a charter, and in 1765
Mr. Manning, then hut 27 years of age, was ap-
pointed "president and professor of languages
and other branches of learning, with full power
to act in these capacities, at Warren or else-
where." The college went into operation at
Warren in 1766, and on its removal to Provi-
dence in 1770, Mr. Manning went with it, and
also became pastor of the first Baptist church
in that place. During the revolution, when the
college edifice was occupied as a military bar-
rack, and afterward as a hospital, he was ac-
tively engaged in clerical duties, and also ren-
dered important services to the patriotic cause.
In 1783 ho resumed his duties at the college,
and in 1785 he was chosen to represent Rhode
Island in congress, but after six months' service
resigned. He resigned the presidency of the
college in 1790, and his pastorate in April,
1791. (See BROWN UNIVERSITY.)

.MA.YMTK, or Mannitose, also called sugar of
manna and sugar of mushrooms (CgHuOe),
one of the glucoses, which was discovered by
Proust, and its composition determined by Lie-
big. It exists in a great number of vegetables,
and in the saccharine juices which have under-
gone viscous or lactic fermentation ; it is gen-
erally extracted from manna, by digesting this
substance with boiling alcohol, filtering while
hot, and crystallizing ; it should be purified by
repeated crystallizations. On the transforma-
tion of starch into glucose by boiling with
dilute sulphuric acid, it is also formed as a
secondary product ; and finally Linnemann in
1862 obtained it by the action of nascent hy-
drogen on glucose. Mannite is a solid sub-
stance, fusible between 160 and 165 C., and
when once melted it can remain liquid at 140
C. It exercises no action on polarized light ;
it dissolves in 6 times its weight of water at
18 C., and in 80 parts of cold alcohol of the
strength of 89 per cent., and much more readi-
ly in boiling alcohol. It is not soluble in ether,
and absolute alcohol only dissolves 14 per cent.
of IN weight of monnite. Mannite crystallizes
in anhydrous, thin, colorless, four-sided, silky
prisms, which sometimes grow to a consider-
able size. It does not ferment except under
very unusual conditions ; does not reduce oxide
of copper to the state of suboxide, but hinders
the precipitation of sulphate of copper by the
fixed alkalies, causing the formation of a beau-
tiful blue-purple solution instead. In its chem-
ical character, mannite is now regarded as a
polyatomic (hexatomic) alcohol. Berthelot has
shown its close analogy to glycerine, and has
obtained a great variety of salts (called man-
nitanides) from it by heating mannite with dif-
ferent acids to a temperature of between 200
and 250 C. With a mixture of nitric and sul-
phuric acids it gives nitro-mannite. The ni-
trates of silver and mercury and the chlorides
>f sil\vr and mercury are not reduced by man-
nite even at boiling heat ; the acetate and ox-

MANOMETER

ide of silver, however, if heated with mannite
or left in contact with it at ordinary tempera-
tures, yields a speculum of silver. Compounds
of mannite with barium, calcium, strontium,
&c., have been prepared by Ubaldini. In the
presence of beer yeast mannite does not fer-
ment ; but if its solution be maintained at 40
C., after having been mixed with chalk and
poor cheese, pancreatic tissue, or albumen, fer-
mentation takes place, hydrogen and carbonic
anhydride are disengaged, and alcohol is pro-
duced along with lactic and butyric acids.

MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. See FRIGATE BIRD.

MANOMETER (Gr. fiav6^ rare, and fttrpw,
measure measurer of rarity), an instrument
employed to measure the pressure exerted by a
confined portion of gas or vapor. The force is
usually expressed in units of atmospheric pres-
sure, called atmospheres, which are equal to 30
inches height of a column of mercury, or nearly
15 Ibs. to the square inch. It will therefore be
easily seen that mechanical ingenuity may devise
several forms of the instrument. These various
forms may be classified under three different
general forms, which act upon different prin-
ciples: 1, open-air manometer; 2, confined-
air manometer ; 3, metallic-spring manometer.
An open-air manometer is shown in fig. 1. It
consists of a vessel containing mercury in which
a vertical tube & dips. The
vessel also admits a tube, a,
which connects with the boil-
er or chamber of compressed
gas or steam. Calling Boyle's
or Mariotte's law correct for
all pressures, if the compressed
gas has a density twice as great
as it would have at the ordi-
nary atmospheric pressure, it
will raise the column of mer-
cury in the tube 5 30 inches ;
if five times as dense, the
height of the mercurial col-
umn will be 150 inches, cor-
responding to 75 Ibs. to the
square inch. There may be
many forms of open-air ma-
nometers, and the modifica-
tions are generally for the
purpose of increasing the con-
venience of the apparatus by
shortening the distance of the
rise of the mercurial column.
The multiple-branch manometer, fig. 2, is a
convenient form. An iron tube is bent upon
itself, forming several U-shaped flexures, ter-
minating in a vertical tube of glass, C D, fur-
nished with a graduated scale, and open at
the top. Mercury occupies the lower flexures
and portions of the tube. When the com-
pressed steam or gas is admitted, it presses
upon the mercury in the first branch, A, for-
cing it down, and therefore up in the second
branch. If it forces A down 10 inches, the
difference of level in the two branches will be
20 inches. If there are 10 single or 5 double

FIG. 1. Mercurial
Manometer.

MANOMETER

MANSABT

121

lumns, the combined height of mercury sup-
ported in column will be 100 inches, or about
6-66 atmospheres. The compressed-air mano-

FIG. 2. Multiple-Branch Manometer.

meter, fig. 8, is constructed upon the assump-
tion that the confined air in the gauge expands
and is condensed in accordance with Boyle's
law. A is a U-shaped glass tube, one end of
which communicates with the steam cham-
ber, while the other end is closed. It has its
flexure stopped with mercury, and a scale is
attached, which is graduated by connecting
the apparatus with an open-air manometer.
It will be seen that as the mercury in A rises,
the pressure is doubled for every reduction of
the confined air to one half its volume, so that
as the column approaches the top the grad-
uated spaces must be nearer together. The
metallic-spring manometer may be constructed

FIG. 3. Compressed-air
Manometer.

FIG. 4. Bourdon's Pressure
Gauge.

by having a piston press against a spiral spring,
which is also connected with an index ; or a
flat copper tube (elliptic section), bent in a spi-

ral, may be connected at one end with the
steam chamber, and at the other with an in-
dex, as in Burden's pressure gauge, shown in
fig. 4. Increased pressure causes the spiral to
uncoil, by which the index is moved over the
graduated arc.

M \\KKSA, a town of Spain, in 'the province
and 30 m. N. X. W. of the city of Barcelona,
near the left bank of the Llobregat river ; pop.
about 15,000. It is one of the most picturesque
towns in Catalonia and the centre of a rich
farming district, and has extensive manufac-
tures of broadcloth, cotton, silk, tape, ribbons,
gunpowder, and brandy. The streets are clean
and well paved, but many of them are crooked
and steep, and lined with quaint old-fashioned
houses. There are some elegant churches and
other public buildings, and in the neighbor-
hood is the famous monastery of Montserrat,
and the " cave of St. Ignatius," where Loyola
passed some time in retirement before found-
ing the society of Jesus. Manresa was taken by
the French under Macdonald, March 30, 1811,
when more than 800 buildings were burned,
including hospitals and churches. This wan-
ton act so incensed the Catalans, that they
fell upon the rear of the French army on its
march to Barcelona, and destroyed 1,000 men.

MANS, Le, a town of France, capital of the
department of Sarthe, 118 m. S. W. of Paris,
on the "W. bank of the river Sarthe, here
crossed by three bridges; pop. in 1872, 46,981.
It is the seat of a bishop, consists of an old
town and a new town, has a considerable
trade in local products, and manufactures
coarse woollens, yarns, lace, linen, paper, and
soap. The cathedral of St. Julien, dating
from the 12th century, is famous for its fine
Gothic choir and painted windows. It is a
place of great antiquity, having been founded
in the 2d century by the Romans, and called
Suindinum or Cenomani, after the Gallic peo-
ple of the same name, in whose territory it was
situated. During the war of the league Le
Mans was captured by Henry IV. ; and in De-
cember, 1793, it was the scene of the destruc-
tion of the Vendean army, when more than
10,000 persons were slaughtered. On Jan. 11
and 12, 1871, the French army of the Loire,
under Gen. Chanzy, was here defeated and
almost annihilated by Prince Frederick Charles
of Prussia. The town itself was occupied by
the Germans on Jan. 12.

MMSART, or Mansard. I. Francois, a French
architect, born in Paris in 1598, died there in
1666. At the age of 22 he distinguished him-
self by the restoration of the hotel Toulon.
In 1624 he attracted the attention of Cardi-
nal Richelieu, who commissioned him to erect
the church of the Feuillants in the rue St. Ho-
nore, and he was subsequently employed in
many other great works in Paris and in the
provinces. Among the numerous chateaux
erected from his plans are those of Berny,
Blgrancourt, Choisy, Gevres, Fresnes, and Mai-
sons. He built the facade of the church of the

122

MANSEL

Minims in the place Royale, which he con-
sidered his finest work, and the church of Val-
: -e. IK- was fickle and unstable, often

ding down half -completed work, and re-
dinu r <>n now plans at enormous cost. He
is said to be the inventor of the curb roof
which bears his name, and which within a few
years has become very common in the United
States. II. Jutes Hardouln, a French architect,
nephew and pupil of the preceding, whose
name he adopted, and son of Jules Hardouin,
the painter, born in Paris in 1645, died at Mar-
ly in 1708. One of his first works was the
chateau of Clagny, built for Mme. de Montes-
pan, and since destroyed. Louis XIV. ap-
pointed him his architect, and the palace of
Versailles, where Levau had begun alterations
and additions, was built from Mansart's de-
_signs, which were largely directed by the vi-
cious taste of his sovereign. Among his works,
besides Versailles, are the places Vendome,
Louis XIV., and des Victoires, the gallery of
the Palais Royal, and the dome and completion
of the h6tel des Invalides, begun by Liberal
Bruant. He was general superintendent of
the royal buildings, arts, and manufactures,
and acquired an immense fortune.

imsEL, Henry Longneville, an English author,
born at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire, Oct. 6,
1820, died there, July 30, 1871. He was edu-
cated at Oxford, became a fellow of St. John's
college in 1842, was ordained priest in 1845, be-
came Waynflete professor of moral and meta-
physical philosophy in 1859, and was appointed
dean of St. Paul's, London, in 1868. His first
publication was a small volume entitled "De-
mons of the Wind, and other Poems" (1838).
In 1851 he produced his Prolegomena Logica,
iv philosophical introduction to logic, and pre-
pared an edition of Aldrich's Artis Logicce
Rudimenta (5th ed., 1860). In 1856 he deliv-
ered at Oxford a " Lecture on the Philosophy
of Kant," which was printed, and designed by
its brevity to attract readers who would be de-
terred by a more elaborate exposition. His
most important work is the Bampton lectures
delivered before the university of Oxford in
aid published under the title of "The
Limits of Religious Thought" (5th ed., 1868).
Mr. Mansel was one of the editors of the aca-
demi.al lectures of Sir William Hamilton
(1859 'till, and the author of the article on
" Metaphysics " in the 8th edition of the " En-
cyclopaedia Britannica," which was reproduced

- p.irately in i860 under the title "Metaphys-
ics, or the Philosophy of Consciousness" (2d
ed., 1866). He also published "The Limits

if Demonstrative Science Considered," an in-
nuirurul K-ctuiv entitled " Psychology the Test
of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy," and
Philosophy of the Conditioned" (1866). A
series of his Ic-rtures on "The Gnostic Heresies
of the KiiM and Second Centuries," with a
biographical -ketch, was published in 1874.

Ml.WKU). an an.-imt noble- family of Ger-
many, taking its name from the castle of

MANSFIELD

Mansfeld, the original seat of the family, and
now in the town and circle of Mansfeld in
Prussian Saxony. I. Peter Ernst, count of
Mansfeld, born July 20, 1517, died in Luxem-
burg, May 22, 1604. The greater part of his
life was spent in the service of the emperor
Charles V., and of his son Philip II. of Spain,
who employed him in various important mili-
tary and administrative capacities. He took
part in the war against France in 1552, was
captured, and remained a prisoner till 1557.
Having been appointed governor of Luxem-
burg, he maintained that province in tran-
quillity at a time when the other provinces of
the Netherlands were a prey to civil and re-
ligious commotions. In 1592 he succeeded
the duke of Parma as governor general of the
Netherlands ; but two years afterward he re-
tired to Luxemburg, with the title of prince of
the empire. II. Ernst, natural son of the pre-
ceding, born in 1585, died near Zara, Dalmatia,
Nov. 20, 1626. He was educated by his god-
father, the archduke Ernest of Austria, and for
his military services to the emperor Rudolph
II. and Philip III. of Spain was legitimated by
the former. But having been denied the dig-
nity and estates of his father, which had been
promised to him, he embraced Calvinism, and
subsequently became one of the most active
enemies of the house of Austria, by which he
was called the Attila of Christendom. At the
commencement of the thirty years' war he
joined the elector palatine Frederick, elected
by the Protestants king of Bohemia, and
ously opposed the imperial forces in that coui
try and also on the Rhine, where he ravs
the territories of the Catholic princes, and
came a terror to his enemies. Though repeat-
edly beaten, he came forth so formidable from
every defeat, that, when fighting for a despe-
rate cause and lying under the ban of the .em-
pire, he found himself courted at the same
time by the kings of Spain, France, and Eng-
land, and the republics of Holland and Venice.
In 1625 he succeeded in raising subsidies ii
England, and landed in Holland with consic"
erable reinforcements, with the design of in-
vading the hereditary possessions of the house
of Austria. Defeated by Wallenstein at Des-
sau in April, 1626, he nevertheless pursued
march to Hungary, to effect a junction wit
Bethlen, the Protestant prince of Transylvania.
But being unable to join his ally, he forme' 1
the design of reaching England by the way
Venice, and died on the march.

MANSFIELD, a town of Tolland co., Connv,-
ticut, on the New London Northern railroad,
25 m. E. of Hartford; pop. in 1870, 2,401.
It is bounded W. by the Willimantic river, and
is intersected by the Natchaug and its branch*
Mansfield is chiefly noted for the manufactui
of silk goods, containing eight establishment
There are also a manufactory of cotton
one of spool thread, and one of machinery,
was formerly noted for the growing of raw silk,
which was introduced nearly 100 years ago ; '

MANSFIELD

123

is now produced. Mansfield is the seat of
the state soldiers' orphans' home, and contains
7 post offices, 16 schools, and 4 churches.

MANSFIELD, a city and the capital of Rich-
land co., Ohio, situated near the centre of the
county, 65 m. N. by E. of Columbus ; pop. in
1850, 3,557 ; in 1860, 4,581 ; in 1870, 8,029.
It is compactly built on a beautiful and com-
manding elevation in the midst of a fertile and
populous region. It has a number of hand-
some public buildings, including several of the
churches and school houses, and the court
house, which cost $227,000. Many of the
residences are elegant and surrounded by spa-
cious grounds. Four railroads intersect here :
the Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark; the
Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago ; the At-
lantic and Great Western ; and the Mansfield,
Coldwater, and Lake Michigan. The whole-
sale trade is important, amounting to about
$5,000,000 a year. The annual value of manu-
factures is about $3,000,000, the principal arti-
cles being threshing machines, saw mill and
f oundery products, machinery, woollens, paper,
boilers, carriages, furniture, flour, &c. There
are three national banks, a state bank, an in-
surance company, water works on the Holly
system, five public school houses, four weekly
newspapers (one German), a library of 3,500
volumes, and 15 churches.

MANSFIELD, William Murray, earl of, a British
jurist, born at Scone, Perthshire, March 2, 1705,
died in London, March 20, 1793. He was the
third son of Viscount Stormont, a Scottish peer
of Jacobite tendencies, several of whose family
became deeply involved in the rebellion of
1745. Removed to London at an early age, he
was educated at Westminster school, and at
Christchurch college, Oxford. In 1731 he was
called to the bar, and being of a vivacious tem-
perament, with the advantages of aristocratic
connections and signal personal graces, he be-
came a companion of wits and men of letters,
and in particular gained the friendship of Pope.
Almost at the outset of his career a new class
of business, that of appeals from the court of
session in Scotland to the house of lords, fell
into his hands, and his emoluments were very
large. His advance was rapid, and in 1743 he
was appointed solicitor general, having the
year previous entered parliament for Borough-
bridge, for which place he was afterward re-
turned in 1747 and again in 1754. As a legis-
lator he displayed an eloquence " of which the
clear, placid, and mellow splendor was never
for an instant overclouded," and a depth and
variety of knowledge which brought him into
great prominence, while at the same time his
peculiar political views exposed him to the at-
tacks of Pitt, who frequently taunted his rival
with his Jacobite connections and presumed
sympathies. In 1747 he was one of the man-
agers for the impeachment of Lord Lovat, and
performed his part in so generous a spirit as
to elicit praise from the prisoner himself. In
1754 Mr. Murray was appointed attorney gen-

eral, and in 1756 succeeded Sir Dudley Ryder
as chief justice of the king's bench, and was
created Baron Mansfield of Mansfield in the
county of Nottingham. So important were his
parliamentary services to his party, that ex-
traordinary efforts were made by the duke of
Newcastle to retain him in the house of com-
mons, as a government leader. He was offered
various sinecure offices with large salaries, and
finally a pension of 6,000 a year, but steadily
refused them all, regarding the situation of
chief justice as preferable to the responsibilities
and labors which the chancellorship, the pre-
miership, or any other merely political office
involved. Contrary to general usage, though
not to precedent, he became when appointed
chief justice a member of the cabinet ; and in
1757, while temporarily holding the office of
chancellor of the exchequer, at the request of
the king he effected the coalition between New-
castle, Pitt, and Fox, which resulted in the cel-
ebrated first administration of Chatham. He
participated on important occasions in the pro-
ceedings of the house of lords, where Lord
Camden and subsequently Chatham became his
chief antagonists. On questions affecting pop-
ular privileges or influence he showed a decided
leaning toward an arbitrary government. The
stamp act, which he aided in preparing, found
in him an earnest and able advocate, and the
doctrine of taxation without representation was
by no one more persistently defended. In ref-
erence to the agitation in the North American
colonies which preceded the repeal of the act,
he held that the Americans must first be com-
pelled to submit to the power of parliament,
and must exhibit "the most entire obedience"
before an inquiry could be had into their griev-
ances. The utterance of opinions like these
marked him out as an object of popular dislike
and party violence, and for many years he was
attacked with a vindictiveness which found its
fullest expression in the letters of Junius, by
whom "all the resources of the English lan-
guage were exhausted in desolating and unpun-
ished party libels on the chief justice of Eng-
land." He nevertheless performed his judicial
duties with dignity and courage; and on the
occasion of the application of Wilkes in 1768
for the reversal of his outlawry, when public
excitement had reached an almost unprece-
dented height, and the chief justice had been
repeatedly threatened in anonymous letters, he
announced to the .partisans of Wilkes, who
crowded Westminster hall, his contempt for
the means that had been taken to deter the
court from its duty. His unpopularity was
still further increased by his direction to the
jury in the trial-of Woodfall, the- publisher of
Junius, "that the printing and sense of^the
paper were alone what they had to consider
of." This attempt to restrict the right claimed
by juries, in criminal prosecutions for libel, of
determining whether a paper was a libel or
not, brought upon Lord Mansfield the charge
of arrogating to himself the functions of a le-

184

MANSFIELD

gislator rather than of an administrator of the
law ; and Junius in his letter of Nov. 14, 1770,
said to him: "No learned man, even among
your own tribe, thinks you qualified to preside
in a court of common law ; yet it is confessed
that, under Justinian, you might have made an
incomparable prtor." In the Gordon or "no
popery " riots of 1780 his house in Bloomsbury
square, with its valuable library of books and
manuscripts, his private papers, furniture, and
other valuables, was destroyed by the mob,
from whose fury he only escaped by taking ref-
uge in Buckingham palace. He bore these mis-
fortunes with a calmness which seemed to dis-
arm his enemies, declining any pecuniary com-
pensation from the treasury; and during the
remainder of his life parties generally united in
a feeling of respect for his character and virtues.
He retained his office of chief justice till 1788,
having in the interim several times declined the
chancellorship, and passed the last few years
of his life in retirement. He left no children,
and his title of earl of Mansfield, granted in
1776, descended to his nephew Viscount Stor-
inont, to whom the greater part of his large
property was bequeathed. The title of Baron
Mansfield expired with him. As a jurist the
character of Lord Mansfield contrasts favor-
ably with the timidity and narrow-mindedness
which marked his legislative career ; and when
not influenced by political views his decisions
were almost uniformly correct. Commencing
his judicial career as a reformer, he aimed at
expediting legal proceedings, and by diminish-
ing the expenses of suitors, and preventing
unnecessary delays, caused the business of
the courts, though greatly increased, to be
despatched with unexampled rapidity. Gifted
with an acute and powerful intellect, and with
a wonderfully retentive memory, he was in the
habit of considering the intent and spirit of the
law rather than its letter ; but his eagerness to
discourage technicalities, and preference of the
principles of the civil law, occasionally led him
to make the law instead of expounding it. In
constructing a system of jurisprudence and
adapting a progressive state of society to cir-
cumstances and cases entirely new, he was
eminently successful ; and English commercial
law, particularly that branch of it relating to
marine insurance, will be an enduring monu-
ment of his genius and industry. His conduct
on the bench was marked by great dignity and
amenity of manners, and in general he showed
himself so worthy of his high office that Lord
Chatham, for many years his determined polit-
ical opponent, comparing him with two of the
ni"-t illustrious P.ritish jurists, Somers and
II. -It, exclaimed: "I vow to God, I think the
noble lord excels them both in abilities."
Tliuuirh O|IJMI..,.I to liberal ideas, he was uni-
formly toli-rant in matters of religious opinion.
Hi" arguments and decisions are preserved in
Atkins's, Burrows's, Douglas's, and Cowper's
reports ; and his life has been written by John
llolliday ( . 17i7j. Henry lioscoe (1838), and Lord

MANSLAUGHTER

Campbell in "Lives of the Chief Justices"
(1849-'67). See also " Sketches of Statesmen
who flourished in the Time of George III.," by
Lord Brougham (1839-'43); and u The Judges
of England," by Edward Foss (1848-'64).

MANSLAUGHTER. In the article HOMICIDE,
it is said that felonious homicide is either
manslaughter or murder. These two are dis-
tinguished from each other by the intent which
causes or accompanies the act. If a homicide
be not justifiable nor excusable, and yet be not
committed with malice aforethought, it is man-
slaughter. It is quite certain that the intent
need not be to kill ; for while there must be a
criminal intent to make a person amenable to
law as a criminal, yet if one crime be intended,
and in the act of committing it another of a
higher character be also committed without in-
tent, the criminal is responsible for this higher
crime. The general principle laid down in re-
spect to manslaughter is, that not only a posi-
tive intention to commit some crime, but mere
negligence, may make one guilty. If any one
take upon himself an office or duty requiring
care or skill, he is liable for the want of either ;
and if death be the consequence of his ignorance
or carelessness, he is guilty of manslaughter.
So if one driving furiously run over and kill
a person whom he did not see, or if one in com-
mand of a steamer or sailing vessel by reason
of gross negligence run down a boat and some
one in it be drowned, this would be man-
slaughter. So if any one, whether medical by
profession or not, deal with another as a physi-
cian, and through gross want of care or skill
kill him ; or if any one charged with building
a house of any kind construct it so badly that
it falls and kills persons within or near it ; or if
in building he drop a stone upon some on<
ing below, and kill him ; in all these cases he
would be guilty of manslaughter, provided he
were grossly negligent in the act causing the
death. This is the essential question ; thus, in
the last case, if he were building in a place
where few persons were, and it was by a rare
occurrence that some one happened to be where
the stone fell, it is said that there would be n<
such negligence as would make the killer re-
sponsible as a criminal; while, on the other
hand, if it were a crowded thoroughfare, and
the person dropping the stone gave no notice
or warning and used no precaution to prevent
mischief, the crime would then amount to mur-
der. So if one ride a vicious horse, who kicks
some one to death, it is no crime whatever if
the rider did not know his character and did
nothing by his carelessness to bring about the
fatal result ; but if he knew that the animal
was vicious, and carelessly rode him near a
crowd and exposed him to alarm likely to make
him run into the crowd and do mischief, the
the killing would be manslaughter. Sometime
it is said that if manslaughter be charged upon
one on the ground of negligence only, without
intent, this charge can be sustained only by evi-
dence of the grossest negligence. It has been

MANSLAUGHTER

125

leld that the mere omission to do an act can-
not, although death ensue, make the man guilty
of manslaughter. But if the omission were of
an act which was certainly a duty, and such an
act that any reasonable person must know that
its omission would be very dangerous to life,
the principles of criminal law would lead to
the conclusion that this might be manslaughter.
Thus, a man employed to wall a shaft in a
colliery, and whose duty it was to place a
stage over the mouth of the shaft, having omit-
ted this, and a man being thereby killed, the
court of king's bench held him guilty of man-
slaughter. It seems to be agreed that if the act
omitted were a legal duty, it would certainly
amount to that crime. It should be added
that the law always presumes (in the absence
of clear proof to the contrary) that a man in-
tended to do the thing he actually did, and in-
tended the consequences which naturally and
actually flow from his act ; and this principle
applies even where the act causes death. So
a very nice distinction is taken in law between
a malum prohibitum and a malum per se.
Thus, if there be a law prohibiting the shoot-
ing of woodcocks before the 4th of July, one
who shoots at one in June intends to break a
law ; but if, while thus shooting, by mere ac-
cident and without negligence, he should kill
a man, this would be no crime, because shoot-
ing a woodcock at that season is an offence
only because the law has made it so. But if
he shoot at his neighbor's poultry, and by ac-
cident kill his neighbor, this is manslaughter ;
because the destroying his neighbor's property
was an offence of itself, independently of muni-
cipal law. But by far the most frequent and
most difficult questions in practice are those
which must be determined either by the means
used to produce death, or by the presence or
absence of previous hostile intention. It is a
general rule, that if one kills another with a
deadly weapon, it is more than manslaughter ;
and it has been said authoritatively, that
whether the weapon used be a deadly weapon
or not, is not a question of fact for the jury,
but a question of law for the court. (See
MURDEE.) The other question, as to previous
hostility, generally turns upon the preliminary
question, whether the act was committed in
" the heat of passion," or under sudden provo-
cation. If one, being angry, attacks another,
his anger is not an entire excuse. But if a
quarrel and conflict ensue, and the assailant
kills the man whom he attacked, while this is a
felonious homicide, it is not murder, because
there is an absence of that malice aforethought
which is of the essence of murder ; and there-
fore it is manslaughter. Still further would it
be from murder if the party killing had been
himself attacked. But neither would this ex-
cuse the act if it were not made necessary by
the nature of the attack ; but it would reduce
the crime to manslaughter. Here, however, it
is to be remembered that such a quarrel makes
that to be only manslaughter which would

otherwise be murder, for no other reason than
because it negatives the supposition of malice
aforethought. If therefore this be proved, as
if it be shown that the killer had a grudge
against the deceased, and had manifested a vio-
lent hatred and intention to injure him, it
might be inferred that he provoked the quarrel
merely to give him the opportunity of gratify-
ing his malice. In such a case the quarrel, in-
stead of negativing malice, would help to prove
it ; and therefore, of course, it could not have
the effect of reducing the felony to manslaugh-
ter. So if there had been a quarrel and much
provocation, and the quarrel had abated, and
one of the parties withdrew and provided him-
self with a dangerous weapon, and returning
killed the other, the excuse of " heat of passion "
would not apply, for there would then be evi-
dence of deliberate purpose. So, too, let the
provocation be what it may, if there be no
excitement or heat of passion, the killing will
be deemed deliberate and intentional. Still,
where there was much provocation, and no evi-
dence of hostile purpose previous to the prov-
ocation, the killing itself would generally be
deemed evidence of excited temper. There are
other cases which the law regards as only man-
slaughter, without evidence of momentary ex-
citement ; partly because the law infers that
from such a provocation there must be excite-
ment ; and partly, perhaps, because the party
killed brought his death upon himself by his
outrageous wrong. Thus, if a husband detects
his wife in adultery, and instantly and purpose-
ly takes either her life or her paramour's, it is
only manslaughter. Not so, however, if he
waits for a subsequent opportunity, for then the
first reason wholly fails, and the killing becomes
murder. In one English case, where a man
had his pocket picked, and with the assistance
of others threw the thief into a pond to punish
him by a ducking, and the man was drowned,
this was held only manslaughter. Questions
of this kind are so frequent, and at the same
time so difficult, that the legislatures of many
of the United States have endeavored to aid in
their determination by discriminating between
different classes and degrees of manslaughter,
defining each degree, and affixing to it appropri-
ate punishment. We have not space to speak
of these in detail, but to illustrate the prevail-
ing principles of classification refer to the stat-
utes of New York. By these, four degrees of
manslaughter are defined. The first degree,
briefly stated, consists of killing without the
purpose of death, when the deceased was en-
gaged in perpetrating or attempting a crime less
than felony, and where such killing would be, at
common law, murder. Assisting in self-murder
is manslaughter in the first degree, as also wil-
fully killing an unborn quick child by injury to
the mother, if it would be murder in case the
mother died from the injury. The second de-
gree consists in procuring abortion otherwise;
killing in the heat of passion without the in-
tent of death, but in a cruel and unusual man-

126

MA NT

ner ; or killing unnecessarily one attempting to
commit n felony. The third degree is killing
in heat of passion, without intent of death,
but with a dangerous weapon ; involuntary kill-
ing, by procurement or negligence of another,
while the person killed is engaged in commit-
ting a trespass on property ; suffering an animal
known to be mischievous to go abroad without
care, or keeping it without care, and thereby
causing death ; receiving wilfully or negligent-
ly so many persons into a boat or vessel as to
cause death; racing while in command of a
steamboat carrying passengers, bursting the
Imiler, and so killing; killing by a physician
while in a state of intoxication. The fourth
degree may be said to include all other modes
of manslaughter, known as such at common
law, and of a milder kind than the preceding.

MAST, Richard, an English bishop, born in
Southampton in 1776, died in November, 1848.
He was educated at Winchester and Trinity
college, Oxford, and was chosen fellow of Oriel
college in 1798. He became vicar of Great
Coggeshall, Essex, in 1810; of St. Botolph's
Bishopsgate, London, in 1815; and of East
Horsley, Surrey, in 1818. In 1820 he was
made bishop of Killaloe and Kilf enora, Ireland ;
was translated to Down and Connor in 1823 ;
and received in addition Dromore in 1842.
His most important works are: "An Appeal
to the Gospel, or an Inquiry into the Justice of
the Charge that the Gospel is not preached by
the National Clergy" (Bampton lectures for
1812; 6th ed., 1816); " Sermons " (3 vols., 1813-
'16); in conjunction with Dr. D'Oyly, an edi-
tion of the Bible, with notes for family use
(republished in New York, under the supervi-
sion of Bishop Hobart, 1818-'20); "Book of
Common Prayer, with Notes" (1820 ; 5th ed.,
1840) ; " Happiness of the Blessed consid-
ered " (1833) ; " History of the Church of Ire-
land" (2 vols., 1839-'41) ; and Hora Liturgicw
(1846). He also published volumes of poems.

flIA\T(INK)RIA, or Mantrhuria, the land of the
Mantchoos, a country of Asia, a dependency
of the Chinese empire, bounded N. by the
Amoor river, which separates it from the
Russian province of the Amoor, E. by the
Usuri river, which separates it from the Rus-
sian district of the Amoor, S. by Corea and
the Yellow sea, and TV. by Mongolia, between
lat. 40 and 53 30' N., and Ion. 118 and 135
E. ; area about 400,000 sq. m. ; pop. estimated
at 8,000,000. Formerly the territory extended
to lat. 68 N. and Ion. 142 E. ; but in 1858
China ceded to Russia all of Mantchooria N.
of the Amoor and E. of the Usnri river. (See
AMOOB COUNTRY.) A large part of this coun-
try is an uninhabited wilderness, and but lit-
tle of it has been visited by Europeans. Near-
ly the whole of it is drained by the Amoor
ii\vr and its branches. There are few lakes;
tin- ni'.-t important of them is Lake Khan-
ka, wliidi is 40 in. long and 25 m. broad.
The province is traversed by several moun-
tain chains. The Sih-hih-tih mountains ex-

MANTCHOORIA

tend from the boundary of Corea in a N. E.
direction. The S. W. portion of this range
bears the Mantchoo name of Shan Alin, and
the Chinese name of Shangpe-shan or Long
White mountains. The Ilykhoori Alin, in the
north, forms three sides of the extensive valley
of the upper Nonni, its eastern branch ex-
tending between the Amoor and the Songari
to near their junction. The Khingan moun-
tains, running N. and S., and rising to a height
of 15,000 ft., form part of the W. boundary.
The greatest part of Mantchooria is covered
by forests, the abode of wild animals, many of
which afford valuable furs. Among them are
bears, wolves, deer, the argali, and the dziggetai.
The rivers and coasts abound in fish, among
which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and shell
fish are especially plentiful. Among the birds
of prey is a vulture which in size and fierceness
rivals its congener the condor of the Andes.
The southern part of Mantchooria is cultivated,
and produces wheat, barley, pulse, millet, buck-
wheat, and silk. It also supports large herds
of horses, cattle, and sheep. Ginseng and
rhubarb are a government monopoly. The
country is rich in iron and coal. The climate
of the greater part of Mantchooria resembles
that of Canada in the contrasts of temperature
in different seasons ; in summer varying from
70 to 80, while in winter in the northern
parts snow is abundant, the ground is frozen
to a considerable depth, and the mercury
ranges from 45 above to 10 below zero.
Mantchooria is divided into three provinces,
Liaotung or Shinking, Girin, and Saghalin-ulu.
Liaotung contains a population, according to
the Chinese census of 1812, of 2,187,286; the
others together about 1,000,000. Liaotung is,
however, sometimes included in China proper.
The three capital cities are Mukden or Shin-
yang, Girin, and Tzitzikhar. Mukden is 380
m. N. E. of Peking, and is a large city sur-
rounded by a wall 10 m. in circuit. Hing-
king, 60 m. E. of Mukden, is also a consider-
able city ; it was formerly the family residence
and the family burial place of the Mantchoo
emperors of China. Kingchow, on the gulf of
Liaotung, S. W. of Mukden, of which it is the
port, carries on a considerable trade in cattle,
provisions, and drugs. Its harbor is shallow
and unsafe. Kaichow, on the E. side of the
gulf, has a better harbor. Girin is a very ex-
tensive province, but thinly inhabited. The
Mantchoos belong to the Tungusic branch of
the Mongolian division of mankind. They are
of lighter complexion and heavier build than
the Chinese, and some of them have florid
complexions, blue eyes, aquiline noses, brown
hair, and heavy beards. They have the same
peculiar conformation of the eyelids as the
Chinese, and resemble them closely in other
respects ; but their countenances are generally
of a higher intellectual cast, and their charac-
ter haughtier and more determined. They are
the dominant race in the Chinese empire, being
dispersed over the whole of it as officers and

MANTEGtfA

MANTEUFFEL

127

liers, and the skill and energy with which
they have governed their vast dominions since
1644, when they took possession of the throne,
show them to be possessed of high qualities.
During the same period they have greatly im-
proved the condition of their own original coun-
try. When the Mantchoos conquered China,
they imposed upon the subject people a portion
of their dress and many of their usages. The
mode of arranging the hair in a tail now in use
by the Chinese was forced upon them by the
Mantchoos, to whom it had long been familiar.
On the other hand, they have adopted many of
the customs of the Chinese. They began to be
conspicuous in eastern Asia about the begin-
ning of the 17th century, when after a long
series of internal wars their tribes were united
into one nation under a chieftain named Tien-
ming, who in 1618 declared war against China,
then ruled by the Ming dynasty. He overran
and devastated the N. E. provinces, but died
about 1 627, leaving the prosecution of his design
of conquest to his son Tien-tsung, who made
alliances with rebels whose leaders pretended
to be rightful heirs to the throne. With their
aid he made himself master of Peking, and the
last of the Chinese emperors, Hwai-tsung, hav-
ing committed suicide in 1643, the Mantchoo
chief took possession of the government. He
died in 1644, and his son and successor Shun-
chi is regarded as the first emperor of the
Mantchoo dynasty which still holds the throne.
(See CHINA.) An account of the country, by
the archimandrite Palladius of Peking, was
communicated to the British royal geographical
society in 1872. (See TURANIAN KACES AND
LANGUAGES.)

MANTEGNA, Andrea, an Italian artist, born
near Padua in 1431, died in Mantua, Sept. 13,
1506. When quite young he was placed under
the instruction of Francesco Squarcione. At
the age of 17 he painted an altarpiece, and
soon afterward the four evangelists for the
church of St. Sophia at Padua. The works
and reputation of the young artist induced the
painter Jacopo Bellini to give him his daugh-
ter, Nicolasa, in marriage. His frescoes in
the church degli Eremitani, representing the
life of St. James and the legend of St. Chris-
topher, and his St. Mark in the church of St.
Giustina, were among his next works in Padua.
He was invited about 1468 by Ludovico Gon-
zaga to Mantua. Between 1485 and 1490 he
visited Rome at the invitation of Innocent
VIII., and painted with almost miniature-like
delicacy a series of frescoes in a chapel in the
Belvedere, all of which however perished when
Pius VI. destroyed the chapel toward the close
of the last century to make room for his new
museum. Of his works extant, the principal
is the celebrated series representing in nine
compartments the triumph of Julius Csesar
after his conquest of Gaul, originally painted
for Ludovico Gonzaga, and which upon the
downfall of that family were purchased by
Charles I. of England. They were sold by
530 VOL. xi. 9

parliament with the rest of Charles's pictures,
but were repurchased on the return of Charles
II., and placed in Hampton court. They were
engraved by the painter, and were copied in
chiaroscuro by Andrea Andreani. Of his easel
pictures the most famous is the Madonna delta
Vittoria, now in the Louvre, painted in com-
memoration of the victory gained by Gonzaga
over Charles VIII. of France in 1495. Many
other pictures by him are to be found in Italy
and the large galleries of central Europe.
Mantegna, according to Lanzi, engraved up-
ward of 50 of his own designs, of which about
30 are known to collectors.

MANTELL, Gideon Algernon, an English geolo-
gist, born in Lewes, Sussex, in 1790, died in
London, Nov. 10, 1852. He was educated as
a surgeon, and attained a lucrative practice
in his native town. Inclination, however, led
him to devote much time to geological re-
searches, and in a few years his discoveries in
the Wealden formation, the extraordinary fos-
siliferous richness of which had been previous-
ly little known, gave him a high rank among
living palaeontologists. To his labors science
is indebted for the discovery of four out of
five of the genera of extinct dinosaurian rep-
tiles, viz. : the igvanodon, the hylceosaurus, the
pelorosaurus, and the regnosaurus ; and his
valuable museum collected from the Wealden
and chalk formations, and which was purchased
in 1839 for 5,000 by the trustees of the Brit-
ish museum, contains well preserved fossils of
these, and also of many extinct fishes, insects,
and plants. His geological drawings were be-
queathed to Yale college, from which institu-
tion he received the degree of LL. D. in 1844.
In 1825 he was elected a member of the royal
society; in 1835 he received the W T ollaston
medal of the geological society, and in 1849
the royal medal of the royal society. In 1839
he removed to London, where he continued his
medical practice and geological researches, and
was remarkably successful as a lecturer. His
chief scientific work separately published is
" Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations
of the Geology of Sussex " (4to, London, 1822).
He is also the author of two popular treatises
of great merit, " The Wonders of Geology "
(2 vols., London, 1838), and "The Medals of
Creation, or First Lessons in Geology " (2 vols.,
1844), both of which have been translated into
German, and of a number of other works illus-
trating the geology of the British isles and his
own discoveries, including a " Pictorial Atlas
of Fossil Ptemains" (4to, 1850). In Agassiz
and Strickland's BibliograpJiia Zoologies et Ge-
ologice, 67 works and memoirs by Dr. Mantell
are cited, besides which he wrote several pa-
pers on antiquarian and professional subjects.

MANTEIIFFEL. I. Otto Theodor, baron, a Prus-
sian statesman, born at Lubben, Feb. 3, 1805.
He entered the civil service at an early age.
In 1844 he was made a member of the council
of state, and in 1847, in the first united diet,
he was conspicuous as an ultra conservative.

128

MANTINEA

During the administration of Count Branden-
burg (1848-'50) he was minister of the interior.
Upon the death of the count he was appointed
minister of foreign affairs, and soon after, at
the conference of Olmutz (November, 1850),
brought about a settlement of the disputes be-
tween Austria and Prussia, by abandoning the
position previously assumed by his state in
North Germany. In December following he
was appointed prime minister, still retaining
his place as the head of the department of for-
eign affairs. In January, 1862, he became
president of the council of state, and in 1858
was superseded and retired to private life. II.
Karl Roehns Edwin, baron, a Prussian soldier,
cousin of the preceding, born in Magdeburg,
Feb. 24, 1809. lie became aide-de-camp to the
king in 1848, and rose to the rank of adjutant
general, lieutenant general, and chief of the
military cabinet. In 1865-'6 he became con-
spicuous as military and civil governor of
Schleswig, by the invasion of Holstein, by his
operations against Hanover, and by his vigor-
ous proceedings against the city of Frankfort.
In the Franco-German war he commanded the
first Prussian army corps before Metz, and on
the capitulation of Bazaine (Oct. 27, 1870) he
commanded the first German army against the
French army of the North, capturing Amiens,
Rouen, and Dieppe. In January, 1871, he was
placed in command of the South German troops
operating against the French army of the East
under Bourbaki, and afterward under Clin-
chant, which he drove across the Swiss fron-
tier, thus ending the war. In June, 1871, he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Ger-
man army of occupation, his headquarters be-
in^ at first at Comptegne, and afterward at
Nancy, where he remained until the final evac-
uation of the French territory in 1873. He has
received the rank of field marshal. See Am
dem Leben dea General- Feldmarachalls Edwin
Freiherrn von Manteuffel (Berlin, 1874).

MANTUTEi, one of the oldest and most pow-
erful towns of Arcadia, on the borders of Ar-
golis and the river Ophis. Its democratic po-
litical constitution was, according to Polybius,
one of the best in antiquity. Like the other
Arcadian towns, it acknowledged the Spartan
supremacy prior to and during the Persian war.
It was an ally of Sparta in the early part of the
Peloponnesian war, but in 421-'20 B. 0. formed
a confederacy with Argos, Elis, and Athens,
which was defeated and dissolved by the Lace-
daemonians in 418. Though it became again
an ally of Sparta, its increasing power ren-
lered it obnoxious to the latter city, and in
885 the Spartans attacked and destroyed it by
turning the waters of the Ophis against its
walls. The Mantineans rebuilt their city after
the overthrow of the Spartan supremacy by the
battle of Leuctra in 371. They were promi-
n. nt in the formation of the Arcadian con-
federacy, but soon abandoned it for an alli-
ance with their ancient enemies the Spartans.
To prevent this coalition Epaminondas marched

MANTIS

into the Peloponnesus, and Mantinea is chiefly
celebrated as the scene of the great battle (362)
between the Thebans and Spartans, in which
he fell. It continued one of the most impor-
tant towns of Arcadia till the time of the
Achaean league, which it at first joined, but
subsequently deserted for the ^Etolian confed-
eracy, an event which occasioned the Cleo-
menic war. In 226 it was surprised and ter-
ribly chastised by Aratus, and in 222 it was
plundered by Antigonus Doson, and its name
changed to Antigonea, which it bore till its an-
cient appellation was restored by the emperor
Hadrian. The ruins of Mantinea are visible
at the modern village of Paleopoli, in a bare
plain, 8 m. N. of Tripolitza; they consist of
the remains of the theatre and three courses
of masonry of the entire circuit of the walls,
which were elliptical, 1,250 yards in diameter,
with 10 gates and 118 towers.

MANTIS (Fabr. ; Gr. pavnc, a soothsayer), a
genus of orthopterous insects of the group of
graspers (raptorid). In the best known spe-
cies, M. religiosa (Linn.), the head is triangular,
the eyes large, the prothorax very long, and
the body narrowed and lengthened ; the an-
terior feet are armed with hooks and spines,
and the shanks are capable of being doubled
up on the under side of the thighs. When at

Mantis religiosa.

rest it sits upon the four posterior legs, with
the head and prothorax nearly erect, and the
anterior feet folded backward ; from this sin-
gular attitude it is called the praying mantis
or soothsayer (the prie-Dieu of the French).
The insects are slow in their motions, waiting
on the branches of trees and shrubs for some
insect to pass within their reach, when they
seize and hold it with the anterior feet, and
tear it to pieces. They are voracious, some-
times preying upon each other ; they are bene-
ficial to man in destroying caterpillars and oth-
er insects injurious to vegetation. The eggs
are deposited in two long rows, protected by
a parchment-like envelope, and attached to the
stalk of a plant ; the nymph is as voracious as
the perfect insect, from which it differs prin-
cipally in the less developed wings. They are
most abundant in the tropical regions of Afri-
ca, South America, and India, but are found in
the warmer parts of North America, Europe,
and Australia. In the south of France it was
once a popular belief that this insect, if spo-
ken to, would point out the way to a lost child,
and in central and south Africa it is still re-
garded with veneration. The American spe-
cies is the M. Carolina.

MANTUA

129

MANTUA (Ital. Mantovci). I. A K province
of Italy, formerly included in Lombardy, but/
lately attached to Venetia, bordering on Bres-
cia, Verona, Rovigo, Modena, Reggio, Parma,
and Cremona; area, 855 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872,
288,942. It is an extensive plain, in many parts
swampy and insalubrious, but has been much
improved by draining, and is generally very
fertile. It is watered by the river Po and its
affluents the Mincio and Oglio, and its princi-
pal products are grain, flax, silk, hemp, rice,
fruits, and wine. The province is divided into
the districts of Gonzaga, Mantua, Ostiglia, Re-
vere, and Sermide, and embraces the former
duchy of Mantua. II. A city, capital of the
province, 80 m. E. S. E. of Milan and 22 m. S.
S. W. of Verona, on an island in the middle of
a lagoon formed by the Mincio ; pop. in 1872,
26,687. The swamps and marshes surround-

ing Mantua, in connection with the formidable
works which guard all its approaches and en-
close it on every side, once constituted its most
important defences, and made it so strong that
it was deemed impregnable by any means but
famine ; but of late years the marshes have been
partially drained and diked, and the salubrity of
the city is greatly improved. The communica-
tion between the island and the mainland is by
several bridges, the longest of which, the ponte
di San Giorgio, forms the principal approach
to the city. The latter is entered by five gates,
one of which, the porta Mulina, presents a cu-
rious specimen of ancient engineering. Man-
tua has a desolate appearance, except in the
central parts, where there is commercial activ-
ity-; but it contains many fine streets, the via
Larga being the widest avenue. Among the
finest squares are the piazza di Virgilio, sur-

Mantua.

rounded by elegant houses; the piazza delle
Erbe, where the market is held ; the esplanade or
piazza di San Pietro ; and the piazza del Argine,
with a marble pillar crowned by a bust of Vir-
gil. Great masses of buildings, consisting of
feudal castles with their battlemented turrets
and Lombard arches, extend from the porta di
San Giorgio to the piazza Delpurgo, and in-
clude the ancient palatial castle (castello di
Corte) of the Gonzagas, now used partly as a
prison and partly for public offices. Adjoin-
ing it is the immense structure begun in 1302,
now comprising the so-called palazzo Imperiale,
palazzo Vecchio, and corte Imperiale, contain-
ing about 500 apartments, and mainly indebted
for its present beauty to the genius of Giulio
Romano, whose works as a painter and archi-
tect form the greatest artistic glory of the city,
but are nowhere displayed to greater advan-

tage than in the decorations of this palace.
The palazzo del Te, outside of the city, origi-
nally intended for ducal stables, also grew up
under the genius of Romano to the dimensions
of a vast and magnificent building. The prin-
cipal churches are the cathedral of St. Peter,
Sant' Andrea, and Sta. Barbara, all more or less
rich in paintings, particularly the last, which
also contains in its sacristy a golden vase at-
tributed to Benvenuto Cellini. San Maurizio
contains the "Martyrdom of St. Margaret,"
one of the finest works of Ludovico Carracci.
The shambles (beccheria) and fish markets
(pescheria) were planned and built by Giulio
Romano. Mantua is a bishop's see, erected in
808, and contains a number of educational and
charitable institutions, a botanic garden, a mu-
seum of antiquities, a library of about 80,000
volumes, an academy of science and fine arts

130

MANUEL

(Virgiliana), now chiefly used as a school of
drawing, a chamber of commerce and indus-
try, a monte di pietd, a general house of cor-
rection, a military arsenal, a theatre, and an
elegant amphitheatre. The manufactures, in-
cluding silk, linen, sail cloth, woollens, soap, pa-
per, and parchment, are limited, and the princi-
pal article of trade is silk. Mantua is supposed
to have been founded by the Etruscans 400 years
before the building of Rome, and it came un-
der Roman power in 197 13. C. It derives its
chief classical celebrity from associations with
Virgil, who has celebrated Mantua as the place
of his birth in several passages of his works.
Charlemagne gave it its first fortifications,
which in modern times were completed in their
present form by the Austrians. In the middle
ages it was one of the most important cities in
Italy, and was greatly improved and embel-
lished by the Gonzaga family, under whom it
became with the surrounding territory a duchy.
(See GONZAGA.) In 1630 it was seized by the
imperialists and subjected to terrible calamities,
from which the city has never recovered. In
1796-7 Bonaparte, hopeless of reducing the
fortress by force of arms, kept it under strict
blockade for five months till famine com-
pelled it to capitulate, Feb. 2, 1797. The Aus-
trians regained it in July, 1799, and the French
again, after Marengo, in 1800. It belonged to
the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was
restored to Austria. In July, 1842, the Jews,
who formed a considerable portion of the pop-
ulation, then confined in a separate quarter
(ghetto), were subjected to great persecutions.
In the war of Sardinia with Austria in 1848,
the victory depended on the possession of Man-
tua; it was blockaded for several months by
the troops of Charles Albert, till his defeat
by Marshal Radetzky in the battle of Cus-
tozza (July 25). During the wars of 1859 and
1866 Mantua was again of high strategical
importance, as one of the most formidable
strongholds of Austria. By the treaty of Vil-
lafranca, July 11, 1859, it was excepted from
the territory ceded to the king of Sardinia;
but it was annexed to Italy Oct. 11, 1866.
MAM EL, the name of two Byzantine em-

nre. 1. Manuel I. Com urn us born about 1120,
Sept. 24, 1180. The valor which he had
displayed against the Turks induced his father
John II. (Calo-Joannes) to bequeath the crown
to him rather than to his elder brother Isaac,
and he succeeded him in 1143. He was at once
involved in wars both in the East and the West,
which lasted with brief intermissions through
his reign. In 1144 he subjected Raymond,
the Latin prince of Antioch. In 1145 he de-
feated the sultan of Iconium in successive
pitched battles. In 1147 he promised his aid
to the new crusade headed by Louis VII. of
France and Conrad III. of Germany ; and he
allowed them a passage through his dominions,
but gave secret information to the Turks. In
1148 he began the most important war of his
reign with Roger, the Norman king of Sicily,

MANUMISSION

| who had taken Corfu and prepared to invade
Greece. He formed an alliance with the Vene-
tians, who within a year joined him before
the fortress of Corfu, which was surrendered
after an obstinate siege. He was prevented
from invading Sicily by hostilities of the Ser-
vians and Hungarians, instigated by Roger, the
former of whom were vanquished in two cam-
paigns, but the latter protracted the war till
1152. In that year he suffered a reverse from
the Turks in Cilicia, but his general John Ducas
gained so great successes in southern Italy that
Manuel conceived the project of reuniting the
eastern and western empires. The defeat of
Alexis, the successor of John Ducas, by Wil-
liam, the successor of Roger, soon followed ;
the Sicilian admiral Maius routed the Greek
fleet off Negropont, and advanced toward Con-
stantinople ; and Manuel therefore accepted an
honorable peace in 1155. Those Greek prisoners
who were silk weavers were retained in Italy,
and gave origin to the Italian silk manufac-
tures. In the following years he waged suc-
cessful wars with Raymond, prince of Antioch,
and Az ed-Din, the Turkish sultan. A .new
war soon broke out with Gejza II., king of Hun-
gary, which was terminated by the defeat of
the Hungarians. In 1176 he was defeated by
Az ed-Din in the mountains of Pisidia, and was
obliged to sign a disadvantageous peace. By
breaking the treaty and renewing the war he
obtained honorable terms. Depressed by this
disastrous expedition, he never recovered his
former militarv enterprise and ambition. II.
Mannel II. Palseologns, bora in 1348, died July
21, 1425. At the death of his father John V.
in 1391, he fled to Constantinople from the
court of the sultan Bajazet, with whom he
had been left as a hostage. The consequence
was a war with Bajazet, in which Manuel
was supported by an army of Hungarians,
Germans, and French. The allies, under the
command of Sigismund, king of Hungary and
afterward emperor of Germany, were defeated
in the bloody battle of Nicopolis in 1396,
with the loss of 10,000 men. Constantino-
ple was besieged, and its fall seemed impend-
ing, when the conquests of Tamerlane diverted
the arms of the sultan. Manuel visited Italy,
France, England, and Germany, vainly seeking
assistance from the western princes. In the
conflict between the Tartars and the Turks,
he acted with diplomatic skill, and secured
peace to his empire. He sent ambassadors to
the council of Constance with instructions to
urge a union of the Latin and Greek churches;
but his real object was only to obtain aid from
the kingdoms of the West, and to alarm the
Turks by the negotiations.

MANOIISSION, in Roman antiquity, the form
by which slaves, or other persons not mi ju-
ris, were released from their condition. There
were three modes of effecting a legal release,
by vindicta, census, or will, by any of which
the freedman might obtain the rights of a
citizen. The vindicta was the oldest, and as

MANURES

MANUSCRIPT

131

lows : The owner brought his slave before
the magistrate, and stated the grounds on
which he intended his manumission. The
lictor laid a rod on the head of the slave, and
declared him free by right of the Quirites;
the master, who in the mean time held the
slave, pronouncing the words, "I wish this
man to be free," turned him round, and let him
go (emisit e manu, whence the term). The
magistrate then declared him to be free. The
manumission by census was effected by the
slaves giving in their names at the lustra! cen-
sus at the bidding of their masters. By will a
slave could be made free conditionally or un-
conditionally, or free and an heir to the tes-
tator. Laws at different periods enacted re-
strictions, such as limiting the proportion of
slaves a man might manumit in his will and
preventing manumission to defraud creditors.
The act of manumission established the rela-
tion of patron and freedman between the
manumittor and the manumitted ; and if the
former was a citizen, the latter became a mem-
be? of his gens, and assumed his family as well
as personal name, to which he added some
other as surname, commonly that by which he
was previously known.

MANURES. See AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY,
vol. i., p. 197.

MANUSCRIPT (Lat. manu scriptum, written
with the hand), in bibliography, a written book
or document, in distinction from a printed
one. (For the various materials that have
been used for this purpose, see BOOK, PAPER,
and PAPYRUS.) In form, ancient manuscripts
were either rolls (volumina) or flat pages like
our printed books (codices). The Egyptian
papyri are usually in rolls of an indefinite
length, according to the subject matter, but
some of the smaller ones are flat. Leaves of
parchment were sometimes interspersed with
papyrus leaves to strengthen the latter. Parch-
ment and vellum manuscripts also were origi-
nally in rolls, but codices were made as early
as the 3d and 4th centuries. The pages of the
latter are usually quarto, rarely folio or octavo.
Some of the oldest are square, but they are
generally a little higher than broad. The
manuscripts of the Mexicans were sometimes
in rolls, but more generally in book form, the
paper, which was continuous, being folded
like a chart, with a tablet or cover of wood at
each end. As the writing was on one side
only, each page could thus be referred to sepa-
rately, as in a modern book. The transcribing
of manuscripts was committed by the Greeks
and Romans principally to slaves, who were
esteemed of great value when they excelled in
the art. They are called by Horace scriptores
librarii, and in later times antiquarii. Becker
thinks that the latter term was applied, after
the cursive writing came into use, to those
who copied books in the old uncial characters.
There were also at Rome professional copyists,
some of whom were women. About the 5th
century associations of scribes, who worked

under stringent rules, were formed. In the
middle ages copying was almost exclusively
in the hands of ecclesiastics, who were called
clerks (clerici). In all the principal monasteries
a room called scriptorium was devoted to the
scribes or scriptores, where they could pursue
their work in quiet. The text was sometimes
read aloud by a dictator. The manuscript
when finished was corrected by one appoint-
ed for the purpose, and it then passed into
the hands of the miniator, who added the or-
namental capitals and other embellishments.
The earliest form of illumination was the use of
different colored inks. The Egyptian papyri
are generally written in red and black, but some
are ornamented with other colors and with
gilding, and some with vignettes, many of
which are remarkable for the delicacy and
beauty of their execution. In the vellum
manuscripts of the 4th and 5th centuries the
initial letters, the first words, or the first three
or four lines of books are often in red ink,
while the body of the work is in black. Other
colors, as purple, blue, green, and cinnabar,
were used early, and sometimes the entire
manuscript was written in gold or silver let-
ters on purple, blue, or rose-colored parch-
ment. One of the most interesting examples
of this is the Argenteus Codex in the library
of the university of Upsal, written in silver
letters, with the initials in gold, on violet-col-
ored vellum. (See ARGENTEUS CODEX.) The
Codex Aureus of the royal library at Stock-
holm is a Latin manuscript of the Gospels,
written in Gothic characters of gold on leaves
of vellum alternately white and violet ; it be-
longs to the 6th century. In the earlier Greek
and Latin manuscripts there was no distinc-
tion of initial letters, but after the 4th cen-
tury the first letters of books and chapters,
and sometimes of each page, were made lar-
ger than the body of the letters, and were fre-
quently profusely ornamented in design and
color. In the 6th and 7th centuries initial let-
ters were one or two inches high, and from the
7th to the 10th century were often a foot high,
covering nearly the whole page. The Irish
manuscripts of this period exhibit some of the
most extraordinary work of this kind, the ini-
tials being formed of complicated interlaced
patterns, and ornamented with figures of men,
birds, animals, and grotesque deformities. One
of the finest specimens of this class is the copy
of the Gospels known as the Book of Kells, in
the library of Trinity college, Dublin ; it dates
from the 7th century. The early Franco-Gallic
manuscripts show a distinct style of illumina-
tion of initial letters in arabesque patterns with
elegant foliage. In the middle ages colored and
gilded designs and illustrations were so com-
mon that it was said : Hodie scriptores non sunt
scriptores, sed pictores. Miniatures and pic-
tures were early introduced into manuscripts.
Pliny says that physicians painted represen-
tations of medicinal plants in their treatises,
and that Varro illustrated his biography of

132

MANUSCRIPT

eminent persons with 700 portraits. In the
imperial library at Vienna is a Roman calen-
dar with allegorical figures of the months, sup-
posed to have been executed in the first half of
the 4th century; and in the same library is a
copy of Dioscorides, dating from the beginning
of the 6th century, containing numerous minia-
tures and illustrations of plants. There is also
a fragment of a Virgil of the 4th century in
the Vatican library, which is profusely orna-
mented with miniatures. The Codex Cottoni-
anus Geneseos, the remains of which are in
the British museum, had originally 250 minia-
tures, each about four inches square. This
manuscript, which contained fragments of the
Old and the New Testament in 165 quarto
leaves, is said by tradition to have belonged
to Origen in the first half of the 3d century,
but it is now ascribed to the 6th century. It
was almost entirely destroyed at the burning
of the Cottonian library in 1731. In the Am-
brosian library in Milan is a part of a very an-
cient copy of the Iliad illustrated with minia-
tures. The Persians, Hindoos, Chinese, and
other eastern nations illuminated their manu-
scripts, but no very ancient specimens are
known to be extant. Some of the Arab man-
uscripts are remarkable for the beauty of their
arabesque ornamentation, and for the absence
of any representations of living figures, the
painting of which is forbidden by the Koran.
The most ancient manuscripts extant are
the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt,
where the dryness of the climate and of the
sand beneath which they were buried pre-
served them in an almost perfect condition for
thousands of years. They may be considered
under two general heads, the Egyptian proper
and the Greek. Of the former three classes
are found, written respectively in the hiero-
glyphic, the hieratic, and the demotic or en-
chorial characters. The first are mostly books
of a religious and moral character, the most
common one being the ritual of the dead. Hie-
ratic manuscripts contain the great body of
Egyptian literature. One of the oldest known
is the Prisse papyrus in the national library at
Paris, a moral treatise written by Prince Ptah-
hotep of the 5th dynasty, the beginning of which
is placed by Mariette at 3951 B. C. Manuscripts
in the demotic character, consisting principal-
ly of contracts, bills of sale, accounts, letters,
&c., are found -dating from the beginning of
the 9th century B. C. to about the 2d century
A. D. (See EGYPT, LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TUBB OF.) The Greek papyrus manuscripts
found in Egypt are of two classes : books prop-
er, written in uncial letters, and public and pri-
vate documents, in cursive characters. Among
the oldest specimens of the first class extant
are fragments of a treatise on rhetoric and a
part of the 13th book of the Iliad, written in
the 3d century B. C., in the national library
at Paris; and among the papyri recovered
from Herculaneum is a fragment of a treatise
on music by Philodemus, of the 1st century

B. C. Among the oldest cursive manuscripts
is a petition to Ptolemy Philometor, written
in the 2d century B. C., also in Paris. The
invention of parchment is usually ascribed to
the reign of Eumenes II., king of Pergamus,
in the 2d century B. C., but manuscript rolls
of brown leather of the 14th dynasty have
been found in the Egyptian tombs, and rolls
of white parchment made more than 1,000
years before Eumenes are preserved in the
British museum. A recently discovered leath-
er manuscript of the ritual of the dead, written
in black and red hieratic characters, is now in
the Berlin museum. It is ascribed to the 18th
dynasty. Of parchment manuscripts made
since the beginning of the Christian era, prob-
ably the most ancient one in existence is the
palimpsest of Cicero's De Republica in the
Vatican library, supposed by its discoverer,
Cardinal Mai, to have been written in the 2d
or 3d century. (See PALIMPSEST.) It con-
tains 302 pages, and is written in double col-
umns of 15 lines each, in fine Roman uncials,
with no division of words. Over it is St. Au-
gustine's commentary on the Psalms. In the
library of Verona is a palimpsest Virgil of the
3d or 4th century, with the Gregorian com-
mentary on Job written over it in a script of
the 8th century. The same library possesses
the celebrated palimpsest of the 4th century,
containing the greater part of the Institutes
of Gains, overwritten with a copy of the let-
ters of St. Jerome. A palimpsest in the Brit-
ish museum contains, under fragments of the
sermons of St. Chrysostom, written in Sy-
riac, the only extant portion of the annals of
Licinianus, in uncial characters of the 4th
century. In the Vatican are a Terence of the
4th or 5th century and a fragment of a Sal-
lust of jthe 5th. The Lanrentian library of
Florence possesses the celebrated Medicean
Virgil, the most perfect of the ancient copies
existing, wanting only a part of the Bucolics.
It contains 440 leaves, is written on both sides,
and the first three lines of each book are in
vermilion. It belongs to the 4th or 5th cen-
tury. No authentic manuscripts or fragments
of manuscripts of the Bible of the first three
centuries are known to exist. The Codex Sir
naiticiis, which was obtained by Tischendorf
in 1859 from the convent of St. Catharine on
Mt. Sinai, and is now in the imperial library
at St. Petersburg, is generally conceded to
have been written -about the middle of the 4th
century. Tischendorf considers it not improb-
able that it is one of the 50 copies of the
Scriptures which the emperor Constantino in
the year 331 directed to be made for Byzan-
tium, under the care of Eusebius of Ceesarea.
It consists of 345$ leaves of very fine vellum,
made probably from the skins of antelopes or
of asses, each leaf being 14 inches high by
13 J inches wide. The writing on each page
is in four columns (excepting in the poetical
books of the Old Testament, where there are
but two), each containing 48 lines of from 12

5th cent A. D. Medicean Virgil. ^Encid, Book iv. 1.

At regina gravi jandodum saucia cura.

* __

N oxrO c KAIOAO POCH

5th cent. Cod. Alexandrinus. John i. 1.

o "koyoa rj \ irpoa TOV 0[eo]v* nai 0[eo]<r tjv o "koyoa.

10th cent. Cod. Basilensis. Mat. xv. 1
Upoaipxovrai aiiTui tyapiaaloi /cat
airb iepoao'kvfjLuv Tiiyovrea' diari ol

MANUSCRIPT

133

14 letters each. The characters are well
tecuted uncials, unconnected with each other,
without spaces between the words, with no
large initial letters, no breathings nor accents,
and with few marks of punctuation. .The first
line of each of the psalms and of the other
poetical books is in red ink. It contains both
the Old and the New Testament, the latter per-
fect. The Codex Vaticanus, a manuscript of
the Greek Bible, deficient in some parts of the
New Testament, is also ascribed to about the
middle of the 4th century, although Tischen-
dorf considers the evidence not quite so con-
clusive as in the case of the Sinaiticm. Its
early history is not known, but it appears in
the first catalogue of the Vatican library in
1475. It is a quarto volume, 10| inches high,
10 broad, and 4 thick, and is bound in red
morocco ; contains 146 leaves of fine thin vel-
lum, has three columns of 42 lines each to the
page, and is written in elegant uncials, some-
what smaller than those of the Sinaiticm, with
no spaces between the words. As originally
written, it had no large capital letters and no
breathings nor accents ; but capital letters in
blue or red, three fourths of an inch high, have
been added at the beginning of each book by
a later corrector, who also put in the breath-
ings and accents, and probably the stops. Of
the Biblical manuscripts of the 5th century, the
Codex Alexandrinus of the British museum,
containing nearly the whole of the Greek Bible,
is the most important. It is in four quarto vol-
umes, with pages 13 inches high by 10 broad,
has two columns of 50 lines each to the page,
and is written in uniform uncials, with the first
three or four lines of each book in red letters.
It differs from the Sinaiticm and the Vatica-
nus in having large initial letters. Scholars
are generally agreed in ascribing it to the mid-
dle of the 5th century. (See ALEXANDRIAN
CODEX.) Of the same century is the Ephraem
palimpsest of the national library in Paris. It
is about the size of the Codex Alexandrinm,
though not quite so high, and has 209 leaves,
of which 64 contain fragments of the Septua-
gint and 145 various parts of the New Testa-
ment. The original text, which was partly
erased in the 12th century to make room for
the writings of Ephraem Syrus, is in elegant
uncials, without division of words or chapters,
and with but one column to the page, consist-
ing of from 40 to 46 lines. The Codex Bezw
or Cantalrigiensis, in the library of the uni-
versity of, Cambridge, belongs to the 6th cen-
tury. It is a Greek manuscript, with a Latin
translation on the opposite pages, of the four
Gospels and Acts, with a number of pages miss-
ing. It is a quarto volume of 414 leaves, with
pages 10 inches high by 8 wide, and written
stichometrically in a single column of 33 lines
to the page. The first three lines of each book
are in red ink. The characters are uncials, and
the words are undivided. (See BEZA'S CODEX.)
Among the fragments of manuscripts of this
century, one of the most interesting is the Codex

Purpurem, four leaves of which are in the Brit-
ish museum, six in the Vatican, and two in the
imperial library at Vienna. Tischendorf found
33 additional leaves in the island of Patmos.
It is written in silver letters, now quite black
from age (the names of God and Christ in
gold), on very thin purple vellum, and has
two columns of 16 lines each to the page. The
characters are large Greek uncials, written
without division of words. Among the old-
est and most important of the cursive Greek
manuscripts of the New Testament is the Co-
dex Basilensis, in the library of Basel, ascribed
to the 10th century. It has one column of 38
lines to each page, and is written in small ele-
gant characters, with breathings, accents, iota
subscripts, and a few illuminations, among
which are portraits of the emperor Leo the Phi-
losopher and his son Constantino Porphyro-
genitus. The Codex Ruler, a cursive manu-
script containing fragments of the New Tes-
tament, in the national library at Paris, is writ-
ten entirely in red ink ; it belongs to the 10th
or llth century. Of the manuscripts of the
Latin Bible, the Codex Amiatinm, in the Lau-
rentian library at Florence, is the most impor-
tant. It derives its name from the Cister-
cian monastery of Monte Amiato, in Tuscany,
where it was owned previous to its acquisition
by the Laurentian library. From intrinsic
evidence it is supposed to have been written
about 541 by Servandus, abbot of the Benedic-
tine monastery near Alatri, on the borders of
Latium. It consists of 1,029 leaves, of which
796 are devoted to the Old Testament and 232
to the New. It is written in well formed Ro-
man uncials, and has two columns to the page,
each having in general 43 lines stichometri-
cally arranged. The first line of each book is
rubricated. Other renowned manuscripts of
the same century are a Virgil in the Vatican,
a Prudentius, the sermons of St. Augustine
on papyrus, the psalter of St. Germain-des-
Pr6s in silver letters, and a copy of the Theo-
dosian code, all in the national library at
Paris ; the unique copy of the fifth decade of
Livy, in the imperial library at Vienna; a
Lactantius and the breviary of Alaric at Bo-
logna ; and a palimpsest containing 4,000 lines
of the Iliad in the British museum. The cele-
brated manuscript of the Digest of Justinian
too, in the Laurentian library at Florence, be-
longs probably to the close of the 6th century.
The science of reading and judging ancient
manuscripts is called diplomatics, and is a
branch of palaeography. In examining a man-
uscript in order to judge of its antiquity, it is
necessary to consider the quality and charac-
ter of the material on which it is written;
the style of the writing; the inks used; its
miniatures, vignettes, and arabesques, and the
colors with which they are executed ; the cov-
er, its material and ornamentation ; and the
character of the contents. The oldest Greek
and Latin manuscripts are written in square
capital letters, without division of words or

134

MANUSCRIPT

sentences, and without punctuation. This
style was in use until about the 6th century,
when it was superseded by uncial writing,
which had coexisted with it from the 3d cen-
tury. A kind of capitals called rustics, having
the letters slightly inclined, were used how-
ever until a much later time. Uncials differ
from pure capitals in having some of the let-
ters, particularly A, D, E, and M, curved. The
most of the extant Greek and Latin manu-
scripts written between the 4th and 6th cen-
turies are in uncial characters ; but from the
6th to the close of the 8th century semi-un-
cial writing, a mixture of small and capital
letters, came gradually into use, and led even-
tually to the small cursive or minuscule wri-
ting of the 10th century. These remarks ap-
ply more particularly to book manuscripts, for
Greek cursives were used in letters and docu-
ments before the Christian era. Latin cursives
were introduced into book manuscripts as ear-
ly as the 4th century. In the oldest manu-
scripts the characters are written separately
each from another, and there are no divisions
into words or sentences, nor distinction of ini-
tial letters. Abbreviations early came into use.
At first they were limited to principal words,
such as names of the Deity ; but in time, par-
ticularly in the 12th and 13th centuries, they
became so common as to render many manu-
scripts almost unintelligible. Many of these
abbreviations are arbitrary signs derived from
the so-called Notes Tironiance, or Roman sys-
tem of shorthand, ascribed by some to the in-
vention of Tiro, the freedman of Cicero. A
line is generally drawn above each abbreviated
word to denote contraction. When the period
or dot came into use, it was placed generally
above, not in the line ; the comma was intro-
duced about the close of the 10th century, and
marks of interrogation and exclamation and pa-
rentheses about the 15th century. The repeti-
tion at the foot of each page of the first word
of the following page belongs to the 12th and
subsequent centuries. The Arabic numerals
first appear in writing near the beginning of
the 12th century. The most important works
on manuscripts and palaeography are: Mabil-
lon, De He Diplomatica (Paris, 1681); Mont-
faucon, PalcBographia Graca (Paris, 1708), and
Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum Manwcriptorum
Nova (2 vols., 1739); Maffei, htoria diplo-
matic^ &c. (Mantua, 1727); Baring, Clavis
Diplomatica (Hanover, 1737-'54); Toussaint
and Tassin, Nouveau traite de diplomatique,
par deux reliaieux benedictins, &c. (6 vols. 4to,
Pari^ 1750-W); Vaines, Dictwnnaire rai-
wnne de diplomatique (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1773-
'4) ; Astle, " Origin and Progress of Writing "
(London, 1784) ; Kopp, PalcsograpJiica Criti-
ca (4 vols., Mannheim, 1817-'29) ; Ebert, Zur
Il'inds'-hrifenkunde (2 vols., Leipsic, 1825-'7) ;
Wailly, Elements de paUographie (2 vols. 4to,
Paris, 183H); Silvestre, PaUographie unitf.r-
telle, facsimiles, with descriptions by Cham-
pollion-Figeac and Aim6 Champollion (4 vols.

MANUTIUS

fol., Paris, 1839-'45 ) ; Marini, Diplomatica
pontificia (Rome, 1841); Westwood, Palceo-
graphia Sacra Pictoria (London, 1845) ; Chas-
sant, Dictwnnaire des abreviations latines et
francaises usitees dans les manuscritu . . . du
moyen age (Evreux, 1844 ; 3d ed., Paris, 1866) ;
and Wattenbach, Anleitung zur griechischen
Palaographie (Leipsic, 1867).

MANUTICS (MANUZIO). I. Aldus, called the
Elder, the first of a well known family of Ital-
ian printers, born at Bassiano about 1449, died
in Venice, Feb. 3, 1515. He was deeply versed
in classical literature, and about 1490 established
a printing press in Venice, which soon became
celebrated for the variety and excellence of the
works issuing from it. In 1494 appeared his
edition in Latin and Greek of the " Hero and
Leander " of Musseus, followed within a few
years by editions of Plato, Aristotle, Herodo-
tus, Pindar, the Greek dramatists, &c., many of
which were printed from original manuscripts
procured from distant countries at considera-
ble expense. His Latin editions, published
subsequent to 1500, and commencing with Vir-
gil, are printed in a character cast, it is said,
in imitation of the handwriting of Petrarch,
and now called Italic; and the editorial la-
bors of the publisher were shared by a society
of learned men who met at his house and
formed what was called the Aldine academy.
These impressions are said to be more correctly
printed than the Greek. He suffered by the
wars in which Venice was engaged in the be-
ginning of the 16th century, but subsequently
pursued his avocation with industry and suc-
cess until his death. Besides the numerous
prefaces and dissertations in Greek and Latin
embodied in his publications, he produced
grammars of the Greek and .Latin languages, a
Greek-Latin dictionary, translations, &c. The
title pages of his books have a device repre-
senting a dolphin coiled about the shank of an
anchor, on the sides of which are the syllables
Al and Dvs. II. Panlns, youngest son of the
preceding, born in Venice, in 1511 or 1512,
died in Rome, April 6, 1574. He was a man
of equal learning and critical ability with his
father, and was distinguished by the correct-
ness of his editions of the Latin classics, par-
ticularly of his Cicero, with prefaces, notes,
and an index. Failing to receive adequate
patronage in Venice, he repaired about 1562 to
Rome, and was for some time employed in edit-
ing and printing the manuscripts of the church
fathers deposited in the capitol. He, returned
to Venice in 1570, but again went to Rome,
and died in poverty. He published a Latin
translation of the Philippics of Demosthenes,
and a number of original works in Latin and
Italian, which entitle him to rank among the
most polished writers of the 16th century.
III. Aldns, called the Younger, son of the pre-
ceding, born in Venice, Feb. 13, 1547, died in
Rome, Oct. 28, 1597. He published at the age
of 11 a collection of choice specimens from
Latin and Italian authors, and three years late*

MANZONI

MAP

135

luced a treatise on Latin orthography,
'thographice Ratio, founded on inscriptions,
idols, and manuscripts. Notwithstanding
lese evidences of precocity, his mental capa-
ity and attainments were inferior to those of
is father or grandfather ; and in consequence
his neglect to employ competent persons,
publications are the least valuable of all
lanating from the Aldine press. He re-
jned his press in 1584 to one of his workmen,
id during the remainder of his life was pro-
of belles-lettres successively in Bologna,
isa, and Rome. He published works in Lat-
and Italian, besides commentaries on Hor-
3, Cicero, &c. (See ALDINE EDITIONS.)
MAX /ONI, Alessandro, count, an Italian novel-
';, born in Milan, March 8, 1784, died there,
ay 22, 1873. His father possessed little cul-
ivation ; his mother was a daughter of the
stinguished philosophical economist Becca-
i. He studied first at Milan and afterward
at Pavia, where he was an enthusiast for Al-
fieri, Monti, and Foscolo. In 1805 he went
with his mother to Paris. The sudden death
of a friend furnished the subject of his first
poem, in blank verse, entitled In morte di Car-
lo Imbonati (Paris, 1806). Returning to Milan
in 1807, he married in the following year the
daughter of a banker of Geneva, and published
in 1809 his mythological poem Urania. His
education and residence in Paris had led him
to imbibe skeptical opinions, and his wife
belonged to the Calvinistic church; but both
now became devout Roman Catholics. The
change was announced by his Inni sacri (Milan,
1810), a collection of religious lyrics. In 1820
appeared his romantic tragedy II conte di Car-
magnola, dedicated to Fauriel, which violated
the unities of time and place, but was remark-
able for its simplicity of plot and purity of
style. It attracted attention throughout Eu-
rope, was severely criticised, was admired by
Goethe, and was defended by the author in a
letter written in French Sur Vunite de temps et
de lieu. It was followed in 1823 by another
tragedy, Adelchi; and on occasion of the death
of Napoleon, he published an ode, II cinque
Maggio (1821), one of the finest modern Italian
lyrics, in which he highly extolled the empe-
ror. His greatest success was achieved by the
novel I promessi sposi (3 vols., 1827), a Milan-
ese story of the 17th century, which was trans-
lated into the principal languages of Europe,
and was republished in America under the title
of " The Betrothed Lovers." In an illustrated
edition (1842), he added to the original text a
Storia della colonna infame, in which he gives
an account of the executions caused by the pop-
ular superstition during the plague of 1630,
and touches upon some of the highest ques-
tions of social economy. In 1834 he wrote Os-
servazioni sulla morale cattolica (Florence), in
reply to Sismondi's depreciation of the moral
influence of the Catholic church in the middle
ages ; it was translated into English (London,
1836). He married a second time in 1833, and

was afflicted by the death of all his children (in-
cluding a daughter married to Massimo d'Aze-
glio), the last dying a few weeks before him.
In February, 1860, he was named senator of
Italy. His 80th birthday was celebrated with
much enthusiasm by his countrymen in 1864.
In 1868, with R. Bonghi, he prepared a report
on the means of establishing the unity of the
Italian language on the basis of the Florentine
dialect. Almost to the day of his death he
was engaged in the preparation of a " History
of the French Revolution." At his funeral
the highest honors were paid to his memory,
and the royal princes were among. his pall-
bearers. The chapter of the Prussian order
pour le merite which had been conferred upon
Manzoni was in 1874 given to Carlyle.

MAORI. See NEW ZEALAND.

MAP (Lat. mappa), a representation of a por-
tion of the earth's surface, or of the celestial
sphere, upon a plane. Its object is to present
to the eye the bearings of objects upon the
surface from each other, and their relative dis-
tances apart, as nearly correct as may be. But
this can be done with accuracy only upon a
globe, the surface of which is similar to that
of the earth itself. Various plans, however,
have been devised by which in the more con-
venient form of plane sheets true delineations
of the surface are presented, reference being
had to the principles upon which these maps
are constructed. By the method called pro-
jection, the rules of perspective are applied to
the delineation of objects upon the surface
according to four principal modes. In the
method of projection called orthographic, the
eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance
from the sphere, so that the rays of light
coming from every point of the hemisphere
opposite to it may be considered as parallel to
one another. The sphere is intersected through
its centre by a plane perpendicular to these
rays, and it is upon this plane that the objects
are projected, as their shadows might be cast
upon it from the sun through a transparent
medium. Objects near the centre of the plane
would by this method be delineated in nearly
correct proportions ; but in receding from this,
as the rays strike more obliquely upon the sur-
face of the sphere, their projection becomes
more and more distorted, and the parallels of
latitude or meridians of longitude (as the eye
is placed opposite the pole or the equator) are
drawn more and more closely together. In
the stereographic projection, the eye is sup-
posed to be placed at the surface of the sphere,
and the surface to be delineated is the opposite
hemisphere or a portion of it, of which the
inner or concave side is presented to the eye.
The plane upon which the objects are project-
ed is supposed to be transparent, and placed so
as to pass through the centre of the earth, its
surface perpendicular to the line passing from
the eye to the centre. In this method the
meridians and parallels intersect each other as
they do upon the globe ; and though there is

136

MAP

distortion increasing from the centre, it is less
than by some of the other methods. The
stereographic method is much used for the
maps of the world drawn in two hemispheres;
and the meridian of 20 W. from Greenwich
is usually selected for the plane of projection,
because this throws the two great continental
divisions of the earth into their respective
hemispheres. In the central or gnomic pro-
jection, the eye is supposed to be at the centre
of the earth, and the objects upon the surface
are projected upon a plane which is a tangent
to its surface. This method is obviously ap-
plicable to maps of a limited extent only ; and
except for maps of the polar regions, where
the parallels of latitude are concentric circles,
and the meridians are straight lines, they are
troublesome to execute on account of the ir-
regular curves the parallels assume. In the
globular projection, the eye is supposed to be
at a distance from the sphere equal to the sine
of 45; or, the diameter being 200, this dis-
tance is 707. In order, however, that the
meridians may intersect the equator at equal
distances, the distance for the eye is generally
fixed at 69^, the diameter being 200. Maps
are also constructed in which the meridians
are represented by arcs of circles cutting the
equatorial diameter at equal distances, and the
parallels by arcs of circles cutting the polar
diameter at equal distances. These maps are
not projections, and founded upon no geomet-
rical principle which can be of service in their
use ; nevertheless they give a very good repre-
sentation of the forms and relations of areas,
and are of very simple construction. They
are called globular maps, but must not be con-
founded with maps constructed upon the prin-
ciple of globular projection, mentioned above.
Another method of map making is based
upon the principle called development, which
is a mode of projecting the forms upon the
surface of the earth upon the inner surface of
a cone or of a cylinder, which is supposed to
envelop the earth and touch it only around
the circle which is to be the middle latitude of
the map. The points on the earth's surface
being projected by other lines drawn through
them from the centre, the inner surface of the
cone or cylinder is afterward supposed to be
unrolled or developed, and thus present the
various objects upon a plane surface. Those
situated nearest the middle latitude will be
most correctly represented. In the use of the
cylinder the latitude circles and meridians ap-
pear as parallel straight lines, and thus most
correctly represent for nautical purposes the
angles at which they are cut by objects moving
over the surface on any other lines. This
principle is in part the foundation of the pro-
jection known as Mercator's, and applied by
him to charts for navigators, in which the cor-
rect bearings of objects upon the surface are
of more importance to determine than the true [
figures of countries. Still other principles are
employed in constructing maps, according to

the special purposes for which they are de-
signed. In maps of small areas, the figure of
the earth may be neglected, and the positions
and forms of bodies be represented as if the
surface w.ere itself a plane. Some have special
objects in view, as the delineation of the coast
lines, channels, shoals, reefs, lighthouses, &c.,
hence called hydrographic maps or charts;
others are intended to show the political divi-
sions of states, counties, and towns ; and others,
designated topographical maps, to represent the
natural features of a country, as its mountains,
hills, rivers, plains, &c., for all of which certain
conventional signs are adopted. Maps have
also been constructed to represent the courses
of the winds and of oceanic currents over the
surface of the earth ; to designate the position
of the isothermal lines ; to indicate the geolo-
gical formations found in different regions;
and others to indicate the flora and the fauna
of different countries. In the construction of
geographical maps covering large areas, the
principal places are located according to their
latitudes and longitudes, and the lines of coasts
and of countries, roads, &c., are plotted from
the most exact surveys that have been made.
Those which have been conducted under gov-
ernment patronage have furnished the mate-
rials for the best maps, and these are constant-
ly improving as new materials are collected.
Of the United States, the most complete maps
are those of the state of Massachusetts made by
order of the legislature, of the coast survey
under the general government, Whitney's sur-
vey map of California, and Clarence King's
survey map of the 42d parallel. The great
lakes, more especially on the Canadian side,
have been surveyed and mapped with great
accuracy by Lieut. Bayfield of the royal army.
Maps of the Spanish provinces in America
have been made by the Spanish hydrographical
depot in Madrid ; and Brazil and other South
American states have executed maps of their
territories. The ancient Egyptians had some
knowledge of maps, as Sesostris caused the
territories he possessed and had conquered to
be represented upon tablets for the instruction
of his people; and the Israelites appear to
have acquired the same knowledge, from the
record, in Josh, xviii. 6, of a map of the coun-
try being ordered by that lawgiver. The first
map of the world, as known to the ancients,
is said to have been made by Anaximander
the Milesian. Herodotus makes mention of
maps constructed by the Persians in the time
of Darius, and of one by Aristagoras of Mile-
tus. Eratosthenes introduced the lines of lati-
tude and longitude, and the use of these was
established by Hipparchus upon a mathemati-
cal principle. Still, for want of exact surveys,
and owing to the dependence of geographers
upon the reports of travellers and their itine-
raria picta, or painted itineraries, the maps
afterward made were extremely inaccurate.
Even those of Strabo and Ptolemy, of which
those of the latter were for centuries the chief

MAPES

authorities in geography, contained most ex-
travagant errors, such as giving to the Medi-
terranean 1 ,400 miles greater length than be-
longed to it ; and what is equally extraordi-
ry, some of their gross exaggerations were
continued in all the maps from that period
down to the commencement of the 18th cen-

iry. The system upon which Ptolemy's maps
were drawn was that of stereographic pro-
jection. After the discovery of America, the
early maps representing the position of the
new world relative to the old were exceedingly
inaccurate. In one published in Venice in
1546 Asia and America are joined together in
lat. 38. The great difficulty was in deter-
mining the true longitude of places ; and until
this could be done there was no means of
avoiding such errors. In 1700 De Lisle pub-
lished a new map of the world, and others of
Europe, Asia, and Africa, founded on compara-
tively accurate astronomical observations, and
in them the errors introduced from the maps
of the ancients were first corrected. The true
system, of map making may be considered as
at that time established. Maps were first en-
graved on metal by Btickink and Schweyn-
heim in 1478, and on wood by Holl in 1482.
An " Essay toward a Circumstantial History
of Maps," by Hauber, was published in TJlm in
1724. A historical account of the art is also
given in a series of lectures by J. G. Kohl,
published in the report of the Smithsonian in-
stitution for 1856-'7. See also Santaran, Essai
BUT la cartographic pendant le moyen age (3
vols., Paris, 1849-'52).

MiPES, or Map, Walter, an English Latin
poet, born about the middle of the 12th cen-
tury, probably in Herefordshire, died about
1210. He studied in Paris, and after his return
became a great favorite on account of his
learning and courtly manners, especially with
Henry II., by whom he was sent on a mission
to the French court, and to the council sum-
moned by Pope Alexander III., at which he
was called on to refute the deputies of the
"Waldenses. He received several livings, was
made canon of the cathedrals of St. Paul and
of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, incumbent
of "Westbury in Gloucestershire, and finally in
1196 archdeacon of Oxford. His tastes were
however for elegant literature, and he is only
known at the present day as a genial, festive,
and satirical writer, to whom is attributed a
great portion of the humorous rhyming Latin
Leonine lyrics and Norman French romances
of the latter half of the 12th century. Of late
years it has been doubted whether Mapes was
really the author of the poems which pass
under his name, but the fact that they were
for several centuries so generally attributed to
him has been thought to prove that he ex-
celled in a peculiar style of writing, and that a
part of them at least are his. He also wrote
much prose, both in Latin and Anglo-Norman.
Among the former is his De Nugis Curialium,
a work containing much curious information

MAPLE

137

of a very varied character ; and among the
latter are a large portion of the existing ro-
mances of the round table. The " Latin Poems
commonly attributed to Walter Mapes" were
printed in London by the Camden society in
1841, and De Nugis Curialium in 1850.

MAPIMI, a desert in N. Mexico, extending
from the great bend of the Rio Grande, in lat.
30, southward to the vicinity of Parras, in lat.
25 30', and averaging 2 degrees in width. It
embraces two thirds of the state of Coahuila
and parts of Chihuahua and Durango, and
consists chiefly of a vast basin called the Bol-
son, or pocket, bounded N. by the Sierra del
Carmen, E. by a portion of the Sierra Madre,
and W. by low ranges of mountains. From
the mountains to the northeast the rivers Es-
condido, Alamos, and Nadadores take their
rise, but in the central basin there is no water
except the brackish lagoons called Jaco, Agua
Verde, Cayman, and El Muerto. Nomadic
Apaches are the only inhabitants, but well
preserved mummies have been found in caves
near the S. border. There is rarely any vege-
tation. Meteoric iron and coal abound, and
the precious metals are believed to exist.
Only the S. portions, called the Cation de San
Marcos, and the plains of La Paila and La Ban-
durria, have been explored with any care. The
Kickapoo Indians established themselves in
1864 near the N. border of this desert, and
remained there till 1873, when they were re-
moved to their former reservation in the Indian
territory. At the W. entrance to the Bolson
is situated the mining town of Mapimi, with
5,000 inhabitants. The emperor Maximilian
erected a department under this name, with
limits differing from those of the desert.

MAPLE, the common name of trees of the
genus acer (Celtic c, hard), belonging to the
natural order sapindacece, of which with two
other genera it forms the suborder acerinece.
There are about 50 species, distributed in
North America, Europe, northern Asia, Java,
and the Himalayas ; some are small shrubs and
others large trees, frequently with a saccharine
sap and rarely with a milky juice ; the leaves
are opposite, deciduous, simple, palmately three-
to seven-lobed, rarely entire. The flowers are
in axillary and terminal racemes and usually
polygamo-dioecious ; i. e., some have stamens
only, others pistils only, or both organs may
be in the same flower ; the usually five-parted
calyx is colored and deciduous ; petals want-
ing, or when present as many as the lobes of
the calyx ; stamens four to twelve, inserted
upon a disk ; pistil of two united ovaries with
two styles ; from the back of each ovary grows
a wing converting the fruit into two one-seeded
keys. Our North American species, of which
there are about 10, differ in their time of flow-
ering ; in some the flowers appear long before
the leaves, others produce their flowers at the
time the leaves unfold, and in others they do
not appear until after the foliage is well de-
veloped. Our commonest species is the red

138

MAPLE

or swamp maple (A rubrum}\ this and the
next, the silver maple, flower in March and
April, and perfect their seeds about the first
of June ; when the seeds fall, they germinate
in a few days, and by the autumn of the same
year form a young tree one or two feet high ;
this peculiarity must be observed by those who
would raise these trees, as the seeds will not
retain their vitality if kept until the following
spring. The red maple is found in swamps
and damp woods from Canada to the gulf of
Mexico, and is also known as the soft, the
swamp, and the white maple, which last name
should be discarded, as it properly belongs to
the next species; it is usually a small tree,
though it sometimes reaches 60 or 70 ft., with
a diameter of 2 or 3 ft. ; the young twigs are
red, and gradually change to a clear ashy gray.
This is a conspicuous tree when in bloom in
early spring, as its flowers are produced in such
profusion as to make the tree appear at a dis-
tance as a mass of color, varying from crim-
son to scarlet ; the individual trees differ much
in shade, some being very pale, while others
are exceedingly brilliant ; the leaves vary great-
ly in size and shape, and the number and depth
of the lobes. The trees with pistillate or per-
fect flowers produce a profusion of fruit, which
makes them objectionable near a garden, as
the seeds find their way to every nook and the
young maples spring up as weeds. The beauty
of our autumn landscape is largely due to the
brilliant colors assumed by the foliage of the
red maple ; it presents every shade of orange,
scarlet, and crimson, and these colors, together
with green, are frequently to be found upon the
same leaf. The wood is white with a tinge of
rose color, fine, close, and smooth ; it is used
for a great variety of turned work and for
making the cheaper kind of furniture ; it is a
useful wood for any purpose if it is not to be
exposed to dampness. Some of the trees, in
which the fibres take a serpentine course,
afford the handsome wood known as curled
maple, valued for inside work and for gun
stocks ; other varieties are known as landscape
and mountain maple. As a fuel, the wood of
red maple ranks below that of the sugar or
rock maple; it burns rapidly and does not
make a lasting fire. The bark is used in do-
mestic dyeing, forming with iron salts a good
black. The white or silver maple (A. dasy-
carpurri) is more common in the western than
in the eastern states, but it is more or less
abundant along rivers from Maine to Georgia ;
as the red maple is often called white maple,
the two trees are frequently confounded, but
they are readily distinguished by the color of
the young twigs, which in this species are
preen, while in the other they are red, and by
the silvery whiteness of the under surface of
the leaves, which has given one of its common
names to this species. The leaves are usually
five-lobed, with the lobes deeply and hand-
somely toothed ; the flowers, which appear be-
fore the leaves, are greenish yellow ; the fruit,

the early ripening of which has been mention-
ed, is downy when young, but smooth when
ripe ; the two wings diverge widely and are
about 2 in. long. The tree grows to about 50
or 60 ft. with very spreading limbs ; specimens
with a circumference of 12, 16, and 18 ft.
are recorded, but the usual diameter is about
2 ft. On account of the wide spread of its
branches and its fine foliage, this is much val-
ued as a shade and ornamental tree ; but as the
wood has little strength, the branches are apt
to be broken by gales and by accumulations of
snow and ice. For planting in prairie coun-
tries no tree is more highly prized than this,
as by its rapid growth it gives a quick return
in valuable fuel. The wood is soft, white, and
fine-grained, but it has little strength and is
very perishable ; hence its use as lumber is
limited ; as a fuel it is much esteemed. The
most valuable of all our species is the sugar or
rock maple (A. saccharinuni), which is most

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharinum).

abundant north of lat. 40 and east of the Mis-
sissippi ; in the southern states it is found only
along the mountains. The tree when young is
usually very symmetrical, and indeed some-
what too formal in its outline, but when old it
assumes a great diversity of forms, which seem
to depend upon soil and situation ; it some-
times reaches 70 or 80 ft., but is usually much
smaller. The leaves are broader than long,
often heart-shaped at base, three- to five-lobed,
with the sinuses or spaces between the lobes
rounded, while in the two species above men-
tioned these are acute. The flowers, which ap-
pear with the leaves, are greenish yellow, in
umbel-like clusters upon very slender hairy
pedicels ; the fruit, which has a broad wing,
ripens in October, and if intended for sowing
should be kept through the winter in damp
sand. As an ornamental tree the sugar maple
has been strangely neglected in this country ;
its growth is quite slow when young, and nur-

MAPLE

139

serymen prefer to produce more rapidly grow-
ing trees ; as a tree to plant in the streets of
towns and villages, and along country roads,
it has great merit ; not the least of its excel-
lent qualities is the great brilliancy of its au-
tumnal colors. The wood is one of the most
valuable for fuel, ranking next to hickory, and
for charcoal it is esteemed above all others.
While the wood of some trees is perfectly
straight-grained, that in other specimens pre-
sents marked and often elegant varieties ; the
curled hard maple presents a pleasing surface
of light and shade, and the bird's-eye maple has
its fibres so singularly contorted as to produce
numerous little knots which look like the eye
of a bird ; these varieties and others are much
valued for cabinet work of various kinds and
interior finishing, while the straight-grained
wood is used for making lasts, buckets, tubs,
and a variety of other useful articles ; it is also
employed in ship building. The sap of this
species contains cane sugar, a fact recognized
in its common and botanical names ; other
maples, the birches, hickories, and some other
trees, yield sugar, but none of them in such
large quantities or in so pure a state as the
sugar maple. On many farms a maple orchard
or sugar bush, as it is called, is an important
part of the property, and yields a good share
of the yearly income. The trees are tapped
by boring near the ground, a tube, frequently
of elder, inserted, and a vessel is set or hung
to catch the sap as it trickles out ; the flow
begins in early spring, often in February, and
is most abundant when there are warm days
and frosty nights. The process of making the
sugar is often very crude, and consists of
merely collecting the sap and boiling it down
in kettles over an open fire ; when sufficiently
concentrated the sirup is poured into moulds
to granulate. Of late years much more care
is given to the manufacture of the sugar, and
a house is provided expressly for the purpose,
and furnished with improved evaporators and
other apparatus to facilitate the operation ;
there is a large demand for maple sirup, and
some makers send all their sugar to market in
this form. According to the census of 1870,
the total production of maple sugar in the Uni-
ted States was 28,443,645 Ibs., in 28 different
states, of which the following contributed the
largest amounts : New Hampshire, 1,800,704
Ibs.; Vermont, 8,894,302; Massachusetts, 399,-
800; ISTew York, 0,692,040; Pennsylvania,
1,545,917; Virginia and West Virginia, 755,-
699; Kentucky, 269,416; Ohio, 3,469,128;
Indiana, 1,332,332; Wisconsin, 507,192. The
total quantity of maple molasses or sirup re-
turned was 921,057 gallons. The black sugar
maple, which was described by Michaux as a
distinct species, is now regarded as only a
variety (var. nigrum) of the ordinary sugar
maple; the leaves are less deeply lobed, and
the whole tree has a darker appearance ; it is
said to be more productive of sugar. The
striped maple or moosewood (A. Pennsylva-

nicum) is a small and slender tree from 12 to
20 ft. high, found in rich woods from Maine
to Wisconsin and southward along the moun-
tains ; its branches and trunk become striated
with dark lines, giving a character by which
the tree is readily identified; the leaves are
three-lobed at the apex and doubly serrate;
the flowers, which do not appear until after
the leaves, are in terminal pendulous racemes,
and the cluster of fruit is quite conspicuous,
In the northern woods the young twigs of this
tree are browsed upon in winter by the moose.
The wood is regarded as more durable than
that of any other maple, but it is too small to
be of much value ; it is said to reach three or
four times its ordinary size if grafted upon the
larger species of maple. Its chief value is as
an ornamental tree ; its ample leaves, which at
the time of opening are rose-colored, the striped
appearance of the trunk, and the conspicuous
flowers and fruit all commend it to the atten-
tion of the planter. The mountain maple (A.
spicatum), found in the same range as the
moosewood, is rather a tall shrub than a tree,
and forms clumps in moist woods ; the three-
to five-lobed leaves are downy beneath, and
their very long petioles become scarlet in Sep-
tember; the flowers are in terminal, usually
erect racemes, and the fruit, which is smaller
than in any other of our native species, has
very divergent wings. The large-leaved maple
(A. macropliyllutn) of the Pacific coast is es-
pecially abundant in Oregon, associated with
the firs and spruces ; it is a remarkably grace-
ful tree, from 40 to 90 ft. high, with widely
spreading branches and a rough brown bark ;
it is very conspicuous on account of its very
large leaves, which are sometimes a foot broad,
though variable in size ; they are deeply five- _
lobed and rather thick ; the flowers are in
large pendent racemes, yellow and fragrant,
and succeeded by clusters of hairy fruit with
smooth, slightly diverging wings. The wood
of this species is close-grained and hard, and
according to Nuttall handsomely veined ; it is
much valued in Oregon as furnishing almost the
only hard wood obtainable in some parts of the
state ; its sap is said to be abundant and saccha-
rine. This magnificent tree has been so little
planted in the Atlantic states that its hardiness
cannot be considered as fairly tested. Another
far western species is the round-leaved maple
(A. circinatum), called in Oregon the vine ma-
ple on account of its manner of growth ; in the
moist forests several stems spring from the
same root and arch over until the tops reach
the ground, where they take root and thus form
an almost impenetrable thicket ; it sometimes
grows 20 or 30 ft. high, but has more the habit
of a shrub than of a tree. The leaves are heart-
shaped, seven- to nine-lobed, about the size of
those of the red maple ; the flowers are pur-
plish, and the fruit is remarkably divaricate;
the wood is heavy, fine-grained, and valued for
making handles and other small articles. The
smooth maple (A. gldbrum) of the Rocky moun-

140

MAPLE

tains is a small shrub with leaves resembling
those of the common currant in size and shape ;
its foliage is variable, and one form has been
described as a distinct species, A. triparti-
tum. Among the exotic species cultivated in
this country, the largest and finest is the syca-
more maple (A. peudo-platanus); it attains
the height of 60 ft. or more, with wide-spread-
ing branches; specimens in England have
reached 100 ft. with a diameter of 6 to 9 ft. ;
its foliage resembles that of the sugar maple,
but the leaves are much larger, somewhat
downy beneath, and on long reddish petioles;
the flowers are in long racemes, and the fruit
has only moderately spreading wings ; the wood
is much esteemed in Europe for turners' work
and other uses. There are several varieties of
this species, one of which has purple leaves,
and another with leaves variegated with yel-
low. The tree does not well bear transplant-
ing when large. The Norway maple (-4. pla-

field maple (A. campestre), as seen in this conn-
try is scarcely more than a bush, seldom above
10 'or 15 ft. high ; in the south of Europe it
grows much larger; its heart-shaped leaves

Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudo-platanus).

tanoides), from northern Europe, is probably
more generally planted, at least in the eastern
states, than any other species ; though of but
slow growth when young, after four or five
years from the seed it increases very rapidly,
and forms a tree 60 ft. or more high ; the con-
tour of the tree is much like that of the sugar
maple, and the leaves somewhat resemble those
of that species. This tree can be readily dis-
tinguished by the milky juice of the leaves,
\vhicli ia best seen on breaking the petiole; the
fruit is smooth, the wings diverging in a straight
line. It is a most valuable shade tree, espe-
cially for streets and avenues; for this use it
has some advantages over the sugar maple, as
its foliage is more dense, and appears earlier
and holds on later ; it is remarkably free from
the attacks of insects, a fact that has been as
cribed to its milky juice. The eagle's-claw anc
the shred-leaved maples are accidental form
of this. The common European or English

Common European Maple (Acer campestre).

are 2 to 3 in. broad, and five-lobed ; flowers in
short erect clusters and wings of the fruit di-
verging horizontally ; there are several named
varieties which differ from the type in foliage ;
the wood makes excellent fuel, and when large
enough is used for cabinet and other work.
Its chief value with us is as a lawn tree; it
makes a regular and formal growth, and when
well developed and branching to the ground
presents a dense mass of foliage as broad as it
is high. The Candian (A. Creticum), almost
an evergreen, the Tartarian (A. Tartaricum),
the Montpellier (A. Monspessulanum), and the
Colchian 'maple (A. Colchicum), and some
others, are met with in collections of rare trees.
A highly ornamental class of maples is found
in Japan, several of which have been intro-
duced into this country by Mr. Thomas Hogg;
these include varieties of A. palmatum, A.po-
lymorphum, and others of which the species
are not determined ; they present a great va-
riety in the lobing and dissection of their leaves
and the most exquisite variegations in color.
The ash-leaved maple, called acer negundo by
Linnceus and Michaux, is now placed in a sep-
arate genus, negundo, which differs from acer
in having perfectly dioecious flowers and pin-
nate leaves. There are but three or f on r_ spe-
cies of this genus, which is peculiar to North
America and Japan. The common species is
N. aceroides, which is found from the Red river
of the North to North Carolina, but mainly
westward, and is more abundant on the banks
of streams than elsewhere. It is a rapid-grow-
ing tree when young, but is short-lived on dry
soils ; in favorable situations it becomes a fine
tree 40 to 60 ft. high, but is usually much
smaller ; it f onns a handsome round head with

MAQUET

MARABOU

141

dense foliage ; its compound leaves have three
or five leaflets, which are ovate, pointed, and
toothed; the staminate flowers are in small
clusters, and the pistillate ones in racemes,
which later are several inches long and conspic-
uous on account of the numerous fruits, like
those of the maple, with incurved wings. The
wood is similar to that of the red maple, and
useful for fuel. The abundant sap yields sugar,
and it is by some regarded as purer than that
afforded by the sugar maple. This tree is in
the western states generally called box-elder,
and is a favorite with those engaged in tree
planting upon the prairies, a purpose for which
its rapid growth well adapts it ; and though
not long-lived, it will furnish both fuel and su-
gar while slower but more valuable kinds are
growing. It is much valued as an ornamental
tree, its symmetrical growth and neat habit
making it suitable for the lawn. A variegated
form of this has been recently introduced, in

Ash-leaved Maple (Negundo aceroides).

which the leaves are abundantly marked with
white ; a specimen of this seen against a back-
ground of evergreens produces a striking effect
in landscape gardening.

MAQUET, Angnste, a French novelist, born
in Paris in 1813. He studied and taught at
the college Charlemagne, and wrote for Alex-
andre Dumas parts of many works which the
latter claimed exclusively as his own. In 1846,
however, Maquet's pamphlet, La maison Alex-
andre Dumas et compaynie, forced Dumas to
acknowledge his share in these productions;
and in 1851 they dissolved 1 their literary partner-
ship. Maquet has published La belle Gdbrielle
(5 vols., 1853-'5) ; Le comte de Lavernie (10
vols., 1853-'5) ; La maison du baigneur (2 vols.,
1856) ; Venters et Vendroit (4 vols., 1858) ; and
La rose Handle (3 vols., 1859). Among the
novels ostensibly by Dumas, the best known of
those in the writing of which Maquet had a
considerable if not the principal share are Lea

trois mousquetaires, Vingt ans apres, Le mcomte
de Bragelonne, Monte Gristo, and Joseph Bal-
samo. He took the same share in dramatizing
some of these novels, chiefly in conjunction
with Dumas, but also with Jules Lacroix.

MARABOU, the popular name of several large
birds of the stork family, of the genus leptop-
tilus (Lesson), natives of Asia and Africa,
whose delicate vent feathers were formerly
highly esteemed as ornaments. The L. argala
(Lath.), the Asiatic marabou or adjutant, has
no equal in size except the jabiru and ostrich ;
the length from the point of the bill to the
claws is 7i ft., and the expanse of wings is
nearly 15 ft. ; it stands 5 ft. high. The bill is
about 2 ft. long, straight, strong, and sharp-
pointed ; the wings long and ample, the tail
moderate and broad, tarsi strong, and toes long,
the anterior webbed at the base. The head
and neck are nearly bare of feathers, and in
front of the neck hangs a pouch or dewlap
several inches long and capable of considerable
distention. The bill is yellowish white, and
its gape is such that it can swallow whole an
animal as large as a cat; front of the neck
yellowish, back of neck reddish with a few
hairy warty excrescences ; the back and wing
coverts deep bluish ash, wings dusky, breast
and belly dusky white; the feathers of the
sides beneath the wings, and those of the vent
and under tail coverts, are whitish, downy,
about 12 in. long, and so light and delicate as
to command a high price for ladies' head dress-
es ; a feather a foot long and 7 in. wide weighs
only 8 grains. It is common in Bengal, and
by the natives each is believed to be possessed
by the soul of a Brahman ; by the English it is
called adjutant from its resemblance at a dis-

Marabou (Leptoptilus marabou)

tance to an officer with white waistcoat and
breeches. Its voracity is extreme, exercised
upon anything which comes in its way, from
offal, fish, and reptiles, to birds and quad-

142

MARACAYBO

, and even to the cooked meats of the
natives; its services are valuable as a scaven-
ger, and its presence is encouraged; it has
even been domesticated. In the wild state,
they live in small flocks near the mouths of
rivers ; their power of flight is great, and their
vision very keen. A smaller species (L. mara-
bou, Temm.) occurs in tropical Africa, assisting
the vultures in consuming the tilth of the ne-
gro villages ; it is more ugly, if possible, than
the Asiatic bird, and its delicate plumes are
equally valued ; marabou is the native African
name. Other species are described, with simi-
lar characters.

MARACAYBO, or Maraealbo. I. A city of Ve-
nezuela, capital of the state of Zulia (formerly
Maracaybo), situated on the W. shore of a
channel connecting the lake and gulf of the
same name, about 25 m. from the gulf, and
800 m. W. of Caracas; lat. 10 40' K, Ion.
71 40' W.; pop. about 15,000. The city is
built on a dry sandy soil, and the N. portion,
upon a rising ground, commands a fine view
of the lake. The houses, a few of which are
handsome, are for the most part of chalk and
sand, or of wood, and covered with reeds.
The harbor is commodious and well defended
by three forts ; but, owing to the bar at the en-
trance, only vessels drawing less than 10 ft. can
come up to the town. The climate is excessively
hot, but more salubrious than that of the low-
land towns of the eastern and inland states.
Heavy rain falls from May to November; and
in the other months violent and even disastrous
rains, accompanied by terrific lightning and
thunder, are not infrequent, but hurricanes are
unknpwn. Earthquakes are common. The
principal articles of export are cacao, cotton,
sugar, fustic, and coffee ; of the last 23,000,000
Ibs. were exported in the year ending June 30,
1872. Cattle are reared in large numbers in
the surrounding country. Ship building, for
which a dockyard in the port offers superior
facilities, is extensively carried on. There is
an important coasting trade. The foreign
trade is mostly in the hands of English, French,
and Germans. Tliis city was founded in 1571
by Alonso Pacheco, who named it Zamora; it
was afterward called Maracaybo, after a power-
ful cacique of the lake region. It has frequent-
ly suffered by fire and earthquakes. II. Lake
of, a large lagoon or inlet of the sea, in shape
resembling a guitar, lying immediately S. of the
city ; length, nearly 100 m. ; greatest breadth,
76 m. The channel cbnnecting the lake with
the sea is 46 m. long and from 4 to 14 m. wide,
and deep enough except over the bar at its
mouth for the largest vessels. The shores of
the lake are low and barren, and at certain
seasons inundated to a distance of 10 or 20 m.
Its waters, being fed by about 500 small streams
(only about 100 of which however are peren-
nial), are generally fresh when the S. wind
prevails ; at other times they are brackish. On
the N. E. shore is a mine of mineral pitch,
which at night during the hottest months emits

MAKAOTIAO

a brilliant phosphoric light resembling light-
ning, and called by navigators the lighthouse
(faro) of Maracaybo. The carrying trade on
the lake is done by schooners ; but it is now
proposed to establish also one or two lines of
steamers. III. Golf of. See VENEZUELA.

MAKA.IO, or Joannes, an island of Brazil, in
the mouth of the Amazon, which it divides into
two unequal branches; length about 180 m.,
greatest breadth about 150 m. ; pop. about
20,000, almost exclusively Indians. The land
is generally low and flat, and is watered by
several navigable rivers and a number of small
streams; the principal of the former are the
Moudin, with a course of about 50 m., and the
Arajaz, of 60 m. The climate is similar to
that of the province of Grao Para. The soil,
though marshy, favors the cultivation of most
of the tropical products, especially rice, which
is grown in prodigious quantities ; but the
principal occupation of the people is the rear-
ing of cattle, which find excellent pasture in
the vast prairies of the island. Maraj6 was
first given to Antonio de Souza de Macedo,
baron Joannes, and was long known by his
name. The Tupinamba Indians, who inhabit-
ed it, were civilized by the Jesuit priest An-
tonio Vieira; they were celebrated canoe build-
ers and coasters. The island was united to the
province of Grao Para about 1830.

MARANHAO, or Maranham. I. A 1ST. E. prov-
ince of Brazil, bounded K by the Atlantic, E.
by the province of Piauhy, S. W. by Goyaz, and
W. by Grao Para; area, 168,000 sq. m. ; pop.
about 385,000, consisting chiefly of Indians.
The coast line is very regular to the east ; but
about the middle it is deeply indented by the
vast bays of Sao Joze" and Sao Marcos, between
which lies the island of Maranhao, opposite the
embouchures of the Maranhao and Itapicuru
rivers ; still further W. occur at short intervals
the bays of Cuma, Cabello, and Turiassu, the
last forming the mouth of the river of the
same name. From this point to the extreme
west, and indeed to the mouth of the Parti, or
more properly the Amazon, the shore is fringed
with innumerable islets, keys, and reefs. The
coast of Maranhao is mainly low and flat ; high
red cliffs border the shore of the island, and
of the mainland to a considerable distance
westward. The principal elevations are in
the southwest and south, whence low parallel
ridges slope almost due N., where they sink
into extensive plains. Of the numerous rivers
the largest are the Parnahyba, forming the en-
tire E. boundary, and receiving a host of im-
portant tributaries from the southern corner
of the province; the* Itapicuru, Mearim, and
Pindare", all navigable nearly to their sources,
and the last two uniting 15 m. N. of the town
of Mearim to form the Maranhao ; the Turiassn
and the Gurupi, separating the province from
that of Grao Para; while the S. W. boun-
dary line is constituted by the Tocantins and
its N. E. affluent the Manoel Alves Grande.
A great part of the country is densely wood-

MAEANHAO

ed, but in the interior occur some extensive
campos and alluvial flats, which are frequently
inundated. Gold mining on a large scale was
attempted at Marcassume, but was abandoned
about 1867. Silver, platinum, rich copper ore,
antimony, and arsenic have been discovered
in many parts ; iron is general throughout
the province; there is petroleum on the Ita-
picurii ; sulphur is said to exist at Rosario,
and saltpetre and hydraulic lime at Alcan-
tara and Guaraju; and about 60,000 tons of
salt are annually produced on the Alcantara
coast. The climate is hot and damp, like that
of the Amazonian valley, of which, according
to Agassiz, it once formed a part ; the ther-
mometer ranges from 69-8 to 97'8 F. The
light rains begin in October, but the rainy sea-
son sets in in December and lasts till May,
with much thunder and lightning, especially
toward the close ; and from June to Decem-
ber the general winds blow steadily from the
northeast by day, and from the east by night.
The principal products are rice, cotton, sugar,
and coffee ; the last is now abundantly grown
on the mountain slopes inland, and will prob-
ably soon take the place of cotton as a staple
for exportation. Oils of various kinds are ex-
tensively extracted, but mostly for domestic
use, except copaiva, the annual production of
which is about 100 pipes ; and sarsaparilla,
annotto, vanilla, caju rosin, and many .valuable
medicinal plants are found in great plenty, but
have not yet become important commodities.
In 1854, 13,000,000 Ibs. of cotton were ex-
ported, valued at $987,197; and in 1869, 12,-
500,000 Ibs., valued at $1,784,955. The total
value of exports in 1867 was $3,150,426, and
of imports (consisting mainly of machinery
and manufactured goods) $2,712,560. Man-
teiga de tartaruga, a kind of butter from tor-
toise eggs, is extensively manufactured. There
are three f ounderies and one machine shop ;
superior embroideries and laces are made ; but
the larger portion of the inhabitants are en-
gaged in agricultural pursuits. Maranhao has
eight cities and 28 towns ; the more important
of the former, besides the capital, are Caxias,
Vianna, and Alcantara. Education is here
more general than in any other province of the
empire, there being a lyceuin with 12 chairs
of languages, sciences, and law, several semina-
ries, and numerous other schools. Maranhao
has produced many of the most prominent
Brazilian men of letters, arts, and sciences.
II. San Luiz de Maranbao, a maritime city, capital
of the province, on the W. side of the island
of the same name, lying at the mouths of the
Itapicuru and Maranhao rivers, 1,410 m. N". of
Rio de Janeiro ; lat. 2 31' S., Ion. 44 18' W. ;
pop. of the island in 1872, 34,023, of whom
about 30,000 were in the city. The city is de-
fended by a line of high red cliffs skirting the
shore of the island to the north, from which
direction it is accessible only by narrow passes.
The streets are regularly laid out, are spacious,
well paved, and lighted with gas. The houses
531 VOL. XL 10

MARAT

143

are well built, many of them being of two
stories, and surrounded with gardens. The
finest of the public buildings are the cathedral
and the episcopal palace, both the work of the
Jesuits. There are ten other churches and
chapels, eight convents, the governor's house,
town hall, custom house, post office, prison,
and one military, one foundling, and several
general hospitals. The benevolent institutions
comprise asylums for orphans and indigent
females, besides several societies for the pro-
tection and relief of artisans. There are two
banks, several mercantile and industrial asso-
ciations, and a number of insurance companies.
The educational establishments are a lyceum
in which are taught languages, sciences, law,
and philosophy, two seminaries, and many
primary and grammar schools. The public
library contains about 10,000 volumes. Eight
periodicals are published. A botanic garden
has lately been established. The climate is
extremely hot and unhealthy. Maranhao is
the entrepot for the productions of its own
province and those of Grao Para, Piauhy, Rio
Grande do Norte, and Ceara. The port is easy
of access, well defended by a series of forts,
and affords good anchorage for vessels draw-
ing 20 ft. of water. The exports and imports
for the second half of 1871 amounted to
$1,021,468 64 and $1,063,225 30 respectively.
In 1870 there were exported 12^133,000 Ibs.
of cotton and 6,338,280 Ibs. of sugar. Among
other exports are hides, balsam copaiva, and
unprepared isinglass. The chief imports are
manufactured goods and machinery. Half of
the foreign trade is with Great Britain, and
about one tenth with Portugal. The maritime
statistics for the year ending June 30, 1872,
were : entered, 40 steamers and 36 sailing ves-
sels, tonnage 44,272 ; cleared, 39 steamers and
51 sailing vessels, tonnage 52,230. Besides a
direct line of steamers to Lisbon and Liverpool,
there are two touching at Ceara and Belem or
Para, all established since 1867, and almost mo-
nopolizing the carrying trade between Mara-
nhao and Europe. The rivers Itapicuru, Mea-
rim, and Pindare" are navigated by steamers, and
there are also coasting lines to Rio de Janeiro
and to Para. Maranhao was founded in 1612.

MARANHAO RIVER. See MEAEIM.

MARAflOff. See AMAZON.

MARAT, Jean Paul, a French revolutionist,
born of Protestant parents at Baudry, near
Neufchatel, Switzerland, May 24, 1744, assas-
sinated in Paris, July 13, 1793. He was edu-
cated as a physician ; but the narrow sphere
in which he lived offering scanty means to
satisfy his ambition, he went abroad. At 30
years of age he was at Edinburgh, where he
obtained a living as private tutor, and pub-
lished a revolutionary pamphlet in English,
entitled " The Chains of Slavery," which ap-
peared in French at Paris in 1792 (latest ed.,
1850). In the following year, by a more volu-
minous publication, De Vhomme, ou des prin-
cipes et des lots de Vinfluence de Vdme sur U

144

MARAT

corps et du corps sur Vame (3 vols., Amsterdam,
177")). IK- appeared as an opponent of Voltaire,
and a literary controversy ensued between
tin-in. He removed to Paris, and from 1779
bo 17^ published a series of writings, in which
he attempted to revolutionize natural philoso-
phy, and to refute the Newtonian theory. ^ His
success being far inferior to his pretensions,
!i ivlin[uished the field of literature and en-
d -avorud to establish himself as a physician;
but after many disappointments he was ob-
IL'ed to accept a position as veterinary surgeon
to the count of Artois, afterward Charles X.
The outbreak of the revolution gave him the
opportunity to play the part of a demagogue.
Although physically not prepossessing, being
hardly five feet high, with a strange mixture of
the ludicrous and terrible in his countenance,
he soon obtained a vast influence over the low-
er classes by his energy and resolution. On
Sept. 12, 1789, he published the first number
of the PuUiciste Parisien, the title of which
was afterward changed into Ami du Peuple.
As early as August of that year he had publicly
proclaimed that 800 members of the national as-
sembly ought to be hanged, Mirabeau the fore-
most among them. In the same spirit every
page of the Ami du Peuple was written. This
journal, under the successive titles Le Journal
de la Republique Franfaise and Le Publiciste de
la Republique Fran$aise, was continued with-
out interruption till July 14, 1793. At the
same time he also published several revolution-
ary pamphlets, and 13 numbers of a political
journal entitled Le Junius Fran$ais. Having
been introduced by Danton into the club of
the Cordeliers, he created there disturbances
so violent that the municipality ordered his
arrest in January, 1790. He evaded it by se-
creting himself in the cellars of the Cordeliers,
whence he continued to issue his periodical.
After the king's unsuccessful attempt at flight,
Marat again ventured into publicity, and di-
rected his attacks against the Girondists. Hav-
ing been prosecuted in consequence, he re-
turned to his former underground haunts, from
which he again emerged in the riots of Au-
gust, 1792. lie now became the right-hand
man of Danton, then minister of justice, intro-
duced himself into the vigilance committee es-
tablished by the municipality of Paris, and was
one of the chief instigators of the massacres
of September. To reward him for the part he
had taken in these atrocities, the people of
Paris elected him to the national convention.
Here his speeches were received by the party
of the majority with a feeling of abhorrence
mingled with contempt They moved a vote
of censure against him for having advocated
the establishment of a dictatorial power. When,
after anirry diBCTttdons, the motion was at last
Withdrawn, Marat produced a pistol from his
.liming that, if the motion had
he would have blown his brains out in
the presence of the convention. Emboldened
by impunity, he grew more fanatical every day

MARATHON

1 and his paper denounced the French generals
and armies as incapable, and asked for the
heads of 270,000 " traitors," and the massacre
of three fourths of the members of the conven-
tion. In vain the Girondists endeavored to
break down his influence. Under the pressure
of popular excitement, created by foreign in-
tervention, the ultra-revolutionary party had
gradually obtained the ascendancy, and the
most sanguinary proceedings being considered
unavoidable in order to prevent a cooperation
of the anti-revolutionary elements with the
foreign foe, Marat, who excelled all others in
this respect, was almost adored by the Parisians
as the saviour of the country. Thus, in April,
1793, he succeeded in obtaining the passage of
a "law for the arrest of suspicious persons,"
by the operations of which no fewer than 400,-
000 individuals were imprisoned throughout
France. Having, as chairman of the Jacobin
club, signed an address to the people, in which
the assassination of the Girondists was openly
called for, he was prosecuted before the revo-
lutionary tribunal. But his trial became a tri-
umph. The public prosecutor, the jurors, and
the audience did him homage, and he was car-
ried in triumph to the national convention t
where Danton delivered an eloquent eulogy in
his honor. He now rapidly rose to the cul-
minating point of his career. Having made
the municipality subservient to his plans, he
instigated the mob of May 31, 1793, by which
the Girondist party was completely destroyed.
With Robespierre and Danton he formed a
triumvirate, which for the time determined
the destinies of France. Confined by disease
in his garret, Marat was restlessly active in
stirring up, by letters and denunciations, the
passions of the people and of the national con-
vention. He was finally assassinated by Char-
lotte Corday, while preparing a list of Giron-
dists to be sacrificed to the common weal, only
a few days before his life would probably lu<u
ended from natural causes. (See COEDAY.)
Robespierre used his death as a pretext for
carrying the reign of terror to its utmost ex-
tent. Hundreds of victims were sacrificed to
the "manes of the martyr." The entire na-
tional convention attended his funeral. His
body was transferred, Nov. 4, 1793, to the
Pantheon, and his portrait, executed by Da-
vid, adorned the hall of the convention. A
pension for life was voted by the "grateful
nation " to his concubine. Two years later,
when the revolutionary passions had cooled
down, the remains of Marat were removed
from their resting place and his portrait taken
down. Though vain and egotistic, Marat was
doubtless sincere in his sanguinary ravings, and
was so disinterested that, even in" the height of
his power, he lived in the most abject poverty.
MARATHON, a town of Greece, near the E.
coast of Attica, about 18 m. N. E. of Athens,
near which the Persians under Datis and Ar-
taphernes were defeated, in 490 B. C. (Sept. 28
or 29, according to somewhat uncertain compu-

MARATHON

MARBLE

145

tations), by the Greeks under Miltiades. The
Persians, having crossed the ^Egean and taken
Eretria in Euboea, passed over to Attica, land-
ing on the plain of Marathon ; their numbers
were about 110,000. To oppose them was an
Athenian force of 10,000 heavy-armed infan-
try and a small body of light-armed troops
and attendants. According to Athenian law,
there were ten generals, each of whom in turn
was entitled to command for a day ; but the
other generals waived their authority in favor
of Miltiades, who thus became sole comman-
der. Having received a reenforcement of 1,000
heavy-armed Platseans, Miltiades resolved to
sally from his strong position on the heights
and attack the Persians, who were crowded in
the plain. So little was an attack anticipated
that it was really a surprise. The Greeks ad-
vanced in three bodies, a centre and two wings,
with a considerable interval between. Both
attacks by the wings were successful, and the
enemy was driven to the right and left ; but
in the centre the heavy masses of the Per-
sians repelled the Athenians, who were forced
back for a considerable space. Miltiades
then recalled his victorious wings, which fell
upon the flanks of the Persian centre ; this
was speedily broken, and the whole army fled
in rout to their ships, which were drawn up
on the beach. The Persian loss was 6,400, that
of the Greeks only 192. A tumulus, still
standing near the modern village of Vrana,
which probably occupies the site of the ancient
Marathon, marks the burial place of the Greeks
who fell in this action. The battle of Mara-
thon is justly considered one of the most im-
portant in history, not so much on account of
the numbers engaged or the losses incurred, as
for its historical results. Had the Athenians
been defeated, there was no power capable of
resisting the Persian invasion, and Greece must
have become a Persian satrapy.

MARATHON, a K county of Wisconsin, bor-
dering on Michigan, and drained by the Wis-
consin river and its branches ; area, 6,048 sq.
in. ; pop. in 1870, 5,885. It has a diversified
surface, extensive pine forests, and numerous
small lakes. The chief productions in 1870
were 35,327 bushels of wheat, 76,482 of oats,
22,164 of potatoes, 8,385 of peas and beans,
and 2,843 tons of hay. There were 273 horses,
1,331 milch cows, 2,754 other cattle, 1,482
sheep, and 1,215 swine. Capital, Wausau.

MARATTI, Carlo, an Italian painter, born
near Ancona in 1625, died in Rome, Dec. 15,
1713. At about the age of 12 he was sent to
Rome and put under the instruction of Andrea
Sacchi, with whom he remained eight years.
He became a student of the works of Raphael,
and his contemporaries, supposing that he could
only paint madonnas, called him Carluccio delle
Madonne; but he silenced their sneers by exe-
cuting for the baptistery of St. John Lateran
a picture of Constantine destroying the idols,
which caused him to rank among the first
painters of the day. He restored the frescoes

of Raphael in the Vatican, and those of Anni-
bale Carracci in the Farnese palace. His mas-
terpiece is the "Martyrdom of St. Biagio " at
Genoa. He also executed several etchings from
his own designs and from Italian masters.

MARBEAU, Jean Baptiste Francois, a French
philanthropist, born at Brives in 1798. He be-
came an advocate in Paris, and published in
1824 a treatise on proceedings at civil law, and
in 1834 one in the interest of the working
classes. In 1844 appeared his fitudes sur Veco-
nomie sociale. In the same year he was ap-
pointed adjunct mayor, and founded the first
infant asylum (creche) at Chaillot. He set
forth the utility of such institutions in Des
creches (1845), which has had many editions
and translations, and obtained a Montyon prize
of 3,000 francs, which he appropriated to one
of the principal asylums. His beneficent en-
terprise led to the establishment of hundreds
of infant asylums all over France.

MARBECK," John, an English composer, born
early in the 16th century, died about 1585. He
was one of the earliest composers of the re-
formed church of England. About 1544 there
were formed at Windsor associations in sup-
port of the Lutheran doctrines. Marbeck, then
organist at St. George's chapel, Windsor, lent
his support to one of these, and with three
other members was seized on a charge of here-
sy. An examination of his papers discovered
a concordance to the English Bible, complete
as far as the letter L. The special charge
against him was for copying an epistle of Cal-
vin's against the mass. All four were con-
demned to be burned, but Marbeck was saved
through the influence of the bishop of Win-
chester, and resumed his post as organist. He
finished his " Concordance," the first complete
one ever made, and published it (fol., London,
1550). He also published " The Boke of Com-
mon Praier, noted" (4to, 1550), the oldest pub-
lished for the use of the Anglican church.
Robert Jones of Ely cathedral issued a new
edition of this work, entitled " Marbeck's Book
of Common Prayer for voices in unison, ar-
ranged for modern use, with an ad libitum or-
gan bass accompaniment." The work unalter-
ed was reprinted in London in 1844. Smith's
Musica Antiqua, in the collection of the Brit-
ish museum, contains a Te Deum and a mass
for five voices by Marbeck. His other works
are : " The Lyves of Holy Sainctes, Prophets,
Patriarches, and others" (4to, 1574); "The
Holie Historic of King David, drawn into Eng-
lish Meetre " (4to, 1579) ; and "A Ripping up
of the Pope's Fardel" (8vo, 1581).

MARBLE, a rock used as an ornamental build-
ing stone, for interior decorations, and for
sculpture. Generally, any limestone that can
be obtained in large sound blocks, and is sus-
ceptible of a good polish, is marble ; and the
only marble that is not limestone is the ser-
pentine and the oriental verd antique (the lat-
ter a mixture of serpentine and limestone). It
is found in beds in various geological forma-

146

MARBLE

tions. In the azoic group it is a metamorphic
rock of granular and crystalline structure, and
often presents a fineness of texture and purity
of shading that fit it for the choicest works of
the sculptor. In the palaeozoic formations it
bears more of the character of a sedimentary
rock, and it is apt to contain organic vestiges,
as corallines and fossil shells, which indeed
sometimes compose nearly its whole substance ;
it is also of variegated colors, and sometimes is
of brecciated structure, evidently made up of
fragments of an older rock, the layers of which,
broken up and confusedly rearranged, have
been cemented together. Though thus vary-
ing greatly in color, texture, and structure, the
composition of marble is for the most part es-
sentially the same ; it is a carbonate of lime,
or a combined carbonate of lime and carbonate
of magnesia, and is readily burned to quick-
lime. It is soft and easy to work with the chisel
or hammer, generally of even grain, so as to be
split with wedges, and of specific gravity about
27, making the weight of a cubic foot about
169 Ibs. Its durability is very variable, some
varieties retaining sharp edges when exposed
for many years to the weather, and others soon
crumbling away. Many varieties of marble
have acquired a name and celebrity from re-
mote times. The ease with which the rock is
worked caused it to be selected for the earliest
structures. The names of many marbles fa-
mous among the ancient Greeks and Romans
are still retained, and their localities are known.
Mt. Pentelicus in Attica furnished the valua-
ble Pentelican white marble, called by the mod-
erns Penteli marble ; the islands of Paros and
Naxos, the still celebrated Parian marble ; and
other similar white marbles came from Mt.
Hymettus in Attica, from Thasos and Lesbos,
from Corallus in Phrygia, from Cyzicus on the
Propontis, and one variety, exceeding the Pari-
an in whiteness, from Luna in Etruria. Of the
first named (the Pentelican) the Parthenon was
built, and also the temple of Ceres at Eleusis,
besides many celebrated statues. Though of
finer grain than the Parian, it is said not to
retain its polish and beauty so well. The Pari-
an marble is placed first by both Theophrastus
and Pliny in their enumeration of ancient mar-
bles. Pindar and Theocritus also celebrated
its praise. The statues of Venus de' Medici,
Diana Venatrix, the Oxford marbles known as
the Parian chronicle, and many other famous
works, are of this marble. Black marbles are
occasionally referred to by the ancients ; but
some of those named, as the Chium marmor
from the island of Chios, appear to be of ques-
tionable character. This one is sometimes called
lapis obsidianus antiquorum. It was glossy
black, and received so high a polish that it was
made into mirrors. The green marbles were
Mrpenttate from various localities. Yellow
marble was obtained at Corinth. The marmor
Phengite* of Cappadocia was white with yel-
low spots ; the Rhodian was marked with gold-
en-colored spots, and that of Melos (Milo) was

yellow. The marbles of modern times have
been variously classified and named. In south-
ern Europe two general divisions are made of
antique and modern. The quarries of the
former being lost or abandoned, the stone is
obtained only from ancient monuments ; and
being consequently most highly prized, meth-
ods are resorted to, and sometimes with suc-
cess, to attach the name antique to stone from
quarries now worked. It is also the case that
some of the marbles held in the highest es-
timation in France, being transported from
monuments at Rome, are the product of quar-
ries worked in ancient times in France. It is
probable these might be again discovered. With-
out reference to these marbles, however, the
French boast that their country surpasses even
Italy in the beauty and variety of this class of
stones. The following are convenient divisions
in which marbles may be arranged for a general
notice of the most important of them : 1, the
simple or single-colored marbles ; 2, the varie-
gated ; 3, the brecciated ; 4, the lumachella or
fossiliferous. These sorts, however, pass into
each other, so that some may be placed indif-
ferently either in one or the other of two groups.
1. The best known of the first class are the plain
white marbles, some of which have been already
named. The white marble of Carrara, of which
an account is given in the article CARRAEA
MARBLE, is of a texture like loaf sugar, differing
in this respect from the Parian marble, which
on close examination appears to be made up of
the most delicate plates or scales, confusedly
but most closely united together. Pure black
marble is found in some ancient Roman sculp-
tures. Some varieties of it are obtained in Der-
byshire, England, and in Kilkenny, Ireland;
but as the latter is more or less intermixed
with fossil shells, it should come under the
fourth division. It is quarried in the United
States at Shoreham, Vt., and Glen's Falls, N. Y.,
and specimens are obtained from some other
localities. The colored marbles are generally
variegated ; but the Siena marble of Italy is
sometimes of a uniform yellow color, or the
same clouded. Some of the red marbles of
Italy also display only the one color. In North
America white marbles are worked at various
places on the range of the great belt of meta-
morphic rocks through Canada, Vermont, west-
ern Massachusetts, a little back of the cities of
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Wash-
ington, and thence through Virginia and the
Carolinas into northern Georgia and Alabama.
It is this formation that supplies the white
marble for building purposes to the different
cities along its range, and its quarries in Mas-
sachusetts and New York furnish the marble
for the most costly edifices of southern cities.
The statuary marble is only the finest grained
variety of this common building stone. Many
localities are known to furnish it in small beds
interstratified with the coarser marble. Sev-
eral quarries of fine statuary marble have been
opened in Vermont. The first were at Rut-

MAEBLE

147

land, but other localities have since been found.
Excellent quarries are also found in other parts
of the United States. 2. The variegated mar-
bles are those variously spotted, shaded, and
veined. They are the most numerous class,
and include the most beautiful of the colored
marbles. None are more highly esteemed than
the variegated yellow marble of Siena. This
and the Italian dark red marbles may be seen
in many of the costly mantels in our marble
shops ; and also the soft, shaded, dove-colored
Lisbon marble, of which are made the smaller
columns in the entrance of the Unitarian church
at the corner of 4th avenue and 20th street,
New York. The black Genoese marble, with
golden-colored and white veins, called Portoro
marble, the best of which is from Porto Ve-
nese, has for many years past been the most
popular and the best known foreign marble in
all parts of the United States, though now
rather out of fashion. It is a weak stone, and
is for the most part used in thin slabs cemented
upon a back of slate. The marbles of this
class found in the United States east of the
Eocky mountains have not attained much celeb-
rity, nor do we know of any worthy of it, unless
we should include among them certain varieties
of the brecciated marbles from northern Ver-
mont and Tennessee. The gray and white
clouded limestones of Thomaston, Me., are
quarried to considerable extent for marble, and
may be seen in common use in portions of the
eastern states. They possess little beauty. Cali-
fornia has furnished of this class some very
showy marble of brilliant reddish and brown-
ish colors, and susceptible of a high polish.
It is imported into New York and used for
mantels. 3. The brecciated marbles are com-
posed of angular fragments, it may be of va-
rious mineral substances, united in a bed or
paste of calcareous cement ; or the mass may
be so divided by numerous veins into pieces as
to present the appearance of broken fragments
irregularly united. Brocatellas are breccias, in
which the fragments are very small ; we incor-
rectly apply the name only to a reddish brec-
ciated marble brought to this country from
Spain. The varieties of this class are very nu-
merous ; but some of the most celebrated are
never seen here, such as those called le grand
deuil and le petit deuil, literally the full mourn-
ing and the half mourning. These come from
the Pyrenees and different parts of France;
they are of a black ground spotted with white
fragments. Among the brecciated marbles of
the United States, the best known is that of
the Potomac on the Maryland side, some miles
below the Point of Eocks. The principal use
that has been made of it was to furnish the
columns in the old chamber of representatives
at Washington. The irregularities of hardness
in the different ingredients render it an expen-
sive stone to work ; still the quarries are de-
serving of more than government patronage.
The stone is certainly handsomer than the
Italian red and white breccia imported for the

inner columns of the central arched entrance
of the church before mentioned. Quarries have
been opened in the northern part of Vermont,
near Lake Champlain, which produce the most
beautiful of the American colored marbles. They
are brecciated, though they pass into the varie-
gated. They present a great variety of colors,
from a deep re,d, traversed with veins of white,
to rose-tinted flesh color mottled with whitish
spots. In some specimens the brecciated struc-
ture is very strongly marked, the fragments
being large with sharp edges and of decided
shades of dark red, drab, and salmon, upon a
ground of white bordered with rose. Unlike
the Potomac marble, the fragments are not dif-
ferent varieties of rock, but are all limestone.
The stone, though somewhat hard for marble,
is still of uniform texture and takes an even
high polish. Some large blocks closely resem-
ble the foreign brocatella. It is however very
difficult to work. Other marbles of this char-
acter and of rather dark red colors abound
near Knoxville, Tenn., and have been brought
into notice by the extent to which they are
employed in the construction of the capitol at
Washington. 4. Lumachella or fossiliferous
marbles are those which contain petrified shells.
These are sometimes so crowded upon one an-
other, that they compose the whole mass of
the stone; sometimes single shells are seen
scattered throughout the block. These mar-
bles are very abundant in Europe, and also
throughout New York and the western states.
Handsome mantels are made of American va-
rieties which are composed entirely of fossil
shells, but they are rather to be regarded as
curious than beautiful. They lack the high
colors of the brecciated and variegated mar-
bles, and though they take a good polish, they
are from their plain colors comparatively dull
and sombre. Some of the best of the kind is
from Becraft's mountain, back of Hudson, N.
Y., which is thus noticed by Prof. Silliman
("American Journal of Science," vol. vi., p.
" 371) : " The marble is of a grayish color with a
slight blush of red ; its structure is semi-crys-
talline, and in some places highly crystal-
line, especially in and around the organized
bodies which in vast numbers it embraces. The
large slabs present a great diversity of appear-
ance, and can scarcely be distinguished from
the similar transition marble of the Peak of
Derbyshire, which it quite equals in beauty and
firmness." Serpentine, as before stated, dif-
fers in composition from the other marbles.
It consists of about equal parts of silica and
magnesia with 12 per cent, of water. It is a
soft mineral of different shades of green, of
waxy lustre, and susceptible of a high polish.
It is better adapted to ornamental work with-
in doors than to be exposed to the action of
the weather. Verd antique is a mixture of
green serpentine and light-colored limestone.
These varieties come from Genoa and Tus-
cany, and the best verd antique from Egypt.
In Vermont and Canada serpentine abounds ;

148

MARBLE

and verd antique may be obtained in various
places in New York and Pennsylvania, and in
any of the New England states. At Milford,
Conn., a quarry of serpentine and verd antique
was worked more than 50 years ago, which
furnMied slabs pronounced by good judges
quite as fine as the European stone. The
method! of preparing marble for use differ
from the working of granite. This hard rock,
aftor being quarried, is split by small wedges
drivm into holes drilled in a line, and is then
1 by hammers or used in the rough.
Marble, being a comparatively soft rock, is cut
into slabs by a process of sawing with smooth
iron saws fed with sharp sand and water.
Several of these plates or saws are set in one
frame, and in a large establishment 20 or more
of the frames may be seen kept in steady oper-
ation by a steam engine. The progress of the
saws cutting down through the great blocks of
marble seems very slow, for the most part not
exceeding an inch per hour. The thickness of
the slabs is usually four or six inches. In this
form the marble is used for facing the walls
of buildings upon a back of brick, giving all
the effect of a solid wall of marble at much
reduced cost. In the most expensive structures
only are the walls built of solid blocks of mar-
ble or freestone. Marble slabs for mantels and
other interior work are sawed like those for
building, and are then rubbed smooth upon a
heavy revolving table of cast iron, called the
rubbing bed, and afterward polished. Accord-
ing to the census of 1870, there were 22 mar-
ble quarries in operation in the IJnited States,
employing a capital of $1,316,600. The total
products amounted to $804,300. The most ex-
tensive quarries were in Maryland, where the
products for the year were valued at $275,000 ;
NVu York, $222,000; Vermont, $130,800;
Pennsylvania, $101,000 ; and Massachusetts,
$59,500. Marble valued at $3,709,518 was
worked into monuments and tombstones, val-
ued at $8,916,654. The value of marble and
stone ami manufactory thereof, imported into
the United States during the year ending June
30, 1873, was $1,099,280, of which $423,818
was from Italy.

MARBLE, Manton, an American journalist,
born in Worcester, Mass., Nov. 16, 1835. He
graduated at the university of Rochester in
A- as soon after connected with the Bos-
ton "Journal," and subsequently was editor
of the Boston "Traveller." In 1858 he went
to New York and joined the staff of the
Kvniing Post." In 1859 he made atrip to
K. 1 river and beyond, corresponding with the
" Evening Post," and contributing three papers
descriptive of the journey to " Harper's Maga-
/inr." He has been connected with "The
World" newspaper from its establishment,
Jane 16, 1860, and became its proprietor and
</<litor in April, 1*62, making it a free-trade
and democratic journal.

MIKBLEIIKil), a town and port of entry of
Essex co., Massachusetts, at the terminus of a

MARBLES

branch of the Eastern railroad, 12 m. N. E. of
Boston; pop. in 1870, 7,703. It is built upon,
a peninsula projecting into Massachusetts bay,
about 4 m. in length and 2 in breadth, with an
area of about 3,700 acres, and joins Salem on
the west. The surface is elevated, and is ex-
ceedingly irregular and rocky. The harbor is
deep and convenient, and is about 1 m. long
by m. wide. The town has been noted from
the first settlement of New England for the
enterprise of its people in the fisheries. More
recently the inhabitants have also engaged ex-
tensively in the manufacture of boots and
shoes. For the year ending June 30, 1873, the
number of vessels engaged in the cod and
mackerel fisheries was 59, with an aggregate
tonnage of 2,098; belonging to the port, 64
vessels, of 2,554 tons. There are two national
banks, a savings bank, graded public schools,
with a high school, a weekly newspaper, and
eight churches. Marblehead was originally a
part of Salem, and was incorporated as a dis-
tinct town in 1649, at which time it contained
44 families. Many of the settlers were from
the Channel islands ; and their peculiarities of
language are still to be noticed among the in-
habitants, and formerly existed to such a degree
as almost to constitute a separate dialect. At
the commencement of the revolutionary war
Marblehead was reckoned the second town in
Massachusetts in population and wealth. It
contributed a regiment of 1,000 men to the
army, and at the end of the war there were
600 widows and 1,000 fatherless children in its
population of less than 4,000. During the war
of 1812 the frigate Constitution was chiefly
manned by men from Marblehead, and the town
also sent out a great number of privateers;
and when peace was declared it was found
that 500 of its citizens were held in England
as prisoners of war. In the civil war it was
the first town to send troops to Boston (April
16, 1861), and furnished altogether 1,440 men.
MARBLES, Playin, little balls of marble, baked
clay, agate, or other stony substance, used as
toys for children. Marbles are made in im-
mense quantities in Saxony for exportation to
the United States, and to India and China.
They are also largely manufactured in the agate
mills at Oberstein on the Nahe, in Germany,
particularly for the American market. The
material used in Saxony is a hard calcareous
stone, which is first broken up into square
blocks with a hammer. These are then thrown
100 to 150 together into a mill, which is con-
structed of a stationary flat slab of stone, with
a number of concentric furrows upon its face.
Over this a block of oak of the same diameter,
partially resting upon the small stones, is kept
revolving, while water flows upon the stone
slab. In 15 minutes the marbles are worn com-
pletely round, and are fit for -sale. An estab-
lishment with three mills will manufacture 60,-
000 marbles in a week. Agates are made into
marbles at Oberstein by first chipping the
pieces nearly round with a hammer, and then

MARBOIS

wearing them down upon the face of large
rindstones. The hard stones are managed
dth great dexterity by the workmen, who in

few minutes bring them into the shape of

jrfect spheres.

MARBOIS, Barb. See BAEB -MARBOIS.

MARBURG, a town of Prussia, in the prov-
ice of Hesse-Nassau, on the river Lahn, 49
i. S. W. of Cassel ; pop. in 1871, 9,065. The
mncipal public buildings are the church of St.
"lizabeth, a fine, perfectly preserved specimen
)f the pointed Gothic, built in the 13th cen-
iry, and the ancient castle of the landgraves
Hesse on the Schlossberg (now used as a
jnitentiary), where the famous discussion on
ransubstantiation between Luther and Zwingli
>ok place, Oct. 1-3, 1529. The university of

arburg was the first founded in Germany after
reformation, by the landgrave Philip the
[agnanimous (May 30, 1527) ; it was richly
adowed from the proceeds of the confiscated

MARCEAU

149

Marburg.

property of the clergy, and attracted students
from all parts of Protestant Europe. Although
a rival university was established in Giessen
in 1607, it continued to flourish until the out-
break of the thirty years' war. From 1625 to
1650 the Giessen university was united with
that of Marburg, but they have .since been
again separated, the former being now the na-
tional university of Hesse-Darmstadt. In the
first part of the 18th century Marburg derived
great celebrity from the philosopher Christian
von Wolf, who was one of the professors. In
the winter of 1873-'4 the university was at-
tended by 433 students, mostly medical. It
contains a library of about 130,000 volumes,
an anatomical theatre, an observatory, an admi-
rable chemical laboratory, a botanic garden, a
lying-in asylum, a clinique, a school for veteri-
nary surgeons, a zoological museum, a philo-
logical seminary, and one for political sciences.
Marburg possesses also a gymnasium and other

educational institutions, a society for natural
history, and a Bible society. The chief man-
ufacture is pottery. The town was several
times besieged during the seven years' war.
In 1806 and 1809 it was the scene of risings
of the Hessian peasantry against the French,
who destroyed in 1810 and 1811 the greatest
part of the fortifications of the castle.
MARC' ANTONIO. See RAIMONDL
MARCEAU, Francois Severin dcs Grayiers, a
French soldier, born in Chartres, March 1, 1769,
died at Altenkirchen, Rhenish Prussia, Sept.
23, 1796. His father, a lawyer, intended him
for the legal profession ; but he enlisted in 1785,
and was sergeant in 1789, when he was prom-
inent in the. taking of the Bastile. In 1792
he was assigned to the army of the Ardennes,
where as commander of volunteers he restored
obedience to the commanding general Lafay-
ette. Rapidly promoted for bravery, he was
made general of division in 1793, and distin-
guished himself with
Kleber in the war of
the Vendee, especially
at the battle of Save-
nay. His magnanim-
ity in saving the life
of Angelique de Mel-
liers, a female royalist
combatant, was mis-
represented as an act
of treason, but he was
acquitted. In 1794 he
mainly decided the vic-
tory at Fleurus (June
26), which placed Bel-
gium at the mercy of
France. The commit-
tee of public safety
called him "the lion
of the army," and im-
mediately placed him
in charge of the right
wing of the army of
the Sambre and Oise,

Jourdan being commander-in-chief, and Kle-
ber at the head of a division. In October
he achieved a brilliant success in capturing
Coblentz, the great focus of the emigrant no-
bles. In 1795 he took part in the siege of
Ehrenbreitstein. "While commanding the rear
guard on the right bank of the Rhine, he was
driven to despair by the premature destruction
of a pontoon on the Sieg, and would have com-
mitted suicide if it had not been for the inter-
vention of one of his aides-de-camp. Kle"ber
arrived in time to rescue him from his perilous
position. In 1796 he was placed at the head
of the first division to cover the retreat of
Pichegru from Mentz, and to protect the oper-
ations of Jourdan, whom he enabled to effect
a junction with KMber. At the end of July
he took Konigstein, after having baffled an at-
tempt of the enemy to -make a sortie from
Mentz, which place he invested, and gained
several other important successes. While occii-

150

MARCELLO

pying the plain of Altenkirchen, awaiting the
arrival of Jourdan, he undertook a reconnois-
sance, Sept. 20. He was severely wounded by
a ball, and was carried within the enemy's
lines, where he died three days after. His ob-
! \vi-re celebrated with great pomp, the
Austrians firing minute guns in his honor. A
pyramid erected near the spot where he fell
was subsequently removed to the neighborhood
of Ooblentz. In his native town monuments
were erected in his honor ; and in September,
1851, a bronze statue of him was placed in the
principal square. See Kleber et Marceau, by
Charles Desprez (Paris, 1857).

MARCKLLO, Benedetto, an Italian composer,
born in Venice, July 24, 1686, died in Brescia,
July 17, 1739. His father was a Venetian sen-
ator, and personally superintended his educa-
tion. He studied music thoroughly, learning
counterpoint under Gaspari, became an advo-
cate, and held several important offices, being
a member of the council of forty and treasu-
rer at Brescia. His most esteemed work is his
music for Giustiniani's version of 50 of the
Psalms. The pieces were written for two,
three, and four voices, with accompaniment
for organ or clavichord, several having also
obbligato for violoncello or two violas. John
Garth of Durham published a fine edition of
these psalms in eight folio volumes, with Eng-
lish words. Marcello's other works consist
of oratorios, masses, cantatas, madrigals, and
different parts of the Roman Catholic service.
He wrote also what he styled a " Drama for
Music," and Calisto in Orsa, a pastoral with
the use of scenery ; a variety of instrumental
compositions, and two satirical madrigals. Be-
sides these musical works, he left a treatise in
manuscript on music, a poem upon the re-
demption, and a collection of sonnets, verses,
burlesque poems, and dramas. He is justly
considered as one of the greatest of the Italian
masters ; his style being noble and sustained,
his invention poetic, and his thought and mu-
sical forms full of originality.

MARIELLIS, Marcos Clandlns, a Roman gene-
ral, bora about 268 B. C., killed near Venu-
pia, in Apulia, in 208. The family to which
he 1" 'longed (a plebeian branch of the great
Clau'lian gem) was of the highest distinction
in Rome. Marcellus was early known as a
bold and skilful soldier, serving in the first
Punic war. His first office was that of curule
ndilc. to which he was chosen about 226.
Shortly afterward he was elected augur, and in
222 he was made consul. While holding that
office he brought the Gallic war to a success-
ful termination, killing the leader of the Gauls
with his own hands. Marcellus dedicated the
spoils of the Gallic chief as spolia opima in the
temple of Jupiter Feretrius, being the third
and last instance of such dedication in Roman
history. Hu was one of the prrotors in 216,
when the second Punic war was at its height,
and was about to sail for Sicily when the defeat
of the Romans at Cann caused a change in his

MARCH

destination. Employed against Hannibal, he
prevented the town of Nola from falling into
his hands, and repulsed his forces, which was
the first check received by the Carthaginian.
He was summoned to Rome to take part in the
consultations concerning the conduct of the
war, and then sent back to Campania as pro-
consul. Elected consul in 215, with another
plebeian for colleague, he resigned the office
rather than offend the senate, which was
averse to the whole consular power being in
plebeian hands. Returning to his proconsular
position in Campania, he again baffled Hanni-
bal at Nola, and inflicted great loss on his
army. He was elected consul in 214, having
Fabius Maximus for his colleague, and resumed
his Campanian command, repulsing Hannibal
at Nola for the third time. Casilinum having
capitulated to Fabius, Marcellus massacred all
the garrison but 50. He was then sent to Sici-
ly, which he nearly conquered in three years.
The siege of Syracuse, which he maintained for
two years, and in which he was opposed by the
science of Archimedes, who was killed during
the sack of the town (212), was one of the
most famous sieges of ancient warfare. Re-
turning to Rorqe in 211, he was refused the
honors of a triumph because he had not entirely
subdued Sicily. His ovation was very brilliant,
but the magnificence of his Sicilian spoils, com-
prising rich works of art, gave much offence to
the old Roman party. He was a fourth time
consul in 210. Prevented from returning to
Sicily by the opposition of the Sicilians, whom
his cruelty and rapacity had alienated, he was
placed at the head of the army which acted
against Hannibal that year, and the next year
retained the command of it as proconsul. The
Romans complained of his want of vigor du-
ring the latter part of his proconsulate, but he
defended himself successfully, and was elected
consul for the fifth time. Having appeased
the Arretians, who threatened revolt, he again
assumed command of the army in presence of
Hannibal, his colleague being with him. While
reconnoitring the Carthaginian camp, he fell
into an ambuscade, and was slain.

MARCELLUS, Nonius, an early Latin gramma-
rian, in regard to whose personal history there
is no authentic information, but who is known
as the author of Nonii Marcelli Peripatetid
Tuberticensis de Compendiosa Doctrina per
Litteras ad Filium, first published in Rome
about 1470. The first critical editions appeared
in 1565 and 1586. Mercier's Paris edition of
1614, with a new version of the text, was re-
published in Leipsic in 1826. In 1842 ap-
peared a superior edition by Gerlach and Roth,
and in 1872 the best of all by the French gram-
marian Louis Marie Quicherat.

MARCH (Lat. Martins, pertaining to Mars), the
third month of the year, consisting of 31 days.
It was the first month in the early Roman cal-
endar, and it also marked the commencement
of the year among some of the Latin Christian
nations till the 18th century. The English

MARCH

year began March 25 until the change of
style in 1752. There is an old English and
Scottish proverb : u March borrows three days
of April, and they are ill."

The first, it shall be wind and weet ;
The next, it shall be snaw and sleet ;
The third, it shall be sic a freeze,
Sail gar the birds stick to the trees.

ft is disputed whether these "borrowing days "
fere the last three in March or the first three
in April. Dr. Jamieson explains that when
they were stormy March was said to borrow
them from April that he might extend his

>wer so much longer.

MARCH, or Morawa, a river of Austria, which

ses on the N. frontier of Moravia, near Al-
It, and flows S. S. E., passing Olmtitz, Krem-
sier, and Hradisch ; then turning S. S. W. it
separates Hungary from Moravia and the arch-
duchy of Austria, and flows into the Danube
7 m. above Presburg. Its principal affluents
are the Hanna, Miava, Beczwa, and Thaya.
Its length is about 200 m., and it is navigable
as far as Goding, 50 m., and improvements for
extending navigation to Olmtitz are proposed.
At its mouth it is 400 yards wide. Its position
on the boundary of Hungary and proximity to
Vienna have made it often of historical im-
portance. The extensive plain between the low-
er March and the Danube, called the Marchfeld,
has been the scene of several great battles, in-
cluding those of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram.

MARCH, Charles W., an American author, born
in Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 15, 1815, died in
Alexandria, Egypt, Jan. 24, 1864. He gradu-
ated at Harvard college in 1837, studied law,
practised in Portsmouth, and was a member of
the state legislature. Removing to New York,
he became a writer for the " Tribune " and
the " Times," and correspondent of the Boston
" Courier." He was for some time vice consul
at Cairo. He published "Daniel Webster and
his Contemporaries, or Reminiscences of Con-
gress " (New York, 1850), and " Sketches and
Adventures in Madeira, Portugal, and the An-
dalusias of Spain " (1856).

MARCH, Earl of. See MORTIMER, ROGER.

MARCH, Francis Andrew, an American scholar,
born at Millbury, Mass., Oct. 25, 1825. He
graduated at Amherst college in 1845, where
he was tutor from 1847 to 1849. He studied
law in New York, and was admitted to the bar
in 1850. After teaching at Fredericksburg,
Va., from 1852 to 1855, he was appointed tu-
tor in Lafayette college, at Easton, Pa., in
1856 adjunct professor, and in 1858 professor
of the English language and comparative phi-
lology. He received the degree of LL. D. from
the college of New Jersey in 1870, and from
Amherst college in 1871 ; and in 1873 he was
elected president of the American philological
association. He has contributed articles on
philological subjects to the " Transactions " of
that body and of the national educational asso-
ciation, and to the Jahrbuch fur romanische
und englische Literatur in Berlin ; and arti-

MARCHESI

151

cles on jurisprudence and psychology, inclu-
ding discussions of Sir William Hamilton's
theory of perception and his philosophy of the
conditioned, to the " Princeton Review " (1860 ;
reprinted in England, 1861). He has published
" A Method of Philological Study of the Eng-
lish Language" (New York, 1865); "Parser
and Analyzer for Beginners " (1869) ; " Anglo-
Saxon Grammar" (1870) ; and "An Introduc-
tion to Anglo-Saxon : Grammar, Reader," &c.
(1871). He is now (1875) editing a series of
text books for college use of the Greek and
Latin Christian authors, of which " Latin
Hymns " and " Eusebius " have appeared.

MARCHE, La, or La Mart-he Limousine, an an-
cient province of France, bounded N. by Berry
and Bourbonnais, E. by Auvergne, S. by Li-
mousin, and W. by Angoumois and Poitou.
It now forms the department of Creuse, a
considerable portion of Haute- Vienne, and
fractions of several other departments. It
was divided into Haute- and Basse-Marche,
with Gu6ret as capital of the former and Bel-
lac of the latter. Under the Romans it was
part of Aquitania Prima. William III., duke
of Aquitaine, converted La Marche into a
county in the 10th century. In 1177 it was
sold to England, but Hugh IX. de Lusignan,
of a family several of whose members be-
came kings of Jerusalem and Cyprus, gained
possession of the county, and it belonged to
that house until early in the 14th century,
when the last descendant of this branch of the
Lusignans ceded it to Philip the Fair, king of
France. Subsequently it passed through va-
rious hands. The most distinguished of the
counts of La Marche was Bernard d'Armagnac
(died in 1462) ; his son Jacques d'Armagnac
was sentenced to death in 1477 by Louis XL,
who confiscated the county for the benefit of
his son-in-law Pierre de Bourbon; and after
undergoing some more changes, it was perma-
nently united to the crown toward the middle
of the 16th century.

MARCHES, The, a geographical division of
the kingdom of Italy, embracing the provinces
of Ancona, Ascoli Piceno, Macerata, and Pesa-
ro ed Urbino; area, 3,746 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872,
915,419. The boundaries in general corre-

Znd to those of the mediaeval inarches of
sona and Fermo.

MARCHESI, Pompeo, an Italian sculptor, born
in 1790, died in Milan, Feb. 6, 1858. His
earlier works were executed under the direc-
tion of Canova, and he became professor in
the academy of fine arts, ranking among the
foremost of modern Italian sculptors. Among
his principal works are statues of the Venus
TJrania, of St. Ambrose, Charles Emanuel,
Volta, Beccaria, Bellini, and of Goethe in the
public library at Frankfort; of the emperor
Francis, and of Philibert Amadeus of Savoy;
a monument to Malibran ; and 12 busts in terra
cotta of warriors, which he executed gratui-
tously for the embellishment of the fort of
Milan. His colossal marble group, the "Mater

152

MARCHISIO

Dolorosa with the Dead Christ on her Lap,"
known as " The Good Mother," or " The Cele-
bration of Good Friday," is considered to be
liU ma-terpiriv; this was presented by the
emperor Francis to the city of Milan, and
in the church of San Carlo.

M UM HMO. tarlotta, an Italian vocalist, born
in Turin in 1835, died in 1872. She inherited
the musical talents of several members of
her family, and thoroughly studied harmony,
counterpoint, and other departments of the art.
Her magnificent soprano voice secured her
success on her first performance in Venice in
1858. Her surviving sister, BARBARA (born in
1838), who has a fine contralto voice, appeared
on the same occasion, and the two sisters per-
formed together in Italy, France, and almost
all nver Europe. Rossini composed for them
his Petite mease, which they executed for the
first time in 1865. They were much admired
in Paris in Semiramis, and Barbara won great
applause as Azucena in II trovatore.

M ARC I0\. See GNOSTICS, vol. viii., pp. 53, 54.

II VIUOMAVM (Ger., men of the marches or
borders), an ancient German people of Suevic
race. They appear to have originally dwelt in
the regions of the Main and Neckar in S. W.
Germany, whence they followed Ariovistus
across the Rhine on his invasion of Gaul, and
afterward their own chief Maroboduus into the
land of the Boii, which embraced parts of mod-
ern Bohemia and Bavaria. Having subdued
that people, they established a powerful king-
dom N. of the Danube, which soon became in-
volved in wars with the Cherusci, and after-
ward with the Romans. Their longest and
bloodiest war was that waged in alliance with
the Quadi, Hermunduri, Narisci, and other Ger-
man tribes, against the emperor Marcus Aure-
lius. The latter having died (180) in Vindo-
bona (Vienna) on his last expedition against
them, his son and successor Commodus has-
tened to conclude by purchase a shameful
peace with the barbarians. In the 3d and 4th
centuries the Marcornanni made some new in-
cursions into the Danubian provinces of the
Unmans, but during the following great mi-
gration of northern nations they finally disap-
peared from history.

MARCO POLO. See POLO.

MARCOr, Jules, a French geologist, born at
Salins, in the department of Jura, April 20,
1824. He completed his studies at the col-
16ge St. Louis in Paris, and published in 1846,
in the memoirs of the geological society, his
Recherche* geologiques ur le Jura salinois.
In the same year he was attached to the min-
eralogical department of the Sorbonne. In

1847 he was employed in classifying the pa-
Ifflontological collection at the museum, for
\\liirh Institution he made geological inves-
tigations in various parts of Europe, and from

1848 to 1850 in the United States and Canada.
In ls.v;-'4 lie explored the Rocky mountains,
under the auspices of the American govern-
ment ; and he continued his American explora-

MARCY

tions in 1860, after having in the interval filled
the chair of palaontological geology at the poly-
technic school in Zurich. His principal works
are: "Geological Map of the United States"
(English, 1853), followed in 1855 by a resume
of the same, including Canada ; Le terrain car-
bonifere dans VAmerique du Nord ; Sur le
gisement de Vor en Calif ornie ; Lettres sur les
rockers du Jura et leur distribution geogra-
phique dans les deux hemispheres (1857-'60);
"Geology of North America" (1858); Drias
et trias, ou le nouveau gres rouge en Europe,
dans VAmerique du Nord et dans Vlnde
(1859) ; Carte geologique de la terre, according
to the Jura strata (1862) ; and Derniers tra-
vaux sur le drias et le trias en Russie (1870).

MARCUS AURELIUS. See ANTONINUS.

MARCY, William Learned, an American states-
man, born at Southbridge, Mass., Dec. 12, 1786,
died at Ballston Spa, N. Y., July 4, 1857. He
was the son of a farmer, graduated at Brown
university in 1808, and studied law in Troy,
N. Y., where he was admitted to practice.
When the war with England broke out in 1812,
he was a lieutenant in a military company be-
longing to Troy, and was stationed at French
Mills, now Fort Covington. On the night of
Oct. 22, 1812, he was sent with a detachment
under command of Major Young to capture a
party of Canadian militia posted at St. Regis.
Lieut. Marcy led the attack, broke open the
door of the blockhouse occupied by the Cana-
dians, and when they surrendered received
their arms. These were the first prisoners
taken by the Americans on land, and their flag
the first standard captured in the war. He re-
mained in service till the close of hostilities.
From 1816 to 1818 he was recorder of Troy.
He then became editor of the Troy ''Budget,"
a daily newspaper, which he soon made a lead-
ing organ of the democratic party. In January,
1821, he was appointed adjutant general of the
state militia; and in February, 1823, he was
elected by the legislature comptroller of the
state, when he removed to Albany. In 1829
he was appointed an associate justice of the
New York supreme court, which office he held
till Feb. 1, 1831, when he was elected United
States senator. During his term he was chair-
man of the committee on the judiciary. In
1832 he was elected governor of New York,
and resigned his senatorship. He was re-
elected in 1834, and again in 1836, but was de-
feated by Mr. Seward in the election of 1838.
He was appointed by President Van Buren one
of the commissioners to decide upon the claims
of the Mexican government under the conven-
tion of April, 1839, and performed the duties
of this office till 1842. In 1845 President Polk
appointed him secretary of war, a post whose
duties were made peculiarly difficult and re-
sponsible by the breaking out of the war with
Mexico in the spring of 1846. As a member
of President Folk's cabinet his diplomatic pow-
ers were exerted to advantage in the settlement
of the Oregon boundary dispute with England,

MARDIN

id his abilities as a statesman were called into
requisition upon many other questions. In
March, 1853, he was appointed by President
Pierce secretary of state, and in the latter part
of that year he greatly distinguished himself
at home and abroad by his correspondence with
the Austrian government on the subject of
the release of Martin Koszta by Capt. Ingraham
of the United States navy. (See INGRAHAM,
DUNCAN NATHANIEL.) Besides his Koszta let-
ter, his state papers on Central American af-
fairs, on the enlistment question, on the Danish
Sound dues, and on many other topics of na-
tional interest, exhibited his remarkable ability
as a writer, statesman, and diplomatist. He
retired from office on the inauguration of Mr.
Buchanan, March 4, 1857, and just four months
later died suddenly while lying on his bed read-
ing. He left a reputation among his country-
men of all parties as a statesman of the highest
order of abilities.

MABDIN, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the
vilayet of Diarbekir, 350 m. N. W. of Bag-
dad; pop. about 12,000. It is situated on a
rocky eminence, more than 2,000 ft. above the
level of the sea. Near it is a Jacobite monas-
tery, said to have a large library, containing
works in 12 different languages. The town is
the seat of a United Syrian and a Chaldean
bishop, and of a flourishing Protestant mission.
It has several mosques and churches, and man-
ufactories of linen, cotton, and leather.

MARDOMCS. See GEEECE, vol. viii., pp.
189, 190.

MAREtfME (sing, maremma, a salt marsh),
tracts of marshy country in some parts of mid-
dle Italy, on the Mediterranean coasts, especial-
ly from the mouth of the Cecina to Orbetello,
which are extremely unhealthy from midsum-
mer to the middle of autumn. During this pe-
riod it is dangerous to spend even a single night
in the Maremma ; those who do so are almost
surely attacked by fever. There is nothing
apparent in the air, either to sight or smell, to
account for this insalubrity ; on the contrary,
the atmosphere seems to be remarkably clear
and pure. The malaria does not proceed from
the water of the marshes, for it is equally vir-
ulent on dry elevations, and has been attrib-
uted to unhealthy exhalations of sulphur and
alum in the soil. In ancient times the Cam-
pagna di Roma, which is now almost deserted
in consequence of the malaria, was cultivated
like a garden, and was the seat of a dense pop-
ulation. The city of Rome itself has been in-
vaded by the mephitic air, and the malarious
fever prevails in some of the streets. The
Maremme, in different basins, occupy altogether
an area of nearly 1,000 sq. m. Of late years
efforts, which to some extent have been success-
ful, have been made to redeem the marshes by
drainage, banking in the lakes, planting trees,
and bringing the ground into tillage.

MARENCO, Carlo, an Italian dramatist, born
at Cassolo, Piedmont, May 1, 1800, died in Sa-
vona, Sept. 20, 1843. He took his degree in

MARENZIO

153

jurisprudence at Turin in 1818, but became
famous in 1828 by his drama, Bondelmonte.
His Famiglia Foscari is especially admired.
He spent most of his life at Ceva, excepting
shortly before his death, when the government
appointed him to a public office at Savona.
His posthumous Tragedie inedite, edited by G.
Prati (Florence, 1856), contain several poems.

MARE1VGO, a W. county of Alabama, bounded
W. by the Toinbigbee river, which unites with
the Black Warrior on the N. W. ; area, 975
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 26,151, of whom 20,058
were colored. It has a nearly level surface ;
the soil is very fertile, and a tract known as
the " Canebrake " is among the most produc-
tive cotton land in the south. The chief pro-
ductions in 1870 were 598,938 bushels of In-
dian corn, 38,691 of sweet potatoes, 164,931 Ibs.
of butter, and 23,614 bales of cotton. There
were 1,377 horses, 3,629 mules and asses, 4,116
milch cows, 8,315 other cattle, 1,763 sheep,
and 16,531 swine. Capital, Linden.

MAREAGO, a village of Piedmont, Italy, on
the river Bormida, 2 m. S. E. of Alessandria,
situated on an extensive plain of the same
name, where a victory was gained by Bona-
parte over the Austrian general Melas, June 14,
1800. Bonaparte, having crossed the Great
St. Bernard in the latter part of May and over-
run a large portion of Lombardy, entered the
plain of Marengo with the object of prevent-
ing Melas, who had concentrated his forces at
Alessandria, from escaping him by a march
southward to Genoa. On the morning of
June 14 the village of Marengo was occupied
by two French divisions under Victor. Melas
attacked them with 31,000 men and 200 can-
non, and at 11 o'clock, when Bonaparte ar-
rived, Victor's divisions with Lannes's corps
were in full retreat. The fugitives, reanimated
by the presence of Bonaparte, rallied and kept
the Austrians in check. At 4 P. M. Desaix's
corps, which was on the road to Novi, and had
been hurriedly recalled, arrived on the field and
took position on the left, while Victor and
Lannes reformed on the right, with Marmont's
masked battery in the rear. Thus reenforced,
Bonaparte turned the tide and completely over-
whelmed the Austrians, the younger Keller-
mann's cavalry charge deciding the day. The
Austrians lost 7,000 killed and wounded, 3,000
prisoners, 20 pieces of artillery, and 8 stand-
ards. The French, who brought about 28,000
men into the field, lost about 7,000 in killed
(including Desaix) and wounded and 1,000 pris-
oners. An armistice followed, by the terms
of which the Austrians were allowed to retire
beyond the Mincio on condition of giving up all
their fortified places in Italy west of that river.

MARENZIO, Lut-a, an Italian composer, born
near Brescia about 1550, died Aug. 22, 1599.
His parents were poor, and he received instruc-
tion from the parish priest and the chapel-
master at Brescia. His first collection of mad-
rigals brought him into notice, and he was en-
gaged in the service of the king of Poland.

154

MAREOTIS

The climate of the north being too severe for
him, he returned to Italy and entered the ser-
vice of Cardinal d'Este, and later of Cardinal
Aldobrandini as chapelmaster. In 1595 he
was admitted to the college of precentors of
the pontifical chapel. He is considered as one
of the greatest composers of the 16th century,
and was surnamed il piu dolce cigno, "the
sweet swan," and " the divine composer." He
gave himself almost wholly to the composition
of madrigals for four, five, and six voices ; but
in these, of which he wrote a great number,
he displayed an invention, grace, and skill that
won for him universal admiration.

M1KEOTIS (Arab. Birket el-Maryoot\ a lake
in Lower Egypt, S. E. of Alexandria, whose
southern walls it once washed ; length nearly 40
m., breadth 15 m., depth from 4 to 14 ft. It is
separated from the Mediterranean on the west
by the narrow neck of land on which Alexan-
dria is situated. In former times its connec-
tion by canal with the Rosetta branch of the
Nile, and with the sea at Port Eunostu, the
old harbor of Alexandria, made it available for
inland navigation, and its shores were covered
with vineyards and gardens. With the decay
of Alexandria the canal was neglected, and the
lake, ceasing to receive the Nile waters, grad-
ually dried up. In 1801 the British, then be-
sieging the French in Alexandria, cut the nar-
row isthmus separating the lakes of Mareotis
and Aboukir, and the sea water flowing in filled
the bed of the lake. Mehemet Ali reestablished
the isthmus by filling up the channel cut by the
British, and restored the canal connecting with
the Rosetta branch of the Nile at Fua.

MARESCII, J. A., a Russian horn player, born
in Bohemia in 1709, died in St. Petersburg in
1794. In 1744 he entered the Russian impe-
rial service, where his talent was noticed by
Prince Narishkin, under whose direction he
set about the improvement of the Russian
horns. The instruments of this class then in
use were very inferior in construction, giving
but one tone. He made 37 of these, giving
nil the tones and semi-tones comprised within
three octaves. The horn producing the lowest
tone was 7 ft. in length, that producing the
highest, one foot. He distributed these 37
horns to as many men, and by severe drilling
enabled them to execute the most difficult and
rapid passages. Each performer waited for
the proper instant for him to sound his par-
tiMilar note with the necessary degree of force.
The first trial of this singular music was made
in 1755 in presence of the imperial court at
Ismailov, near Moscow. Maresch was munifi-
r.-ntly recompensed for the astonishing results
which he obtained.

M.IRET, Ilenrl Lonls Charles, a French theolo-
gian, born at Meyrueis, Lozere, April 20, 1805.
He was nnlainrd in 1830, appointed to a charge
in Paris in 1*:;-J. :m <l i n 1839 published Essai
fir le j>antl,;i*me dans Its societea modernea,
which brought him prominently before the
public. In 1840 he was appointed professor

MAREZOLL

of dogmatic theology in the Sorbonne, and
honorary canon of Notre Dame. In 1844 he
published the result of his lectures at the Sor-
bonne under the title of Theodicee chretienne,
which was a parallel between the Christian
and the rationalistic notion of God. In 1849
he was appointed vicar general of Paris, and in
1853 dean of the faculty of theology. His Phi-
losophic et religion (1856) has been translated
into several languages. He was in I860 nomi-
nated by the government bishop of Vannes,
but on account of his Gallican opinions he was
not confirmed by the pope; and in 1861 he
was consecrated bishop of Sura in partibus
infidelium, and appointed by the emperor a
member of the imperial chapter of St. Denis.
In 1869, before the opening of the Vatican
council, he published Du concile general et de
lapaix religieuse (2 vols. 8vo), which was trans-
lated into German and Italian. This work was
assailed by the Univers, as well as by Arch-
bishop Manning, to whose arguments Bishop
Maret replied in Le pape et les eveques. At
the council he voted with the opposition ; but
in September, 1871, he wrote to the pope to
express his acceptance of the decree of infalli-
bility, and his regret for everything which he
had written against it. His other principal
works are : ISEglise et la societe lalque (1845),
and L'Anti-christianisme (1864). When La-
cordaire in 1848 founded IS Ere Nouvelle, he
placed it under the direction of M. Maret.

MARET, Hngnes Bernard. See BASSANO.

MAREY, Etienne Jnles, a French physiologist,
born in Beaune in 1830. He took his medical
degree in Paris in 1860, subsequently lectured
on the circulation of the blood, and in 1867 suc-
ceeded Flourens as adjunct professor of natural
history at the college de France. His princi-
pal works are : Tableau sommaire des appareil*
et experiences cardiographiques de MM. Chau-
veau et Marey (Paris, 1863), and Du mouve-
ment dans les fonctions de la vie (1867). His
experimental researches on the movements of
animals are also of great originality and ex-
cellence. His latest book is La machine ani-
male : Locomotion terrestre et aerienne (Paris,
1873), of which the English translation (" Ani-
mal Mechanism, a Treatise on Terrestrial and
Aerial Locomotion," New York, 1874) forms
vol. xi. of the "International Scientific Series."

MAREZOLL, Gostav Ludwig Theodor, a German
jurist, born in Gottingen, Feb. 13, 1794, died in
Leipsic, Feb. 25, 1873. He was a son of Johann
Gottlob Marezoll (1761-1828), an eloquent Prot-
estant clergyman, whose writings, especially
his Andachtsbuch fur das weibliche Geschlfcht'
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1788-'9), had many editions
and translations. He studied in Jena and Got-
tingen, where he took his degree in 1815 ; and
was professor at Giessen from 1817 to 1837,
and subsequently at Leipsic till 1864, when he
retired. His principal works are: Lehrbnch
der Institutionen des romischen Rechts (Leipsic,
1839 ; 9th ed., 1869), and Das gemeine deutsche
Criminalrecht (1841 ; 3d ed., 1856).

MARGARET

155

MARGARET, titular queen of Navarre, or MAR-
GARET OF ANGOULEME, born in Angouleme,
April 11, 1492, died at the chateau of Odos, in
Bigorre, Dec. 21, 1549. She was the daughter
and eldest child of Charles of Orleans, count
of Angouleme, and of Louise of Savoy. Her
father died when she was in her 12th year,
and she was educated by her mother at the
court of Louis XII. She was married in 1509
to Charles, duke of Alencon, a prince of the
blood royal, and the five years immediately
following were passed in the duchy of Alen-
con ; but on the accession of her brother to the
throne of France as Francis I. (1515), she be-
came attached to his court, and had a large
part in the government. She was superior to
her brother in ability, spoke several languages
fluently, a,nd her learning and wit made her
the fit companion of the statesmen of those
times. After the defeat and capture of her
brother at Pavia, in February, 1525, Margaret
aided her mother to carry on the government
for some months ; but in August she went to
Madrid, where Francis was then a prisoner.
During this visit she was efficient in negotia-
ting the treaty of January, 1526, which even-
tually led in 1530 to the marriage between
Francis and Eleanor, sister of the emperor,
and queen dowager of Portugal. The duke
of Alencon, her husband, died in 1525, and
in January, 1527, she became the wife of
Henri d'Albret, count of Be"arn and titular
king of Navarre, whose kingdom was held
by Spain. Francis, besides bestowing a lib-
eral portion on Margaret, pledged himself to
effect the restoration of her husband to the
throne of Navarre, for which Margaret, as her
correspondence shows, was anxious; but cir-
cumstances baffled his purpose. In 1529 she
and her husband retired to the principality of
Beam, where they labored with success for
the improvement of the country. Margaret
also paid much attention* to the government
of her duchy of Alencon. She sympathized
with the reformers, several of whose leaders,
and especially Calvin, were protected by her
in Beam against their persecutors. How far
she favored the new doctrines is unknown,
and it has been asserted by adherents of the
old faith that she admitted, some time before
her death, that she had been in error, and
when dying declared that what she had done
for the reformers was more from compassion
for them than from ill will to Rome. It is
certain, however, that the zealous Catholics
regarded her as a heretic, and that one of her
works, Le miroir de Tame pecheresse (1533),
contains Protestant doctrines. The Sorbonne
censured it, and it was denounced in other
ways. Francis was told that if he wished to
destroy the heretics, he must begin with the
queen his sister; but he never would allow
her to be injured, and punished some of those
by whom she had been insulted, or who had
sought to poison his mind against her. Mar-
garet was a voluminous, writer in verse and

prose, and one of her works, the Heptameron,
is an old French classic. It was published in
Paris in 1559 (best ed., 1863), and has been
translated into English by W. K. Kelly (Lon-
don, 1855). It is written in imitation of the
Decamerone of Boccaccio, but was left incom-
plete at her death, as it contains but 72 tales,
instead of 100 as originally intended. It is so
far an original work, that most of the adven-
tures described befell some of the author's
contemporaries. She wrote many poems,
dramas, poetical epistles, rondeaux, and the
like, several of which have been printed, while
others remain in manuscript. Her letters to
her brother Francis were published in Paris,
from the originals, in 1842. 4 On the death of
Francis I. (1547) Margaret", who was much
afflicted by his loss, became devout, passed
most of her time in seclusion, and solaced her
mind with religious thoughts and literary pur-
suits. Her daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, who
married Antoine de Bourbon, became the
mother of Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry
IV. of France, and founder of the royalty of
the house of Bourbon. The best life of Mar-
garet of Navarre is that by Martha Walker
Freer (2 vols., London, 1854).

MARGARET, queen and patron saint of Scot-
land, born in Hungary in 1046, died in Edin-
burgh, Nov. 17, 1093. She was the niece of
Edward the Confessor, and daughter of Ed-
ward, son of Edmund Ironside, and of Agatha,
daughter of the emperor Henry III. With her
brother Edgar Atheling and her sister Chris-
tina she was reared at the court of Hungary till
1056, when she returned to England. She fled
to Scotland in 1070 with Edgar, and was re-
ceived at Dunfermline by King Malcolm Can-
more, whose wife she became soon afterward.
Margaret was gentle, pious, learned, and ac-
complished, and anxious to introduce among
the people of Scotland a higher civilization.
She enlightened her husband's mind and
soothed his fierce spirit ; invited the Scottish
clergy and monks to a council, in which she
prevailed on them to adopt the Roman man-
ner of celebrating Easter ; and put into prac-
tice several wise regulations for the instruc-
tion of their flocks. She also prevailed on the
king to encourage commercial intercourse with
other countries. She regulated the royal house-
hold, introducing the ceremonial of European
courts. She was lavish in her charities to the
poor, and founded a number of churches, work-
ing with her own hands for their embellish-
ment. She bestowed her chief care on the
education of her nine children, especially her
six sons ; the youngest, David I., was called by
Buchanan "the perfect exemplar of a good
king," and his sister, Queen Matilda or Maud,
who founded London bridge, inherited all their
mother's virtues. King Malcolm and Edward,
his eldest son, having been slain before the
walls of Alnwick, Nov. 13, 1093, the news of
their death so affected the queen that she
died four days afterward (though according to

156

MARGAKET OF ANJOU

some she lingered till June 10, 1094). She
was canonized in 1251 by Innocent IV. ; and
Clement X. in 1G73 made her the patron saint
of Scotland. Her feast is celebrated on Juno
10. St. Margaret's chapel, built in her honor
by H.ivid L, is still visited in the castle of
Edinburgh. It was restored in 1853, and in
the chancel are three stained-glass windows
with portraits of the saint, Malcolm Canmore,
and David I. The life of St. Margaret was
\\ ritt.-n in Latin by her chaplain and confessor,
Theodoric or Thierry, a monk of Durham ; in
French by Lefebvre"(Douai, 1660); and by the
Bollandists in Acta Sanctorum." St. Marga-
ret's cup " or " draught " was a custom intro-
duced by her into the Scottish court for the
purpose of repressing drunkenness, and con-
sisted in her filling with her own hand a cup
of choice wine, of which all partook, with the
promise to drink no more. After this grace
was said. This custom became general in
Great Britain, Flanders, and Germany, several
popes attaching an indulgence to the "grace
cup " on condition that it should be the last
for that day. This was especially observed by
guilds and brotherhoods at their yearly ban-
quets, and many of these indulgenced cups,
called "mazers," are still preserved.

MARGARET OF AXJOC, queen of England,
daughter of Ren6, duke of Lorraine and count
of Provence, and titular king of Sicily and
Jerusalem, and of Isabella of Lorraine, born
at Pont-a-Mousson, March 23, 1429, died at
the chateau of Dampierre, Aug. 25, 1481. Her
childhood was passed, amid the troubles that
befell her family, in Italy, France, and Lor-
raine. Her hand was sought by the count de
St. Pol and by the count de Nevers. Report
of her beauty having reached Henry VI. of
England, from a gentleman of Anjou, who
acted under the inspiration of Cardinal Beau-
fort, her portrait was obtained for his inspec-
tion. This decided the king's action, and com-
missioners were appointed to negotiate a truce
with France and Burgundy. Charles VII. fa-
vored the marriage, with the view of making
it the basis of peace. Not only was no dowry
asked with Margaret, but England ceded An-
iou and Maine to Ren6, who claimed them as
his hereditary dominions. The war party in
England, headed by the duke of Gloucester,
opposed both the peace and the marriage, but
the Beaufort party proved victorious; and
Suffolk, who was elevated to a marquisate,
married Margaret as Henry's proxy at Nancy
in November, 1444. Margaret did not reach
England until the next April, when her mar-
riage took place in Titchfield abbey. In 1447
occurred the death of the duke of Gloucester,
of which she has been accused by some histo-
rian-. She soon became unpopular, and the
English connected the loss of their French
possessions with her marriage. The York
family. t:ikinir advantage of the weakness of
the king, aimed to obtain the crown, which
belonged to their chief by the law of descent.

Margaret's only child, Edward, born Oct. 13,
1453, was said by her enemies to be either
the offspring of adultery or a supposititious
child. Prince Edward was born while his
father was suffering from one of his fits of
imbecility, and when the queen was at the
head of the government. The duke of York
was made protector, but on the restoration of
the king's health he was dismissed, where-
upon he asserted his right by an appeal to
arms, and the Yorkists won the first battle of
St. Albans, which restored them to power.
Parliament censured the queen and her friends,
but in 1456 Henry assumed his rights, and the
government was virtually in Margaret's hands.
Personal ill feeling between the queen and the
earl of Warwick, the most powerful of the
Yorkist leaders, caused a renewal of the war,
and the Lancastrians were at first victorious ;
but the Yorkists rallied, defeated their foes,
and obtained possession of the person of the
king, who recognized York as his successor.
Margaret fled with her son, first to Wales, and
thence to Scotland. Receiving assistance from
the Scotch, she returned to England, and was
joined by her supporters in the northern coun-
ties. York advanced to oppose her, and was
defeated and slain at Wakefield. Marching to
London, she defeated Warwick in the second
battle of St. Albans, and released her husband.
The Londoners would not admit her into their
city, but recognized York's eldest son as king,
by the title of Edward IV. She retreated
north, and was followed by Edward. After
the fatal battle of Towton, March 29, 1461,
Margaret fled to Scotland with her husband
and son. Thence she went to France, in the
hope of obtaining aid from Louis XL, in which
she met with little success. Pierre de Brez6,
seneschal of Normandy, armed in her support,
and by his aid she landed in England, but ac-
complished nothing, and returned to Scotland,
There she raised forces and invaded England,
and at first obtained some successes, but was
defeated in the battle of Hexham, in 1464.
She returned again to Scotland, and afterward
went to Flanders. After remaining some time
at Bruges, she took up her residence in her
father's dominions, where she superintended
her son's education, aided by Sir John Fortes-
cue. She visited the French court, at Tours,
in 1469 ; and it was under the mediation of
Louis XL that a reconciliation between her
and the earl of Warwick was effected in 1470 T
the earl having broken with Edward IV. and
fled from England. The earl's youngest daugh-
ter, Anne Neville, was betrothed to the queen's
son, Edward of Lancaster. Warwick returned
to England and marche.d to London ; the Lan-
castrians were for the time triumphant ; Ed-
ward IV. fled to the continent, and Henry VI.
regained the throne. Margaret prepared to re-
turn to England, but contrary winds delayed her
purpose, and it was not till April 14, 1471, that
she landed at Weymouth, accompanied by her
son. Warwick, however, had been defeated

MAEGAKET OF AUSTRIA

MARGARET OF PARMA 157

and slain on the same day in the battle of Bar-
net, and the queen took sanctuary in Beaulieu
abbey. Some of the Lancastrian leaders, who
a strong force, induced her to join them ;
id while seeking to effect a junction with their
"iends in Wales, they were assailed and de-
feated at Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, by Edward
IV. Margaret fell into the hands of the vic-
tor, her son having previously been slain. Her
husband was put to death a few weeks later.
~"ie was imprisoned in the tower, and afterward
Windsor and at Wallingford, till Nov. 3,
L475, when she was ransomed by Louis XL,
rho paid 50,000 crowns for her liberty, her
ither having ceded Provence to him for the
irpose. She formally renounced all the rights
?r English marriage had given her, and resided
deep seclusion at Reculee, near Angers, one
of the possessions of her father, seldom leaving
lat retreat. Her last days were passed in the
chateau of Dampierre, to the lord of which
father at his death had consigned her. See
; Life and Times of Margaret of Anjou," by
Mary Ann Hookham (2 vols., London, 1872).

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA, daughter of Maxi-
milian L, emperor of Germany, and of Mary of
Burgundy, born in the Low Countries, Jan. 10,
1480, died there, Dec. 1, 1530. Before she was
three years old she was, by the treaty of Arras,
concluded between her father and Louis XI.
of France, affianced to the dauphin, with a
large territorial dowry. To prepare her for
her future station, she was educated at the
French court; but Charles VIII. broke the
contract, and returned her to her father, in
order that he might wed Anne of Brittany,
whom Maximilian himself was seeking in mar-
riage. This gross insult, which happened in
1491, was never forgiven by the house of Aus-
tria. In 1495 a treaty of alliance was made
between Maximilian and Ferdinand and Isa-
slla, one of the terms of which was that
Fohn, prince of the Asturias, and heir appa-
3nt of the Spanish sovereigns, should marry
[argaret. Sailing for Spain in winter, the
r eather was so stormy that many of the ves-
1s composing the fleet were wrecked, and
that which bore the princess was in great dan-
3r of being lost ; but she was so cool that she
r rote her own epitaph :

" Ci gist Margot, la gentil' damoiselle
Qu'a deux maris, et encore est pucelle."

iding in Spain in March, 1497, Margaret
r as married to Prince John on April 3. Their
don was of brief endurance, as John died of
3ver on Oct. 4. In a few months Margaret
ive birth to a still-born child, and in 1499 she
turned to the Netherlands. In 1501 she mar-
ied Philibert the Fair, duke of Savoy, who
ied without issue in 1504. On the death of
brother Philip in 1506, she was made re-
it of the Netherlands by her father, and su-
>erintendent of the education of her nephew,
;he future emperor Charles V., and his sis-
ter Mary. She was an able ruler, and was con-

cerned in some of the principal negotiations
of that time, proving herself a vindictive ene-
my of France, and a zealous servant of the
house of Austria. In connection with Louise
of Savoy, mother of the king of France, she
negotiated the treaty of Cambray, in 1529, be-
tween Francis I. and Charles V., which was
called the "ladies' peace," the terms of which
were most humiliating to the French. Through-
out her life she showed a fondness for literary
pursuits, and wrote well in prose and verse.

MARGARET OF DENMARK, called the Semi-
ramis of the North, queen of the united king-
doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, born
in Copenhagen in 1353, died in Flensburg, Oct.
28, 1412. She was the third daughter of Wal-
demar III., king of Denmark, and at the age
of 10 was married to Haco, king of Norway.
Upon the death in 1387 of Olaf, the offspring
of this marriage, and the king of Denmark and
Norway, she procured her election as queen of
the former kingdom, and by skilful manage-
ment soon after secured the crown of Norway.
In 1388 the Swedes, who were oppressed by
their king Albert, having offered her the throne
of that kingdom, she defeated Albert, who
after seven years' imprisonment was released
on condition of formally resigning his crown.
Thenceforth she reigned with absolute author-
ity. When urged to secure an heir to her
thrones by another marriage, she promised to
designate a successor, and at the assembly of
the estates of the three kingdoms at Calmar,
in 1397, presented to the deputies her grand-
nephew Eric as her appointed heir. On this
occasion, by her eloquence and address, she
procured the adoption of a fundamental law,
called the " Union of Calmar," establishing a
perpetual union of the three kingdoms. Eric
was at the same time associated with her in
the government. Although holding extreme
opinions on the royal prerogative, Margaret
was in the main a just, magnanimous, and suc-
cessful sovereign.

MARGARET OF PARMA, regent of the Nether-
lands under Philip II. of Spain, born in Brus-
sels in 1522, died at Ortona, Italy, in 1586.
She was the natural daughter of Charles V. by
Margaret van der Geenst, a lady of a noble
Flemish family in Oudenarde, and received an
education suited to her rank in the household
of Mary, queen dowager of Hungary. In 1536
she became the wife of Alessandro de' Medici,
duke of Florence, a man of profligate habits,
and her senior by about 12 years. Within
a year of the marriage Alessandro was assas-
sinated by his kinsman, Lorenzino de' Medi-
ci, and the young widow, upon reaching the
age of 20, was united to Ottavio Farnese,
then 13 years old, receiving as her dowry the
duchies of Parma and Piacenza. Toward Far-
nese she entertained feelings of contempt.
Her birth, her masculine bearing, her un-
doubted capacity and training in the astute
school of Italian politics, and above all her
orthodoxy in matters of religion, suggested

158 MARGARET OF VALOIS

her to Philip, when about to take his depar-
ture from tne Netherlands in 1559, as a suit-
able person to fill the office of regent of
those provinces. Her administration, which
lasted eight years, and witnessed the opening
scenes in the great revolt of the Netherlands,
was mild and beneficent in comparison with
those which followed. She left the Nether-
lands Dec. 30, 1567, was amply pensioned by
Philip, and passed the remainder of her life
chiefly in I tidy. Her tastes, including her love
for the chase, were masculine ; and in person-
al appearance "she seemed," in the language
of a contemporary historian, "like a man in
petticoats," the illusion being heightened by a
somewhat hairy chin and upper lip. She died
of gout. Alexander Farnese, the great com-
mander, was her son.

MARGARET OF VALOIS, queen of France, born
at St. Germain, May 14, 1553, died in Paris,
March 27, 1615. She was the daughter of
Henry II. and of Catharine de' Medici, and
was famous for beauty, talents, and profli-
gacy. The third duke of Guise, Henri de
Lorraine, would have married her, although
aware of her vices ; but she desired a crown,
and agreed to become the wife of Sebastian
of Portugal, a union which was prevented by
the influence of Spain. In August, 1572, she
was married to the king of Navarre, after-
ward Henry IV. of France. Her mother,
just before the massacre of St. Bartholomew,
sought her consent to have her marriage with
a heretic annulled, but this Margaret refused.
There was no attachment between her and her
husband, and she hated his religion. A short
time after he left Paris in 1576 she was per-
mitted to join him in B6arn, where she re-
mained five years, tolerating his infidelities,
though he would not tolerate her religion. In
1581, on the invitation of her mother, she re-
turned to the French court. There the prof-
ligacy of her life drew upon her the condem-
nation of her brother, Henry III., who com-
pelled her to return to her husband, by whom
she was received with bitter reproaches. She
fled from him, and took up her residence at
Agen, whence she made war on him as a here-
tic. That place being taken in 1585, she vain-
ly sought another asylum, and was seized and
imprisoned in the fortress of Usson ; but her
arts made her mistress of the place, from
which she drove the governor, and held it for
2d years. She became queen of France in
1589, on the death of Henry III. ; but her hus-
band, even after his triumph in 1594, refused
to restore her to freedom until she should
renounce her rank, to which she would not
consent until after the death of his mistress,
Gabrielle d'Estrees. They were divorced in
1599, but she did not recover her liberty un-
til some years later. She visited the court
in 1605, where she did homage to her suc-
cessor, Maria de' Medici. The remaining 10
years of her life were passed in Paris or its
vicinity. Almost to her last days she led a

MARHEINEKE

vicious life ; but at length she fell into hypo-
chondria, and was terrified at the approach
of death. She founded the convent of the
Petits Augustins in Paris, and instructed the
children of the choir in music. Her Memoires
(latest ed., Paris, 1860), written by herself, are
valuable because of the details they contain of
the last days of the line of Valois.

MARGARINE, and Margarie Add. When olive
oil is cooled down to 32 F. and submitted to
pressure, a solid residuum is obtained, which,
when more completely separated from the oily
portion after melting and slowly cooling to the
temperature of 55 or 60 by a second pressing,
is the substance formerly called margarine. It
dissolves in about 400 times its weight of boil-
ing alcohol, and separates in pearly scales as
the alcohol cools ; whence its name, from Gr.
[Mapyapirw, a pearl. It is also obtained from
human fat, goose grease, and other fatty sub-
stances. When saponified it yields an acid in
the form of white pearly scales or fine needles,
called margaric acid. This, according to Heintz,
is a compound of stearic and palmitic acids,
into which it may be separated. The term
margaric acid is now restricted to an artificially
prepared fatty acid having the definite com-
position CnH 8 4Oa. This acid is produced by
the action of potash on cyanide of cetyle (mar-
garonitrite). The margarine or margaric acid
described by Chevreul in 1820 has been shown
to be a compound of stearic acid and other
fatty acids of lower melting point.

MARGARITA, Island of. See NUEVA SPARTA.

MARGARITONE D'AREZZO, an Italian artist,
born in Arezzo about 1236 (according to Wor-
num; about 1215 according to others), died
there at the age of 77. He attained great celeb-
rity in Italy before the time of Cimabue. He
executed many works in fresco and distemper
in the churches and convents of Arezzo, in the
Byzantine style, of which few remains are now
to be seen. His " San Francesco," however,
which Vasari calls one of his masterpieces, still
exists, and bears his inscription. He was more
celebrated as a sculptor than as a painter, and
one of his chief works, a reclining statue of
Pope Gregory X., is still preserved at Arezzo.

MARGATE, a seaport town of Kent, England,
on the isle of Thanet, 15 m. N. E. of Canter-
bury, and 63 m. E. by S. of London ; pop. in
1871, 12,054. The great source of prosperity
is the visitors in summer, who occasionally
number, it is said, 100,000.

MARGAY. See OCELOT.

MARGRAVE. See MARQUIS.

MARHEINERE, Philipp Ronrad, a German
theologian, born in Hildesheim, May 1, 1780,
died in Berlin, May 31, 1846. He was educated
at Gottingen, and in 1806 became professor
extraordinary of theology at Erlangen ; in
1809 ordinary professor at Heidelberg ; and in
1811 ordinary professor at Berlin, and pastor
of the church of the Trinity. The first edition
of his G-rundlehren der chrisilichen Dogmatik,
which was founded on the philosophy of Schel-

MARIA CHRISTINA

MARIA II. DA GLORIA 159

ling, appeared in 1819. The second revised
edition (Berlin, 1827) was adapted to the He-
gelian philosophy. His most important his-
torical work is the GescJiichte der deutschen
Reformation (4 vols., Berlin, 1816-'34), which
Bproduces many documentary records. In
his Christliche Symbolik (3 vols., Heidelberg,
1810-'14), and his Institutiones Symbolic^ (3d
ed., 1830), he took a historical and comparative
rather than dogmatic view of the principal
hristian creeds. The practical results of his
iim to demonstrate the unity and harmony of
the Scriptures, the church, and the reason ap-
pear in his Entwurf der praktischen Theologie
(Berlin, 1837). He published several volumes
of minor writings and sermons, was one of the
editors of the works of Hegel, and was prom-
lent in the controversies excited by the Sym-
ililc of Mohler, and the mystical tendencies
" Gorres, both of whom he opposed.
MARIA CHRISTINA, former queen dowager of
Spain, born in Naples, April 27, 1806. Her fa-
ther was Francis I., king of the Two Sicilies, and
her mother Maria Isabella, daughter of Charles
IV. of Spain. She became the fourth wife of
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Dec. 11, 1829, to the
consternation of the Carlists, whose hope that
the childlessness of the king would secure to
his brother Don Carlos the succession to the
throne was prostrated by the restoration on
March 29, 1830, of the law by which the crown
was made heritable by the female line. Maria
Christina gave birth to a daughter, afterward
Isabella II., on Oct. 10, 1830. In October, 1832,
Maria Christina, at the request of the king,
took the reins of government into her own
hands, and courted popularity by promulgating
a general amnesty two weeks afterward. The
king resumed the conduct of affairs in Decem-
ber, but died Sept. 29, 1833. In his will he
appointed Maria Christina regent and guar-
dian of Isabella, and of a second daughter,
Maria Louisa Fernanda, that she had borne to
him in 1832, and who afterward became the
wife of Antoine, duke of Montpensier, the
youngest son of Louis Philippe. Maria Chris-
tina assumed the regency Oct. 2, 1833. Hav-
ing conceived a violent passion for Ferdinand
Munoz, a private soldier in the royal body
guard, whose parents had a tobacco shop at
Tarancon, where he was born, she married him
secretly, Dec. 28, 1833. Meanwhile she lost
>und with the people, partly on account of
ler subserviency to the moderado party and to
"ranee, to which policy she was instigated by
ministers Martinez de la Rosa and Toreno,
it chiefly owing to her clandestine relations
rith Mufioz. The new charter granted by her
ras far from giving satisfaction to the prov-
ices, which revolted. In the night of Aug.
L3, 1836, a detachment of the provincial mili-
led by exaltados, entered her palace of La
rranja near Madrid, and after being joined by
corps of the guards stationed in the palace,
ley compelled the queen regent to dismiss her
linisters and swear to the constitution of
532 VOL. xi. 11

1812 ; and a new constitution was promulgated
in June, 1837. Her position, however, con-
tinued precarious. The ministers, Zea Bermu-
dez, Toreno, Martinez de la Rosa, and Isturiz,
who were successively at the head of affairs,
were unable to restore her popularity. This
received the greatest blow from her decree,
issued June 15, 1840, in obedience to French
influence, which put an end to the old mu-
nicipal liberties of Spain. The people rushed
to arms, and she abdicated on Oct. 12 in favor
of Espartero as regent, and repaired to Paris.
After the downfall of Espartero, she returned
to Madrid in 1844, and on Oct. 13 she cele-
brated her marriage with Mufioz in public, on
which occasion she created him duke of Rian-
zares. Though Isabella had been declared of
age, she continued to intermeddle in public
affairs till 1854, when she was expelled from
Spain by a new revolutionary movement.
She retired with her husband and their ten
children to France, where she had purchased
the chateau of La Malmaison, which she sold
to Napoleon III. in 1861. She then removed
to Paris, though residing part of the time
at Beaumont lodge, near Windsor, England,
which she subsequently sold to the Jesuits to
be used as a college. In September, 1864, she
returned to Madrid, where she remained till
she was driven out with Isabella by the revo-
lution of September, 1868, when she went back
to Paris, where she now resides. Her hus-
band Mufioz died near Havre, Sept. 12, 1873.

MARIA II. DA GLORIA, queen of Portugal,
born in Rio Janeiro, April 4, 1819, died in Lis-
bon, Nov. 15, 1853. Her mother, a daught'er of
the emperor Francis I. of Austria, and her grand-
father, John VI. of Portugal, both died in 1826,
when her father succeeded as Pedro IV. ; but
having been made emperor of Brazil in 1822 as
Pedro I., he ceded the Portuguese throne to his
infant daughter (May 2, 1826), whom he wished
to marry his brother Dom Miguel. But the
latter, having succeeded (Feb. 26, 1828) his
sister the princess Maria as regent duwng
his niece's minority, usurped the crown four
months afterward, before the queen's arrival in
Portugal. Her rights were not established un-
til after his final overthrow through a protract-
ed civil war, and she was formally recognized
as queen in September, 1834. In January,
1835, she married Duke Augustus of Leuchten-
berg, who died two months afterward. In the
following year she became the wife of Prince
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, to whom she bore
three sons (the late king Pedro V., the pres-
ent king Louis I., and Prince Augustus) and
two daughters. At the instigation of her dic-
tatorial prime minister Costa-Cabral, she sub-
stituted in 1842 the reactionary charter of
1826 for the liberal constitution of 1820, which
she had formally adopted in 1838 ; but Costa-
Cabral and his brother were driven from pow-
er by an insurrection in 1846, and the deposi-
tion of Maria was prevented only by foreign
intervention. She discarded Saldanha in 1849'

160

MARIA DE' MEDICI

MARIA THERESA

to reappoint Costa-Cabral ; and she insisted
up. in retaining his services despite his resigna-
tion in consequence of the adverse vote in the
cortes in February, 1851, and consented to dis-
pense with them only after Saldanha had set
on foot a revolution for his rival's overthrow.
Saldanha remained prime minister until after
the queen's death.

MARIA DE' MEDICI, queen of France, daugh-
ter of Francis I., grand duke of Tuscany, and
of the archduchess Johanna of Austria, born in
Florence, April 26, 1573, died in Cologne, July
3, 1642. She was educated in utter seclusion,
and knew nothing beyond the circle of the
Florentine court, when, in 1599, her hand was
asked for Henry IV. of France of her uncle,
Ferdinand I., grand duke of Tuscany. Her
marriage with Henry had been contemplated
seven years before ; though but for the inter-
position of Philip II. of Spain she would have
married the duke of Parma. She was married
in 1600, and in L601 gave birth to the first
dauphin who had been born since 1543, and
who became Louis XIII. Maria had great
cause to complain of the infidelities of her hus-
band, and her domestic life was full of bick-
erings. Henry often threatened to send her
back to Italy, with her favorites the Concinis,
by whom she was ruled. Her coronation did
not take place till May 13, 1610, the day be-
fore her husband was assassinated. By the
aid of the duke of Epernon, colonel-general of
the French guard, she became regent. She got
rid of the prime minister Sully, and soon her
government became one of the worst ever
knowli in France. The Concinis were put
to death in 1617, and she was herself exiled
to Blois, her son being the chief of her ene-
mies. She was freed from prison by Eper-
non, and a reconciliation was effected be-
tween her and Louis, chiefly through the aid
of Richelieu, and by the same assistance Maria
maintained her ascendancy at court for some
jtHn. Becoming jealous of Richelieu, she
sought to overthrow his power, but was de-
feat ! and imprisoned in 1631. Escaping to the
Netherlands, she remained there till 1638, and
was concerned in many intrigues against the
government of Richelieu. She then went to
England, where her daughter Henrietta Maria
was queen. Charles I. unsuccessfully endeav-
ored to prevail upon the French government to
allow her to return to France; and she became
so unpopular in England that the long parlia-
ment requested her to leave the kingdom. She
departed in August, 1641, parliament giving her
8,000, and promising her 6,000 more. She
went to Antwerp, and took up her residence
in the house of Rubens, whose patron she had
>een. After residing there for some weeks,
she was ordered to leave Antwerp, and to pro-
ceed to Cologne, where she arrived Oct. 12
Here she finally died in comparative destitu-
tion, in a squalid chamber.

MARIA LOI'ISA, si-rond wife of Napoleon I
See BONAPARTE, vol. iii., p. 47.

MARIMA, Juan, a Spanish historian, born in
Talavera in 1536, died in Toledo, Feb. 6, 1623.
He was educated at the university of Alcala,
and when 17 years of age joined the society
of Jesus. In 1561 he was appointed professor
of theology in the Jesuit college at Rome.
He afterward lectured on divinity in Sicily and
Paris, and finally retired to the Jesuit house in
Toledo. Having been employed to examine
the polyglot Bible, edited by Arias Montanus
at Antwerp in 1569-'72, which had been de-
nounced to the inquisition, he returned a fa-
vorable opinion of it, which brought upon him
the displeasure of his superiors. His arrange-
ment of the Index Expurgatorius of 1584, and
still more his work De Rege et Regis Institu-
tione (Toledo, 1599), in which he intimates that
unrighteous kings and usurpers may be put to
death, were also displeasing. In Paris, where
Henry III. had been assassinated a few years
before, the latter work was condemned to be
burned by the common hangman. It aroused
a violent controversy, and brought great popu-
lar odium upon the order to which Mariana
belonged. In 1609 he published at Cologne
" Seven Theological and Historical Treatises,"
two of which, " On Mortality and Immortal-
ity " and De Alteratione Monetce (denouncing
the falsification of the coinage by the king of
Spain's ministers), were censured by the inqui-
sition, and the author was subjected to impris-
onment and penance. To the "History of
Spain " he devoted the last 30 or 40 years of
his life. It was published in Latin (1592-1609)
and Spanish (1601 ; enlarged ed., 1623), and
extends from the supposed peopling of Spain
by Tubal, son of Japheth, to the accession of
Charles V., with a summary of later events,
down to 1621. The best edition is the 14th
(2 vols. fol., Madrid, 1780). There is an Eng-
lish translation by Steevens (London, 1699).
Among his other works are Scholia Brema in
Vetus et Novum Testamentum (Madrid, 1619),
and Discursus de Erroribus qui in Forma Gu-
bernationis Societatis Jesu occurrunt, published
after his death and of disputed authenticity
(Bordeaux, 1625).

MAR1ANNA, a city of Brazil, in the province
of Minas Geraes, between the rivers Caruco
and Seminario, 170 m. N. by W. of Rio de
Janeiro ; pop. about 7,000. It is situated at an
elevation of 3,000 ft. above the sea, between two
mountains, that to the east, Itacolumi, being
nearly 6,000 ft. high. There are two large
squares, seven fountains, and a bridge of a single
arch crossing a torrent which runs through the
centre of the town. There are eight churches,
including a cathedral, a hospital, court house,
and prison. Outside the town are an episcopal
palace and a seminary. The climate is temper-
ate and salubrious. Mining and agriculture are
the principal occupations of the inhabitants.

MARIAME ISLES. See LADROXES.

MARIA THERESA, a German empress, and
queen of Hungary and Bohemia, born in Vien-
na, May 13, 1717, died there, Nov. 29, 1780.

MARIA THERESA

MAPJCOPA

161

She was the daughter of the emperor Charles
VI. of Hapsburg, whose principal aim during a
long reign seemed to be to secure to his heiress
the succession to all the hereditary dominions
of his house. By ample cessions of territory
to various princes of Europe, he finally at-
tained a general acknowledgment, though not
by the Bourbons, of the " pragmatic sanction ;"
and Maria Theresa, a princess of rare beauty
id talents, received not only an education
itting her future condition, but was also early
dtiated into the secrets of state and admitted
the council of her father. In 1736 she was
larried to Francis Stephen of Lorraine, after-
ward grand duke of Tuscany, and eventually
German emperor under the name of Francis I.,
who was always glad to leave affairs of state
to his. consort, while he employed himself in
>rofitable private speculations. Charles died
" 3t. 20, 1740, and at once, in spite of the prag-
latic sanction, claimant after claimant raised
^tensions to the whole or parts of his posses-
sions. The young princess saw herself sur-
rounded by enemies. Frederick the Great of
Prussia occupied Silesia ; Charles Albert of Ba-
varia was elected emperor under the name of
Charles VII.; Spain, Sardinia, and Augustus
III. of Poland and Saxony threatened to en-
force various claims by force of arms; and
France, which had no rights of succession of
its own, was ready to support those of others.
George II. of England alone proved a faithful
ally. At the diet of Presburg in 1741 she put
herself and her infant son Joseph under the
protection of the Hungarians, who promised to
die for their " king " Maria Theresa ; and their
enthusiasm became a support powerful beyond
11 expectation. Frederick made peace at Bres-
m (1742), retaining Silesia, which he had con-
mered; but Charles VII. lost even his own
lominion, Bavaria. This success of the Aus-
arms, however, raised the apprehensions
Frederick, and the second Silesian war en-
led (1744), France simultaneously declaring
war against England. Louis XV. himself ap-
ired on the field, and Marshal Saxe won battle
fter battle in the Netherlands ; Frederick, too,
, r as successful. Saxony, however, was now
ally of Maria Theresa. Charles VII. died
>on after reentering his capital Munich, and
is son and successor not only renounced all
iis claims, but also supported the election of
[aria Theresa's husband to the imperial throne
Germany (1745). Frederick, confirmed in
possession of Silesia, made peace at Dres-
len (1745). The war against Spain and France
ras continued, Marshal Saxe being victorious at
^ontenoy (1745), Raucoux (1746), and Lawfeldt
(1747), while England was successful against
pretender, in the colonies, and on the seas,
lizabeth of Russia declaring for Maria Theresa,
war was terminated by the peace of Aix-
-Chapelle (1748), Austria ceding Parma, Pia-
3nza, and Guastalla to Don Philip, prince of
Spain, and some districts of the duchy of Milan
Sardinia. Maria Theresa now turned her

principal attention to the internal affairs of
her states. Following chiefly the advice of her
minister Kaunitz, she introduced numerous re-
forms, organized the administration, alleviated
the burdens of the peasantry, abolished tor-
ture, created various institutions of learning,
promoted industry and trade, and, though a
zealous Catholic herself, subjected the papal
bulls to the placet regium. In regard to Hun-
gary, she observed a mild but .slowly dena-
tionalizing policy. The external diplomacy of
Kaunitz was also active, and when he finally
succeeded in gaining over with Mme. de Pom-
padour the court of France, in addition to the
alliance of Russia and the house of Saxony,
Frederick sought and obtained the alliance of
England, and the seven years' war began (1756),
of which the Prussian monarch became the
hero, Laudon and Daun being his most effec-
tive Austrian antagonists. The war extended
to almost all parts of the world, from the coast
of Coromandel to Canada, and nearly all pow-
ers partook in it. The double peace of Paris
and Hubertsburg (1763) terminated it to the
advantage of Prussia and England, Frederick
remaining now undisputed master of Silesia.
Two years later Francis I. died, and was suc-
ceeded in the empire by his son Joseph II., and
in Tuscany by Leopold, their sister Marie An-
toinette being afterward married to the future
French king Louis XVI. Joseph, however,
enjoyed in the hereditary states of his mother
only the rights of a co-regent, though his in-
fluence generally prevailed in foreign affairs, as
in the case of the annexation of Galicia at the
first division of Poland (1772), and of Buko-
wina from Turkey (1777). The peace of Te-
schen (1779) terminated, according to the ener-
getic decision of the old empress, the war of
the Bavarian succession. A monument 60 ft.
high, representing Maria Theresa surrounded
by the principal statesmen of her time, is to
be completed at Vienna in 1875. Her corre-
spondence, comprising several previously un-
known letters, has been published in French
by Alfred von Arneth (3 vols., Paris, 1874).

MARIA-THERESIOPEL. See SZABADKA.

MARIAZELL, a village in Styria, Austria, 55
m. S. W. of Vienna (pop. about 1,000), situated
in a picturesque country, and celebrated for its
shrine of the Virgin, which makes it the prin-
cipal resort of pilgrims in the Austrian mon-
archy. From May to September there are 80
great processions from different parts of Aus-
tria, and the number of pilgrims annually is
estimated at 250,000.

MARICOPA, a central county of Arizona,
bounded E. by New Mexico and S. by the Gila
river, and intersected by the Salt river and
other tributaries of the Gila ; area, about 14,500
sq. m. It has been recently formed, and is
not included in the census of 1870. The set-
tlements are chiefly in the valley of Salt river,
one of the largest and most productive in the
territory. Irrigation is practised, the river
supplying abundant water. The chief crops

162

MARICOPAS

are wheat, barley, and Indian corn. The val-
ley of the Gila also contains large tracts of
lain! suited to agriculture, and the table lands
and mountains adjacent furnish good pasture
throughout the year. The E. portion is gen-
erally broken and mountainous, but is watered
by a number of streams, and contains much
timber. Gold, silver, copper, and lead exist in
most of the mountain ranges. The Apaches
have held possession of the greater portion of
the county. Capital, Pho?nix.

M mil ol vs. See COCO-MARIOOPAS.

MARIE, Charles Franfois Maxlmilien, a French
mathematician, born in Paris, Jan. 1, 1819.
He left the military school of Metz in 1841,
and has since devoted himself to researches in
the most abstruse parts of mathematical science.
Hi- methods were for a long time the subject
of ridicule, notwithstanding they had been
approved by M. Lam6 and M. Poncelet. In
1858 M. Leonville gave him the use of the
columns of his mathematical journal to explain
his discoveries; and in 1863, after violent op-
position, he was appointed an examiner in the
polytechnic school. He has published Lepons
cTarithmetique (Paris, 1860), and Lefons d'alge-
Ire (1860), treating the theory of the quantities
called imaginary, and Questions sociales (1869).

MARIE AMELIE, queen of the French, born
at Caserta, near Naples, April 26, 1782, died
at Claremont, near Windsor, England, March

24, 1866. Her father was Ferdinand I., king
of the Two Sicilies, and her mother Carolina
Maria, archduchess of Austria. Her brother
succeeded to the throne of Naples, and her
four sisters were respectively empress of Aus-
tria, grand duchess of Tuscany, queen of Sar-
dinia, and queen of Spain. In 1798, when
Naples was invaded by the French, she retired
with her mother to Palermo. In June, 1800,
she went to Vienna, and returned in 1802
to Naples, but renewed political outbreaks
forced the royal family to return to Palermo.
There she became acquainted in 1808 with
Louis Philippe, whose wife she became, Nov.

25, 1809. She continued to reside at Palermo
till the restoration called her husband to Paris
in September, 1814. The events of the hun-
dred days soon compelled her and her family
to take refuge in England. She returned to
France in 1817, and from that time to 1830 re-
sided at Neuilly. Her legitimist tendencies led
her to view with regret the revolution of 1830,
and she manifested a repugnance, based on
scruples, to Louis Philippe's acceptance of the
crown. After his accession Marie Amelie de-
voted herself exclusively to domestic life, and
was remarkable for her charities, accomplish-
in, -nts and piety. In 1848 she implored Louis
Philippe not t<> abdicate; but when further

MCO was useless she accompanied him to
Evreux, where for safety she separated from
him. rejoined him at Iloiifleur, and accompa-
nied him to Claremont, where she took the title
of countess of Xeuilly. See Vie de Marie- Ame-
H> . r, 'tncdes Franca is, by Trognon (Paris, 1871).

MARIE ANTOINETTE

MARIE ANTOINETTE, Josephe Jeanne de Lor-
raine, queen of France, born in Vienna, Nov. 2,
1755, executed in Paris, Oct. 16, 1793. She was
the youngest daughter of the emperor Francis
I. (who died in 1765) and Maria Theresa. Her
marriage with the French dauphin, the future
Louis XVI., was early determined upon by her
mother, with a view of strengthening Austria
against Prussia. The princess was brought up
in the unconventional manner of the imperial
family circle ; but while taught to be natural
and unaffected, her attainments were not above
the superficiality of merely fashionable accom-
plishments. French actors taught her elocu-
tion ; a Frenchman instructed her in dancing ;
and though Maria Theresa inculcated in her
mind solid moral principles, she regarded the
rather frivolous character of her education as
necessary to qualify her for the French throne.
The abbe" de Vermond, a worthless person, was
brought in 1769 from Paris as her tutor, and
afterward became her reader. She went to
France in her 15th year, and was enthusiasti-
cally received all along the journey, and espe-
cially at Strasburg by the prince de Rohan,
then coadjutor of his uncle the cardinal, who
afterward, as ambassador in Vienna, shocked
Maria Theresa by his levity and dissipations,
and who subsequently, while cardinal and roy-
al chaplain, implicated Marie Antoinette in the
affair of the diamond necklace. Her marriage
with the dauphin was celebrated at Versailles,
May 16, 1770, and was followed by sumptuous
festivities, marred however by a number of cas-
ualties, involving the loss of several lives, which
were regarded by the superstitious as ominous.
The powerful anti- Austrian party at the court,
and the daughters of Louis XV., as well as
Mme. du Barry, the king's mistress, were un-
friendly to the new dauphiness, though the
old king himself was pleased with her vivaci-
ty. But this peculiar trait of her character,
and her dislike of the restraints of court life,
alienated from her the rigid upholders of eti-
quette among the nobility, while no greater con-
trast could be imagined than that between the
joyous and impulsive young princess, fond
of pleasure, excitement, and society, and her
grave, sedate, and ungainly, though good-na-
tured and upright husband, who delighted
chiefly in mechanical pursuits, and in a life
of good fare, seclusion, and meditation. She
was consequently left to drift along in a so*
cial set including many persons of inferior
moral culture, who encouraged her in indis-
cretions which were misconstrued and injured
the popularity which her youth and fascina-
ting manners had at first gained for her. Af-
ter her husband's accession to the throne
(May 10, 1774), her charities enlisted popular
sympathy for a time, but her wayward con-
duct, which occasionally wore a coloring of
positive impropriety, was grossly exaggerated
by her detractors. Yet, though her admirers
were numerous, she gave no cause of com-
plaint to her husband, with whom she lived

MAEIE ANTOINETTE

163

in perfect harmony, and to whom she bore
four children. Louis XVI. humored and hon-
ored her, while she, without deep feelings of
love, never ceased to respect him. According
to the best authorities, she led a virtuous life
in the midst of vicious associations. But the
haughty spirit of her race, which asserted itself
occasionally despite her general urbanity, could
not always be reconciled with her fondness for
familiar intercourse and her desire to please.
Shortly after she became queen she conceived
a warm friendship for the princess de Lamballe,
and insisted upon restoring for her benefit the
office of superintendent of the queen's house-
hold. This entailed additional expense, and
gave offence to her former ladies in waiting,
who resigned, while other ladies of the court
declined to serve under the princess. At the
'same time she was on bad terms with her
brother-in-law the count of Provence (after-
ward Louis XVIIL), the prince de Conde, and
the duke of Orleans, and she made bitter ene-
mies of many of the women of easy, virtue
who had flourished under Louis XV., and
whom she discarded. Yet while setting such
examples, she was forbearing toward the fail-
ings of some of her own favorites; and this
.want of consistency strengthened her enemies,
who made every effort to injure her in public
estimation. In this they succeeded, especially
after the sensation produced by the affair of
the necklace (1785), in which Marie Antoinette
was scandalously implicated by the woman
Lamotte and the cardinal de Rohan, and for
which the two latter were imprisoned. (See
LAMOXTE-VALOIS.) Nothing could be proved
against Marie Antoinette, who exerted herself
to alleviate the condition of the prisoner La-
motte, whose husband, and she herself after-
ward, overwhelmed the queen with defama-
tions. This affair became a convenient weapon
in the hands of the queen's enemies. Her
famous parties at the Trianon were described
as orgies, and her fondness for private the-
atricals and for unceremonial balls and amuse-
ments became pretexts for atrocious calumnies.
At the same time she was denounced as hos-
tile to France, and as solely laboring in the
interest of Austria. Ever since the birth of
the first dauphin (1781) she had been charged,
and not without some reason, with mixing her-
self up too much with politics. But at length
she was accused of being the cause of all the
national and financial troubles ; of having pro-
cured vast sums for her brother, the emperor
Joseph II. ; of having helped the Polignac
family to grow rich at the expense of the state ;
and of warmly supporting the administration
of the unpopular Calonne, who gratified all her
caprices, and whose influence became para-
mount after the death of Vergennes (1787).
Marie Antoinette was often admonished by her
brother Joseph, as she hadl>een by her mother,
who were especially alarmed at her loss of
prestige consequent upon her over-familiar in-
tercourse with the Polignacs and other friends.

Many sarcastic songs were circulated in Paris,
in which she was held up to ridicule and op-
probrium. Her opposition to the assembling
of the notables for the consideration of the
financial situation confirmed the popular pre-
judices against her, and she was nicknamed
Madame Deficit. The aid afforded to the
American colonies, of which she was an en-
thusiastic advocate, had been an additional
source of financial embarrassment. In fact,
she wrote to one of her friends, April 9,
1787: "Dearly enough do we pay to-day for
our rejoicing and enthusiasm over the Amer-
ican war." Calonne was removed at her in-
stigation, and replaced by Lomenie de Bri-
enne, archbishop of Toulouse, a prelate fond
of theatricals and puerilities, and an especial
favorite of the queen. She joined him in a
strenuous opposition to Necker's suggestion of
a convocation of the states general, which was
taken up by Lafayette and by public opinion
as the only alternative to revolution. But,
frightened at the tumults in Paris and other
places, she at last prevailed upon the prime
minister to issue a decree (Aug. 8, 1788) for
the meeting of the states general in May,
1789. The king continued to lead his placid
life, while the queen controlled affairs of state.
Loni6nie. de Brienne having lost her ' confi-
dence, she placed Necker at the head of the
cabinet. But the outbreak of the political
storm which was gathering round the mon-
archy was accelerated by her want of earnest-
ness and sincerity in the proposed creation of
a third estate, which she regarded as a death-
blow to the nobility and as a menace to the
throne. At the opening of the states general,
May 5, 1789, she was received in a manner
which deeply offended her pride ; and so low
had she already sunk in public estimation that
the habitual expression of sympathy on occa-
sions of bereavement in the royal family were
withheld by that body on the death of her first-
born son, the dauphin, June 4, 1789. During
the subsequent political developments the count
de la Marck in vain appealed to her to come to
an understanding with Mirabeau, to which she
replied that her husband would probably never
become so miserable as to be obliged to resort
to such an expedient; but at a later period,
when she in her turn in vain attempted to
conciliate Mirabeau, she exclaimed that it was
her destiny to make mischief. Appalled at
the signs of the times, and at the detestation
in which she was held by the populace, she led
an uneasy life at the Trianon till Oct. 5, 1789,
when that palace was invaded by the mob,
from whose violence she only escaped by her
own intrepidity. While she fully recognized
the peril of the situation, the king consented
to accompany the populace to Paris, a step
which she regarded as fatal, and she very re-
luctantly went with him and their children.
Feeling that her unpopularity aggravated the
difficulties of her husband's position, she now
strove to remain in the background, but still

MARIE ANTOINETTE

MAPJENWERDER

virtually continued to control affairs; and as
some of her measures conflicted with those
urged by the king's other advisers, many cross
purposes increased the prevailing uncertainty
:uid IM MI fusion. She was unable, and the king
was too lethargic, to secure the cooperation of
< impotent statesmen in building up a constitu-
tional monarchy, which might perhaps have
savnl the throne. Despairing at last, she ob-
taim-d Mirabeau's consent, shortly before his
drat h, to the flight of the royal family, which
i/ndod so ignominiously (1791). During the
insurrection of June 20, 1702, Madame Elisa-
K'th, the devoted sister of the king, was mis-
taken for Marie Antoinette by the mob, who
shouted A las V AutricJiienne. The people
had long been made by her adversaries to be-
lieve that she was surrounded by a so-called
Austrian cabinet, which was planning the ruin
of France ; and the mourning at the court over
the death of Marie Antoinette's brother, the
emperor Leopold, which began March 13, 1792,
was jeered at and turned into public rejoicing.
During the attack upon the Tuileries, June 20,
she overawed the co'arse women who came to
insult her by her firm and noble attitude,
which she also displayed on Aug. 10, when the
palace was sacked, and she and her family took
refuge in the national assembly, though she
long declined to leave the Tuileries, imploring
the king rather to nail her to the walls of the
palace. On Aug. 13 the royal family was re-
moved to the Temple prison, where she was
separated from her friends, including Mme. de
Lamballe, who soon fell a victim to the Septem-
ber massacre, and whose bleeding head was
paraded before the queen's windows. She was
also speedily separated from her husband, and
did not see him again till Jan. 20, 1793, the eve
of his execution. In the night of Aug. 1-2,
when she was removed to the Conciergerie, she
took leave of Madame Elisabeth and of her
daughter; and having long prepared herself
for her inevitable fate, she bore all her agonies
with stoical fortitude. Before the revolutionary
tribunal (Oct. 14), she showed the same calm-
ness and resignation. Instead of vindicating
herself, as her husband had attempted to do,
she hardly condescended to reply, excepting in
the most laconic manner, to the questions put
to her ; and she demonstrated by her attitude
that she regarded the trial as a farce and her
death sentence as a foregone conclusion. Only
when she was accused by Hebert (Pere Du-
chesne), the principal witness against her, of
having debauched her own boy, who had slept
in tin- same bed with her and Madame Elisa-
l>-th. her indignant denial of that accusation.
and appeal to all the mothers present, struck
'mirtion into the minds of the most obdu-
Eren Fouquier-Tinville, the public pros-
ut..r, and the most infuriate^ women seemed
to sympathize for once with the unfortunate'
'l'i--n. Tin- trial la-t.-d t\v<> davs. She insist-
i-d that n. .thin^ W as proved against her, and
that she had only done her duty as a wife in

obeying her husband. She was found guilty of
having conspired against France abroad and
at home, and sentenced to death at 4 A. M.,
Oct. 16. She was then taken to a cell of con-
demned prisoners at the Conciergerie, where
she immediately wrote a touching and spirited
letter to Madame Elisabeth, which has been
preserved. Girard, the metropolitan vicar,
having been sent to her by the authorities to
attend her last moments, he besought her to
dedicate her life to God in expiation of her
crimes; to which she replied that he should
speak of her mistakes, but never of her crimes.
Dressed in plain white, and having cut off her
beautiful blonde hair with her own hands, she
was conveyed to the guillotine like other vic-
tims, only that more than 30,000 soldiers were
stationed in the streets, and that the cries 'of
Vive la repullique ! A las la tyrannic ! were
incessant. She showed neither haughtiness nor
humility in her bearing, stepped with firmness
upon the scaffold, and her head fell at 12.15
P. M. Her remains were interred in the ceme-
tery of the Madeleine, by the side of those of
Louis XVI. In 1815 they were removed to the
vaults of St. Denis. The most faithful likeness
of Marie Antoinette is the portrait by the Swe-
dish painter Rossline. - It was also drawn by
Mme. Vig6e-Lebrun, who published souvenirs of
the queen. See also Memoires sur la me pritee
de Marie- Antoinette, by Mme. Campan (Paris,
1826) ; Histoire de Marie- Antoinette, by Ed-
mond and Jules de Goncourt (1859) ; Maria
Theresa und Marie Antoinette : Ihr Brief wech-
sel wdhrend derJahre 1770-'80 (Vienna, 1865),
and Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold
II. : Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna, 1866), both by
Alfred von Arneth. Arneth's Correspondance
de Marie- Therese (3 vols., Paris, 1874) shows
that Marie Antoinette was constantly watched
by her mother, through secret agents, with a
view of protecting her.

MARIENBAD, a watering place in Bohemia,
20 m. S. S. W of Carlsbad, and 76 m. W. by
S. of Prague ; pop. about 1,000. It contains
a number of mineral springs, beneficial for dis-
eases of the chest, bowels, and skin, as well as
for rheumatic complaints, and is annually vis-
ited by thousands of persons. The waters of
some of the springs, particularly of the Kreuz-
brunnen, are largely exported to foreign coun-
tries. The watering place is of comparatively
recent origin, and was opened out of the forest
which covered its site in 1810.

MARIENBURG, a town of Prussia, in the
province of West Prussia, on the Nogat, 28 m.
S. E. of Dantzic ; pop. in 1871, 8,235. It has
a gymnasium, a normal school, and an institu-
tion for the deaf and dumb. The castle, which
was formerly the seat of the grand master of
the Teutonic order, was restored in 18l7-'24.
The town remained with the Teutonic order
till^ 1457, when Poland* took possession. In
1772 it was united with Prussia.

MARIE1VWERDER, a town of Prussia, capital
of an administrative district in the province of

MARIES

MAPJETTE

165

West Prussia, on the Little Nogat, 45 m. S. E.
of Dantzic ; pop. in 1871, 7,172. It is one of
the most beautiful towns of eastern Germany,
has a large cathedral church, a gymnasium, a
hospital for blind soldiers, and an ancient cas-
tle which is now used as a prison. The most
important branches of industry are woollen
cloth weaving, brewing, and distilling.

MARIES, a S. central county of Missouri, in-
tersected by the Gasconade river ; area, about
500 sq. m. ; pop. in 1970, 5,916, of whom 22
were colored. The surface is broken and gen-
erally well timbered ; the soil of the valleys is
fertile, that of the uplands poor. Iron, lead,
and copper are found. The chief productions
in 1870 were 79,243 bushels of wheat, 163,479
of Indian corn, 72,075 of oats, 8,887 of pota-
toes, 17,672 Ibs. of tobacco, 15,152 of wool,
and .41,633 of butter. There were 2,720
horses, 466 mules and asses, 1,998 milch cows,
4,337 other cattle, 8,095 sheep, and 10,759
swine. Capital, Vienna.

MARIETTA, a city and the capital of "Washing-
ton co., Ohio, at the confluence of the Ohio
and Muskingum rivers, and at the terminus of
the Marietta and Cincinnati and the Marietta,
Pittsburgh, and Cleveland railroads, 85 m. E.
S. E. of Columbus; pop. in 1850, 3,175; in
1860, 4,323; in 1870, 5,218. Including Har-
mar, which is part of the town, the popula-
tion is over 7,000. It is regularly laid out,
with wide streets and. neatly built houses.
On the site of the city there is a remarkable
group of ancient works, which are described
in Squier and Davis's " Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley" as consisting of
" two irregular squares (one containing 40
acres area, the other about 20 acres), in con-
nection with a graded or covered way, and
sundry mounds and truncated pyramids. The
town of Marietta is laid out over them, and, in
the progress of improvement, the walls have
been considerably reduced and otherwise much
obliterated; yet the outlines of the entire
works may still be traced. The walls of the
principal square, where they remain undis-
turbed, are now between 5 and 6 ft. high by
20 or 30 ft. base ; those of the smaller enclo-
sure are somewhat less. The entrances or
gateways at the sides of the latter are each
covered by a small mound placed interior to
the embankment ; at the corners the gateways
are in line with it. The larger work is desti-
tute of this feature, unless we class as such an
interior crescent wall covering the entrance at
its southern angle." Marietta has considerable
trade in petroleum, which is obtained in the
vicinity, and contains several iron founderies,
manufactories of buckets, chairs, &c., a union
bank, and two national banks. It is the seat
of Marietta college, the grounds of which oc-
cupy a square, and contain four buildings.
This institution was established in 1835, and
in 1873-'4 had 11 professors and instructors,
182 students (93 in the collegiate and the rest
in the preparatory department), 360 alumni,

and libraries containing 25,000 volumes. The
city has flourishing graded schools, including a
high school, three weekly newspapers (one
German), and 15 churches. Marietta is the
oldest town in the state, having been settled in
1788 by New Englanders under Gen. E. Put-
nam, and named in honor of Marie Antoinette.
MARIETTE, August* fcdouard, a French Egyp-
tologist, born in Boulogne, Feb. 11, 1821. He
was educated at the college of Boulogne, in
which he was subsequently a teacher of gram-
mar and of drawing. He early became inter-
ested in antiquities, and his first publication,
Lettres d M. Bouillet (Paris, 1847), was a dis-
sertation on the names of the cities that had
formerly occupied the site of Boulogne. Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics attracted his attention, and
by the aid of books he became so well versed
in Egyptology that he was appointed in 1848
to a situation in the Egyptian museum in the
Louvre ; and in 1850, at the recommendation
of the institute, he was sent by the govern-
ment on a scientific mission to Egypt. There
his attention was chiefly directed to the re-
mains of Memphis, and his excavations led to
most important discoveries. Among these is
the discovery of the Serapeum, close by the
three great pyramids, and the first of the tem-

S'es of Memphis disinterred. M. Mariette told
r. Bayard Taylor, who visited him at the
scene of his explorations in 1851, that an in-
scription which he found on one of the blocks
quarried out of a mound near Mitrahenny in-
duced him to believe that the principal part of
the city lay to the westward, and accordingly
he began to sink his pits four miles from the
spot which archaeologists had fixed upon as
the site of Memphis. He soon struck upon an
avenue of sphinxes, which led to the Serapeum
or temple of Serapis mentioned by Strabo,
an enormous structure of granite and alabaster,
containing within its enclosure the sarcophagi
of the bulls of Apis from the 19th dynasty to
the time of the Roman supremacy. He found
also 2,000 sphinxes, between 4,000 and 5,000
statues, reliefs, and inscriptions, eight colossal
statues, evidently the product of Grecian art,
and streets, colonnades, public and private edi-
fices, and other marks of a great city. Subse-
quently he discovered an entrance to the great
sphinx at Gizeh, and the clearing away of the
sand at the base has left no doubt that this
monument was sculptured from the immense
rock which forms its foundation. On his re-
turn home, he was in 1855 appointed assis-
tant conservator of the Egyptian museum in
the Louvre, and in the same year sent to
stndy Egyptian antiquities in the museum at
Berlin. Having returned to Egypt, he was
made by the viceroy director of the depart-
ment for the preservation of Egyptian antiqui-
ties, with the title of bey, and an annual al-
lowance for the prosecution of his researches.
Among his later excavations, resulting in in-
teresting and important discoveries, are those
at Tanis, disclosing the monuments of the

MARIGNANO

MARIGOLD

kings of the shepherd dynasty, and at Thebes
and elsewhere of monuments and inscriptions
which explain the genealogy and chronology
of different dynasties. In I860 he discovered
at Thebes the mummy of Queen Aah-hotep, of
the 18th dynasty, and her jewels, consisting of
a long gold chain, a diadem with two golden
sphinxes, a breastplate of open work, a richly
chased dagger, bracelets, earrings, and other or-
naments, all of exquisite workmanship. These
were shown in the Paris exhibition of 1867,
and are now spoken of as u the pride of the
inu.-uni of Boolak." This museum is tem-
porarily located, and is to be removed to Cairo.
In April, 1874, Bayard Taylor again visited
Mariette, and described his collections, which
are arranged in the Boolak museum according
to their civil or religious character, those of
the earlier dynasties having the most conspicu-
ous place. Three statues in the court belong
to the age of the shepherd kings. The main
vestibule is crowded with relics of the oldest
Egyptian art. In the main hall are wooden
statues belonging to the 4th dynasty, two
painted limestone statues belonging to the 3d,
and a granite statue of Cephren, the builder
of the second pyramid, found by Mariette in a
well in the granite temple discovered in 1866
near the sphinx. Even more interesting is the
vast collection of furniture, household articles,
implements of trade, glass and earthern ware,
&c., revealing the civilization and domestic life
of Egypt 4,000 years ago. In this museum is
also the trilingual Canopic stone discovered at
Tanis in 1866 by Lepsius, Reinisch, and Rosier.
Mariette's discoveries thus far have thrown
comparatively little light upon the sojourn of
the Israelites in Egypt, though they have af-
forded grounds for many probable chronologi-
cal conjectures ; but the revelations of the ear-
liest periods resulting from his researches are
of great value. He has published Memoire sur
la mire d*Apis (1856) ; Aperpu de VTiwtoire
d'figypte (1864) ; Nouvelle table ffAtydos
(1865) ; Le Serapeum de Memphis (in 9 parts
fol., with 110 plates, 1857-'64); and Fouilles
executes en figypte, en Nubie et au Soudan
cTapres les ordres du viceroi d'figypte (fol.,
1867). The Nouvelle table d'Abydos gives an
account of the discovery of a more perfect
tablet than the one formerly found in Abydos
and preserved in the British museum. This
second tablet supplies nearly all the vacancies
which occur by mutilation in the first, and fur-
ni-lu-i a list of kings of the first six dynasties,
lu-.iHy as complete as Manetho's, and corrobo-
rating the list of that historian. For the im-
portance of Mariette's discoveries, historically
and Qhrpnologically considered, see Lenormant
and Chevalier, Manuel d*hutoire ancienne de
V Orient (3 vols., Paris, 1868-'9; English edi-
tion, 2 vols., 1869-70).

MARIG\A\(>, or MarfcnaD. See MELEGNANO.

MARIGOLD, the usual name of garden plants
of two distinct genera of composite. The old
naturalists called them Mary Gowles, a name

from the Anglo-Saxon for another plant, which
has been transferred to these, probably on ac-
count of a similarity in color. The garden or
pot marigold, calendula officinalis, a spreading
plant about a foot high with succulent oblong,
entire, strong-smelling leaves, is still to be
found in country gardens ; the heads have nu-
merous ray flowers, and these are the only
ones that produce seed, which are in long,
curved, roughened achenes ; the disk flowers as
well as those of the ray are yellow ; the flow-
ers have been rendered double in cultivation.
The common marigold was once used in cook-
ery, imparting a flavor to soups and broths,
and thus has long had a place in the kitchen
garden. It was formerly, among other uses,
employed as a carminative ; and its dried florets
were used to adulterate saffron, and by dairy
maids to impart a rich color to their cheese
and butter. There are lemon-colored varieties,
but the usual color is a rich orange yellow.
The showy plants known in gardens as the
African and French
marigolds belong to
the genus tagetes, and,
notwithstanding their
geographical garden
names, are natives of
South America and
Mexico ; they are an-
nuals, with mostly pin-
nate leaves and heads
of yellow, orange,
or brownish flowers,
with a smooth cup-
shaped involucre ; the
ray flowers only are
pistillate, but in most
of the garden forms
they are double by the
conversion of the disk
flowers into ligulate
.ones like those of the
ray. The so-called
African marigold (T.
erecta) has large flowers varying from lemon
color to orange. It is showy, but a much coarser
plant than the French (T. patuld), which has
more delicate leaves, and flowers varying from
pale yellow to a rich orange brown, often
handsomely, striped or bordered with differ-
ent shades. The most beautiful and delicate of
all is the comparatively recent tagetes signata,
with very finely divided foliage of a rich deep
bluish green color, and producing a great pro-
fusion of small single flowers, with five orange-
colored rays which are marked with a darker
spot at the base; a dwarf form of this, var,
pumila, is a fine plant grown as a single speci-
men, and it is useful in masses. The foliage of
the species before mentioned has a strong and
unpleasant odor, but there is a sweet-scented
one, T. lucida, the leaves of which have the
odor of anise ; its flower heads are very small
and borne in clusters ; it is much less cultivated
than formerly, and though a perennial is treat-

African Marigold (Tagetes
erecta).

MARIN

MARIO

167

ed as an annual. The different sorts are read-
ily raised from seeds, sowing in June in the
open ground, or earlier in hotbeds, and trans-

French Marigold (Tagetes patula).

planting when 3 or 4 in. high. On the allu-
vial banks of rivers, from Illinois southward,
is' an American plant belonging to this group,
known as the fetid marigold (dysodia chrysan-
themoides), furnished with pellucid glands,
which give out a strong odor ; the flower heads
are terminal and the flowers yellow. The
marsh marigold (caltha palustris) belongs to
the order ranunculacecs.

MARIN, a W. county of California, bounded
E. by the bays of San Pablo and San Francisco,
and S. and W. by the Pacific ocean ; area, 570
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,903, of whom 361 were
Chinese. The surface is rugged and moun-
tainous, and only a small portion of the soil is
adapted for cultivation, though much of it .is
well suited for grazing. The valleys are highly
productive. It is intersected by the San Fran-
cisco and North Pacific railroad. The chief
productions in 1870 were 57,880 bushels of
wheat, 297,744 of oats, 37,755 of barley, 157,-
245 of potatoes, 2,107,755 Ibs. of butter, 381,-
300 of cheese, and 12,054 tons of hay. There
were 2,671 horses, 18,655 milch cows, 10,443
other cattle, 2,067 sheep, and 6,606 swine;
LI brick kilns, 1 saw mill, and 1 paper mill.
)ital, San Rafael.
MARINA, Maliiitzin, or Malinche, an Indian wo-
lan who rendered efficient aid in the conquest
)f Mexico. She was a native of the province
)f Guazacoalcos, and of noble blood, though
)ld as a slave in her childhood to the Maya In-
ians of the frontier of Yucatan. Being thus
liliar with the two principal languages of
[exico, she was presented to Cortes in Tabasco
by a native chief, and, quickly acquiring Span-
' 'i, made herself indispensable to the conquer-
ors as an interpreter. She was much beloved
l)y the Mexicans, and exerted a great influence

in restraining the barbarities against her coun-
trymen which were but too common. Cortes
made her his mistress, and by him she had a
son, Don Martin Cortes, who figured in the
political history of the colony. .After the mar-
riage of Cortes, she became the wife of the
comendador Juan de Jaramillo, and survived
till after the year 1550, living chiefly at Jalpan
on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where a mound
is still shown as her burial place.

MARINER'S COMPASS. See COMPASS.

MARIM, or Marino, Giambattista, an Italian
poet, born in Naples, Oct. 18, 1569, died there,
March 25, 1625. He was driven from his home
on account of his repugnance to the legal pro-
fession, and devoted himself to poetry under
the influence of Tasso. The grand admiral,
Prince Conca, made him his secretary, but a
love affair drove him from Naples. In Rome
he found a patron in Cardinal Pietro Aldo-
brandini, whom he accompanied to the court
of Duke Charles Emanuel at Turin. His pane-
gyric on the latter won for him the post of
ducal secretary ; but he wrote a satire against
Murtola, a fellow secretary, who wrote a coun-
ter satire and attempted to shoot him ; and on
being released from prison at Marini's inter-
cession, he ruined the latter by pointing out
disparaging allusions to the duke in one of his
poems. Marini was imprisoned, and recovered
his liberty only through the intervention of
Cardinal Gonzaga. He next went to Paris,
to the court of Margaret of Valois, widow of
Henry IV., and after her death he became a
favorite and pensioner of Maria de' Medici.
He returned to Italy in 1622, and was received
with great enthusiasm at Rome, and elected
prince of the academy of the Umoristi. His
Adone (Paris, 1623; new and complete ed., 4
vols., London, 1789) was regarded as a mas-
terpiece at the time of its publication, though
full of mannerism and defects, and so licentious
that its circulation was not permitted. Among
his other works are La strage degli innocenti
(Rome, 1633), and several exquisite sonnets.
There was for a time a large class of imitators
of his style, called Marinists.

MARK), Giuseppe, marquis di Candia, an Ital-
ian singer, born in Cagliari, Sardinia, Oct. 18,
1810. He received an excellent musical edu-
cation, and in 1830 entered the Sardinian mili-
tary service. Having been ordered to Cagliari
for certain youthful indiscretions, he resigned
his commission ; but upon the refusal of gov-
ernment to accept his resignation, he escaped
to Paris, and by his admirable tenor voice soon
attracted attention in the musical salons of
that city. For the sake of satisfying his cred-
itors, he accepted an engagement at the French
opera at a liberal salary, assumed the name of
Mario, and, after two years' study at the con-
servatory, made his d6but in December, 1838,
in Robert le diable, with decided success. In
the succeeding year he sang with Rubini at the
Italian theatre, and formed one of that bril-
liant galaxy of singers then upon the stage,'

1G8

MARION

comprising Rubini, Lablache, Tamburini, Mali-
bran, Sontag, Persiani, and Grisi. From that
pi-riod, he was constantly before the public,
occupying the position of the first tenor singer
upon the stage. After performing principally
in London and Paris, he visited Russia in 1845,
remaining there five years, and in 1850-'60
generally snng in London in the spring and
summer" and in Paris in the winter. In 1854-
'5 he accompanied Grisi, with whom he had
lived for many years, having by her a family
of children, and whom he finally married, on
an operatic tour through the chief cities of the
United States. In 1859 he appeared in Lon-
don and Paris in the part of Don Giovanni, in
the opera of that name, transposed to suit his
voice. On June 18, 1871, he took his farewell
of the stage at Covent Garden in La favorita.
In the autumn of 1872 he again visited the
United States on a concert tour. His voice
had quite failed him, however, and his reap-
pearance was a detriment to his reputation.
He possessed respectable dramatic abilities,
and excelled in parts like Almaviva in the
u Barber of Seville." Among the operas in
which he has principally appeared are La
donna del lago, La gazza ladra, Cenerentola,
Moise, and others by Rossini ; La sonnambitla,
Norma, and / puritani, by Bellini; Lucia di
Lammermoor, La favorita, Lucrezia Borgia,
Don Pasquale, &c., by Donizetti ; and Ernani,
La traviata, and II trovatore, by Verdi.

MARION, the name of 17 counties in the Uni-
ted States. 1. A N. county of West Virginia,
drained by the Monongahela and its branches ;
area, 275 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 12,107, of
whom 78 were colored. It has an undulating
surface with considerable woodland, and a fer-
tile soil. Coal and iron ore abound. The Bal-
timore and Ohio railroad intersects it. The
chief productions in 1870 were 26,538 bushels
of wheat, 63,643 of Indian corn, 29,819 of
oats, 12,780 Ibs. of wool, 22,927 of butter, and
3,780 tons of hay. There were 907 horses,
1,110 milch cows, 2,377 other cattle, 4,924
sheep, and 508 swine. Capital, Fairmont. II.
An E. county of South Carolina, bordering
on North Carolina, bounded E. by Little Pe-
dee and Lumber rivers, and S. by the Great
I\ ]. ,- and Lynches creek ; the Little and Great
Pedee also intersect it; area, 1,200 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 22,160, of whom 10,732 were
colored. The Wilmington, Columbia, and Au-
gusta railroad traverses it. The surface is lev-
el and the soil moderately fertile. The chief
productions in 1870 were 190,326 bushels of
Indian corn, 11,412 of oats, 58,103 of sweet
potatoes, 12,450 of peas and beans, 6,910 bales
of cotton, and 415,382 Ibs. of rice. There
were 1,419 horses, 957 mules and asses, 3,633
milch cows, 5,468 other cattle, 4,420 sheep and
19,521 swine. Capital, Marion Court House.
III. A W. county of Georgia, drained by trib-
utaries of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers;
area, 432 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 8,000, of whom
3,830 were colored. The surface is undulating

and the soil generally fertile. A branch of
the Southwestern railroad passes through the
N. W. corner. The chief productions in 1870
were 9,523 bushels of wheat, 163,298 of Indian
corn, 20,967 of sweet potatoes, 15,050 Ibs. of
butter, 5,439 bales of cotton, and 5,330 gallons
of molasses. There were 514 horses, 1,002
mules and asses, 1,404 milch cows, 2,480 other
cattle, 1,260 sheep, and 7,448 swine. Capital,
Buena Vista. IV. A central county of the pen-
insula of Florida, intersected by the Ocklawa-
ha river, and partly bounded S. by the With-
lacoochee ; area, 1,760 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
10,804, of whom 7,878 were colored. The
surface is level and the soil fertile, There are
numerous lakes, of which the largest are Or-
ange, Bryant, and Ware. The chief produc-
tions in 1870 were 129,596 bushels of Indian
corn, 3,355 of oats, 23,968 of sweet potatoes,
and 3,858 bales of cotton. There were 637
horses, 906 mules and asses, 3,035 milch cows,
306 working oxen, 458 other cattle, 442 sheep,
and 3,488 swine. Capital, Ocala. V. A N. W.
county of Alabama, bordering on Mississippi,
drained by branches of the Tennessee and
Tombigbee rivers ; area, about 700 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 6,059, of whom 224 were color-
ed. The surface is uneven and the soil gener-
ally fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were
5,108 bushels of wheat, 90,429 of Indian corn,
15,546 of sweet potatoes, 1,010 Ibs. of tobacco,
9,691 of wool, 25,335 of butter, and 463 bales
of cotton. There were 662 horses, 1,269 milch
cows, 665 working oxen, 1,707 other cattle, 2,-
999 sheep, and 5,765 swine. Capital, Pikeville.
VI. A S. county of Mississippi, bordering on
Louisiana, and drained by Pearl river ; area,
1,224 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,211, of whom
1,649 were colored. It has an undulating sur-
face and a fertile soil on the borders of the
streams. The chief productions in 1870 were
69,691 bushels of Indian corn, 22,268 of sweet
potatoes, 4,949 gallons of molasses, 793 bales
of cotton, and 32,038 Ibs. of rice. There were
797 horses, 2,206 milch cows, 4,637 other cat-
cle, 4,827 sheep, and 8,574 swine. Capital,
Columbia. VII. A 1ST. E. county of Texas,
bordering on Louisiana, and bounded S. by
Big Cypress bayou and several lakes, which
with Red river afford navigation to New Or-
leans; area, 320 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 8,562,
of whom 4,362 were colored. The bottom
lands are very fertile. It has an abundance of
timber of all kinds, and iron ore of superior
quality ; and there are seven mineral springs.
The chief productions in 1870 were 73,118
bushels of Indian corn, and 8,345 of sweet
potatoes. There were 362 horses, 943 milch
cows, 2,363 other cattle, and 3,241 swine.
Capital, Jefferson. VIII. A N. county of Ar-
kansas, bordering on Missouri, drained by
White river and its branches ; area, 900 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 3,979, of whom 19 were colored.
It contains lead ore, and a variegated marble
is found in the W. part. The chief productions
in 1870 were 12,822 bushels of wheat, 115,169

MARION

169

of Indian corn, 302 bales of cotton, 19,361 Ibs.
of tobacco, 39,024 of butter, and 4,720 gallons
of sorghum molasses. There were 845 horses,
849 milch cows, 1,763 other cattle, 2,283 sheep,
and 7,952 swine. Capital, Yellville. IX. A
S. county of Tennessee, bordering on Alabama,
ly bounded S. E. by the Tennessee, and
itersected by the Little Sequatchie river ;
area, 600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,841, of whom
915 were colored. The surface is hilly and
broken, being traversed by ridges of the Cum-
berland mountains. The Jasper branch of the
Chattanooga railroad terminates at the county
seat. The chief productions in 1870 were
28,134 bushels of wheat, 265,100 of Indian
corn, 27,989 of oats, 7,504 of Irish and 10,662
of sweet potatoes, 17,487 Ibs. of tobacco, 9,157
of wool, 64,742 of butter, and 724 bales of
cotton. There were 1,571 horses, 1,977 milch
cows, 4,289 other cattle, 5,605 sheep, and 17,020
3 wine. Capital, Jasper. X. A central county
of Kentucky, drained by the Rolling fork of
Salt river; area, 304 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
12,838, of whom 3,343 were colored. The
surface is hilly and the soil generally fertile.
The Knoxville branch of the Louisville, Nash-
ville, and Great Southern railroad passes
through it. The chief productions in 1870
were 93,530 bushels of wheat, 395,170 of In-
dian corn, 72,812 of oats, 16,676 of potatoes,
132,293 Ibs. of tobacco, 22,102 of wool, 193,397
of butter, and 3,274 tons of hay. There were
3,398 horses, 1,138 mules and asses, 2,070 milch
cows, 4,042 other cattle, 7,578 sheep, and 22,460
swine ; 3 manufactories of agricultural imple-
ments, 5 of carriages and wagons, 4 of saddlery
and harness, 1 woollen factory, 5 distilleries,
2 tanneries, 2 flour mills, 5 saw mills, and 2
planing mills. Capital, Lebanon. XI. A cen-
tral county of Ohio, drained by the Scioto,
Little Scioto, and Whetstone or Olentangy
rivers; area, 384 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 16,184.
It has a level surface and fertile soil. It is
intersected by the Atlantic and Great Western
and the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and
Indianapolis railroads. The chief productions
in 1870 were 285,019 bushels of wheat, 635,291
of Indian corn, 196,639 of oats, 53,720 of po-
tatoes, 702,090 Ibs. of flax, 337,617 of wool,
439,226 of 'butter, and 29,062 tons of hay.
There were 6,715 horses, 4,897 milch cows,
9,160 other cattle, 89,616 sheep, and 16,800
swine ; 2 manufactories of agricultural imple-
ments, 15 of carriages and wagons, 1 of ma-
chinery, 3 of furniture, 4 tanning and currying
establishments, 15 saw mills, and 3 flour mills.
Capital, Marion. XII. A central county of
Indiana, drained by the West fork of White
river; area, 360 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 71,939.
It has a nearly level surface and fertile soil. A
number of railroads concentrate at the county
seat. The chief productions in 1870 were
613,267 bushels of wheat, 1,305,988 of Indian
corn, 78,246 of oats, 220,885 of potatoes,
37,439 Ibs. of wool, 378,963 of butter, and
17,464 tons of hay. There were 7,483 horses,

6,424 milch cows, 7,705 other cattle, 13,173
sheep, and 27,989 swine. The total number
of manufacturing establishments was 740, hav-
ing a capital of $8,303,185 and an annual
product of $16,642,105. The principal pro-
ducts were leather, boots and shoes, bricks,
carriages, cars, clothing, cooperage, cotton and
woollen goods, furniture, iron and hardware,
machinery, paper, saddlery and harness, tobac-
co and cigars, varnish, planed lumber, flour, and
pork. Capital, Indianapolis, which is also the
capital of the state. XIII. A S. central county
of Illinois, drained by Skillett fork of Little
Wabash river; area, 579 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
20,622. It has an undulating surface and fer-
tile soil. The Illinois Central and the Ohio and
Mississippi railroads intersect it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 173,652 bushels of
wheat, 1,034,057 of Indian corn, 389,446 of
oats, 37,689 of potatoes, 40,285 Ibs. of wool,
81,014 of butter, and 21,242 tons of hay.
There were 6,695 horses, 4,457 milch cows,
7,027 other cattle, 14,511 sheep, and 21,883
swine ; 18 manufactories of carriages, 10 of
saddlery and harness, 6 of tin, copper, and
sheet-iron ware, 3 of machinery, 9 saw mills,
and 11 flour mills. Capital, Salem. XIV. A
S. central county of Iowa, intersected by the
Des Moines river ; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 24,436. The surface is undulating, with
much prairie, and the soil fertile. The Des
Moines Valley railroad passes through it. The
chief productions in 1870 were 374,414 bushels
of wheat, 2,110,900 of Indian corn, 189,331 of
oats, 152,763 of potatoes, 88,820 Ibs. of wool,
499,153 of butter, and 21,522 tons of hay.
There were 8,975 horses, 7,162 milch cows,
12,322 other cattle, 29,074 sheep, and 41,238
swine ; 5 manufactories of carriages and wag-
ons, 2 of woollen goods, 2 flour mills, and 6
saw mills. Capital, Knoxville. XV. A N. E.
county of Missouri, separated by the Missis-
sippi from Illinois, and drained by North and
South Fabius and North Two and South Two
rivers; area, 425 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 23,780, of
whom 3,592 were colored. It has an undulating
surface, mostly prairie, and a very fertile soil.
It is traversed by the Hannibal and St. Joseph,
the Quincy, Missouri, and Pacific, and the
Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroads. The
chief productions in 1870 were 230,822 bushels
of wheat, 305,256 of Indian corn, 158,715 of
oats, 25,936 of potatoes, 33,438 Ibs. of tobacco,
41,481 of wool, 22,700 of butter, and 10,212
tons of hay. There were 6,340 horses, 1,145
mules and asses, 4,306 milch cows, 9,130 other
cattle, 14,976 sheep, and 20,019 swine ; 1 manu-
factory of railroad cars, 2 of machinery, 2 of
tobacco, 1 of woollen goods, 2 iron founderies,
4 breweries, 11 saw mills, and 4 flour mills.
Capital, Palmyra. XVI. An E. central county
of Kansas, watered by Cottonwood river ; area,
1,044 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 768. It is traversed
by the Atchison, Topeka, and Sante Pe" rail-
road. The surface is undulating and the soil
fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were

170

MARION

7,722 bushels of wheat, 20,827 of Indian corn,
1,879 of oats, 1,814 of potatoes, 12,745 Ibs. of
butter, and 3,555 tons of hay. There were
407 horses, 537 milch cows, 2,831 other cattle,
485 sheep, and 291 swine. Capital, Marion
Centre. XVII. A N". W. county of Oregon,
bounded W. by the Willamette river, and wa-
tered by the N. Santiam and other streams;
area, 2,900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,965, of
whom 127 were Chinese. The E. part is
mountainous, bordering on the Cascade range,
and here are extensive forests and deposits of
gold, silver, coal, and iron ; further W. the
surface is hilly, while the S. W. portion is a
broad and level prairie, with a fertile soil. It
is traversed by the Oregon and California
railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were
232,091 bushels of wheat, 164,087 of oats,
37,464 of potatoes, 51,169 Ibs. of wool, 70,838
of butter, and 3,405 tons of hay. There were
1,707 horses, 1,830 milch cows, 2,133 other
cattle, 12,760 sheep, and 6,458 swine; 3 manu-
factories of f drniture, 1 of linseed oil, 2 of
sash, doors, and blinds, 2 of woollen goods, 6
flour mills, and 5 saw mills. Capital, Salem,
which is also the capital of the state.

MARION, a town and the capital of Perry
co., Alabama, on the Selma, Marion, and Mem-
phis railroad, 60 m. "W. by K of Montgomery ;
pop. in 1870, 2,646, of whom 1,455 were col-
ored. It has a savings, insurance, and trust com-
pany, two weekly newspapers, and a monthly
periodical published by the college students,
and is the seat of three institutions of learn-
ing: Howard college (Baptist), founded in
1837 ; Judson female institute (Baptist), and
Marion female seminary, institutions of colle-
giate grade founded in 1836. The college has
a theological department, and in 1873-'4 had 6
professors, 148 students. (40 preparatory, 96
collegiate, and 12 theological), and a library of
1,000 volumes ; Judson institute, 12 instruc-
tors, 133 students (24 preparatory and 109 col-
legiate), and a library of 3,000 volumes; Ma-
rion seminary, 8 instructors, 127 students (25
preparatory and 102 collegiate), and a library
of 1,000 volumes.

MARION, Francis, an American revolutionary
officer, born in Winy aw, near Georgetown, S.
C., in 1732, died near Eutaw, S. 0., Feb. 28,
1795. He was of a Huguenot family which
emigrated from France to South Carolina
about 1690. He received little education, for
which the facilities in his native district were
then very slight. In 1759 he was a volunteer
in, an expedition against the Cherokees, and
i in a cavalry troop commanded by one
of his six brothers. In 1760 and 1761 he was
:I_M'HI in the field on similar expeditions. He
K-d the forlorn hope in the battle of Etchoee,
and was one of the few who escaped. In 1775,
at the outbreak of the revolution, 'he was
rleoh'd to the provincial congress of South
Carolina from St. John's parish, Berkeley.
In the iiiilitjiry organization which ensued, he
was made (June 21, 1775) a captain -in the

regiment of which William Moultrie was col-
onel. Marion's company was one of those de-
spatched from Charleston for the capture of
the British fort Johnson. The place was taken,
and the guns were directed upon the men-of-
war in the harbor. The British shipping was
completely expelled from the harbor by the
cannon from another fort established by Moul-
trie on Haddrell's point. A fortification at
Dorchester was confided to Marion, who was
promoted in his regiment. He was soon sum-
moned thence to the defence of the fort begun
on Sullivan's island, menaced by a powerful
British fleet. It was assailed before it was fin-
ished, but the hostile fleet was repelled with
great loss. In February, 1777, Marion was
despatched with 600 men to the defence of
Georgia, where he served at intervals until the
British with overwhelming forces had gained
possession of the state. Fort Moultrie (Sulli-
van) was again confided to his charge, and he
held this post during Gen. Prevost's attempt
at a coup de main on Charleston (1779). Sub-
sequently he joined the united French and
American forces in the fruitless attack on Sa-
vannah. During the siege of Charleston he
accidentally broke his leg, and was therefore
conveyed with all other invalids out of the
city. As he grew able for service, the Caro-
linas being left almost defenceless, he gath-
ered his neighbors about him and laid the
foundation of that brigade which finally be-
came famous for its partisan successes. Mean-
time Gen. Gates had been despatched by con-
gress to take command of the southern army.
At the approach of the continental forces,
Marion, then a colonel, joined them in North
Carolina; but so wretched were his equip-
ments, and so paltry his numbers, that Gates
remarked only the ridicule which they pro-
voked in the camp, and failed to appreciate
their patriotism and ability. He despatched
Marion on an idle mission to cut up the boats
on the rivers to prevent the escape of the
British. A few days later Gates was defeat-
ed in the battle of Camden (Aug. 16, 1780),
while Marion, waylaying the British guards,
dispersed them and rescued their continental
prisoners. From this period dates the series
of adventurous flights, forages, marches, coun-
termarches, and surprises which distinguished
the brigade of Marion until the establish-
ment of peace. He kept alive the spirit of
patriotism, taught the inexperienced frontier-
man to be both bold and vigilant, how to dis-
cipline himself, and how to arm and support
himself, at a time when the country had no
resources for him. In 1780 Marion was pro-
moted to a brigadiership, and his command
was termed a brigade whether it numbered 20
or 1,200 men. It is impossible to pursue in
detail the progress of so restless and eager a
chieftain in a career marked by so great a va-
riety of action and resource. Even popular
tradition fails to follow him. His camp at
Snow's island, his potato feast to the British

MARION

MARIOTTE

171

officer, his quiet humor when dealing^ with
both friend and foe, his perpetual vigilance
and sudden movements, have all entered into
the legends of the country. Though Snow's
island, a natural fortress of swamps and for-
ests accessible only under good guidance, was
lis favorite hiding place, yet he had other re-
Teats in almost every swamp of Carolina,
where he found ready refuge from a superior
enemy, and whence he could rapidly emerge.
His food was chiefly potatoes and corn; his
only drink was vinegar and water ; for months
he slept without a blanket, and marched with-
out a hat ; and he trained his followers to his
own habit of cheerful endurance. He disci-
plined in his style of warfare many young offi-
cers, who proved in time worthy of their mas-
ter. In December, 1780, Gen. Greene, super-
seding Gates, took command of the southern
army. He was able to appreciate the courage
and services of Marion, who now united his
brigade with the main army or acted separate-
ly, as the occasion or the wishes of the con-
tinental general required. He was Greene's
great resource for obtaining intelligence ; had
his spies in the British camps and garrisons, in
Camden, Charleston, Georgetown, and Savan-
nah ; and was himself almost ubiquitous with
his brigade. He baffled Tarleton, Barfield,
Doyley, Gainey, McArthur, Coffin, and We-
myss, all of whom were in turn or in concert '
despatched for his express capture or defeat.
After Cornwallis had driven Greene's army
out of the state Marion held his ground,
pressed his predatory warfare to the gates of
Charleston, and interrupted the line of com-
munication between the metropolis and all
parts of the interior. Col. Watson with a
picked force was sent to expel or crush him.
Major Gainey, of whom great expectations
were formed, was also sent in pursuit ; yet he
was defeated by Marion, narrowly escaping
with his life. Col. Tyne, whom Marion had
once before defeated, was also on his track,
and was again foiled. Major Mcllraith, sent
with another division to cooperate with Wat-
son, was in close pursuit of him, but he baf-
fled them both, so palpably that Mcllraith was
disgraced. The next auxiliary of Watson was
Col. Doyle, subsequently distinguished as a
British general in India. Each took the field
with a regiment of British, and a large addi-
tional force of loyalists. Unable openly to
meet either division, Marion determined to
prevent their junction. Watson was led into
one ambush after another until, having lost a
large part of his men, he reached Georgetown.
Marion then turned upon Doyle, who made a
precipitate retreat and avoided him. This re-
treat was in part occasioned by the necessities
of Rawdon, who called in his detachments at
the approach of Greene. Being joined by Lee's
legion and supplied with ammunition, Marion
determined to attack Fort Watson on the San-
tee river. It was on high ground, and as he
was without artillery, towers made of logs

were extemporized during the night, and raised
sufficiently high to enable the riflemen to plant
themselves on an elevation equal to that of the
fortress ; and while the sharpshooters plied
their bullets, a storming party scaled the walls,
and the garrison surrendered. Lee then re-
joined Greene, but after the battle of Hobkirk's
Hill aided Marion in investing Fort Motte on
the Congaree. The besiegers again felt the
want of artillery, but Mrs. Motte, the original
owner of the house around which the fort had
been constructed, furnished an Indian bow
with arrows, which, tipped with combustibles,
set fire to the roof over the heads of the gar-
rison, which then capitulated. Marion distin-
guished himself by prudence and humanity su-
perior to his times, and prevented Lee's men
from hanging some of the prisoners. Some
causes of complaint tempted him soon after
to resign his commission and join the main
army under Washington ; but Greene succeed-
ed in dissuading and retaining him, and he was
soon repeating his exploits on the skirts of
Lord Rawdon's forces, and while holding him
in check captured Georgetown. He subse-
quently joined Greene and Sumter in the pur-
suit of Rawdon, till he intrenched himself in
Orangeburg, and declined battle. After the
evacuation of Orangeburg and the departure
of Rawdon for Europe, the forces of Marion
and Sumter swept the country to the gates of
Charleston. He. then resumed his indepen-
dent command in the Santee country, took an
important part in the battle of Eutaw Springs
(Sept. 8, 1781), and pursued the enemy in their
retreat. The British were gradually confined
almost to the walls of Charleston, and the le-
gislature of the state again assembled for the
purpose of restoring civil authority. Marion
steadily refused to engage in any unnecessary
enterprise after the prospect of peace. He
disbanded his brigade soon after the British
fleet and army evacuated Charleston (Dec. 14,
1782), taking a tender farewell of his follow-
ers, and returned to the avocations of a farm-
er almost in poverty. He was subsequently
returned to the senate of the state by the elec-
tors of St. John's parish, Berkeley. In 1784 he
accepted the appointment under the state of
commandant of Fort Johnson, and soon after
married. In 1790 he was a member of the
convention for framing a state constitution,
and in 1794 he resigned his commission as one
of the generals of the state militia. He was
buried at Belle Isle, in the parish of St. John's,
and a slight oblong tomb, the tribute of a pri-
vate citizen, covers the remains of one of the
purest men, truest patriots, and most adroit
generals that American history can boast.

MARIOTTE, Ednie, a French physicist, died
May 12, 1684. The date and place of his birth
are unknown. He was prior of St. Martin-
sur-B.eaune, Dijon, and one of the original
members of the French academy of sciences.
Condorcet says that " Mariotte^ was the first
one in France who introduced into physics a

172

MARIPOSA

observation and doubt, and who in-
spired that scrupulousness and caution so ne-
cessary to those who interrogate nature and in-
terpret her responses." His collected works
were published at Ley den in 1717, and at the
Hague in 1740, in 2 vols. 4to. They contain
papers upon a great variety of subjects in phys-
ics and natural philosophy, and are filled with
accounts of his numerous and ingenious ex-
periments. His principal discoveries were : 1,
the l:i\v in regard to gases, usually called Mari-
otte's law, that, the temperature of a gas re-
maining fixed, its volume varies inversely as
the pressure upon it (see PNEUMATICS) ; 2, that
air exists in liquids, especially in water ; 3, that
the part of the retina where the optic nerve
enters it is insensible to light. He also in-
vented the now common experiment of drop-
ping a coin and a feather in the exhausted re-
ceiver of an air pump, to show that both will
fall through equal distances in equal times.

MARIPOSA, an E. county of California,
drained by the Merced and Mariposa rivers,
affluents of the San Joaquin; area, 1,440 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,572, of whom 1,084 were
Chinese. The surface is mountainous, the E.
part being traversed by the Sierra Nevada;
the soil in the TV. is of great fertility. Gold
abounds throughout the county, being found
in nearly every creek and gulch and in quartz
veins. Three placers and three quartz mines
were in operation in 1870. It contains the
Yosemite falls and the Mammoth Tree grove.
(See CALIFORNIA.) The chief productions in
1870 were 4,275 bushels of wheat, 8,135 of
barley, 1,712 of potatoes, 87,816 Ibs. of wool,
and 2,499 tons of hay. There were 1,110
horses, 923 milch cows, 6,118 other cattle,
18,442 sheep, and 8,577 swine; 1 iron foun-
dery, 2 breweries, 4 saw mills, and 2 quartz
mills. Capital, Mariposa.

MARITZA (anc. Hebrus), a large river of Rou-
melia, European Turkey. It rises on the N". E.
flank of the Despoto Dagh (anc. Ehodope), a
branch of the Balkan mountains, flows E. S. E.
and S. S. TV., and after a course of about 300
in., during which it passes Filibe (Philippopo-
lis) and Adrianople, enters the Grecian archi-
pelago by two mouths.

MARIIS, Cains, a Roman soldier, born near
Arpinum in 157 B. C., died in Rome in 86. His
origin was humble, and his parents are said to
have been clients of the Herennii, an eminent
plebeian family. That he ever labored for
wages may be doubted, and may have been
one of the reports invented to injure him by
the optimates, and accepted by him to make his
elevation seem the greater by contrast with his
original position. Marius had no third name,
or cognomen, nor did he ever win one, not-
withstanding his brilliant military services. A
in Velleius Paterculus, which repre-
M -ins him to be of equestrian birth, is believed
to be an error of some transcriber. Plutarch
\pivly states that his parents were obscure,
and that they gained their living by the labor ;

MARIUS

of their hands. The first mention of him in
history is as a soldier in the army with which
the second Scipio Africanus besieged Nurnantia
in 134, when he was but 23 years old. His bra-
very, his sobriety,. and the readiness with which
he submitted to the severe reforms that Scipio
found it necessary to introduce into the Ro-
man army, attracted the attention and won
the commendation of that great general. The
tradition was, that Marius was so encouraged
by Scipio's words, deeming them to form a di-
vine intimation, that he entered on a political
career; yet it was not until 15 years later that
he achieved his first political success, being
then chosen tribune of the people (119). This
office he obtained through the influence of
Metellus, who belonged to the Csecilian gens,
one of the most distinguished plebeian houses
in Rome. He had previously been unanimous-
ly elected military tribune. As tribune of the
people he introduced a bill calculated to pro-
mote the freedom of elections, which was op-
posed by the optimates, then at the height of
their power, immediately after the fall of Cains
Gracchus; but Marius, by the most vigorous
measures, carried his point, though the oppo-
sition was headed by his patron, the consul
Metellus. He showed his firmness in another
way, by opposing a distribution of corn among
the people, because he believed it*in jurious to
their interests. He sought the curule sedile-
ship, but was forced to withdraw from the
contest ; and he was beaten as a candidate for
the plebeian sedileship. Elected praetor, his
name was the lowest on the list. He was then
proceeded against for bribery, but escaped con-
viction, the votes of his judges being equal-
ly divided. He was prsetor in 115, but did not
leave Italy. As proprietor, the next year, he
served in Further Spain, which he is report-
ed to have cleared of robbers. Shortly after-
ward he married Julia, a sister of the father of
Julius Caesar, who belonged to one of the most
illustrious of the patrician gentes. When Q.
Caecilius Metellus took command of the Roman
army employed against Jugurtha (109), Marius
became one of his legates, and distinguished
himself in the war, being very popular with
the common soldiers, and attracted the atten-
tion of his countrymen at home. He asked
leave of Metellus to go to Rome, that he might
offer himself as a candidate for the consulship ;
but his commander, after first seeking to argue
against his supposed unreasonable ambition,
and then declaring that he could not be spared
from the army, finally refused his request in
an insulting manner. Marius then commenced
intriguing against Metellus, whom he accused
of prolonging the war, which he offered to
bring to a prompt conclusion with one half the
force then employed against Jugurtha. These
things were all known at Rome, where they
increased the popularity of Marius. To get rid
of an enemy, Metellus granted him the permis- .
sion he had asked, but only 12 days before the
time of election. Arriving at Rome, Marius en-

MARIUS

173

3red on the contest at once, and became con-
il in 107, at the age of 50. He did not bear
lis success with meekness, but made use of the
rshest language when speaking of the aristoc-
3y. The province of Numidia was assigned
which made him the successor of Metel-
In levying soldiers he did not confine
imself to the classes whence the legions had
formerly been recruited, but enrolled men from
"e lowest orders, and slaves, which is regard-
as the first of those acts through which the
Ionian armies were led finally to look for law
lore to their commanders than to the state.
[e led his new levies to Africa, where he vigor-
isly waged the war against Jugurtha until the
tter took refuge with Bocchus, king of Mau-
'itania, who betrayed him to Sulla, the quaestor
Marius (106). This caused Sulla to claim
le merit of having closed the war, and so laid
e foundation of a personal quarrel destined
have memorable consequences. Marius re-
mained two years longer in Numidia, bringing
the country into order and establishing the
Roman government there. "While thus en-
gaged, he was elected consul without opposi-
tion, the approach of the Teutons and Cimbri
and the Ambrones, who had destroyed several
Roman armies, having caused great fear in
Italy, and drawn all men's minds to the con-
clusion that power could be intrusted to no
one but the conqueror of Numidia. His Ju-
gurthine triumph took place Jan. 1, 104, the
first day of his second consulship. Jugurtha
walked in the procession, and afterward was
thrown into a dungeon and starved to death.
The barbarians not appearing in Italy, Marius
employed the time in effecting reforms in the
army, and in disciplining the newly raised
troops. His discipline was severe, but the im-
partiality of his conduct made him a favorite
with the men, who had the utmost confidence
in his ability and good fortune. He was cho-
sen consul a third time for the year 103. The
enemy still remaining in Spain, the aristocrati-
cal party determined to oppose his reelection ;
but the people supported him, and he was ele-
vated a fourth time. This year he encountered
the Teutons and Ambrones in Gaul, totally
destroying them in a great battle fought near
Aquae Sextiae, the modern Aix. Just after the
battle Marius received news that he had been
elected consul for the fifth time. Meantime
the Cimbri, who had separated from their al-
lies, had penetrated into Italy, where the ter-
ror of their name caused the army of Catulus,
the other consul, to fly before them. Marius
was recalled to Rome. Refusing the triumph
offered him by the senate until the Cimbri
should be conquered, he joined the army of
Catulus, with which the troops who had con-
quered the Teutons were now united. On
July 30, 10-1, the Cimbri were annihilated in
a pitched battle, fought on a plain called the
Campi Raudii, near Yercellae, the modern Ver-
celli. The victory was really due to Marius,
though his enemies sought to give the credit

of it to Catulus, who was then proconsul ; but
the Romans were so convinced that they owed
their deliverance to the consul, that among
other high honors they gave him the title of
third founder of the state, thus ranking him
with Romulus and Camillus. His triumph was
brilliant, and Catulus was allowed to share in
it. For the sixth time he was chosen consul ;
but the good fortune which he had experienced
in the field deserted him in the city, where his
ignorance of civil life led him into various mis-
takes, which caused his popularity to decline as
rapidly as it had risen. The aristocracy art-
fully placed him in opposition to the tribune
Saturninus, who was his instrument and asso-
ciate, and whom he had to proceed against to
the tribune's ruin and death. He entrapped
his old enemy Metellus into a position that
caused him to be banished. So low had Marius
sunk by the time his sixth consulship was draw-
ing to a close, that he durst not become a can-
didate for the censorship. The next year (99)
he visited Asia, where he sought to rouse Mith-
ridates to make war on Rome, being confident
that he should recover his popularity when
once more placed at the head of an army. He
was chosen augur during his absence. After
his return to Rome, he did not rise in popular
esteem; he could obtain no command in the
East, and Sulla, who had supplanted him in
the popular favor, exasperated him by his con-
duct. The Mauritanian king had set up in the
capitol figures showing the surrender of Ju-
gurtha to Sulla. Marius was making prepara-
tions to pull down these figures, and Sulla to
resist him, when, in 90, the social or Marsic
war broke out, which threatened the subversion
of the Roman power in Italy. Both Marius
and Sulla had to contend against the confed-
erate Italians in the social war, and both did so
with success. It was thought, however, that
the exploits of Sulla were the more striking,
but it is certain that Marius twice defeated the
Marsi, the most warlike of all the allies, and
whose name furnished to the Romans a title
for the war. He returned to Rome after these
victories, avowedly because of his inability to
encounter the fatigues of the service. He w r as
67 years old, and had grown fat and unwieldy.
After this war had been finished, the rivalry
of Marius and Sulla was resumed. War against
Mithridates having been commenced, Marius
sought the command in the East. He fre-
quented the Campus Martius, and went through
exercises appropriate to the young, in order to
show that he was equal to the fatigues of war.
He failed, and Sulla was appointed to the office
he sought (88). Marius now procured the
passage of a law to distribute the Italian allies,
who had been admitted to the Roman fran-
chise, among all the tribes, so that they should
control the old citizens. His tool was P.
Sulpicius Rufus, a tribune, and he was suc-
cessful, though not without having resort to
violence. The Italians then conferred the
eastern command upon Marius ; but Sulla, who

MARIUS

had joined the army destined to act against
Mith'ridutes, incited it to resistance, marched
to Rome, and compelled Marius and his friends
to fly, they having no force to send against
him. Marius vainly endeavored to raise an
army by offering freedom to all slaves who
should join him. He then sought to reach
Africa, but was compelled by bad weather
and want of provisions to land in Italy, near
which he was coasting. Taking refuge in a
wood, and suffering from cold and hunger,
he predicted that he should yet receive a
seventh consulship. He told his compan-
ions that in his childhood a nest with seven
eaglets in it had fallen into his lap, and that
the soothsayers had prophesied to his pa-
rents that he should seven times enjoy su-
preme power. Flying from immediate pur-
suit, he and his company were forced to swim
to two merchant vessels, the crews of which
refused to give them up, but afterward made
them land at the mouth of the Liris. Here,
while concealed in a marsh, Marius was found
by his pursuers, and imprisoned at MinturnaB.
A Cimbric soldier was ordered to despatch
him, but was so affected by the old man's
look and language that he lost courage, and
declared that he could not kill Caius Marius.
The people of the town rose in his favor,
and furnished him with a vessel, in which he
sailed to Africa, meeting with many dangers
on the way. He landed at Carthage, where a
message was sent him by the Roman prrotor,
ordering him to leave the country. His answer
was : " Tell the prtor that you have seen
Caius Marius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of
Carthage;" a reply, says Plutarch, in which he
not inaptly compared the fate of that city and
his own changed fortunes. He was soon com-
pelled to leave, and went with his son to the
island of Cercina. Meantime a revolution had
taken place in Italy, where the consul Cinna,
who was of the Marian party, had placed him-
self in opposition to the Sullan faction, head-
ed by his colleague Octavius. The latter, after
a severe struggle, expelled Cinna from Rome,
who raised a large army, composed of the new
citizens. Marius, on hearing of this, returned
to Italy, and on landing proclaimed freedom to
the slaves, and sent to Cinna, offering to obey
him as consul. Cinna accepted the offer, and
named him proconsul. This office Marius
would not accept, saying its title and insignia
were not suited to one in his state. One idea,
that of vengeance, alone had possession of his
mind. Rome was soon compelled to surrender
to the army headed by Cinna and Marius. The
foriiior was disposed to proceed mildly, but
Marius had other intentions. At first he re-
fused to enter the city until the comitia repealed
the law under which he had been banished ;
but wliiK- the voting for that purpose was go-
ing on, he entered at the head of his guards,
who were composed of the slaves by whom he
had been joined, and an immediate massacre of
the anti-Marians was begun. The slaughter

MARJORAM

was continued for several days, and among its
victims were many of the noblest of the Ro-
mans. Cinna and Marius declared themselves
consuls for the next year, 86. But though
Marius had thus irregularly obtained his seventh
consulship, he did not long enjoy it, dying on
its 18th day, from illness brought on by age,
fatigue, and care. The statement that his mind
was disordered by fear of Sulla's return is
probably one of the libels of the Sullan party.
After the triumph of Sulla, the ashes of Marius
were thrown into the Anio, by order of the
victor. The representative and leader, though
perhaps not in strictness the founder, of the
party which bears his name in the subsequent
history of the Roman republic, and which he
was clearly incompetent to conduct to success,
his character has probably suffered, like that
of other party chiefs, at the hands of his ene-
mies. No Roman ever rendered greater ser-
vices to the state, and no Roman ever rose so
high, to fall so low, with the single exception
of Pompey, who in the next generation headed
the opposite party.

MARIVAIIX, Pierre Carlet de Chainblain do, a
French author, born in Paris in 1688, died
there, Feb. 12, 1763. He wrote about 30
comedies, the greater part for the Italian thea-
tre, and now seldom performed. Among the
best are Le jeu de V amour et du hasard, the
author's dramatic masterpiece, and Lesfawses
confidences. He is now known chiefly by his
romances, La me de Mariane and Le paysan
parvenu. He also wrote Le spectateur fran-
fois and Le philosophe indigent, distinguished
by an eccentric and affected style, called after
him marivaudage. He was elected a member
of the French academy in 1743, Voltaire being
a rival candidate.

MARJORAM, the common name of plants of
the genus origanum, in the natural order la-
fiiatce, having nearly entire leaves and purplish
or whitish flowers crowded in cylindrical or
oblong spikes, which are imbricated with fre-
quently colored bracts. About 25 species are
enumerated, of which the most common in the
gardens is the sweet marjoram (0. majorand),
native of Barbary and middle Asia. It is a
clean, pretty, low, bushy plant, usually treated
as an annual, but properly a perennial. The
fragrant leaves and buds, being carefully dried,
are pulverized by rubbing them in the hands,
and are employed by cooks as a seasoning for
forced-meat balls, stuffing, soups, &c. On ac-
count of the compact clusters or heads, it is
in some localities known as knotted marjoram.
The wild marjoram (0. vulgare) has become
sparingly naturalized in the United States, ad-
ventitiously introduced from Europe. It can
be found occasionally upon dry banks and sunny
slopes. Its flowers are very pretty, appearing
in the months of July and August. Essential
oils may be extracted from either of the spe-
cies mentioned above, but the oil which is now
known in commerce as oil of origanum has been
shown to be really derived from the thymus

MARK

175

vulgaris, a mint growing in the south of France.
This is sometimes used as an external irritant,
especially in veterinary practice, and, like many

Marjoram.

other volatile oils, will allay toothache when
introduced into a carious cavity. Internally
it is a stimulant, but has no great value.

MARK, Saint, the evangelist, according to the
opinion of most theologians, identical with
John Mark, mentioned in the Acts (xii. 12,
25). By comparing the passages of the New
Testament relating to both Mark and John
Mark, we learn the following facts of his life.
He was the son of a certain Mary, who pos-
sessed a house at Jerusalem which served the
Christians as a place of refuge. About the
time when James the Elder was executed, he
left Jerusalem with Paul and Barnabas, his
kinsman (A. D. 42), went to Antioch, and from
there to Cyprus and Asia Minor, but sepa-
rated from them at Perga, in order to return
to Jerusalem. Paul blamed this conduct ; and
when later Barnabas proposed to take Mark
along on a new missionary tour, Paul objected,
and Barnabas and Mark undertook a journey
of their own. But we find him again as a
friend and fellow laborer of Paul during the
first captivity of the latter. It appears that
both intended, after the end of the captivity,
to visit the Christians of Asia Minor. Mark
probably executed this design, for Paul re-
quests timothy (2 Tim. iv. 11) to bring Mark
to Eome. He was with the apostle Peter,
near Babylon (which, according to many in-
terpreters, designates Rome), when that apos-
tle wrote his first epistle. According to the
testimony of the ancient church, Mark was in
a particularly intimate relation to the apostle
Peter, who employed him as secretary in the
same way as Titus was employed by Paul.
After the death of Peter, Mark is said to have
me to Egypt, and especially to Alexandria, to
lave collected congregations there and in the
533 VOL. XL 12

neighborhood, to have been the first bishop of
Alexandria, and, finally, to have suffered mar-
tyrdom there. He is the patr.on saint of Ven-
ice, which city claims to possess his body. His
festival is celebrated in the Roman Catholic
church on April 25. The Gospel of Mark is
distinguished from the three others by being
more exclusively historical, and excluding long-
er didactic portions, such as 'the sermon on
the mount. All the facts recorded in it may
be found also in Matthew or Luke, and only
27 verses belong exclusively to Mark ; a cir-
cumstance which has given rise to wide differ-
ences of opinion concerning the position of
Mark in relation to the other two. Augustine
advanced the opinion that Matthew wrote first,
that Mark wrote an abridgment of the Gospel
of Matthew, and that Luke in writing his Gos-
pel made use of both Matthew and Mark. This
view continued to prevail among exegetical
writers until the 18th century, when the ques-
tion of priority of composition among the three
synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke)
became the subject of vehement controversy,
every possible combination finding its defend-
ers. Eichhorn in 1794 advanced the theory
that all the three synoptic Gospels of our can-
on had made use of a primitive Gospel (Ur-
Evangelium), no longer extant. Many Ger-
man critics assume a primitive Gospel of Mark
( Ur-Marlcus), of which the Gospel in our canon
is a revised and enlarged copy. Among the
prominent defenders of this view are Ewald
(1849), Scholten (1867), Volkmar (1870), and
"Weiss (1872). Others have advanced similar
views with regard to Matthew and Luke. Most
of these writers agree in regarding the Gospel
of Luke as the latest of the synoptic Gospels in
their present form ; the most notable exception
being Keim, who (in his " Life of Jesus ") main-
tains that the Gospel of Mark is the latest of
the three. The defenders of the originality of
the Gospel of Mark in its present form gener-
ally place the time of its compilation between
the death of the apostles Peter and Paul and
the destruction of Jerusalem. Rome is almost
unanimously regarded as the place where it
was written. The evangelist undoubtedly used
the Greek language ; a note to the Syrian trans-
lation, stating that the Gospel was compiled in
Latin, received for a time wide currency among
Roman Catholic scholars through the support
of Baronius, but it has been almost entirely
discarded since the time of Richard Simon.
Doubts are entertained also by prominent the-
ologians of the orthodox school whether the
last 12 verses are by Mark, or were added after
his death ; in support of the latter view it is
adduced that Jerome, Gregory of Nyssa, and
other fathers expressly mention that the Gos-
pel closed with the words, "For they were
afraid " (xvi. 8) ; in favor of the other, that all
the Latin and Syrian manuscripts have these
verses. For commentaries on Mark, see the
collective works on the Gospels mentioned in
the article LUKE. Commentaries on Mark

176

MARK ANTONY

alone have been published, among others, by J.
A. Alexander (New York, 1858), Klostermann,
Dat Marlcus-Evangelium (Gottingen, 1868),
and Weiss, Das Markus-Evangelium und seine
gynoptischen Parallelen (Berlin, 1872). Ac-
counts of the modern discussions about the
origin and history of the Gospel of Mark may
be found in Wilke, Der Urevangelist (Leipsic,
1838), F. C. Baur, Das Marlcus-Evangelium
(Tubingen, 1851), and in the commentaries of
Klostermann and Weiss. A full account of
the literature on the subject is given by Se-
vin in ErUarung der drei ersten Evangelien
(Wiesbaden, 1873).

MARK ANTONY. See ANTONY.

MARKHAM, Clements Robert, an English geog-
rapher, born at Stillingfleet, near York, July
20, 1830. He was educated at Westminster
school, and entered the navy in 1844. In 1846
he was appointed naval cadet on board a vessel
on the Pacific station, and, having passed for
a lieutenant, left the navy in 1851. In 1850
-'51 he served in the expedition in search of
Sir John Franklin, and in 1852-'4 explored the
forests of the eastern Andes. In 1855 he be-
came clerk in the board of control, and in
1858 secretary of the Hakluyt society. Be-
tween 1859 and 1866 he again went to Peru
and twice visited India, where he introduced
the cultivation of the cinchona tree. In 1863
he was made secretary of the royal geographi-
cal society, and in 1867 assistant secretary in
the India office, receiving charge of its geo-
graphical department in 1868. In the latter year
he was appointed geographer to the Abyssinian
expedition, and was present at the storming
of Magdala. Besides many translations for
the Hakluyt society and papers in the journal
of the royal geographical society, he has pub-
lished " Franklin's Footsteps " (1852) ; ' Cuzco
and Lima " (1856) ; " Travels in Peru and In-
dia" (1862); "Quichua Grammar and Dic-
tionary " (1863) ; " Spanish Irrigation " (1867) ;
" History of the Abyssinian Expedition "
(1869); "Life of the Great Lord Fairfax"
(1870); Ollanta, a Quichua Drama" (1871);
"Memoir on the Indian Surveys" (1871); a
translation, printed by the Hakluyt society,
of the "Reports on the Conquest of Peru"
(1872); "The Threshold of the Unknown
Regions" (1873); and a "General Sketch of
the History of Persia" (1874). He is the
editor of the " Geographical Magazine."

MARKIRCH, or Mariakirrli (Fr. Ste. Marie-aux-
Minei), a town of Alsace-Lorraine, Germany,
22m. N. W. of Colmar; pop. in 1871, 12,319.
It is one of the most flourishing centres of Al-
satian industry. Among the principal branch-
es of manufacture are silk, wool, and cotton
weaving, dyeing, and bleaching. The valley
of Markirch is one of the most picturesque of
Alsace. There are lead and copper mines in
the neighboring mountains. The town is of
recent origin.

MARL, a clay containing a large proportion
of carbonate of lime, sometimes 40 to 50 per

MARLBOROUGH

cent. If the marl consists largely of shells or
fragments of shells, it is called shell marl. In
New Jersey the layers of greensand are very
generally known as marl beds, a name more
correctly applied to the tertiary beds made up
of marine fossil shells which are found near
the coast of the middle and southern states,
and are employed for fertilizing the soil. In
the northern states rich marl deposits are often
found at the bottom of ponds, in the form of a
thin white mud filled with minute fresh-water
shells of living species. (See GREENSAND.)

MARLBOROUGH, a N. E. county of South
Carolina, bordering on North Carolina, bound-
ed W. by the Great Pedee river, and watered
by its affluents ; area, 505 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 11,814, of whom 6,668 were colored.
The surface is level and the soil productive.
The chief productions in 1870 were 6,321
bushels of wheat, 158,088 of Indian corn, 20,-
748 of oats, 17,894 of peas and beans, 42,356
of sweet potatoes, 17,677 Ibs. of rice, and
8,843 bales of cotton. There were 916 horses,
919 mules and asses, 1,637 milch cows, 2,907
other cattle, 974 sheep, and 8,370 swine. Cap-
ital, Bennettsville.

MARLBOROUGH, a town of Middlesex co.,
Massachusetts, on a branch of the Fitchburg
railroad, and on the Boston, Clinton, and
Fitchburg railroad, 25 m. W. of Boston, and
15 m. E. N. E. of Worcester ; pop. in 1870,
8,474. It is built on numerous hills, and con-
tains within its limits Lake Williams, a beau-
tiful sheet of water covering 160 acres. It
has a handsome soldiers' monument of granite,
a brick town hall costing $87,000, three ho-
tels, gas works, and a good fire department.
There are 25 boot and shoe manufactories, of
which several are very extensive ; a national
bank, a savings bank, a high school, 36 public
schools, four evening schools, five private
schools, a public library of 5,000 volumes,
two weekly newspapers, and seven churches.
Marlborough was incorporated in 1661.

MARLBOROUGH, a town and parliamentary
borough of Wiltshire, England, on the Kennet
river, 75 m. W. by S. of London ; pop. in 1871,
5,034. It consists chiefly of one wide street.
There is a royal free grammar school, found-
ed by Edward VI. A castle existed in the
days of Richard I., and a parliament was held
there under Henry III., passing laws which
were known as the statutes of Malbridge or
Marlberge. The site was subsequently occu-
pied by a noble mansion, at a later period by
an inn, and is now part of Marlborough col-
lege. This institution dates from 1843, and is
intended for 500 pupils, two thirds of whom
must be sons of clergymen. A laboratory and
science lecture room were established in 1875.
The town has considerable trade in local manu-
facturing, agricultural, and dairy products, but
has lost the importance which it had before
the opening of the Great Western railway,
when it was one of the principal posting sta-
tions between London, Bath, and Bristol.

MARLBOROUGH

177

MiRLBOROUGH, John Churchill, duke of, a
British general, born at Ashe, in Devonshire,
June 24, 1650. died in London, June 16, 1722.

le was the son of Sir Winston Churchill, a

Dyalist of some note, who procured for him
place of page to the duke of York, short-
after the restoration. His education was

ight, but he was a favorite with the duke,

rho made him an ensign in the guards at the
of 16. He served at Tangiers against
Moors, and in the auxiliary force which

)harles II. sent to aid the French in their at-
3k on Holland, where he won the praise of
irenne by his courage and capacity. Louis

[IV. made him a colonel, and on his return
England after the peace of Nimeguen the

Luke of York gave him high appointments in
household. He owed his advancement as

mch to the influence of his sister Arabella as
to his own merits, she being the mistress of
the duke of York. He was engaged in not a
few intrigues of gallantry, and is said to have
jumped from the window of the chamber of the
duchess of Cleveland, one of the most notori-
ous of the king's mistresses, to avoid the king.
The lady rewarded him by the present of
5,000, with which he purchased an annuity
of 500 a year. In 1678 he married Sarah
Jennings, a young woman of good family, in
the service of the duchess of York, who be-
came famous for her talents and imperious
temper. He received military promotion, and
was made Lord Churchill in the peerage of
Scotland ; and soon after, on the marriage of
the princess Anne with Prince George of Den-
mark (1683), Lady Churchill was made chief
lady of her bedchamber. The ladies had been
friends for some time, though no two persons
could be more unlike; Anne being as dull,
heavy, and yielding as Sarah was lively, change-
able, and imperious. They corresponded,
when unavoidably separated, under the names
of Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman. The in-
fluence thus established lasted for more than
a quarter of a century, and would have ended
only with Anne's life if Lady Churchill had
known how to govern her temper. On the
duke of York becoming James II., Churchill
was made general and baron of Sandridge,
and was sent as ambassador to France. On
the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, he
performed important military services, and
the victory of Sedgemoor was due to him.
He was not conspicuous during the reign of
James II., and was opposed to the policy of
that prince ; but his opposition was not of a
demonstrative character, and down to the last
moment he enjoyed the king's confidence. The
influence of his wife over Anne was used with
effect to keep the princess opposed to her fa-
ther's policy, and in 1687 Churchill communi-
cated that fact to William of Orange. On the
landing of William, Churchill was made a lieu-
tenant general, and appointed to an important
command. He induced Lord Cornbury, son
of the earl of Clarendon and brother-in-law of

James, to join William, and soon followed
him, accompanied by several military men,
and by the duke of Grafton, an illegitimate
son of Charles II. His example was followed
by Prince George of Denmark, while Lady
Churchill found no difficulty in persuading
Anne to leave London, and to join the north-
ern insurgents. The influence of the Church-
ills was employed to induce Anne to waive
her superior claim to the throne over William.
For this Lord Churchill received valuable ap-
pointments, and was made earl of Marlbor-
ough. In the subsequent disputes between
William and Anne he sided with the latter.
He was sent in 1689 to command the British
forces in the Low Countries, and repulsed the
French at Walcourt. The next year he led an
army to Ireland, and took Cork and Kinsale.
He early began a correspondence with the ex-
iled king, and completely deceived him. His
object was not to aid James, but to overthrow
William III., place Anne at the head of the
nation, and rule her and England through his
wife. In 1692 he was dismissed from his em-
ployments, and sent to the tower, where he
remained for some time. He sent to James
an account of the expedition against Brest,
which enabled the French to defeat the Eng-
lish with great slaughter, one of his objects
being to ruin Talmash, a military rival, who
lost his life on the occasion. After the death
of Queen Mary, Marlborough was restored to
favor, and made governor to the duke of
Gloucester, Anne's son. At the beginning of
the war of the Spanish succession he was ap-
pointed commander of the forces in Holland,
and ambassador to that country. He was very
successful as a diplomatist, and the king, in
anticipation of his death, recommended him
to Anne as one most competent to advise and
command. When Anne became queen reg-
nant (1702), Marlborough was made captain
general and master of the ordnance, and a
knight of the garter. Lady Marlborough re-
ceived several valuable appointments in the
royal household, and two of her daughters
were made ladies of the bedchamber. Through
his own influence with Godolphin, the prime
minister, who was his son-in-law, and that of
his wife with the queen, Marlborough now
practically ruled the kingdom. As ambassa-
dor to Holland, he completed the arrange-
ments for the declaration of war against
France, and was appointed generalissimo of
the armies of the grand alliance, when he
entered upon a surprising career of victory.
After various successes, the campaign of Blen-
heim, in cooperation with Prince Eugene, took
place in the summer of 1704, and on Aug. 13
the battle of that name was won. He had
previously been made a duke, and now the
manor and honor of Woodstock were conferred
upon him, and the queen ordered that a palace
should be there built for him, to be called Blen-
heim. He was successful in the operations of
1705, when the German emperor conferred

178

MARLBOROUGH

upon him the lordship of Mindelheim, with the
title of prince. The battle of Ramillies was
won May 23, 1706. Other successes marked
this campaign, and the duke received a pension
of 5,000, and other rewards. The campaign
of 1707 was marked by no striking event where
Marlborough commanded; but on July 11,
1708, he won the battle of Oudenarde. Lille
was taken the same year. Efforts to restore
peace having failed, the war was resumed,
and on Sept, 11, 1709, Marlborough, aided by
Eugene, won the battle of Malplaquet, the most
sanguinary and hardly contested of all his vic-
tories. His last campaign, in 1711, when he
captured the fortress of Bouchain, was the
most brilliant and effective of all. In the
mean time great changes had taken place in
England. The war had been commenced by
a tory ministry, though it was to support
whig views. Gradually everything changed.
Godolphin became a whig, and the great of-
fices passed into whig hands. In 1707 the
change was complete, though the queen's sym-
pathies were with the tones. The duchess of
Marlborough, who was a whig at the time
her husband was a tory, bent all her energies
to the support of the ministry, and if her tact
had equalled her talent that ministry might
have lasted through the queen's life. But the
queen at length became weary of her imperi-
ous sway, and Mrs. Masham, a cousin of the
duchess, whom she had placed in the service
of the queen, was used by Robert Harley as a
tool to effect her downfall. The ministry of
Godolphin was overthrown (1710), the duchess
was dismissed, and Harley, as earl of Oxford,
became the head of a tory cabinet (1711). This
was followed by the removal of Marlborough
from all his offices (Jan. 1, 1712). It was even
intended to proceed against him legally on a
charge of embezzling the public money. Gov-
ernment ceased to pay the cost of building
Blenheim, and that palace was completed out
of the funds of the duke. The German gov-
ernment treated him with equal ingratitude, as
his principality had been lost through the res-
toration of the elector of Bavaria. At the
close of 1712 he left England, and visited Flan-
ders and Germany, residing principally at Aix-
la-Chapelle, Frankfort, and Antwerp. The
ill treatment he had received from the tones
caused him to become a firm friend of the
Hanoverian succession. He corresponded with
the elector, offered him a large loan, and used
his influence with Holland in behalf of the
Protestant succession. He returned to Eng-
land on the very day of the accession of the
house of Hanover, and was well received by
the people, the nobility, and the array. He
was appointed a privy councillor, and on the
arrival of George I. was made captain general
of the army and master of the ordnance. He
was prompt in his measures during the rebellion
of 1715 ; but it is said that he sent money to
the pretender. His health was now on the de-
cline, and he experienced more than one par-

MARLOWE

alytic shock. Still his mental powers were not
affected. He attended parliament even in the
last year of his life, and also performed his
various military duties. He offered to resign
his offices, but the king would not hear of
it. He was seized with palsy in June, 1722, at
Windsor lodge, and died eight days before the
completion of his 72d year. He had a mag-
nificent funeral, and his body was deposited
in Westminster abbey, whence it was removed
to Blenheim, and placed in a noble mauso-
leum, the work of Rysbrack. The duke left
no son, and his title passed to his eldest daugh-
ter, Henrietta, countess of Godolphin, from
whom it descended to her nephew, Charles
Spencer, earl of Sunderland. He left enormous
wealth, his income at the time of his death
being 70,000, exclusive of what he drew from
royal gifts. He was doubtless the most adroit
statesman an'd most successful commander of
his time. The duchess survived him 22 years.
Though there is much exaggeration in the or-
dinary accounts of her violence and quarrels,
it is undeniable that her life was not of that
dignified character which would have been be-
coming in one of her station. She could be
liberal, and aided Child, the banker, whom the
bank of England was seeking to ruin, by giving
him an order on that institution for 100,000.
She gave Hooke 5,000 for assisting to write
her "Account" of her conduct while at court.
She died Oct. 18, 1744, in her 85th year. Her
immense wealth was left principally to Charles,
duke of Marlborough, and to his brother, John
Spencer. Among her bequests was one of
20,000 to Lord Chesterfield, and another of
10,000 to the elder Pitt. In 1845-'6 the " Let-
ters and Despatches of the Duke of Marlbor-
ough" were published in 5 vols. 8vo, edited
by Sir George Murray. The best biographies
of the duke of Marlborough are by Coxe, " Me-
moirs of John, Duke of Marlborough " (3 vols.
4to, London, 1817-'19, and 3 vols. 8vo, 1848),
and Alison, "Life of John, Duke of Marlbor-
ough" (2 vols., London, 1847). The "Life of
the Duchess of Marlborough " has been writ-
ten by Mrs. A. T. Thomson (2 vols., London,
1839), and by Miss Costello, in vol. iv. of
"Eminent Englishwomen" (1844).

MARLIANI, Anrelio, count, an Italian com-
poser, born in Lombardy about 1803, killed in
Bologna in June, 1849. He joined the car-
bonari, lost his fortune in their service, and
was obliged to take refuge in Paris. There he
became a teacher of singing, and Julia Grisi
was his pupil. After the revolution of 1848
he returned to Italy, and took up arms with the
revolutionists. He composed many songs and
romances and several operas, the best known
of which, Le bravo, was produced at Paris in
1834 and at Vienna in 1835.

MARLITT, E. See JOHN, EUGEXIE.

MARLOWE, Christopher, or Kit, an English
dramatic poet, born in Canterbury in 1564,
killed in Deptford, June 16, 1593. His father,
a shoemaker, obtained for him admission into

MARMARA

MARMONT

179

King's school, Canterbury. He was after-
ward entered as a pensioner of Corpus Christi
college, Cambridge, where he received the de-
gree of bachelor of arts in 1583 and of mas-
in 1587. In 1586 he produced the first part
his tragedy of " Tamburlaine," which ex-
bits more action on the stage, a more drama-
dialogue, and a far more varied and skilful
rsification, than any English play which had
ceded it ; but it was ridiculed for its bom-
ic style and extravagant scenes. It was
rinted with a second part in 1590. His sec-
ond play was the " Tragical History of the
Life and Death of Dr. Faustus," a powerful
though irregular drama, its poetical beauties
being often intermingled with low buffooneries.
" e hero makes a pact with Lucifer, to whom
disposes of his soul on condition of having
familiar spirit and unlimited /power at his
mmand for 24 years. The awful melancholy
the fiend, as contrasted with the malignant
irth of Goethe's Mephistopheles, the strug-
es of awakened conscience in the hero, and
splendid horror of the termination, are its
ost striking features. The German puppet
ly constructed from this drama was the f oun-
,tion of Goethe's great tragedy, which con-
sequently in the opening has a striking resem-
blance to Marlowe's. "The Jew of Malta"
has more- vigorous passages than are to be
found in any other Elizabethan play except
those of Shakespeare. His "Edward II." con-
tains a death scene which Charles Lamb says
"moves pity and terror beyond any scene, an-
cient or modern." Several other plays of
doubtful authorship have been attributed to
him, and it is probable that the second and
third parts of Henry VI. in Shakespeare were
mostly written by Marlowe. He also made
translations from Ovid, so licentious that the
archbishop of Canterbury ordered them to be
burned, yet they have been often reprinted.
He is supposed to have been an actor as well
as playwright, led a dissipated life, is stated to
have held atheistical opinions, though there is
no proof of this in his plays, and died from a
wound received in a disgraceful quarrel. An
edition of his works by Alexander Dyce was
published in London in 1850, in 3 vols.
MARMARA, Sea of. See MARMORA.
MARMAROS, a N". E. county of Hungary, bor-
dering on Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania,
and the counties of Bereg, Ugocsa, and Szat-
mar ; area, 3,998 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 220,506,
including about 100,000 Ruthenians, 50,000
Wallachs, 20,000 Jews, 15,000 Magyars, and
3,000 Germans. The United Greek church is
the most numerous, there being only about
15,000 Roman Catholics and 6,000 Protestants.
Marmaros is next to Bihar and Pesth the lar-
gest county of Hungary, but far more thinly
populated. The Carpathians separate it from
Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania, and trav-
erse it in many directions, the highest peaks
rising to an altitude of 7,000 ft. At the foot
of Mt. Csorna rises the Black Theiss, which

joins the White Theiss in this county. Iron,
lead, marble, alabaster, coal, and crystals are
found, and in a few localities also gold. The
Marmaros diamonds are celebrated. The salt
mines are immense. The Suliguli is the most
important of the mineral springs. The forests
are rich in wood, especially oak. Horses and
sheep are raised in great numbers. Excepting
the limited valley of the Theiss, the country
does not favor the production of cereals, fruits,
and wine, and maize is the principal grain raised
for local consumption. Capital, Sziget.

MARMIER, Xavier, a French author, born at
Pontarlier, June 24, 1809. He studied the
German and other foreign languages, and be-
came editor of the Revue Germanique. From
1836 to 1838 he explored northern Europe, on
board of a national ship of war, and was pro-
fessor at Rennes from 1839 to 1841, when he
received the appointment of librarian in the
ministry of education, which permitted him to
travel in the East, in North and South Amer-
ica, and in other countries. In 1846 he was
placed in charge of the Ste. Genevieve library,
and in 1870 was elected to the academy. He
has translated Goethe's and Schiller's plays and
other German works, and published miscel-
laneous writings, some of which relate to the
history, language, and literature of Iceland,
Denmark, and Sweden. His best novels, Les
fiances du Spitzberg (Paris, 1858) and Gazida
(1860), received academical prizes. Among
his books of travel are : Lettres sur le Nord,
Danemark, Suede, Laponie, Spitzberg (1840;
5th ed., 1847) ; Du Rhin au Nil (2 vols., 1847) ;
Lettres sur la Russie, la Finlande ft la Pologne
(2 vols., 1848) ; Lettres sur VAmerique (2 vols.,
1852); Lettres sur V Adriatique et le Monte-
negro (2 vols., 1854); Voyage pittoresque en
Allemagne (2 vols., 1858-'9) ; En Amerique et
en Europe (1859) ; and Souvenirs d'un voya-
geur (1867). Among his more recent publica-
tions is the story book, VArbre de Noel (1871).

MARMONT, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse de, duke
of Ragusa, a marshal of France, born in Cha-
tillon-sur-Seine, July 20, 1774, died in Venice,
Feb. 28, 1852. He was descended from an
ancient family, and at 15 years of age entered
a regiment of infantry as sub-lieutenant. Three
years afterward he was transferred to the ar-
tillery ; and having fallen under the notice of
Bonaparte, he was in 1796 appointed his first
aide-de-camp, in which capacity he served with
distinction in the two Italian campaigns. He
accompanied the expedition to Egypt, and
for his good conduct at the investment of
Malta was appointed a general of brigade. He
returned with Bonaparte to France, and for
his cooperation on the 18th Brumaire was ap-
pointed commander-in-chief of the artillery in
the army of reserve. The successful trans-
portation of the French artillery over the Great
St. Bernard in the spring of 1800 was in a
great measure due to his exertions ; and the
skill with which he managed his batteries at
Marengo procured him the rank of general of

180

MARMONT

division. He participated with credit in the
campaign of 1805 in Germany, and in 1806 was
made commander-in-chief of the forces in Dal-
matia, where he remained till 1809. For his
successful defence of Ragusa against a greatly
superior force of Russians and Montenegrins,
Sept. 30, 1806, he subsequently received the
title of duke of Ragusa. After the battle of
Aspern and Essling (May 21, 22, 1809) he
brought up his corps in good order to the as-
sistance of the emperor, defeating on the way
superior bodies of Austrians in several en-
counters ; and for his conduct at the battle of
Wagram and in the subsequent pursuit of the
enemy, he was created a marshal of the em-
pire. In 1811 he was sent to relieve Massena
in Portugal, and he ended a series of unfor-
tunate movements by losing the battle of Sala-
manca, which ruined the French cause in the
Peninsula. Having recovered from a severe
wound received on this occasion, he joined the
emperor in Germany in 1813, and fought at
Ltitzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipsic, with a
valor which in some degree retrieved his mili-
tary reputation. In the campaign of 1814 he
vigorously cooperated with Napoleon in the
brilliant but useless series of battles by which
the advance of the allies was sought to be
stayed, and on March 29 arrived with the rem-
nant of his corps before Paris. At the battle
of Paris, fought on the succeeding day, he
showed the utmost intrepidity and devotion to
the imperial cause, and, with the few thousand
men composing his own corps and that of
Marshal Mortier, withstood for many hours the
attacks of an army four times as numerous.
An armistice was finally agreed upon, and late
in the day Marmont, availing himself of a let-
ter from Joseph Bonaparte, who had been ap-
pointed lieutenant general of the empire, au-
thorizing him to enter into an arrangement
with the allied sovereigns, agreed to evacuate
the city. On the 31st the allies entered Paris
in triumph; and four days afterward Mar-
mont, influenced by a aenatus cowultum declar-
ing Napoleon's forfeiture of the throne, and
abolishing the right of succession of his family,
gave in his adhesion to the provisional govern-
ment which had been formed under the pres-
idency of Talleyrand; stipulating, however,
that the life and personal freedom of Napoleon
should be secured, and that the French troops
should be provided with secure quarters in
Normandy. On April 5 his corps, numbering
12,000 men, accordingly entered within the
allied lines and took the road to Normandy.
The indignation of Napoleon at this proceed-
ing was boundless, and, in an order issued
from Fontainebleau immediately after the news
reached him, he expressly disavowed it, ob-
serving: "The emperor cannot approve the
condition on which the duke of Ragusa has
taken this step; he cannot accept life and
liberty at the mercy of a subject," During the
hundred days he expressly excepted him from
the imperial act of amnesty, and subsequently

MARMONTEL

at St. Helena, speaking of his defection, said :
" I was betrayed by Marmont, whom I might
call my son, my offspring, my own work."
He received numerous distinctions from the
Bourbons after the first and second restora-
tions, but about 1825 retired to his country
seat, whence, in July, 1830, he was suddenly
summoned to Paris to quell the revolt against
Charles X. Failing in this, he was obliged to
share the exile of the Bourbons ; and so strong
was the odium excited against him, that his
name was struck from the list of the French
army. He never reentered France, but wan-
dered over Europe, fixing his residence finally
at Venice, where his latter years were passed.
He published his travels in Hungary, southern
Russia, Syria, Egypt, &c., and Esprit des in-
stitutions militaires, which Marshal Bugeaud
wished to place in the hands of every officer in
the service; and left an autobiography, pub-
lished in Paris under the title of Memoires du
due de Eaguse (9 vols., 1856).

MARMONTEL, Jean Francois, a French author,
born at Bort, Limousin, July 11, 1723, died at
Ableville, near Evreux, Dec. 31, 1799. Of hum-
ble birth, he was educated gratuitously under
the Jesuits of Mauriac, and was intended for the
priesthood. His love of literature prevented
this career, and also withdrew him from com-
merce, in which his father sought his estab-
lishment, and he became professor of philoso-
phy at Toulouse, where his verses took the
prize of the floral games. Voltaire, with whom
he began a correspondence, induced him to re-
move to Paris in 1745, where he soon obtained
the prize of the French academy for a poem,
and produced several tragedies which the genius
of Mile. Clairon made eminently successful on
the stage. Protected by Mme. de Pompadour,
he became in 1753 historiographer of the royal
buildings, and in 1758 publisher of the Mercure
de France, and thus had a large income. To
the Mercure he contributed the Contes moraux,
on which his fame chiefly rests, and which have
been greatly admired as specimens of light and
lively writing. His position as manager of the
Mercure was lost after two years in conse-
quence of a satire on the duke d'Aumont, and
he was confined for a few days in the Bastile.
Admitted into the academy in 1763, he suc-
ceeded D'Alembert in 1783 as perpetual secre-
tary. He left Paris during the revolution, was
one of the moderate deputies in the council of
the ancients in 1797, and lived again in retire-
ment after the 18th Fructidor. His best the-
atrical pieces are the tragedies Les Heraclides
and Numitor, the operas Didon and Penelope,
and the comic operas Sylvain and Zemire et
Azore. He also wrote the romances Belisaire
(1767) and Les Incas (1777), collected his ar-
ticles in the Encyclopedic under the title of
Elements de litterature (6 vols., 1787), pub-
lished a history of the regency of the duke of
Orleans, and left treatises, designed for the ed-
ucation of his children, on the French language,
logic, metaphysics, and morals, and his own

MARMORA

Memoires (4 vols., 1804). A complete edition
of Iris works was published in 18 vols. (1808),
and a select edition in 10 vols. (1824). His son,
Louis JOSEPH, born in Paris in 1789, published
two poems of his father, Polymnie and the
Neuvaine de Cy there, and wrote several poems.
He went to Mexico, and subsequently to the
United States, leading a vagrant life, and died
in a hospital in New York in 1830.

MARMORA, Sea of (anc. Propontis), a body
of water lying between European and Asiatic
Turkey; length 172 m., greatest breadth about
50 m. Its 1ST. E. extremity is connected with
the Black sea by the Bosporus, and its S. W.
extremity with the Archipelago by the Darda-
nelles. It is remarkable for its depth, which
in some places is more than 350 fathoms. It
has numerous excellent harbors on its K shore,
contains several islands, the principal of which
is Marmora, and receives the waters of many
but inconsiderable tributary streams. It has
no tides, but currents of variable strength and
velocity run through it. (See BLACK SEA, vol.
ii., p. 683.) Its shores present a picturesque
aspect, and are especially bold and precipitous
on the Asiatic side. The ISLAND OF MARMORA
(anc. Proconnesus ; Turk. Marmar Adassy),
which gives name to the sea, is about 12 m.
long and 6 m. wide, and for the most part
mountainous and barren. It has been cele-
brated from a remote age for its marble
(whence its name, from Lat. marmor), with
which in ancient times it supplied Cyzicus
and other Hellenic cities, as in modern times
it has supplied Constantinople. The capital,
Marmora, stands on the S. W. coast, and is
chiefly built of wood. The highest summit of
the island is in lat. 40 36' N., Ion. 27 35' E.

MARMOSET, the common name of the South
American monkeys of the family hapalidce, in-
cluding the genera hapale (Illiger) and midas
(Geoffroy). The number of teeth is the same
as in the old-world apes and in man, viz. :
incisors , canines ^Cy, and molars fl|, with
acute tubercles. They are all of a size, re-
sembling squirrels in form and agility; the
rounded head is frequently furnished with ear-
like tufts of silky hair on the sides ; the feet
are five-toed, the posterior having an opposable
thumb with a flat nail, all the other fingers of
both extremities having sharp claws, with the
anterior thumb scarcely opposable ; the tail is
long and bushy, but not prehensile, and the
body is covered with soft woolly fur. In hapale
the muzzle is short ; the facial angle 50 ; the
upper lateral incisors insulated, the lower the
longest, narrow, and convex outward; lower
canines smallest. The striated marmoset or
ouistiti (H. jacchus, 111.) is about 8 in. long, and
the tail about a foot ; the general color is a
deep gray, with the lower back and tail banded
with brown, head chestnut, spot on forehead
and long hairs on cheeks and behind the ears
white. It is a handsome and cleanly animal,
walking on all-fours, and like the rest of its
family lives in the woods of Brazil, running

MARMOSET

181

about in the trees in pursuit of insects, fruits,
small birds, and eggs ; it is easily tamed, and
makes an interesting and affectionate pet ; in
captivity it will eat almost any vegetable or an-
imal food ; it is not so intelligent as the other

Striated Marmoset (Hapale jacchus).

monkeys ; it breeds occasionally in confinement.
In midas the lower incisors are short and
broad, and the forehead more prominent ; the
species are commonly called tamarins, and in-
clude some of the smallest and prettiest mon-
keys. The silky marmoset, or marikiva (M.
rosalia, Geoffr.), is of a golden yellow color,
sometimes with a reddish tinge, the fur be-
ing very soft and silky and forming a kind of
mane upon the neck ; its disposition is gentle,
but its constitution is so delicate that it soon
dies from the exposure of even temperate cli-

Silky Marmoset (Midas rosalia).

mates. The leonine marmoset, or leoncito
(M. leoninus, Geoffr.), is the smallest monkey
known ; the color is brownish with black face
and brown mane, which it erects when angry,
whence its name.

182

MARMOT

MARMOT, a large rodent of the squirrel family,
and genus arctomys (Schreber). The body is
thick and compressed, the head large and flat-
tened, the legs short and stout, and the tail
short, bushy, and nearly cylindrical ; the inci-
sors are less compressed than in the squirrels,
smooth in front and rounded ; the molars are
\~1, enamelled continuously, with transverse
pointed tubercles, the first upper one the small-
est ; the ears are short and rounded, but dis-
tinct above the fur; the fore feet with four
toes armed with sharp claws, and a very rudi-
mentary thumb with a small flat nail instead
of a claw ; the hind feet five-toed, with strong
curved claws; the soles are entirely naked;
there are very shallow cheek pouches. The com-
mon European marmot {A. marmota, Schreb.)
is 18 in. long, the tail 2 in. ; the color is yel-
lowish gray, with the top of the head dark
gray, russet at the base of the tail, and incisors
yellow. The form is clumsy, the movements
slow, and the sagacity small ; inhabiting the
mountains of Europe near the snow line, they

European Marmot (Arctomys marmota).

live in families in burrows, in which they pass
the winter in a state of lethargy ; the food is
vegetable, during the search for which one
animal is stationed as a sentinel near the bur-
row, into which all retreat at the signal of dan-
ger; the circular chamber for the family is
approached by a narrow gallery 6 or 6 ft.
long; they hibernate on beds of dried grass,
and are very fat at the beginning and very lean
at the end of this season ; when fat they are
sometimes used by the mountaineers as food.
The Poland marmot (A. lobac, Pall.) is some-
what larger, with more reddish tints. They
burrow in the plains of less elevated districts
in Poland, Russia, and northern Asia; they
prefer dry and stony soils, into which they dig
very deeply, living in families of 30 or 40, and
amassing large quantities of dried grasses.
Other marmots are described, which occasion-
ally, as perhaps do all, feed upon birds and
small quadrupeds. For the American marmot
(A. monax, Gmel.) see WOODCIIIJCK, its com-
mon name. Many animals of the allied genus
spermophilus (Cuv.) are sometimes called mar-

MAROCHETTI

mots, but such come more properly under the
head of prairie squirrels. The fur is thick and
not very coarse, and is considerably used for
common caps, robes, and similar objects.

MARNE (anc. Matrona), a river of France,
which rises in the department of Haute-Marne,
and, after a N. W. course of about 280 m.,
falls into the Seine near Paris. Its principal
tributaries are the Ornain, Blaise, Petit-Morin,
and Grand-Morin. The chief cities on its
banks are Langres, Chaumont, Joinville, St.
Dizier, Vitry-le-Francais, Chalons, Epernay,
and Meaux. It is navigable from its junction
with the Seine to St. Dizier, 210 m. The
Marne is connected with the Rhine and Aisne
by means of canals.

MARNE, a N. E. department of France, in
Champagne, bordering on Aisne, Ardennes,
Meuse, Haute-Marne, Aube, and Seine-et-
Marne; area, 8,159 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872,
386,157. The surface is an inclined plane,
sloping from E. to W., and diversified by a
few hills of moderate elevation. It is divided
into two nearly equal parts by the river Marne,
whence it derives its name. The land adjoin-
ing this river is rich, but the soil elsewhere is
in general light and barren. The principal riv-
ers, besides the Marne, are the Aisne, Suippe,
and Vesle in the north, and the Aube and Seine
in the south. Great quantities of wine are
made, mostly champagne. The most important
manufacture is that of wool, which centres
chiefly at Rheims. The department is divided
into the arrondissements of Chalons-sur-Marne,
Epernay, Rheims, Ste. Menehould, and Vitry-
le-Francais. Capital, Chalons-sur-Marne.

MARNE, Haute. See HAUTE-MARNE.

MARNIX, Philip van. See ALDEGONDE, SAINTE.

MAROCHETTI, Carlo, baron, an Italian sculp-
tor, born in Turin in 1805, died in Paris, Dec.
28, 1867. He studied in Paris and Rome, and
after 1848 went to London. Among his prin-
cipal works are: "The Fallen Angel" (1831);
a bronze statue of Emanuel Philibert, duke of
Savoy, erected at Turin (1838); equestrian
statue of the duke of Wellington, at Glasgow
(1844); "Sappho" (1850); Richard Coeur de
Lion, at London (1851); "Cupid and Grey-
hound " (1854) ; equestrian statue of the queen,
at Glasgow (1854) ; and statue of Wellington,
at Strathfieldsay (1866). He was employed in
a large number of monumental works, such as
" The Battle of Jemmapes," a bass relief on the
Arc de VEtoile, and the tomb of Napoleon in
the Invalides, Paris ; monument to the British
soldiers buried at Scutari, in London ; monu-
ment to the officers of the Coldstream guards
who fell at Inkerman, in St. Paul's cathedral,
London ; and a monument to the princess
Elizabeth, daughter of Charles L, in Newport
church, Isle of Wight. He also executed a
large number of portrait busts, among the best
of which is one of Prince Albert. He was en-
nobled by Charles Albert of Sardinia in 1838,
and was elected a member of the royal academy
in London in 1866.

MARONITES

MAROMTES, a body of Syrian Christians who
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the
Roman pontiff. The name appears to have
been derived from St. Maron or Maroun, a
hermit who lived in the mountains near Tyre,
and whose feast is celebrated on Feb. 9. His
followers built a monasti